Wikiversity:Colloquium

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== Add an edit count requirement for autoconfirmed? ==

Currently, only waiting for four days is required for a user to become autoconfirmed. I am proposing that we include a minimum edit count of 10 edits (akin to Wikipedia) especially because of [[Special:AbuseFilter/16|a private abuse filter]], and LTAs may game autoconfirmed permissions to vandalize here. Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue&quot;&gt;Codename Noreste&lt;/span&gt;]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 23:01, 23 August 2026 (UTC)
: [[Wikiversity:Autoconfirmed users]]
: Are you suggesting an additional requirement? i.e., 4 days + 10 edits?
: How is it adjusted? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 03:57, 5 September 2026 (UTC)
:: Yes. [[User:Codename Noreste|&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue&quot;&gt;Codename Noreste&lt;/span&gt;]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 01:30, 6 September 2026 (UTC)
:: @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]]: I said yes to your first question. As for the adjustment question, in the InitialiseSettings.php file on noc.wikimedia.org, on &lt;code&gt;wgAutoConfirmCount&lt;/code&gt; is where English Wikiversity would be added as &lt;code&gt;'enwikiversity' =&gt; 10,&lt;/code&gt;. Does my reply make sense? [[User:Codename Noreste|&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue&quot;&gt;Codename Noreste&lt;/span&gt;]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:31, 15 September 2026 (UTC)
:As a newly volunteered member, it doesn't seem unreasonable to me to require a certain number of edits to establish my bona fides. [[User:Cfm490|Cfm490]] ([[User talk:Cfm490|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Cfm490|contribs]]) 17:53, 5 September 2026 (UTC)
:I agree that adding an edit count requirement is a reasonable expectation before the user can become autoconfirmed. [[User:IanVG|IanVG]] ([[User talk:IanVG|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/IanVG|contribs]]) 18:56, 6 September 2026 (UTC)
:+ 1 —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 19:40, 6 September 2026 (UTC)
:'''Weak support''' Generally reasonable, but I would caution that we should really make this clear for those instances where professors have students edit here and make it frictionless for them to get autoconfirmed status. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 19:42, 6 September 2026 (UTC)
: {{oppose|No support}} because I cannot see the [[Special:AbuseFilter/16|abuse filter]] cited as the primary reason and I do not know what LTAs is. I guess you don’t want support from ''ordinary'' users. ‑‑[[User:Kai Burghardt|Kays]] ([[User talk:Kai Burghardt|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kai Burghardt|contribs]]) 18:18, 14 September 2026 (UTC)
::Also some readers may be interested in this:
::* [[Wikipedia/Types of user accounts]]
::[[Special:Contributions/~2026-40514-81|~2026-40514-81]] ([[User talk:~2026-40514-81|talk]]) 19:05, 14 September 2026 (UTC)
::: An LTA means a long-term abuser, and it means someone who is usually abusive. [[User:Codename Noreste|&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue&quot;&gt;Codename Noreste&lt;/span&gt;]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 20:42, 14 September 2026 (UTC)
:'''Strong''' {{support}}; specially to battle LTA [[User:Mbataw|Mbataw]] ([[User talk:Mbataw|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mbataw|contribs]]) 13:17, 18 September 2026 (UTC)
:{{support}}, having no edit count requirement for autoconfirmed is a bad idea in general. [[User:BooksBooksBooks3|BooksBooksBooks3]] ([[User talk:BooksBooksBooks3|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/BooksBooksBooks3|contribs]]) 01:43, 19 September 2026 (UTC)
:Comment: I realize that it is not easy to be an admin on wikimedia projects. I realize that many admins have to deal with some VERY unpleasant personalities. But..
:Admins are not the only users who encounter harassment on wikimedia projects, big or small. Anyone who's been here as long as I have, has come across users who are not tolerated by the &quot;community&quot;. Not necessarily because they are spammers, trollers, paid editors, LTAs , disruptive etc, but simply because they are different. 
:When I &quot;edit&quot; without logging in, I carry no baggage. I also get encouraging prompts such as this:
:* This year, Wikipedia has had fewer visitors and fewer new supporters, so '''&lt;big&gt;your visit today means a lot&lt;/BIG&gt;'''
:Anyway, back to the topic at hand [[Wikipedia/Types of user accounts]]. I believe the section about IP editors is outdated since wikimedia now views users who are not logged-in as anonymous, and only trusted users are allowed to see their IP address (I am not clear on the details). I wonder if anyone participating here has an interest in bringing this page uptodate? [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40514-81|~2026-40514-81]] ([[User talk:~2026-40514-81|talk]]) 04:13, 22 September 2026 (UTC)
: If there's some obvious things to fix, I'd say go ahead. It looks like there were several useful anonymous contributions to that page recently. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 07:54, 22 September 2026 (UTC)
:hmm [[User:Tornaiden|Tornaiden]] ([[User talk:Tornaiden|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tornaiden|contribs]]) 02:02, 27 September 2026 (UTC)

== Bartending Course on Wikiversity ==

I recently finished the course on [[Bartending]], and while I have experience editing on Wikipedia, this is my first Wikiversity project. If any of you have the time or interest, I could use an experienced eye to see if there's anything obviously missing from the course in terms of Wikiversity administration. I'm not sure what's active, if the course should belong in an existing school, or if there's any obvious discoverability tool I haven't implemented. Any tips are welcomed, or just a thumbs up saying it looks fine would be great. [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] recommended I post this here in case someone wanted to include the new course under News on the [[Wikiversity:Main Page|Main Page]]. Thanks! [[User:Sabbier|Sabbier]] ([[User talk:Sabbier|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sabbier|contribs]]) 01:24, 1 September 2026 (UTC)

:Wow! Fantastic work- I'm so impressed! Your work gives me inspiration on how to better organize the courses I'm working on. :) [[User:IanVG|IanVG]] ([[User talk:IanVG|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/IanVG|contribs]]) 21:32, 3 September 2026 (UTC)
: Awesome work. I've added this course to the [[Main Page/News|main page news]].
: We could also consider for [[Wikiversity:Featured]]. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 00:43, 5 September 2026 (UTC)
::The course [[Creating Wikiversity Courses]] is intended to provide guidance to new Wikiversity editors. I hope it is helpful and I welcome improvement suggestions. Thanks.  [[User:Lbeaumont|Lbeaumont]] ([[User talk:Lbeaumont|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Lbeaumont|contribs]]) 14:08, 6 September 2026 (UTC)

== Writing news here ==

I'm bringing up this discussion again because I think it is beneficial to the project since Wikinews is gone, thank you. [[User:BigKrow|BigKrow]] ([[User talk:BigKrow|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/BigKrow|contribs]]) 03:17, 1 September 2026 (UTC)
: Given that the community consensus here was not to replicate WikiNews within Wikiversity, I suggest thinking differently e.g., in terms of specific news-related projects you are interested in that have educational objectives that satisfy Wikiversity's mission. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 00:46, 5 September 2026 (UTC)
::I wonder if you mean &lt;u&gt;Wikiversity:Main Page/News ?&lt;/u&gt;
::If so I have just checked this page and I see it only contains news for 2026 and part of 2025, even though the history indicates it was created in the 2000-decade. If you go back and check all revisions there is a wealth of (historical?) information. [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40514-81|~2026-40514-81]] ([[User talk:~2026-40514-81|talk]]) 16:28, 13 September 2026 (UTC)
::: I didn't mean that page, but yes, its history could be reconstructed into a more accessible format. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 21:37, 13 September 2026 (UTC)

== [[Wikiversity talk:Interface administrators#My thoughts about this user group]] ==

As I suggested, I would like to propose allowing permanent interface administrators on English Wikiversity. My temporary interface admin rights are about to expire soon, and I will soon create a new CfIA page (and its header). We should also have a minimum of two interface administrators. Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue&quot;&gt;Codename Noreste&lt;/span&gt;]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 16:44, 6 September 2026 (UTC)

:I am also in favor of this and we did discuss it pretty recently and came to a consensus on extending IA rights and lowering the administrative overhead, but not allowing indefinite at this juncture. From my perspective, since we discussed this so recently and nothing seems to have changed much, I personally would recommend holding off for a couple of years or until/unless there is some critical new information. Again, I would continue to support indef IA rights were it to come up again and think that at least two is also a sensible proposal. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 17:32, 6 September 2026 (UTC)
::Responding to myself so that I don't derail: I would be interested/willing to be an indef IA. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 17:36, 6 September 2026 (UTC)
: I made [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Interface Adminship]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue&quot;&gt;Codename Noreste&lt;/span&gt;]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:24, 6 September 2026 (UTC)
:: CC to @[[User:Koavf|Koavf]]. I made a request since my IA rights are about to expire. We should also hold a separate vote to allow permanent IAs here (for this policy). [[User:Codename Noreste|&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue&quot;&gt;Codename Noreste&lt;/span&gt;]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 16:55, 7 September 2026 (UTC)
: @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]], I count at least three in favor (votes below, and Koavf agreeing), so can you close this request? Thank you. [[User:Codename Noreste|&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue&quot;&gt;Codename Noreste&lt;/span&gt;]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 15:22, 24 September 2026 (UTC)

=== Votes ===
* For the record, I am creating a separate subsection for voting, whether or not we should allow permanent interface administrators. {{support}} accordingly. [[User:Codename Noreste|&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue&quot;&gt;Codename Noreste&lt;/span&gt;]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:32, 15 September 2026 (UTC)
* {{support}} [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 00:51, 18 September 2026 (UTC)

== Paid part-time Administrative Officer position with WikiJournal ==

[[WikiJournal User Group|WikiJournal]] is an open-access, nonprofit scholarly publisher hosted on Wikiversity. It uses the wiki format to allow authors to write and develop scholarly articles directly online. Submitted articles then undergo formal academic peer review and, when accepted, are published as citable journal articles while remaining freely accessible.

WikiJournal is seeking expressions of interest in a new part-time '''Administrative Officer''' position. The officer would support the project's day-to-day organizational work, including:

* Setting up and administering a system for tracking contractor hours and issuing payments.
* Coordinating the contracting, onboarding, timekeeping and payment of technical editors and other contractors.
* Maintaining financial, contractor and administrative records.
* Assisting with grant administration, budget tracking and reporting.
* Following up on board action items, deadlines and recurring obligations.
* Supporting recruitment and other operational tasks as needed.

This is a remote, flexibly scheduled contractor role averaging approximately '''6 hours per week'''. Compensation is proposed at '''US$25 per hour''', with up to approximately '''320 hours (US$8,000) available over the year'''.

Applicants may be based internationally, although appointment will depend on WikiJournal being able to establish a practical and legally appropriate contracting and payment arrangement in the applicant's country of residence.

Relevant experience may include administrative organization, bookkeeping or financial administration, contractor or personnel coordination, nonprofit or grant administration, Wikimedia participation, academic publishing, and open-access work. Applicants are not expected to have experience in every area.

For the complete role description and further details, see [[WikiJournal User Group/Administrative officer]].

Those interested should reply in the '''[[Talk:WikiJournal User Group#Call for interest: Administrative Officer|Call for interest: Administrative Officer]]''' discussion by '''30 September 2026''', briefly describing their relevant experience, any connection to WikiJournal or related communities, and their general availability. Expressions of interest received later may still be considered if the position has not been filled. Recommendations of potentially suitable candidates are also welcome. 
[[User:Mikael Häggström|Mikael Häggström]] ([[User talk:Mikael Häggström|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mikael Häggström|contribs]]) 20:00, 10 September 2026 (UTC)

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[[m:user:Trizek (WMF)|Trizek (WMF)]] 12:58, 15 September 2026 (UTC)
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== Your feedback wanted: Remove ''(Language link added:) and similar'' edits from Special:RecentChanges ==
''(Apologies for posting in English. You can help by translating it)''

Hello, I’m Danny from [[:en:w:Wikimedia_Deutschland|Wikimedia Deutschland’s]] [[m:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects|Wikidata For Wikimedia Projects]] team.&lt;br/&gt;
We have been investigating and examining how Wikidata’s use in the [[Special:RecentChanges]] and [[Special:Watchlist]] pages can be made to be more useful, or less ‘noisy’ (fewer edits that have little value to the reader).

We are currently exploring to make a change in the volume and the type of Wikidata edits that appear in these pages, and '''we need your feedback''' to help us ensure this is a positive change for the Wikis and won’t disrupt your workflows.&lt;br/&gt;
Language links are also known as sitelinks or interlanguage links and describe when a Wikidata item is connected to a Wiki, adding it to the language dropdown tool for other connected Wikis.
[[File:Types of Lang Link changes.png|x350px|frame|A variety of &quot;Language Link&quot; edits as seen in the Recent Changes feed]]

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== Wikidata Sitelink changes in Recent Changes and Watchlist ==
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Editors on group 1 wikis, including Wikiquote, Wikibooks, Wikiversity, Wikivoyage, and Wikisource, will no longer see notifications on [[Special:RecentChanges|Recent Changes]] and [[Special:Watchlist|Watchlist]] when a link to ''another'' language version of a page is added, removed, or changed in its Wikidata item. This change will begin on '''October 5 at 07:00 UTC''' as a two-week trial to reduce high-volume, low-value notifications and make higher-value changes easier to identify. Editors who rely on these notifications should be aware of the change and can share feedback or concerns on the [[m:Wikidata For Wikimedia Projects/Clearer Wikidata Edit Summaries/Hide Language Link edits|project]] or [[m:Talk:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Clearer_Wikidata_Edit_Summaries/Hide_Language_Link_edits|talk page]].&lt;br/&gt;Please reach out if you have any questions, thank you! -- [[User:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)|Danny Benjafield (WMDE)]] ([[User_talk:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)|talk]])  sent via [[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaWiki message delivery|contribs]]) 12:42, 1 October 2026 (UTC)
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== Demote [[Wikiversity:CheckUser policy]]? ==
I am proposing that we demote that policy to a standard page, mostly for two reasons:
# Considering the few amount of custodians and the size of this wiki, I'd say that this project is considered too small to have any CUs, and relying on the stewards would be a more logical choice.
# We haven't elected two CUs in a few years.
[[User:Codename Noreste|&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue&quot;&gt;Codename Noreste&lt;/span&gt;]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 20:53, 1 October 2026 (UTC)

:Reasonable. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 17:09, 4 October 2026 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>7t7xjgu1qnwlsyx3k9nbekx8ivbixft</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Portal:Psychiatry</title>
    <ns>102</ns>
    <id>4459</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2835807</id>
      <parentid>2138745</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-10-04T22:18:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Andra Rei</username>
        <id>282483</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Projects titles: corrected misspellings, added categories</comment>
      <origin>2835807</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2151" sha1="ks87qlfu5y8grd0s6dl833aa6dsajgw" xml:space="preserve">{{center top}}&lt;big&gt;'''Welcome to the Department of Psychiatry'''&lt;/big&gt;{{center bottom}}

{{Robelbox|theme=13|title=Department Description}}
&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
This department is responsible for the research, teaching and assessment in the medical area of '''Psychiatry'''. The department is a division of the [[School:Medicine|Wikiversity School of Medicine]]. The department is involved in the teaching of the '''Level 4''' [[Medical School Curriculum|curriculum]] but students are welcome to [[Topic talk:Psychiatry|join]] in the teaching at any time if they do not wish to follow the recommended pathway.
&lt;/div&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}

{{RoundBoxLeft|theme=13}}
&lt;big&gt;Projects, Research and Assignments&lt;/big&gt;
*[[Psychiatric Interview]]
*[[Mental Status Examination]]
*[[Diagnostic Workup in Psychiatry]]
*[[Psychiatric Diagnosis]]
*[[Psychopharmacology]]
*[[Psychotherapy]]
* [[Anti-psychiatry]]
*[[Critical Psychiatry]]
{{RoundBoxRight|theme=13}}
&lt;big&gt;Department Noticeboard&lt;/big&gt;
;This department is under construction. Feel free to [[Topic talk:Psychiatry|help]] in its establishment.
{{LeftRightBoxClose}}

{{RoundBoxLeft|theme=13}}
&lt;big&gt;Assessments&lt;/big&gt;
;No assessments have been requested
{{RoundBoxRight|theme=13}}
&lt;big&gt;Modules Offered&lt;/big&gt;

'''MED4.4''' - Module MED4.4: [[Psychiatry|Psychiatry]]
{{LeftRightBoxClose}}
{{RightTOC}}
==Members==
Adrian Preda, M.D., Professor of Clinical Psychiatry and Human Behaviour, UC Irvine College of Medicine, Irvine, California, USA. Email: apreda@uci.edu

==See also==
* [[School:Medicine]]

==External links==
* [http://www.doaj.org/doaj?func=subject&amp;cpid=31 Listing of open access journals in psychiatry]
* [http://www.biomedcentral.com/bmcpsychiatry/ BMC Psychiatry (open access)]

===Related news===
* May 2008 [http://www.physorg.com/news129225799.html ''Low blood levels of vitamin D may be associated with depression in older adults'']
* June 2008 [http://uk.reuters.com/article/topNews/idUKN0127105120080702?feedType=RSS&amp;feedName=topNews&amp;pageNumber=1&amp;virtualBrandChannel=0 ''&quot;Spiritual&quot; effects of mushrooms last a year'']

[[Category:Psychiatry| ]]

[[fr:Département:Psychiatrie]]</text>
      <sha1>ks87qlfu5y8grd0s6dl833aa6dsajgw</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Linux/Basic commands</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>40432</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2835887</id>
      <parentid>2780792</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-10-05T06:27:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Elominius</username>
        <id>2911372</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>udisksctl power-off</comment>
      <origin>2835887</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="21984" sha1="kvw5jcjt96mfhq2xuukzbfxyr2bybm6" xml:space="preserve">[[w:Unix-like|Unix-like]] [[operating system]]s require a working knowledge of several basic commands. [[w:Unix|Unix®]], [[w:Linux|Linux]], [[w:Berkeley Software Distribution|BSD]] and such use a ubiquitous set of these based on the [[w:Single UNIX Specification|Single UNIX Specification]] and other standards. Learning to operate a [[w:command line interface|command line interface]] is a key skill in learning [[Linux]] and [[BSD]].

Commands where mistyping could have inconvenient consequences should be drafted in a text editor first and then pasted into terminal, or after a &lt;code&gt;#&lt;/code&gt; hash character for temporarily marking the text of the command as a non-executable comment, which is then removed after typing the correct command.
Terminal emulators may support marking commands as comment in history through &lt;kbd&gt;Ctrl+Alt+#&lt;/kbd&gt;.

== Basic commands ==
{| class=&quot; wikitable sortable&quot;
|+ IEEE Std 1003.1-2001 utilities
|-
!style=&quot;width:10em;&quot;| Name
!style=&quot;width:15em;&quot;| Category 
!style=&quot;&quot;| Description
!style=&quot;width:5em;;&quot;| First appeared
|-
| [[w:admin (Unix)|admin]]
| [[w:Source Code Control System|SCCS]]
| Create and administer [[w:Source Code Control System|SCCS]] files
| 
|-
| [[w:Alias (command)|alias]]
| Misc
| Define or display aliases
| 
|-
| [[w:ar (Unix)|ar]]
| Misc
| Create and maintain [[w:Library (computing)|library]] archives
| 
|-
| [[w:asa (Unix)|asa]]
| Text Processing
| Interpret carriage-control characters
| 
|-
| [[w:at (Unix)|at]]
| Process Management
| Execute commands at a later time
| Version 7 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[/awk/]]
| Text processing
| Pattern scanning and processing language
| Version 7 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[w:basename|basename]]
| Filesystem
| Return non-directory portion of a pathname
| 
|-
| [[w:bash|bash]]
| Shell
| The Bourne-again shell
| 
|-
| [[w:batch (Unix)|batch]]
| Process Management
| Schedule commands to be executed in a batch queue
| 
|-
| [[w:bc programming language|bc]]
| Misc
| [[w:Arbitrary-precision arithmetic|Arbitrary-precision arithmetic]] language
| 
|-
| [[w:bg (Unix)|bg]]
| Process Management
| Run jobs in the background
| 
|-
| [[w:break (Unix)|break]]
| Shell programming
| Exit from [[w:for loop|for]], [[w:while loop|while]], or [[w:until|until]] [[w:Control flow#Loops|loop]]
| 
|-
| [[w:c99_(Unix)|c99]]
| C Programming
| [[w:compiler|Compile]] standard [[w:C (programming language)|C]] programs
| 
|-
| [[w:cal (Unix)|cal]]
| Misc
| Print a calendar
| Version 5 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[w:cat (Unix)|cat]]
| Filesystem
| Concatenate and print files
| Version 1 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[w:cd (command)|cd]]
| Filesystem
| Change the working directory
| 
|-
| [[w:cflow|cflow]]
| C Programming
| Generate a C-language [[w:flowgraph|flowgraph]]
| 
|-
| [[w:chgrp|chgrp]]
| Filesystem
| Change the file group ownership
| 
|-
| [[w:chmod|chmod]]
| Filesystem
| Change the file modes/attributes/permissions
| Version 1 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[w:chown|chown]]
| Filesystem
| Change the file ownership
| Version 1 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[w:chroot|chroot]]
| Processes
| run a command or interactive shell using a specific directory as the root directory
| Prior to 4.2BSD
|- 
| [[w:cksum|cksum]]
| Filesystem
| Write file [[w:checksums|checksums]] and sizes
| 4.4BSD
|-
| [[w:cmp (Unix)|cmp]]
| Filesystem
| Compare two files
| Version 1 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[w:comm|comm]]
| Text Processing
| Select or reject lines common to two files
| Version 4 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[w:command (Unix)|command]]
| Shell Programming
| Execute a simple command
| 
|-
| [[w:compress|compress]]
| Filesystem
| Compress data
| 4.3BSD
|-
| [[w:continue (Unix)|continue]]
| Shell programming
| Continue [[w:for_loop|for]], [[w:while_loop|while]], or [[w:until|until]] [[w:Control_flow#Loops|loop]]
| 
|-
| [[/cp/]]
| Filesystem
| Copy files
| Version 1 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[w:crontab|crontab]]
| Misc
| Schedule periodic background work
| 
|-
| [[w:csplit|csplit]]
| Text Processing
| Split files based on context
| PWB UNIX
|-
| [[w:ctags|ctags]]
| C Programming
| Create a tags file
| 3.0BSD
|-
| [[w:cut (Unix)|cut]]
| Shell Programming
| Cut out selected fields of each line of a file
| 
|-
| [[w:cxref|cxref]]
| C Programming
| Generate a [[w:C (programming language)|C-language]] program cross-reference table
| 
|-
| [[/date (Unix command)/|date]]
| Misc
| Write the date and time
| Version 1 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[w:dd (Unix)|dd]]
| Filesystem
| Convert and copy a file
| 
|-
| [[w:delta (Unix)|delta]]
| SCCS
| Make a delta (change) to an SCCS file
| 
|-
| [[w:df (Unix)|df]]
| Filesystem
| Report free disk space
| Version 1 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[w:diff|diff]]
| Text processing
| Compare two files
| 
|-
| [[w:dirname|dirname]]
| Filesystem
| Return the directory portion of a pathname
| 
|-
| [[w:dot (Unix)|dot]]
| Shell programming
| Execute commands in the current environment
| 
|-
| [[w:du (Unix)|du]]
| Filesystem
| Estimate file space usage
| Version 1 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[w:echo (command)|echo]]
| Shell programming
| Write arguments to standard output
| 
|-
| [[w:ed (text editor)|ed]]
| Text processing
| The standard text editor
| Version 1 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[w:env (shell)|env]]
| Misc
| list environment variables or invoke a command in a modified environment
| 
|-
| [[w:eval|eval]]
| Shell programming
| Construct command by concatenating arguments
| 
|-
| [[w:ex (editor)|ex]]
| Text processing
| Text editor
| BSD
|-
| [[w:exec (operating system)|exec]]
| Shell programming
| Execute commands and open, close, or copy [[w:file descriptors|file descriptors]]
| 
|-
| [[w:exit (command)|exit]]
| Shell programming
| Cause the shell to exit
| 
|-
| [[w:expand (Unix)|expand]]
| Text Processing
| Convert tabs to spaces
| 3.0BSD
|-
| [[w:Environment variable#UNIX|export]]
| Misc
| Set the export attribute for variables
| 
|-
| [[w:expr|expr]]
| Shell Programming
| Evaluate arguments as an expression
| 
|-
| [[w:false (Unix)|false]]
| Shell programming
| Return false value
| 
|-
| [[w:fc (Unix)|fc]]
| Misc
| Process the command history list
| 
|-
| [[w:fg (Unix)|fg]]
| Process Management
| Run jobs in the foreground
| 
|-
| [[w:file (Unix)|file]]
| Filesystem
| Determine file type
| Version 4 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[/find/]]
| Filesystem
| Find files
| Version 1 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[w:flex lexical analyser|flex]]
| C Programming
| Generate programs for [[w:Lexical analyzer|lexical tasks]]
|
|-
| [[w:fold (Unix)|fold]]
| Text processing
| Filter for folding lines
| 
|-
| [[w:fort77|fort77]]
| C Programming
| [[w:FORTRAN]] compiler
|
|-
| [[w:fortune (Unix)|fortune]]
| Misc
| Displays a random quotation
| 
|-
| ftp
| Internet
| Internet file transfer program
|
|-
| [[w:fuser (Unix)|fuser]]
| Process Management
| List [[w:Process_identifier|process IDs]] of all processes that have one or more files open
| 
|-
| gawk
| Text processing
| Pattern scanning and processing language, GNU's version of awk
|
|-
| [[w:gencat|gencat]]
| Misc
| Generate a formatted message catalog
| 
|-
| [[w:get (Unix)|get]]
| SCCS
| Get a version of an SCCS file
| 
|-
| [[w:getconf|getconf]]
| Misc
| Get configuration values
| 
|-
| [[Bash programming/Parsing Command-Line Arguments|getopts]]
| Shell Programming
| Parse utility options
| 
|-
| [[/grep/]]
| Misc
| Search text for a pattern
| 
|-
| groups
| Misc
| List groups a user belongs to
|
|-
| [[w:hash (Unix)|hash]]
| Misc
| Remember or report utility locations
| 
|-
| [[w:head (Unix)|head]]
| Text processing
| Copy the first part of files
| PWB UNIX
|-
| hostname
| Networking
| Show the system's host name
|
|-
| [[w:iconv|iconv]]
| Text processing
| Codeset conversion
| 
|-
| [[w:id (Unix)|id]]
| Misc
| Return user identity
| 4.4BSD
|-
| [[w:iostat|iostat]]
| Input/Output information
| collect and show operating system storage input and output statistics
| 
|-
| [[w:ipcrm|ipcrm]]
| Misc
| Remove a message queue, semaphore set, or shared memory segment identifier
| 
|-
| [[w:ipcs|ipcs]]
| Misc
| Report interprocess communication facilities status
| 
|-
| [[w:jobs (Unix)|jobs]]
| Process Management
| Display status of jobs in the current session
| 
|-
| [[w:join (Unix)|join]]
| Text Processing
| [[w:Relational database|Relational database]] operator
| 
|-
| [[w:kill (Unix)|kill]]
| Process Management
| Terminate or signal processes
| Version 3 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[w:less (Unix)|less]]
| Text processing
| Display files on a page-by-page basis
|
|-
| [[w:lex programming tool|lex]]
| C Programming
| Generate programs for [[w:Lexical analyzer|lexical tasks]]
| 
|-
| [[w:link (Unix)|link]]
| Filesystem
| Call link function
| Version 1 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[/ln/]]
| Filesystem
| Link files
| Version 1 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[w:locale|locale]]
| Misc
| Get locale-specific information
| 
|-
| [[w:localedef|localedef]]
| Misc
| Define locale environment
| 
|-
| [[w:logger (Unix)|logger]]
| Shell programming
| Log messages
| 
|-
| login
| Misc
| Begin sessions on a system
|
|-
| [[w:logname|logname]]
| Misc
| Return the user's login name
| 4.4BSD
|-
| logout
| Misc
| End sessions on a system
|
|-
| [[w:lp (Unix)|lp]]
| Text Processing
| Send files to a printer
| 
|-
| [[w:ls|ls]]
| Filesystem
| List directory contents
| Version 1 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[w:M4 (computer language)|m4]]
| Misc
| Macro processor
| PWB UNIX
|-
| [[/mailx/]]
| Misc
| Process messages
| Version 1 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[w:make (software)|make]]
| Programming
| Maintain, update, and regenerate groups of programs
| 
|-
| [[w:Manual page (Unix)|man]]
| Misc
| Display system documentation
| 
|-
| [[w:mesg|mesg]]
| Misc
| Permit or deny messages
| Version 1 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[w:mkdir|mkdir]]
| Filesystem
| Make directories
| Version 1 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[w:mkfifo|mkfifo]]
| Filesystem
| Make [[w:FIFO|FIFO]] special files
| 4.4BSD
|-
| mktemp
| Filesystem
| Create a temporary file or directory
|
|-
| [[w:more (command)|more]]
| Text processing
| Display files on a page-by-page basis
| 
|-
| [[w:mount (Unix)|mount]]
| Filesystem
| Mount a file system
|-
| [[w:mv|mv]]
| Filesystem
| Move files
| Version 1 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[w:nano (text editor)|nano]]
| Text Programming
| Small text editor
|
|-
| [[w:netstat|netstat]]
| Networking
| Displays network information and statistics
|
|-
| [[w:newgrp|newgrp]]
| Misc
| Change to a new group
| Version 6 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[w:nice (Unix)|nice]]
| Process Management
| Invoke a utility with an altered nice value
| Version 4 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[w:nl (Unix)|nl]]
| Text Processing
| Line numbering filter
| 
|-
| [[w:nm (Unix)|nm]]
| C Programming
| Write the name list of an [[w:object file|object file]]
| 
|-
| [[w:nohup|nohup]]
| Process Management
| Invoke a utility immune to [[w:SIGHUP|hangups]]
| 
|-
| [[w:od (Unix)|od]]
| Misc
| Dump files in various formats
| Version 1 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[w:passwd (command)|passwd]]
| System
| Set or change user password
|
|-
| [[w:paste (Unix)|paste]]
| Text processing
| Merge corresponding or subsequent lines of files
| Version 32V AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[w:patch (Unix)|patch]]
| Text processing
| Apply changes to files
| 
|-
| [[w:pathchk|pathchk]]
| Filesystem
| Check pathnames
| 
|-
| [[w:pax (Unix)|pax]]
| Misc
| Portable archive interchange
| 4.4BSD
|-
| [[Linux/Basic_commands/perl|perl]]
| Text processing
| Pattern scanning and processing language
| 
|-
| [[w:pgrep|pgrep]]
| Process Management
| Find processes with the given name using pattern matching
| 
|-
| [[w:pkill|pkill]]
| Process Management
| Kills processes with the given name using pattern matching
| 
|-
| [[w:pr (Unix)|pr]]
| Text processing
| Print files
| Version 1 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[w:printf (Unix)|printf]]
| Shell programming
| Write formatted output
| 4.3BSD-Reno
|-
| [[w:prs|prs]]
| SCCS
| Print an SCCS file
| 
|-
| [[w:ps (Unix)|ps]]
| Process Management
| Report process status
| Version 4 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[w:pstree|pstree]]
| Process Management
| Display a tree of processes
| 
|-
| [[w:pwd|pwd]]
| Filesystem
| print working directory - Return working directory name
| 
|-
| [[w:qalter|qalter]]
| Batch Utilities
| Alter batch job
| 
|-
| [[w:qdel|qdel]]
| Batch Utilities
| Delete batch jobs
| 
|-
| [[w:qhold|qhold]]
| Batch Utilities
| Hold batch jobs
| 
|-
| [[w:qmove|qmove]]
| Batch Utilities
| Move batch jobs
| 
|-
| [[w:qmsg|qmsg]]
| Batch Utilities
| Send message to batch jobs
| 
|-
| [[w:qrerun|qrerun]]
| Batch Utilities
| Rerun batch jobs
| 
|-
| [[w:qrls|qrls]]
| Batch Utilities
| Release batch jobs
| 
|-
| [[w:qselect|qselect]]
| Batch Utilities
| Select batch jobs
| 
|-
| [[w:qsig|qsig]]
| Batch Utilities
| Signal batch jobs
| 
|-
| [[w:qstat (Unix)|qstat]]
| Batch Utilities
| Show status of batch jobs
| 
|-
| [[w:qsub|qsub]]
| Batch Utilities
| Submit a script
| 
|-
| [[w:read (Unix)|read]]
| Shell Programming
| Read a line from standard input
| 
|-
| [[w:readonly|readonly]]
| Misc
| Set the readonly attribute for variables
| 
|-
| [[w:renice|renice]]
| Process Management
| Set [[w:nice values|nice values]] of running processes
| 4.0BSD
|-
| [[w:return (Unix)|return]]
| Shell Programming
| Return from a function
| 
|-
| [[w:rm (Unix)|rm]]
| Filesystem
| Remove files or directories
| Version 1 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[w:rmdel|rmdel]]
| SCCS
| Remove a delta from an SCCS file
| 
|-
| [[w:rmdir|rmdir]]
| Filesystem
| Remove directories
| Version 1 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[w:sact (Unix)|sact]]
| SCCS
| Print current SCCS file-editing activity
| 
|-
| [[sar]]
| System Administration
| System Activity Report
| Report System Activity
|-
| [[w:sccs (Unix)|sccs]]
| [[w:Source Code Control_System|SCCS]]
| Front end for the SCCS subsystem
| 
|-
| [[w:sed|sed]]
| Text processing
| Stream editor
| Version 7 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| seq
| Misc
| Print a sequence of numbers
|-
| [[w:set (Unix)|set]]
| Misc
| Set or unset options and positional parameters
| 
|-
| [[w:bourne shell|sh]]
| Shell programming
| [[w:shell (computing)|Shell]], the standard command language interpreter
| Version 7 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[w:shift (Unix)|shift]]
| Shell programming
| Shift positional parameters
|
|-
| shopt
| Shell programing
| Control optional shell behavior
| 
|-
| [[w:sleep (Unix)|sleep]]
| Shell programming
| Suspend execution for an interval
| Version 4 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[w:sort (Unix)|sort]]
| Text Processing
| Sort, merge, or sequence check text files
| 
|-
| [[w:split (Unix)|split]]
| Misc
| Split files into pieces
| Version 3 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[w:strings (Unix)|strings]]
| C Programming
| Find printable strings in files
| 
|-
| [[w:strip (Unix)|strip]]
| C Programming
| Remove unnecessary information from executable files
| 
|-
| [[/stty/]]
| Misc
| Set the options for a terminal
| 
|-
| suspend
| Shell programming
| Suspend execution of the shell until it receives a continue signal
|
|-
| [[w:tabs (Unix)|tabs]]
| Misc
| Set terminal tabs
| PWB UNIX
|-
| [[w:tail (Unix)|tail]]
| Text processing
| Copy the last part of a file
| PWB UNIX
|-
| [[w:talk (Unix)|talk]]
| Misc
| Talk to another user
| 4.2BSD
|-
| [[w:tee (command)|tee]]
| Shell programming
| Duplicate [[w:standard input|standard input]]
| 
|-
| [[w:test (Unix)|test]]
| Shell programming
| Evaluate [[w:expression (programming)|expression]]
| 
|-
| [[time]]
| Process Management
| Time a simple command
| Version 3 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[w:times (Unix)|times]]
| Process Management
| Write process times
| 
|-
| [[touch (command)|touch]]
| Filesystem
| Create file and Change file access and modification times
| Version 7 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[/top/]]
| Process Management
| Real-time display of running processes
|
|-
| [[w:tput|tput]]
| Misc
| Change [[w:terminal|terminal]] characteristics
| System V
|-
| [[w:tr_(Unix)|tr]]
| Text processing
| Translate characters
| Version 4 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[w:trap (Unix)|trap]]
| Process Management
| Trap signals
| 
|-
| [[w:true (Unix)|true]]
| Shell programming
| Return true value
| 
|-
| [[w:tsort (Unix)|tsort]]
| Text processing
| Topological sort
| Version 7 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[w:tty (Unix)|tty]]
| Misc
| Return user's [[w:terminal|terminal]] name
| Version 1 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[w:type (Unix)|type]]
| Misc
| Displays how a name would be interpreted if used as a command
| 
|-
| [[w:ulimit|ulimit]]
| Misc
| Set or report file size limit
| 
|-
| [[w:umask|umask]]
| Misc
| Get or set the file mode creation mask
| 
|-
| [[w:umount|umount]]
| Filesystem
| Unmount a filesystem
| 
|-
| [[w:unalias|unalias]]
| Misc
| Remove alias definitions
| 
|-
| [[w:uname|uname]]
| Misc
| Return system name
| PWB UNIX
|-
| [[w:uncompress|uncompress]]
| Misc
| Expand compressed data
| 4.3BSD
|-
| [[w:unexpand|unexpand]]
| Text Processing
| Convert spaces to tabs
| 3.0BSD
|-
| [[w:unget|unget]]
| SCCS
| Undo a previous get of an SCCS file
| 
|-
| [[w:uniq|uniq]]
| Text Processing
| Report or filter out repeated lines in a file
| Version 3 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[w:unlink (Unix)|unlink]]
| Filesystem
| Call the unlink function
| [[w:Version 1 AT&amp;T UNIX|Version 1 AT&amp;T UNIX]]
|-
| [[w:unset|unset]]
| Misc
| Unset values and attributes of variables and functions
| 
|-
| [[w:uucp|uucp]]
| Network
| System-to-system copy
| 
|-
| [[w:uudecode|uudecode]]
| Network
| Decode a binary file
| 4.0BSD
|-
| [[w:uuencode|uuencode]]
| Network
| Encode a binary file
| 4.0BSD
|-
| [[w:uustat|uustat]]
| Network
| [[w:uucp|uucp]] status inquiry and job control
| 
|-
| [[w:uux (Unix)|uux]]
| Process Management
| Remote command execution
| 
|-
| [[w:val (Unix)|val]]
| SCCS
| Validate SCCS files
| 
|-
| [[w:vi|vi]]
| Text processing
| Screen-oriented (visual) display editor
| BSD
|-
| [[w:wait (command)|wait]]
| Process Management
| Await process completion
| 
|-
| [[w:wc (Unix)|wc]]
| Text processing
| Word, line, and byte or character count
| Version 1 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[w:what (Unix)|what]]
| SCCS
| Identify SCCS files
| 
|-
| [[w:who (Unix)|who]]
| System Administration
| Display who is on the system
| Version 1 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[w:write (Unix)|write]]
| Misc
| Write to another user's terminal
| Version 1 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[xargs]]
| Shell Programming
| Construct argument lists and invoke utility
| PWB UNIX
|-
| [[w:yacc|yacc]]
| C Programming
| Yet another [[w:compiler|compiler]] compiler
| PWB UNIX
|-
| [[w:zcat|zcat]]
| Text Processing
| Expand and concatenate data
| 
|-
|}

=== Unix-like ===
Like [[w:Richard Stallman|RMS]] says, &quot;GNU means GNU's Not Unix&quot;. Only [[w:Unix|Unix®]] is really Unix. [[Linux]] and the [[BSD]]s are definitely [[w:Unix-like|Unix-''like'']] though neither one is compliant with the above-mentioned &quot;official&quot; specification. What we present here is based on a set of tools that have been around for a long time. We will be looking at '''generalizations''' that behave in similar ways in ''most'' *nix environments.
==== BusyBox ====
[[w:BusyBox|BusyBox]] is a good example of a more basic collection of utilities and are well suited to the novice. They can be found in [[w:Mini Linux|Mini Linux]] distributions, such as [[Tiny Core Linux]].

'''Exercise 1''' Go to [http://tinycorelinux.com/ TinyCoreLinux.com] and check it out.

==== GNU Core Utilities ====
The [[w:GNU Core Utilities|GNU Core Utilities]] are much more extensive and not for the faint at heart. They are found on most full-sized [[BSD]] and [[Linux]] systems in their full glory.

== Command line arguments ==
This section lists arbitrary commands that could be useful. Feel free to add any commands you found useful but are not sure where else to add. Some of these commands may require root access (&quot;&lt;code&gt;sudo&lt;/code&gt;&quot;).

Devices with example numbers are specified in these examples.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Action !! Command(s)
|-
| List devices of the class &quot;disk&quot; with model number  || &lt;code&gt;lshw -short -class disk&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| Details about a specific device (e.g. &lt;code&gt;/dev/sr0&lt;/code&gt;) || &lt;code&gt;udisksctl info -b /dev/sr0&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| Spin down hard disk or optical disc drive
| 
* &lt;code&gt;hdparm -y  /deb/sdb&lt;/code&gt;
* &lt;code&gt;sdparm --readonly --command=stop /dev/sr0&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| Safely spin down a hard drive before unplugging.
&lt;small&gt;This can not be undone without physically re-connecting the drive.&lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;code&gt;udisksctl power-off -b /dev/sdb&lt;/code&gt;
|-
|  Write caching &lt;br /&gt; &lt;small&gt;It improves performance but could lose data if a device is physically disconnected shortly after a file transfer without safe unmounting.&lt;/small&gt;
| 
(replace &quot;X&quot; with the correct device name)
* Deactivate: &lt;code&gt;hdparm -W 0 /dev/sdX&lt;/code&gt;
* Activate: &lt;code&gt;hdparm -W 1 /dev/sdX&lt;/code&gt;
* See status: &lt;code&gt;hdparm -i /dev/sdX&lt;/code&gt;
|-
|  Eject optical disc tray
| 
* &lt;code&gt;eject /deb/sr0&lt;/code&gt;
* &lt;code&gt;sdparm --readonly --command=eject /dev/sr0&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| Close optical disc tray
|
* &lt;code&gt;eject -t /dev/sr3&lt;/code&gt;
* &lt;code&gt;sdparm --readonly --command=load /dev/sr3&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| Get size of block device
| &lt;code&gt;blockdev --getsz /dev/''[device]''&lt;/code&gt;
|-
|}

&lt;ref&gt;https://lists.debian.org/debian-user/2015/08/msg00125.html&lt;/ref&gt;

== Other useful commands ==
* [[datamash]]
* [[mtail]]
* [[/parallel/]]
* [[/rsync/]] advanced copy and synchronization tool including progress indicator
* [[/sed/]] stream editor for filtering and transforming text
* [[stress (command)]]:  &lt;code&gt;stress --cpu 4&lt;/code&gt;
* [[sudo]]
* [[/tr/]]
* [[/ts/]] adds a timestamp to the beginning of each line of input
* &lt;code&gt;[[/ls/]]&lt;/code&gt; – list files
* &lt;code&gt;[[uptime]]&lt;/code&gt; – time since last booting
* &lt;code&gt;[[/du/]]&lt;/code&gt; – disk usage of files and directories
* &lt;code&gt;[[/df/]]&lt;/code&gt; – total disk usage
* &lt;code&gt;readlink&lt;/code&gt;: &lt;code&gt;readlink -f [file path]&lt;/code&gt; generates an absolute (full) file path
* &lt;code&gt;stat&lt;/code&gt; – advanced details about a file like multiple date/time stamps, size, inode count, and access rights.
* &lt;code&gt;losetup&lt;/code&gt; – [[:w:loop device|loop device]] utility
* &lt;code&gt;blockdev&lt;/code&gt; – shows information and allows configuring data storage devices, such as read-only mode using &lt;code&gt;blockdev --setro&lt;/code&gt;.

==External links==
* [http://ss64.com/ SS64.com: Command line reference] 
* [http://djangstorm.com djangstorm.com: Linux Commands Collection]

== References ==
&lt;/noinclude&gt;
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Linux]] [[Category:Quick Reference]]</text>
      <sha1>kvw5jcjt96mfhq2xuukzbfxyr2bybm6</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2835890</id>
      <parentid>2835887</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-10-05T06:46:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Elominius</username>
        <id>2911372</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>blockdev --setro</comment>
      <origin>2835890</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="22137" sha1="e2rjkjjpfhi0v2fkjoqlpiefdfu8s1h" xml:space="preserve">[[w:Unix-like|Unix-like]] [[operating system]]s require a working knowledge of several basic commands. [[w:Unix|Unix®]], [[w:Linux|Linux]], [[w:Berkeley Software Distribution|BSD]] and such use a ubiquitous set of these based on the [[w:Single UNIX Specification|Single UNIX Specification]] and other standards. Learning to operate a [[w:command line interface|command line interface]] is a key skill in learning [[Linux]] and [[BSD]].

Commands where mistyping could have inconvenient consequences should be drafted in a text editor first and then pasted into terminal, or after a &lt;code&gt;#&lt;/code&gt; hash character for temporarily marking the text of the command as a non-executable comment, which is then removed after typing the correct command.
Terminal emulators may support marking commands as comment in history through &lt;kbd&gt;Ctrl+Alt+#&lt;/kbd&gt;.

== Basic commands ==
{| class=&quot; wikitable sortable&quot;
|+ IEEE Std 1003.1-2001 utilities
|-
!style=&quot;width:10em;&quot;| Name
!style=&quot;width:15em;&quot;| Category 
!style=&quot;&quot;| Description
!style=&quot;width:5em;;&quot;| First appeared
|-
| [[w:admin (Unix)|admin]]
| [[w:Source Code Control System|SCCS]]
| Create and administer [[w:Source Code Control System|SCCS]] files
| 
|-
| [[w:Alias (command)|alias]]
| Misc
| Define or display aliases
| 
|-
| [[w:ar (Unix)|ar]]
| Misc
| Create and maintain [[w:Library (computing)|library]] archives
| 
|-
| [[w:asa (Unix)|asa]]
| Text Processing
| Interpret carriage-control characters
| 
|-
| [[w:at (Unix)|at]]
| Process Management
| Execute commands at a later time
| Version 7 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[/awk/]]
| Text processing
| Pattern scanning and processing language
| Version 7 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[w:basename|basename]]
| Filesystem
| Return non-directory portion of a pathname
| 
|-
| [[w:bash|bash]]
| Shell
| The Bourne-again shell
| 
|-
| [[w:batch (Unix)|batch]]
| Process Management
| Schedule commands to be executed in a batch queue
| 
|-
| [[w:bc programming language|bc]]
| Misc
| [[w:Arbitrary-precision arithmetic|Arbitrary-precision arithmetic]] language
| 
|-
| [[w:bg (Unix)|bg]]
| Process Management
| Run jobs in the background
| 
|-
| [[w:break (Unix)|break]]
| Shell programming
| Exit from [[w:for loop|for]], [[w:while loop|while]], or [[w:until|until]] [[w:Control flow#Loops|loop]]
| 
|-
| [[w:c99_(Unix)|c99]]
| C Programming
| [[w:compiler|Compile]] standard [[w:C (programming language)|C]] programs
| 
|-
| [[w:cal (Unix)|cal]]
| Misc
| Print a calendar
| Version 5 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[w:cat (Unix)|cat]]
| Filesystem
| Concatenate and print files
| Version 1 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[w:cd (command)|cd]]
| Filesystem
| Change the working directory
| 
|-
| [[w:cflow|cflow]]
| C Programming
| Generate a C-language [[w:flowgraph|flowgraph]]
| 
|-
| [[w:chgrp|chgrp]]
| Filesystem
| Change the file group ownership
| 
|-
| [[w:chmod|chmod]]
| Filesystem
| Change the file modes/attributes/permissions
| Version 1 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[w:chown|chown]]
| Filesystem
| Change the file ownership
| Version 1 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[w:chroot|chroot]]
| Processes
| run a command or interactive shell using a specific directory as the root directory
| Prior to 4.2BSD
|- 
| [[w:cksum|cksum]]
| Filesystem
| Write file [[w:checksums|checksums]] and sizes
| 4.4BSD
|-
| [[w:cmp (Unix)|cmp]]
| Filesystem
| Compare two files
| Version 1 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[w:comm|comm]]
| Text Processing
| Select or reject lines common to two files
| Version 4 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[w:command (Unix)|command]]
| Shell Programming
| Execute a simple command
| 
|-
| [[w:compress|compress]]
| Filesystem
| Compress data
| 4.3BSD
|-
| [[w:continue (Unix)|continue]]
| Shell programming
| Continue [[w:for_loop|for]], [[w:while_loop|while]], or [[w:until|until]] [[w:Control_flow#Loops|loop]]
| 
|-
| [[/cp/]]
| Filesystem
| Copy files
| Version 1 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[w:crontab|crontab]]
| Misc
| Schedule periodic background work
| 
|-
| [[w:csplit|csplit]]
| Text Processing
| Split files based on context
| PWB UNIX
|-
| [[w:ctags|ctags]]
| C Programming
| Create a tags file
| 3.0BSD
|-
| [[w:cut (Unix)|cut]]
| Shell Programming
| Cut out selected fields of each line of a file
| 
|-
| [[w:cxref|cxref]]
| C Programming
| Generate a [[w:C (programming language)|C-language]] program cross-reference table
| 
|-
| [[/date (Unix command)/|date]]
| Misc
| Write the date and time
| Version 1 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[w:dd (Unix)|dd]]
| Filesystem
| Convert and copy a file
| 
|-
| [[w:delta (Unix)|delta]]
| SCCS
| Make a delta (change) to an SCCS file
| 
|-
| [[w:df (Unix)|df]]
| Filesystem
| Report free disk space
| Version 1 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[w:diff|diff]]
| Text processing
| Compare two files
| 
|-
| [[w:dirname|dirname]]
| Filesystem
| Return the directory portion of a pathname
| 
|-
| [[w:dot (Unix)|dot]]
| Shell programming
| Execute commands in the current environment
| 
|-
| [[w:du (Unix)|du]]
| Filesystem
| Estimate file space usage
| Version 1 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[w:echo (command)|echo]]
| Shell programming
| Write arguments to standard output
| 
|-
| [[w:ed (text editor)|ed]]
| Text processing
| The standard text editor
| Version 1 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[w:env (shell)|env]]
| Misc
| list environment variables or invoke a command in a modified environment
| 
|-
| [[w:eval|eval]]
| Shell programming
| Construct command by concatenating arguments
| 
|-
| [[w:ex (editor)|ex]]
| Text processing
| Text editor
| BSD
|-
| [[w:exec (operating system)|exec]]
| Shell programming
| Execute commands and open, close, or copy [[w:file descriptors|file descriptors]]
| 
|-
| [[w:exit (command)|exit]]
| Shell programming
| Cause the shell to exit
| 
|-
| [[w:expand (Unix)|expand]]
| Text Processing
| Convert tabs to spaces
| 3.0BSD
|-
| [[w:Environment variable#UNIX|export]]
| Misc
| Set the export attribute for variables
| 
|-
| [[w:expr|expr]]
| Shell Programming
| Evaluate arguments as an expression
| 
|-
| [[w:false (Unix)|false]]
| Shell programming
| Return false value
| 
|-
| [[w:fc (Unix)|fc]]
| Misc
| Process the command history list
| 
|-
| [[w:fg (Unix)|fg]]
| Process Management
| Run jobs in the foreground
| 
|-
| [[w:file (Unix)|file]]
| Filesystem
| Determine file type
| Version 4 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[/find/]]
| Filesystem
| Find files
| Version 1 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[w:flex lexical analyser|flex]]
| C Programming
| Generate programs for [[w:Lexical analyzer|lexical tasks]]
|
|-
| [[w:fold (Unix)|fold]]
| Text processing
| Filter for folding lines
| 
|-
| [[w:fort77|fort77]]
| C Programming
| [[w:FORTRAN]] compiler
|
|-
| [[w:fortune (Unix)|fortune]]
| Misc
| Displays a random quotation
| 
|-
| ftp
| Internet
| Internet file transfer program
|
|-
| [[w:fuser (Unix)|fuser]]
| Process Management
| List [[w:Process_identifier|process IDs]] of all processes that have one or more files open
| 
|-
| gawk
| Text processing
| Pattern scanning and processing language, GNU's version of awk
|
|-
| [[w:gencat|gencat]]
| Misc
| Generate a formatted message catalog
| 
|-
| [[w:get (Unix)|get]]
| SCCS
| Get a version of an SCCS file
| 
|-
| [[w:getconf|getconf]]
| Misc
| Get configuration values
| 
|-
| [[Bash programming/Parsing Command-Line Arguments|getopts]]
| Shell Programming
| Parse utility options
| 
|-
| [[/grep/]]
| Misc
| Search text for a pattern
| 
|-
| groups
| Misc
| List groups a user belongs to
|
|-
| [[w:hash (Unix)|hash]]
| Misc
| Remember or report utility locations
| 
|-
| [[w:head (Unix)|head]]
| Text processing
| Copy the first part of files
| PWB UNIX
|-
| hostname
| Networking
| Show the system's host name
|
|-
| [[w:iconv|iconv]]
| Text processing
| Codeset conversion
| 
|-
| [[w:id (Unix)|id]]
| Misc
| Return user identity
| 4.4BSD
|-
| [[w:iostat|iostat]]
| Input/Output information
| collect and show operating system storage input and output statistics
| 
|-
| [[w:ipcrm|ipcrm]]
| Misc
| Remove a message queue, semaphore set, or shared memory segment identifier
| 
|-
| [[w:ipcs|ipcs]]
| Misc
| Report interprocess communication facilities status
| 
|-
| [[w:jobs (Unix)|jobs]]
| Process Management
| Display status of jobs in the current session
| 
|-
| [[w:join (Unix)|join]]
| Text Processing
| [[w:Relational database|Relational database]] operator
| 
|-
| [[w:kill (Unix)|kill]]
| Process Management
| Terminate or signal processes
| Version 3 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[w:less (Unix)|less]]
| Text processing
| Display files on a page-by-page basis
|
|-
| [[w:lex programming tool|lex]]
| C Programming
| Generate programs for [[w:Lexical analyzer|lexical tasks]]
| 
|-
| [[w:link (Unix)|link]]
| Filesystem
| Call link function
| Version 1 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[/ln/]]
| Filesystem
| Link files
| Version 1 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[w:locale|locale]]
| Misc
| Get locale-specific information
| 
|-
| [[w:localedef|localedef]]
| Misc
| Define locale environment
| 
|-
| [[w:logger (Unix)|logger]]
| Shell programming
| Log messages
| 
|-
| login
| Misc
| Begin sessions on a system
|
|-
| [[w:logname|logname]]
| Misc
| Return the user's login name
| 4.4BSD
|-
| logout
| Misc
| End sessions on a system
|
|-
| [[w:lp (Unix)|lp]]
| Text Processing
| Send files to a printer
| 
|-
| [[w:ls|ls]]
| Filesystem
| List directory contents
| Version 1 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[w:M4 (computer language)|m4]]
| Misc
| Macro processor
| PWB UNIX
|-
| [[/mailx/]]
| Misc
| Process messages
| Version 1 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[w:make (software)|make]]
| Programming
| Maintain, update, and regenerate groups of programs
| 
|-
| [[w:Manual page (Unix)|man]]
| Misc
| Display system documentation
| 
|-
| [[w:mesg|mesg]]
| Misc
| Permit or deny messages
| Version 1 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[w:mkdir|mkdir]]
| Filesystem
| Make directories
| Version 1 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[w:mkfifo|mkfifo]]
| Filesystem
| Make [[w:FIFO|FIFO]] special files
| 4.4BSD
|-
| mktemp
| Filesystem
| Create a temporary file or directory
|
|-
| [[w:more (command)|more]]
| Text processing
| Display files on a page-by-page basis
| 
|-
| [[w:mount (Unix)|mount]]
| Filesystem
| Mount a file system
|-
| [[w:mv|mv]]
| Filesystem
| Move files
| Version 1 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[w:nano (text editor)|nano]]
| Text Programming
| Small text editor
|
|-
| [[w:netstat|netstat]]
| Networking
| Displays network information and statistics
|
|-
| [[w:newgrp|newgrp]]
| Misc
| Change to a new group
| Version 6 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[w:nice (Unix)|nice]]
| Process Management
| Invoke a utility with an altered nice value
| Version 4 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[w:nl (Unix)|nl]]
| Text Processing
| Line numbering filter
| 
|-
| [[w:nm (Unix)|nm]]
| C Programming
| Write the name list of an [[w:object file|object file]]
| 
|-
| [[w:nohup|nohup]]
| Process Management
| Invoke a utility immune to [[w:SIGHUP|hangups]]
| 
|-
| [[w:od (Unix)|od]]
| Misc
| Dump files in various formats
| Version 1 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[w:passwd (command)|passwd]]
| System
| Set or change user password
|
|-
| [[w:paste (Unix)|paste]]
| Text processing
| Merge corresponding or subsequent lines of files
| Version 32V AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[w:patch (Unix)|patch]]
| Text processing
| Apply changes to files
| 
|-
| [[w:pathchk|pathchk]]
| Filesystem
| Check pathnames
| 
|-
| [[w:pax (Unix)|pax]]
| Misc
| Portable archive interchange
| 4.4BSD
|-
| [[Linux/Basic_commands/perl|perl]]
| Text processing
| Pattern scanning and processing language
| 
|-
| [[w:pgrep|pgrep]]
| Process Management
| Find processes with the given name using pattern matching
| 
|-
| [[w:pkill|pkill]]
| Process Management
| Kills processes with the given name using pattern matching
| 
|-
| [[w:pr (Unix)|pr]]
| Text processing
| Print files
| Version 1 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[w:printf (Unix)|printf]]
| Shell programming
| Write formatted output
| 4.3BSD-Reno
|-
| [[w:prs|prs]]
| SCCS
| Print an SCCS file
| 
|-
| [[w:ps (Unix)|ps]]
| Process Management
| Report process status
| Version 4 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[w:pstree|pstree]]
| Process Management
| Display a tree of processes
| 
|-
| [[w:pwd|pwd]]
| Filesystem
| print working directory - Return working directory name
| 
|-
| [[w:qalter|qalter]]
| Batch Utilities
| Alter batch job
| 
|-
| [[w:qdel|qdel]]
| Batch Utilities
| Delete batch jobs
| 
|-
| [[w:qhold|qhold]]
| Batch Utilities
| Hold batch jobs
| 
|-
| [[w:qmove|qmove]]
| Batch Utilities
| Move batch jobs
| 
|-
| [[w:qmsg|qmsg]]
| Batch Utilities
| Send message to batch jobs
| 
|-
| [[w:qrerun|qrerun]]
| Batch Utilities
| Rerun batch jobs
| 
|-
| [[w:qrls|qrls]]
| Batch Utilities
| Release batch jobs
| 
|-
| [[w:qselect|qselect]]
| Batch Utilities
| Select batch jobs
| 
|-
| [[w:qsig|qsig]]
| Batch Utilities
| Signal batch jobs
| 
|-
| [[w:qstat (Unix)|qstat]]
| Batch Utilities
| Show status of batch jobs
| 
|-
| [[w:qsub|qsub]]
| Batch Utilities
| Submit a script
| 
|-
| [[w:read (Unix)|read]]
| Shell Programming
| Read a line from standard input
| 
|-
| [[w:readonly|readonly]]
| Misc
| Set the readonly attribute for variables
| 
|-
| [[w:renice|renice]]
| Process Management
| Set [[w:nice values|nice values]] of running processes
| 4.0BSD
|-
| [[w:return (Unix)|return]]
| Shell Programming
| Return from a function
| 
|-
| [[w:rm (Unix)|rm]]
| Filesystem
| Remove files or directories
| Version 1 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[w:rmdel|rmdel]]
| SCCS
| Remove a delta from an SCCS file
| 
|-
| [[w:rmdir|rmdir]]
| Filesystem
| Remove directories
| Version 1 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[w:sact (Unix)|sact]]
| SCCS
| Print current SCCS file-editing activity
| 
|-
| [[sar]]
| System Administration
| System Activity Report
| Report System Activity
|-
| [[w:sccs (Unix)|sccs]]
| [[w:Source Code Control_System|SCCS]]
| Front end for the SCCS subsystem
| 
|-
| [[w:sed|sed]]
| Text processing
| Stream editor
| Version 7 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| seq
| Misc
| Print a sequence of numbers
|-
| [[w:set (Unix)|set]]
| Misc
| Set or unset options and positional parameters
| 
|-
| [[w:bourne shell|sh]]
| Shell programming
| [[w:shell (computing)|Shell]], the standard command language interpreter
| Version 7 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[w:shift (Unix)|shift]]
| Shell programming
| Shift positional parameters
|
|-
| shopt
| Shell programing
| Control optional shell behavior
| 
|-
| [[w:sleep (Unix)|sleep]]
| Shell programming
| Suspend execution for an interval
| Version 4 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[w:sort (Unix)|sort]]
| Text Processing
| Sort, merge, or sequence check text files
| 
|-
| [[w:split (Unix)|split]]
| Misc
| Split files into pieces
| Version 3 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[w:strings (Unix)|strings]]
| C Programming
| Find printable strings in files
| 
|-
| [[w:strip (Unix)|strip]]
| C Programming
| Remove unnecessary information from executable files
| 
|-
| [[/stty/]]
| Misc
| Set the options for a terminal
| 
|-
| suspend
| Shell programming
| Suspend execution of the shell until it receives a continue signal
|
|-
| [[w:tabs (Unix)|tabs]]
| Misc
| Set terminal tabs
| PWB UNIX
|-
| [[w:tail (Unix)|tail]]
| Text processing
| Copy the last part of a file
| PWB UNIX
|-
| [[w:talk (Unix)|talk]]
| Misc
| Talk to another user
| 4.2BSD
|-
| [[w:tee (command)|tee]]
| Shell programming
| Duplicate [[w:standard input|standard input]]
| 
|-
| [[w:test (Unix)|test]]
| Shell programming
| Evaluate [[w:expression (programming)|expression]]
| 
|-
| [[time]]
| Process Management
| Time a simple command
| Version 3 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[w:times (Unix)|times]]
| Process Management
| Write process times
| 
|-
| [[touch (command)|touch]]
| Filesystem
| Create file and Change file access and modification times
| Version 7 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[/top/]]
| Process Management
| Real-time display of running processes
|
|-
| [[w:tput|tput]]
| Misc
| Change [[w:terminal|terminal]] characteristics
| System V
|-
| [[w:tr_(Unix)|tr]]
| Text processing
| Translate characters
| Version 4 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[w:trap (Unix)|trap]]
| Process Management
| Trap signals
| 
|-
| [[w:true (Unix)|true]]
| Shell programming
| Return true value
| 
|-
| [[w:tsort (Unix)|tsort]]
| Text processing
| Topological sort
| Version 7 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[w:tty (Unix)|tty]]
| Misc
| Return user's [[w:terminal|terminal]] name
| Version 1 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[w:type (Unix)|type]]
| Misc
| Displays how a name would be interpreted if used as a command
| 
|-
| [[w:ulimit|ulimit]]
| Misc
| Set or report file size limit
| 
|-
| [[w:umask|umask]]
| Misc
| Get or set the file mode creation mask
| 
|-
| [[w:umount|umount]]
| Filesystem
| Unmount a filesystem
| 
|-
| [[w:unalias|unalias]]
| Misc
| Remove alias definitions
| 
|-
| [[w:uname|uname]]
| Misc
| Return system name
| PWB UNIX
|-
| [[w:uncompress|uncompress]]
| Misc
| Expand compressed data
| 4.3BSD
|-
| [[w:unexpand|unexpand]]
| Text Processing
| Convert spaces to tabs
| 3.0BSD
|-
| [[w:unget|unget]]
| SCCS
| Undo a previous get of an SCCS file
| 
|-
| [[w:uniq|uniq]]
| Text Processing
| Report or filter out repeated lines in a file
| Version 3 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[w:unlink (Unix)|unlink]]
| Filesystem
| Call the unlink function
| [[w:Version 1 AT&amp;T UNIX|Version 1 AT&amp;T UNIX]]
|-
| [[w:unset|unset]]
| Misc
| Unset values and attributes of variables and functions
| 
|-
| [[w:uucp|uucp]]
| Network
| System-to-system copy
| 
|-
| [[w:uudecode|uudecode]]
| Network
| Decode a binary file
| 4.0BSD
|-
| [[w:uuencode|uuencode]]
| Network
| Encode a binary file
| 4.0BSD
|-
| [[w:uustat|uustat]]
| Network
| [[w:uucp|uucp]] status inquiry and job control
| 
|-
| [[w:uux (Unix)|uux]]
| Process Management
| Remote command execution
| 
|-
| [[w:val (Unix)|val]]
| SCCS
| Validate SCCS files
| 
|-
| [[w:vi|vi]]
| Text processing
| Screen-oriented (visual) display editor
| BSD
|-
| [[w:wait (command)|wait]]
| Process Management
| Await process completion
| 
|-
| [[w:wc (Unix)|wc]]
| Text processing
| Word, line, and byte or character count
| Version 1 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[w:what (Unix)|what]]
| SCCS
| Identify SCCS files
| 
|-
| [[w:who (Unix)|who]]
| System Administration
| Display who is on the system
| Version 1 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[w:write (Unix)|write]]
| Misc
| Write to another user's terminal
| Version 1 AT&amp;T UNIX
|-
| [[xargs]]
| Shell Programming
| Construct argument lists and invoke utility
| PWB UNIX
|-
| [[w:yacc|yacc]]
| C Programming
| Yet another [[w:compiler|compiler]] compiler
| PWB UNIX
|-
| [[w:zcat|zcat]]
| Text Processing
| Expand and concatenate data
| 
|-
|}

=== Unix-like ===
Like [[w:Richard Stallman|RMS]] says, &quot;GNU means GNU's Not Unix&quot;. Only [[w:Unix|Unix®]] is really Unix. [[Linux]] and the [[BSD]]s are definitely [[w:Unix-like|Unix-''like'']] though neither one is compliant with the above-mentioned &quot;official&quot; specification. What we present here is based on a set of tools that have been around for a long time. We will be looking at '''generalizations''' that behave in similar ways in ''most'' *nix environments.
==== BusyBox ====
[[w:BusyBox|BusyBox]] is a good example of a more basic collection of utilities and are well suited to the novice. They can be found in [[w:Mini Linux|Mini Linux]] distributions, such as [[Tiny Core Linux]].

'''Exercise 1''' Go to [http://tinycorelinux.com/ TinyCoreLinux.com] and check it out.

==== GNU Core Utilities ====
The [[w:GNU Core Utilities|GNU Core Utilities]] are much more extensive and not for the faint at heart. They are found on most full-sized [[BSD]] and [[Linux]] systems in their full glory.

== Command line arguments ==
This section lists arbitrary commands that could be useful. Feel free to add any commands you found useful but are not sure where else to add. Some of these commands may require root access (&quot;&lt;code&gt;sudo&lt;/code&gt;&quot;).

Devices with example numbers are specified in these examples.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Action !! Command(s)
|-
| List devices of the class &quot;disk&quot; with model number  || &lt;code&gt;lshw -short -class disk&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| Details about a specific device (e.g. &lt;code&gt;/dev/sr0&lt;/code&gt;) || &lt;code&gt;udisksctl info -b /dev/sr0&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| Spin down hard disk or optical disc drive
| 
* &lt;code&gt;hdparm -y  /deb/sdb&lt;/code&gt;
* &lt;code&gt;sdparm --readonly --command=stop /dev/sr0&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| Safely spin down a hard drive before unplugging.
&lt;small&gt;This can not be undone without physically re-connecting the drive.&lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;code&gt;udisksctl power-off -b /dev/sdb&lt;/code&gt;
|-
|  Write caching &lt;br /&gt; &lt;small&gt;It improves performance but could lose data if a device is physically disconnected shortly after a file transfer without safe unmounting.&lt;/small&gt;
| 
(replace &quot;X&quot; with the correct device name)
* Deactivate: &lt;code&gt;hdparm -W 0 /dev/sdX&lt;/code&gt;
* Activate: &lt;code&gt;hdparm -W 1 /dev/sdX&lt;/code&gt;
* See status: &lt;code&gt;hdparm -i /dev/sdX&lt;/code&gt;
|-
|  Eject optical disc tray
| 
* &lt;code&gt;eject /deb/sr0&lt;/code&gt;
* &lt;code&gt;sdparm --readonly --command=eject /dev/sr0&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| Close optical disc tray
|
* &lt;code&gt;eject -t /dev/sr3&lt;/code&gt;
* &lt;code&gt;sdparm --readonly --command=load /dev/sr3&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| Get size of block device
| &lt;code&gt;blockdev --getsz /dev/''[device]''&lt;/code&gt;
|-
| Put a block device into read-only mode
|
*&lt;code&gt;blockdev --setro /dev/''[device]''&lt;/code&gt;
*To undo: &lt;code&gt;blockdev --setrw /dev/''[device]''&lt;/code&gt;
|-
|}

&lt;ref&gt;https://lists.debian.org/debian-user/2015/08/msg00125.html&lt;/ref&gt;

== Other useful commands ==
* [[datamash]]
* [[mtail]]
* [[/parallel/]]
* [[/rsync/]] advanced copy and synchronization tool including progress indicator
* [[/sed/]] stream editor for filtering and transforming text
* [[stress (command)]]:  &lt;code&gt;stress --cpu 4&lt;/code&gt;
* [[sudo]]
* [[/tr/]]
* [[/ts/]] adds a timestamp to the beginning of each line of input
* &lt;code&gt;[[/ls/]]&lt;/code&gt; – list files
* &lt;code&gt;[[uptime]]&lt;/code&gt; – time since last booting
* &lt;code&gt;[[/du/]]&lt;/code&gt; – disk usage of files and directories
* &lt;code&gt;[[/df/]]&lt;/code&gt; – total disk usage
* &lt;code&gt;readlink&lt;/code&gt;: &lt;code&gt;readlink -f [file path]&lt;/code&gt; generates an absolute (full) file path
* &lt;code&gt;stat&lt;/code&gt; – advanced details about a file like multiple date/time stamps, size, inode count, and access rights.
* &lt;code&gt;losetup&lt;/code&gt; – [[:w:loop device|loop device]] utility
* &lt;code&gt;blockdev&lt;/code&gt; – shows information and allows configuring data storage devices, such as read-only mode using &lt;code&gt;blockdev --setro&lt;/code&gt;.

==External links==
* [http://ss64.com/ SS64.com: Command line reference] 
* [http://djangstorm.com djangstorm.com: Linux Commands Collection]

== References ==
&lt;/noinclude&gt;
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Linux]] [[Category:Quick Reference]]</text>
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    <title>Beams</title>
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        <username>Sebastian2ali</username>
        <id>3112110</id>
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      <comment>Main Types of Beams</comment>
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      <text bytes="8788" sha1="bj2ytnheq69opqvntnwl8dfszmhh7nh" xml:space="preserve">'''Part of the [[Topic:Statics|Statics]] course offered by the ''[[Topic:Applied Mechanics|Division of Applied Mechanics]]'', ''[[School:Engineering|School of Engineering]]'' and the ''[[Portal:Engineering and Technology|Engineering and Technology Portal]]'''''

==Lecture==
Distributed forces are very common in the design and analysis of structures themselves, while point forces are often what structures are designed to withstand.  The weight of a stationary car on a bridge should be interpreted as four point forces at the point of contact of each tire with the bridge, while the weight of a long train could be interpreted as a distributed force along the length of the train.
&lt;br&gt;
===Center of Gravity (Mass)===
The center of gravity (or mass), abbreviated as '''COM''', of any object is that point within the object upon which gravity (or any body force) acts, regardless of the orientation of the object.  The '''COM''' of an object may be calculated by using the principle of equilibrium.
&lt;br&gt;
 &lt;math&gt;\bar x = \frac{\int x dm}{m}&lt;/math&gt;,  &lt;math&gt;\bar y = \frac{\int y dm}{m}&lt;/math&gt;,  &lt;math&gt;\bar z = \frac{\int z dm}{m}&lt;/math&gt;         (1)

In the event that the density '''&lt;math&gt;\rho&lt;/math&gt;''' of an object is not uniform throughout, the calculation of '''COM''' may be done by a similar set of equations involving the addition of density to the analysis.
&lt;br&gt;
 &lt;math&gt;\bar x = \frac{\int x \rho dV}{\int \rho dV}&lt;/math&gt;,  &lt;math&gt;\bar y = \frac{\int y \rho dV}{\int \rho dV}&lt;/math&gt;,  &lt;math&gt;\bar z = \frac{\int z \rho dV}{\int \rho dV}&lt;/math&gt;      (2)

If a body is made up of multiple sections, each of which has a unique mass, the method for evaluating the centroid of that body is to evaluate the composite body by finite element analysis of each of the sections through the use of moment balancing, as above.
 &lt;math&gt;\bar X = \frac{\sum m \bar x}{\sum m}&lt;/math&gt;,  &lt;math&gt;\bar Y = \frac{\sum m \bar y}{\sum m}&lt;/math&gt;,  &lt;math&gt;\bar Z = \frac{\sum m \bar z}{\sum m}&lt;/math&gt;         (3)

===Centroids===
If a body has a uniform density, then as we may see in equation (2) above, the density cancels out, and we are left with a resulting '''COM''' that is determined as a geometric analysis and is called a '''centroid'''. The '''centroid''' of a volume may be calculated by the following equations.  (Also see the [[w:List_of_centroids|List of Centroids]] on Wikipedia.)
&lt;br&gt;
 &lt;math&gt;\bar x = \frac{\int x dV}{V}&lt;/math&gt;,  &lt;math&gt;\bar y = \frac{\int y dV}{V}&lt;/math&gt;,  &lt;math&gt;\bar z = \frac{\int z dV}{V}&lt;/math&gt;         (4)

===Distributed Forces===
[[Image:Bending.svg|thumb|250px|left|A Beam Bending Under a Distributed Force]]
A distributed force is a force applied over a length, area or volume.  A line-distributed force such as the weight of a bridge suspended off of a single tension wire, is measured in units of force per unit of length (Newtons/meter).  An area-distributed force such as the weight of a ship's hull against the body of water it floats in, is measured in units of force per unit of area (Newtons/m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;) and is referred to as ''pressure'' when associated with the force of water and ''stress'' when associated with the internal forces affecting solids (such as those invoked by tension or compression).  A volume-distributed force such as the force of gravity affecting a mass within the gravity field of a celestial body, is measured in units of force per unit of volume (Newtons/m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;) and is often called a ''body force''.  A distributed force, like any force, may be simplified into a resultant point force &lt;math&gt;\ R&lt;/math&gt;, which acts at the ''centroid'' of the function described by the resultant force &lt;math&gt;\ w&lt;/math&gt;.
 &lt;math&gt;\bar x = \frac{\int x w dx}{R}&lt;/math&gt;

===Static Determinism===
For beam loading calculations wherein the external forces may be calculated by using only the principle of equilibrium, such a beam or system of forces is called ''statically determinate''.  Any system whose resultant forces may not be calculated only through external forces and the principle of equilibrium, is called a ''statically indeterminate'' system, and must be solved through the additional analysis of internal forces and the deformations induced by them.  Such systems often have more supports than are needed at minimum and may be tentatively identified as such (i.e. a beam with three supports instead of two).  
&lt;br&gt;
===Internal Forces===
[[Image:IndeterminateBeam.png|thumb|400px|left|A bending beam under distributed and point forces and its associated moment and shear diagrams.]]
Internal forces within beams come in three flavors.  Moments (bending), Shears (cutting) and Torsion (twisting).  Oddly, each of these forces may be derived in a related manner.  

Vertical forces, and thus shear forces, may of course be evaluated by using the ''principle of equilibrium'' on a rigid body.  All vertically aligned forces in the ''y-axis'' must sum to equal zero.  The shear force may also be considered the ''integral'' of the loads in the vertical direction, or &lt;math&gt;\ w = -\frac{dV}{dx}&lt;/math&gt;.

Similarly, moments may be evaluated by using the ''principle of equilibrium'' on a rigid body as well.  However, bending moment may be evaluated as the ''integral'' of the shear force, that is to say &lt;math&gt;\ V = \frac{dM}{dx}&lt;/math&gt;.  Thereby, moment is also the double integral of the load in the vertical direction or, &lt;math&gt;\ -w = \frac{d^2M}{dx^2}&lt;/math&gt;.

Torsional forces in the opposite axis are to be evaluated in the same manner as bending moments, although care must be made not to confuse forces in other directions with those contributing to torsional stresses.

===Bending===
[[w:List_of_area_moments_of_inertia|List of area moments of inertia]]
A bending beam is  &lt;math&gt;\ w&lt;/math&gt;.
&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;

== Main Types of Beams ==
There are several ways to classify beams, including their support conditions, material, cross-sectional shape, and structural function.

=== 1. Simply Supported Beam ===
A simply supported beam is supported at both ends, usually by a column, wall, or other structural element. One end may act as a pin support while the other acts as a roller support. This arrangement allows the beam to carry loads while accommodating certain movements.

Simply supported beams are commonly used in floors, roofs, bridges, and other structures where the span can be supported at both ends.

=== 2. Cantilever Beam ===
A cantilever beam is fixed at one end and free at the other. The fixed end provides the support needed to resist the loads acting on the beam.

Cantilever beams are widely used for balconies, canopies, projecting roofs, signs, and architectural features. They allow a structure to extend beyond its main supports without requiring a column at the free end.

=== 3. Continuous Beam ===
A continuous beam extends over more than two supports. Instead of ending at a single span, it passes across several columns or walls.

Continuous beams can distribute loads across multiple spans and may provide structural efficiency in certain building layouts. They are frequently used in multi-bay buildings and bridge structures.

=== 4. Fixed Beam ===
A fixed beam is restrained against rotation and movement at both ends. The supports provide resistance to bending moments and other forces.

Fixed beams can be structurally efficient but require carefully designed connections because the supports must provide significant restraint.

=== 5. Overhanging Beam ===
An overhanging beam extends beyond one or more of its supports. The projecting portion may be used to create architectural overhangs, roof projections, balconies, or similar features.

==Assignments==
'''Activities:'''
* Create an [[Beams/activity|activity]]

'''Readings:'''
* Peruse the appropriate sections of [[b:Statics]]
* [http://urban.arch.virginia.edu/%7Ekm6e/arch324/highlights/home.html Introduction to Structural Design, Virginia Tech.]
* [https://www.archterms.com/what-is-a-beam-in-construction-everything-you-need-to-know/ What Is a Beam in Construction? everything you need to know]

'''Study guide:''' 
# Wikipedia article:[[w:Distributed force|Distributed force]]
# Wikipedia article:[[w:Center_of_mass|Center of mass]]
# Wikipedia article:[[w:Centroid|Centroid]]
# Wikipedia article:[[w:List of centroids|List of centroids]]
# Wikipedia article:[[w:Pappus's centroid theorem|Pappus's centroid theorem]]
# Wikipedia article:[[w:Beam (structure)|Beam (structure)]]
# Wikipedia article:[[w:Beam theory|Beam theory]]
# Wikipedia article:[[w:Statically indeterminate|Statically indeterminate]]
# Wikipedia article:[[w:Torsion|Torsion]]
# Wikipedia article:[[w:Shear_stress|Shear]]
# Wikipedia article:[[w:Bending|Bending]]
# Wikipedia article:[[w:List_of_area_moments_of_inertia|List of area moments of inertia]]

[[Category:Statics]]</text>
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      <minor />
      <comment>its actually true colour</comment>
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      <text bytes="43972" sha1="3wrngfb3673w27uy5g1xats82bvvzkn" xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Neptune Voyager2 color calibrated.png|thumb|right|250px|This true-color picture from the Voyager 2 sequence shows two of the four cloud features that were tracked by the Voyager cameras over two months. Credit: NASA.]]
'''Neptune''' is a [[Gases/Gaseous objects|gaseous object]] in orbit of less than a light year in radius around the [[Stars/Sun|Sun]].
{{clear}}

==Astronomy==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Astronomy}}
[[Image:Snapshot of the planetary orbital poles.png|thumb|right|250px|This is a snapshot of the planetary orbital poles. Credit: [[w:User:Urhixidur|Urhixidur]].]]
Neptune has an equatorial radius of 24,764 ± 15 km and a polar radius of 24,341 ± 30 km.&lt;ref name=Seidelmann&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=P. Kenneth Seidelmann
|author2=B. A. Archinal
|author3=M. F. A'hearn
|author4=A. Conrad
|author5=G. J. Consolmagno
|author6=D. Hestroffer
|author7=J. L. Hilton
|author8=G. A. Krasinsky
|author9=G. Neumann
|title=Report of the IAU/IAG Working Group on cartographic coordinates and rotational elements: 2006
|journal=Celestial Mechanics and Dynamical Astronomy
|month=
|year=2007
|volume=98
|issue=3
|pages=155-80
|url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu//abs/2007CeMDA..98..155S
|arxiv=
|bibcode=2007CeMDA..98..155S
|doi=10.1007/s10569-007-9072-y
|pmid=
|accessdate=2012-07-08 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

An '''orbital pole''' is either end of an imaginary line running through the center of an [[w:orbit|orbit]] perpendicular to the orbital plane, projected onto the [[w:celestial sphere|celestial sphere]]. It is similar in concept to a [[w:celestial pole|celestial pole]] but based on the planet's orbit instead of the planet's rotation.

The north orbital pole of a celestial body is defined by the [[w:right-hand rule|right-hand rule]]: If you curve the fingers of your right hand along the direction of orbital motion, with your thumb extended parallel to the orbital [[w:Axis of rotation|axis]], the direction your thumb points is defined to be north.

At right is a snapshot of the planetary orbital poles.&lt;ref name=Herschel&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=J. Herschel
|title=The poles of planetary orbits
|journal=The Observatory
|month=June
|year=1918
|volume=41
|issue=
|pages=255-7
|url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1918Obs....41..255H
|arxiv=
|bibcode=1918Obs....41..255H
|doi=
|pmid=
|accessdate=2013-07-10 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The field of view is about 30°. The yellow dot in the centre is the Sun's North pole. Off to the side, the orange dot is Jupiter's orbital pole. Clustered around it are the other planets: Mercury in pale blue (closer to the Sun than to Jupiter), Venus in green, the Earth in blue, Mars in red, Saturn in violet, Uranus in grey partly underneath Earth and Neptune in lavender. Dwarf planet Pluto is the dotless cross off in Cepheus.
{{clear}}

==Neptune Systems==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Planets}}
[[Image:Neptune Satellites and Ring Arcs.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The location of a newly discovered moon, designated S/2004 N 1, orbiting Neptune, is seen in this composite Hubble Space Telescope image. Credit: NASA/ESA/M. Showalter/SETI Institute photo.]]
[[Image:Neptune system https always busy wasting my time image.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This diagram provided by NASA shows the orbits of several moons located close to the planet Neptune. Credit: NASA/ESA/M. Showalter/SETI Institute photo.]]
The image at the left shows the Neptune system including Triton.

&quot;The location of a newly discovered moon, designated S/2004 N 1, orbiting Neptune, is seen in this composite Hubble Space Telescope handout image [at right] taken in August 2009. The new moon is the 14th known moon to be circling the distant blue-green planet.&quot;&lt;ref name=Showalter&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Mark Showalter
|title=Astronomer Finds New Moon Orbiting Neptune
|publisher=VOANews
|location=
|date=July 15, 2013
|url=http://www.voanews.com/content/astronomer-finds-new-moon-orbiting-neptune-reu/1702459.html
|accessdate=2014-02-23 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;Estimated to be about 12 miles (20 km) in diameter, the moon is located about 65,400 miles (105,251 km) from Neptune [left image].&quot;&lt;ref name=Showalter/&gt;

&quot;Images taken by NASA's Voyager 2 spacecraft unveiled the second largest moon, Proteus, and five smaller moons, Naiad, Thalassa, Despina, Galatea and Larissa.&quot;&lt;ref name=Showalter/&gt;

&quot;Ground-based telescopes found Halimede, Laomedeia, Sao and Nestor in 2002. Sister moon Psamathe turned up a year later.&quot;&lt;ref name=Showalter/&gt;

&quot;The newly found moon, designated S/2004 N 1, is located between Larissa and Proteus. It orbits Neptune in 23 hours.&quot;&lt;ref name=Showalter/&gt;

The &quot;composite Hubble Space Telescope picture [at the left] shows the location of a newly discovered moon, designated S/2004 N 1, orbiting the giant planet Neptune, nearly 3 billion miles from Earth.&quot;&lt;ref name=ShowalterBaltimore&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Mark Showalter
|title=Hubble Finds New Neptune Moon
|publisher=HubbleSite
|location=Baltimore, Maryland USA
|date=July 15, 2013
|url=http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/archive/releases/2013/30/image/a/
|accessdate=2014-09-12 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;The moon is so small (no more than 12 miles across) and dim, it was missed by NASA's Voyager 2 spacecraft cameras when the probe flew by Neptune in 1989. Several other moons that were discovered by Voyager appear in this 2009 image, along with a circumplanetary structure known as ring arcs.&quot;&lt;ref name=ShowalterBaltimore/&gt;

&quot;Mark Showalter of the SETI Institute discovered S/2004 N 1 in July 2013. He analyzed over 150 archival Neptune photographs taken by Hubble from 2004 to 2009. The same white dot appeared over and over again. He then plotted a circular orbit for the moon, which completes one revolution around Neptune every 23 hours.&quot;&lt;ref name=ShowalterBaltimore/&gt;
{{clear}}

==Neptune Theory==
[[Image:Neptune Orbit.gif|thumb|left|250px|Neptune completes an orbit on average every 164.79 years, subject to a variability of around ±0.1 years. Credit: [[commons:User:Lookang|Lookang]].]]
The average distance between Neptune and the Sun is 4.50 billion km (about 30.1 AU).

The orbit of [[Neptune]] is the furthest from the [[Stars/Sun]] of the [[planets]]. Its orbit may be slowly increasing as it moves further away from the Sun.
{{clear}}

==Meteors==
{{main|Radiation/Meteors}}
[[Image:Neptune-Methane.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Combined colour and near-infrared image of Neptune, shows bands of methane in its atmosphere, and four of its moons, Proteus, Larissa, Galatea, and Despina. Credit: .]]
[[Image:Neptune clouds.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Bands of high-altitude clouds cast shadows on Neptune's lower cloud deck. Credit: .]]
[[Image:Neptune storms.jpg|thumb|upright|250px|The [[w:Great Dark Spot|Great Dark Spot]] (top), Scooter (middle white cloud),&lt;ref name=scooter&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Sue Lavoie
|date=8 January 1998
|title=PIA01142: Neptune Scooter
|url=http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA01142
|publisher=NASA
|accessdate=26 March 2006}}&lt;/ref&gt; and the [[w:Small Dark Spot|Small Dark Spot]] (bottom), with contrast exaggerated. Credit: .]]
[[Image:Neptune's Great Dark Spot.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The Great Dark Spot is imaged by ''Voyager 2''. Credit: NASA / Jet Propulsion Lab.]]
[[Image:Scale and Compass Image for Dark Spot on Neptune.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This new Hubble Space Telescope image confirms the presence of a dark vortex in the atmosphere of Neptune. Credit: NASA, ESA, and Z. Levay (STScI).]]
[[Image:3D Neptune.png|left|thumb|250px|Neptune is seen from Earth (3D). Credit: [[commons:User:Jcpag2012|Jcpag2012]].]]
At the time of the 1989 ''Voyager 2'' flyby, the planet's southern hemisphere possessed a Great Dark Spot. In 1989, the Great Dark Spot, an anti-cyclonic storm system spanned 13000×6600&amp;nbsp;km,&lt;ref name=spot&gt;{{cite book
|author=Sue Lavoie
|date=16 February 2000
|url=http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA02245
|title=PIA02245: Neptune's blue-green atmosphere
|publisher=NASA JPL
|accessdate=28 February 2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt; was discovered by NASA's ''Voyager 2'' spacecraft. Some five years later, on 2 November 1994, the Hubble Space Telescope did not see the Great Dark Spot on the planet. Instead, a new storm similar to the Great Dark Spot was found in the planet's northern hemisphere.&lt;ref&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=H. B. Hammel
|author2=G. W. Lockwood
|author3=J. R. Mills
|author4=C. D. Barnet
|title=Hubble Space Telescope Imaging of Neptune's Cloud Structure in 1994
|journal=Science
|year=1995
|volume=268
|issue=5218
|pages=1740–1742
|doi=10.1126/science.268.5218.1740
|pmid=17834994
|bibcode=1995Sci...268.1740H }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The Scooter is another storm, a white cloud group farther south than the Great Dark Spot. Its nickname is due to the fact that when first detected in the months before the 1989 ''Voyager 2'' encounter it moved faster than the Great Dark Spot.&lt;ref name=burgess2&gt;Burgess (1991):64–70.&lt;/ref&gt; Subsequent images revealed even faster clouds.

The Small Dark Spot is a southern cyclonic storm, the second-most-intense storm observed during the 1989 encounter. It initially was completely dark, but as ''Voyager 2'' approached the planet, a bright core developed and can be seen in most of the highest-resolution images.&lt;ref&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Sue Lavoie
|date=29 January 1996
|url=http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA00064
|title=PIA00064: Neptune's Dark Spot (D2) at High Resolution
|publisher=NASA JPL
|accessdate=28 February 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The persistence of companion clouds shows that some former dark spots may continue to exist as cyclones even though they are no longer visible as a dark feature. Dark spots may dissipate when they migrate too close to the equator or possibly through some other unknown mechanism.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|last=Sromovsky
|first=L. A.
|author2=Fry, P. M.
|author3=Dowling, T. E.
|author4=Baines, K. H.
|title=The unusual dynamics of new dark spots on Neptune
|journal=Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society
|year=2000|volume=32|pages=1005
|bibcode=2000DPS....32.0903S}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The upper-level clouds occur at pressures below one bar, where the temperature is suitable for methane to condense.

High-altitude clouds on Neptune have been observed casting shadows on the opaque cloud deck below. There are also high-altitude cloud bands that wrap around the planet at constant latitude. These circumferential bands have widths of 50–150&amp;nbsp;km and lie about 50–110&amp;nbsp;km above the cloud deck.&lt;ref name=apj125&gt;{{cite journal
|author=C. E. Max
|author2=Macintosh, B. A.
|author3=Gibbard, S. G.
|author4=Gavel, D. T.
|author5=Roe, H. G.
|author6=de Pater, I.
|author7=Ghez, Andrea M.
|author8=Acton, D. S.
|author9=Lai, O.
|author10=Stomski, P.
|author11=Wizinowich, P. L.
|title=Cloud Structures on Neptune Observed with Keck Telescope Adaptive Optics
|journal=The Astronomical Journal,
|year=2003|volume=125|issue=1|pages=364–375
|bibcode=2003AJ....125..364M
|doi=10.1086/344943 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Because of seasonal changes, the cloud bands in the southern hemisphere of Neptune have been observed to increase in size and albedo. This trend was first seen in 1980 and is expected to last until about 2020. The long orbital period of Neptune results in seasons lasting forty years.&lt;ref name=Villard&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Ray Villard
|author2=Terry Devitt
|date=15 May 2003
|title=Brighter Neptune Suggests A Planetary Change Of Seasons
|publisher=Hubble News Center
|url=http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/archive/releases/2003/17/text/
|accessdate=26 February 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Neptune has the strongest sustained winds of any planet in the Solar System, with recorded wind speeds as high as 2,100 kilometres per hour (1,300 mph).&lt;ref name=&quot;Suomi1991&quot;&gt;{{ cite journal
|last=Suomi 
|first=V. E.
|author2=Limaye, S. S.
|author3=Johnson, D. R.
|year=1991
|title=High Winds of Neptune: A possible mechanism
|journal=Science
|volume=251
|issue=4996 |pages=929–932
|doi=10.1126/science.251.4996.929
|pmid=17847386
|bibcode=1991Sci...251..929S }}&lt;/ref&gt;

On Neptune winds reach speeds of almost 600&amp;nbsp;m/s—nearly attaining supersonic flow.&lt;ref name=&quot;Suomi1991&quot; /&gt; More typically, by tracking the motion of persistent clouds, wind speeds have been shown to vary from 20&amp;nbsp;m/s in the easterly direction to 325&amp;nbsp;m/s westward.&lt;ref name=&quot;Hammel1989&quot;&gt;{{ cite journal
|last=Hammel
|first=H. B.
|author2=Beebe, R. F.
|author3=De Jong, E. M.
|author4=Hansen, C. J.
|author5=Howell, C. D.
|author6=Ingersoll, A. P.
|author7=Johnson, T. V.
|author8=Limaye, S. S.
|author9=Magalhaes, J. A.
|author10=Pollack, J. B.
|author11=Sromovsky, L. A.
|author12=Suomi, V. E.
|author13=Swift, C. E.
|title=Neptune's wind speeds obtained by tracking clouds in ''Voyager 2'' images
|journal=Science|year=1989|volume=245
|pages=1367–1369
|bibcode=1989Sci...245.1367H
|doi=10.1126/science.245.4924.1367
|pmid=17798743
|issue=4924}}&lt;/ref&gt; At the cloud tops, the prevailing winds range in speed from 400&amp;nbsp;m/s along the equator to 250&amp;nbsp;m/s at the poles.&lt;ref name=elkins-tanton&gt;{{ cite book
| last = Elkins-Tanton|first=Linda T.|date=2006
| title = Uranus, Neptune, Pluto, and the Outer Solar System
| publisher = Chelsea House|location=New York
| isbn = 978-0-8160-5197-7}}&lt;/ref&gt; Most of the winds on Neptune move in a direction opposite the planet's rotation.&lt;ref name=burgess2&gt;Burgess (1991):64–70.&lt;/ref&gt; The general pattern of winds showed prograde rotation at high latitudes vs. retrograde rotation at lower latitudes. The difference in flow direction is believed to be a &quot;skin effect&quot; and not due to any deeper atmospheric processes.&lt;ref name=&quot;Lunine 1993&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|doi=10.1146/annurev.aa.31.090193.001245|title=The Atmospheres of Uranus and Neptune|year=1993|last1=Lunine|first1=Jonathan I.|journal=Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics|volume=31|pages=217–263}}&lt;/ref&gt; At 70° S latitude, a high-speed jet travels at a speed of 300&amp;nbsp;m/s.&lt;ref name=&quot;Lunine 1993&quot; /&gt;

The fourth image down on the right shows a dark vortex on Neptune.

&quot;The full visible-light image at left shows that the dark feature resides near and below a patch of bright clouds in the planet's southern hemisphere. The dark spot measures roughly 3,000 miles (4,800 kilometers) across. Other high-altitude clouds can be seen at the planet's equatorial region and polar regions.&quot;&lt;ref name=Levay/&gt;

&quot;The full-color image at top right is a close-up of the complex feature. Pancake-shaped clouds above the spot form when ambient air is perturbed and diverted upward over the vortex. The vortex is a high-pressure system.&quot;&lt;ref name=Levay/&gt;

&quot;The image at bottom right shows that the vortex is best seen at blue wavelengths. Only Hubble has the high resolution required for identifying such weather features on distant Neptune.&quot;&lt;ref name=Levay/&gt;

&quot;Though similar features were seen during the Voyager 2 flyby of Neptune in 1989 and by Hubble in 1994, this vortex is the first one observed on the planet in the 21st century.&quot;&lt;ref name=Levay/&gt;

&quot;In September 2015, the Outer Planet Atmospheres Legacy (OPAL) program, a long-term Hubble Space Telescope project that annually captures global maps of the outer planets, revealed a dark spot close to the location of the bright clouds, which had been tracked from the ground. By viewing the vortex a second time, the new Hubble images, taken by Wide Field Camera 3 on May 16, 2016, confirm that OPAL really detected a long-lived feature.&quot;&lt;ref name=Levay&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Z. Levay
|title=Dark Spot on Neptune
|publisher=Hubblesite
|location=Baltimore, Maryland USA
|date=16 March 2016
|url=http://imgsrc.hubblesite.org/hu/db/images/hs-2016-22-d-print.jpg
|accessdate=2016-08-16 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The second image down on the left show Neptune as seen from Earth about 8 February 2015.
{{clear}}

==Cosmic Rays==
{{main|Radiation/Cosmic rays}}
&quot;[F]or the regions of the giant planets, especially Uranus and Neptune, ... ionization is due mainly to cosmic rays.&quot;&lt;ref name=Hayashi&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=Chushiro Hayashi
|title=Structure of the Solar Nebula, Growth and Decay of Magnetic Fields and Effects of Magnetic and Turbulent Viscosities on the Nebula
|journal=Progress Theoretical Physics Supplement
|month=
|year=1981
|volume=
|issue=70
|pages=35-53
|url=http://ptp.ipap.jp/link?PTPS/70/35/
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=10.1143/PTPS.70.35
|pmid=
|accessdate=2012-08-23 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Opticals==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Opticals}}
[[Image:Neptune seasons.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Observations by NASA's Hubble Space Telescope reveal an increase in Neptune's brightness in the southern hemisphere. Credit: NASA, L. Sromovsky, and P. Fry (University of Wisconsin-Madison).]]
At right is a set of images from different years for Neptune. These images &quot;show that Neptune's brightness has increased significantly since 1996. The rise is due to an increase in the amount of clouds observed in the planet's southern hemisphere. These increases may be due to seasonal changes caused by a variation in solar heating. Because Neptune's rotation axis is inclined 29 degrees to its orbital plane, it is subject to seasonal solar heating during its 164.8-year orbit of the Sun. This seasonal variation is 900 times smaller than experienced by Earth because Neptune is much farther from the Sun. The rate of seasonal change also is much slower because Neptune takes 165 years to orbit the Sun. So, springtime in the southern hemisphere will last for several decades! Remarkably, this is evidence that Neptune is responding to the weak radiation from the Sun. These images were taken in visible and near-infrared light by Hubble's Wide Field and Planetary Camera 2.&quot;&lt;ref name=Davis&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Phil Davis
|title=Brighter Neptune
|publisher=National Aeronautics and Space Administration
|location=
|date=October 9, 2009
|url=http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/multimedia/display.cfm?Category=Planets&amp;IM_ID=2117
|accessdate=2012-07-20 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{clear}}

==Violets==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Violets|Violet astronomy}}
[[Image:Neptune Full Disk View - GPN-2000-000443.jpg|right|thumb|250px|This picture of Neptune was produced from the last whole planet images taken through the green and orange filters on the Voyager 2 narrow angle camera. Credit: NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory.]]
&quot;This picture of Neptune was produced from the last whole planet images taken through the green and orange filters on the Voyager 2 narrow angle camera. The images were taken at a range of 4.4 million miles from the planet, 4 days and 20 hours before closest approach.&quot;

&quot;The picture shows the Great Dark Spot and its companion bright smudge; on the west limb the fast moving bright feature called Scooter and the little dark spot are visible. These clouds were seen to persist for as long as Voyager's cameras could resolve them. North of these, a bright cloud band similar to the south polar streak may be seen.&quot;&lt;ref name=VoyagerMission&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Voyager Mission
|title=Neptune Full Disk View
|publisher=NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory
|location=Pasadena, California USA
|date=2 April 1990
|url=https://airandspace.si.edu/multimedia-gallery/web12143-2011hjpg
|accessdate=2017-03-21 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{clear}}

==Visuals==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Visuals|Visual astronomy}}
[[Image:Neptune-visible.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Neptune is in a natural color view, with Proteus (top), Larissa (lower right) and Despina (left), from the Hubble Space Telescope. Credit: NASA/ESA/E. Karkoschka (University of Arizona)/H.B. Hammel (Space Science Institute, Boulder, Colo.)/G. Bacon (STScI).]]
[[Image:Neptune enhanced color 2008.png|thumb|right|250px|Neptune is shown in enhanced color. Credit: E. Karkoschka (University of Arizona), H.B. Hammel (Space Science Institute, Boulder, Colorado) and G. Bacon (STScI).]]
[[Image:PIA00057 clipped.png|left|thumb|250px|This false color photograph of Neptune was made from Voyager 2 images taken through three filters: blue, green, and a filter that passes light at a wavelength that is absorbed by methane gas. Credit: Voyager Mission, NASA/JPL.]]
&quot;Neptune is shown in natural color with its largest satellite, Triton, as it orbits the planet. Triton orbits in a &quot;backwards&quot; or retrograde path relative to the other major satellites, and is opposite to Neptune's rotation. Zooming into Neptune, the colors were enhanced to show the subtle details in Neptune's atmosphere. The spectral region of light is changed from the visible to special methane bands in the near-infrared resulting in Neptune's atmosphere becoming very dark, except for high-altitude clouds. Coming into view are Neptune's four smaller moons: Proteus, Larissa, Galatea and Despina.&quot;&lt;ref name=Karkoschka&gt;{{ cite book
|author=E. Karkoschka
|author2=H.B. Hammel
|author3=G. Bacon
|title=Neptune's Dynamic Environment
|publisher=NASA
|location=Washington, DC USA
|date=23 March 2008
|url=https://www.nasa.gov/multimedia/imagegallery/image_feature_399.html
|accessdate=2017-03-21 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;This false color photograph [on the left] of Neptune was made from Voyager 2 images taken through three filters: blue, green, and a filter that passes light at a wavelength that is absorbed by methane gas. Thus, regions that appear white or bright red are those that reflect sunlight before it passes through a large quantity of methane. The image reveals the presence of a ubiquitous haze that covers Neptune in a semitransparent layer. Near the center of the disk, sunlight passes through the haze and deeper into the atmosphere, where some wavelengths are absorbed by methane gas, causing the center of the image to appear less red. Near the edge of the planet, the haze scatters sunlight at higher altitude, above most of the methane, causing the bright red edge around the planet. By measuring haze brightness at several wavelengths, scientists are able to estimate the thickness of the haze and its ability to scatter sunlight. The image is among the last full disk photos that Voyager 2 took before beginning its endless journey into interstellar space.&quot;&lt;ref name=VoyagerMission1996&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Voyager Mission
|title=PIA00057: Neptune False Color Image of Haze
|publisher= NASA/JPL
|location=Pasadena, California USA
|date=29 January 1996
|url=http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA00057
|accessdate=2017-03-21 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{clear}}

==Blues==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Blues}}
[[Image:Neptune south voyager2.gif|thumb|right|250px|Neptune's south pole is photographed by Voyager 2. Credit: NASA.]]
[[Image:Neptune Voyager 2 other side.png|thumb|left|250px|This is a Voyager 2 image of the back side of Neptune. Credit: Voyager 2, NASA.]]
A trace amount of methane is also present. Prominent absorption bands of methane occur at wavelengths above 600&amp;nbsp;nm, in the red and infrared portion of the spectrum. As with Uranus, this absorption of red light by the atmospheric methane is part of what gives Neptune its blue hue,&lt;ref name=Crisp/&gt; although Neptune's vivid azure differs from Uranus's milder cyan. Since Neptune's atmospheric methane content is similar to that of Uranus, some unknown atmospheric constituent is thought to contribute to Neptune's colour.&lt;ref name=Munsell&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Kirk Munsell
|author2=Harman Smith
|author3=Samantha Harvey
|date=November 13, 2007
|url=http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Neptune&amp;Display=OverviewLong
|title=Neptune overview, In: ''Solar System Exploration''
|publisher=NASA
|accessdate=February 20, 2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

On the left is a Voyager 2 image of the other side of Neptune from the Great Dark Spot.
{{clear}}

==Cyans==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Cyans}}
[[Image:The four sides of Neptune (captured by the Hubble Space Telescope).tif|thumb|right|250px|The snapshots of Neptune were taken at roughly 4-hour intervals, offering a full view of the blue-green planet. Credit: NASA/ESA/Hubble Heritage Team (STScI/AURA).]]
On July 12, 2011, Neptune &quot;has arrived at the same location in space where it was discovered nearly 165 years ago. To commemorate the event, NASA's Hubble Space Telescope has taken these &quot;anniversary pictures&quot; of the blue-green giant planet.&quot;&lt;ref name=Weaver&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Donna Weaver
|author2=Ray Villard
|author3=Keith Noll
|title=Neptune Completes Its First Circuit Around The Sun Since Its Discovery
|publisher=Hubblesite Newscenter
|location=Baltimore, Maryland USA
|date=July 12, 2011
|url=http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/archive/releases/2011/19/image/a/
|accessdate=2014-02-23 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;Neptune is the most distant major planet in our solar system. German astronomer Johann Galle discovered the planet on September 23, 1846. At the time, the discovery doubled the size of the known solar system. The planet is 2.8 billion miles (4.5 billion kilometers) from the Sun, 30 times farther than Earth. Under the Sun's weak pull at that distance, Neptune plods along in its huge orbit, slowly completing one revolution approximately every 165 years.&quot;&lt;ref name=Weaver/&gt;

&quot;These four Hubble images of Neptune were taken with the Wide Field Camera 3 on June 25-26, during the planet's 16-hour rotation. The snapshots were taken at roughly four-hour intervals, offering a full view of the planet. The images reveal high-altitude clouds in the northern and southern hemispheres. The clouds are composed of methane ice crystals.&quot;&lt;ref name=Weaver/&gt;

&quot;The giant planet experiences seasons just as Earth does, because it is tilted 29 degrees, similar to Earth's 23-degree-tilt. Instead of lasting a few months, each of Neptune's seasons continues for about 40 years.&quot;&lt;ref name=Weaver/&gt;

&quot;The snapshots show that Neptune has more clouds than a few years ago, when most of the clouds were in the southern hemisphere. These Hubble views reveal that the cloud activity is shifting to the northern hemisphere. It is early summer in the southern hemisphere and winter in the northern hemisphere.&quot;&lt;ref name=Weaver/&gt;

&quot;In the Hubble images, absorption of red light by methane in Neptune's atmosphere gives the planet its distinctive aqua color. The clouds are tinted pink because they are reflecting near-infrared light.&quot;&lt;ref name=Weaver/&gt;

&quot;A faint, dark band near the bottom of the southern hemisphere is probably caused by a decrease in the hazes in the atmosphere that scatter blue light. The band was imaged by NASA's Voyager 2 spacecraft in 1989, and may be tied to circumpolar circulation created by high-velocity winds in that region.&quot;&lt;ref name=Weaver/&gt;

&quot;The temperature difference between Neptune's strong internal heat source and its frigid cloud tops, about minus 260 degrees Fahrenheit, might trigger instabilities in the atmosphere that drive large-scale weather changes.&quot;&lt;ref name=Weaver/&gt;
{{clear}}

==Greens==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Greens}}
[[File:Neptune from Voyager 2 (5278071676).jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is a Voyager 2 image of Neptune through its green filter. Credit: Voyager 2, NASA.]]
On the right is an image of Neptune from Voyager 2 through its green band pass filter.
{{clear}}

==Infrareds==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Infrareds}}
[[Image:Neptune's 'Hot' South Pole (VISIR-VLT).jpg|thumb|right|250px|These are infrared images of Neptune. Credit: VLT/ESO/NASA/JPL/Paris Observatory.]]
[[Image:Neptune in Infrared.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This is an infrared image of Neptune using adaptive optics (AO). Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/Cornell.]]
[[Image:Neptune at 1.5 microns.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Neptune shows two distinct bands glowing at 1.5 microns. Credit: andy.finney.]]
[[Image:Neptune Keck H 26jul2007.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Neptune is imaged in the blue. Credit: Keck H.]]
At right are three images of Neptune using [[infrared astronomy]]. &quot;Thermal images of planet Neptune taken with VISIR on ESO's Very Large Telescope, obtained on 1 and 2 September 2006. These thermal images show a 'hot' south pole on Neptune. These warmer temperatures provide an avenue for methane to escape out of the deep atmosphere. Scientists say Neptune's south pole is 'hotter' than anywhere else on the planet by about 10°C. The average temperature on Neptune is about minus 200 degrees Celsius. The upper left image samples temperatures near the top of Neptune's troposphere (near 100 mbar pressure). The hottest temperatures are located at the lower part of the image at Neptune's south pole (see the graphic at the upper right). The lower two images, taken 6.3 hours apart, sample temperatures at higher altitudes in Neptune's stratosphere. They do show generally warmer temperatures near, but not at, the south pole. In addition they show a warm area which can be seen in the lower left image and rotated completely around the planet in the lower right image.&quot;&lt;ref name=ParisObservatory&gt;{{ cite book
|author=VLT/ESO/NASA/JPL/Paris Observatory
|title=Neptune's 'Hot' South Pole (VISIR/VLT)
|publisher=European Southern Observatory
|location=Santiago, Chile
|date=September 18, 2007
|url=http://www.eso.org/public/images/eso0741a/
|accessdate=2012-07-11 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;Neptune has never looked so clear in infrared light. Surprisingly, Neptune radiates about twice as much energy as it receives from the sun. A fascinating feature of the above photograph is that it was taken far from distant Neptune, through the Earth's normally blurry atmosphere. The great clarity of this recently released image was made possible by &quot;rubber mirror&quot; adaptive optics technology. Here, mirrors in the Palomar High Angular Resolution Observer (PHARO) instrument connected to the 200-inch Hale Telescope flex to remove the effects of turbulence in the Earth's atmosphere.&quot;&lt;ref name=Davis2011&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Phil Davis
|title=Neptune in Infrared
|publisher=National Aeronautics and Space Administration
|location=
|date=June 16, 2011
|url=http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/multimedia/display.cfm?Category=Planets&amp;IM_ID=9264
|accessdate=2012-07-20 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The second image down on the right shows Neptune at 1.5 microns exhibiting two distinct bands.
{{clear}}

==Submillimeters==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Submillimeters|Submillimeter astronomy}}
&quot;Neptune was also observed [on UT 1991 November 19 and 20], with adopted flux densities ''S''&lt;sub&gt;0.8&lt;/sub&gt; = 27.5 Jy (''T''&lt;sub&gt;B&lt;/sub&gt; = 79 K) and ''S''&lt;sub&gt;1.1&lt;/sub&gt; = 16.6 Jy (''T''&lt;sub&gt;B&lt;/sub&gt; = 88 K).&quot;&lt;ref name=Jewitt&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=David Jewitt
|author2=Jane Luu
|title=Submillimeter Continuum Emission from Comets
|journal=Icarus
|month=November
|year=1992
|volume=108
|issue=1
|pages=187-96
|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0019103592900286
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
|accessdate=2013-10-22 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Atmospheres==
{{main|Atmospheres/Astronomy}}
Neptune's atmosphere is composed primarily of hydrogen and helium, along with traces of hydrocarbons and possibly nitrogen, contains a higher proportion of &quot;ices&quot; such as water, ammonia, and methane. Traces of methane in the outermost regions in part account for the planet's blue appearance.&lt;ref name=bluecolour&gt;{{ cite book
|first=Kirk
|last=Munsell
|author2=Smith, Harman
|author3=Harvey, Samantha
|date=13 November 2007
|url=http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Neptune&amp;Display=OverviewLong
|title=Neptune overview, In: ''Solar System Exploration''
|publisher=NASA
|accessdate=20 February 2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

At high altitudes, Neptune's atmosphere is 80% hydrogen and 19% helium.&lt;ref name=Hubbard&gt;{{cite journal
|last=Hubbard
|first=W. B.
|title=Neptune's Deep Chemistry
|journal=Science|year=1997
|volume=275|issue=5304|pages=1279–1280
|doi=10.1126/science.275.5304.1279
|pmid=9064785}}&lt;/ref&gt; A trace amount of methane is also present. Prominent absorption bands of methane occur at wavelengths above 600&amp;nbsp;nm, in the red and infrared portion of the spectrum. As with Uranus, this absorption of red light by the atmospheric methane is part of what gives Neptune its blue hue,&lt;ref name=Crisp&gt;{{ cite book
|author=D. Crisp
|author2=H. B. Hammel
|date=14 June 1995
|url =http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/archive/releases/1995/09/image/a/
|title =Hubble Space Telescope Observations of Neptune
|publisher = Hubble News Center
|accessdate = 22 April 2007 }}&lt;/ref&gt; although Neptune's vivid azure differs from Uranus's milder cyan. Since Neptune's atmospheric methane content is similar to that of Uranus, some unknown atmospheric constituent is thought to contribute to Neptune's colour.&lt;ref name=bluecolour/&gt;

Neptune's atmosphere is sub-divided into two main regions; the lower troposphere, where temperature decreases with altitude, and the stratosphere, where temperature increases with altitude. The boundary between the two, the tropopause, occurs at a pressure of {{convert|0.1|bar|kPa}}.&lt;ref name=&quot;Lunine&quot; /&gt; The stratosphere then gives way to the thermosphere at a pressure lower than 10&lt;sup&gt;−5&lt;/sup&gt; to 10&lt;sup&gt;−4&lt;/sup&gt; microbars (1 to 10&amp;nbsp;Pa).&lt;ref name=Lunine&gt;{{cite journal
|title=The Atmospheres of Uranus and Neptune
|author=Jonathan I. Lunine
|journal = Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics
|volume=31
|pages=217–63
|year=1993
|doi=10.1146/annurev.aa.31.090193.001245
|bibcode=1993ARA&amp;A..31..217L }}&lt;/ref&gt; The thermosphere gradually transitions to the exosphere.

Neptune's thermosphere is at an anomalously high temperature of about 750&amp;nbsp;K.&lt;ref name=Broadfoot19989&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=Broadfoot, A.L.
|author2=Atreya, S.K.
|author3=Bertaux, J.L.
|author4=et al.
|title=Ultraviolet Spectrometer Observations of Neptune and Triton
|journal=Science|volume=246|pages=1459–1456|year=1999| url=http://www-personal.umich.edu/~atreya/Articles/1989_Voyager_UV_Spectrometer.pdf|format=pdf|doi=10.1126/science.246.4936.1459|pmid=17756000|issue=4936|bibcode=1989Sci...246.1459B}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Herbert &amp; Sandel 1999&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|doi=10.1146/annurev.aa.31.090193.001245|title=The Atmospheres of Uranus and Neptune|year=1993|last1=Lunine|first1=Jonathan I.|journal=Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics|volume=31|pages=217–263}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;In 2007 it was discovered that the upper troposphere of Neptune's south pole was about 10&amp;nbsp;°C warmer than the rest of Neptune, which averages approximately -200 °C (70 K).&lt;ref name=Orton&gt;{{ cite journal
|title=Evidence for methane escape and strong seasonal and dynamical perturbations of Neptune's atmospheric temperatures
|author=Orton G. S.
|author2=Encrenaz T.
|author3=Leyrat C.
|author4=Puetter R.
|author5=Friedson A. J.
|work=Astronomy and Astrophysics
|doi=10.1051/0004-6361:20078277
|year=2007
|journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics
|volume=473
|pages=L5–L8
|bibcode=2007A&amp;A...473L...5O }}&lt;/ref&gt; The warmth differential is enough to let methane, which elsewhere lies frozen in Neptune's upper atmosphere, leak out as gas through the south pole and into space. The relative &quot;hot spot&quot; is due to Neptune's axial tilt, which has exposed the south pole to the [[Sun (star)|Sun]] for the last quarter of Neptune's year, or roughly 40 Earth years. As Neptune slowly moves towards the opposite side of the Sun, the south pole will be darkened and the north pole illuminated, causing the methane release to shift to the north pole.&lt;ref&gt;{{ cite book
|first=Glenn
|last=Orton
|author2=Encrenaz, Thérèse
|url=http://www.eso.org/public/news/eso0741/
|title=A Warm South Pole? Yes, On Neptune!
|publisher=ESO|date=18 September 2007
|accessdate=20 September 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Astrognosy==
[[Image:Neptune-Int.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Neptune's structure is diagrammed. Credit: Lunar and Planetary Institute.]]
The atmosphere of Neptune, similar to Uranus, consists of mainly hydrogen, methane, and helium. Below it is a liquid hydrogen layer including helium and methane. The lower layer is liquid hydrogen compounds, oxygen, and nitrogen. It is believed that the planet core comprises rock and ice. Average density, as well as the greatest proportion of core per planet size, is the greatest among the gaseous planets.&quot;&lt;ref name=Burdick&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Autumn Burdick
|title=Neptune's Interior
|publisher=NASA
|location=Washington, DC USA
|date=20 January 2011
|url=http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/multimedia/display.cfm?IM_ID=283
|accessdate=2015-02-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{clear}}

==Radiative Dynamo==
{{main|Stars/Radiative dynamo|Radiative dynamo}}
&quot;The discovery of [Neptune]'s non-dipolar, non-axisymmetric magnetic [field contributes to destroying] the picture-established by Earth, Jupiter and Saturn-that planetary magnetic fields are dominated by axial dipoles.&quot;&lt;ref name=StanleyUranus&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=Sabine Stanley
|author2=Jeremy Bloxham
|title=Convective-region geometry as the cause of Uranus' and Neptune's unusual magnetic fields
|journal=Nature
|month=March
|year=2004
|volume=428
|issue=6979
|pages=151-3
|url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004Natur.428..151S
|arxiv=
|bibcode=2004Natur.428..151S
|doi=10.1038/nature02376
|pmid=
|accessdate=2014-03-29 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The &quot;convective-region geometry produces magnetic fields similar in morphology to [that of] Neptune. [The field is] non-dipolar and non-axisymmetric, and [results] from a combination of the stable fluid's response to electromagnetic stress and the small length scales imposed by the thin shell.&quot;&lt;ref name=StanleyUranus/&gt;

The &quot;rotation axis of [Neptune] is inclined by only 29° to the orbital plane [...] The magnetic dipole axis of Neptune is tilted at an angle of 47° to the spin axis of the planet. The extrapolated near-equatorial surface field is 1.42 µT, corresponding to a magnetic moment (equatorial surface field times radius cubed) of 2.16 x 10&lt;sup&gt;17&lt;/sup&gt; Tm&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; close to 27 times greater than the terrestrial magnetic moment. The quadrupole moment  if Neptune is quite large and makes a greater contribution to the surface magnetic field than at any other planet. The most forward portion of the magnetopause is estimated to lie on average at about 26 Neptunian radii in front of the planet, and of the bow shock at about 34 Neptune radii.&quot;&lt;ref name=Russell&gt;{{ cite book
|author=C. T. Russell
|author2=J. G. Luhmann
|title=Neptune: Magnetic Field and Magnetosphere, In: ''Encyclopedia of Planetary Sciences''
|volume=532
|publisher=Chapman and Hall
|location=New York
|date=1997
|editor=J. H. Shirley and R. W. Fainbridge
|pages=
|url=http://www-ssc.igpp.ucla.edu/personnel/russell/papers/nep_mag.html
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
|isbn=
|accessdate=2014-03-29 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Ancient History==

The '''ancient history''' period dates from around 8,000 to 3,000 b2k.

Neptune is never visible to the [[w:naked eye|naked eye]], having a brightness between magnitudes +7.7 and +8.0,&lt;ref name=Williams&gt;{{ cite book
 |author = David R. Williams
 |date = September 1, 2004
 |url = http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/neptunefact.html
 |title = Neptune Fact Sheet
 |publisher = NASA
 |accessdate = August 14, 2007 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Espenak&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Fred Espenak
|date=July 20, 2005
|url=http://eclipse.gsfc.nasa.gov/TYPE/TYPE.html
|title=Twelve Year Planetary Ephemeris: 1995–2006
|publisher=NASA
|accessdate=March 1, 2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''Neptune''' was the Roman god of water and the sea&lt;ref name=Toutain&gt;J. Toutain, ''Les cultes païens de l'Empire romain'', vol. I (1905:378)&lt;/ref&gt; in Roman mythology and religion. He is the counterpart of the Greek god Poseidon. In the Greek-influenced tradition, Neptune was the brother of Jupiter [Italic Neptune has been securely identified as a god of freshwater sources as well as the sea.]&lt;ref name=Toutain/&gt;

Syncretic traces of a Lybian/Punic agrarian god of fresh water sources, with the epithet ''Frugifer'', &quot;fruit-bearer&quot;; have been enumerated”&lt;ref name=Cadotte&gt;Alain Cadotte, &quot;Neptune Africain&quot;, ''Phoenix'' '''56'''.3/4 (Autumn/Winter 2002:330-347)&lt;/ref&gt;

The German scholar H. Petersmann proposed an etymology from IE rootstem *nebh- related to clouds and foggs. The concept would be close to that expressed in the name of Greek god Uranus.

Indo-European people, having no direct knowledge of the sea as they originated from inland areas, reused the theology of a deity originally either chthonic or wielding power over inland freshwaters as the god of the sea.&lt;ref name=Wissowa&gt;G. Wissowa ''Religion un Kultus der Römer'' Munich, 1912; A. von Domaszewski ''Abhandlungen zur römische Religion'' Leipzig und Berlin, 1909; R. Bloch above&lt;/ref&gt; This feature has been preserved particularly well in the case of Neptune who was definitely a god of springs, lakes and rivers before becoming  also a god of the sea, as is testified by the numerous findings of inscriptions mentioning him in the proximity of such locations. Servius the grammarian also explicitly states Neptune is in charge of all the rivers, springs and waters.&lt;ref name=Bloch&gt;Raymond Bloch &quot;Quelques remarques sur Poseidon, Neptunus and Nethuns&quot; in ''Revue de l'Histoire des Religions'' 1981 p.341-352, p.346; Servius ''Ad Georgicae'' IV 24&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;I find it most useful to refer to the eight planets Mercury through Neptune as the &quot;classical planets&quot;.&quot;&lt;ref name=Binzel&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=R. P. Binzel
|title=Definition of a planet: Prague 2006 IAU resolutions
|journal=The Minor Planet Bulletin
|month=December
|year=2006
|volume=33
|issue=4
|pages=106-7
|url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu//abs/2006MPBu...33..106B
|arxiv=
|bibcode=2006MPBu...33..106B
|doi=
|pmid=
|accessdate=2012-05-21 }}&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;By restricting the new definition to the eight existing “classical planets,” the second resolution implied that dwarf planets were a subcategory of planets, too.&quot;&lt;ref name=Schilling&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=Govert Schilling
|title=Underworld Character Kicked Out of Planetary Family
|journal=Science
|month=September 1,
|year=2006
|volume=313
|issue=5791
|pages=1214-5
|url=http://www.pha.jhu.edu/courses/172_113/FPscience_1214.pdf
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
|accessdate=2012-05-21 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Classical History==
[[Image:Sousse neptune.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Triumph of Neptune standing on a chariot is pulled by two sea horses. Credit: Musée archéologique de Sousse.]]
The '''classical history''' period dates from around 2,000 to 1,000 b2k.

The classical Mosaïque d'Hadrumète (Sousse) on the right is from the mid-third century AD.

Note the suggestion of rings or a halo through the use of the billowing cap.
{{clear}}

==Recent History==
[[Image:Natoire Neptune and Amphitrite.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The painting shows ''Neptune and Amphitrite (Triumph of Galatea)''. Credit: Circle of Simon Vouet.]]
The '''recent history''' period dates from around 1,000 b2k to present.

Note the billowing fabric simulating the shape or rings but away from Neptune.
{{clear}}

==Hypotheses==
{{main|Hypotheses}}
# Neptune may have been visible to hominins some 40,000 b2k.

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Gases/Gaseous objects/Mercury]]
* [[Gases/Gaseous objects/Venus]]
* [[Gases/Gaseous objects/Earth]]
* [[Gases/Gaseous objects/Mars]]
* [[Gases/Gaseous objects/Saturn]]
* [[Gases/Gaseous objects/Uranus]]
* [[Gases/Gaseous objects/Neptune]]
{{Div col end}}

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
* [http://www.iau.org/ International Astronomical Union]
* [http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/ NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database - NED]
* [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/ NASA's National Space Science Data Center]
* [http://www.osti.gov/ Office of Scientific &amp; Technical Information]
* [http://www.adsabs.harvard.edu/ The SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System]
* [http://cas.sdss.org/astrodr6/en/tools/quicklook/quickobj.asp SDSS Quick Look tool: SkyServer]
* [http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/ SIMBAD Astronomical Database]
* [http://simbad.harvard.edu/simbad/ SIMBAD Web interface, Harvard alternate]
* [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/SpacecraftQuery.jsp Spacecraft Query at NASA.]
* [http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/Tools/convcoord/convcoord.pl  Universal coordinate converter]

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[[Category:Radiation astronomy/Lectures]]
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[[Category:Neptune]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Animal Phyla</title>
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      <text bytes="12846" sha1="4l7913pkgi50yu6fzbhd44yig6rud6e" xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Animalia diversity.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Some examples of animal diversity.]]
A Phylum (pl. Phyla) is the largest formal major grouping within animal taxonomy.
This list is presented in alphabetical order, and not in any systematic/evolutionary arrangement.
This list is also available in [[/Table/|table form]]. Science is by no means static. There are arguments of all sizes and shapes about the taxonomy of the Animal Phyla. Other sources may combine or split these listed Phyla. However, at this time, the list presented here should stand in good stead for an introduction to the topic of animal diversity.

There are approximately 1.9 million animal species that have been described by science.

This list tries to give the following information on each Phylum:
*Phyllum Name
*A link to a sub-page discussing that Phylum in more detail (if it yet exists)
*Name Meaning (in English)
*An English Common Name, where one is in regular use
*Distinguishing characteristics of animals within the Phylum
*An approximate number of species described within that Phylum. Since zoology fortunately refuses to stand still, this number can change.

Oh! And there's a quiz at the end.
See also [[/Lesson Plan for Animal Phyla/]]. Or head to [[Introduction to Taxonomy]] for more on that topic. You can also visit [[Plant Divisions (Phyla)]], the equivalent page for plants.

==Acanthocephala==
[[Image:Macracanthorhynchus_hirudinaceus_adult_BAM1.jpg|thumb|100px|left|An Acanthocephalan, ''Macracanthorhynchus hirudinaceus'', adult.]]
[[/Acanthocephala/]]

Name Meaning: horny head 

English Common Name: Horny-headed worms

Major distinguishing characteristics: Reversible spiny proboscis

Approximate number of species described: 1,151

==Acoelomorpha==
[[File:Acoelomorpha.jpg|thumb|100px|left|Acoelomorpha]]
[[/Acoelomorpha/]]

Name Meaning: Without gut

English Common Name: Acoels

Major distinguishing characteristics: No mouth or alimentary canal

Approximate number of species described: 50,000

== Annelida ==
&lt;div id=&quot;Annelida&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
[[Image:Reef0200.jpg|thumb|100px|left|An feather duster worm of the family Sabellidae in parchment tube.]]
[[/Annelida/]]

Name Meaning: Little ring

English Common Name: Segmented worms, annelids

Major distinguishing characteristics: Multiple circular segments

Approximate number of species described: 22,000 modern

==Arthropoda==
[[Image:Chelicerae_%26_pedipalps_%288689230685%29.jpg|thumb|100px|left|A scorpion, an example of an Arthropod]]
[[/Arthropoda/]]

Name Meaning: Jointed foot

English Common Name: Arthropods

Major distinguishing characteristics: Chitin exoskeleton

Approximate number of species described: 1,134,000+
==Brachiopoda==
[[Image:Isocrania_costata_Sowerby_1823.jpg|thumb|100px|left|Brachiopod ''Isocrania costata''.]]
[[/Brachiopoda/]]

Name Meaning: Arm foot

English Common Name: Lamp shells, brachiopod

Major distinguishing characteristics: Lophophore and pedicle

Approximate number of species described: between 300 and 500 extant
==Bryozoa==
[[Image:Freshwater_Bryozoan234.JPG|thumb|100px|left|A freshwater Bryozoan, species unknown.]]
[[/Bryozoa/]]

Name Meaning: Moss animals

English Common Name: Moss animals, sea mats, bryozoans

Major distinguishing characteristics: Lophophore, no pedicle, ciliated tentacles

Approximate number of species described: about 5,000 living species
==Chaetognatha==
[[Image:Chaetognatha.PNG|thumb|100px|left|Chaetognathans.]]
[[/Chaetognatha/]]

Name Meaning: Longhair jaw

English Common Name: Arrow worms

Major distinguishing characteristics: Chitinous spines either side of head, fins

Approximate number of species described: about 100 modern species
==Chordata==
[[Image:Clavelina lepadiformis (Müller, 1776) - Banyuls-sur-Mer - 04.83.jpg|thumb|100px|left|''Clavelina lepadiformis'', a non-vertebrate chordates.]]
[[/Chordata/]]

Name Meaning: Cord

English Common Name: Chordates

Major distinguishing characteristics: Hollow dorsal nervous chord

Approximate number of species described: about 100,000+
==Cnidaria==
[[Image:Cynarina_lacrymalis.jpeg|thumb|100px|left|''Cynarina lacrymalis'' an anthozoan member of the Phylum Cnidaria.]]
[[/Cnidaria/]]

Name Meaning: Stinging nettle

English Common Name: Coelenterates, cnidarians, sea anemones, jellies, hydra

Major distinguishing characteristics: Cnidocytes (stinging cells)

Approximate number of species described: about 11,000

==Ctenophora==
[[Image:LightRefractsOf comb-rows of ctenophore Mertensia ovum.jpg|thumb|100px|left|''Mertensia'', a Ctenophore.]]
[[/Ctenophora/]]

Name Meaning: Comb bearer

English Common Name: Comb jellies, Ctenophores

Major distinguishing characteristics: Eight &quot;comb rows&quot; of fused cilia

Approximate number of species described: about 200 modern species

==Cycliophora==
[[Image:Cycliophora - Symbion pandora.png|thumb|100px|left|''Symbion pandora'', a Cycliphoran.]]
[[/Cycliophora/]]

Name Meaning: Wheel carrying

English Common Name: Symbion

Major distinguishing characteristics: Circular mouth surrounded by small cilia

Approximate number of species described: at least 3
==Echinodermata==
[[Image:Crinoideos.jpg|thumb|100px|left|''Crinoideos'', an example of Ecinoderms.]]
[[/Echinodermata/]]

Name Meaning: Spiny skin(Body)

English Common Name: Echinoderms

Major distinguishing characteristics: Five-fold radial symmetry, mesodermal layer, calcified spines

Approximate number of species described: about 7,000 living species and 13,000 extinct ones
==Entoprocta==
[[Image:Barentsa discreta suzukokemusi01.JPG|thumb|100px|left|''Barentsa discreta suzukokemusi'', a species of goblet worm.]]
[[/Entoprocta/]]

Name Meaning: Inside anus

English Common Name: Goblet worm

Major distinguishing characteristics: Anus inside ring of cilia

Approximate number of species described: about 150
==Gastrotricha==
[[Image:Chaetonotus (Chaetonotus) polyspinosus.jpg|thumb|100px|left|''Chaetonotus polyspinosus'' a species of meiofauna.]]
[[/Gastrotricha/]]

Name Meaning: Hair stomach

English Common Name: Hairybellies, hairybacks

Major Distinguishing Characteristics: Two terminal adhesive tubes

Approximate number of species described: about 690

==Gnathostomulida==
[[Image:Gnathostomula paradoxa Sylt.tif|thumb|100px|left|''Gnathostomula paradoxa'', a jaw worm.]]
[[/Gnathostomulida/]]

Name Meaning: Jaw orifice

English Common Name: Jaw worms

Major distinguishing characteristics: 

Approximate number of species described: about 100
==Hemichordata==
[[Image:Glossograptus whitfieldii 01.jpg|thumb|100px|left|Glossograptus whitfieldii, a fossil hemichordate.]]
[[/Hemichordata/]]

Name Meaning: Half cord

English Common Name: Acorn worms

Major distinguishing characteristics: Stomochord in collar

Approximate number of species described: about 100 living species
==Kinorhyncha==
[[Image:Paracentrophyes quadridentatus.jpg|thumb|100px|left|''Paracentrophyes quadridentatus'', a mud dragon.]]
[[/Kinorhyncha/]]

Name Meaning: Motion snout

English Common Name: Mud dragons

Major distinguishing characteristics: Eleven segments, each with a dorsal plate

Approximate number of species described: about 150
==Loricifera==
[[Image:Pliciloricus enigmatus.jpg|thumb|100px|left|A member of the Phylum Loricifera, ''Pliciloricus enigmatus''.]]
[[/Loricifera/]]

Name Meaning: Corset bearer

English Common Name: Loriciferans

Major distinguishing characteristics: Umbrella-like scales at each end

Approximate number of species described: about 122

==Micrognathozoa==
[[Image:Limnonathia, drawing.tif|thumb|100px|left|''Limnonathia'', drawing, a Micrognathozoan.]]
[[/Micrognathozoa/]] (sometimes called Phylum Gnathifera)

Name Meaning: Tiny jaw animals

English Common Name: Micrognathozoans

Major distinguishing characteristics: Accordion like extensible thorax

Approximate number of species described: 1

==Mollusca==
[[Image:Shells01.jpg|thumb|100px|left|A group of Gastropod shells, Phylum Mollusca.]]
[[/Mollusca/]]

Name Meaning: Thin shell

English Common Name: Mollusks or molluscs

Major distinguishing characteristics: Muscular foot and Mantle, round shell

Approximate number of species described: 85,000


==Nematoda==
[[Image:Mermis nigrescens beentree.jpg|thumb|100px|left|''Mermis nigrescens beentree'', a nematode worm.]]
[[/Nematoda/]]

Name Meaning: Thread like

English Common Name: Round worms, Nematodes

Major distinguishing characteristics: Round cross section, keratin, cuticle

Approximate number of species described: 80 000 - 1 million
==Nematomorpha==
[[Image:Gordiidae A MRKVICKA.JPG|thumb|100px|left|A Gordian worm, Phylum Nematomorpha.]]
[[/Nematomorpha/]]

Name Meaning: Thread form

English Common Name: Horsehair worms

Major distinguishing characteristics:

Approximate number of species described: about 320
==Nemertea==
[[Image:Micrura alaskensis.png|thumb|100px|left|Micrura alaskensis, a ribbon worm.]]
[[/Nemertea/]]

Name Meaning: A sea nymph

English Common Name: Ribbon worms

Major distinguishing characteristics:

Approximate number of species described: about 1200
==Onychophora==
[[Image:Euperipatoides kanangrensis crop.jpg|thumb|100px|left|''Euperipatoides kanangrensis'', a velvet worm.]]
[[/Onychophora/]]

Name Meaning: Claw bearer

English Common Name: Velvet worms

Major distinguishing characteristics: Legs tipped by chitinous claws

Approximate number of species described: about 200 modern
==Orthonectida==
&lt;div id=&quot;Orthonectida&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
[[Image:Orthonetida dict flat and cylinder.png|thumb|100px|left|Orthonetida, an Orthonectidan.]]
[[/Orthonectida/]]

Name Meaning: Straight swim

English Common Name: Orthonectida

Major distinguishing characteristics:

Approximate number of species described: about 20

==Phoronida==
[[Image:Phoronis Maria Grazia Montanucci2.jpg|thumb|100px|left|'' Phoronis hippocrepis'', a species of horseshoe worm.]]
[[/Phoronida/]]

Name Meaning: Zeus' mistress

English Common Name: Horseshoe worms

Major distinguishing characteristics: U-shaped gut

Approximate number of species described: 20
==Placozoa==
[[Image:Trichoplax adhaerens photograph.png|thumb|100px|left|''Trichoplax adhaerens'', the only Placozoan.]]
[[/Placozoa/]]

Name Meaning: Plate animals

English Common Name: none

Major distinguishing characteristics:

Approximate number of species described: 1
==Platyhelminthes==
[[Image:Gigantolina.elongata.in.vivo.png|thumb|100px|left|''Gigantolina elongata'', a flat worm.]]
[[/Platyhelminthes/]]

Name Meaning: Flat worms

English Common Name: Flat worms

Major distinguishing characteristics:

Approximate number of species described: about 25,000
==Porifera==
[[Image:Eponge à déterminer (1).jpg|thumb|100px|left|An unidentified sponge.]]
[[/Porifera/]]

Name Meaning: Pore bearer

English Common Name: Sponges

Major distinguishing characteristics: Perforated interior wall

Approximate number of species described: over 5,000 modern
==Priapulida==
[[Image:Adult priapulid.jpg|thumb|100px|left|''Priapulus caudatus'', a Priapulid worm.]]
[[/Priapulida/]]

Name Meaning: Penis

English Common Name: Priapulid worms

Major distinguishing characteristics: Retractable proboscis surrounded by papillae

Approximate number of species described: 17
==Rhombozoa==
&lt;div id=&quot;Rhombozoa&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
[[Image:Dicyema japonicum.png |thumb|100px|left|''Dicyema japonicum'', a rhombozoan.]]
[[/Rhombozoa/]]

Name Meaning: Rhombus animal

English Common Name: Rhombozoans

Major distinguishing characteristics: Single axial cell surrounded by ciliated cells

Approximate number of species described: 75

==Rotifera==
[[Image:20090730 020239 Rotifer.jpg|thumb|100px|left|An unidentified rotifer.]]
[[/Rotifera/]]

Name Meaning: Wheel bearer

English Common Name: Rotifers

Major distinguishing characteristics: Anterior crown of cilia

Approximate number of species described: about 2000
==Tardigrada==
[[Image:SEM image of Milnesium tardigradum in active state - journal.pone.0045682.g001-2.png|thumb|100px|left|Tardigrade ''Milnesium tardigradum'' in active state.]]
[[/Tardigrada/]]

Name Meaning: Slow step

English Common Name: Water bears

Major distinguishing characteristics: Four segmented body and head

Approximate number of species described: 1,000+
==Xenacoelomorpha==
[[Image:Xenoturbella bockii longitudinal section.svg|thumb|100px|left|''Xenoturbella bockii'' longitudinal section.]]
[[/Xenacoelomorpha/]]

Name Meaning: Strange hollow form

English Common Name: none

Major distinguishing characteristics: Ciliated deuterostome

Approximate number of species described: 435

==Quizzes==
* [[/Quiz/|Animal Phyla Quiz]]

==References==
{{reflist}}
*Brusca, Richard C., Wendy Moore, Stephen M. Shuster. Invertebrate Zoology 3rd ed. 2016. Sinauer. 1104 pp.
*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phylum Phylum] on Wikipedia
[[Category:Lists]]
[[Category:Taxonomy]]
[[Category:Zoology]]
[[Category:Animals]]
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  <page>
    <title>Animal Phyla/Arthropoda</title>
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      <text bytes="5993" sha1="s9nag7uptrgk3w572twid5kw7ytiyam" xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Chelicerae_%26_pedipalps_%288689230685%29.jpg|thumb|300px|Right|A scorpion, an example of an Arthropod]]
*Arthropoda
*Name Meaning: Jointed foot
*English Common Name: Arthropods
*Major distinguishing characteristics: Chitin exoskeleton
*Approximate number of species described: 1,134,000+

==Natural History==

Counted by number and diversity of species, arthropods are the most successful Phylum of animals. Over half known species are arthropods.

Arthropods live in most habitats on Earth. They are present in the deepest ocean trenches and have been found high in the atmosphere.
 
==Taxonomy==

The Phylum Arthropoda is divided into five Subphyla (four extant, one extinct).
The Subphyla are divided into 16 Classes. There are an additional 6 extinct Classes that are so far unable to be placed within Subphyla.

*†Subphylum Trilobitomorpha 
**†Trilobita
*Subphylum Chelicerata
**Arachnida (spiders, scorpions, ticks, etc.)
**Merostomata (horseshoe crabs, eurypterids) - eurypterids are extinct
**Pycnogonida (sea spiders)
*Subphylum Myriapoda 
**Chilopoda (centipedes)
**Diplopoda (millipedes)
**Pauropoda
**Symphyla (resemble centipedes)
*Subphylum Crustacea 
**Branchiopoda (brine shrimp)
**Remipedia (blind crustaceans)
**Cephalocarida (horseshoe shrimp)
**Maxillopoda (barnacles, copepods, fish lice)
**Ostracoda (seed shrimp)
**Malacostraca (lobsters, crabs, shrimp)
*Subphylum Hexapoda
**Entognatha (springtails)
**Insecta (insects)

It's uncertain how these extinct groups fit in with the rest of the Arthropoda, but they are arthropods.
*†Camptophyllia
*†Marrellomorpha
*†Acanthomeridion
*†Thelxiope
*†Euthycarcinoidea
*†Carnarvonia
==Phylogeny==
Behold a phylogeny of the arthropods! (Warning: the emergence dates may be '''[[Wiktionary:Arbitrary|Arbitrary]]'''. Feel free to fix them in case they [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arbitrariness are].
{{clade|style=font-size:90%;
|label1='''Arthropoda'''
|sublabel1={{small|538 mya}}
|1={{clade
  |label1=Chelicerata
  |1={{clade
  |1=Pycnogonida[[File:Pycnogonum littorale (YPM IZ 030249).jpeg|60px]]
  |label2=Prosomapoda
  |2={{clade
  |1=Xiphosura [[File:Limulus polyphemus (Atlantic Horseshoe Crab) adult underside (26923436154).jpg|60px]]
  |2=Arachnida [[File:Galeodes caspius 46625523.jpg|60px]]
         }}
      }}
  |label2=Mandibulata
|sublabel2={{small|535 mya}}
  |2={{clade
  |label1=Myriapoda
  |1={{clade
  |1=Chilopoda
[[File:Scolopendra cataracta from Zookeys.jpg|60px]]
  |2=Symphyla [[File:Scutigerella 116012425.jpg|60px]]
  |label3=Dignatha
  |3={{clade
  |1=Pauropoda [[File:Trachypauropus britannicus (8879870187).jpg|60px]]
  |2=Diplopoda
[[File:Pillmillipede talakaveri.jpg|60px]]
            }}
         }}
  |label2=Pancrustacea
|sublabel2={{small|530 mya}}
  |2={{clade
  |label1=Oligostraca
  |1={{clade
 |1=Ostracoda[[File:Karpvähiline.jpg|60px]]
  |2=Mystacocarida [[File:Mystacocarida-scale250um.jpg|80x60px]]
  |3=Ichthyostraca [[File:Argulus coregoni tyoumdk03.jpg|60px]]
            }}
  |label2=Altocrustacea
|sublabel2={{small|520 mya}}
  |2={{clade
  |label1=Multicrustacea
  |1={{clade
  |1=Copepoda [[File:Aerjalgne.jpg|60px]]
  |2=Malacostraca [[File:Caribbean hermit crab.JPG|60px]]
  |3={{clade
  |1=Tantulocarida [[File:Microdajus (10.1590-2358-2936e2021005) Figure 1.jpg|60px]]
  |2=Thecostraca
[[File:Giant Acorn Barnacle, Embarcadero, Morro Bay, CA, US imported from iNaturalist photo 149595197.jpg|60px]]
                  }}
               }}
  |label2=Allotriocarida
|sublabel2={{small|500 mya}}
  |2={{clade
  |1=Cephalocarida [[File:Hutchinsoniella macracantha (YPM IZ 003617.CR) 001.jpeg|60px]]
  |label2=Athalassocarida|sublabel2={{small|497 mya}}
  |2={{clade
  |1=Branchiopoda [[File:Cyzicus californicus 186512369.jpg|60px]]
  |label2=Labiocarida
|sublabel2={{small|493 mya}}
  |2={{clade
  |1=Remipedia [[File:Speleonectes tanumekes unlabeled.png|40px]]
  |label2=Hexapoda|sublabel2={{small|411 mya}}
  |2={{clade
  |label1=Elliplura
  |1={{clade
  |1=Collembola[[File:Orchesella cincta.jpg|60px]]
  |2=Protura [[File:Protura (Acerentomon species) micrograph.jpg|60px]]
                           }}
  |label2=Cercophora
  |2={{clade
  |1=Diplura 
[[File:Campodeidae sp. (11499938054).jpg|60px]]
  |2=Insecta [[File:European wasp white bg.jpg|60px]]
|sublabel2={{small|440 mya}}
                           }}
                        }}
                     }}
                  }}
               }}
            }}
         }}
      }}
   }}
|grouplabel1={{clade labels|label1=[[Crustaceans]]|top1=47%|label2=[[Entognath]]s|top2=87%}}
}}
==Anatomy==

Being a large and diverse group, the anatomy of arthropods is also somewhat diverse.

Arthropods have an exoskeleton primarily made of chiton, a fibrous material which is strong, yet somewhat flexible. Their bodies are segmented, with some specialization of segments.

Though they have hearts to move fluids in the body around, Arthropods have open circulatory systems. Their blood flows freely among their tissues, though some have some open ended arteries.

[[Bee Anatomy]]

==The Fossil Record==

Arthropods appear in the fossil record as early as the Vendian/Ediacaran, 543 million years ago. Their diversification was rapid during the Cambrian, and there are several represented in the Burgess Shale.

There are several extinct groups, the most well known being the trilobites which evolved by about 521 million years ago and became extinct about 252 million years ago at the end of the Permian.

==Quiz==

* [[/Arthropoda Quiz/]]
==References and Further Reading==
*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthropod Arthropod] at Wikipedia
*[http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/arthropoda/arthropoda.html Introduction to the Arthropoda] at University of California Museum of Paleontology
*[http://tolweb.org/Arthropoda Arthropoda] at Tree of Life
*[http://eol.org/pages/164/overview Arthropoda] at Encyclopedia of Life]

[[Category:Animals]]
[[Category:Taxonomy]]
[[Category:Zoology]]
[[Category:Biology]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Animal Phyla/Bryozoa</title>
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      <text bytes="3514" sha1="30efal7impwtd7794awqlq3ecocyrbl" xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Freshwater_Bryozoan234.JPG|thumb|300px|right|A freshwater Bryozoan, species unknown.]]
*Bryozoa
*Name Meaning: Moss animals
*English Common Name: Moss animals, sea mats, bryozoans
*Major distinguishing characteristics: Lophophore, no pedicle, ciliated tentacles
*Approximate number of species described: about 5,000 living species

==Natural History==

All bryozoans are aquatic filter feeders. They are usually sessile, attaching themselves to rocks or plants. All but one genus is colonial. Most bryozoans are marine, only one Class has freshwater species.

==Taxonomy==

There are three Classes currently recognized within the Phylum Bryozoa.

*Phylactolaemata
*Stenolaemata
*Gymnolaemata 
==Phylogeny==
Molecular phylogeny analyses from 1995 onwards, using a variety of biochemical evidence and analytical techniques, placed the lophophorates as protostomes and closely related to [[Animal_Phyla/Annelida|annelid]]s and [[Animal_Phyla/Mollusca|mollusc]]s in a super-phylum called Lophotrochozoa.&lt;ref name=&quot;Halanych2004AnimalPhylogeny&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;HelmkampfBruchhausHausdorf2008PhylogenOfLophophorates&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Helmkampf |first1=M. |year=2008 |title=Phylogenomic analyses of lophophorates (brachiopods, phoronids and bryozoans) confirm the Lophotrochozoa concept |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |volume=275 |pages=1927–1933 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2008.0372 |last2=Bruchhaus |first2=Iris |last3=Hausdorf |first3=Bernhard |pmid=18495619 |issue=1645 |pmc=2593926 |bibcode=2008PBioS.275.1927H }}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{clade
|label1=Lophotrochozoa
|1={{clade
   |1=[[Cycliophora]] &lt;span style=&quot;{{MirrorH}}&quot;&gt;[[File:CYC-000044 hab Symbion Z5v2v5N.png|70px]]&lt;/span&gt;
   |2=[[Annelida]] [[File:Polychaeta (no) 2.jpg|70px]]
   |3={{clade
      |1=[[Mollusca]] &lt;span style=&quot;{{MirrorH}}&quot;&gt;[[File:Grapevinesnail 01a.jpg|65px]]&lt;/span&gt;
      |label2=&lt;!--[[Kryptotrochozoa]]--&gt;
      |2={{clade
         |label1=Lophophorata
         |1={{clade
            |label1=Brachiozoa
            |1={{clade
               |1=[[Brachiopoda]] [[File:LingulaanatinaAA_(cropped).JPG|60px]]
               |2=[[Phoronida]] &lt;span style=&quot;{{MirrorH}}&quot;&gt;[[File:Phoronopsis harmeri IZ 1643662.png|70px]]&lt;/span&gt;
               }}
            |label2='''Bryozoa''' [[Wikipedia:sensu lato|''s.l.'']]
            |2={{clade
               |1='''[[Entoprocta]]'''
(May not be a phylum on its own)
[[File:Barentsia laxa 1498941 (no background).png|80px]]

               |2=Ectoprocta [[File:Bugulina flabellata 272067784.png|70px]]
               }}
            }}
         }}
      }}
   }}
}}
==Anatomy==

Bryozoans are soft-bodied invertebrates. They possess a lophophore surrounding the mouth. Several short tentacles with cilia are on the lophophore, which save in the water to direct water into the mouth for feeding.

==The Fossil Record==

Bryozoans do not appear in the fossil record until the Ordovician (488.3 - 443.7 million years ago). They are soft-bodied and fossils are rare. It's possible they live prior to that time.

==Quiz==

* [[/Bryozoa Quiz/]]
==References and Further Reading==
* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bryozoa Bryozoa] on Wikipedia
* [http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/bryozoa/bryozoa.html Bryozoa] at the University of California Museum of Paleontology
* [http://eol.org/pages/2060/overview Bryozoa] from Encyclopedia of Life
* [http://tolweb.org/Bryozoa/2490 Bryozoa] at Tree of Life

{{Animalia}}

[[Category:Animals]]
[[Category:Taxonomy]]
[[Category:Zoology]]
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  <page>
    <title>Plant Divisions (Phyla)</title>
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      <text bytes="6522" sha1="2crixdu4vdj8uzw7ipl2542x0wohsdb" xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Diversity of plants (Streptophyta) version 2.png|thumb|300px|right|A sample of plant diversity.]]

In botany, the equivalent of a Phylum is not called a division. The Kingdom Plantae is divided into 13 Divisions. A Division (pl. Phyla) is the largest formal major grouping within plant taxonomy below kingdoms. 

This list is presented in alphabetical order, and not in any systematic/evolutionary arrangement.

Science is by no means static. There are arguments of all sizes and shapes about the taxonomy of the Plant Divisions. Other sources may combine or split these listed Divisions. However, at this time, the list presented here should stand in good stead for an introduction to the topic of plant diversity.

There are approximately 380,000 plant species that have been described by science.

This list tries to give the following information on each Division:
*Division Name
*A link to a subpage discussing that Phylum in more detail (if it yet exists)
*Name Meaning (in English)
*An English Common Name, where one is in regular use
*Distinguishing characteristics of plants within the Division
*An approximate number of species described within that Division. Since botany does not stand still, this number can change.

You can also see [[Introduction to Taxonomy]] for more on that topic.

==Anthocerotophyta==
[[Image:Hornwort (3144429129).jpg|thumb|100px|right|Hornworts.]]
[[/Anthocerotophyta/]]

Name Meaning: Anthoceros-like plant

English Common Name: Hornworts

Major distinguishing characteristics: Horn-shaped sporophytes, no vascular system

Approximate number of species described: 100-300 or more
==Bryophyta==
[[Image:Mose09.jpg|thumb|100px|right|Moss, a bryophyte.]]
[[/Bryophyta/]]

Name Meaning: Bryum-like plant, moss plant

English Common Name: Moss

Major distinguishing characteristics: Persistent branched sporophytes, no vascular system

Approximate number of species described: 12,000

==Charophyta==
[[Image:Chara overview.jpg|thumb|100px|right|''Chara'', a Charophyte.]]
[[/Charophyta/]]

Name Meaning: Chara-like plant

English Common Name: Charophytes

Major distinguishing characteristics:

Approximate number of species described: 1,000

==Chlorophyta==
[[image:Bulletin de l'Acadmie impriale des sciences de St.-Ptersbourg (20431048865).jpg|thumb|100px|right|A Chlorophyte.]]
[[/Chlorophyta/]]

Name Meaning: Yellow-green plant

English Common Name: Chlorophytes

Major distinguishing characteristics: mainly autotrophs with exceptions and have the same chlorophyll a and b pigments as &quot;higher&quot; plant divisions

Approximate number of species described: 8,000

==Cycadophyta==
[[Image:Unidentified cycad in greenhouse.jpg|thumb|100px|right|Unidentified cycad in greenhouse.]]
[[/Cycadophyta/]]

Name Meaning: Cycas-like plant, palm-like plant

English Common Name: Cycads

Major distinguishing characteristics: Seeds, crown of compound leaves

Approximate number of species described: 100 - 200

==Ginkgophyta==
[[Image:Gingko biloba2.jpg|thumb|100px|right|''Gingko biloba''.]]
[[/Ginkgophyta/]]

Name Meaning: Ginkgo-like plant

English Common Name: Ginkgo, maidenhair tree

Major distinguishing characteristics: Seeds not protected by fruit

Approximate number of species described: 1 living, about 50 extinct

==Glaucophyta==
[[Image:Glaucophyte.jpg|thumb|100px|right|A glaucophyte.]]
[[/Glaucophyta/]] 

Name Meaning: Blue-green plant

English Common Name: Glaucophytes

Major distinguishing characteristics:

Approximate number of species described: 14 - 26&lt;ref&gt;[http://jcs.biologists.org/content/131/2/jcs203414 The monoplastidic bottleneck in algae and plant evolution | Journal of Cell Science]&lt;/ref&gt;

==Gnetophyta==
[[Image:Gnetum scandens (6780786863).jpg|thumb|100px|right|''Gnetum scandens''.]]
[[/Gnetophyta/]]

Name Meaning: Gnetum-like plant

English Common Name: Gnetophytes

Major distinguishing characteristics: Seeds and woody vascular system with vessels.

Approximate number of species described: 70

==Lycopodiophyta (Lycophyta)==
[[Image:Clubmoss - Flickr - pellaea (1).jpg|thumb|100px|right|Clubmoss.]]
[[/Lycopodiophyta (Lycophyta)/]]

Name Meaning: Lycopodium-like plants, wolf plant

English Common Name: Clubmosses, spikemosses

Major distinguishing characteristics: Microphyll leaves, vascular system

Approximate number of species described: 1290 living

==Magnoliophyta (Anthophyta)==
[[Image:Sweetbay Magnolia Magnolia virginiana Flower Closeup 2242px.jpg|thumb|100px|right|''Magnolia virginiana''.]]
[[Plant Divisions (Phyla)/Magnoliophyta|Magnoliophyta]]

Name Meaning: Magnolia-like plant

English Common Name: Flowering plants, angiosperms

Major distinguishing characteristics: Flowers and fruit, vascular system with vessels

Approximate number of species described: 300,000

==Marchantiophyta (Hepatophyta)==
[[Image:Liverwort Ferndale Park.jpg|thumb|100px|right|Liverwort.]]
[[Plant Divisions (Phyla)/Marchantiophyta|Marchantiophyta (Hepatophyta)]]

Name Meaning: Marchantia-like plant, liver plant

English Common Name: Liverworts

Major distinguishing characteristics: Ephemeral unbranched sporophytes, no vascular system

Approximate number of species described: 9,000

==Pinophyta (Coniferophyta)==
[[Image:Taxus wallichiana kz1.jpg|thumb|100px|right|''Taxus wallichiana'', the Himalayan Yew, a conifer.]]
[[/Pinophyta (Coniferophyta)/]]

Name Meaning: Pinus-like plant, cone-bearing plant

English Common Name: Conifers

Major distinguishing characteristics: Cones containing seeds and wood composed of tracheids

Approximate number of species described: 629 extant

==Polypodiophyta (Monilophyta)==
[[Image:Tree Fern.jpg|thumb|100px|right|Tree fern fronds and fiddleneck (growing young frond).]]
[[/Polypodiophyta/]] (Monophyte) 

Once called [[wikipedia:Fern|Pteridophyta]] (outdated! The sub-divisions Lycopodiophyte and Euphyllophyte have been differentiated) 

Name Meaning: Many foot plant, Polypodium-like plant

English Common Name: ferns, horsetails

Major distinguishing characteristics: Prothallus gametophytes and vascular system

Approximate number of species described: 9000

==Other Resources==
*[http://tolweb.org/Green_plants/2382 Tree of Life, Green Plants]
*[http://eol.org/pages/281/overview Encyclopedia of life, Plantae]
*[[Animal Phyla]], a companion piece to this one
*[[Streptophytes]], a &quot;slice&quot; of this page.*

==Quizzes==
[[Plant Divisions (Phyla)/Magnoliophyta/Quiz]]
==References==
* [[Wikipedia:Phylum]]
{{reflist}}
[[Category:Plants]]
[[Category:Taxonomy]]
[[Category:Botany]]
[[Category:Biology]]</text>
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      <comment>Undid edits by [[Special:Contribs/~2026-53510-36|~2026-53510-36]] ([[User talk:~2026-53510-36|talk]]) to last version by The Citer: test edits, please use the sandbox</comment>
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      <text bytes="6518" sha1="p5qxyq2ef33n8nsy3mt3zvtl101nk4z" xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Diversity of plants (Streptophyta) version 2.png|thumb|300px|right|A sample of plant diversity.]]

In botany, the equivalent of a Phylum is called a division. The Kingdom Plantae is divided into 13 Divisions. A Division (pl. Phyla) is the largest formal major grouping within plant taxonomy below kingdoms. 

This list is presented in alphabetical order, and not in any systematic/evolutionary arrangement.

Science is by no means static. There are arguments of all sizes and shapes about the taxonomy of the Plant Divisions. Other sources may combine or split these listed Divisions. However, at this time, the list presented here should stand in good stead for an introduction to the topic of plant diversity.

There are approximately 380,000 plant species that have been described by science.

This list tries to give the following information on each Division:
*Division Name
*A link to a subpage discussing that Phylum in more detail (if it yet exists)
*Name Meaning (in English)
*An English Common Name, where one is in regular use
*Distinguishing characteristics of plants within the Division
*An approximate number of species described within that Division. Since botany does not stand still, this number can change.

You can also see [[Introduction to Taxonomy]] for more on that topic.

==Anthocerotophyta==
[[Image:Hornwort (3144429129).jpg|thumb|100px|right|Hornworts.]]
[[/Anthocerotophyta/]]

Name Meaning: Anthoceros-like plant

English Common Name: Hornworts

Major distinguishing characteristics: Horn-shaped sporophytes, no vascular system

Approximate number of species described: 100-300 or more
==Bryophyta==
[[Image:Mose09.jpg|thumb|100px|right|Moss, a bryophyte.]]
[[/Bryophyta/]]

Name Meaning: Bryum-like plant, moss plant

English Common Name: Moss

Major distinguishing characteristics: Persistent branched sporophytes, no vascular system

Approximate number of species described: 12,000

==Charophyta==
[[Image:Chara overview.jpg|thumb|100px|right|''Chara'', a Charophyte.]]
[[/Charophyta/]]

Name Meaning: Chara-like plant

English Common Name: Charophytes

Major distinguishing characteristics:

Approximate number of species described: 1,000

==Chlorophyta==
[[image:Bulletin de l'Acadmie impriale des sciences de St.-Ptersbourg (20431048865).jpg|thumb|100px|right|A Chlorophyte.]]
[[/Chlorophyta/]]

Name Meaning: Yellow-green plant

English Common Name: Chlorophytes

Major distinguishing characteristics: mainly autotrophs with exceptions and have the same chlorophyll a and b pigments as &quot;higher&quot; plant divisions

Approximate number of species described: 8,000

==Cycadophyta==
[[Image:Unidentified cycad in greenhouse.jpg|thumb|100px|right|Unidentified cycad in greenhouse.]]
[[/Cycadophyta/]]

Name Meaning: Cycas-like plant, palm-like plant

English Common Name: Cycads

Major distinguishing characteristics: Seeds, crown of compound leaves

Approximate number of species described: 100 - 200

==Ginkgophyta==
[[Image:Gingko biloba2.jpg|thumb|100px|right|''Gingko biloba''.]]
[[/Ginkgophyta/]]

Name Meaning: Ginkgo-like plant

English Common Name: Ginkgo, maidenhair tree

Major distinguishing characteristics: Seeds not protected by fruit

Approximate number of species described: 1 living, about 50 extinct

==Glaucophyta==
[[Image:Glaucophyte.jpg|thumb|100px|right|A glaucophyte.]]
[[/Glaucophyta/]] 

Name Meaning: Blue-green plant

English Common Name: Glaucophytes

Major distinguishing characteristics:

Approximate number of species described: 14 - 26&lt;ref&gt;[http://jcs.biologists.org/content/131/2/jcs203414 The monoplastidic bottleneck in algae and plant evolution | Journal of Cell Science]&lt;/ref&gt;

==Gnetophyta==
[[Image:Gnetum scandens (6780786863).jpg|thumb|100px|right|''Gnetum scandens''.]]
[[/Gnetophyta/]]

Name Meaning: Gnetum-like plant

English Common Name: Gnetophytes

Major distinguishing characteristics: Seeds and woody vascular system with vessels.

Approximate number of species described: 70

==Lycopodiophyta (Lycophyta)==
[[Image:Clubmoss - Flickr - pellaea (1).jpg|thumb|100px|right|Clubmoss.]]
[[/Lycopodiophyta (Lycophyta)/]]

Name Meaning: Lycopodium-like plants, wolf plant

English Common Name: Clubmosses, spikemosses

Major distinguishing characteristics: Microphyll leaves, vascular system

Approximate number of species described: 1290 living

==Magnoliophyta (Anthophyta)==
[[Image:Sweetbay Magnolia Magnolia virginiana Flower Closeup 2242px.jpg|thumb|100px|right|''Magnolia virginiana''.]]
[[Plant Divisions (Phyla)/Magnoliophyta|Magnoliophyta]]

Name Meaning: Magnolia-like plant

English Common Name: Flowering plants, angiosperms

Major distinguishing characteristics: Flowers and fruit, vascular system with vessels

Approximate number of species described: 300,000

==Marchantiophyta (Hepatophyta)==
[[Image:Liverwort Ferndale Park.jpg|thumb|100px|right|Liverwort.]]
[[Plant Divisions (Phyla)/Marchantiophyta|Marchantiophyta (Hepatophyta)]]

Name Meaning: Marchantia-like plant, liver plant

English Common Name: Liverworts

Major distinguishing characteristics: Ephemeral unbranched sporophytes, no vascular system

Approximate number of species described: 9,000

==Pinophyta (Coniferophyta)==
[[Image:Taxus wallichiana kz1.jpg|thumb|100px|right|''Taxus wallichiana'', the Himalayan Yew, a conifer.]]
[[/Pinophyta (Coniferophyta)/]]

Name Meaning: Pinus-like plant, cone-bearing plant

English Common Name: Conifers

Major distinguishing characteristics: Cones containing seeds and wood composed of tracheids

Approximate number of species described: 629 extant

==Polypodiophyta (Monilophyta)==
[[Image:Tree Fern.jpg|thumb|100px|right|Tree fern fronds and fiddleneck (growing young frond).]]
[[/Polypodiophyta/]] (Monophyte) 

Once called [[wikipedia:Fern|Pteridophyta]] (outdated! The sub-divisions Lycopodiophyte and Euphyllophyte have been differentiated) 

Name Meaning: Many foot plant, Polypodium-like plant

English Common Name: ferns, horsetails

Major distinguishing characteristics: Prothallus gametophytes and vascular system

Approximate number of species described: 9000

==Other Resources==
*[http://tolweb.org/Green_plants/2382 Tree of Life, Green Plants]
*[http://eol.org/pages/281/overview Encyclopedia of life, Plantae]
*[[Animal Phyla]], a companion piece to this one
*[[Streptophytes]], a &quot;slice&quot; of this page.*

==Quizzes==
[[Plant Divisions (Phyla)/Magnoliophyta/Quiz]]
==References==
* [[Wikipedia:Phylum]]
{{reflist}}
[[Category:Plants]]
[[Category:Taxonomy]]
[[Category:Botany]]
[[Category:Biology]]</text>
      <sha1>p5qxyq2ef33n8nsy3mt3zvtl101nk4z</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Module:Excerpt</title>
    <ns>828</ns>
    <id>235890</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2835956</id>
      <parentid>2808245</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-10-05T11:44:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sophivorus</username>
        <id>85690</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Update from [[d:Special:GoToLinkedPage/enwiki/Q52428273|master]] using [[mw:Synchronizer| #Synchronizer]]</comment>
      <origin>2835956</origin>
      <model>Scribunto</model>
      <format>text/plain</format>
      <text bytes="25888" sha1="ti7siuqx917e9fizdf8nk9scneu1psk" xml:space="preserve">-- Module:Excerpt implements the Excerpt template
-- Documentation and master version: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Module:Excerpt
-- Authors: User:Sophivorus, User:Certes, User:Aidan9382 &amp; others
-- License: CC-BY-SA-3.0

local parser = require( 'Module:WikitextParser' )
local yesno = require( 'Module:Yesno' )

local ok, config = pcall( require, 'Module:Excerpt/config' )
if not ok then config = {} end

local Excerpt = {}

-- Main entry point for templates
function Excerpt.main( frame )

	-- Make sure the requested page exists and get the wikitext
	local page = Excerpt.getArg( 1 )
	if not page or page == '{{{1}}}' then return Excerpt.getError( 'no-page' ) end
	local title = mw.title.new( page )
	if not title then return Excerpt.getError( 'invalid-title', page ) end
	local fragment = title.fragment -- save for later
	if title.isRedirect then
		title = title.redirectTarget
		if fragment == &quot;&quot; then
			fragment = title.fragment -- page merge potential	
		end
	end
	if not title.exists then return Excerpt.getError( 'page-not-found', page ) end
	page = title.prefixedText
	local wikitext = title:getContent()

	-- Get the template params and process them
	local params = {
		hat = yesno( Excerpt.getArg( 'hat', true ) ),
		this = Excerpt.getArg( 'this' ),
		only = Excerpt.getArg( 'only' ),
		files = Excerpt.getArg( 'files', Excerpt.getArg( 'file' ) ),
		lists = Excerpt.getArg( 'lists', Excerpt.getArg( 'list' ) ),
		tables = Excerpt.getArg( 'tables', Excerpt.getArg( 'table' ) ),
		templates = Excerpt.getArg( 'templates', Excerpt.getArg( 'template' ) ),
		galleries = Excerpt.getArg( 'galleries', Excerpt.getArg( 'gallery' ) ),
		paragraphs = Excerpt.getArg( 'paragraphs', Excerpt.getArg( 'paragraph' ) ),
		references = yesno( Excerpt.getArg( 'references', true ) ),
		subsections = yesno( Excerpt.getArg( 'subsections', false ) ),
		links = yesno( Excerpt.getArg( 'links', true ) ),
		bold = yesno( Excerpt.getArg( 'bold', false ) ),
		briefDates = yesno( Excerpt.getArg( 'briefdates', false ) ),
		inline = yesno( Excerpt.getArg( 'inline' ) ),
		quote = yesno( Excerpt.getArg( 'quote' ) ),
		more = yesno( Excerpt.getArg( 'more' ) ),
		class = Excerpt.getArg( 'class' ),
		track = yesno( Excerpt.getArg( 'track', true ) ),
		displayTitle = Excerpt.getArg( 'displaytitle', page ),
	}

	-- Make sure the requested section exists and get the excerpt
	local excerpt
	local section = Excerpt.getArg( 2, fragment )
	section = mw.text.trim( section )
	if section == '' then section = nil end
	if section then
		excerpt = parser.getSectionTag( wikitext, section )
		if not excerpt then
			if params.subsections then
				excerpt = parser.getSection( wikitext, section )
			else
				local sections = parser.getSections( wikitext )
				excerpt = sections[ section ]
			end
		end
		if not excerpt then return Excerpt.getError( 'section-not-found', section ) end
		if excerpt == '' then return Excerpt.getError( 'section-empty', section ) end
	else
		excerpt = parser.getLead( wikitext )
		if excerpt == '' then return Excerpt.getError( 'lead-empty' ) end
	end

	-- Remove noinclude bits
	excerpt = excerpt:gsub( '&lt;[Nn][Oo][Ii][Nn][Cc][Ll][Uu][Dd][Ee]&gt;.-&lt;/[Nn][Oo][Ii][Nn][Cc][Ll][Uu][Dd][Ee]&gt;', '' )

	-- Filter various elements from the excerpt
	excerpt = Excerpt.filterFiles( excerpt, params.files )
	excerpt = Excerpt.filterLists( excerpt, params.lists )
	excerpt = Excerpt.filterTables( excerpt, params.tables )
	excerpt = Excerpt.filterGalleries( excerpt, params.galleries )
	excerpt = Excerpt.filterParagraphs( excerpt, params.paragraphs )

	-- If no file is found, try to get one from the infobox
	if ( params.only == 'file' or params.only == 'files' or params.only == 'filename' or not params.only and ( not params.files or params.files ~= '0' ) ) -- caller asked for files
		and not section -- and we're in the lead section
		and config.captions -- and we have the config option required to try finding files in infoboxes
		and #parser.getFiles( excerpt ) == 0 -- and there're no files in the excerpt
	then
		excerpt = Excerpt.addInfoboxFile( excerpt )
	end

	-- Filter the templates by appending the templates blacklist to the templates filter
	if config.blacklist then
		local blacklist = table.concat( config.blacklist, ',' )
		if params.templates then
			if string.sub( params.templates, 1, 1 ) == '-' then
				params.templates = params.templates .. ',' .. blacklist
			end
		else
			params.templates = '-' .. blacklist
		end
	end
	excerpt = Excerpt.filterTemplates( excerpt, params.templates )

	-- Leave only the requested elements
	if params.only == 'file' or params.only == 'files' then
		local files = parser.getFiles( excerpt )
		excerpt = params.only == 'file' and files[1] or table.concat( files, '\n\n' )
	end
	if params.only == 'list' or params.only == 'lists' then
		local lists = parser.getLists( excerpt )
		excerpt = params.only == 'list' and lists[1] or table.concat( lists, '\n\n' )
	end
	if params.only == 'table' or params.only == 'tables' then
		local tables = parser.getTables( excerpt )
		excerpt = params.only == 'table' and tables[1] or table.concat( tables, '\n\n' )
	end
	if params.only == 'gallery' or params.only == 'galleries' then
		local galleries = parser.getGalleries( excerpt )
		excerpt = params.only == 'gallery' and galleries[1] or table.concat( galleries, '\n\n' )
	end
	if params.only == 'paragraph' or params.only == 'paragraphs' then
		local paragraphs = parser.getParagraphs( excerpt )
		excerpt = params.only == 'paragraph' and paragraphs[1] or table.concat( paragraphs, '\n\n' )
	end
	if params.only == 'template' or params.only == 'templates' then
		local templates = parser.getTemplates( excerpt )
		excerpt = params.only == 'template' and templates[1] or table.concat( templates, '\n\n' )
	end
	if params.only == 'filename' then
		local files = parser.getFiles( excerpt )
		local file = files[1]
		excerpt = file and parser.getFileName( file ) or 'Noimage.png'
		params.inline = true
	end

	-- @todo Make more robust and move downwards
	if params.briefDates then
		excerpt = Excerpt.fixDates( excerpt )
	end

	-- Remove unwanted elements
	excerpt = Excerpt.removeComments( excerpt )
	excerpt = Excerpt.removeSelfLinks( excerpt )
	excerpt = Excerpt.removeNonFreeFiles( excerpt )
	excerpt = Excerpt.removeBehaviorSwitches( excerpt )

	-- Fix or remove the references
	if params.references then
		excerpt = Excerpt.fixReferences( excerpt, page, wikitext )
	else
		excerpt = Excerpt.removeReferences( excerpt )
	end

	-- Remove wikilinks
	if not params.links then
		excerpt = Excerpt.removeLinks( excerpt )
	end

	-- Link the bold text near the start of most leads and then remove it
	if not section then
		excerpt = Excerpt.linkBold( excerpt, page )
	end
	if not params.bold then
		excerpt = Excerpt.removeBold( excerpt )
	end

	-- Remove extra line breaks but leave one before and after so the parser interprets lists, tables, etc. correctly
	excerpt = excerpt:gsub( '\n\n\n+', '\n\n' )
	excerpt = mw.text.trim( excerpt )
	excerpt = '\n' .. excerpt .. '\n'

	-- Remove nested categories
	excerpt = frame:preprocess( excerpt )
	excerpt = Excerpt.removeCategories( excerpt )

	-- Add tracking categories
	if params.track and config.categories then
		excerpt = Excerpt.addTrackingCategories( excerpt )
	end

	-- Build the final output
	if params.inline then
		return mw.text.trim( excerpt )
	end

	local tag = params.quote and 'blockquote' or 'div'
	local block = mw.html.create( tag ):addClass( 'excerpt-block' ):addClass( params.class )

	if config.styles then
		local styles = frame:extensionTag( 'templatestyles', '', { src = config.styles } )
		block:node( styles )
	end

	if params.hat then
		local hat = Excerpt.getHat( page, section, params )
		block:node( hat )
	end

	excerpt = mw.html.create( 'div' ):addClass( 'excerpt' ):wikitext( excerpt )
	block:node( excerpt )

	if params.more then
		local more = Excerpt.getReadMore( page, section )
		block:node( more )
	end

	return block
end

-- Filter the files in the given wikitext against the given filter
function Excerpt.filterFiles( wikitext, filter )
	if not filter then return wikitext end
	local filters, isBlacklist = Excerpt.parseFilter( filter )
	local files = parser.getFiles( wikitext )
	for index, file in pairs( files ) do
		local name = parser.getFileName( file )
		if isBlacklist and ( Excerpt.matchFilter( index, filters ) or Excerpt.matchFilter( name, filters ) )
		or not isBlacklist and ( not Excerpt.matchFilter( index, filters ) and not Excerpt.matchFilter( name, filters ) ) then 
			wikitext = Excerpt.removeString( wikitext, file )
		end
	end
	return wikitext
end

-- Filter the lists in the given wikitext against the given filter
function Excerpt.filterLists( wikitext, filter )
	if not filter then return wikitext end
	local filters, isBlacklist = Excerpt.parseFilter( filter )
	local lists = parser.getLists( wikitext )
	for index, list in pairs( lists ) do
		if isBlacklist and Excerpt.matchFilter( index, filters )
		or not isBlacklist and not Excerpt.matchFilter( index, filters ) then 
			wikitext = Excerpt.removeString( wikitext, list )
		end
	end
	return wikitext
end

-- Filter the tables in the given wikitext against the given filter
function Excerpt.filterTables( wikitext, filter )
	if not filter then return wikitext end
	local filters, isBlacklist = Excerpt.parseFilter( filter )
	local tables = parser.getTables( wikitext )
	for index, tableWikitext in pairs( tables ) do
		local id = parser.getTableAttribute( tableWikitext, 'id' )
		if isBlacklist and ( Excerpt.matchFilter( index, filters ) or Excerpt.matchFilter( id, filters ) )
		or not isBlacklist and ( not Excerpt.matchFilter( index, filters ) and not Excerpt.matchFilter( id, filters ) ) then 
			wikitext = Excerpt.removeString( wikitext, tableWikitext )
		end
	end
	return wikitext
end

-- Filter the galleries in the given wikitext against the given filter
function Excerpt.filterGalleries( wikitext, filter )
	if not filter then return wikitext end
	local filters, isBlacklist = Excerpt.parseFilter( filter )
	local galleries = parser.getGalleries( wikitext )
	for index, gallery in pairs( galleries ) do
		if isBlacklist and Excerpt.matchFilter( index, filters )
		or not isBlacklist and not Excerpt.matchFilter( index, filters ) then 
			wikitext = Excerpt.removeString( wikitext, gallery )
		end
	end
	return wikitext
end

-- Filter the paragraphs in the given wikitext against the given filter
function Excerpt.filterParagraphs( wikitext, filter )
	if not filter then return wikitext end
	local filters, isBlacklist = Excerpt.parseFilter( filter )
	local paragraphs = parser.getParagraphs( wikitext )
	for index, paragraph in pairs( paragraphs ) do
		if isBlacklist and Excerpt.matchFilter( index, filters )
		or not isBlacklist and not Excerpt.matchFilter( index, filters ) then 
			wikitext = Excerpt.removeString( wikitext, paragraph )
		end
	end
	return wikitext
end

-- Filter the templates in the given wikitext against the given filter
function Excerpt.filterTemplates( wikitext, filter )
	if not filter then return wikitext end
	local filters, isBlacklist = Excerpt.parseFilter( filter )
	local templates = parser.getTemplates( wikitext )
	for index, template in pairs( templates ) do
		local name = parser.getTemplateName( template )
		if isBlacklist and ( Excerpt.matchFilter( index, filters ) or Excerpt.matchFilter( name, filters ) )
		or not isBlacklist and ( not Excerpt.matchFilter( index, filters ) and not Excerpt.matchFilter( name, filters ) ) then 
			wikitext = Excerpt.removeString( wikitext, template )
		end
	end
	return wikitext
end

function Excerpt.addInfoboxFile( excerpt )
	-- We cannot distinguish the infobox from the other templates, so we search them all
	local templates = parser.getTemplates( excerpt )
	for _, template in pairs( templates ) do
		local parameters = parser.getTemplateParameters( template )
		local file, captions, caption, cssClasses, cssClass
		for _, pair in pairs( config.captions ) do
			file = pair[1]
			file = parameters[file]
			if file and Excerpt.matchAny( file, '^.*%.', { '[Jj][Pp][Ee]?[Gg]', '[Pp][Nn][Gg]', '[Gg][Ii][Ff]', '[Ss][Vv][Gg]' }, '.*' ) then
				file = string.match( file, '%[?%[?.-:([^{|]+)%]?%]?' ) or file -- [[File:Example.jpg{{!}}upright=1.5]] to Example.jpg
				captions = pair[2]
				for _, p in pairs( captions ) do
					if parameters[ p ] then caption = parameters[ p ] break end
				end
				-- Check for CSS classes
				-- We opt to use skin-invert-image instead of skin-invert
				-- in all other cases, the CSS provided in the infobox is used
				if pair[3] then
					cssClasses = pair[3]
					for _, p in pairs( cssClasses ) do
						if parameters[ p ] then
							cssClass = ( parameters[ p ] == 'skin-invert' ) and 'skin-invert-image' or parameters[ p ]
							break
						end
					end
				end
				local class = cssClass and ( '|class=' .. cssClass ) or ''
				return '[[File:' .. file .. class .. '|thumb|' .. ( caption or '' ) .. ']]\n' .. excerpt
			end
		end
	end
	return excerpt
end

function Excerpt.removeNonFreeFiles( wikitext )
	local files = parser.getFiles( wikitext )
	for _, file in pairs( files ) do
		local fileName = 'File:' .. parser.getFileName( file )
		local fileTitle = mw.title.new( fileName )
		if fileTitle then
			local fileDescription = fileTitle:getContent()
			if not fileDescription or fileDescription == '' then
				local frame = mw.getCurrentFrame()
				fileDescription = frame:preprocess( '{{' .. fileName .. '}}' ) -- try Commons
			end
			if fileDescription and string.match( fileDescription, '[Nn]on%-free' ) then
				wikitext = Excerpt.removeString( wikitext, file )
			end
		end
	end
	return wikitext
end

function Excerpt.getHat( page, section, params )
	local hat

	-- Build the text
	if params.this then
		hat = params.this
	elseif params.quote then
		hat = Excerpt.getMessage( 'this' )
	elseif params.only then
		hat = Excerpt.getMessage( params.only )
	else
		hat = Excerpt.getMessage( 'section' )
	end
	hat = hat .. ' ' .. Excerpt.getMessage( 'excerpt' )

	-- Build the link
	if section then
		hat = hat .. ' [[:' .. page .. '#' .. mw.uri.anchorEncode( section ) .. '|' .. params.displayTitle
			.. ' § ' .. section:gsub( '%[%[([^]|]+)|?[^]]*%]%]', '%1' ) .. ']].' -- remove nested links
	else
		hat = hat .. ' [[:' .. page .. '|' .. params.displayTitle .. ']].'
	end

	-- Build the edit link
	local title = mw.title.new( page )
	local editUrl = title:fullUrl( 'action=edit' )
	hat = hat .. '&lt;span class=&quot;mw-editsection-like plainlinks&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;mw-editsection-bracket&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;['
	hat = hat .. editUrl .. ' ' .. mw.message.new( 'editsection' ):plain()
	hat = hat .. ']&lt;span class=&quot;mw-editsection-bracket&quot;&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;'

	if config.hat then
		local frame = mw.getCurrentFrame()
		hat = config.hat .. hat .. '}}'
		hat = frame:preprocess( hat )
	else
		hat = mw.html.create( 'div' ):addClass( 'dablink excerpt-hat' ):wikitext( hat )
	end

	return hat
end

function Excerpt.getReadMore( page, section )
	local link = &quot;'''[[&quot; .. page
	if section then
		link = link .. '#' .. section
	end
	local text = Excerpt.getMessage( 'more' )
	link = link .. '|' .. text .. &quot;]]'''&quot;
	link = mw.html.create( 'div' ):addClass( 'noprint excerpt-more' ):wikitext( link )
	return link
end

-- Fix birth and death dates, but only in the first paragraph
-- @todo Use parser.getParagraphs() to get the first paragraph
function Excerpt.fixDates( excerpt )
	local start
	local s
	local e = 0
	repeat
		start = e + 1
		s, e = mw.ustring.find( excerpt, '%s*%b{}%s*', start )
	until not s or s &gt; start
	s, e = mw.ustring.find( excerpt, '%b()', start ) -- get (...), which may be (year–year)
	if s and s &lt; start + 100 then -- look only near the start
		local excerptStart = mw.ustring.sub( excerpt, s, e )
		local year1, conjunction, year2 = string.match( excerptStart, '(%d%d%d+)(.-)(%d%d%d+)' )
		if year1 and year2 and ( string.match( conjunction, '[%-–—]' ) or string.match( conjunction, '{{%s*[sS]nd%s*}}' ) ) then
			local y1 = tonumber( year1 )
			local y2 = tonumber( year2 )
			if y2 &gt; y1 and y2 &lt; y1 + 125 and y1 &lt;= tonumber( os.date( '%Y' ) ) then
				excerpt = mw.ustring.sub( excerpt, 1, s ) .. year1 .. '–' .. year2 .. mw.ustring.sub( excerpt, e )
			end
		end
	end
	return excerpt
end

-- Replace the first call to each reference defined outside of the excerpt for the full reference, to prevent undefined references
-- Then prefix the page title to the reference names to prevent conflicts
-- that is, replace &lt;ref name=&quot;Foo&quot;&gt; for &lt;ref name=&quot;Title of the article Foo&quot;&gt;
-- and also &lt;ref name=&quot;Foo&quot; /&gt; for &lt;ref name=&quot;Title of the article Foo&quot; /&gt;
-- also remove reference groups: &lt;ref name=&quot;Foo&quot; group=&quot;Bar&quot;&gt; for &lt;ref name=&quot;Title of the article Foo&quot;&gt;
-- and &lt;ref group=&quot;Bar&quot;&gt; for &lt;ref&gt;
-- @todo The current regex may fail in cases with both kinds of quotes, like &lt;ref name=&quot;Darwin's book&quot;&gt;
function Excerpt.fixReferences( excerpt, page, wikitext )
	local references = parser.getReferences( excerpt )
	local fixed = {}
	for _, reference in pairs( references ) do
		local name = parser.getTagAttribute( reference, 'name' )
		if not fixed[ name ] then -- fix each reference only once
			local content = parser.getTagContent( reference )
			if not content then -- reference is self-closing
				local full = parser.getReference( excerpt, name )
				if not full then -- the reference is not defined in the excerpt
					full = parser.getReference( wikitext, name )
					if full then
						excerpt = excerpt:gsub( Excerpt.escapeString( reference ), Excerpt.escapeString( full ), 1 )
					end
					table.insert( fixed, name )
				end
			end
		end
	end
	-- Prepend the page title to the reference names to prevent conflicts with other references in the transcluding page
	excerpt = excerpt:gsub( '&lt; *[Rr][Ee][Ff][^&gt;]*name *= *[&quot;\']?([^&quot;\'&gt;/]+)[&quot;\']?[^&gt;/]*(/?) *&gt;', '&lt;ref name=&quot;' .. page:gsub( '&quot;', '' ) .. ' %1&quot;%2&gt;' )
	-- Remove reference groups because they don't apply to the transcluding page
	excerpt = excerpt:gsub( '&lt; *[Rr][Ee][Ff] *group *= *[&quot;\']?[^&quot;\'&gt;/]+[&quot;\'] *&gt;', '&lt;ref&gt;' )
	return excerpt
end

function Excerpt.removeReferences( excerpt )
	local references = parser.getReferences( excerpt )
	for _, reference in pairs( references ) do
		excerpt = Excerpt.removeString( excerpt, reference )
	end
	return excerpt
end

function Excerpt.removeCategories( excerpt )
	local categories = parser.getCategories( excerpt )
	for _, category in pairs( categories ) do
		excerpt = Excerpt.removeString( excerpt, category )
	end
	return excerpt
end

function Excerpt.removeBehaviorSwitches( excerpt )
	return excerpt:gsub( '__[A-Z]+__', '' )
end

function Excerpt.removeComments( excerpt )
	return excerpt:gsub( '&lt;!%-%-.-%-%-&gt;', '' )
end

function Excerpt.removeBold( excerpt )
	return excerpt:gsub( &quot;'''&quot;, '' )
end

function Excerpt.removeLinks( excerpt )
	local links = parser.getLinks( excerpt )
	for _, link in pairs( links ) do
		excerpt = Excerpt.removeString( excerpt, link )
	end
	return excerpt
end

-- @todo Use parser.getLinks
function Excerpt.removeSelfLinks( excerpt )
	local lang = mw.language.getContentLanguage()
	local page = Excerpt.escapeString( mw.title.getCurrentTitle().prefixedText )
	local ucpage = lang:ucfirst( page )
	local lcpage = lang:lcfirst( page )
	excerpt = excerpt
		:gsub( '%[%[(' .. ucpage .. ')%]%]', '%1' )
		:gsub( '%[%[(' .. lcpage .. ')%]%]', '%1' )
		:gsub( '%[%[' .. ucpage .. '|([^]]+)%]%]', '%1' )
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				return &quot;'''[[&quot; .. page .. '|' .. text .. &quot;]]'''&quot; -- replace '''Foo''' by '''[[page|Foo]]'''
			else
				return nil -- instruct gsub to make no change
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function Excerpt.addTrackingCategories( excerpt )
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		excerpt = excerpt .. '[[Category:' .. namespaceCategory .. ']]'
	end
	if addedCategories then
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-- Helper method to match from a list of regular expressions
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function Excerpt.matchAny( text, pre, list, post, init )
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end

-- Helper function to get arguments
-- args from Lua calls have priority over parent args from template
function Excerpt.getArg( key, default )
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-- Helper method to get an error message
-- This method also categorizes the current page in one of the configured error categories
function Excerpt.getError( key, value )
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end

-- Helper method to get a localized message
-- This method uses Module:TNT to get localized messages from https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Data:I18n/Module:Excerpt.tab
-- If Module:TNT is not available or the localized message does not exist, the key is returned instead
function Excerpt.getMessage( key, value )
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-- Helper method to escape a string for use in regexes
function Excerpt.escapeString( str )
	return str:gsub( '[%^%$%(%)%.%[%]%*%+%-%?%%]', '%%%0' )
end

-- Helper method to remove a string from a text
-- @param text Text from where to remove the string
-- @param str String to remove
-- @return The given text with the string removed
function Excerpt.removeString( text, str )
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	return text:gsub( pattern, '' )
end

-- Helper method to convert a comma-separated list of numbers or min-max ranges into a list of booleans
-- @param filter Required. Comma-separated list of numbers or min-max ranges, for example '1,3-5'
-- @return Map from integers to booleans, for example {1=true,2=false,3=true,4=true,5=true}
-- @return Boolean indicating whether the filters should be treated as a blacklist or not
-- @note Merging this into matchFilter is possible, but way too inefficient
function Excerpt.parseFilter( filter )
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		if max then
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			filters[ value ] = true -- if we reach this point, the string had the form 'a,b,c' rather than '1,2,3'
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	filter = { cache = {}, terms = filters }
	return filter, isBlacklist
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-- Helper function to see if a value matches any of the given filters
function Excerpt.matchFilter( value, filter )
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  <page>
    <title>Social Victorians/Timeline/1890</title>
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    <id>264277</id>
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      <id>2835805</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Scogdill</username>
        <id>1331941</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>/* January 1890 */</comment>
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      <text bytes="126273" sha1="i4bn98dg1x53zaov655g5wn4lnk8ge6" xml:space="preserve">[[Social Victorians/Timeline/1840s|1840s]]  [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1850s |1850s]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1860s | 1860s]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1870s | 1870s]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1880s | 1880s Headlines]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890s | 1890s Headlines]] 1890 [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1891 | 1891]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1892 | 1892]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1893 | 1893]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1894 | 1894]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1895 | 1895]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1896 | 1896]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1897 | 1897]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1898 | 1898]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1899 | 1899]]  [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1900s|1900s]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1910s|1910s]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1920s-30s|1920s-30s]]

==January 1890==
Sometime in January 1890, [[Social Victorians/People/Horniman|Annie Horniman]] was initiated into the Golden Dawn (Gilbert 86 144).

Sometime in 1890 Annie Besant and [[Social Victorians/People/Helena Blavatsky|Helena Blavatsky]] founded the Working Women's Club in the East End (Besant Chronology.pdf). Maye Dilke was a member (Crawford 170).

[[Social Victorians/People/Frank Harris|Frank Harris]] says,&lt;blockquote&gt;One day in 1890 I had George Meredith, Walter Pater and [[Social Victorians/People/Oscar Wilde|Oscar Wilde]] dining with me in Park Lane and the time of sex-awakening was discussed. Both Pater and Wilde spoke of it as a sign of puberty. Pater thought it began about thirteen or fourteen and Wilde to my amazement set it as late as sixteen. Meredith alone was inclined to put it earlier.&lt;ref&gt;Harris, Frank. ''My Life and Loves''.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

===1 January 1890, Wednesday, New Year's Day===
&lt;blockquote&gt;Sharp frost was experienced over the East of England yesterday morning, and in South London the thermometer had been as low as 27deg., and 28deg. in Hyde-park. It rose during the day to 41deg., but in the evening frost again set in. Later the thermometer rose again to 32deg., and there was an appearance as of coming rain.&lt;ref&gt;&lt;cite&gt;The Morning Post. 1 January 1890 (No. 36,675): P. 4, Col. F.&lt;/cite&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;Influenza is spreading all over Europe.&lt;p&gt;

According to the &quot;Court Circular: Orders for Court Mourning&quot; in the Morning Post,&lt;blockquote&gt;A second supplement to the Gazette, issued last night, contains the following: —

&quot;Lord Chamberlain's Office, January 1.

&quot;Orders for the Court's going into mourning on Thursday next, the 2d instant, for her late Majesty the Empress of Brazil, viz.&quot; —

&quot;The ladies to wear black dresses, white gloves, black or white shoes, feathers, and fans, pearls, diamonds, or plain gold or silver ornaments. The gentlemen to wear black Court dress, with black swords and buckles.

&quot;The Court to change the mourning on Thursday, the 16th instant, viz.: — [new paragraph] The ladies to wear black dresses, with coloured ribbons, flowers, feathers, and ornaments, or grey or white dresses, with black ribbons, flowers, feathers, and ornaments. The gentlemen to continue the same mourning.

&quot;And on Thursday, the 23d instant, the Court to go out of mourning.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&lt;cite&gt;&quot;Court Circular: Orders for Court Mourning.&quot; The Morning Post, 2 January 1890 (No. 36,676): page 5 Col. G.&lt;/cite&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

===9 January 1890, Thursday===

==== The York Hunt Ball ====
This account is from the ''Irish Society'', which explains which women's costumes are the focus:&lt;blockquote&gt;The fashionable world and his wife are out of town just now, having good times at country houses. They shed the light of their brilliant presence on those annual functions known as county balls, and enjoy themselves also at those popular and picturesque entertainments to which they are bidden by the masters and members of the various hunts.

One of the smartest dances of last week took place at York on Thursday evening. It was in fancy costume, and was in aid of funds for the York County Hospital. Once upon a time the journey from London to the Minster City of the North was a far cry, and one not lightly undertaken. Now it is luxurious and short. In consequence this hall presented the appearance of one in town in mid-season.

There was conspicuous for height and handsomeness the familiar figure and face of Countess de Grey. Lady Helen Duncombe, too, who shares with her Grace of Leinster, and Lady Cynthia Graham, the family beauty of the House of Feversham, was seen in the marvellously becoming (to her) costume of the Empire period. Lady Lilian Wemyss, a lady &quot;divinely tall,” and appropriately fair, was garbed in pink and white of a fashion hailing from the Empire. A &quot;square;” in which the lady dancers were all gowned empirically, was the event of the evening. An event worth remembering it was. The costumes were superb, but their attractions were nowhere in comparison with the charms the [Col. 1c–2a] wearers. These were all tall and each one handsome. Lady de Trafford’s pretty face and fine figure showed to great advantage in her gown of white satin, veiled with gold-bordered ''chiffon'', and with an Empire trained cloak from her shoulders of Rose du Barri velvet lined with white satin, and bordered with gold galon. The colour of the velvet in what is seen in the half-yellow, half-scarlet petals of the soft textured nasturtium bloom. [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Mrs Algernon Bourke]] looked a picture in a Gainsborough gown. The white satin skirt was flounced with sable and veiled with ''chiffon'', the setuage of which was left to show without being hemmed up. There was a broad sash of rose-pink silk and each buttonhole was filled round with crimped lisse. One might go on for long enough describing costume after costume, and then leave them half out. Therefore, we shall, like the judge &quot;sum up” and &quot;charge” for a verdict of the utmost brilliancy.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Our London Letter.&quot; ''Irish Society'' (Dublin) 11 January 1890, Saturday: 17 [of 24], Col. 1b–2a [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001939/18900111/042/0017. Same print title, p. 29.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== 1890 January 10, Friday ===
The ball at the Ulster Club Ball, Belfast:&lt;blockquote&gt;The Ulster Club gave on Friday evening last week, in the Ulster Hall, Belfast, one of the most successful balls ever held in that prosperous City of the North of Ireland. It was given in honour of the Marquis of Londonderry and the Marchioness, who, with their son, Lord Castlereagh, were the guests of the evening. Lord Londonderry is an Ulster man of whom the natives of the Northern Province are justly proud, and to entertain him was an honour which has been long looked for by the Club. The hall, which is a splendid building admirably adapted for the purpose of a large dance, was changed beyond the recognition of its oldest frequenters by the skill of clever and tasteful decorators. A temporary archway was erected at the entrance, with cloakrooms for ladies and men at either side. The entrance was prettily carpeted and gracefully draped with delicately-coloured Oriental silk. The walls were hung with handsome Eastern fabrics of rich and harmonious colour, with large mirrors at intervals, which served in effect to double the size of the room. The prettily proportioned vestibule and smaller apartments adjoining the ball-room were decorated and furnished each in the style of a different period. The ceilings were prettily draped with rich but soft-coloured India and China silks. The minor hall made an admirable supper-room, and was also most artistically decorated. The flowers on the table were much admired. The orchestra made music from out a very multitude of floral blooms, and that most effective decoration of blocks of ice hollowed out and lighted by electricity, which so puzzled the Shah of Persia when over here, was liberally made use of. The principal families in the north of Ireland were invited; among others, Prince and Princess Edward of Saxe-Weimar, the Duke and Duchess of Abercorn, the Duke and Duchess of Manchester, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Lady Mandeville]], the Marchioness of Downshire, the Earl and Countess of Lanesborough, the Earl and Countess of Enniskillen, the Earl and Countess of Belmore, the Earl and Countess of Caledon, the Earl and Countess of Gosford, the Earl and Countess of Ranfurley,  and the Earl and Countess of Erne, His Grace the Primate of all Ireland, Mrs. Knox and the Misses Knox. The regiments stationed in the North of Ireland were largely represented. Mr. J. Blakiston-Houston, V.L., as senior trustee of the club, had the honour of taking Lady Londonderry to supper. The Marquis took the Countess of Castlestuart; the Right Hon. Col. Forde, D.L., also a club trustee, Lady Fanny Lambert; Sir Edward Cowan, Lord Lieutenant of the County Antrim, Lady Clanmorris; Captain Cramsie, J.P., High Sheriff of Antrim, Lady O'Neill; Lord Castlestuart, Lady Charlotte Montgomery; Lord Clanmorris, the Hon. Mrs. Alexander; Lord O'Neill, Mrs. Forde; and General Wiseman-Clarke, Mrs. Knox. Dancing was kept up till an early hour on Saturday morning, the ball having proved a genuine success.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Court and Society Notes.&quot; ''Lady's Pictorial'' 18 January 1890, Saturday: 44 [of 60], Col. 1b [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0005980%2F18900118&amp;page=44. Same print title, p. 94.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;1890 January 10, Monday

Boxing Match&lt;blockquote&gt;Newspaper Title: Dublin Sporting News

Publication Date: Friday 17 January 1890

Page Number: 3

A Great Glove Fight.

Nunc Wallace and G. Camp for £1,000.

On Monday night, at the Ormonde Club, London, the above-named met to do battle for the largest sum of money that has ever been &quot;put up&quot; for a glove contest. That a couple of 8st [8 stone?] men could be brought together in a glove contest for the sum of £1,000 would, even in the palmy days of the Prize Ring, have been scouted by the merest tyro in ring matters. Celebrities like Peter Morris, George Holden, Joe Nolan, and Dan Thomas never fought for more than £200, but here we have a stake of £500 a-side freely put down to see who is the better man of the  two. This money, when the match was made last autumn, would have been gladly increased by either side to double the amount, therefore &quot;the fight of his life&quot; is applicable to both George Camp and Edwin (&quot;Nuns&quot;) Wallace.

The match, made so far back as October last was really the outcome of the bout between Camp and Wallace in the second round of an 8st competition, decided at the Royal Aquarium in December, 1888. A very close struggle ensued, so close, indeed, that the judges ordered a fourth round of two minutes. Wallace eventually get- [Col. 2c–3a]

ting the award. From the moment the decision was given Camp's friends were dissatisfied, and hence the contract which was signed for Monday night's battle.

With thirteme week. in to get tit, neither  men was in a hurty to , omnien‘n work, and the  had been ratified neatly a month before  Wallace took lip his quarters at Sutton Col.lleld,  oak Ben Ceiling:4m to look after him. Camp  j to Brighton with his old trainer. George  and it is needless to neither wen  named I. rnrth n, . Thiukm g a chariots  a mouth ago ale. made a mote to  Brighton. where his interests were wheel to the  minutest detail by Mr. Sean Mordecai. Both man  wore waited hand and foot. Mr. Sem Bland  fotd, repieventing Camp's hacker, took op residence  in the fatuous watering-place. anti hardly  ever lost sight 14 Me youth. tin the  other hand Wallace hardly ever drank out of a pot  Mat Mr. Sim Mordecai (LI not summit., and to  this war the mill prow wood satiefactorly in their  Veining.  and tlukee he¢[•'rl f,,r the to  where the in. he in tun, not letter,  from lewd ins% and city  in to those oil( • 1111th  Nte The backers 0ne...11 •ide were  oh lusate, and at the final deposit the name , . of  the f..rtunate &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;thirty&quot; agreed tip in, were handed  The loan were ar to otagh at twelve  o n Mond-iy, anti au not attract atten.  floe it %tot this important part the  programme should he pram meat at Brighton.  Acvoichnaly thaavale. het Ito&lt; horn lised in Camp's  Itedreoni. the mai*. in the premoiee of Lord  Mandeville. Mr. N W thirty, Mr. I Mr.  lilandforil. anti Mr. and their  grantor+. •• the beam&quot; Wallace wee tied  to weighing Mat tills stripood. I' imp tailing  to roach this half p.tund, clothed rn  garb. Both hooked in splendid trim.  Camp'. ruddy compextols was now.  taking to the rye than the pele appearance of  •• None.&quot;  \C.llace attired in drawer, with a  rent ,•oaka, 41111 black rubber-toted woe..  wee all in white, with (-maim at.oea, and  amiclAt altoo-t oppreaaive Ailance they faced each  other at p.m. &lt;/blockquote&gt;

===16 January 1890, Thursday===
&lt;blockquote&gt;About two hundred members of the newly formed Dulwich Literary and Scientific Association attended the conversazione given on Jan. 16 at Surrey House Museum, Forest Hill, when Mr. Horniman, F.R.G.S., acted as cicerone round the rooms, richly stored with historical relics, ornithological curiosities, and art treasures.&lt;ref&gt;''Illustrated London News'' (London, England), Saturday, January 25, 1890; pg. 120; Issue 2649, Col. 3.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== 1890 January 21, Tuesday ===
The marriage of Baron S. Alfred Oppenheim and Miss Florence Hutchins:&lt;blockquote&gt;In the church of St. Mary Abbotts, Kensington, the marriage took place of Baron S. Alfred von Oppenberm and Miss Florence Hutchins, daughter of Mrs. Parkinson Sharp, of Palace-gate. The Hon. and Rev E. Carr Glyn and the Rev. Henry White, M.A., officiated. Among those who attended the reception afterwards held were Prince and Princess Malcom Khan, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Viscountess Mandeville]], Dowager Countess of Harrington, Admiral Sir Edward Inglefield, Sir Arthur Sullivan, Lady Cottenham, and General Du Plat.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;London Day by Day.&quot; ''Daily Telegraph &amp; Courier'' (London) 22 January 1890, Wednesday: 5 [of 8], Col. 3b [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001112%2F18900122&amp;page=5&amp;article=080&amp;stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''Daily Telegraph'', p. 5.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;The ''Pall Mall Gazette'' has a description that is slightly more full. Is Count von Alten related to [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish|Louisa, Duchess of Manchester]]?&lt;blockquote&gt;At St. Mary Abbots, Kensington, yesterday, the marriage took place of Baron S. Alfred Von Oppenheim, only son of Baron Edward Von Oppenheim, of Cologne and Schloss Schlenderham, and Miss Florence Hutchins, only daughter of Mrs. Parkinson Sharp, of 10, Palace-gate. The service was fully choral, the officiating clergy being the Hon. R. E. Carr-Glyn, rector of St. Mary Abbots, and the Rev. Henry White, M.A., chaplain in ordinary to the Queen. The bride, who was given away by her stepfather, Mr Parkinson Sharp, wore a plain dress of rich white ivory satin, elaborately draped with real orange blossoms. Count C. Von Leyden, Councillor of the German Embassy, attended the Baron as best man. Half a dozen bridesmaids followed the bride elegantly attired in costumes of white cashmere, with white corded silk sashes. They were Miss Aim e [sic] Winslow, Miss Emry Von Oppenheim, Miss Vitty Von Oppenbeim, Miss Potter, Miss Eleanor Heywood, and Miss Seymour. The reception was given at Mrs. Parkinson Sharp's town residence, 10, Palace-gate, Kensington, which was largely attended among those present being Prince and Princess Malcom Khan, Baron and Baroness E. von Oppenheim, Baron Max Oppenheim, Baron von Wedd Yarlsberg, Countess de Bunsen, Baron and Baroness de Plency, Count von Alten, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Viscountess Mandeville]], Dowager Countess of Harrington, Admiral Sir Edward Inglefield, Sir Arthur Sullivan, Lady Cottenham, General Du Plat, &amp;c.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Marriage of Baron S. Alfred Von Oppenheim.&quot; ''Pall Mall Gazette'' 22 January 1890, Wednesday: 7 [of 8m], Col. 2c [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000098%2F18900122&amp;page=7&amp;article=016&amp;stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== 1890 January 28, Tuesday ===
According to the ''Dundee Evening Telegraph'' on 28 January 1890 people were buying &quot;Exploration&quot; shares, which funded exploration expeditions with the possibility of rights to minerals or resources or the development of monopolies for goods that were &quot;discovered.&quot;&lt;blockquote&gt;Royalty and the peerage have gone in for &quot;Exploration&quot; shares. The Duchess of Albany is the possessor of fifty shares, which hardly seems to assume the dimensions of a royal investment. Certainly the general public would incline to the idea that a princess would never condescend to invest so small a sum as £25 in anything unless it were a hat or a jacket. The Duke of Fife, on the other hand, has been allotted a thousand shares. The Duchess of Manchester and the Countess of Mandeville have thirty each.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Notes — Mainly Personal.&quot; ''Dundee Evening Telegraph'' 28 January 1890, Tuesday: 2 [of 4], Col. 2b [of my 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000453%2F18900128&amp;page=2&amp;article=001&amp;stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''Evening Telegraph'', n.p.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== 1890 January 29, Wednesday ===
[[Social Victorians/Santurce Murrieta Wedding 1890-01-29|Santurce Murrieta Wedding 1890-01-29]]

=== '''1890 January 30, Thursday, through at least''' 1890 February 8, Saturday ===
Kim, Lord Mandeville was in Brighton — at 80, King's-road — at least as early as 30 January.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Brighton Visitors.&quot; ''Brighton Gazette'' 30 January 1890, Thursday: 3 [of 8], Col. 2a [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000938%2F18900130&amp;page=3&amp;article=073&amp;stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''Brighton Gazette and Sussex Telegraph'', p. 3.&lt;/ref&gt; The ''Lady's Pictorial'' lists &quot;recent arrivals&quot; in Brighton:&lt;blockquote&gt;Though a good many people have left Brighton, still fresh visitors arrive, and the front is crowded when the weather is a little kind. Amongst the most recent arrivals may be mentioned the Countess of Strafford, Lady Susan Byng, Lady Chelmsford, Lord and Lady Seaton, Lady Jane Grimston, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Lord Mandeville]], Lord Romilly and the Hon. John Romilly, Viscount and Viscountess Hampden, the Hon. R. Somerset, the Hon.  Thomas Dundas, the Hon. Sidney Greville, the Hon. A. W. Verney Cave, Lady Elizabeth Cartwright, Colonel Sir Alfred and Lady Kirby, Mr. Bazley White, M.P., and Lady Bazley White, Sir Hugh Montgomery, Sir Frederick and Lady Perkins, Lady Ellis, General Seymour, &amp;c., &amp;c.&lt;ref&gt;Dorothy. &quot;Brighton Notes.&quot; ''Lady's Pictorial'' 8 February 1890, Saturday: 51 [of 60], Col. 3a [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0005980%2F18900208&amp;page=51&amp;article=671&amp;stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title, p. 203.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

==February 1890==

=== 1890 February 6, Thursday ===

Before 6 February but not long before. The prize-fighter Pete Jackson fought a match at the New Pelican Club.&lt;blockquote&gt;It is always well to hear that distinguished visitors have enjoyed the hospitality which we have extended to them. This satisfaction is afforded us in full measure by the eminent &quot;Parson&quot; Davis, manager of Pete Jackson, the prize-fighter, who has just been regaling an American interviewer with an account of his experiences in England :—

He had been treated in splendid style, and Jackson was received well everywhere. Nothing would give him greater pleasure than to revisit England, and he hoped soon to do so. &quot;I shook a paw with the Prince,” said the parson. &quot;We had a high old time with Albert E. His Royal Highness was exceptionally friendly with Jackson, and actually made a pump handle of his arm. He shook hands with him again and again. The Prince is in capital  health, and&quot; ——

But at this point the interviewer mysteriously breaks off.

The Prince, however, was not the only British notable to whom Parson Davis referred. He explained that the cause of the trouble with Smith at the New Pelican Club was that the gloves furnished Jackson were too small in the fingers, and when he closed his hand he almost split them, and could not fight. The matter was explained to the officers of the Club, where the fight took place, and other gloves were procured for Jackson :—

Fair play was given, and the audience, which included [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Lords Mandeville]] and Lonsdale, were loud in their admiration of Jackson's skill.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;The Tittle Tattle of the Week.&quot; ''Pall Mall Budget'' 6 February 1890, Thursday: 4 [of 36], Col. 1b [of 2]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0005967%2F18900206&amp;page=4. Same print title, p. 162.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;Possibly related is this, from 24 January 1890:&lt;blockquote&gt;Further details (says the London ''Evening'' ''Post'') have transpired with regard to the fracas at the Tracadero between Charley Mitchell and Mr Abington. It seems that the cause of the row was the conspicuous and irritating production of Smith’s colours by a gentleman in the stalls in front of Mitchell. These acted upon him like the proverbial red rag, and turning to Mr Abington, he said — &quot;You have got this up for me. I will put this cigar in your eye.&quot; Here Lord Mandeville acted the part of the peacemaker, and an adjournment was made to the bar, where the real row took place. Notwithstanding what the ''Sportsman'' says, it is a fact that &quot;the Squire&quot; did take off his coat to Mitchell.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;The Laird of Strichen and the Prize Ring.&quot; &lt;i&gt;Fraserburgh Advertiser&lt;/i&gt; 24 January 1890, Friday: 5 [of 8], Col. 5a [of 5]. &lt;i&gt;British Newspaper Archive&lt;/i&gt; https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001470%2F18900124&amp;page=5&amp;article=035&amp;stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title, n.p.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== 12 February 1890, Wednesday ===

==== Lady Constance Leslie's Reception ====
&lt;blockquote&gt;On Wednesday last Lady Constance Leslie had an evening party at her residence in Stratford-place.

The numerous guests included Prince Ernest of Hohenlohe, Princess Victor of Hohenlohe, and the Countesses Gleichen, the Austro-Hungarian Ambassador, Count Mensdorf, Count and Countess Henry Lützow, Mr. and Mrs. Henry White, Baroness de Brienen and Mdlles de Brienen, the Duke of Abercorn, the Duchess of Cleveland, the Marchioness of Blandford and Lady Frances Spencer Churchill, Earl and Countess of Portarlington, Earl Stanhope, the Earl of Northbrook, the Earl and Countess of Arran, the Earl and Countess of Erne and the Ladies Cole, Julia Countess of Jersey and Mr. Brandling, Viscount Clifden, Viscountess Bary, Viscount Torrington, Viscount and Viscountess Castlerosse and Lady Louisa Beauclerk, Viscount and Viscountess de Vesci and Lady Sarah Spencer, Viscountess Galway, and Mr Caryl Ramsden, Lord de L'Isle and Dudley, Lord Alcester, Lord and Lady Wantage, Lord Ashbourne, Lady Henry Grosvenor and Lady G. Ogilvy, Lady Cloncurry, Lord Morris and Mr. M. Morris, Lady Charles Beresford, Lord Rowton, Lady Blanche Hozier, Lady Colville, Lady Rayleigh, Lady Constance Lytton and Mr. Charles Earle, Lady Evelyn Sutton, Lady Ernest Seymour and Ladies Fortescue, Lord and Lady Sandhurst, Lady Mary Lloyd, Lady Tweedmouth, Lady Windsor, Lord and Lady William Seymour, Lady Guy Campbell, Lady Egerton, Lady Fitzgerald, Baron d'Erlanger and Mr. Charles Derenberg, Hon. R. C. Spencer, M.P., and Mrs. Spencer, Hon. Evelyn Ashley, Hon. W. Mansfield, Hon. Lionel Ashley, Hon. A. Hood, Hon. William Lowther and Miss Lowther, Hon. Sydney Greville, Hon. Fitzroy and Mrs. Stewart, Hon. Frederick Leveson Gower, Hon. Kenneth Howard, Hon. Francis Villiers, Hon. Francis Bertie, Hon. Arthur Walsh, Colonel the Hon. Charles Edgcumbe, General Hon. John Bourke, General and Hon. Mrs. Ellis and Mrs. R. Sneyd and Miss Ellis, [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Hon. Algernon and Mrs. Bourke]], Hon. Alan and Hon. Evan Charteris, Hon. Alexander Yorke, Hon. Derek Keppel, General Sir Dighton Probyn, Hon. Percy Wyndham, Hon. Everard Baring and Hon. Susan Baring, Hon. Mrs. Brett, Hon. Claud Hay, the Right Hon. Henry Matthews, Sir George Arthur, Sir George Maude, Sir Philip Currie, C.B., Sir Redvers and Lady Audrey Buller, Sir Charles Grant, Sir Mackenzie Wallace, Sir Herbert Maxwell, M.P., Sir Oscar Clayton, Sir Robert Gresley, Sir Algernon West and Mr. Horace West, Sir George and Lady Russell and Miss Brackenbury, Sir Henry and Lady Longley, the Sub-Dean of the Chapels Royal, General Crealock, General Charles Fraser, Colonel Saunderson, M.P., and Hon. Mrs. Saunderson, Colonel and Mrs. Stewart and Miss Streatfeild [siv], Colonel and Miss Balfour, Colonel and Mrs. Stanley Clarke and Miss Clarke, Colonel R. Baring, Captain and Mrs. Jekyll, Captain and Mrs. J. Bagot, Captain Lambert Ward, Captain A. Bagot, Mr. Charles Hall, Q.C, M.P., Mr[.] Hussey Walsh, M.P., Mr and Mrs. W. Hartpole Lecky, Mr. and Mrs. Richard Combe, Mr Henry Foley, Mrs. Arbuthnot and Miss Guthrie, Mr. and Mrs. Heseltine and Miss Dorothy Heseltine and Lord Cantelupe, the Miss Stopford Brooke, Mr. and Mrs. Thackeray Ritchie, Mr Edmund Byng, Mr. and Mrs. Wilton Phipps, Professor Sidney Colvin, Mr. and Miss Tennant, Mr. Godfrey Webb, Mr. and Mrs. Turton and Mr. Sidney Ponsonby, Mrs. Adare, Mrs Cecil Paget and Mr. Hugo Wemyss, Mrs. L. Drummond, Mr. and Mrs E. Hope, Mrs. L. Seymour and Miss Seymour, Mr. Guy Repton, Mr. and Mrs. Julian Sturgis and Miss Beresford, Mr. Poynter, R.A., Mrs. Daniel Cooper, Mr. Hamilton Aïdé, Mr. Alwyne Maude, Mrs. C. Bentinck, Mrs. Bingham Mildmay, Mr. Philip Habord, Mr. and Mrs. George Bulteel, Mrs. Beerbohm Tree and Miss Julia Neilson, Mr. Hallé [Halle?], Mr. Rudolph Lehmann and Miss Lehmann, [[Social Victorians/People/Fanny Ronalds|Mr. R. Ronalds]], Mr. Ellice, Mr. Arthur, Madame Blumenthal, Miss Julia Leslie, Mr. and Mrs. Jeune, Mr and Mrs. Charles Stuart-Wortley and Misses Millais, Mrs. Arkwright, Mr Joachim, Mr. Gillett, Mr. Pulteney (Scots Guards), Colone| Cuthbert Larking, Mr. Harry Higgins, M. Tividar Nachez, Mr. G. Ross, Herr Johannes Woolff, Mrs. Charles Bagot and Miss Bagot, Mrs. Bischoffsheim, Mr. Henry Petre, Miss Balch, Mr. and Lady Maud Ramsden, Mr. Adolphus Liddell, Mr Knowles, Mr. Grenfell, Mr. Edward Hamilton, Mrs. Henry Gordon and Miss Gordon, Mr. Henry James, Mr. St. Leger, Mrs. Dacre Hamilton and the Misses Nugent, Mr. Harbord, Mr Somerset, Mr. Ruggles-Brise, Mr. and Miss Hughes of Kinmel, Mr. and Mrs Douglas Freshfield, Mrs. Homer, Mr. W. H. Mallock, Mr. and Mrs. Robert Benson, Mr. H. Seymour, Mr. Ernest Law, Mr. Hugh Grimston, Mr. Lionel Cust, Mr. Chappell, Mr. and Mrs. Du Maurier, Mr. Boughton, R.A., and Mrs. Boughton, Mr. R. Roche, Mr. Montagu Wilson, Mr. Herbert Hope, &amp;c.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Lady Constance Leslie's Reception.&quot; ''Morning Post'' 15 February 1890, Saturday: 2 [of 8], Col. 5c [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000174/18900215/008/0002. Same print title and p.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== 24 February 1890, Monday ===
Lilly Langtry starred in Shakespeare's ''As You Like It'' at the St. James's Theatre. The Daily Telegraph had a long review and mentioned more names:&lt;blockquote&gt;
The motto of Petronius, which is said to have adorned the Globe Theatre in Shakespeare's time, &quot;Totus mundus agit histrionem,&quot; and which is reproduced in Jaques' famous speech, may be said to have received a novel illustration in the brilliant audience which completely filled the St. James's Theatre last evening. A very distinguished section of the world &quot;played the actor&quot; in the stalls, boxes, and dress-circle, and evinced the keenest dramatic interest in the long-deferred production of &quot;As You Like It.&quot; The Prince and Princess of Wales, with the Duchess of Fife, surveyed the scene from the Royal box, while amongst the many who secured seats for the first were the Austrian Ambassador, the [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish|Duchess of Manchester]], Countess de Grey, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Viscountess Mandeville]], Lady Colin Campbell, Lord Wolverton, Lord and Lady Coleridge, Sir Charles Russell, Sir Edward and Lady Guinness, Baroness de Stern, and Mr. Alfred Rothschild. Naturally enough there was much curiosity in seeing once more on the London stage an actress who has since her last appearance devoted so much serious study to her profession, and gained so much success both before American and provincial audiences; while the sympathy evoked by her recent severe illness, delaying for four weeks the production of the comedy, added an almost pathetic note to the general excitement and enthusiasm. In the second scene of the first act, when the tenderly attached cousins make their earliest appearance on the stage, Celia's first words, &quot;| pray thee, Rosalind, sweet, my coz, be merry,&quot; answered by Rosalind’s &quot;Dear Celia, I show more mirth than I am mistress of,&quot; were almost drowned in the applause which accompanied the  recognition of Mrs. Langtry. From time to time, whenever opportunity served, enthusiasm broke out anew, culminating in the triumph of plaudits which formed the fit ending to the gracefully-delivered epilogue with which Rosalind takes her farewell of her audience. There can be no doubt that, with all due allowance for the inevitable nervousness which accompanied a first production before a critical though sympathetic house, the revival of the immortal comedy was generally pronoanced to be a success.

The fancifally-named &quot;As You Like It&quot; — where even in nomenclature the author confesses his indebtedness to the romance of Thomas Lodge — with greater dullness than is usually the case with Shakespeare's plays. Indeed interest is hardly aroused till the scene before the Duke's Palace, where Rosalind and Celia witness the wrestling — which after a few more performances will probably go less stagily than it did last night — between Charles and Orlando. It is only when we are transported to the Forest of Arden that Shakespeare's romantic fancy allows itself full course, and it was only when she was accoutred in the doublet and hose that Mrs. Langtry exercised her full charm upon the audience. The difficulty for the actress in the character of Rosalind is the contrast between the early abandon of her frankly-expressed love for the son of Rowland de Bois and the subsequent archness and reserve with which she plays with her lover in the forest. Orlando goes through precisely an opposite change. From the careless desperateness of a man who is out of favour with fortune in the opening scene, he changes to the sentimental devotion of a &quot;love-shaked fancy-monger&quot; in the sylvan glades. If that interchange of parts be missed much is lost in the sprightly  contrasts of the drama. Unfortunately, no sooner did Orlando enter on the wrestling-ground last night, than he started and caught at his heart in obvious suggestion of love at first sight. Much is lost of the utter wonderment at Rosalind’s unexpected graciousness in giving him her chain, which keeps him tongue-tied later, if he betrays so early the fatal ravages of Cupid — a betrayal which is hardly likely in a man whom neglect and misery have driven to the last stage of reckless hardihood. Rosalind must love her champion before her winning thanks for his prowess have made the starred younger brother first marvel at and then adore the frank and generous advances of his benefactress. In the fine words, &quot;My father was no traitor,&quot; Mrs. Langtry rose to the full height of the character she was depicting. Throughout the greater part of the first act there was grace, loveableness, charm, but also a kind of flatness, or, at all events, an even and somewhat uninteresting level of characterisation which did not convey the promise of all that this loveliest creation in Shakespeare's gallery could do, when the Court life was exchanged for the freer and less conventional existence in the woods.

All the more praise, therefore, is Mrs. Langtry’s due, that when she finds herself in the Forest of Arden, she brings before us a truer Rosalind. The beautiful first scene between the disguised Ganymede and her amorous swain showed Mrs. Langtry at her best. The quick and nimble wit, the archness and pretty coquetry of a girl who is sick at heart with love and feeds her passion in a playful and adorable tyrannising over the unconscious lover, were depicted with a reality which won instant recognition from the spectators. For the rest, however, Mrs. Langtry’s Rosalind was an unequal performance, now rising with unexpected force into the regions of pure comedy, now sinking to an ordinary level of  uncomfortably-disguised womanishness. There were bright patches of power in the midst of a somewhat dull and colourless expanse. Much of this was, no doubt, due to the excitement and fatigue of a first night, to which also may be attributed possibly the sameness of some of her gestures and a restlessness which was something more than Rosalind's anxiety to win in her own incomparable way the happiness of which she was in search. A few nights hence firmness of carriage and self-control of manner will fill in the details of a character which was most graphically and sympathetically sketched in outline at the St. James’s last night. Mr Laurence Cautley as Orlando made most favourable impression on his audience. Through all the earlier scenes — with the exception of that wholly unnecessary lapse into amorousness on the lawn of Duke Frederick, which has been already noted — he sustained the character of a picturesque and youthful gallant with considerable success, though, possibly, a stronger dash of manly independence might not have come amiss to the Shakespearean hero. Touchstone is a more difficult part to play. Indeed, in some respects, he is the most difficult of all Shakespeare's clowns. He is on the borderland between the earlier, more conventional style of Costard, Launce, and Launcelot, and the far more elaborate and important clowns in &quot;Twelfth Night&quot; and &quot;King Lear.&quot; He is not so clever as Feste, not so human and real as that inimitable and tender-hearted Edgar who tries to solace the wild ravings of his discrowned king. He is halfway between such farcical beings as Kempe and Tarlton probably depicted, and that witty, self-conscious, irresponsible Jester, which Shakespeare ultimately made an entirely new creation on Elizabethan boards. It is no discredit to Mr. Sugden that he failed to realise so ingenious a conception. He presented a Touchstone who was full of amusing quips, and he went through all the catalogue of points in the Book of Honour in the fifth act with admirable skill; the Touchstone of &quot;As You Like It&quot; we are probably not likely to see often on the modern stage. Mr. Bourchier’s Jaques was a far higher piece of portraiture, grave and bitter and cynical as that early disciple of Schopenhauer should be, with touches of humour which only serve to show the depths of a naturally perverse and misanthropical nature. The celebrated &quot;Seven Ages&quot; speech  was capitally delivered, with a conscientious care and easy mastery which are rare enough in an actor who has so lately left the ranks of the amateurs. For the rest, the Adam of Mr Everill, and the Andrey of Miss Marion Lea seemed to give most pleasure to the audience, though she was sometimes — espectally in the pronunciation of the word &quot;poetry&quot; — inclined to represent the boorishness of the wench with an accent  which reproduced simulated inebriation rather than native clumsiness. Miss Armbruster as Hymen also deserves a word of praise. The piece was produced under the direction of the Hon. Lewis Wingfield, and the scenery, which in the Forest Glade of Acts II., III., and IV., formed a beautiful stage picture, was designed by Messrs. Perkins and Bruce Smith.

After all, was any one ever wholly satisfied with the representaton of one of Shakespeare's comedies? No thing is further from the truth as a general statement than the pedant’s theory that Shakespeare is for the study, and not for the boards. If ever, however, the paradox be true that a great dramatic artist suffers when his plays gain a dramatic representation, it is when &quot;As You Like It,&quot; &quot;Twelfth Night&quot; and &quot;Midsummer Night's Dream&quot; are brought face to face with a modern audience and amid nineteenth century surroundings. It ts not with impunity that the light that never was on sea and land is parodied by the glare of the footlights. For, honest stage-craftsman as Shakespeare was, in the full spring-tide of his poetic genius there was a divine and masterful intolerance of the real and the commonplace, a reckless flight into an ideal world, peopled by beings coined in the mint of his dainty imagination — aerial and disembodied creations whose actions and characters refuse to submit themselves to the narrow rules of the every-day world. In such a sphere banished lovers shall be predestined to meet and cement their happy unions, and lions and snakes shall be the habitual denizens of a forest where shepherds and shepherdesses prattle their erotic strains, and even a crafty Oliver shall repent of his past sins and fall in love with gentle Celia, owing to the poetic exigencies of Cloud Cuckoo Land. How can one  see all these things with the cynical eye of the modern ''Fin de Siècle'' and not feel an inevitable shock of dissatisfaction and surprise? How is it possible to avoid the jarring sense of discord when the dream picture is realised in the setting of prosaic reality? For Shakespeare's comedy is a romantic work of the mind, a refuge for all those delightful improbabilities which an indolent or whimsical fancy strings together to construct a series of complications and incidents which interest us, while they elude the sober tests of reason and judgment. But we must not carry this vein of thought too far. It is true that we have in such plays comedies of incident rather than of character. Yet Shakespeare is too and heart-whole to linger only at the Ivory gate. He throws even into these merry plots the force of that instinctive knowledge of human nature which produces real personages, tricked out in witty and imaginative guise. Shakespeare was able to pour everything into his comedies which he did into his tragedies, though in the one there is only suggestion, while in the other there is the elaboration of that is deep and tragic as well as humorous in life. Rosalid, Orlando, Touchstone, and Jaques are none the less real because they are ideal; and it is on these grounds that we can praise the conscientious and capable artists who presented these characters in flesh and blood on the St. James's stage. Nor does Shakespeare, as some have thought, intend in this play to preach [Col. 1c–2a]  any polemic against the life of the town, or compose any passionate encomium for the simple graces of the country. He is too great to be didactic on such narrow issues. Wherever men and women live, there they can be happy; or, as Touchstone says to Corin, when he expresses ignorance of the Court, one-sided enthusiasts for either streets or hedge-rows are truly damned, &quot;like an ill-roasted egg, all on one side.&quot; Equanimity, such that of the Duke and old Adam, carries with it, wherever it be, the gracious gentleness of an eternal Eden.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;St. James's Theatre.&quot; ''Daily Telegraph &amp; Courier'' (London) 25 February 1890, Tuesday: 5 [of 12], Col. 6a–7a [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001112%2F18900225&amp;page=5&amp;article=048&amp;stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''The Daily Telegraph'', p. 5.

&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;
The ''St. James's Gazette'' reported:&lt;blockquote&gt;
We came intending to like it very much, and we succeeded in our intention. Indeed, we spent a really pleasant evening at the St. James's Theatre, Many of us knew one another to nod to, and some of us had bowing acquaintance with the author of the play; so it was all very sociable and comfortable. There were just enough shop-window celebrities to give an air of distinction to the rest of the audience, and everybody had a right to hope that his neighbours were wondering who he was. The critics were quite at their ease, having nothing to criticise except the acting; not being expected to suggest any slight alterations in the play (such as cutting out Acts I., III., and V., and rewriting Acts II. and IV.), but just to accept it as it stood, without even tracing it back to the French vaudeville from which it was, no doubt, originally adapted.

The performance had many individual merits, but it also had two general faults. The first and least striking fault was that the interludes were  slurred over instead of being played up to. Now, the plot of &quot;As You Like It&quot; is so loose that a lengthy interlude (provided it be pretty) does not check the flow of interest; indeed, it gives a welcome rest and allows you to pick up your thoughts again. The other fault is one which may be, and is likely to be, remedied the play goes on. But at present it is neither smart nor spontaneous: the parts do not hang well together, and there is none of the enthusiasm which helps to pass off the interior performances of less skilful actors. The deficiency which we have noted was probably due to the serious illness from which Mrs. Langtry had been suffering and from which it was evident last night that she had not made a complete recovery. She worked very hard as Rosalind, and worked very well, and several times she made a really good hit; she was, perhaps, at her best in her indignant appeal to the usurper Duke against his unexpected and unjust decree of banishment. She was charming, again, in her embarrassment (as Miss Litton was charming before her) when she had her first meeting with her unconscious lover and she suggested very cleverly the absence of her skirts. She did her love-making archly and merrily; but though the pretended pretence gave her a right to go beyond the limits of maiden coyness, she seemed occasionally to assume the masculine Initiative when the feminine Suggestive would have been prettier. it was a pleasant though uneven performance, with plenty of grace in it and plenty of brains. The Touchstone of Mr. Sugden was in every way admirable — crisp, humorous, and distinctive. That his clowning was occasionally tedious was no fault of his. The palate of a modern audience does not relish these long-drawn pedantries of buffoonery. Our sense of humour is not more refined — it is different, and that's the end of it. But in the scenes with Audrey (and Miss Marion Lea made a capital Audrey — open-mouthed and innocently wicked or wickedly innocent) Mr. Sugden had a better opportunity and he made the most of it. There the humour was not conventional, and the audience enjoyed a laugh which was not scholarly. A word of praise must given to Mr. Brodie for his conscientious and effective rendering of the difficult and ungrateful part of the moonstruck lover of the wayward Phoebe. The first appearance of Mr. Bourchier in London attracted much interest. As an amateur at Oxford and elsewhere he was believed Iikely to to great things upon the stage, and his performance of Jaques was by no means a disappointment. The fault of it was that he did not suggest either the melancholy or the sententiousness which we associate with the character. The melancholy was but skin-deep, and the sententiousness simply was not there. But every actor has a right to read a part in his own way if it is a good way. And there is much to said for Mr. Bourchier's interpretation of Jaques. The temptation is to be stagy; Mr. Bourchier's tendency is to be natural. And he carried it out with great success in speaking the lines of the Seven Ages of Man. He caught up the Duke's phrase just as if it had dropped in the course of an ordinary conversation; and he played with it for a time until it seemed of itself to suggest to his mind the famous soliloquy. Certainly Mr. Bourchier’s method was effective, as it drew one of the heartiest rounds of applause in the whole evening.

Among the company were noticed the following well known persons:— His  Royal Highness the Prince of Wales, the Duke and Duchess of Fife, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Lady Mandeville]], Lord De Grey, Mr. Alfred De Rothschild, Lord Lurgan, Sir Charles Russell, Sir Edward Guinness, Lady Colin Campbell, Lady Curzon, Lady Londonderry, Lady Hothfield, Hon. Alan Charteris, Mr. Oscar Wilde, Mr. Akers Douglas, M.P., Mr. Justin McCarthy, M.P., Sir Allen Young, Lord and Lady Coleridge, the Austrian Ambassador, the Spanish Ambassador, Lady Hozier, Mr. George Lewis, Mr. Whistler, Lady Greville [&lt;nowiki/&gt;[[Social Victorians/People/Lady Violet Greville|Lady Violet Greville]]?].&lt;ref&gt;&quot;As You Like It.&quot;  ''St James's Gazette'' 25 February 1890, Tuesday: 5 [of 16], Col. 1b–c [of 2]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001485%2F18900225&amp;page=5&amp;article=027&amp;stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p.

&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;
This report is from ''Blalud, The Bath Society Paper'':&lt;blockquote&gt;Happily, there was no disappointment in store for the friends and admirers of Mrs. Langtry, who gathered on Monday night at the St. James’s Theatre in great force, to welcome this popular lady back to London and receive her with an extra warmth of cordiality in token of satisfaction at her recovery from her recent severe illness. Eight years have elapsed since she last played Rosalind in London. Since then she has travelled much, both at home and abroad, and followed the study and practice of her art with unfailing spirit and determination. She returns to the character which all leading actresses aspire to play in Shakespeare’s glorious dream of the Court of Duke Frederick and the forest of Arden a far riper artist, and, says the ''Daily News'', she presented us on Monday with an impersonation which compared to her former efforts is as the finished portrait to the crude sketch. Her performance may lack the great high tide of girlish impulsiveness, but first nights before an exceptionally critical audience and some remains of the languor of her recent indisposition doubtless contributed to rob her acting of something of its force and impulse. But her ''Rosalind'' remains a most winning and beautiful performance. A handsomer ''Rosalind'', or one that has worn the doublet and hose with more grace and picturesqueness (Mrs, Langtry, we may here note, scorns the modern heresy of boots, and appears in the more orthodox hose cross-gartered), has certainly not been seen in our time. The performance is full of good points; as when at the words, &quot;here on the skirts of this forest like the fringe of a petticoat,&quot; she remembers with a momentary touch of maidenly shyness that petticoats no longer form part of her attire. Again, when in bantering her lover, who exhibits so strange an inability to recognize the voice and features of the woman whom he passionately loves, she pauses at &quot;a beard neglected,&quot; and pointing at ''Orlando’s'' smooth chin bursts into uncontrollable laughter; again, when in the mock marriage scene, with ''Celia'' for the priest, her mind for the moment seems to wander away into such a dream as this mockery might suggest to one so deeply in love. The distinguishing feature of the impersonation, indeed, is the subtle suggestion of serious passion that underlies the frolicsome and bantering moods, and exhibits itself again and again in many subtle forms. The play is beautifully put on the stage, and if some of the performers fall a long way short of ideal excellence there are several impersonations that stand forth in strong relief and are of far more than common excellence. The ''Phœbe'' and ''Silvius'' of Miss Beatrice Lamb and Mr. Matthew Brodie deserve special note: but the most brilliant success of all in the case of the minor characters was undoubtedly the ''Audrey'' of Miss Marion Lee, whose hoydenish, but not ungraceful antics, whose happy, contented ignorance, whose mingled wonderment and admiration at ''Touchstone's'' philosophical utterances were admirable. Everything that taste can suggest has been done to embellish the play; the musical features are strengthened by an efficient chorus, and the costumes designed by the Hon. Lewis Wingfield are rich and handsome. Perhaps it might be objected that Mrs. Langtry’s beautiful green velvet doublet, with its slashes, tags, and laces, her cinnamon jerkin, her black cap and jewelled buckle, and her rich and massive cloak were hardly suited to her daring enterprise on the highways and in the forests of the Duke’s dominions. The restoration of Hymen, gracefully represented by Miss Violet Armbruster, and the final morris dance in honour of the nuptials, gave the crowning fanciful touch to the performance, and prepared the spectators for the playful epilogue, which was spoken by Mrs. Langtry, in her simple nuptial white robe and leopard skin, with rare elocutionary grace and effect,. [sic]

The audience which greeted Mrs. Langtry was at once distinguished and interesting. The Royal box was occupied by the Prince and Princess of Wales, the Duchess of Fife, the Princesses Victoria and Maud of Wales, and the Duke of Fife. Among the representatives of &quot;Society&quot; were Lady Londonderry, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Lady Mandeville]], Lord de Grey, Lord and Lady Coleridge, Lady Curzon, Lady Hothfield, Lord Lurgan, Lady Greville [&lt;nowiki/&gt;[[Social Victorians/People/Lady Violet Greville|Lady Violet Greville]]?], Lady Hozier, Mr. Alfred de Rothschild, Sir Charles Russell, Sir Edward Guinness, Mr. Coningsby Disraeli, Mr. Akers Douglas, M.P., Mr. Justin M‘Carthy, M.P., Sir Allen Young, Lady Colin Campbell, Lady Monckton, Mrs. Labouchere, and the Austrian and Spanish Ambassadors. Pictorial art was represented by Mr. Whistler; music by Mdme. Antoinette Sterling; dramatic writing by Mr. H. A. Jones; and theatrical interests by Mrs. Bancroft, Miss Genevieve Ward, Mr. and Mrs. John Lart, Mrs. John Hare, Mr. M. L. Mayer, Mr. Augustus Harris, &amp;c.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Mrs. Langtry.&quot; ''Bladud'' 26 February 1890, Wednesday: 9 [of 16], Col. 2b–c [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0005771%2F18900226&amp;page=9&amp;article=055&amp;stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''Blalud, The Bath Society Paper'', p. 9.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== 25 February 1890, Tuesday ===
On 5 March, the ''World'' reports on a party hosted by Mrs. Adair that must have been held the week before:&lt;blockquote&gt;Many smart people were present at Mrs. Adair's party in Curzon Street on Tuesday night. The rooms, lighted by electricity, looked their prettiest with floral decorations consisting entirely of tulips, the hostess appearing in a gown of terra-cotta velvet trimmed with dark fur. The Austrian Ambassador and Madame Waddington were among those who listened to Miss Damian’s rendering of a new song by Tosti, and to the glees sung by Mr. Avon Saxon's American quartet; and among others present were Lady Charles Beresford, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Lady Mandeville]], the Duchess of Marlborough, Lady Fanny Marjoribanks, who brought her sister, Lady Sarah Churchill, Sir Arthur Sullivan (just back from his annual sojourn at Monte Carlo), Lord and Lady Wharncliffe, Lady Howe and Lady Edith Curzon, Lord and Lady William Nevill, Mrs. Cavendish-Bentinck, General Charles Fraser, Lady Conyers, Madame de Brienen, and Sir Philip Currie.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;What the World Says.&quot; ''The World'' 5 March 1890, Wednesday: 19 [of 44], Col. 2a [of 2]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0006339%2F18900305&amp;page=19&amp;article=061&amp;stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;The ''Daily Telegraph'' covered the party with a few additional names:&lt;blockquote&gt;A casual passer-by in Curzon-street last night might almost have imagined from the long string of carriages assembled there that, in spite of the cold east wind blowing, the London season had already begun. Mrs. Adair had together to hear some beautiful music, including a celebrated quartette of American singers, a large and fashionable crowd, composed of the ''élite'' of London society, comprising among many others, the Austrian Ambassador, the French Ambassadress, the Marquis and Marchioness of Tweeddale, Lady Charles Beresford, Lady Fanny Marjoribanks and Lady Sarah Spencer-Churchill, Earl and Countess of Wharncliffe, Countess Howe and Lady Edith Curzon, Lord and Lady William Nevill, Lord George Nevill, Viscount and Viscountess Curzon, Countess of Sefton and Lady Rose Molyneux, Viscountess Mandeville, Julia Countess of Jersey and Mr Brandling, Viscount and Viscountess Bury and the Hon. Mary Keppel, the Countess of Crawford, the Earl of Clonmell, the Countess of Antrim and Lady Louisa Beauclerk, Viscountess Melgund, Lady Conyers, Hon. Lady Cotterell and Miss Cotterell, Lord Alington, Lord Alcester, Lord Greenock, Viscount de Vesci, Lady Hilda Brodrick, Hon. W. Lowther, M.P., and Mrs. Lowther, Hon. Mrs. Bampfylde, Hon. Hallyburton Campbell, Mrs. and Miss Campbell, Hon. Kenneth Howard, Hon. Derek Keppel, Hon. FitzRoy and Mrs. Stewart, Lady FitzGerald, Mrs. Bischoffsheim, Madame de Brienen, Lieutenant-General Sir Seymour Blane, General C. Fraser, M.P., Mr. Chamberlain, M.P., Mr. Howard Vincent, M.P., and Mrs Vincent, Mr. Charles Hall, M.P., Mrs. Cavendish-Bentinck, Sir C. Rivers Wilson, Sir Arthur Sullivan, Sir Philp Currie.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;London Day by Day.&quot; ''Daily Telegraph &amp; Courier'' (London) 26 February 1890, Wednesday: 5 [of 8], Col. 4a [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001112%2F18900226&amp;page=5&amp;article=094&amp;stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''The Daily Telegraph'', p. 5.

&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;The ''Sporting Gazette'' also had a report, on 1 March:&lt;blockquote&gt;Mrs. Adair's party in Curzon-street on Tuesday night was, as usual, exceedingly smart and dressy. The &quot;smarties&quot; turned out strong for this Anglo-American function, and wore their best frocks and jewels. Lady Tweeddale, Lady Howe, with Lady Edith Curzon, Lady Fanny Majoribanks chaperoning her younger sister, Lady Sarah Churchill, Lady Curzon, Lady Antrim with Lady Louisa Beauclerk, Lady William Nevill with some lovely diamonds, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Lady Mandeville]], Lord Alington, Sir Arthur Sullivan, Mrs Cavendish Bentinck, and others. The singing of an American quartette was ''the'' feature of the evening.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;The Man About Town.&quot; &quot;The County Gentleman.&quot; ''Sporting Gazette'' 1 March 1890, Saturday: 6 [of 38], Col. 2b [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0002525%2F18900301&amp;page=6&amp;article=053&amp;stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title, p. 274.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

==March 1890==

=== 10 March 1890, Monday ===
The Prince and Princess of Wales hosted a ball in celebration of their wedding anniversary.

This report from the ''Bedfordshire Mercury'' is very brief:&lt;blockquote&gt;
The Prince and Princess of Wales, in celebration of the anniversary of their wedding on March 10, 1863, gave a dance at Marlborough House on Monday night. The Danish Minister and Madame de Falbe were among the company invited, also the Earl and Countess Brownlow, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Viscountess Mandeville]], Lord Alwyne Compton, Baron F. de Rothschild, &amp;c.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Notes of the Aristocracy.&quot; ''Bedfordshire Mercury'' 15 March 1890, Saturday: 7 [of 8], Col. 4b [of 6]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001290%2F18900315&amp;page=7&amp;article=073&amp;stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;
The report from the ''Morning Post'' suggests that this was a smaller party than usual for the Prince and Princess of Wales:&lt;blockquote&gt;In celebration of the anniversary of the Prince and Princess of Wales's wedding day, their Royal Highnesses gave an evening party (dancing) at Marlborough House last night.

His Royal Highness the Duke of Edinburgh, her Royal Highness Princess Beatrice (Princess Henry of Battenberg) and his Royal Highness Prince Henry of Battenberg, her Royal Highness the Princess Louise of Wales (Duchess of Fife) and the Duke of Fife, his Royal Highness Prince George of Wales, her Royal Highness the Princess Victoria of Wales, her Royal Highness the Princess Maud of Wales, her Royal Highness the Princess Mary Adelaide (Duchess of Teck), and his Highness the Duke of Teck and her Serene Highness the Princess Victoria of Teck and his Serene Highness Prince Francis of Teck, and their Serene Highnesses the Prince and Princess Victor of  Hohenlohe-Langenburg and the Countess Victoria Gleichen were present.

The following had the honour to receive invitations, but some amongst them were unavoidably prevented from attending: —

The French Ambassador (M. Waddington) and Madame Waddington, the German Ambassador (Count Hatzfeldt) and the Countess Marie Hatzfeldt, the Turkish Ambassador (Rustem Pasha), the Austro-Hungarian Ambassador (Count Deym) and the Countess Deym, the Italian Ambassador  (Count Tornielli), the Countess Tornielli, and Mademoiselle Virginia dei Conti Lazzari, the Danish Minister (M. de Falbe) and Madame de Falbe, the Russian Chargé d'Affaires (M. Bontineff), his Serene Highness Prince Louis Esterhazy, M. A. Kroupensky, M. A. de Stoeckl, Count Leyden, Count Albert Mensdorff, Count Reventlow, Mr. and Mrs. Henry White, M. de Soveral, the Marques and Marquesa de Santurce, Mr. A. de Murrieta, Mr. C. de Murrieta.

The Duke and Duchess of Leeds and Lady Alice Osborne, the Duke and Duchess of Buccleuch, the Duke and Duchess of Portland, the Duke and Duchess of Westminster, the Marchioness of Blandford and Lady Frances Spencer Churchill, the Marquis and Marchioness of Granby, the Marquis and Marchioness of Londonderry, the Marquis and Marchioness of Ormonde, the Marquis and Marchioness of Salisbury and Lady Gwendolen Cecil, the Marquis and Marchioness of Stafford, Count Gleichen, the Earl and Countess Brownlow, the Earl and Countess Cadogan and Lady Emily  Cadogan, the Earl and Countess of Clarendon, the Earl of Chesterfield, the Earl of Clonmell, the Earl of Dudley, the Earl and Countess of Dunraven and Lady Florence Wyndham Quin, the Earl and Countess Granville and Lady Victoria Leveson Gower, the Earl and Countess of Hardwicke, the Earl and Countess Howe and Lady Evelyn Curzon, the Earl and Countess of  Kilmorey, the Earl and Countess of Lathom and Lady Alice Wilbraham, the Earl and Countess of Lucan and Lady Rosalind Bingham, the Earl of Mount Edgcumbe and Lady Albertha Edgcumbe, the Earl and Countess of Romney and Lady Florence Marsham, the Earl and Countess of Rosebery, the Earl of Shaftesbury, the Earl of Stradbroke, the Earl and Countess of Sefton and Lady Gertrude Molyneux, the Earl and Countess Spencer, Viscount Drumlanrig, Lord and Lady Randolph Spencer Churchill, Lord Frederick Hamilton, Lord Ernest Hamilton, Lord and Lady Algernon Gordon Lennox, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Viscountess Mandeville]], Lord Charles Montagu, Viscount Chelsea, Viscount and Viscountess Coke and the Hon. Violet White, Viscount Curzon, Lady Georgina Curzon and Lady Sarah Spencer Churchill, Viscount Fincastle, Viscount Royston, Viscount Valletort, Lord and Lady Brooke, Lord Burghersh, Lord Capell, Lord and Lady Norreys and the Hon. Coralie Glyn, Lady Charles Beresford, Lord Marcus Beresford, Lord Alwyne Compton, Lord and Lady William Nevill, Lord Richard Nevill, Lord Henry Paulet, Lord Henry Vane Tempest, Lord Herbert Vane Tempest, Admiral Lord Alcester, Lady Ampthill and the Hon. Constance Russell, Lord Alington and the Hon. Winifred and Hon. Mildred Sturt, Lord and Lady Colville of Culross  and the Hon. Blanche Colville, Lord and Lady De  Ramsey, Lady Hastings, Lord and Lady Hindlip, Lord Lurgan, Lord and Lady Revelstoke and the Hon. Susan Baring, Lord and Lady Rothschild,  Lord Rowton, Lord Suffield and the Hon. Judith and Hon. Eleanor Harbord, Lord and Lady Wimborne and the Hon. Frances Guest, Lord Wolverton, Baron Ferdinand Rothschild, Captain the Hon. Maurice Bourke, R.N., Colonel the Hon. Henry Byng and the Misses Byng, the Hon. Alan Charteris, Lieutenant-Colonel the Hon. C. Edgcumbe, the Hon. Sir Spencer and Lady Ponsonby Fane, the Hon. Sidney Greville, Colonel the Hon. Oliver Montagu, the Hon. C. R. and Mrs. Spencer, the Hon. S. M'Donnell, the Hon. Alexander Yorke, the Hon. H. and Lady Feodora Sturt, the Hon. Arthur Walsh, the Hon. R. Winn, the Right Hon. W. E. and Mrs. Gladstone and Miss Gladstone, the Right Hon. A. J. Balfour, the Right Hon. H. Chaplin, the Right. Hon. Sir Henry James, the Right Hon. Sir C. L. Wyke, the Hon. S. C. Colville, the Hon. Assheton Harbord, the Hon. Julia Stonor, the Hon. H. Stonor, the Hon. E. Stonor, Captain the Hon. Henry White, Sir Edward and Lady Guinness, Sir Charles Hartopp, Sir Frederick Johnstone, Sir John and Lady Lister Kaye, Sir James and Lady  Mackenzie, Colonel Sir Nigel and Lady Emily Kingscote, Admiral Sir R. and the Hon. Lady Macdonald and Miss Macdonald, General Sir Dighton and Lady Probyn, Sir Francis and the Hon. Lady Knollys, Major-General Sir Christopher Teesdale, Sir Oscar Clayton, Sir Allen Young, Lieutenant-General Bateson, Lieutenant-General Charles Fraser, Major-General and the Hon. Mrs. Arthur Ellis and Miss Ellis, Colonel J. P. Brabazon, Colonel and Mrs. Stanley Clarke and the Misses Clarke, Captain H. F. Stephenson, R.N., Lieutenant-Colonel F. H. Poore, Lieutenant-Colonel R. Vivian, Major C. Swaine, Captain Douglas Dawson, Captain C. H. A. Hervey, the officers of the Queen's Guard, St. James's Palace, Mr. G. Byng, Mr. Henry Calcraft, Mr. Victor Cavendish, Mr. Henry Ellis, Mr. Horace Farquhar, Mr. and Mrs. George Forbes and Miss Forbes, Mr. Montagu Guest, Mr. Charles Hall, Mr. E. W. Hamilton, Mr. and Lady Hilda Higgins, Mr. Holzmann, Miss Knollys, Mr. and Mrs. F. R. Knollys, Mr. Ronald Moncrieffe, Mr. Alfred Montgomery, Mr. Arnold Morley, Mr. Henry Petre, Mr. Alfred de Rothschild, Mr. and Mrs. Leopold de Rothschild, Mr. Reuben Sassoon and Miss Sassoon, Mr. and Mrs. Arthur Sassoon, Mr. Edgar Sebright, Mr. and Mrs. Ralph Sneyd, Mr. Christopher Sykes, and Mr. O. G. St. George Williams.

Messrs. Coote and Tinney's band was in attendance.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Marlborough House.&quot; ''Morning Post'' 11 March 1890, Tuesday: 5 [of 8]. Col. 6b–c [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000174%2F18900311&amp;page=5&amp;article=055&amp;stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p.
&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

==April 1890==
Arnold Dolmetsch took out a three-day ticket to the Reading Room in April 1890 (Campbell 22).

=== 9 April 1890, Wednesday ===

==== The New Forest United Hunt Ball ====
&lt;blockquote&gt;This annual ball was beld at the New Forest Hall, Lyndhearst, on Wednesday night, and was a most brilliant gathering, upwards of 200 being present, not only the New Forest but also neighbouring hunts being well represented. Among those present were Earl and Countess of Londesborough, Lady Mildred Denison, Lady Lilian Denison, Hon. Louis Johnstone, Hon. Gerald and Mrs Lascelles, Major Downman, Capt. Sandbach, R.H.A., Col. and Mrs Sinkins, Col. Fitzroy Smyth, Lady Thursby and party, Mr Stanley Pearce (Master of the Foxhounds), Mr F. Lovell (Master of the Deerhounds) and party, Lady Adela Goff and party, Hon. Miss St. Leger Glyn and party, Mr A. H. Jeffreys, M.P., and Mrs Jeffreys, Hon. Mrs A. Peter, Mr Somerset H. Onslow, Mr Lancelot Orde, Lord Garioch, Mr and Mrs C. K. Francis, the Countess of Normandy, Lady Mary Agar, Lord Montagu, Hon. John Scott Montagu, Viscount Cantelupe, Prince Dhuleep Singh, Hon. D. Keppel, Col. Charles Needham (1st Life Guards), [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Hon. Mrs Algernon Bourke]], Mrs Cornwallis West, Mr and Mrs Shelley Bontein, Col. Gridley, Col. Newton, Col. Elliot, R.H.A., Lady Meyrick and party, Sir W. Jervois, Lady Jervois and  party, &amp;c.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;The New Forest United Hunt Ball.&quot; ''The Sportsman'' 11 April 1890, Friday: 2 [of 4], Col. 5c [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001055/18900411/024/0002. Same print title and p.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

==May 1890==
Leonora Braham appeared at the Opera Comique as Ruth Ferns in ''Gretna Green''.
===21 May 1890, Wednesday===
It was his pupil the young Countess Valda Gleichen who found a sponsor for Dolmetsch's first but brief appearance at a London concert on 21 May 1890, when the 'Magpie Minstrels' … gave one of their bi-annual performances at the Princes' Hall&quot; (Campbell 30).

==June 1890==

=== 3 June 1890, Tuesday ===

==== Dinner and Concert Hosted by Mrs. Arthur Williams and Ball by Mrs. Menzies ====
&lt;blockquote&gt;Yesterday evening society passed a large proportion of time on wheels, and the number of receptions was more than the most inveterate could get through wvith comfort. ... Meanwhile, the Duke of Clarence and Avondale dined with Mrs. Arthur Wilson in Grosvenor-place, and a small and select concert followed. The Duchess of Leinster was, as ever, the most beautiful among many beauties, the Hon. Helen Henniker, after her long mourning, was warmly greeted by swarms of friends, and the Countess of Lovelace, in grey satin, chaperoned her débutante niece, Miss Milbank.

Prince &quot;Eddie&quot; went from Mrs. Arthur Wilson's hospitable mansion to that of Mrs. J. Graham Menzies. It is unusual to find mother and daughter entertaining this illustrious young man on the same evening. Mrs. Menzies, who has succeeded Lord Suffield in his beautiful house in Upper Grosvenor-street, had one of the smartest and most successful balls of the present season. The Blue Hungarians played with immense vigour and owing to the postponement of Lady Carnarvon's ball, there was no competition for men and married women. Countess Howe, Lady Brougham and Vaux, Lady Aveland and Miss Willoughby, Viscountess Stormont, the Hon. Lady Grey Egerton and Miss Egerton, the Duchess of Buccleuch, the [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Hon. Mrs. Algernon Bourke]], the Earl of Craven, Countess of Coventry, Mrs. Mackay, Lady Sykes, the Marchioness of Granby, Mrs. Hwfa Williams, Lord Garioch, Sir Savile and Lady Crossley, Mr. and Mrs. Harry Lawson, and many others were present.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Yesterday Evening Society.&quot; ''Pall Mall Gazette'' 4 June 1890, Wednesday: 4 [of 8], Col. 3a [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000098/18900604/015/0004. Same print title and p.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

==== Münster-Hay Wedding ====
Account of the wedding of Count Alexander Münster and Lady Muriel Henrietta Constance Hay. Count Bismarck sent a gift.&lt;blockquote&gt;St. Andrew's Church, Wells-street, was completely filled yesterday afternoon on the occasion of the marriage of Count Alexander Münster, son of Count Münster, German Ambassador in Paris, with Lady Muriel Henrietta Constance Hay, younger daughter of the Earl and Countess of Kinnoull. The ceremony was fixed for half-past two o'clock, but all the seats in the body of the church were occupied long before that time by invited guests. The rood screen was hidden with white flowers, and a number of tall palms were skilfully arranged in and about the chancel. The bridegroom was early in his place, and wore the splendid white and gold uniform of the Garde du Corps of the Emperor; his best man, Prince Hans Heinrich Pless, wearing the scarlet and gold uniform of the Garde Hussars. The six bridesmaids were Lady Mildred Denison, Lady Dorothea Stewart Murray, Hon. Marie Hay, Hon. Marjory Murray, Miss Rosalind Lovell, and Miss Gladys Hadow (niece of the bride). They wore pretty dresses of pale blue satin, veiled with white chiffon; the skirts were edged with a frill, and the bodices finished with quaint fichus of the chiffon, fastened in front with a bunch of forget-me-nots. They wore drawn hats of the chiffon, covered with forget-me-nots, and their posies were of the same flowers, intermixed with pink roses, and tied with narrow pink ribbons. Each wore a gold bangle with centre forming the initials &quot;A.M.,&quot; and a single turquoise drop. The bride entered the church at half-past two, and was received by her father, who led her to the chancel steps, preceded by the choristers singing a nuptial hymn. The bride's dress was of ivory satin made with a very long train. The front was fringed round the hem with orange blossoms and veiled with old Brussels lace, the gift of her mother; the bodice was entirely covered with beautiful old lace, and finished at the neck on one side with a cluster of orange blossoms. She wore a small wreath of orange blossoms and myrtle arranged in the hair at the back and a tulle veil falling almost to the end of the train and held by diamond stars, the gift of the bridegroom. The bride's other jewels included two diamond drop hairpins, the gift of Count Münster; an emerald and diamond brooch, from the bridegroom; enamel and diamond heartsease brooch, from Lady Mary Mills; a diamond and emerald bracelet, from the Duke of Beaufort; and a diamond bracelet, from the Duke and Duchess of Athole. Her train was held by her two little nephews, Masters Roland and Patrick Hadow, wearing Scotch dress with lace ruffles. The service, which was fully choral, was performed by the Rev. Provost Rorison, of St. Ninian's Cathedral, Perth, assisted by the Rev. W. T. Houldsworth, rector of St. Andrew's.

The Earl and Countess of Kinnoull afterwards entertained the bridal party at the residence of the Earl of Londesborough, uncle of the bride, in Grosvenor-square. Among the numerous guests were the Russian Ambassador and Madame de Staal, the German Ambassador, the Austrian Ambassador and Countess Deym, Count Münster and the Countesses Marie, Julia, and T. Münster, Prince Pless, Prince Louis Esterhazy, Count Donhoff, Baroness von Beckendorff-Hindenburg, Baron E. Fürstenberg, Count Paul Metternich, Geheimrath Schmettau, Countess Valentin, [[Social Victorians/People/de Soveral|M. de]] [[Social Victorians/People/de Soveral|Soveral]], Captain Hasenclever, Count Leyden, Herr von Rath, Count Francis Deym, Baron and Baroness Deichmann, Count Mensdorff, Herr Pilgrim Baltazzi, Count and Countess Henry Lützow, Baroness d' Erlanger [?], Herr von Kemnitz, Baron Cramm, Vicomte de Janzé, the Duke of Beaufort, the Duchess of Athole, and the Ladies Stewart Murray, the Marchioness of Downshire, the Marchioness of Stafford and Lady Sybil St. Clair Erskine, Maria Marchioness of Ailesbury, the Countess of Dunraven and Ladies Wyndham Quin, the Countess of Kilmorey, the Countess of Galloway and Miss Stewart, the Countess of Dudley and Lady Edith Ward, the Countess of Strathmore and Lady Constance Lyon, the Earl and Countess of Roden, Lady Willoughby de Eresby and Hon. Miss Willoughby, the Countess of Westmorland. Viscount and Viscountess Raincliffe, Viscountess Coke, Viscountess Stormont and Hon. MabeI Murray, Viscountess Malden and Hon. Miss Capel, Lord Hay of Kinfauns [?], Lady Delamere and Miss Cholmondeley, Lady Brougham, Lady Esher, Lord Saye and Sele and Hon. Maud and Hon. Gertrude Fiennes, Lady Helen MacGregor and Miss MacGregor, Lord and Lady Algernon Gordon Lennox and Lady Angela St. Clair Erskine, Lady Raglan, Lord Charles Innes Ker, Lady Elizabeth Bertie, Lady Frances Pratt and Lady Clementine Pratt, Lady Geraldine Somerset, Lady Dalton Fitzgerald and Miss Payne, Lady Mary Mills and Miss Pereira, Lady Dorchester, Lady Louisa Moncreiffe and Misses Moncreiffe, Lady Norreys, Lady Petre, Lady Jane Trefusis, Lord Frederic Hamilton, Baroness de Brienen and Miss de Brienen, Helen Lady Forbes and the Misses Forbes, Lady Scott, Miss Scott and Mrs. Green, Lord Zouche and Hon. Miss Curzon, Mr. and Lady Constance Hadow, Hon. Lady Campbell, Lady William Nevill and Miss Bannerman, Hon. Alastair and Mrs. Hay, Hon. Miss Greville, Captain Hon. Randolph Stewart, Hon. FitzRoy and Mrs. Stewart, Hon. Charles Walsh, Hon. William Walsh, [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Hon. Mrs. Algernon Bourke]], Colonel Hon. Charles and Mrs. Hay and Miss Maude Hay, Hon. Mrs. Greville Nugent, Hon. Mrs. Colville and Miss Streatfeild [sic], Hon. Claude Hay, Sir Charles and Lady Forbes of Newe, Laely Borthwick, Sir Francis Montefiore, Sir Henry Hoare, Sir George Arthur, Sir William Gordon Cumming, General and Mrs. Wilkinson, Colonel and Mrs. Chaine, Colonel Arthur Paget, Colonel H. M. Hozier, the Provost of St. Ninian's, Major Finch, Major Candy, Colonel Lloyd, Captain and Mrs. Stewart, Mr. and Mrs. Hay Drummond, Captain and Mrs. Lloyd, Mr. William Gillett, Mr. Hulse, M.P., and Mrs. Hulse, Captain Lumley, Captain Barrow, Major Anstruther, Mrs. Hwfa Williams, Mr. Arthur Hay, Mr. Raglan Somerset, Mr. and Mrs. George Cavendish Bentinck, Mrs. Villiers, Mr. Henry Petre, Mrs. Keighley, Mrs. E. Balfour and Miss Balfour and Miss Ellice, Mrs. Dick Cunynghame and Miss A. M'Gregor, Rev. C. Weidemann, Miss Balfour and Miss E. Balfour, Mrs. and Miss Halford, Mr. and Mrs. Toler, Mrs. and Miss Townley, Rev. Dr. M'Ewan, Mr. A. F. Levita, Mr. F. Stephens, Mrs. and Miss Leigh, Mr. and Mrs. George Forbes and Miss Forbes, Mrs. Luke Wheeler, Mrs. J. Beerbohm, Dr. and Mrs. W. M. Collins, Mrs. and Miss Orde, Mrs. Murray, Miss Glyn, Mrs. Godfrey Pearse, Mr. Balfour, Mr. Leopold Goldberg, Mr. and Miss Oswa d [Oswald], Mr. and Mrs. C. Bulteel, Mrs. Brydges Wyllyams, Mr. H. Balfour, the Misses Codrington, Miss Finch, Mrs. Barron and Miss Sullivan, Mr. Hamilton Aidé, Mr. Granville and Miss Berkeley, Mr. M'Gregor, Mrs. and Miss Needham, Mr. and Mrs. A. Consett and Miss Consett, Mrs. Herbert Naylor LeyIand, Mr. and Mrs. A. Darby, Mrs. Montefiore, Mrs. Charles Murray and Miss Murray, Mrs. Thomas Legh, the Rev. John F. Mitchell, Mr. and Mrs. Claud Hay, Mr. Fiztalan Manners, Mr. Albert Stopford, Mr. Hervey Pechell, and Mr. and Mrs. Charles Orde.

Later in the day Count Alexander Münster and his bride left for Hillingdon Court, Uxbridge, the residence of the Hon. A. Mills, where they will pass the early days of the honeymoon, and then proceed to Chàlet Sans Souci, Bellaggio, Lake of Como, lent by Mr. Hervey Pechell. They will afterwards go to Wiesbaden, and thence to Count Münster's German country seat, where a great reception awaits them.

The wedding presents were very numerous. Count Munster presented the bride with a diamond necklace and pair of diamond drop hairpins. The bridegroom's gifts to his bride included a tiara of three diamond stars, a brooch formed of an emerald of unusual size set in diamonds, large pearl pendant, gold bracelet set with turquoises, and diamond and turquoise ring. The Duke of Beaufort presented Lady Muriel with an emerald and diamond bracelet. The Earl and Countess of Kinnoull's presents included a quantity of plate and other articles. Prince Henry of Battenberg sent a large silver-mounted claret jug; Count Bismarck, a silver box; the Marchioness of Waterford, gold snake bracelet, with pearl head and ruby eyes; the Duke and Duchess of Athole, diamond &quot;M&quot; bangle; Lady Ermyntrude Malet, massive silver bowl; Countess Marie Münster, silver tea set and tray; Baron E. Fürstenberg, pair of gold-mounted claret jugs; Baron and Baroness Erlanger, large silver bowl; Baron and Baroness Gungberg, pair of antique silver mounted jugs.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Marriage of Count Alexander Münster and Lady Muriel Hay.&quot; ''Morning Post'' 4 June 1890, Wednesday: 7 [of 12], Col. 7a–c [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000174/18900604/064/0007. Same print title and p.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

===4 June 1890, Wednesday===
Derby Day.

According to the Morning Post, &lt;quote&gt;Lady Thurlow's first dance. / Mrs. Coddington's Ball. / The Fourth of June celebration at Eton. / ... Royal Society of Literature — Paper on &quot;Early England,&quot; by Mr. Carmichael, S. &lt;/quote&gt; (&quot;Arrangements for This Day.&quot; The Morning Post Wednesday, 4 June 1890: p. 7 [of 12], Col. 6A).

===13 June 1890, Friday===
? or on the 12th? Arnold Dolmetsch had a concert at which his students performed (Campbell 31). It was reviewed very positively in the 13 June Daily Graphic, especially Helene Dolmetsch's performance. They did Purcell's Fairy Queen. They used a harpsichord.

===26 June 1890, Thursday===
There was apparently a regular celebration of [[Social Victorians/People/Arthur Collins|Arthur Collins]]' birthday, 26 June, by Bret Harte, George Du Maurier, [[Social Victorians/People/Arthur Sullivan|Arthur Sullivan]], Alfred Cellier, Arthur Blunt, and John Hare (Nissen, Axel. Brent Harte: Prince and Pauper: 239. [http://books.google.com/books?id=WEDewmUnapcC]). Choosing 1885–1902 as the dates because those apparently are the dates of the close relationship between Harte and Collins, ending in Harte's death in 1902.

==July 1890==
===3 July 1890, Thursday===
&lt;blockquote&gt;On July 3, 1890, Besant’s house at 19 Avenue Road, St. John’s Wood, was inaugurated as a new center of Theosophical work, serving as the European headquarters of the [[Social Victorians/Theosophical Society|Theosophical Society]] and as HPB’s residence. That house became also the meeting place of HPB’s Inner Group, twelve of her students who were eager for more intense training than was feasible in a larger, more general gathering.&lt;/blockquote&gt;That Inner Group is different from the Esoteric Section.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Esoteric World Chapter 23.&quot; ''The Theosophical Society of America, Online Resources''. http://www.theosophical.org/index.php?option=com_content&amp;view=article&amp;catid=23&amp;id=1725&amp;Itemid=53&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;blockquote&gt;The hall had a seating capacity of about 200. On the opening night [July 3, 1890] [sic] the room was crammed, and many were unable to gain admission. The speakers were Mrs. Besant, Mr. Sinnett, a Mrs. Woolff (of America), and Mr. [Bertram] Keightley. HPB was present but said nothing, on account of the critical state of her health.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;23a. Henry S. Olcott, July 1890, London [Olcott 1931, 4:254–6].&quot; Esoteric World Chapter 23. ''The Theosophical Society of America, Online Resources''. http://www.theosophical.org/index.php?option=com_content&amp;view=article&amp;catid=23&amp;id=1725&amp;Itemid=53.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== 4 July 1890, Friday, 11 p.m. ===

==== The Queen's State Ball at Buckingham Palace ====
The Prince and Princess of Wales were hosts of this ball, as Queen Victoria was not present. Many of the Queen's children and their spouses were present.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;State Ball at Buckingham Palace.&quot; ''Morning Post'' 5 July 1890, Saturday: 5 [of 8], Col. 5a–7b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000174/18900705/038/0005. Same print title and p.&lt;/ref&gt; The dancing commenced shortly after the Prince and Princess of Wales arrived at 11:00.

=== 1890 July 15, Tuesday ===

==== Garden Party at Marlborough House to Meet the Queen ====
The beginning of the ''Morning Post'' article, which is followed by a very long list of people invited:&lt;blockquote&gt;Their Royal Highnesses the Prince and Princess of Wales gave a garden party at Marlborough House yesterday afternoon to meet the Queen.

Her Majesty was accompanied by their Royal Highnesses the Princesses Victoria and Margaret of Prussia, and was attended by the Duchess of Roxburghe, Miss M'Neill, the Hon. Evelyn Moore, the Hon. Bertha Lambert, and Major-General Sir Henry Ewart and Major F. A. Bigge. Madlle. De Perpigna was in attendance on the Princesses Victoria and Margaret.

The following were present: — Their Royal Highnesses the Duke and Duchess of Edinburgh and Prince Alfred, and the Princesses Marie, Victoria, Alexandra, and Beatrice of Edinburgh; their Royal Highnesses the Duke and Duchess of Connaught and Prince Arthur, and the Princesses Margaret and Patricia of Connaught; their Royal Highnesses the Prince and Princess Christian of Schleswig-Holstein Sonderburg-Augustenburg and Princess Victoria and Princess Louisa of Schleswig-Holstein, her Royal Highness the Princess Louise, Marchioness of Lorne, and the Marquis of Lorne.

Her Royal Highness the Duchess of Albany, her Royal Highness the Princess Frederica and the Baron von Pawell-Rammingen, his Royal Highness the Duke of Cambridge, her Royal Highness Princess Mary Adelaide Duchess of Teck and his Highness the Duke of Teck and Princess Victoria of Teck, his Royal Highness the Duke d'Orleans and Princess Hélène d'Orleans, his Imperial Highness Don Pedro Augustus of Coburg and Braganza, his Serene Highness the Prince of Schaumburg-Lippe, his Serene Highness the Prince of Leiningen and their Serene Highnesses Prince and Princess Victor of Hohenlohe-Langenburg and the Countesses Gleichen, and Count Gleichen.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Garden Party at Marlborough House.&quot; ''Morning Post'' 15 July 1890, Tuesday: 5 [of 8], Col. 3a–7c [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000174/18900715/044/0005. Same print title and p.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== 19 July 1890, Saturday ===

==== Wedding of James Francis Harry St. Clair-Erskine and Violet Aline Vyner ====
This report from the ''Fife Free Press'' is missing a big piece of the 2nd paragraph, where the bridesmaids' and bride's dresses are described, because the page was damaged. The digitized copy is also generally poor.&lt;blockquote&gt;On Saturday forenoon, in Michael’s Church, Chester Square, London, was celebrated the marriage of Lord Loughhorough, eldest son of the Earl of Rosslyn with Miss Violet Aline Vyner, younger daughter of Mr R. C. Vyner, of Fairfield, Yorkshire. The chancel was beautifully decorated with palms and a profusion of lilies most artistically arranged. The Prince of Wales, Duke of Cambridge. Princess Mary Adelaide, Duchess and the Duke of Teck, and Princess Victoria, and the Right Hon. W. E. Gladstone were among those present.

The wedding party began to arrive at 11 o’clock, the bridesmaids being early in attendance. They were the Ladies Sybil and Angela St Clair Erskine, sisters of the bridegroom; Lady Anne Lambton, Miss Musgrave, Miss Rachel Gurney, and Miss Fleming. They were charmingly dressed in soft cream crepon, with violet velvet Zoave jackets, forming half sleeves and capes at the back, and pretty turn-down collars and cravats of white mosseline [mousseline?] chiffon, and the skirts were very plainly made. They wore large white hats lined with a band of violet velvet near the face, and trimmed on the crown with white ostrich plumes, a bunch of violets fastening the brim at the back. Each wore a brooch — the St Clair cross in rubies and diamonds set in a circle of the latter, and surmounted by a baron’s cornet of the same precious stones — the gift of the bri[degroom]; and carried a bouquet of Marechal Niel [roses?] ...ging sprays of the same, and tied w... ribbons. The bride entered the ... eleven o’clock, being received at ... father, who led her to the cha... her away. The service be... procession was preceded up ... choir, who sang &quot;The voic...&quot; The bride’s dress was ... with a long court train, ... white velvet being embro... ...und the train, and fasten... ...ver true lover’s knot. The picture... ...gh silver waistband, had full slee... mousseline chiffon; and a small ... blossoms was most becomingly arra... with a long tulle veil. The Earl of Chesterfield discharged the duties of best man.

The Rev. Canon Fleming, Chaplain in Ordinary to the Queen and Vicar of St Michael's, performed the marriage rite, assisted by the Rev. Edgar Sheppard, Sub-Dean of the Chapels Royal, and the Rev. J. Thomson, of Rosslyn, near Edinburgh. The hymn “Thine for ever! For of love,” was sung the end of the service. Canon Fleming afterwards delivered a most impressive address. After the benediction the clergy and bride and bridegroom passed to the vestry, the Prince of Wales following with Mrs Vyner. Pretty wedding favours of orange blossoms, Parma violets, and white heather were then distributed amongst the congregation.

Mr and Mrs Vyner afterwards welcomed the wedding party at Ashburnham House, Dover-street. The ''dejeuner'' was served in three rooms, one being reserved for the bride and bridegroom and the Royal party. The table in the latter room was decorated with several of Mr Vynet's racing trophies. The band of the Grenadier Guards performed in the garden during the reception. The Prince of Wales, Duke of Cambridge, the Duke and Duchess of Teck and Princess Victoria were present at the breakfast, and among the general company were Count Munster and Countess Maria Munster, the Marchese and Marchesa de Montagliari, the Marquis and Marchioness of Ripon, the Marquis and Marchioness of Stafford, the Marquis of Cholmondeley, the Marquis of Northampton, Maria Marchioness of Ailesbury, the Dowager Marchioness of Conyngham and Lady Blanche Conyngham, the Marchioness of Downshire, the Countess of Rosslyn, Earl and Countess Compton, the Earl of Feversham, the Earl of Durham, the Countess of Coventry and the Ladies Coventry, Countess Howe and Ladies Curzon, the Countess of Yarborough, the Earl of Clonmell, the Earl and Countess of Loudoun, the Countess of Kilmorey, Countess de Grey, Viscount Molyneux, the Bishop of Gibraltar and Mrs Sandford, Viscountess de Labrosse and Mdles. de Labrosse, Lord Greenock, Lord and Lady Algernon Lennox, Lady Lilian Wemyss, Lady Julia Wombwell and Miss Wombwell, Hon. Lady Campbell of Blythswood, Lady Constance Harris, Lady Florence Harris, Lord and Lady Burghley, Lady Dorchester, Lord Houghton, Lady Curzon, Lady Brougham and Vaux and Miss Musgrave, Baron de Hirsch, Helen Lady Forbes and the Misses Forbes, Baroness Burdett Coutts and Mr Burdett Coutts, M.P., Lady Astley, Lord and Lady William Nevill, Lord and Lady Brooke and Hon. Leopold and Hon. Marjorie Greville, Lady Dalton Fitzgerald and Miss Payne, Lord Elcho, Lady Willoughby de Eresby and the Misses Willoughby, Lady Ewart, Lady Hindlip, Lady Cecilia Rose, Lord Rowton, Lord Capell, Lady Mabel Compton, Lord and Lady Herries, Lady Sykes, Lord and Lady Alwyne Compton, Lady Ventry and Hon. Miss de Moleyns, Hon. Lady Knollys, Lady Manners, Hon. Lady Drummond and Misses Drummond, Hon. Sydney Greville, Hon. Assheton Harbord, Hon. Derek Keppel, Hon. Captain Bourke, Hon. Mrs Percy Mitford, Hon. Philip Harbord, Hon. and Rev. L. Tyrwhitt, Hon. Coralie Glyn, Hon. M. Lambton, Hon L. Greville, Hon. Alwyn Greville, Hon[.] Eva Greville, Hon. Frances Dawnay, Hon Evelyn Paget, Hon Mrs Algernon Grosvcnor, Hon and Mrs Lambton. Hon. Mrs Evelyn Pelham, Hon. Fitzroy St Clair Erskine, [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Hon. Mrs Algernon Bourke]], Hon. W. Maxwell, Hon. G. and Mrs Dawnay, Hon. Captain Lambton, General Sir Seymour Blane, Sir William Gordon Cumming, Sir Archibald and Miss Edmunstone, Sir Henry and Lady Meysey Thompson, Mrs Gladstone, Mr and Lady Margaret Cameron, Mr and Lady Florence Astley, Mr and Lady Elizabeth Melville Cartwright and Miss Melville Cartwright, General and Mrs Duff and Miss Duff, General Owen Williams, Colonel and Mrs Anstruther Thompson, Colonel Stopford Sackville, Colonel Craig, Colonel Brabazon, Colonel Forester, Colonel Stanley Clarke (in attendance on the Prince of Wales) and Miss Clarke, Major Davidson, Canon and Mrs Fleming, Captain St John Mildmay (in attendance on the Duke of Cambridge), Captain and Mrs FitzGeorge, Mrs William Portal, the Sub Dean of the Chapels Royal, Rev. W. M. and Mrs Wollaston, Rev. R. West, Mr and Miss Chamberlain. Mr and Mrs W. H. Grenfell, Mr Christopher Sykes, M.P., Mr Reuben Sassoon, Mr Arthur Sassoon, Mrs Bischoffsheim, Mr and Mrs Herbert Naylor Leyland, Dr and Mrs Anderson, Mrs Oswald, Mr and Mrs Surtees, Mr Fitzgerald, Mr and Mrs Menzies, Miss Willoughby and Miss Gertrude Willoughby, Mr Arthur Paget, Miss Christie, Mr Dowdall, Mrs Eastwood and the Misses Eastwood, Mr Frederick Warre, Mr William Williamson, Mrs Burton, Mrs Chaine, Captain and Mrs Livesey Wardle, Captain A. R. Hill, Miss Helby, Mrs and Miss Winslow, Mr and Miss Oswald, Mr Willoughby, Mr Quintin Hume, Mr F and Miss Fitzherbert, Mrs and Miss F. Hotham, Mr and Mrs Moreton Frewin, Mrs Charles Otway, Mr Calcraft, Mr Watson, Mr Fennick, Mr Montgomery, Mr Cecil Murray, Mr and Mrs Sneyd, Mr Leslie Stephen, Mr Edgar Sebright, Miss Fleetwood Wilson, Mrs and Miss Farmer of Nonsuch, Mr and Mrs Dennistoun and Miss Dennistoun, Mr and Mrs J. R. Lane Fox and Miss Lane Fox, &amp;c. 

The bride and bridegroom left early in the afternoon for Easton Lodge, Dunmow, the seat of Lord and Lady Brooke, in Essex, where they will spend the honeymoon. The bride travelled in a costume of biscuit coloured armure silk, the top of the bodice and sleeves being of pale pink mousseline de soie, and the lower part of the former inserted with pink velvet ribbons to form a high band, Tuscan straw-hat trimmed with pink crepe de chine, and biscuit feathers. The presents exceeded four hundred in number. The Prince of Wales presented the bride with a trefoil moonstone and diamond brooch and the bridegroom with a sapphire and diamond pin. The Princess of Wales's gift the bridegroom was a silver-necked claret jug. The Duke of Cambridge gave an amethyst and diamond pendant, and the bridegroom a pair of silver gilt candlesticks; and Princess Mary and the Duke of Teck presented the bride with a silver sugar basin. The bridegroom’s gifts to the bride were a diamond and sapphire watch bracelet, a diamond half-hoop ring, diamond brooch with pearl centre, diamond and turquoise brooch, formed of the St Clair badge in rubies and diamonds set in a circle of diamonds, surmounted by a baron’s coronet in the same precious stones, a large salts bottle with two heart-shaped moonstones set with rubies and diamonds and a silver sugar basin. The bride presented Lord Loughborough with a turquoise and diamond stud. The Earl of Rosslyn presented the bride with diamond necklet. The Countess of Rosslyn’s gifts were diamond orchid brooch and a pink feather fan. Mr R. C. Vyner’s gifts to his daughter were a diamond and pearl tiara and gold mounted dressing case, and Mrs Vyner gave her a sapphire and diamond ring. The Marchioness of Stafford gave a ruby and diamond pin; Lady Mary Vyner antique diamond tiara; the Ladies Angela and Sybil Erskine sapphire and diamond bracelet; Hon. Fitzroy St Clair Erskine with &quot;1890&quot; in rubies and diamonds; Lord and Lady A. Compton large diamond star; the Earl of Rosslyn presented his son with a large silver bowl and two silver dishes; the Countess of Rosslyn's present was a travelling bag; Mr Vyner gave him a luncheon basket; Mrs Vyner a silver ''entree'' dish; the Marchioness of Stafford case containing silver coffee and tea pots, urn and stand, sugar basin, and cream jug; Lord and Lady Brooke four antique silver sauce boats; Lord and Lady Algernon Gordon ['''Col. 1c–2a'''] Lennox three antique silver ''entree'' dishes. The Earl of Rosslyn's Fifeshire tenants presented Lord Loughborough with a beautiful antique silver bowl, two antique silver dessert dishes, and two antique sugar castors; and to the bride they gave an antique silver tea service. The congregation of Rosslyn Chapel presented the bridegroom with a complete and elegant writing set, whilst Lord Rosslyn's servants gave him a silver inkstand and pair of silver candlesticks. Mr Vyner's servants presented the bride with a silver salver and six ''liqueur'' cups. The servants of Newby Hall gave a silver coffee pot, and Mr Vyner’s Cheshire tenants presented a case containing silver tea pot, sugar basin, and cream jug. The bride also received from the Duchess of Portland a travelling bag; the Duchess de Luynes, sapphire and diamond ring; the Duke of Westminister, Indian necklace; the Marquis of Northampton, diamond bracelet; the Marquis of Ripon, sapphire and diamond bracelet; the Marchioness of Ripon, turquoise and diamond bangle, the Earl of Durham, a diamond half hoop bracelet; Earl and Countess Cowper, a diamond &quot;V V” brooch; Dowager Viscountess Downe, moonstone and diamond crescent; Lady Skyes [Sykes] ruby and diamond fish brooch; Lady Millbank, sapphire and diamond brooch Lord Douglas Compton, double heart brooch; Lord Herbert Vane Tempest, gold curb chain bracelet set with pearls; Earl and Countess Compton, bangle with “Vi” and “good luck” on it; the Duke and Duchess of St Albans, tea service with table; the Marchioness Conyngham, silver cream jug; the Marchioness of Tavistock, silver vase; the Countess of Rodin, a silver I bowl; the Countess of Yarborough, silver candlesticks; Viscountess Downe, silver tea caddie; Lady de Trafford, gold mounted salts bottle; the Hon. F. Dawnay, large silver candlesticks[;] Hon. F and Lady Lampton, travelling clock; Hon. W. Lambton, silver candlesticks; Sir R. and Lady Graham, silver salver; Sir Roderick and Miss Cameron, two silver dishes; General Williams, diamond bangle; Colonel and Mrs G. FitzGeorge, gold mounted bottle; Major and Mrs Egerton, pair of silver candlesticks; Major Stuart Wortley, diamond Swallow; Major Davidson, heart-shaped brooch in coral and diamonds; Captain and Lady Cecilia Rose, a brougham; Mr Beaumont, silver bowl; Miss Edmonstone, moonstone and diamond hat pins; Mrs Harris, sapphire and diamond bracelet; Mr Egerton, turquoise and diamond brooch; Sir Cecil Murray, sapphire and diamond pin; Mr A. Farquharson, diamond swallow brooch; Mr and Mrs Hulse, two small silver vases; Miss Fleetwood Wilson, diamond bangle; Mrs A. Wilson, tortoiseshell candlestick; Mr Quintin Hume, salts bottle mounted with diamonds and rubies; Miss Helbert, gold violet pin; Mr Chamberlain, pair of silver candlesticks; Hon. Arthur Coventry, gold mounted bottle with &quot;Vi&quot; in diamonds; Mrs Leopold de Rothschild, diamond hand brooch, together with a number of other gifts. Among the presents to the bridegroom were — from the Marchioness of Downshire, antique silver sugar sifter; the Marquis of Exeter, silver sandwich case; the Marchioness of Bath, antique Dutch silver box; the Marquis of Downshire, a gold pencil; Count Munster, cigarette case and match box; Count Alexander Munster, a hunting flask; the Countess of Lindsay, antique silver pen-tray; the Earl of Mar and Kellie, silver matchbox; the Earl and Countess of Loudoun, silver cigarette box; the Earl of Chesterfield, antique silver gilt inkstand; the Countess of Bradford, gold seal with agate; the Countess of Warwick, antique silver bowl; the Earl of Coventry, silver pen-tray; the Countess of Wharncliffe, two silver candlesticks; the Earl and Countess of Cromartie, two antique silver cups; Viscountess of Newport, silver paper knife; Mr and Mrs A. Sassoon, ruby and diamond pin; Lord John Cecil, silver salver; Lord and Lady Willoughby de Eresby, antique silver-mounted cruet stand; Lord William Nevtll, antique brandy carrier; Lady Margaret Spicer, silver match box; Lord Burghley, four silver salt cellars and spoons; Baron de Hirch [Hirsch?], silver inkstand; Lady W. E. Osborne Elphinstone, silver inkstand; Lord Kesteven, silver cream jug; Lord Capell, silver cigarette case; Lord and Lady Gerard, tortoiseshell and silver travelling clock; Lady Lilian Wemyss, silver cigarette case; Dad Alwyne Compton, umbrella containing matchbox and whistle; Lord and Lady Lennox, two antique silver ''entree'' dishes and bacon dish; Lord Burghersh, silver cigarette lighter; Lady Angela 8t Clair Erskine, four silver salt cellars; Lady Randolph Churchill, gold pencil case, with two sapphires; Lord Houghton, antique gold basket; Lady Sybil St Clair Erskine, umbrella; Lord and Lady Dorchester, large crystal seal; Hon. Derek P. Keppel, pair of silver candlesticks; Hon. E. and Mrs Pelham, silver inkstand; Hon. G. N. Curzon, silver gilt bowl; Hon. F. St Clair Erskine, four silver candle-sticks; [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Hon. A. and Mrs Bourke]], four small silver dessert dishes; Hon. Mrs Elliot Yorke, pair of silver candlesticks; Hon. Mr and Mrs L. Greville, tortoise-shell and silver box; Hon. R Somerset, diamond and pearl pin; Hon. G. H. Willoughby, silver ink-stand; Hon. H. and Mrs Grosvenor, umbrella; [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Hon. Mrs Algernon Bourke]], enamel and diamond pin; Captain Hon. Maurice Bourke, cigarette case and lighter; Hon. W. Maxwell, silver-backed clothes and hat brushes; Hon. Sidney Greville, saltspoons; Hon. M. C. Maxwell Scott, two silver ''menu'' plates; Hon. W. Edwardes, pin; [[Social Victorians/People/Greville|Captain Hon. A.]] and [[Social Victorians/People/Lady Violet Greville|Mrs Greville]], silver gilt bowl, fork, spoon, and ladle; Sir Frederick Milner, diamond and moonstone pin; Sir George Chetwynd, two long silver flagons; Sir M. and Lady Fitzgerald, two silver saltspoons; Sir N. Gordon Gumming, silver-handled paper knife, &amp;c.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Marriage of Lord Loughborough with Miss Vyner.&quot; ''Fife Free Press'' 26 July 1890, Saturday: 2 [of 8], Col. 1a–2b [of 6]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001110/18900726/015/0002. Same print title and p.&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== 24 July 1890, Thursday ===

==== Dinner and Dance Hosted by Lord Alington ====
Perhaps the date on this is uncertain, since the article in ''Truth'' would suggest it was held in late May or early June. The newspaper story in the ''Queen'' mentions another occasion in which the flowers were notable as well.

From ''Truth'':&lt;blockquote&gt;
But not a quarter of a mile distant [from a dinner and dance hosted by Lord Rothschild featuring Princess Louise and the Marquis of Lorne] a more important event was proceeding, for Lord Alington, having previously walked down the Row and invited his friends right and left to Alington House, South Audley-street, proceeded to give a dance which was honoured by the presence of the Prince and Princess of Wales, the Princesses Victoria and Maud, the Duke of Clarence, Princess Mary Adelaide, and Princess &quot;May&quot; and Prince and Princess Christian. This without exaggeration, with the exception of Lady Leconfield's, Lady Willoughby de Eresby's, and Lady Cadogan's, was the best ball hitherto given this season, and the prolific way ortolans [small songbirds regarded as a delicacy] were distributed at supper will long linger in the memories of those by whom these delicacies are cherished. One lady displayed her enthusiastic appreciation by devouring five of these, and it is to be hoped her devotion did not endanger her life. As for beauty, seldom before have so many pre-eminent for good looks been present at one gathering, as a mere enumeration of a few of these will prove. Of course the Duchess of Leinster heads the list, followed in quick succession by the Duchess of Portland, Lady de Grey, Lady Randolph Churchill, Lady Dudley, Lady Kilmorey, Lady Brooke, Lady de Trafford, Lady Helen Duncombe, Lady Hilda Dundas, Lady Sybil St. Clair Erskine, Lady Olivia Taylour, Miss Rachael Gurney, Lady Cardross, Miss Bourke, Lady Rose Leigh and her sister-in-law, Miss Leigh, Miss Berens (sister to Lady Cairns), Mrs. Ralph Sneyd, Lady Gerard, and a host of others far too numerous to mention. I often wonder that no painter has yet attempted to give us in one picture a permanent record of the chief beauties of our day. It would make a most interesting and exquisite group of lovely women, such as could not be found probably in any other country than this.&lt;ref&gt;Marmaduke, pseud. &quot;Letters from the Linkman.&quot; ''Truth'' 12 June 1890, Thursday: 26 [of 56], Col. 1a–b [of 2]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0002961/18900612/064/0026. Same print title, p. 1212.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;
From the ''Queen'':&lt;blockquote&gt;The P&lt;small&gt;RINCE AND&lt;/small&gt; P&lt;small&gt;RINCESS OF&lt;/small&gt; W&lt;small&gt;ALES&lt;/small&gt; and the Princesses Victoria and Maud honoured L&lt;small&gt;ORD&lt;/small&gt; A&lt;small&gt;LINGTON&lt;/small&gt; by their presence at D&lt;small&gt;INNER&lt;/small&gt;, at A&lt;small&gt;LINGTON&lt;/small&gt; H&lt;small&gt;OUSE&lt;/small&gt;, South Audley-street, on the 24th ult., when a distinguished party was present to meet them, including, among others, the Duke and Duchess of Leinster, the Marquis of Hartington, the Marquis and Marchioness of Ormonde, Maria Marchioness of Ailesbury, Earl and Countess Cadogan and Lady Emily Cadogan, the Earl Countess of Lucan and Lady Rosaline Bingham, the Earl  of Hardwicke, the Countess of Dudley and Lady Edith Ward, the EarI of Chesterfield, the Earl of Stradbroke and Lady Hilda Rous, and Earl Annesley. Covers were laid for sixty. Lord Alington afterwards gave a dance to meet the Prince and Princess of Wales and their daughters. As on the previous occasion, the floral decorations were exquisite. The entrance hall and the approaches to the reception rooms were decorated with tall palms and a profusion of lilies, pelargoniums, ferns in every variety, and roses in every imaginable shade. The conservatories at the back were carpeted and furnished luxuriously, and blocks of ice, lighted by fairy lamps, were placed about with artistic effect, serving to keep the atmosphere cool and fresh. Feathery palms, hydrangeos [hydrangeas] and arums were here used freely, and a particularly pretty result was obtained by the windows being framed, one in a fringe of ferns and red pelargoniums, and the other in ferns and fuschias. The ballroom fireplaces were adorned on each side with palms reaching to the ceiling, the mantelpieces being hidden by a delicate arrangement of roses in various shades springing from banks of hydrangeas, calceolarias, pelargoniums, and marguerites, and the walls of the staircase leading from the conservatory to the ball-room were hung with half-balls of floral roses. The supper was served in the dining-room, the tables being embellished with the loveliest orchids and roses of the most delicate tints, intermixed with pancretia; the arrangement was so light and elegant that it was difficult to believe that hands had ever touched the flowers. On those tables with silver candelabra in the centre, the flowers were all pure white, and those having gold candelabra were treated with mauve orchids and the palest pink and yellow roses. A tent, arranged near the conservatory for the Prince of Wales, was draped with Oriental hangings, and outside were groups of flowers and myriads of fairy lamps. The company began to arrive at eleven o'clock, when dancing commenced to the strains of the Blue Hungarian Band. The Princess of Wales was dressed in white striped satin and silk, the front being embroidered in pale shades, and wore handsome diamond ornaments. The Princesses Victoria and Maud wore white tulle over satin, the front being sprinkled all over with tiny sprays of lilies of the valley, each laid on a single leaf. The Duchess of Wellington was in black satin, with a pink sash arranged very prettily across the back of the bodice, and falling to the feet; a cluster of pink flowers and a beautiful diamond spray were fastened in the front of the bodicea and a diamond rivière was arranged in the hair, a diamond necklace being also worn. The Duchess of Westminster was in white satin trimmed with gold embroidery, and veiled in white chiffon. The Marchioness of Ormonde wore white striped brocade and satin trimmed with white lace, and a splendid diamond tiara and other ornaments. Countess de Grey, palest blue satin, with front beautifully embroidered in beads, and a diamond and pearl coronet. Maria, Marchioness of Ailesbury, white brocade and lace, with splendid diamond and emerald ornaments. The Marchioness of Bath, cream an violet brocaded velvet, the front being covered with mauve [38, Col. 3c – 39, Col. 1a] violets. Lady Mary Mills, rose-pink satin, with front richly embroidered; Lady Cardross, white satin, trimmed round the bodice and train with silver embroidery; Lady William Nevill, pale yellow brocade, the front veiled with black net, trimmed up the side with jet leaves, and all round the skirt was a bordering of Maréchal Niel roses, over a flounce of black net; Countess Granville wore rich white brocade and beautiful jewels; the Countess of Sefton, black satin and diamonds; Viscountess Dungan, white mousseline de soie, the skirt edged with a deep flounce; Lady Brooke, pale blue satin, trimmed with silver; Lady Emma Crichton, white satin train, with front of white lisse, prettily embroidered in red; Lady Idina Brassey, pale mauve bengaline, with front of chiffon and a handsome diamon coronet; Lady Rose Molyneux, white cross crêpe de Chine, with a pale green sash, and prettily trimmed with pink roses; Lady Wimborne, pale grey satin; the Hon. Miss Guest, pink satin, veiled with white net, sparkling with silver; Lady Sarah Spencer Churchill, white satin, with a chiffon frill; Lady Chesham, white silk, with pink roses; the Countess of Normanton, pale grey satin, with front of fine old lace; Mrs Hulse, handsome white brocade, diamond tiara, &amp;c.; Mrs Bischoffsheim, white silk, embroidered with silver, and trimmed round the bottom of the skirt and train with a ruche of pale yellow crèpe; the Hon. Muriel Brassey, white chiffon, over satin, slightly trimmed with pink; and the [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Hon. Mrs Algernon Bourke]] was in pink, with magnificent diamonds.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Entertainments, Balls, &amp;c.&quot; ''The Queen'' 2 August 1890, Saturday: 38, Col. 3c – 39 [of 82], Col. 1a–1c [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/BL/0002627/18900802/237/0038 and https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0002627/18900802/237/0039. Print: ''The Queen, The Lady's Newspaper'', pp. 170–171.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;This is the story from the ''Morning Post'':&lt;blockquote&gt;The Prince and Princess of Wales and the Princesses Victoria and Maud honoured Lord Alington by their company at dinner last evening at Alington House, South Audley-street. The guests present to meet their Royal Highnesses comprised the Duke and Duchess of Leinster, the Marquis of Hartington, the Marquis and Marchioness of Ormonde, Maria Marchioness of Ailesbury, Earl and Countess Cadogan and Lady Emily Cadogan, the Earl and Countess of Lucan and Lady Rosaline Bingham, the Earl of Hardwicke, the Countess of Dudley and Lady Edith Ward, the Earl of Chesterfield, Earl Annesley, the Earl of Stradbroke and Lady Hilda Rous, Lord and Lady Gerard, Lady Norreys, Lord Rowton, Lord Calthorpe, Lord Frederick Hamilton, Lord Charles Montagu, Lord Herbert Vane Tempest, Lord Arthur Grosvenor, Lady Lilian Wemyss, Colonel the Hon. Oliver Montagu, Sir John and Lady Lister Kaye, the Hon. Humphrey and Lady Feodore Sturt, the Hon. John Baring, the Hon. Henry and the Hon. Julia Stonor, the Hon. Gilbert Willoughby, Lady Suffield and Major-General Ellis, in waiting on the Prince and Princess of Wales; Sir Henry Calcraft, Mr. and Lady Rose Leigh, General and Mrs. Owen Williams, Mr. Mildmay, M.P., Mr. and Mrs. Arthur Sassoon, Mr. Montague Guest, Captain Orr-Ewing, Mrs. Bulkeley, Mr. Ricardo, and Mr. Caryl Craven.

Lord Alington afterwards gave a dance expressly to meet the Prince and Princess of Wales.

Among the company were— The Russian Ambassador, the Danish Minister, Prince Louis Esterhazy, Comte Costa de Beaunyardt, the Duchess of Buccleuch and Lady Evelyn Fitzmaurice, the Duchess of Westminster, the Dowager Duchess of Marlborough and Lady Sarah Spencer Churchill, the Duchess of Wellington and Lady Cardross, the Marquis and Marchioness of Granby and Miss Bourke, the Marchioness of Stafford and Lady Sybil St. Clair Erskine, the Marchioness of Bath and Lady Beatrice Thynne, the Marquis of Cholmondeley, the Marquese and Marquesa de Santurce and Lady Wilham Nevill, Countess Spencer, Countess Granville and Lady Victoria Leveson-Gower, Countess de Grey, the Earl of Dunraven, the Countess of Lathom and Lady Edith Wilbraham, the Countess of Enniskillen and Lady Christian Cole, the Earl of Ilchester, the Earl of Durham and Lady Anne Lambton, the Earl of Dalkeith and Lord Ernest Scott, the Countess of Sefton and Lady Rose Molyneux, Countess Howe and the Ladies Curzon, the Countess of Normanton and Lady Mary Agar and Miss Mary Liddell, Earl Craven, Viscount Clifden, Viscount Ennismore and Lady Beatrice Hare, Viscount Coke and the Hon. Violet White, Viscount and Viscountess Castlerosse and the Hon. Susan Baring, Viscountess Newport and the Hon. Miss Bruce, Viscount and Viscountess Melgund, Viscount and Viscountess Curzon, Viscount and Lady Violet Dangan and Lady Eva Wellesley, Viscount Dungarvan, Viscount Chelsea, Viscount Royston, Lady Hastings, Lord Capell, Lord and Lady Willoughby de Eresby and Hon. Margaret Willoughby, Lady Cloncurry and Hon. Miss Winn, Lord and Lady Brooke, Lady Wimborne and Hon. Miss Guest, Lord Sandhurst, Lord and Lady Edmund Talbot, Lord and Lady Alwyne Compton and Miss Gurney, Lord and Lady Chesham, Lady Rossmore and Miss Naylor, Lord Kenyon, Lord Garioch, Lady Alice Portal, Lady Margaret Levett and the Ladies Ashley, Lady W. Nevill, Lord Paulet, Lady Charles Beresford, Lady Forbes and Misses Forbes, Lady Claud Hamilton, Lord Carlow, Lady Mary Mills, Lord Lurgan, Lord Henry Vane Tempest, Lord and Lady Algernon Gordon Lennox, Lord Richard Nevill, the Hon. W. Coventry, the Hon. G. Joliffe, the Hon. Schomberg M'Donnell, the Hon. H. Coventry, Captain the Hon. E. Dawson, the Hon. Alistair and Mrs. Hay, the Hon. Mrs. Grosvenor, [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|the Hon. Algernon and Mrs. Bourke]], the Hon. F. Dawnay, the Hon. E. J. Mills, the Hon. A. Johnstone, the Hon. Claude Hay, the Hon. Sidney Greville, the Hon. Mr. Dundas and Lady Hilda Dundas, the Hon. Thomas and Lady Idina Brassey and the Hon. Muriel Brassey, the Hon. Mr. Mansfield, Colonel the Hon. Henry Byng and Miss Byng, the Hon. Mrs. Oliphant, the Hon. Mr. Harbord, the Right Hon. Henry Chaplin, M.P., the Hon. G. Somerset, Sir William Gordon Cumming, Sir George Arthur, Sir Hubert Miller, Sir Charles Forbes, Sir William and Lady Eden, Sir George Chetwynd, Sir Frederick Johnstone, Sir John D. Poynder, Colonel and Lady Emma Crichton, the Hon. Miss Harbord, Captain and Lady Jane Combe, Colonel Paget, Captain Williams, Captain Ford, Captain Doyle, Captain Hanbury, Captain Campbell, Captain Constable, Captain Kinloch, Captain Longfield, M. Gutmansthal, Mrs. Bingham, Mr. Guthrie, Mrs. Arthur Paget, Mrs. Charles Wilson and Miss Wilson, Mr. Hulse, M.P., and Mrs. Hulse, Mr. de Murrieta, Mrs. Bischoffsheim, Mr. Spencer Portal, Mr. and Mrs. Gerald Paget, Mr. Leigh and Miss Leigh, Mr. Percy Daniell, Mr. Lister, Mr. Frederick Vincent, Mr. Cazalet, Mr. Alfred de Rothschild, Mr. John Savile Lumley, Mr. and Mrs Leopold de Rothschild, Mr. and Mrs. Skeffington Smith and Miss Taylor, Mrs. George Cavendish Bentinck, Mr. Alfred Farquhar, [[Social Victorians/People/Fanny Ronalds|Mr. Reginald Ronalds]], Miss Alice Ellice, Mr. George Marjoribanks, Mr. Wyndham, Mr. Dugdale, Mr. Montagu, Mrs. Sneyd, Mr. Wynn, Mr. Edward Hamilton, Mr. Murray Guthrie, Mr. George Lambert, Mrs. Sanford, Miss Mabel Forbes. Mr. Herbert Magniac, Mr. Bailey, Mr. Milner, Mr. Charles Kindersley, Mr. Beaumont, Mr. Walter Hervey, Mr. H. Hoare, Mr. Foley, Mr. Scott Murray, Mr. Coventry, Mr. Bertie, Mr. Jarvis, Mr. Guthrie, Mr. George Cavendish Bentinck, Mr. E. Charteris, Mr. Cholmondeley, Mr. Oswald Magniac, Mr. Cecil Campbell, Mr. and Mrs. Henry Oppenheim, Mr. Peploe, Mr. A. Charteris, Mr. Seymour Gore, Mr. Robert Antrobus, Mr. Elliot, M. de Champs, Mr. Wombwell, Mr. Charles Hoare, M.P., and many others.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Lord Alington's Ball.&quot; ''Morning Post'' 25 July 1890, Friday: 3 [of 8], Col. 5 b–c [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000174/18900725/014/0003. Same print title and p.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

==August 1890==
===6 August 1890, Friday===

==== Beautiful Women ====
The ''Lancaster Observer and Morecambe Chronicle'' reprinted a story from ''Vanity Fair'' about &quot;Beautiful Women&quot;:&lt;blockquote&gt;Beautiful Women. — ''Vanity Fair'' asks what country in the world can show a more beautiful bevy of women than England? When Lady Helen Vincent, with her sister, Lady Cynthia Graham; when Lady Warwick with her sisters, the Duchess of Sutherland and Lady Westmorland; and when Lady Mar and Kellie, Lady de Trafford, Princess Pless, Lady de Gray[,] Lady Naylor-Leyland, the Duchess of Portland, Lady Alington, Lady Sophie Scott, Lady Chelsea, [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Lady Algernon Bourke]], Lady Henry Bentinck, Mrs. Willie Grenfell, Mrs. Rupert Beckett, Mrs. Arthur Paget, and Countess Clary are gathered together it is a sight to make an old man young; while Mrs. Gerard Leigh and her sister, Lady Yarborough, and Lady Powis, Lady Norreys, Mrs Farquharson, Mrs. Willie James, Lady Dalkeith, Mrs. Pretyman, Mrs. Gervase Beckett, Lady Rossmore, Lady Sarah Wilson, Lady Colebrook, Lady Hartopp, Mrs. Willie Walker, and Lady Milton are almost equally admired. The many pretty girls include Miss Enid and Miss Muriel Wilson, who still head the list of the unmarried beauties, Lady Beatrice Butler, Lady Alexandra Hamilton, Miss Kennard, Miss Madeline Bourke, and Miss Leila Crichton; while among the debutantes Lady Evelyn Crichton and Lady Vivian's daughters have had a great success, and Lady Alice Montagu, petite and charmingly pretty, has been so much admired. The daughters of Lady Gosford, Lady Verulam, Lady Leitrim, Lady Inchiquin, and Lady Grey have also been admired, as well as Lady Helen Stewart, Lady Katherine Scott, and Miss Chaplin.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Beautiful Women.&quot; ''Lancaster Observer and Morecambe Chronicle'' 6 August 1897, Friday: 2 [of 8], Col. 5b [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001804/18970806/023/0002. Same print title and p.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

===25 August 1890, Monday===
Summer Bank Holiday

==September 1890==
==October 1890==
===22 October 1890, Wednesday===
Arnold Dolmetsch went to the Reading Room (Campbell 22).

===25 October 1890, Saturday===
[[Social Victorians/Loder De Vere Beauclerk Wedding|Loder—De Vere Beauclerk Wedding]]

===31 October 1890, Friday===
Halloween.

==November 1890==
===5 November 1890, Wednesday===
Guy Fawkes Day
===19 November 1890, Wednesday===
Arnold Dolmetsch, with some of his students and his daughter Helene, provided musical illustrations for a lecture given by Dr. Frederick Bridge on &quot;Mozart as Teacher,&quot; probably at Gresham College, where Bridges was professor (Campbell 34).

===21 November 1890, Friday===
Dr. Frederick Bridge's last fall 1890 lecture at Gresham College, for which Dolmetsch provided illustration. Campbell says, &quot;it is, in fact, the first record in modern times of music by Byrd, Dr. Bull, Jenkins, Simpson, Lawes, Locke and Purcell being played 'on the instruments for which it was written'&quot; (Campbell 34).

===25 November 1890, Tuesday===
Arnold Dolmetsch got a three-month pass to the Reading Room and &quot;thereafter held yearly tickets until 1916&quot; (Campbell 22).

==== 1890 November 29, Saturday ====

===== [[Social Victorians/Dudley-Beckwith Wedding 1890-11-29|Wedding of Francis Dudley, Lord Leigh and Héléne Forbes Beckwith]] =====

==December 1890==
Sometimes in December 1890, [[Social Victorians/People/William Robert Woodman|William Woodman]], one of the founding members of the [[Social Victorians/Golden Dawn|Golden Dawn]], died (Gilbert 86 12).

=== 4 December 1890, Thursday ===

==== [[Mure-Portal Wedding 1890-12-04|Wedding of Miss Mure and Mr. S. J. Portal]] ====

===19 December 1890, Friday===
&quot;The eleventh annual ''Truth'' Toy Exhibition for the children in London hospitals, workhouses, and infirmaries was held at the Grosvenor Gallery, Bond-street, on Dec. 19 and 20. There are over 22,000 children in these institutions, and each of them has a separate toy, besides the large and more expensive toys which are presented for the general use of the inmates. A special feature of the show was the dolls dressed by lady readers of ''Truth''. Several special donations in connection with the fund have been made, the principal of which is that of 10,200 new sixpences sent for distribution by the same liberal donor who has given a similar present on former occasions; while Mr. Tom Smith has had specially made, and has forwarded for distribution, over 22,000 crackers; and Mr. Horniman (as stated in our last issue) has given to the adults in hospitals and workhouses 1200 packets of tea, to be given to them as Christmas boxes.&quot; (Illustrated London News (London, England), Saturday, December 27, 1890; pg. 806; Issue 2697, Col. B)

===20 December 1890, Saturday===
&quot;In order that the adults connected with the hospitals and workhouses may participate in the good things given to the children in the ''Truth'' toy distribution, Mr. F. J. Horniman, of Wormwood-street, City, has sent Mr. Labouchere 1200 packets of tea to be given to them as a Christmas box.&quot; (Illustrated London News (London, England), Saturday, December 20, 1890; pg. 774; Issue 2696, Col. B) 

From the ''Times'', 22 December 1890, &quot;The Late Sir Edgar Boehm&quot;: &lt;blockquote&gt;On Saturday, in accordance with the special request of the Queen, the late Sir Edgar Boehm, R.A., was buried in St. Paul’s Cathedral, in the south aisle of the crypt, the spot being known as “The Painters Corner.” [new paragraph] The funeral cortége left the residence of the deceased at about 11 o’clock, there being five mourning and several private carriages. In the first carriage were the chief mourners, Sir Edgar Collins Boehm, the only son of the late baronet, and Mr. Conrad Herapath. The second and third carriages were occupied by Sir Frederic Leighton, P.R.A., Sir Nigel Kingscote, Mr. Richard Mills, Colonel Francis Baring, Mr. Alma-Tadema, R.A., Sir R. H. Collins, Mr. Edward J. Poynter, R.A., and Mr. Duncan MacGregor, all of whom subsequently, at the cathedral, acted as pall bearers. The fourth carriage contained representatives of the Council of the Royal Academy – Mr. Edwin Long, R.A., Mr. J. B. Burgess, R.A., Mr. F. Goodall, R.A., and Mr. Beavis. In the fifth carriage were the following members of the professional staff of the deceased – Mr. R. Glassby, Mr. E. Lantéri, Signor Finili, and Herr Gross. The cortége stopped for a few moments at the Royal Academy, in order that it might be joined by two carriages containing other representatives of the institution. Leaving Piccadilly, the route taken was Waterloo-place, Pall-mall, Cockspur-street, the Strand, Fleet-street, and Ludgate-hill, the cathedral being reached about noon.

The procession was met at the great west door by Canon Gregory, the Archdeacon of London, the Rev. Dr. Baker, Minor Canons Milman, Russell, and Kelly, and the choir, who had a few minutes previously left the vestry; by Major Bigge, Equerry to the Queen, representing her Majesty; Colonel Stanley Clarke, who attended on behalf of the Prince and Princess of Wales; and Colonel W. J. Colville, representing the Duke of Edinburgh. The [[Social Victorians/People/Princess Louise|Princess Louise]] (Marchioness of Lorne) attired in deep mourning, and accompanied by [[Social Victorians/People/Arthur Collins|Lieut.-Col. Arthur Collins]] and Lady Sophia Macnamara, arrived at the cathedral a few minutes before 12 o’clock, and was conducted to a seat in the south side of the nave, close to the late Sir Edgar Boehm’s two daughters, upon whom her Royal Highness had called earlier in the morning. As the procession came slowly up the nave towards the chancel, “I am the resurrection of life” and other sentences of the burial service were chanted to music by Dr. Croft. The coffin, which was completely hidden by splendid wreaths, was preceded by the choristers and the clergy. Then followed Sir E. C. Boehm, with Mr. Conrad Herapath and Mr. Alfred Gilbert, A.R.A., the officers and council of the Royal Academy, and members of the deceased’s studio. The coffin was deposited upon a bier, which had been placed under the dome in front of the opening into the crypt, through which the body was subsequently lowered. The mourners having been conducted to the seats which had been reserved for them, and the clergy and choir having proceeded to their places in the chancel, Psalms xxxix. and xc. Were sung to music by Purcell and Felton, followed by Spohr’s anthem, “Blest are the departed,” and the lesson 1 Cor. Xv. 20, which was read by Canon Gregory. Whilst the hymn “Days and moments quickly flying” was being sung the Archdeacon of London and Minor Canon Milman proceeded from the chancel and took up positions by the side of the coffin. The remainder of the service preceding and following the lowering of the body into the crypt was read by Minor Canon Milman, and the collect was impressively recited by Archdeacon Sinclair. The late Dr. Newman’s beautiful hymn, “Lead kindly light,” was afterwards sung by the choir, and the service was brought to a close by Beethoven’s Funeral March, which was played in compliance with the special request of her Majesty, at whose desire also Chopin’s Funeral March had preceded the service. Dr. Martin was the organist.

While Beethoven’s march was being played the son and daughters of the late “Sculptor in ordinary to her Majesty,” together with other mourners, descended the crypt by the door near Howard’s monument, and saw the coffin for the last time. It bore the following inscription:- “Joseph Edgar Boehm. Born July 6, 1834; died at his work December 12, 1890. Thy will be done.” The coffin had already been deposited in the brick grave prepared for it, which is next to that of Sir Edwin Landseer. Immediately around it lie the remains of painters and sculptors of bygone days – Sir Joshua Reynolds, James Barry, Benjamin West, Henry Fuseli, Sir Thomas Lawrence, J. M. W. Turner, and John Henry Foley, while within half-a-dozen yards is the tomb of the great architect of the cathedral, Sir Christopher Wren. The coffin as last seen was covered by the floral tributes of loving friends, the symbolic laurel wreath forwarded by her Majesty surmounting them. This bore the inscription, “A tribute of gratitude for many beautiful memorial works executed for her. From Victoria, R. I.” Attached to the beautiful wreath sent by the Prince and Princess of Wales were the words, “A token of sincere regard and friendship.” Wreaths were forwarded by other members of the Royal Family, by Sir John and Lady Millais, Lord and Lady Reay, the Countess Sydney, Lord and Lady de Vesci, Mr. Henry Irving, Mr. and Mrs. Bancroft, by members of the council, students and officers of the Royal Academy, the Society of Artistic Sculptors (Vienna), and by the London Hungarian Association.&quot; (http://glassby.com/Chapter1.htm) &lt;/blockquote&gt;

===24 December 1890, Wednesday===
&quot;The people of South London and adjacent suburbs have to be grateful to Mr. Frederick Horniman, a well-known City merchant residing at Dulwich, for a munificent and beneficial Christmas gift. This gentleman has, during thirty years, formed a collection, worth above £100,000, of specimens of art, European, Indian, Chinese, and Japanese, also of decorative manufactures, and of ethnology and natural history, and rare books and manuscripts, at Surrey House, Forest Hill, which he intends to present to the public. The museum was opened by Sir Morell Mackenzie on Wednesday afternoon, Dec. 24. It already comprises twenty-four rooms, containing many beautiful specimens of horse and chain armour, Elizabethan bed-room furniture, an old English parlour and pantry, an Oriental armoury, a bible and manuscript room, an Egyptian gallery, and ethnographical saloon, a book and embroidery saloon, a porcelain and glass room, and a zoological saloon, with two live Russian bears and a monkey. We may describe the museum further, after another visit. Our Artist has sketched, in the ethnograhical saloon, an idol's shrine, made of cocoanut-fibre, from Fiji. Mr. Horniman, in acknowledging a vote of thanks, said that in an adjoining house he had accumulated a vast library of bibles and entomological works and specimens. It was his intention to build a hall at the back of the present building to contain a thousand persons, while the galleries would contain a library, and a stage would be provided, so that both eye and ear could be amused. He also contemplated buying sufficient land to enable a public body to erect class-rooms and gymnasia. Three cheers were given for Mr. Horniman, and the company proceeded to inspect the museum.&quot; &quot;(Mr. F. Horniman's Museum, Forest Hill.&quot; Illustrated London News (London, England), Saturday, January 03, 1891; pg. 7; Issue 2698, Col. C)

===25 December 1890, Thursday===
Christmas Day
===26 December 1890, Friday===
Boxing Day
==Works Cited==
*&quot;Besant Chronology.pdf.&quot; From Anderson, Nancy Fix, Walter L Arnstein, Deborah Logan, and Susie L Steinbach, Volume Editors. Lives of Victorian Political Figures, Part III: Queen Victoria, Florence Nightingale, Annie Besant and Millicent Garrett Fawcett by their Contemporaries. Volume 3 of Lives of Victorian Political Figures. Series Editors, Nancy LoPatin-Lummis and Michael Partridge. London: Pickering and Chatto, 2008.
*Crawford, Elizabeth. The Women’s Suffrage Movement: A Reference Guide, 1866–1928. Google Books. Accessed 14 October 2010.</text>
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      <text bytes="132386" sha1="lysl8kryxoxklqme08lr9dn3hr0glze" xml:space="preserve">[[Social Victorians/Timeline/1840s|1840s]]  [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1850s |1850s]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1860s | 1860s]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1870s | 1870s]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1880s | 1880s Headlines]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890s | 1890s Headlines]] 1890 [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1891 | 1891]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1892 | 1892]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1893 | 1893]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1894 | 1894]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1895 | 1895]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1896 | 1896]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1897 | 1897]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1898 | 1898]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1899 | 1899]]  [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1900s|1900s]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1910s|1910s]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1920s-30s|1920s-30s]]

==January 1890==
Sometime in January 1890, [[Social Victorians/People/Horniman|Annie Horniman]] was initiated into the Golden Dawn (Gilbert 86 144).

Sometime in 1890 Annie Besant and [[Social Victorians/People/Helena Blavatsky|Helena Blavatsky]] founded the Working Women's Club in the East End (Besant Chronology.pdf). Maye Dilke was a member (Crawford 170).

[[Social Victorians/People/Frank Harris|Frank Harris]] says,&lt;blockquote&gt;One day in 1890 I had George Meredith, Walter Pater and [[Social Victorians/People/Oscar Wilde|Oscar Wilde]] dining with me in Park Lane and the time of sex-awakening was discussed. Both Pater and Wilde spoke of it as a sign of puberty. Pater thought it began about thirteen or fourteen and Wilde to my amazement set it as late as sixteen. Meredith alone was inclined to put it earlier.&lt;ref&gt;Harris, Frank. ''My Life and Loves''.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

===1 January 1890, Wednesday, New Year's Day===
&lt;blockquote&gt;Sharp frost was experienced over the East of England yesterday morning, and in South London the thermometer had been as low as 27deg., and 28deg. in Hyde-park. It rose during the day to 41deg., but in the evening frost again set in. Later the thermometer rose again to 32deg., and there was an appearance as of coming rain.&lt;ref&gt;&lt;cite&gt;The Morning Post. 1 January 1890 (No. 36,675): P. 4, Col. F.&lt;/cite&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;Influenza is spreading all over Europe.&lt;p&gt;

According to the &quot;Court Circular: Orders for Court Mourning&quot; in the Morning Post,&lt;blockquote&gt;A second supplement to the Gazette, issued last night, contains the following: —

&quot;Lord Chamberlain's Office, January 1.

&quot;Orders for the Court's going into mourning on Thursday next, the 2d instant, for her late Majesty the Empress of Brazil, viz.&quot; —

&quot;The ladies to wear black dresses, white gloves, black or white shoes, feathers, and fans, pearls, diamonds, or plain gold or silver ornaments. The gentlemen to wear black Court dress, with black swords and buckles.

&quot;The Court to change the mourning on Thursday, the 16th instant, viz.: — [new paragraph] The ladies to wear black dresses, with coloured ribbons, flowers, feathers, and ornaments, or grey or white dresses, with black ribbons, flowers, feathers, and ornaments. The gentlemen to continue the same mourning.

&quot;And on Thursday, the 23d instant, the Court to go out of mourning.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&lt;cite&gt;&quot;Court Circular: Orders for Court Mourning.&quot; The Morning Post, 2 January 1890 (No. 36,676): page 5 Col. G.&lt;/cite&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== 9 January 1890, Thursday ===

==== The York Hunt Ball ====
This account is from the ''Irish Society'', which explains which women's costumes are the focus:&lt;blockquote&gt;The fashionable world and his wife are out of town just now, having good times at country houses. They shed the light of their brilliant presence on those annual functions known as county balls, and enjoy themselves also at those popular and picturesque entertainments to which they are bidden by the masters and members of the various hunts.

One of the smartest dances of last week took place at York on Thursday evening. It was in fancy costume, and was in aid of funds for the York County Hospital. Once upon a time the journey from London to the Minster City of the North was a far cry, and one not lightly undertaken. Now it is luxurious and short. In consequence this hall presented the appearance of one in town in mid-season.

There was conspicuous for height and handsomeness the familiar figure and face of Countess de Grey. Lady Helen Duncombe, too, who shares with her Grace of Leinster, and Lady Cynthia Graham, the family beauty of the House of Feversham, was seen in the marvellously becoming (to her) costume of the Empire period. Lady Lilian Wemyss, a lady &quot;divinely tall,” and appropriately fair, was garbed in pink and white of a fashion hailing from the Empire. A &quot;square;” in which the lady dancers were all gowned empirically, was the event of the evening. An event worth remembering it was. The costumes were superb, but their attractions were nowhere in comparison with the charms the [Col. 1c–2a] wearers. These were all tall and each one handsome. Lady de Trafford’s pretty face and fine figure showed to great advantage in her gown of white satin, veiled with gold-bordered ''chiffon'', and with an Empire trained cloak from her shoulders of Rose du Barri velvet lined with white satin, and bordered with gold galon. The colour of the velvet in what is seen in the half-yellow, half-scarlet petals of the soft textured nasturtium bloom. [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Mrs Algernon Bourke]] looked a picture in a Gainsborough gown. The white satin skirt was flounced with sable and veiled with ''chiffon'', the setuage of which was left to show without being hemmed up. There was a broad sash of rose-pink silk and each buttonhole was filled round with crimped lisse. One might go on for long enough describing costume after costume, and then leave them half out. Therefore, we shall, like the judge &quot;sum up” and &quot;charge” for a verdict of the utmost brilliancy.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Our London Letter.&quot; ''Irish Society'' (Dublin) 11 January 1890, Saturday: 17 [of 24], Col. 1b–2a [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001939/18900111/042/0017. Same print title, p. 29.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== 1890 January 10, Friday ===
The ball at the Ulster Club Ball, Belfast:&lt;blockquote&gt;The Ulster Club gave on Friday evening last week, in the Ulster Hall, Belfast, one of the most successful balls ever held in that prosperous City of the North of Ireland. It was given in honour of the Marquis of Londonderry and the Marchioness, who, with their son, Lord Castlereagh, were the guests of the evening. Lord Londonderry is an Ulster man of whom the natives of the Northern Province are justly proud, and to entertain him was an honour which has been long looked for by the Club. The hall, which is a splendid building admirably adapted for the purpose of a large dance, was changed beyond the recognition of its oldest frequenters by the skill of clever and tasteful decorators. A temporary archway was erected at the entrance, with cloakrooms for ladies and men at either side. The entrance was prettily carpeted and gracefully draped with delicately-coloured Oriental silk. The walls were hung with handsome Eastern fabrics of rich and harmonious colour, with large mirrors at intervals, which served in effect to double the size of the room. The prettily proportioned vestibule and smaller apartments adjoining the ball-room were decorated and furnished each in the style of a different period. The ceilings were prettily draped with rich but soft-coloured India and China silks. The minor hall made an admirable supper-room, and was also most artistically decorated. The flowers on the table were much admired. The orchestra made music from out a very multitude of floral blooms, and that most effective decoration of blocks of ice hollowed out and lighted by electricity, which so puzzled the Shah of Persia when over here, was liberally made use of. The principal families in the north of Ireland were invited; among others, Prince and Princess Edward of Saxe-Weimar, the Duke and Duchess of Abercorn, the Duke and Duchess of Manchester, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Lady Mandeville]], the Marchioness of Downshire, the Earl and Countess of Lanesborough, the Earl and Countess of Enniskillen, the Earl and Countess of Belmore, the Earl and Countess of Caledon, the Earl and Countess of Gosford, the Earl and Countess of Ranfurley,  and the Earl and Countess of Erne, His Grace the Primate of all Ireland, Mrs. Knox and the Misses Knox. The regiments stationed in the North of Ireland were largely represented. Mr. J. Blakiston-Houston, V.L., as senior trustee of the club, had the honour of taking Lady Londonderry to supper. The Marquis took the Countess of Castlestuart; the Right Hon. Col. Forde, D.L., also a club trustee, Lady Fanny Lambert; Sir Edward Cowan, Lord Lieutenant of the County Antrim, Lady Clanmorris; Captain Cramsie, J.P., High Sheriff of Antrim, Lady O'Neill; Lord Castlestuart, Lady Charlotte Montgomery; Lord Clanmorris, the Hon. Mrs. Alexander; Lord O'Neill, Mrs. Forde; and General Wiseman-Clarke, Mrs. Knox. Dancing was kept up till an early hour on Saturday morning, the ball having proved a genuine success.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Court and Society Notes.&quot; ''Lady's Pictorial'' 18 January 1890, Saturday: 44 [of 60], Col. 1b [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0005980%2F18900118&amp;page=44. Same print title, p. 94.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== 11 January 1890, Saturday ===
Empress Augusta of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach died on 7 January, and her funeral was on 11 January 1890. (She had been Queen of Prussia and the first German Empress. Her mother had been a Romanov, and she had been married to William I, German Emperor; their eldest son, Frederick William, married Vicky, Princess Royal, Queen Victoria's first-born child. She had politics similar to those of her daughter-in-law, but not of her grandson, Kaiser Wilhelm II or Bismarck.) Bertie did not attend her funeral:&lt;blockquote&gt;The decision of the Prince of Wales not to go to Berlin for the funeral of the Empress Augusta has caused much surprise, to say the least of it; but H.R.H. preferred to conclude his visit to Baron Hirsch at Merton, where there was a prodigious slaughter of partridges during the four days' ''chasse''.

The guests invited to Merton to meet the Prince were the Duc de Chartres, the Duchess of Manchester, Lord Hartington, Lord and Lady de Grey, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Lady Mandeville]], Mr. Henry Chaplin, and Mr. and Mrs. Arthur Sassoon.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;What the World Says.&quot; ''The World'' 15 January 1890, Wednesday: 14 [of 40], Col. 2b [of 2]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0006339%2F18900115&amp;page=14. Same print title and p.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== 1890 January 13, Monday ===

==== Wallace-Camp Boxing Match ====
An Important Boxing Match between two 8-stone (112-pound, Bantam-weight) boxers. Lord Mandeville seems to have been an organizer. Nunc (Edwin) Wallace in June of 1890 fought American George Dixon, who defeated Wallace to become the first Black fighter to win a world prize in boxing.&lt;blockquote&gt;Nunc Wallace and G. Camp for £1,000.

On Monday night, at the Ormonde Club, London, the above-named met to do battle for the largest sum of money that has ever been &quot;put up&quot; for a glove contest. That a couple of 8st [8 stone] men could be brought together in a glove contest for the sum of £1,000 would, even in the palmy days of the Prize Ring, have been scouted by the merest tyro in ring matters. Celebrities like Peter Morris, George Holden, Joe Nolan, and Dan Thomas never fought for more than £200, but here we have a stake of £500 a-side freely put down to see who is the better man of the  two. This money, when the match was made last autumn, would have been gladly increased by either side to double the amount, therefore &quot;the fight of his life&quot; is applicable to both George Camp and Edwin (&quot;Nunc&quot;) Wallace.

The match, made so far back as October last was really the outcome of the bout between Camp and Wallace in the second round of an 8st competition, decided at the Royal Aquarium in December, 1888. A very close struggle ensued, so close, indeed, that the judges ordered a fourth round of two minutes. Wallace eventually get- [Col. 2c–3a]

ting the award. From the moment the decision was given Camp's friends were dissatisfied, and hence the contract which was signed for Monday night's battle.

With thirteen weeks in which to get fit, neither man was in a hurry to commence work, and the match had been ratified neatly a month before  Wallace took up his quarters at Sutton Coldfield, with Ben Garrington to look after him. Camp journeyed to Brighton with his old trainer, George Bagnall, and it is needless to say neither man wanted for anything. Thinking a change desirable, Wallace a mouth ago also made a move to Brighton, where his interests were studied to the minutest detail by Mr. Sam Mordecai. Both men were waited on hand and foot. Mr. Sam Blandford, representing Camp's backer, took up residence in the famous watering-place, and hardly ever lost sight of the Bermondsey youth. On the other hand Wallace hardly ever drank out of a pot that Mr. Sam Mordecai did not examine, and in this way the men progressed satisfactorily in their training. 

Lords and Dukes begged for the &quot;tip&quot; as to where the meeting would be in vain, and letters from legal luminaries, magistrates and city magnates came in shoals to those entrusted with the management. The backers on each side were obdurate, and at the final deposit the names of the fortunate &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;thirty&quot; agreed upon, were handed in. 

The men were articled to weigh at twelve o'clock on Monday, and so as not to attract attention it was decided this important part of the programme should be performed at Brighton. Accordingly the scales having been fixed in Camp's bedroom, the rivals, in the presence of Lord  Mandeville, Mr. E W Bayly, Mr. Derriman, Mr. Sam Blandfold, and Mr. Dunning, and their trainers, &quot;tipped the beam[.]&quot; Wallace was the first to &quot;pass,&quot; weighing 8ths 8st 1 1/2lb stripped. Camp failing to reach this by half a pound, also clothed in Nature's garb. Both looked in splendid trim, though Camp's ruddy complexion was more taking to the eye than the pale appearance of &quot;Nunc.&quot; 

Wallace was attired in black drawers with a gold stripe, red socks, and black rubber-soled shoes. Camp was all in white, with canvas shoes, and amidst almost oppressive silence they faced each other at 8.50 p.m. 

The Contest 

... 

Round 15 and Iast. The doctoring of Harper and Habbijam brought Camp round before he had again to face the music, but he looked very bad indeed when the watch holder gave the word to start once more. It was only a question of a few minutes, for Wallace was as yet little the worse for the struggle so far, while on Camp's part there was everything to fear. The latter, however, without the slightest trace of the &quot;white feather,&quot; sprang up and met Wallace full of confidence, the latter coming at his weak opponent with a straight left on the face. The &quot;Brum forced&quot; Camp back to the ropes, and then smashed the left on the mouth, and only just missed with the right. Still having the best of it he popped in the left again, and down Camp went Iike a log through the ropes. In quicker time than it takes to tell the Surrey boxer was up and at it once more, but with a manifest disadvantage. Receiving right and left on the head he again went down, and in falling strunk his head against the skirting board outside the ring. Wallace stood over him, but at respectable distance, like a Roman gladiator, and the smile which played round his features, was one of victory, for Camp this time was beaten. Failing to rise within the stipulated ten second[s], Mr Angle awarded the fight to Wallace, the round having lasted 2min 45sec. The award was received with exulting shouts by the friends of Wallace, and the clever little boxer was at once raised shoulder high and lifted from the ring. Poor Camp soon came to, but was terribly cut up over his defeat, and for a time refused to be comforted. Wallace, recognising the pluck and ability of his vanquished foe, shook hands in kindly fashion, and thus ended one of the best conducted of modern contests with the gloves. Time of contest, 58 min 45secs.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;A Great Glove Fight.&quot; ''Dublin Sporting News'' 17 January 1890, Friday: 3 [of 4], Col. 2c–4x [of 4]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0004807%2F18900117&amp;page=3&amp;article=022&amp;stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p.&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;/blockquote&gt;

==== International Prize Fight ====
Also on Monday, 13 January 1890 was another match.&lt;blockquote&gt;The disgraceful affair, called by courtesy and [sic] &quot;International Prize Fight,&quot; which desecrated the peaceful dignity of the quaint old city of Bruges on Monday morning ought to convince people that there is nothing left to hope for in the Prize Ring. [2c–3a] At eight o'clock in the morning, Jem Smith, self-styled Champion of England, and Frank Slavin, the Australian Champion, with their seconds and parties, met in the grounds of a private gentleman to try conclusions. The &quot;fight&quot; lasted for twenty-five minutes, and was then brought to an abrupt conclusion by the referee declaring it drawn — he would have been killed had he given it to Slavin, who proved to be incomparably the better man. Fourteen rounds were fought in all, during the whole of which time Smith's friends and Smith's seconds worried, and at last assaulted, the Australian, who behaved quite pluckily. It is a disgrace to the name of Englishmen that this brutal  scene should go forth to the world. Smith's backers knew well that he had no chance of winning, so they laid their plans to smash Slavin on their own account. It is a wonder that he was not killed — as was reported in Fleet-street at ten o'clock — for Smith's roughs struck and kicked him whenever he came near their corner. Although Lord Mandeville, Lord Rosslyn, Sir M. Sandys, and a few other members of the upper circle, were present at the fight, the bulk of the spectators were the refuse of the gambling rings of London, blackguards and ruffians of the deepest dye. The stakes were £1,000. So great an amount of indignation has been expressed on all sides at the treatment to which the Australian was  exposed, that a subscription has been opened up for him. The West Indian, Jackson, is just leaving London for San Francisco, in order to get ready to meet J. L. Sullivan.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;London.&quot; ''Colonial Standard and Jamaica Despatch'' 16 January 1890, Thursday: 2 [of 4], Col. 2c–3a [of 6]. ''British Newspaper Archive''  https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0004059%2F18900116&amp;page=2&amp;article=019&amp;stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title, n.p.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

===16 January 1890, Thursday===
&lt;blockquote&gt;About two hundred members of the newly formed Dulwich Literary and Scientific Association attended the conversazione given on Jan. 16 at Surrey House Museum, Forest Hill, when Mr. Horniman, F.R.G.S., acted as cicerone round the rooms, richly stored with historical relics, ornithological curiosities, and art treasures.&lt;ref&gt;''Illustrated London News'' (London, England), Saturday, January 25, 1890; pg. 120; Issue 2649, Col. 3.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== 1890 January 21, Tuesday ===
The marriage of Baron S. Alfred Oppenheim and Miss Florence Hutchins:&lt;blockquote&gt;In the church of St. Mary Abbotts, Kensington, the marriage took place of Baron S. Alfred von Oppenberm and Miss Florence Hutchins, daughter of Mrs. Parkinson Sharp, of Palace-gate. The Hon. and Rev E. Carr Glyn and the Rev. Henry White, M.A., officiated. Among those who attended the reception afterwards held were Prince and Princess Malcom Khan, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Viscountess Mandeville]], Dowager Countess of Harrington, Admiral Sir Edward Inglefield, Sir Arthur Sullivan, Lady Cottenham, and General Du Plat.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;London Day by Day.&quot; ''Daily Telegraph &amp; Courier'' (London) 22 January 1890, Wednesday: 5 [of 8], Col. 3b [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001112%2F18900122&amp;page=5&amp;article=080&amp;stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''Daily Telegraph'', p. 5.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;The ''Pall Mall Gazette'' has a description that is slightly more full. Is Count von Alten related to [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish|Louisa, Duchess of Manchester]]?&lt;blockquote&gt;At St. Mary Abbots, Kensington, yesterday, the marriage took place of Baron S. Alfred Von Oppenheim, only son of Baron Edward Von Oppenheim, of Cologne and Schloss Schlenderham, and Miss Florence Hutchins, only daughter of Mrs. Parkinson Sharp, of 10, Palace-gate. The service was fully choral, the officiating clergy being the Hon. R. E. Carr-Glyn, rector of St. Mary Abbots, and the Rev. Henry White, M.A., chaplain in ordinary to the Queen. The bride, who was given away by her stepfather, Mr Parkinson Sharp, wore a plain dress of rich white ivory satin, elaborately draped with real orange blossoms. Count C. Von Leyden, Councillor of the German Embassy, attended the Baron as best man. Half a dozen bridesmaids followed the bride elegantly attired in costumes of white cashmere, with white corded silk sashes. They were Miss Aim e [sic] Winslow, Miss Emry Von Oppenheim, Miss Vitty Von Oppenbeim, Miss Potter, Miss Eleanor Heywood, and Miss Seymour. The reception was given at Mrs. Parkinson Sharp's town residence, 10, Palace-gate, Kensington, which was largely attended among those present being Prince and Princess Malcom Khan, Baron and Baroness E. von Oppenheim, Baron Max Oppenheim, Baron von Wedd Yarlsberg, Countess de Bunsen, Baron and Baroness de Plency, Count von Alten, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Viscountess Mandeville]], Dowager Countess of Harrington, Admiral Sir Edward Inglefield, Sir Arthur Sullivan, Lady Cottenham, General Du Plat, &amp;c.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Marriage of Baron S. Alfred Von Oppenheim.&quot; ''Pall Mall Gazette'' 22 January 1890, Wednesday: 7 [of 8m], Col. 2c [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000098%2F18900122&amp;page=7&amp;article=016&amp;stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== 1890 January 28, Tuesday ===
According to the ''Dundee Evening Telegraph'' on 28 January 1890 people were buying &quot;Exploration&quot; shares, which funded exploration expeditions with the possibility of rights to minerals or resources or the development of monopolies for goods that were &quot;discovered.&quot;&lt;blockquote&gt;Royalty and the peerage have gone in for &quot;Exploration&quot; shares. The Duchess of Albany is the possessor of fifty shares, which hardly seems to assume the dimensions of a royal investment. Certainly the general public would incline to the idea that a princess would never condescend to invest so small a sum as £25 in anything unless it were a hat or a jacket. The Duke of Fife, on the other hand, has been allotted a thousand shares. The Duchess of Manchester and the Countess of Mandeville have thirty each.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Notes — Mainly Personal.&quot; ''Dundee Evening Telegraph'' 28 January 1890, Tuesday: 2 [of 4], Col. 2b [of my 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000453%2F18900128&amp;page=2&amp;article=001&amp;stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''Evening Telegraph'', n.p.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== 1890 January 29, Wednesday ===
[[Social Victorians/Santurce Murrieta Wedding 1890-01-29|Santurce Murrieta Wedding 1890-01-29]]

=== '''1890 January 30, Thursday, through at least''' 1890 February 8, Saturday ===
Kim, Lord Mandeville was in Brighton — at 80, King's-road — at least as early as 30 January.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Brighton Visitors.&quot; ''Brighton Gazette'' 30 January 1890, Thursday: 3 [of 8], Col. 2a [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000938%2F18900130&amp;page=3&amp;article=073&amp;stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''Brighton Gazette and Sussex Telegraph'', p. 3.&lt;/ref&gt; The ''Lady's Pictorial'' lists &quot;recent arrivals&quot; in Brighton:&lt;blockquote&gt;Though a good many people have left Brighton, still fresh visitors arrive, and the front is crowded when the weather is a little kind. Amongst the most recent arrivals may be mentioned the Countess of Strafford, Lady Susan Byng, Lady Chelmsford, Lord and Lady Seaton, Lady Jane Grimston, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Lord Mandeville]], Lord Romilly and the Hon. John Romilly, Viscount and Viscountess Hampden, the Hon. R. Somerset, the Hon.  Thomas Dundas, the Hon. Sidney Greville, the Hon. A. W. Verney Cave, Lady Elizabeth Cartwright, Colonel Sir Alfred and Lady Kirby, Mr. Bazley White, M.P., and Lady Bazley White, Sir Hugh Montgomery, Sir Frederick and Lady Perkins, Lady Ellis, General Seymour, &amp;c., &amp;c.&lt;ref&gt;Dorothy. &quot;Brighton Notes.&quot; ''Lady's Pictorial'' 8 February 1890, Saturday: 51 [of 60], Col. 3a [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0005980%2F18900208&amp;page=51&amp;article=671&amp;stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title, p. 203.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

==February 1890==

=== 1890 February 6, Thursday ===

Before 6 February but not long before. The prize-fighter Pete Jackson fought a match at the New Pelican Club.&lt;blockquote&gt;It is always well to hear that distinguished visitors have enjoyed the hospitality which we have extended to them. This satisfaction is afforded us in full measure by the eminent &quot;Parson&quot; Davis, manager of Pete Jackson, the prize-fighter, who has just been regaling an American interviewer with an account of his experiences in England :—

He had been treated in splendid style, and Jackson was received well everywhere. Nothing would give him greater pleasure than to revisit England, and he hoped soon to do so. &quot;I shook a paw with the Prince,” said the parson. &quot;We had a high old time with Albert E. His Royal Highness was exceptionally friendly with Jackson, and actually made a pump handle of his arm. He shook hands with him again and again. The Prince is in capital  health, and&quot; ——

But at this point the interviewer mysteriously breaks off.

The Prince, however, was not the only British notable to whom Parson Davis referred. He explained that the cause of the trouble with Smith at the New Pelican Club was that the gloves furnished Jackson were too small in the fingers, and when he closed his hand he almost split them, and could not fight. The matter was explained to the officers of the Club, where the fight took place, and other gloves were procured for Jackson :—

Fair play was given, and the audience, which included [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Lords Mandeville]] and Lonsdale, were loud in their admiration of Jackson's skill.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;The Tittle Tattle of the Week.&quot; ''Pall Mall Budget'' 6 February 1890, Thursday: 4 [of 36], Col. 1b [of 2]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0005967%2F18900206&amp;page=4. Same print title, p. 162.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;Possibly related is this, from 24 January 1890:&lt;blockquote&gt;Further details (says the London ''Evening'' ''Post'') have transpired with regard to the fracas at the Tracadero between Charley Mitchell and Mr Abington. It seems that the cause of the row was the conspicuous and irritating production of Smith’s colours by a gentleman in the stalls in front of Mitchell. These acted upon him like the proverbial red rag, and turning to Mr Abington, he said — &quot;You have got this up for me. I will put this cigar in your eye.&quot; Here Lord Mandeville acted the part of the peacemaker, and an adjournment was made to the bar, where the real row took place. Notwithstanding what the ''Sportsman'' says, it is a fact that &quot;the Squire&quot; did take off his coat to Mitchell.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;The Laird of Strichen and the Prize Ring.&quot; &lt;i&gt;Fraserburgh Advertiser&lt;/i&gt; 24 January 1890, Friday: 5 [of 8], Col. 5a [of 5]. &lt;i&gt;British Newspaper Archive&lt;/i&gt; https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001470%2F18900124&amp;page=5&amp;article=035&amp;stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title, n.p.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== 12 February 1890, Wednesday ===

==== Lady Constance Leslie's Reception ====
&lt;blockquote&gt;On Wednesday last Lady Constance Leslie had an evening party at her residence in Stratford-place.

The numerous guests included Prince Ernest of Hohenlohe, Princess Victor of Hohenlohe, and the Countesses Gleichen, the Austro-Hungarian Ambassador, Count Mensdorf, Count and Countess Henry Lützow, Mr. and Mrs. Henry White, Baroness de Brienen and Mdlles de Brienen, the Duke of Abercorn, the Duchess of Cleveland, the Marchioness of Blandford and Lady Frances Spencer Churchill, Earl and Countess of Portarlington, Earl Stanhope, the Earl of Northbrook, the Earl and Countess of Arran, the Earl and Countess of Erne and the Ladies Cole, Julia Countess of Jersey and Mr. Brandling, Viscount Clifden, Viscountess Bary, Viscount Torrington, Viscount and Viscountess Castlerosse and Lady Louisa Beauclerk, Viscount and Viscountess de Vesci and Lady Sarah Spencer, Viscountess Galway, and Mr Caryl Ramsden, Lord de L'Isle and Dudley, Lord Alcester, Lord and Lady Wantage, Lord Ashbourne, Lady Henry Grosvenor and Lady G. Ogilvy, Lady Cloncurry, Lord Morris and Mr. M. Morris, Lady Charles Beresford, Lord Rowton, Lady Blanche Hozier, Lady Colville, Lady Rayleigh, Lady Constance Lytton and Mr. Charles Earle, Lady Evelyn Sutton, Lady Ernest Seymour and Ladies Fortescue, Lord and Lady Sandhurst, Lady Mary Lloyd, Lady Tweedmouth, Lady Windsor, Lord and Lady William Seymour, Lady Guy Campbell, Lady Egerton, Lady Fitzgerald, Baron d'Erlanger and Mr. Charles Derenberg, Hon. R. C. Spencer, M.P., and Mrs. Spencer, Hon. Evelyn Ashley, Hon. W. Mansfield, Hon. Lionel Ashley, Hon. A. Hood, Hon. William Lowther and Miss Lowther, Hon. Sydney Greville, Hon. Fitzroy and Mrs. Stewart, Hon. Frederick Leveson Gower, Hon. Kenneth Howard, Hon. Francis Villiers, Hon. Francis Bertie, Hon. Arthur Walsh, Colonel the Hon. Charles Edgcumbe, General Hon. John Bourke, General and Hon. Mrs. Ellis and Mrs. R. Sneyd and Miss Ellis, [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Hon. Algernon and Mrs. Bourke]], Hon. Alan and Hon. Evan Charteris, Hon. Alexander Yorke, Hon. Derek Keppel, General Sir Dighton Probyn, Hon. Percy Wyndham, Hon. Everard Baring and Hon. Susan Baring, Hon. Mrs. Brett, Hon. Claud Hay, the Right Hon. Henry Matthews, Sir George Arthur, Sir George Maude, Sir Philip Currie, C.B., Sir Redvers and Lady Audrey Buller, Sir Charles Grant, Sir Mackenzie Wallace, Sir Herbert Maxwell, M.P., Sir Oscar Clayton, Sir Robert Gresley, Sir Algernon West and Mr. Horace West, Sir George and Lady Russell and Miss Brackenbury, Sir Henry and Lady Longley, the Sub-Dean of the Chapels Royal, General Crealock, General Charles Fraser, Colonel Saunderson, M.P., and Hon. Mrs. Saunderson, Colonel and Mrs. Stewart and Miss Streatfeild [siv], Colonel and Miss Balfour, Colonel and Mrs. Stanley Clarke and Miss Clarke, Colonel R. Baring, Captain and Mrs. Jekyll, Captain and Mrs. J. Bagot, Captain Lambert Ward, Captain A. Bagot, Mr. Charles Hall, Q.C, M.P., Mr[.] Hussey Walsh, M.P., Mr and Mrs. W. Hartpole Lecky, Mr. and Mrs. Richard Combe, Mr Henry Foley, Mrs. Arbuthnot and Miss Guthrie, Mr. and Mrs. Heseltine and Miss Dorothy Heseltine and Lord Cantelupe, the Miss Stopford Brooke, Mr. and Mrs. Thackeray Ritchie, Mr Edmund Byng, Mr. and Mrs. Wilton Phipps, Professor Sidney Colvin, Mr. and Miss Tennant, Mr. Godfrey Webb, Mr. and Mrs. Turton and Mr. Sidney Ponsonby, Mrs. Adare, Mrs Cecil Paget and Mr. Hugo Wemyss, Mrs. L. Drummond, Mr. and Mrs E. Hope, Mrs. L. Seymour and Miss Seymour, Mr. Guy Repton, Mr. and Mrs. Julian Sturgis and Miss Beresford, Mr. Poynter, R.A., Mrs. Daniel Cooper, Mr. Hamilton Aïdé, Mr. Alwyne Maude, Mrs. C. Bentinck, Mrs. Bingham Mildmay, Mr. Philip Habord, Mr. and Mrs. George Bulteel, Mrs. Beerbohm Tree and Miss Julia Neilson, Mr. Hallé [Halle?], Mr. Rudolph Lehmann and Miss Lehmann, [[Social Victorians/People/Fanny Ronalds|Mr. R. Ronalds]], Mr. Ellice, Mr. Arthur, Madame Blumenthal, Miss Julia Leslie, Mr. and Mrs. Jeune, Mr and Mrs. Charles Stuart-Wortley and Misses Millais, Mrs. Arkwright, Mr Joachim, Mr. Gillett, Mr. Pulteney (Scots Guards), Colone| Cuthbert Larking, Mr. Harry Higgins, M. Tividar Nachez, Mr. G. Ross, Herr Johannes Woolff, Mrs. Charles Bagot and Miss Bagot, Mrs. Bischoffsheim, Mr. Henry Petre, Miss Balch, Mr. and Lady Maud Ramsden, Mr. Adolphus Liddell, Mr Knowles, Mr. Grenfell, Mr. Edward Hamilton, Mrs. Henry Gordon and Miss Gordon, Mr. Henry James, Mr. St. Leger, Mrs. Dacre Hamilton and the Misses Nugent, Mr. Harbord, Mr Somerset, Mr. Ruggles-Brise, Mr. and Miss Hughes of Kinmel, Mr. and Mrs Douglas Freshfield, Mrs. Homer, Mr. W. H. Mallock, Mr. and Mrs. Robert Benson, Mr. H. Seymour, Mr. Ernest Law, Mr. Hugh Grimston, Mr. Lionel Cust, Mr. Chappell, Mr. and Mrs. Du Maurier, Mr. Boughton, R.A., and Mrs. Boughton, Mr. R. Roche, Mr. Montagu Wilson, Mr. Herbert Hope, &amp;c.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Lady Constance Leslie's Reception.&quot; ''Morning Post'' 15 February 1890, Saturday: 2 [of 8], Col. 5c [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000174/18900215/008/0002. Same print title and p.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== 24 February 1890, Monday ===
Lilly Langtry starred in Shakespeare's ''As You Like It'' at the St. James's Theatre. The Daily Telegraph had a long review and mentioned more names:&lt;blockquote&gt;
The motto of Petronius, which is said to have adorned the Globe Theatre in Shakespeare's time, &quot;Totus mundus agit histrionem,&quot; and which is reproduced in Jaques' famous speech, may be said to have received a novel illustration in the brilliant audience which completely filled the St. James's Theatre last evening. A very distinguished section of the world &quot;played the actor&quot; in the stalls, boxes, and dress-circle, and evinced the keenest dramatic interest in the long-deferred production of &quot;As You Like It.&quot; The Prince and Princess of Wales, with the Duchess of Fife, surveyed the scene from the Royal box, while amongst the many who secured seats for the first were the Austrian Ambassador, the [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish|Duchess of Manchester]], Countess de Grey, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Viscountess Mandeville]], Lady Colin Campbell, Lord Wolverton, Lord and Lady Coleridge, Sir Charles Russell, Sir Edward and Lady Guinness, Baroness de Stern, and Mr. Alfred Rothschild. Naturally enough there was much curiosity in seeing once more on the London stage an actress who has since her last appearance devoted so much serious study to her profession, and gained so much success both before American and provincial audiences; while the sympathy evoked by her recent severe illness, delaying for four weeks the production of the comedy, added an almost pathetic note to the general excitement and enthusiasm. In the second scene of the first act, when the tenderly attached cousins make their earliest appearance on the stage, Celia's first words, &quot;| pray thee, Rosalind, sweet, my coz, be merry,&quot; answered by Rosalind’s &quot;Dear Celia, I show more mirth than I am mistress of,&quot; were almost drowned in the applause which accompanied the  recognition of Mrs. Langtry. From time to time, whenever opportunity served, enthusiasm broke out anew, culminating in the triumph of plaudits which formed the fit ending to the gracefully-delivered epilogue with which Rosalind takes her farewell of her audience. There can be no doubt that, with all due allowance for the inevitable nervousness which accompanied a first production before a critical though sympathetic house, the revival of the immortal comedy was generally pronoanced to be a success.

The fancifally-named &quot;As You Like It&quot; — where even in nomenclature the author confesses his indebtedness to the romance of Thomas Lodge — with greater dullness than is usually the case with Shakespeare's plays. Indeed interest is hardly aroused till the scene before the Duke's Palace, where Rosalind and Celia witness the wrestling — which after a few more performances will probably go less stagily than it did last night — between Charles and Orlando. It is only when we are transported to the Forest of Arden that Shakespeare's romantic fancy allows itself full course, and it was only when she was accoutred in the doublet and hose that Mrs. Langtry exercised her full charm upon the audience. The difficulty for the actress in the character of Rosalind is the contrast between the early abandon of her frankly-expressed love for the son of Rowland de Bois and the subsequent archness and reserve with which she plays with her lover in the forest. Orlando goes through precisely an opposite change. From the careless desperateness of a man who is out of favour with fortune in the opening scene, he changes to the sentimental devotion of a &quot;love-shaked fancy-monger&quot; in the sylvan glades. If that interchange of parts be missed much is lost in the sprightly  contrasts of the drama. Unfortunately, no sooner did Orlando enter on the wrestling-ground last night, than he started and caught at his heart in obvious suggestion of love at first sight. Much is lost of the utter wonderment at Rosalind’s unexpected graciousness in giving him her chain, which keeps him tongue-tied later, if he betrays so early the fatal ravages of Cupid — a betrayal which is hardly likely in a man whom neglect and misery have driven to the last stage of reckless hardihood. Rosalind must love her champion before her winning thanks for his prowess have made the starred younger brother first marvel at and then adore the frank and generous advances of his benefactress. In the fine words, &quot;My father was no traitor,&quot; Mrs. Langtry rose to the full height of the character she was depicting. Throughout the greater part of the first act there was grace, loveableness, charm, but also a kind of flatness, or, at all events, an even and somewhat uninteresting level of characterisation which did not convey the promise of all that this loveliest creation in Shakespeare's gallery could do, when the Court life was exchanged for the freer and less conventional existence in the woods.

All the more praise, therefore, is Mrs. Langtry’s due, that when she finds herself in the Forest of Arden, she brings before us a truer Rosalind. The beautiful first scene between the disguised Ganymede and her amorous swain showed Mrs. Langtry at her best. The quick and nimble wit, the archness and pretty coquetry of a girl who is sick at heart with love and feeds her passion in a playful and adorable tyrannising over the unconscious lover, were depicted with a reality which won instant recognition from the spectators. For the rest, however, Mrs. Langtry’s Rosalind was an unequal performance, now rising with unexpected force into the regions of pure comedy, now sinking to an ordinary level of  uncomfortably-disguised womanishness. There were bright patches of power in the midst of a somewhat dull and colourless expanse. Much of this was, no doubt, due to the excitement and fatigue of a first night, to which also may be attributed possibly the sameness of some of her gestures and a restlessness which was something more than Rosalind's anxiety to win in her own incomparable way the happiness of which she was in search. A few nights hence firmness of carriage and self-control of manner will fill in the details of a character which was most graphically and sympathetically sketched in outline at the St. James’s last night. Mr Laurence Cautley as Orlando made most favourable impression on his audience. Through all the earlier scenes — with the exception of that wholly unnecessary lapse into amorousness on the lawn of Duke Frederick, which has been already noted — he sustained the character of a picturesque and youthful gallant with considerable success, though, possibly, a stronger dash of manly independence might not have come amiss to the Shakespearean hero. Touchstone is a more difficult part to play. Indeed, in some respects, he is the most difficult of all Shakespeare's clowns. He is on the borderland between the earlier, more conventional style of Costard, Launce, and Launcelot, and the far more elaborate and important clowns in &quot;Twelfth Night&quot; and &quot;King Lear.&quot; He is not so clever as Feste, not so human and real as that inimitable and tender-hearted Edgar who tries to solace the wild ravings of his discrowned king. He is halfway between such farcical beings as Kempe and Tarlton probably depicted, and that witty, self-conscious, irresponsible Jester, which Shakespeare ultimately made an entirely new creation on Elizabethan boards. It is no discredit to Mr. Sugden that he failed to realise so ingenious a conception. He presented a Touchstone who was full of amusing quips, and he went through all the catalogue of points in the Book of Honour in the fifth act with admirable skill; the Touchstone of &quot;As You Like It&quot; we are probably not likely to see often on the modern stage. Mr. Bourchier’s Jaques was a far higher piece of portraiture, grave and bitter and cynical as that early disciple of Schopenhauer should be, with touches of humour which only serve to show the depths of a naturally perverse and misanthropical nature. The celebrated &quot;Seven Ages&quot; speech  was capitally delivered, with a conscientious care and easy mastery which are rare enough in an actor who has so lately left the ranks of the amateurs. For the rest, the Adam of Mr Everill, and the Andrey of Miss Marion Lea seemed to give most pleasure to the audience, though she was sometimes — espectally in the pronunciation of the word &quot;poetry&quot; — inclined to represent the boorishness of the wench with an accent  which reproduced simulated inebriation rather than native clumsiness. Miss Armbruster as Hymen also deserves a word of praise. The piece was produced under the direction of the Hon. Lewis Wingfield, and the scenery, which in the Forest Glade of Acts II., III., and IV., formed a beautiful stage picture, was designed by Messrs. Perkins and Bruce Smith.

After all, was any one ever wholly satisfied with the representaton of one of Shakespeare's comedies? No thing is further from the truth as a general statement than the pedant’s theory that Shakespeare is for the study, and not for the boards. If ever, however, the paradox be true that a great dramatic artist suffers when his plays gain a dramatic representation, it is when &quot;As You Like It,&quot; &quot;Twelfth Night&quot; and &quot;Midsummer Night's Dream&quot; are brought face to face with a modern audience and amid nineteenth century surroundings. It ts not with impunity that the light that never was on sea and land is parodied by the glare of the footlights. For, honest stage-craftsman as Shakespeare was, in the full spring-tide of his poetic genius there was a divine and masterful intolerance of the real and the commonplace, a reckless flight into an ideal world, peopled by beings coined in the mint of his dainty imagination — aerial and disembodied creations whose actions and characters refuse to submit themselves to the narrow rules of the every-day world. In such a sphere banished lovers shall be predestined to meet and cement their happy unions, and lions and snakes shall be the habitual denizens of a forest where shepherds and shepherdesses prattle their erotic strains, and even a crafty Oliver shall repent of his past sins and fall in love with gentle Celia, owing to the poetic exigencies of Cloud Cuckoo Land. How can one  see all these things with the cynical eye of the modern ''Fin de Siècle'' and not feel an inevitable shock of dissatisfaction and surprise? How is it possible to avoid the jarring sense of discord when the dream picture is realised in the setting of prosaic reality? For Shakespeare's comedy is a romantic work of the mind, a refuge for all those delightful improbabilities which an indolent or whimsical fancy strings together to construct a series of complications and incidents which interest us, while they elude the sober tests of reason and judgment. But we must not carry this vein of thought too far. It is true that we have in such plays comedies of incident rather than of character. Yet Shakespeare is too and heart-whole to linger only at the Ivory gate. He throws even into these merry plots the force of that instinctive knowledge of human nature which produces real personages, tricked out in witty and imaginative guise. Shakespeare was able to pour everything into his comedies which he did into his tragedies, though in the one there is only suggestion, while in the other there is the elaboration of that is deep and tragic as well as humorous in life. Rosalid, Orlando, Touchstone, and Jaques are none the less real because they are ideal; and it is on these grounds that we can praise the conscientious and capable artists who presented these characters in flesh and blood on the St. James's stage. Nor does Shakespeare, as some have thought, intend in this play to preach [Col. 1c–2a]  any polemic against the life of the town, or compose any passionate encomium for the simple graces of the country. He is too great to be didactic on such narrow issues. Wherever men and women live, there they can be happy; or, as Touchstone says to Corin, when he expresses ignorance of the Court, one-sided enthusiasts for either streets or hedge-rows are truly damned, &quot;like an ill-roasted egg, all on one side.&quot; Equanimity, such that of the Duke and old Adam, carries with it, wherever it be, the gracious gentleness of an eternal Eden.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;St. James's Theatre.&quot; ''Daily Telegraph &amp; Courier'' (London) 25 February 1890, Tuesday: 5 [of 12], Col. 6a–7a [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001112%2F18900225&amp;page=5&amp;article=048&amp;stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''The Daily Telegraph'', p. 5.

&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;
The ''St. James's Gazette'' reported:&lt;blockquote&gt;
We came intending to like it very much, and we succeeded in our intention. Indeed, we spent a really pleasant evening at the St. James's Theatre, Many of us knew one another to nod to, and some of us had bowing acquaintance with the author of the play; so it was all very sociable and comfortable. There were just enough shop-window celebrities to give an air of distinction to the rest of the audience, and everybody had a right to hope that his neighbours were wondering who he was. The critics were quite at their ease, having nothing to criticise except the acting; not being expected to suggest any slight alterations in the play (such as cutting out Acts I., III., and V., and rewriting Acts II. and IV.), but just to accept it as it stood, without even tracing it back to the French vaudeville from which it was, no doubt, originally adapted.

The performance had many individual merits, but it also had two general faults. The first and least striking fault was that the interludes were  slurred over instead of being played up to. Now, the plot of &quot;As You Like It&quot; is so loose that a lengthy interlude (provided it be pretty) does not check the flow of interest; indeed, it gives a welcome rest and allows you to pick up your thoughts again. The other fault is one which may be, and is likely to be, remedied the play goes on. But at present it is neither smart nor spontaneous: the parts do not hang well together, and there is none of the enthusiasm which helps to pass off the interior performances of less skilful actors. The deficiency which we have noted was probably due to the serious illness from which Mrs. Langtry had been suffering and from which it was evident last night that she had not made a complete recovery. She worked very hard as Rosalind, and worked very well, and several times she made a really good hit; she was, perhaps, at her best in her indignant appeal to the usurper Duke against his unexpected and unjust decree of banishment. She was charming, again, in her embarrassment (as Miss Litton was charming before her) when she had her first meeting with her unconscious lover and she suggested very cleverly the absence of her skirts. She did her love-making archly and merrily; but though the pretended pretence gave her a right to go beyond the limits of maiden coyness, she seemed occasionally to assume the masculine Initiative when the feminine Suggestive would have been prettier. it was a pleasant though uneven performance, with plenty of grace in it and plenty of brains. The Touchstone of Mr. Sugden was in every way admirable — crisp, humorous, and distinctive. That his clowning was occasionally tedious was no fault of his. The palate of a modern audience does not relish these long-drawn pedantries of buffoonery. Our sense of humour is not more refined — it is different, and that's the end of it. But in the scenes with Audrey (and Miss Marion Lea made a capital Audrey — open-mouthed and innocently wicked or wickedly innocent) Mr. Sugden had a better opportunity and he made the most of it. There the humour was not conventional, and the audience enjoyed a laugh which was not scholarly. A word of praise must given to Mr. Brodie for his conscientious and effective rendering of the difficult and ungrateful part of the moonstruck lover of the wayward Phoebe. The first appearance of Mr. Bourchier in London attracted much interest. As an amateur at Oxford and elsewhere he was believed Iikely to to great things upon the stage, and his performance of Jaques was by no means a disappointment. The fault of it was that he did not suggest either the melancholy or the sententiousness which we associate with the character. The melancholy was but skin-deep, and the sententiousness simply was not there. But every actor has a right to read a part in his own way if it is a good way. And there is much to said for Mr. Bourchier's interpretation of Jaques. The temptation is to be stagy; Mr. Bourchier's tendency is to be natural. And he carried it out with great success in speaking the lines of the Seven Ages of Man. He caught up the Duke's phrase just as if it had dropped in the course of an ordinary conversation; and he played with it for a time until it seemed of itself to suggest to his mind the famous soliloquy. Certainly Mr. Bourchier’s method was effective, as it drew one of the heartiest rounds of applause in the whole evening.

Among the company were noticed the following well known persons:— His  Royal Highness the Prince of Wales, the Duke and Duchess of Fife, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Lady Mandeville]], Lord De Grey, Mr. Alfred De Rothschild, Lord Lurgan, Sir Charles Russell, Sir Edward Guinness, Lady Colin Campbell, Lady Curzon, Lady Londonderry, Lady Hothfield, Hon. Alan Charteris, Mr. Oscar Wilde, Mr. Akers Douglas, M.P., Mr. Justin McCarthy, M.P., Sir Allen Young, Lord and Lady Coleridge, the Austrian Ambassador, the Spanish Ambassador, Lady Hozier, Mr. George Lewis, Mr. Whistler, Lady Greville [&lt;nowiki/&gt;[[Social Victorians/People/Lady Violet Greville|Lady Violet Greville]]?].&lt;ref&gt;&quot;As You Like It.&quot;  ''St James's Gazette'' 25 February 1890, Tuesday: 5 [of 16], Col. 1b–c [of 2]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001485%2F18900225&amp;page=5&amp;article=027&amp;stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p.

&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;
This report is from ''Blalud, The Bath Society Paper'':&lt;blockquote&gt;Happily, there was no disappointment in store for the friends and admirers of Mrs. Langtry, who gathered on Monday night at the St. James’s Theatre in great force, to welcome this popular lady back to London and receive her with an extra warmth of cordiality in token of satisfaction at her recovery from her recent severe illness. Eight years have elapsed since she last played Rosalind in London. Since then she has travelled much, both at home and abroad, and followed the study and practice of her art with unfailing spirit and determination. She returns to the character which all leading actresses aspire to play in Shakespeare’s glorious dream of the Court of Duke Frederick and the forest of Arden a far riper artist, and, says the ''Daily News'', she presented us on Monday with an impersonation which compared to her former efforts is as the finished portrait to the crude sketch. Her performance may lack the great high tide of girlish impulsiveness, but first nights before an exceptionally critical audience and some remains of the languor of her recent indisposition doubtless contributed to rob her acting of something of its force and impulse. But her ''Rosalind'' remains a most winning and beautiful performance. A handsomer ''Rosalind'', or one that has worn the doublet and hose with more grace and picturesqueness (Mrs, Langtry, we may here note, scorns the modern heresy of boots, and appears in the more orthodox hose cross-gartered), has certainly not been seen in our time. The performance is full of good points; as when at the words, &quot;here on the skirts of this forest like the fringe of a petticoat,&quot; she remembers with a momentary touch of maidenly shyness that petticoats no longer form part of her attire. Again, when in bantering her lover, who exhibits so strange an inability to recognize the voice and features of the woman whom he passionately loves, she pauses at &quot;a beard neglected,&quot; and pointing at ''Orlando’s'' smooth chin bursts into uncontrollable laughter; again, when in the mock marriage scene, with ''Celia'' for the priest, her mind for the moment seems to wander away into such a dream as this mockery might suggest to one so deeply in love. The distinguishing feature of the impersonation, indeed, is the subtle suggestion of serious passion that underlies the frolicsome and bantering moods, and exhibits itself again and again in many subtle forms. The play is beautifully put on the stage, and if some of the performers fall a long way short of ideal excellence there are several impersonations that stand forth in strong relief and are of far more than common excellence. The ''Phœbe'' and ''Silvius'' of Miss Beatrice Lamb and Mr. Matthew Brodie deserve special note: but the most brilliant success of all in the case of the minor characters was undoubtedly the ''Audrey'' of Miss Marion Lee, whose hoydenish, but not ungraceful antics, whose happy, contented ignorance, whose mingled wonderment and admiration at ''Touchstone's'' philosophical utterances were admirable. Everything that taste can suggest has been done to embellish the play; the musical features are strengthened by an efficient chorus, and the costumes designed by the Hon. Lewis Wingfield are rich and handsome. Perhaps it might be objected that Mrs. Langtry’s beautiful green velvet doublet, with its slashes, tags, and laces, her cinnamon jerkin, her black cap and jewelled buckle, and her rich and massive cloak were hardly suited to her daring enterprise on the highways and in the forests of the Duke’s dominions. The restoration of Hymen, gracefully represented by Miss Violet Armbruster, and the final morris dance in honour of the nuptials, gave the crowning fanciful touch to the performance, and prepared the spectators for the playful epilogue, which was spoken by Mrs. Langtry, in her simple nuptial white robe and leopard skin, with rare elocutionary grace and effect,. [sic]

The audience which greeted Mrs. Langtry was at once distinguished and interesting. The Royal box was occupied by the Prince and Princess of Wales, the Duchess of Fife, the Princesses Victoria and Maud of Wales, and the Duke of Fife. Among the representatives of &quot;Society&quot; were Lady Londonderry, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Lady Mandeville]], Lord de Grey, Lord and Lady Coleridge, Lady Curzon, Lady Hothfield, Lord Lurgan, Lady Greville [&lt;nowiki/&gt;[[Social Victorians/People/Lady Violet Greville|Lady Violet Greville]]?], Lady Hozier, Mr. Alfred de Rothschild, Sir Charles Russell, Sir Edward Guinness, Mr. Coningsby Disraeli, Mr. Akers Douglas, M.P., Mr. Justin M‘Carthy, M.P., Sir Allen Young, Lady Colin Campbell, Lady Monckton, Mrs. Labouchere, and the Austrian and Spanish Ambassadors. Pictorial art was represented by Mr. Whistler; music by Mdme. Antoinette Sterling; dramatic writing by Mr. H. A. Jones; and theatrical interests by Mrs. Bancroft, Miss Genevieve Ward, Mr. and Mrs. John Lart, Mrs. John Hare, Mr. M. L. Mayer, Mr. Augustus Harris, &amp;c.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Mrs. Langtry.&quot; ''Bladud'' 26 February 1890, Wednesday: 9 [of 16], Col. 2b–c [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0005771%2F18900226&amp;page=9&amp;article=055&amp;stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''Blalud, The Bath Society Paper'', p. 9.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== 25 February 1890, Tuesday ===
On 5 March, the ''World'' reports on a party hosted by Mrs. Adair that must have been held the week before:&lt;blockquote&gt;Many smart people were present at Mrs. Adair's party in Curzon Street on Tuesday night. The rooms, lighted by electricity, looked their prettiest with floral decorations consisting entirely of tulips, the hostess appearing in a gown of terra-cotta velvet trimmed with dark fur. The Austrian Ambassador and Madame Waddington were among those who listened to Miss Damian’s rendering of a new song by Tosti, and to the glees sung by Mr. Avon Saxon's American quartet; and among others present were Lady Charles Beresford, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Lady Mandeville]], the Duchess of Marlborough, Lady Fanny Marjoribanks, who brought her sister, Lady Sarah Churchill, Sir Arthur Sullivan (just back from his annual sojourn at Monte Carlo), Lord and Lady Wharncliffe, Lady Howe and Lady Edith Curzon, Lord and Lady William Nevill, Mrs. Cavendish-Bentinck, General Charles Fraser, Lady Conyers, Madame de Brienen, and Sir Philip Currie.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;What the World Says.&quot; ''The World'' 5 March 1890, Wednesday: 19 [of 44], Col. 2a [of 2]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0006339%2F18900305&amp;page=19&amp;article=061&amp;stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;The ''Daily Telegraph'' covered the party with a few additional names:&lt;blockquote&gt;A casual passer-by in Curzon-street last night might almost have imagined from the long string of carriages assembled there that, in spite of the cold east wind blowing, the London season had already begun. Mrs. Adair had together to hear some beautiful music, including a celebrated quartette of American singers, a large and fashionable crowd, composed of the ''élite'' of London society, comprising among many others, the Austrian Ambassador, the French Ambassadress, the Marquis and Marchioness of Tweeddale, Lady Charles Beresford, Lady Fanny Marjoribanks and Lady Sarah Spencer-Churchill, Earl and Countess of Wharncliffe, Countess Howe and Lady Edith Curzon, Lord and Lady William Nevill, Lord George Nevill, Viscount and Viscountess Curzon, Countess of Sefton and Lady Rose Molyneux, Viscountess Mandeville, Julia Countess of Jersey and Mr Brandling, Viscount and Viscountess Bury and the Hon. Mary Keppel, the Countess of Crawford, the Earl of Clonmell, the Countess of Antrim and Lady Louisa Beauclerk, Viscountess Melgund, Lady Conyers, Hon. Lady Cotterell and Miss Cotterell, Lord Alington, Lord Alcester, Lord Greenock, Viscount de Vesci, Lady Hilda Brodrick, Hon. W. Lowther, M.P., and Mrs. Lowther, Hon. Mrs. Bampfylde, Hon. Hallyburton Campbell, Mrs. and Miss Campbell, Hon. Kenneth Howard, Hon. Derek Keppel, Hon. FitzRoy and Mrs. Stewart, Lady FitzGerald, Mrs. Bischoffsheim, Madame de Brienen, Lieutenant-General Sir Seymour Blane, General C. Fraser, M.P., Mr. Chamberlain, M.P., Mr. Howard Vincent, M.P., and Mrs Vincent, Mr. Charles Hall, M.P., Mrs. Cavendish-Bentinck, Sir C. Rivers Wilson, Sir Arthur Sullivan, Sir Philp Currie.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;London Day by Day.&quot; ''Daily Telegraph &amp; Courier'' (London) 26 February 1890, Wednesday: 5 [of 8], Col. 4a [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001112%2F18900226&amp;page=5&amp;article=094&amp;stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''The Daily Telegraph'', p. 5.

&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;The ''Sporting Gazette'' also had a report, on 1 March:&lt;blockquote&gt;Mrs. Adair's party in Curzon-street on Tuesday night was, as usual, exceedingly smart and dressy. The &quot;smarties&quot; turned out strong for this Anglo-American function, and wore their best frocks and jewels. Lady Tweeddale, Lady Howe, with Lady Edith Curzon, Lady Fanny Majoribanks chaperoning her younger sister, Lady Sarah Churchill, Lady Curzon, Lady Antrim with Lady Louisa Beauclerk, Lady William Nevill with some lovely diamonds, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Lady Mandeville]], Lord Alington, Sir Arthur Sullivan, Mrs Cavendish Bentinck, and others. The singing of an American quartette was ''the'' feature of the evening.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;The Man About Town.&quot; &quot;The County Gentleman.&quot; ''Sporting Gazette'' 1 March 1890, Saturday: 6 [of 38], Col. 2b [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0002525%2F18900301&amp;page=6&amp;article=053&amp;stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title, p. 274.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

==March 1890==

=== 10 March 1890, Monday ===
The Prince and Princess of Wales hosted a ball in celebration of their wedding anniversary.

This report from the ''Bedfordshire Mercury'' is very brief:&lt;blockquote&gt;
The Prince and Princess of Wales, in celebration of the anniversary of their wedding on March 10, 1863, gave a dance at Marlborough House on Monday night. The Danish Minister and Madame de Falbe were among the company invited, also the Earl and Countess Brownlow, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Viscountess Mandeville]], Lord Alwyne Compton, Baron F. de Rothschild, &amp;c.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Notes of the Aristocracy.&quot; ''Bedfordshire Mercury'' 15 March 1890, Saturday: 7 [of 8], Col. 4b [of 6]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001290%2F18900315&amp;page=7&amp;article=073&amp;stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;
The report from the ''Morning Post'' suggests that this was a smaller party than usual for the Prince and Princess of Wales:&lt;blockquote&gt;In celebration of the anniversary of the Prince and Princess of Wales's wedding day, their Royal Highnesses gave an evening party (dancing) at Marlborough House last night.

His Royal Highness the Duke of Edinburgh, her Royal Highness Princess Beatrice (Princess Henry of Battenberg) and his Royal Highness Prince Henry of Battenberg, her Royal Highness the Princess Louise of Wales (Duchess of Fife) and the Duke of Fife, his Royal Highness Prince George of Wales, her Royal Highness the Princess Victoria of Wales, her Royal Highness the Princess Maud of Wales, her Royal Highness the Princess Mary Adelaide (Duchess of Teck), and his Highness the Duke of Teck and her Serene Highness the Princess Victoria of Teck and his Serene Highness Prince Francis of Teck, and their Serene Highnesses the Prince and Princess Victor of  Hohenlohe-Langenburg and the Countess Victoria Gleichen were present.

The following had the honour to receive invitations, but some amongst them were unavoidably prevented from attending: —

The French Ambassador (M. Waddington) and Madame Waddington, the German Ambassador (Count Hatzfeldt) and the Countess Marie Hatzfeldt, the Turkish Ambassador (Rustem Pasha), the Austro-Hungarian Ambassador (Count Deym) and the Countess Deym, the Italian Ambassador  (Count Tornielli), the Countess Tornielli, and Mademoiselle Virginia dei Conti Lazzari, the Danish Minister (M. de Falbe) and Madame de Falbe, the Russian Chargé d'Affaires (M. Bontineff), his Serene Highness Prince Louis Esterhazy, M. A. Kroupensky, M. A. de Stoeckl, Count Leyden, Count Albert Mensdorff, Count Reventlow, Mr. and Mrs. Henry White, M. de Soveral, the Marques and Marquesa de Santurce, Mr. A. de Murrieta, Mr. C. de Murrieta.

The Duke and Duchess of Leeds and Lady Alice Osborne, the Duke and Duchess of Buccleuch, the Duke and Duchess of Portland, the Duke and Duchess of Westminster, the Marchioness of Blandford and Lady Frances Spencer Churchill, the Marquis and Marchioness of Granby, the Marquis and Marchioness of Londonderry, the Marquis and Marchioness of Ormonde, the Marquis and Marchioness of Salisbury and Lady Gwendolen Cecil, the Marquis and Marchioness of Stafford, Count Gleichen, the Earl and Countess Brownlow, the Earl and Countess Cadogan and Lady Emily  Cadogan, the Earl and Countess of Clarendon, the Earl of Chesterfield, the Earl of Clonmell, the Earl of Dudley, the Earl and Countess of Dunraven and Lady Florence Wyndham Quin, the Earl and Countess Granville and Lady Victoria Leveson Gower, the Earl and Countess of Hardwicke, the Earl and Countess Howe and Lady Evelyn Curzon, the Earl and Countess of  Kilmorey, the Earl and Countess of Lathom and Lady Alice Wilbraham, the Earl and Countess of Lucan and Lady Rosalind Bingham, the Earl of Mount Edgcumbe and Lady Albertha Edgcumbe, the Earl and Countess of Romney and Lady Florence Marsham, the Earl and Countess of Rosebery, the Earl of Shaftesbury, the Earl of Stradbroke, the Earl and Countess of Sefton and Lady Gertrude Molyneux, the Earl and Countess Spencer, Viscount Drumlanrig, Lord and Lady Randolph Spencer Churchill, Lord Frederick Hamilton, Lord Ernest Hamilton, Lord and Lady Algernon Gordon Lennox, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Viscountess Mandeville]], Lord Charles Montagu, Viscount Chelsea, Viscount and Viscountess Coke and the Hon. Violet White, Viscount Curzon, Lady Georgina Curzon and Lady Sarah Spencer Churchill, Viscount Fincastle, Viscount Royston, Viscount Valletort, Lord and Lady Brooke, Lord Burghersh, Lord Capell, Lord and Lady Norreys and the Hon. Coralie Glyn, Lady Charles Beresford, Lord Marcus Beresford, Lord Alwyne Compton, Lord and Lady William Nevill, Lord Richard Nevill, Lord Henry Paulet, Lord Henry Vane Tempest, Lord Herbert Vane Tempest, Admiral Lord Alcester, Lady Ampthill and the Hon. Constance Russell, Lord Alington and the Hon. Winifred and Hon. Mildred Sturt, Lord and Lady Colville of Culross  and the Hon. Blanche Colville, Lord and Lady De  Ramsey, Lady Hastings, Lord and Lady Hindlip, Lord Lurgan, Lord and Lady Revelstoke and the Hon. Susan Baring, Lord and Lady Rothschild,  Lord Rowton, Lord Suffield and the Hon. Judith and Hon. Eleanor Harbord, Lord and Lady Wimborne and the Hon. Frances Guest, Lord Wolverton, Baron Ferdinand Rothschild, Captain the Hon. Maurice Bourke, R.N., Colonel the Hon. Henry Byng and the Misses Byng, the Hon. Alan Charteris, Lieutenant-Colonel the Hon. C. Edgcumbe, the Hon. Sir Spencer and Lady Ponsonby Fane, the Hon. Sidney Greville, Colonel the Hon. Oliver Montagu, the Hon. C. R. and Mrs. Spencer, the Hon. S. M'Donnell, the Hon. Alexander Yorke, the Hon. H. and Lady Feodora Sturt, the Hon. Arthur Walsh, the Hon. R. Winn, the Right Hon. W. E. and Mrs. Gladstone and Miss Gladstone, the Right Hon. A. J. Balfour, the Right Hon. H. Chaplin, the Right. Hon. Sir Henry James, the Right Hon. Sir C. L. Wyke, the Hon. S. C. Colville, the Hon. Assheton Harbord, the Hon. Julia Stonor, the Hon. H. Stonor, the Hon. E. Stonor, Captain the Hon. Henry White, Sir Edward and Lady Guinness, Sir Charles Hartopp, Sir Frederick Johnstone, Sir John and Lady Lister Kaye, Sir James and Lady  Mackenzie, Colonel Sir Nigel and Lady Emily Kingscote, Admiral Sir R. and the Hon. Lady Macdonald and Miss Macdonald, General Sir Dighton and Lady Probyn, Sir Francis and the Hon. Lady Knollys, Major-General Sir Christopher Teesdale, Sir Oscar Clayton, Sir Allen Young, Lieutenant-General Bateson, Lieutenant-General Charles Fraser, Major-General and the Hon. Mrs. Arthur Ellis and Miss Ellis, Colonel J. P. Brabazon, Colonel and Mrs. Stanley Clarke and the Misses Clarke, Captain H. F. Stephenson, R.N., Lieutenant-Colonel F. H. Poore, Lieutenant-Colonel R. Vivian, Major C. Swaine, Captain Douglas Dawson, Captain C. H. A. Hervey, the officers of the Queen's Guard, St. James's Palace, Mr. G. Byng, Mr. Henry Calcraft, Mr. Victor Cavendish, Mr. Henry Ellis, Mr. Horace Farquhar, Mr. and Mrs. George Forbes and Miss Forbes, Mr. Montagu Guest, Mr. Charles Hall, Mr. E. W. Hamilton, Mr. and Lady Hilda Higgins, Mr. Holzmann, Miss Knollys, Mr. and Mrs. F. R. Knollys, Mr. Ronald Moncrieffe, Mr. Alfred Montgomery, Mr. Arnold Morley, Mr. Henry Petre, Mr. Alfred de Rothschild, Mr. and Mrs. Leopold de Rothschild, Mr. Reuben Sassoon and Miss Sassoon, Mr. and Mrs. Arthur Sassoon, Mr. Edgar Sebright, Mr. and Mrs. Ralph Sneyd, Mr. Christopher Sykes, and Mr. O. G. St. George Williams.

Messrs. Coote and Tinney's band was in attendance.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Marlborough House.&quot; ''Morning Post'' 11 March 1890, Tuesday: 5 [of 8]. Col. 6b–c [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000174%2F18900311&amp;page=5&amp;article=055&amp;stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p.
&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

==April 1890==
Arnold Dolmetsch took out a three-day ticket to the Reading Room in April 1890 (Campbell 22).

=== 9 April 1890, Wednesday ===

==== The New Forest United Hunt Ball ====
&lt;blockquote&gt;This annual ball was beld at the New Forest Hall, Lyndhearst, on Wednesday night, and was a most brilliant gathering, upwards of 200 being present, not only the New Forest but also neighbouring hunts being well represented. Among those present were Earl and Countess of Londesborough, Lady Mildred Denison, Lady Lilian Denison, Hon. Louis Johnstone, Hon. Gerald and Mrs Lascelles, Major Downman, Capt. Sandbach, R.H.A., Col. and Mrs Sinkins, Col. Fitzroy Smyth, Lady Thursby and party, Mr Stanley Pearce (Master of the Foxhounds), Mr F. Lovell (Master of the Deerhounds) and party, Lady Adela Goff and party, Hon. Miss St. Leger Glyn and party, Mr A. H. Jeffreys, M.P., and Mrs Jeffreys, Hon. Mrs A. Peter, Mr Somerset H. Onslow, Mr Lancelot Orde, Lord Garioch, Mr and Mrs C. K. Francis, the Countess of Normandy, Lady Mary Agar, Lord Montagu, Hon. John Scott Montagu, Viscount Cantelupe, Prince Dhuleep Singh, Hon. D. Keppel, Col. Charles Needham (1st Life Guards), [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Hon. Mrs Algernon Bourke]], Mrs Cornwallis West, Mr and Mrs Shelley Bontein, Col. Gridley, Col. Newton, Col. Elliot, R.H.A., Lady Meyrick and party, Sir W. Jervois, Lady Jervois and  party, &amp;c.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;The New Forest United Hunt Ball.&quot; ''The Sportsman'' 11 April 1890, Friday: 2 [of 4], Col. 5c [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001055/18900411/024/0002. Same print title and p.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

==May 1890==
Leonora Braham appeared at the Opera Comique as Ruth Ferns in ''Gretna Green''.
===21 May 1890, Wednesday===
It was his pupil the young Countess Valda Gleichen who found a sponsor for Dolmetsch's first but brief appearance at a London concert on 21 May 1890, when the 'Magpie Minstrels' … gave one of their bi-annual performances at the Princes' Hall&quot; (Campbell 30).

==June 1890==

=== 3 June 1890, Tuesday ===

==== Dinner and Concert Hosted by Mrs. Arthur Williams and Ball by Mrs. Menzies ====
&lt;blockquote&gt;Yesterday evening society passed a large proportion of time on wheels, and the number of receptions was more than the most inveterate could get through wvith comfort. ... Meanwhile, the Duke of Clarence and Avondale dined with Mrs. Arthur Wilson in Grosvenor-place, and a small and select concert followed. The Duchess of Leinster was, as ever, the most beautiful among many beauties, the Hon. Helen Henniker, after her long mourning, was warmly greeted by swarms of friends, and the Countess of Lovelace, in grey satin, chaperoned her débutante niece, Miss Milbank.

Prince &quot;Eddie&quot; went from Mrs. Arthur Wilson's hospitable mansion to that of Mrs. J. Graham Menzies. It is unusual to find mother and daughter entertaining this illustrious young man on the same evening. Mrs. Menzies, who has succeeded Lord Suffield in his beautiful house in Upper Grosvenor-street, had one of the smartest and most successful balls of the present season. The Blue Hungarians played with immense vigour and owing to the postponement of Lady Carnarvon's ball, there was no competition for men and married women. Countess Howe, Lady Brougham and Vaux, Lady Aveland and Miss Willoughby, Viscountess Stormont, the Hon. Lady Grey Egerton and Miss Egerton, the Duchess of Buccleuch, the [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Hon. Mrs. Algernon Bourke]], the Earl of Craven, Countess of Coventry, Mrs. Mackay, Lady Sykes, the Marchioness of Granby, Mrs. Hwfa Williams, Lord Garioch, Sir Savile and Lady Crossley, Mr. and Mrs. Harry Lawson, and many others were present.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Yesterday Evening Society.&quot; ''Pall Mall Gazette'' 4 June 1890, Wednesday: 4 [of 8], Col. 3a [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000098/18900604/015/0004. Same print title and p.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

==== Münster-Hay Wedding ====
Account of the wedding of Count Alexander Münster and Lady Muriel Henrietta Constance Hay. Count Bismarck sent a gift.&lt;blockquote&gt;St. Andrew's Church, Wells-street, was completely filled yesterday afternoon on the occasion of the marriage of Count Alexander Münster, son of Count Münster, German Ambassador in Paris, with Lady Muriel Henrietta Constance Hay, younger daughter of the Earl and Countess of Kinnoull. The ceremony was fixed for half-past two o'clock, but all the seats in the body of the church were occupied long before that time by invited guests. The rood screen was hidden with white flowers, and a number of tall palms were skilfully arranged in and about the chancel. The bridegroom was early in his place, and wore the splendid white and gold uniform of the Garde du Corps of the Emperor; his best man, Prince Hans Heinrich Pless, wearing the scarlet and gold uniform of the Garde Hussars. The six bridesmaids were Lady Mildred Denison, Lady Dorothea Stewart Murray, Hon. Marie Hay, Hon. Marjory Murray, Miss Rosalind Lovell, and Miss Gladys Hadow (niece of the bride). They wore pretty dresses of pale blue satin, veiled with white chiffon; the skirts were edged with a frill, and the bodices finished with quaint fichus of the chiffon, fastened in front with a bunch of forget-me-nots. They wore drawn hats of the chiffon, covered with forget-me-nots, and their posies were of the same flowers, intermixed with pink roses, and tied with narrow pink ribbons. Each wore a gold bangle with centre forming the initials &quot;A.M.,&quot; and a single turquoise drop. The bride entered the church at half-past two, and was received by her father, who led her to the chancel steps, preceded by the choristers singing a nuptial hymn. The bride's dress was of ivory satin made with a very long train. The front was fringed round the hem with orange blossoms and veiled with old Brussels lace, the gift of her mother; the bodice was entirely covered with beautiful old lace, and finished at the neck on one side with a cluster of orange blossoms. She wore a small wreath of orange blossoms and myrtle arranged in the hair at the back and a tulle veil falling almost to the end of the train and held by diamond stars, the gift of the bridegroom. The bride's other jewels included two diamond drop hairpins, the gift of Count Münster; an emerald and diamond brooch, from the bridegroom; enamel and diamond heartsease brooch, from Lady Mary Mills; a diamond and emerald bracelet, from the Duke of Beaufort; and a diamond bracelet, from the Duke and Duchess of Athole. Her train was held by her two little nephews, Masters Roland and Patrick Hadow, wearing Scotch dress with lace ruffles. The service, which was fully choral, was performed by the Rev. Provost Rorison, of St. Ninian's Cathedral, Perth, assisted by the Rev. W. T. Houldsworth, rector of St. Andrew's.

The Earl and Countess of Kinnoull afterwards entertained the bridal party at the residence of the Earl of Londesborough, uncle of the bride, in Grosvenor-square. Among the numerous guests were the Russian Ambassador and Madame de Staal, the German Ambassador, the Austrian Ambassador and Countess Deym, Count Münster and the Countesses Marie, Julia, and T. Münster, Prince Pless, Prince Louis Esterhazy, Count Donhoff, Baroness von Beckendorff-Hindenburg, Baron E. Fürstenberg, Count Paul Metternich, Geheimrath Schmettau, Countess Valentin, [[Social Victorians/People/de Soveral|M. de]] [[Social Victorians/People/de Soveral|Soveral]], Captain Hasenclever, Count Leyden, Herr von Rath, Count Francis Deym, Baron and Baroness Deichmann, Count Mensdorff, Herr Pilgrim Baltazzi, Count and Countess Henry Lützow, Baroness d' Erlanger [?], Herr von Kemnitz, Baron Cramm, Vicomte de Janzé, the Duke of Beaufort, the Duchess of Athole, and the Ladies Stewart Murray, the Marchioness of Downshire, the Marchioness of Stafford and Lady Sybil St. Clair Erskine, Maria Marchioness of Ailesbury, the Countess of Dunraven and Ladies Wyndham Quin, the Countess of Kilmorey, the Countess of Galloway and Miss Stewart, the Countess of Dudley and Lady Edith Ward, the Countess of Strathmore and Lady Constance Lyon, the Earl and Countess of Roden, Lady Willoughby de Eresby and Hon. Miss Willoughby, the Countess of Westmorland. Viscount and Viscountess Raincliffe, Viscountess Coke, Viscountess Stormont and Hon. MabeI Murray, Viscountess Malden and Hon. Miss Capel, Lord Hay of Kinfauns [?], Lady Delamere and Miss Cholmondeley, Lady Brougham, Lady Esher, Lord Saye and Sele and Hon. Maud and Hon. Gertrude Fiennes, Lady Helen MacGregor and Miss MacGregor, Lord and Lady Algernon Gordon Lennox and Lady Angela St. Clair Erskine, Lady Raglan, Lord Charles Innes Ker, Lady Elizabeth Bertie, Lady Frances Pratt and Lady Clementine Pratt, Lady Geraldine Somerset, Lady Dalton Fitzgerald and Miss Payne, Lady Mary Mills and Miss Pereira, Lady Dorchester, Lady Louisa Moncreiffe and Misses Moncreiffe, Lady Norreys, Lady Petre, Lady Jane Trefusis, Lord Frederic Hamilton, Baroness de Brienen and Miss de Brienen, Helen Lady Forbes and the Misses Forbes, Lady Scott, Miss Scott and Mrs. Green, Lord Zouche and Hon. Miss Curzon, Mr. and Lady Constance Hadow, Hon. Lady Campbell, Lady William Nevill and Miss Bannerman, Hon. Alastair and Mrs. Hay, Hon. Miss Greville, Captain Hon. Randolph Stewart, Hon. FitzRoy and Mrs. Stewart, Hon. Charles Walsh, Hon. William Walsh, [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Hon. Mrs. Algernon Bourke]], Colonel Hon. Charles and Mrs. Hay and Miss Maude Hay, Hon. Mrs. Greville Nugent, Hon. Mrs. Colville and Miss Streatfeild [sic], Hon. Claude Hay, Sir Charles and Lady Forbes of Newe, Laely Borthwick, Sir Francis Montefiore, Sir Henry Hoare, Sir George Arthur, Sir William Gordon Cumming, General and Mrs. Wilkinson, Colonel and Mrs. Chaine, Colonel Arthur Paget, Colonel H. M. Hozier, the Provost of St. Ninian's, Major Finch, Major Candy, Colonel Lloyd, Captain and Mrs. Stewart, Mr. and Mrs. Hay Drummond, Captain and Mrs. Lloyd, Mr. William Gillett, Mr. Hulse, M.P., and Mrs. Hulse, Captain Lumley, Captain Barrow, Major Anstruther, Mrs. Hwfa Williams, Mr. Arthur Hay, Mr. Raglan Somerset, Mr. and Mrs. George Cavendish Bentinck, Mrs. Villiers, Mr. Henry Petre, Mrs. Keighley, Mrs. E. Balfour and Miss Balfour and Miss Ellice, Mrs. Dick Cunynghame and Miss A. M'Gregor, Rev. C. Weidemann, Miss Balfour and Miss E. Balfour, Mrs. and Miss Halford, Mr. and Mrs. Toler, Mrs. and Miss Townley, Rev. Dr. M'Ewan, Mr. A. F. Levita, Mr. F. Stephens, Mrs. and Miss Leigh, Mr. and Mrs. George Forbes and Miss Forbes, Mrs. Luke Wheeler, Mrs. J. Beerbohm, Dr. and Mrs. W. M. Collins, Mrs. and Miss Orde, Mrs. Murray, Miss Glyn, Mrs. Godfrey Pearse, Mr. Balfour, Mr. Leopold Goldberg, Mr. and Miss Oswa d [Oswald], Mr. and Mrs. C. Bulteel, Mrs. Brydges Wyllyams, Mr. H. Balfour, the Misses Codrington, Miss Finch, Mrs. Barron and Miss Sullivan, Mr. Hamilton Aidé, Mr. Granville and Miss Berkeley, Mr. M'Gregor, Mrs. and Miss Needham, Mr. and Mrs. A. Consett and Miss Consett, Mrs. Herbert Naylor LeyIand, Mr. and Mrs. A. Darby, Mrs. Montefiore, Mrs. Charles Murray and Miss Murray, Mrs. Thomas Legh, the Rev. John F. Mitchell, Mr. and Mrs. Claud Hay, Mr. Fiztalan Manners, Mr. Albert Stopford, Mr. Hervey Pechell, and Mr. and Mrs. Charles Orde.

Later in the day Count Alexander Münster and his bride left for Hillingdon Court, Uxbridge, the residence of the Hon. A. Mills, where they will pass the early days of the honeymoon, and then proceed to Chàlet Sans Souci, Bellaggio, Lake of Como, lent by Mr. Hervey Pechell. They will afterwards go to Wiesbaden, and thence to Count Münster's German country seat, where a great reception awaits them.

The wedding presents were very numerous. Count Munster presented the bride with a diamond necklace and pair of diamond drop hairpins. The bridegroom's gifts to his bride included a tiara of three diamond stars, a brooch formed of an emerald of unusual size set in diamonds, large pearl pendant, gold bracelet set with turquoises, and diamond and turquoise ring. The Duke of Beaufort presented Lady Muriel with an emerald and diamond bracelet. The Earl and Countess of Kinnoull's presents included a quantity of plate and other articles. Prince Henry of Battenberg sent a large silver-mounted claret jug; Count Bismarck, a silver box; the Marchioness of Waterford, gold snake bracelet, with pearl head and ruby eyes; the Duke and Duchess of Athole, diamond &quot;M&quot; bangle; Lady Ermyntrude Malet, massive silver bowl; Countess Marie Münster, silver tea set and tray; Baron E. Fürstenberg, pair of gold-mounted claret jugs; Baron and Baroness Erlanger, large silver bowl; Baron and Baroness Gungberg, pair of antique silver mounted jugs.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Marriage of Count Alexander Münster and Lady Muriel Hay.&quot; ''Morning Post'' 4 June 1890, Wednesday: 7 [of 12], Col. 7a–c [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000174/18900604/064/0007. Same print title and p.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

===4 June 1890, Wednesday===
Derby Day.

According to the Morning Post, &lt;quote&gt;Lady Thurlow's first dance. / Mrs. Coddington's Ball. / The Fourth of June celebration at Eton. / ... Royal Society of Literature — Paper on &quot;Early England,&quot; by Mr. Carmichael, S. &lt;/quote&gt; (&quot;Arrangements for This Day.&quot; The Morning Post Wednesday, 4 June 1890: p. 7 [of 12], Col. 6A).

===13 June 1890, Friday===
? or on the 12th? Arnold Dolmetsch had a concert at which his students performed (Campbell 31). It was reviewed very positively in the 13 June Daily Graphic, especially Helene Dolmetsch's performance. They did Purcell's Fairy Queen. They used a harpsichord.

===26 June 1890, Thursday===
There was apparently a regular celebration of [[Social Victorians/People/Arthur Collins|Arthur Collins]]' birthday, 26 June, by Bret Harte, George Du Maurier, [[Social Victorians/People/Arthur Sullivan|Arthur Sullivan]], Alfred Cellier, Arthur Blunt, and John Hare (Nissen, Axel. Brent Harte: Prince and Pauper: 239. [http://books.google.com/books?id=WEDewmUnapcC]). Choosing 1885–1902 as the dates because those apparently are the dates of the close relationship between Harte and Collins, ending in Harte's death in 1902.

==July 1890==
===3 July 1890, Thursday===
&lt;blockquote&gt;On July 3, 1890, Besant’s house at 19 Avenue Road, St. John’s Wood, was inaugurated as a new center of Theosophical work, serving as the European headquarters of the [[Social Victorians/Theosophical Society|Theosophical Society]] and as HPB’s residence. That house became also the meeting place of HPB’s Inner Group, twelve of her students who were eager for more intense training than was feasible in a larger, more general gathering.&lt;/blockquote&gt;That Inner Group is different from the Esoteric Section.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Esoteric World Chapter 23.&quot; ''The Theosophical Society of America, Online Resources''. http://www.theosophical.org/index.php?option=com_content&amp;view=article&amp;catid=23&amp;id=1725&amp;Itemid=53&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;blockquote&gt;The hall had a seating capacity of about 200. On the opening night [July 3, 1890] [sic] the room was crammed, and many were unable to gain admission. The speakers were Mrs. Besant, Mr. Sinnett, a Mrs. Woolff (of America), and Mr. [Bertram] Keightley. HPB was present but said nothing, on account of the critical state of her health.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;23a. Henry S. Olcott, July 1890, London [Olcott 1931, 4:254–6].&quot; Esoteric World Chapter 23. ''The Theosophical Society of America, Online Resources''. http://www.theosophical.org/index.php?option=com_content&amp;view=article&amp;catid=23&amp;id=1725&amp;Itemid=53.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== 4 July 1890, Friday, 11 p.m. ===

==== The Queen's State Ball at Buckingham Palace ====
The Prince and Princess of Wales were hosts of this ball, as Queen Victoria was not present. Many of the Queen's children and their spouses were present.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;State Ball at Buckingham Palace.&quot; ''Morning Post'' 5 July 1890, Saturday: 5 [of 8], Col. 5a–7b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000174/18900705/038/0005. Same print title and p.&lt;/ref&gt; The dancing commenced shortly after the Prince and Princess of Wales arrived at 11:00.

=== 1890 July 15, Tuesday ===

==== Garden Party at Marlborough House to Meet the Queen ====
The beginning of the ''Morning Post'' article, which is followed by a very long list of people invited:&lt;blockquote&gt;Their Royal Highnesses the Prince and Princess of Wales gave a garden party at Marlborough House yesterday afternoon to meet the Queen.

Her Majesty was accompanied by their Royal Highnesses the Princesses Victoria and Margaret of Prussia, and was attended by the Duchess of Roxburghe, Miss M'Neill, the Hon. Evelyn Moore, the Hon. Bertha Lambert, and Major-General Sir Henry Ewart and Major F. A. Bigge. Madlle. De Perpigna was in attendance on the Princesses Victoria and Margaret.

The following were present: — Their Royal Highnesses the Duke and Duchess of Edinburgh and Prince Alfred, and the Princesses Marie, Victoria, Alexandra, and Beatrice of Edinburgh; their Royal Highnesses the Duke and Duchess of Connaught and Prince Arthur, and the Princesses Margaret and Patricia of Connaught; their Royal Highnesses the Prince and Princess Christian of Schleswig-Holstein Sonderburg-Augustenburg and Princess Victoria and Princess Louisa of Schleswig-Holstein, her Royal Highness the Princess Louise, Marchioness of Lorne, and the Marquis of Lorne.

Her Royal Highness the Duchess of Albany, her Royal Highness the Princess Frederica and the Baron von Pawell-Rammingen, his Royal Highness the Duke of Cambridge, her Royal Highness Princess Mary Adelaide Duchess of Teck and his Highness the Duke of Teck and Princess Victoria of Teck, his Royal Highness the Duke d'Orleans and Princess Hélène d'Orleans, his Imperial Highness Don Pedro Augustus of Coburg and Braganza, his Serene Highness the Prince of Schaumburg-Lippe, his Serene Highness the Prince of Leiningen and their Serene Highnesses Prince and Princess Victor of Hohenlohe-Langenburg and the Countesses Gleichen, and Count Gleichen.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Garden Party at Marlborough House.&quot; ''Morning Post'' 15 July 1890, Tuesday: 5 [of 8], Col. 3a–7c [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000174/18900715/044/0005. Same print title and p.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== 19 July 1890, Saturday ===

==== Wedding of James Francis Harry St. Clair-Erskine and Violet Aline Vyner ====
This report from the ''Fife Free Press'' is missing a big piece of the 2nd paragraph, where the bridesmaids' and bride's dresses are described, because the page was damaged. The digitized copy is also generally poor.&lt;blockquote&gt;On Saturday forenoon, in Michael’s Church, Chester Square, London, was celebrated the marriage of Lord Loughhorough, eldest son of the Earl of Rosslyn with Miss Violet Aline Vyner, younger daughter of Mr R. C. Vyner, of Fairfield, Yorkshire. The chancel was beautifully decorated with palms and a profusion of lilies most artistically arranged. The Prince of Wales, Duke of Cambridge. Princess Mary Adelaide, Duchess and the Duke of Teck, and Princess Victoria, and the Right Hon. W. E. Gladstone were among those present.

The wedding party began to arrive at 11 o’clock, the bridesmaids being early in attendance. They were the Ladies Sybil and Angela St Clair Erskine, sisters of the bridegroom; Lady Anne Lambton, Miss Musgrave, Miss Rachel Gurney, and Miss Fleming. They were charmingly dressed in soft cream crepon, with violet velvet Zoave jackets, forming half sleeves and capes at the back, and pretty turn-down collars and cravats of white mosseline [mousseline?] chiffon, and the skirts were very plainly made. They wore large white hats lined with a band of violet velvet near the face, and trimmed on the crown with white ostrich plumes, a bunch of violets fastening the brim at the back. Each wore a brooch — the St Clair cross in rubies and diamonds set in a circle of the latter, and surmounted by a baron’s cornet of the same precious stones — the gift of the bri[degroom]; and carried a bouquet of Marechal Niel [roses?] ...ging sprays of the same, and tied w... ribbons. The bride entered the ... eleven o’clock, being received at ... father, who led her to the cha... her away. The service be... procession was preceded up ... choir, who sang &quot;The voic...&quot; The bride’s dress was ... with a long court train, ... white velvet being embro... ...und the train, and fasten... ...ver true lover’s knot. The picture... ...gh silver waistband, had full slee... mousseline chiffon; and a small ... blossoms was most becomingly arra... with a long tulle veil. The Earl of Chesterfield discharged the duties of best man.

The Rev. Canon Fleming, Chaplain in Ordinary to the Queen and Vicar of St Michael's, performed the marriage rite, assisted by the Rev. Edgar Sheppard, Sub-Dean of the Chapels Royal, and the Rev. J. Thomson, of Rosslyn, near Edinburgh. The hymn “Thine for ever! For of love,” was sung the end of the service. Canon Fleming afterwards delivered a most impressive address. After the benediction the clergy and bride and bridegroom passed to the vestry, the Prince of Wales following with Mrs Vyner. Pretty wedding favours of orange blossoms, Parma violets, and white heather were then distributed amongst the congregation.

Mr and Mrs Vyner afterwards welcomed the wedding party at Ashburnham House, Dover-street. The ''dejeuner'' was served in three rooms, one being reserved for the bride and bridegroom and the Royal party. The table in the latter room was decorated with several of Mr Vynet's racing trophies. The band of the Grenadier Guards performed in the garden during the reception. The Prince of Wales, Duke of Cambridge, the Duke and Duchess of Teck and Princess Victoria were present at the breakfast, and among the general company were Count Munster and Countess Maria Munster, the Marchese and Marchesa de Montagliari, the Marquis and Marchioness of Ripon, the Marquis and Marchioness of Stafford, the Marquis of Cholmondeley, the Marquis of Northampton, Maria Marchioness of Ailesbury, the Dowager Marchioness of Conyngham and Lady Blanche Conyngham, the Marchioness of Downshire, the Countess of Rosslyn, Earl and Countess Compton, the Earl of Feversham, the Earl of Durham, the Countess of Coventry and the Ladies Coventry, Countess Howe and Ladies Curzon, the Countess of Yarborough, the Earl of Clonmell, the Earl and Countess of Loudoun, the Countess of Kilmorey, Countess de Grey, Viscount Molyneux, the Bishop of Gibraltar and Mrs Sandford, Viscountess de Labrosse and Mdles. de Labrosse, Lord Greenock, Lord and Lady Algernon Lennox, Lady Lilian Wemyss, Lady Julia Wombwell and Miss Wombwell, Hon. Lady Campbell of Blythswood, Lady Constance Harris, Lady Florence Harris, Lord and Lady Burghley, Lady Dorchester, Lord Houghton, Lady Curzon, Lady Brougham and Vaux and Miss Musgrave, Baron de Hirsch, Helen Lady Forbes and the Misses Forbes, Baroness Burdett Coutts and Mr Burdett Coutts, M.P., Lady Astley, Lord and Lady William Nevill, Lord and Lady Brooke and Hon. Leopold and Hon. Marjorie Greville, Lady Dalton Fitzgerald and Miss Payne, Lord Elcho, Lady Willoughby de Eresby and the Misses Willoughby, Lady Ewart, Lady Hindlip, Lady Cecilia Rose, Lord Rowton, Lord Capell, Lady Mabel Compton, Lord and Lady Herries, Lady Sykes, Lord and Lady Alwyne Compton, Lady Ventry and Hon. Miss de Moleyns, Hon. Lady Knollys, Lady Manners, Hon. Lady Drummond and Misses Drummond, Hon. Sydney Greville, Hon. Assheton Harbord, Hon. Derek Keppel, Hon. Captain Bourke, Hon. Mrs Percy Mitford, Hon. Philip Harbord, Hon. and Rev. L. Tyrwhitt, Hon. Coralie Glyn, Hon. M. Lambton, Hon L. Greville, Hon. Alwyn Greville, Hon[.] Eva Greville, Hon. Frances Dawnay, Hon Evelyn Paget, Hon Mrs Algernon Grosvcnor, Hon and Mrs Lambton. Hon. Mrs Evelyn Pelham, Hon. Fitzroy St Clair Erskine, [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Hon. Mrs Algernon Bourke]], Hon. W. Maxwell, Hon. G. and Mrs Dawnay, Hon. Captain Lambton, General Sir Seymour Blane, Sir William Gordon Cumming, Sir Archibald and Miss Edmunstone, Sir Henry and Lady Meysey Thompson, Mrs Gladstone, Mr and Lady Margaret Cameron, Mr and Lady Florence Astley, Mr and Lady Elizabeth Melville Cartwright and Miss Melville Cartwright, General and Mrs Duff and Miss Duff, General Owen Williams, Colonel and Mrs Anstruther Thompson, Colonel Stopford Sackville, Colonel Craig, Colonel Brabazon, Colonel Forester, Colonel Stanley Clarke (in attendance on the Prince of Wales) and Miss Clarke, Major Davidson, Canon and Mrs Fleming, Captain St John Mildmay (in attendance on the Duke of Cambridge), Captain and Mrs FitzGeorge, Mrs William Portal, the Sub Dean of the Chapels Royal, Rev. W. M. and Mrs Wollaston, Rev. R. West, Mr and Miss Chamberlain. Mr and Mrs W. H. Grenfell, Mr Christopher Sykes, M.P., Mr Reuben Sassoon, Mr Arthur Sassoon, Mrs Bischoffsheim, Mr and Mrs Herbert Naylor Leyland, Dr and Mrs Anderson, Mrs Oswald, Mr and Mrs Surtees, Mr Fitzgerald, Mr and Mrs Menzies, Miss Willoughby and Miss Gertrude Willoughby, Mr Arthur Paget, Miss Christie, Mr Dowdall, Mrs Eastwood and the Misses Eastwood, Mr Frederick Warre, Mr William Williamson, Mrs Burton, Mrs Chaine, Captain and Mrs Livesey Wardle, Captain A. R. Hill, Miss Helby, Mrs and Miss Winslow, Mr and Miss Oswald, Mr Willoughby, Mr Quintin Hume, Mr F and Miss Fitzherbert, Mrs and Miss F. Hotham, Mr and Mrs Moreton Frewin, Mrs Charles Otway, Mr Calcraft, Mr Watson, Mr Fennick, Mr Montgomery, Mr Cecil Murray, Mr and Mrs Sneyd, Mr Leslie Stephen, Mr Edgar Sebright, Miss Fleetwood Wilson, Mrs and Miss Farmer of Nonsuch, Mr and Mrs Dennistoun and Miss Dennistoun, Mr and Mrs J. R. Lane Fox and Miss Lane Fox, &amp;c. 

The bride and bridegroom left early in the afternoon for Easton Lodge, Dunmow, the seat of Lord and Lady Brooke, in Essex, where they will spend the honeymoon. The bride travelled in a costume of biscuit coloured armure silk, the top of the bodice and sleeves being of pale pink mousseline de soie, and the lower part of the former inserted with pink velvet ribbons to form a high band, Tuscan straw-hat trimmed with pink crepe de chine, and biscuit feathers. The presents exceeded four hundred in number. The Prince of Wales presented the bride with a trefoil moonstone and diamond brooch and the bridegroom with a sapphire and diamond pin. The Princess of Wales's gift the bridegroom was a silver-necked claret jug. The Duke of Cambridge gave an amethyst and diamond pendant, and the bridegroom a pair of silver gilt candlesticks; and Princess Mary and the Duke of Teck presented the bride with a silver sugar basin. The bridegroom’s gifts to the bride were a diamond and sapphire watch bracelet, a diamond half-hoop ring, diamond brooch with pearl centre, diamond and turquoise brooch, formed of the St Clair badge in rubies and diamonds set in a circle of diamonds, surmounted by a baron’s coronet in the same precious stones, a large salts bottle with two heart-shaped moonstones set with rubies and diamonds and a silver sugar basin. The bride presented Lord Loughborough with a turquoise and diamond stud. The Earl of Rosslyn presented the bride with diamond necklet. The Countess of Rosslyn’s gifts were diamond orchid brooch and a pink feather fan. Mr R. C. Vyner’s gifts to his daughter were a diamond and pearl tiara and gold mounted dressing case, and Mrs Vyner gave her a sapphire and diamond ring. The Marchioness of Stafford gave a ruby and diamond pin; Lady Mary Vyner antique diamond tiara; the Ladies Angela and Sybil Erskine sapphire and diamond bracelet; Hon. Fitzroy St Clair Erskine with &quot;1890&quot; in rubies and diamonds; Lord and Lady A. Compton large diamond star; the Earl of Rosslyn presented his son with a large silver bowl and two silver dishes; the Countess of Rosslyn's present was a travelling bag; Mr Vyner gave him a luncheon basket; Mrs Vyner a silver ''entree'' dish; the Marchioness of Stafford case containing silver coffee and tea pots, urn and stand, sugar basin, and cream jug; Lord and Lady Brooke four antique silver sauce boats; Lord and Lady Algernon Gordon ['''Col. 1c–2a'''] Lennox three antique silver ''entree'' dishes. The Earl of Rosslyn's Fifeshire tenants presented Lord Loughborough with a beautiful antique silver bowl, two antique silver dessert dishes, and two antique sugar castors; and to the bride they gave an antique silver tea service. The congregation of Rosslyn Chapel presented the bridegroom with a complete and elegant writing set, whilst Lord Rosslyn's servants gave him a silver inkstand and pair of silver candlesticks. Mr Vyner's servants presented the bride with a silver salver and six ''liqueur'' cups. The servants of Newby Hall gave a silver coffee pot, and Mr Vyner’s Cheshire tenants presented a case containing silver tea pot, sugar basin, and cream jug. The bride also received from the Duchess of Portland a travelling bag; the Duchess de Luynes, sapphire and diamond ring; the Duke of Westminister, Indian necklace; the Marquis of Northampton, diamond bracelet; the Marquis of Ripon, sapphire and diamond bracelet; the Marchioness of Ripon, turquoise and diamond bangle, the Earl of Durham, a diamond half hoop bracelet; Earl and Countess Cowper, a diamond &quot;V V” brooch; Dowager Viscountess Downe, moonstone and diamond crescent; Lady Skyes [Sykes] ruby and diamond fish brooch; Lady Millbank, sapphire and diamond brooch Lord Douglas Compton, double heart brooch; Lord Herbert Vane Tempest, gold curb chain bracelet set with pearls; Earl and Countess Compton, bangle with “Vi” and “good luck” on it; the Duke and Duchess of St Albans, tea service with table; the Marchioness Conyngham, silver cream jug; the Marchioness of Tavistock, silver vase; the Countess of Rodin, a silver I bowl; the Countess of Yarborough, silver candlesticks; Viscountess Downe, silver tea caddie; Lady de Trafford, gold mounted salts bottle; the Hon. F. Dawnay, large silver candlesticks[;] Hon. F and Lady Lampton, travelling clock; Hon. W. Lambton, silver candlesticks; Sir R. and Lady Graham, silver salver; Sir Roderick and Miss Cameron, two silver dishes; General Williams, diamond bangle; Colonel and Mrs G. FitzGeorge, gold mounted bottle; Major and Mrs Egerton, pair of silver candlesticks; Major Stuart Wortley, diamond Swallow; Major Davidson, heart-shaped brooch in coral and diamonds; Captain and Lady Cecilia Rose, a brougham; Mr Beaumont, silver bowl; Miss Edmonstone, moonstone and diamond hat pins; Mrs Harris, sapphire and diamond bracelet; Mr Egerton, turquoise and diamond brooch; Sir Cecil Murray, sapphire and diamond pin; Mr A. Farquharson, diamond swallow brooch; Mr and Mrs Hulse, two small silver vases; Miss Fleetwood Wilson, diamond bangle; Mrs A. Wilson, tortoiseshell candlestick; Mr Quintin Hume, salts bottle mounted with diamonds and rubies; Miss Helbert, gold violet pin; Mr Chamberlain, pair of silver candlesticks; Hon. Arthur Coventry, gold mounted bottle with &quot;Vi&quot; in diamonds; Mrs Leopold de Rothschild, diamond hand brooch, together with a number of other gifts. Among the presents to the bridegroom were — from the Marchioness of Downshire, antique silver sugar sifter; the Marquis of Exeter, silver sandwich case; the Marchioness of Bath, antique Dutch silver box; the Marquis of Downshire, a gold pencil; Count Munster, cigarette case and match box; Count Alexander Munster, a hunting flask; the Countess of Lindsay, antique silver pen-tray; the Earl of Mar and Kellie, silver matchbox; the Earl and Countess of Loudoun, silver cigarette box; the Earl of Chesterfield, antique silver gilt inkstand; the Countess of Bradford, gold seal with agate; the Countess of Warwick, antique silver bowl; the Earl of Coventry, silver pen-tray; the Countess of Wharncliffe, two silver candlesticks; the Earl and Countess of Cromartie, two antique silver cups; Viscountess of Newport, silver paper knife; Mr and Mrs A. Sassoon, ruby and diamond pin; Lord John Cecil, silver salver; Lord and Lady Willoughby de Eresby, antique silver-mounted cruet stand; Lord William Nevtll, antique brandy carrier; Lady Margaret Spicer, silver match box; Lord Burghley, four silver salt cellars and spoons; Baron de Hirch [Hirsch?], silver inkstand; Lady W. E. Osborne Elphinstone, silver inkstand; Lord Kesteven, silver cream jug; Lord Capell, silver cigarette case; Lord and Lady Gerard, tortoiseshell and silver travelling clock; Lady Lilian Wemyss, silver cigarette case; Dad Alwyne Compton, umbrella containing matchbox and whistle; Lord and Lady Lennox, two antique silver ''entree'' dishes and bacon dish; Lord Burghersh, silver cigarette lighter; Lady Angela 8t Clair Erskine, four silver salt cellars; Lady Randolph Churchill, gold pencil case, with two sapphires; Lord Houghton, antique gold basket; Lady Sybil St Clair Erskine, umbrella; Lord and Lady Dorchester, large crystal seal; Hon. Derek P. Keppel, pair of silver candlesticks; Hon. E. and Mrs Pelham, silver inkstand; Hon. G. N. Curzon, silver gilt bowl; Hon. F. St Clair Erskine, four silver candle-sticks; [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Hon. A. and Mrs Bourke]], four small silver dessert dishes; Hon. Mrs Elliot Yorke, pair of silver candlesticks; Hon. Mr and Mrs L. Greville, tortoise-shell and silver box; Hon. R Somerset, diamond and pearl pin; Hon. G. H. Willoughby, silver ink-stand; Hon. H. and Mrs Grosvenor, umbrella; [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Hon. Mrs Algernon Bourke]], enamel and diamond pin; Captain Hon. Maurice Bourke, cigarette case and lighter; Hon. W. Maxwell, silver-backed clothes and hat brushes; Hon. Sidney Greville, saltspoons; Hon. M. C. Maxwell Scott, two silver ''menu'' plates; Hon. W. Edwardes, pin; [[Social Victorians/People/Greville|Captain Hon. A.]] and [[Social Victorians/People/Lady Violet Greville|Mrs Greville]], silver gilt bowl, fork, spoon, and ladle; Sir Frederick Milner, diamond and moonstone pin; Sir George Chetwynd, two long silver flagons; Sir M. and Lady Fitzgerald, two silver saltspoons; Sir N. Gordon Gumming, silver-handled paper knife, &amp;c.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Marriage of Lord Loughborough with Miss Vyner.&quot; ''Fife Free Press'' 26 July 1890, Saturday: 2 [of 8], Col. 1a–2b [of 6]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001110/18900726/015/0002. Same print title and p.&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== 24 July 1890, Thursday ===

==== Dinner and Dance Hosted by Lord Alington ====
Perhaps the date on this is uncertain, since the article in ''Truth'' would suggest it was held in late May or early June. The newspaper story in the ''Queen'' mentions another occasion in which the flowers were notable as well.

From ''Truth'':&lt;blockquote&gt;
But not a quarter of a mile distant [from a dinner and dance hosted by Lord Rothschild featuring Princess Louise and the Marquis of Lorne] a more important event was proceeding, for Lord Alington, having previously walked down the Row and invited his friends right and left to Alington House, South Audley-street, proceeded to give a dance which was honoured by the presence of the Prince and Princess of Wales, the Princesses Victoria and Maud, the Duke of Clarence, Princess Mary Adelaide, and Princess &quot;May&quot; and Prince and Princess Christian. This without exaggeration, with the exception of Lady Leconfield's, Lady Willoughby de Eresby's, and Lady Cadogan's, was the best ball hitherto given this season, and the prolific way ortolans [small songbirds regarded as a delicacy] were distributed at supper will long linger in the memories of those by whom these delicacies are cherished. One lady displayed her enthusiastic appreciation by devouring five of these, and it is to be hoped her devotion did not endanger her life. As for beauty, seldom before have so many pre-eminent for good looks been present at one gathering, as a mere enumeration of a few of these will prove. Of course the Duchess of Leinster heads the list, followed in quick succession by the Duchess of Portland, Lady de Grey, Lady Randolph Churchill, Lady Dudley, Lady Kilmorey, Lady Brooke, Lady de Trafford, Lady Helen Duncombe, Lady Hilda Dundas, Lady Sybil St. Clair Erskine, Lady Olivia Taylour, Miss Rachael Gurney, Lady Cardross, Miss Bourke, Lady Rose Leigh and her sister-in-law, Miss Leigh, Miss Berens (sister to Lady Cairns), Mrs. Ralph Sneyd, Lady Gerard, and a host of others far too numerous to mention. I often wonder that no painter has yet attempted to give us in one picture a permanent record of the chief beauties of our day. It would make a most interesting and exquisite group of lovely women, such as could not be found probably in any other country than this.&lt;ref&gt;Marmaduke, pseud. &quot;Letters from the Linkman.&quot; ''Truth'' 12 June 1890, Thursday: 26 [of 56], Col. 1a–b [of 2]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0002961/18900612/064/0026. Same print title, p. 1212.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;
From the ''Queen'':&lt;blockquote&gt;The P&lt;small&gt;RINCE AND&lt;/small&gt; P&lt;small&gt;RINCESS OF&lt;/small&gt; W&lt;small&gt;ALES&lt;/small&gt; and the Princesses Victoria and Maud honoured L&lt;small&gt;ORD&lt;/small&gt; A&lt;small&gt;LINGTON&lt;/small&gt; by their presence at D&lt;small&gt;INNER&lt;/small&gt;, at A&lt;small&gt;LINGTON&lt;/small&gt; H&lt;small&gt;OUSE&lt;/small&gt;, South Audley-street, on the 24th ult., when a distinguished party was present to meet them, including, among others, the Duke and Duchess of Leinster, the Marquis of Hartington, the Marquis and Marchioness of Ormonde, Maria Marchioness of Ailesbury, Earl and Countess Cadogan and Lady Emily Cadogan, the Earl Countess of Lucan and Lady Rosaline Bingham, the Earl  of Hardwicke, the Countess of Dudley and Lady Edith Ward, the EarI of Chesterfield, the Earl of Stradbroke and Lady Hilda Rous, and Earl Annesley. Covers were laid for sixty. Lord Alington afterwards gave a dance to meet the Prince and Princess of Wales and their daughters. As on the previous occasion, the floral decorations were exquisite. The entrance hall and the approaches to the reception rooms were decorated with tall palms and a profusion of lilies, pelargoniums, ferns in every variety, and roses in every imaginable shade. The conservatories at the back were carpeted and furnished luxuriously, and blocks of ice, lighted by fairy lamps, were placed about with artistic effect, serving to keep the atmosphere cool and fresh. Feathery palms, hydrangeos [hydrangeas] and arums were here used freely, and a particularly pretty result was obtained by the windows being framed, one in a fringe of ferns and red pelargoniums, and the other in ferns and fuschias. The ballroom fireplaces were adorned on each side with palms reaching to the ceiling, the mantelpieces being hidden by a delicate arrangement of roses in various shades springing from banks of hydrangeas, calceolarias, pelargoniums, and marguerites, and the walls of the staircase leading from the conservatory to the ball-room were hung with half-balls of floral roses. The supper was served in the dining-room, the tables being embellished with the loveliest orchids and roses of the most delicate tints, intermixed with pancretia; the arrangement was so light and elegant that it was difficult to believe that hands had ever touched the flowers. On those tables with silver candelabra in the centre, the flowers were all pure white, and those having gold candelabra were treated with mauve orchids and the palest pink and yellow roses. A tent, arranged near the conservatory for the Prince of Wales, was draped with Oriental hangings, and outside were groups of flowers and myriads of fairy lamps. The company began to arrive at eleven o'clock, when dancing commenced to the strains of the Blue Hungarian Band. The Princess of Wales was dressed in white striped satin and silk, the front being embroidered in pale shades, and wore handsome diamond ornaments. The Princesses Victoria and Maud wore white tulle over satin, the front being sprinkled all over with tiny sprays of lilies of the valley, each laid on a single leaf. The Duchess of Wellington was in black satin, with a pink sash arranged very prettily across the back of the bodice, and falling to the feet; a cluster of pink flowers and a beautiful diamond spray were fastened in the front of the bodicea and a diamond rivière was arranged in the hair, a diamond necklace being also worn. The Duchess of Westminster was in white satin trimmed with gold embroidery, and veiled in white chiffon. The Marchioness of Ormonde wore white striped brocade and satin trimmed with white lace, and a splendid diamond tiara and other ornaments. Countess de Grey, palest blue satin, with front beautifully embroidered in beads, and a diamond and pearl coronet. Maria, Marchioness of Ailesbury, white brocade and lace, with splendid diamond and emerald ornaments. The Marchioness of Bath, cream an violet brocaded velvet, the front being covered with mauve [38, Col. 3c – 39, Col. 1a] violets. Lady Mary Mills, rose-pink satin, with front richly embroidered; Lady Cardross, white satin, trimmed round the bodice and train with silver embroidery; Lady William Nevill, pale yellow brocade, the front veiled with black net, trimmed up the side with jet leaves, and all round the skirt was a bordering of Maréchal Niel roses, over a flounce of black net; Countess Granville wore rich white brocade and beautiful jewels; the Countess of Sefton, black satin and diamonds; Viscountess Dungan, white mousseline de soie, the skirt edged with a deep flounce; Lady Brooke, pale blue satin, trimmed with silver; Lady Emma Crichton, white satin train, with front of white lisse, prettily embroidered in red; Lady Idina Brassey, pale mauve bengaline, with front of chiffon and a handsome diamon coronet; Lady Rose Molyneux, white cross crêpe de Chine, with a pale green sash, and prettily trimmed with pink roses; Lady Wimborne, pale grey satin; the Hon. Miss Guest, pink satin, veiled with white net, sparkling with silver; Lady Sarah Spencer Churchill, white satin, with a chiffon frill; Lady Chesham, white silk, with pink roses; the Countess of Normanton, pale grey satin, with front of fine old lace; Mrs Hulse, handsome white brocade, diamond tiara, &amp;c.; Mrs Bischoffsheim, white silk, embroidered with silver, and trimmed round the bottom of the skirt and train with a ruche of pale yellow crèpe; the Hon. Muriel Brassey, white chiffon, over satin, slightly trimmed with pink; and the [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Hon. Mrs Algernon Bourke]] was in pink, with magnificent diamonds.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Entertainments, Balls, &amp;c.&quot; ''The Queen'' 2 August 1890, Saturday: 38, Col. 3c – 39 [of 82], Col. 1a–1c [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/BL/0002627/18900802/237/0038 and https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0002627/18900802/237/0039. Print: ''The Queen, The Lady's Newspaper'', pp. 170–171.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;This is the story from the ''Morning Post'':&lt;blockquote&gt;The Prince and Princess of Wales and the Princesses Victoria and Maud honoured Lord Alington by their company at dinner last evening at Alington House, South Audley-street. The guests present to meet their Royal Highnesses comprised the Duke and Duchess of Leinster, the Marquis of Hartington, the Marquis and Marchioness of Ormonde, Maria Marchioness of Ailesbury, Earl and Countess Cadogan and Lady Emily Cadogan, the Earl and Countess of Lucan and Lady Rosaline Bingham, the Earl of Hardwicke, the Countess of Dudley and Lady Edith Ward, the Earl of Chesterfield, Earl Annesley, the Earl of Stradbroke and Lady Hilda Rous, Lord and Lady Gerard, Lady Norreys, Lord Rowton, Lord Calthorpe, Lord Frederick Hamilton, Lord Charles Montagu, Lord Herbert Vane Tempest, Lord Arthur Grosvenor, Lady Lilian Wemyss, Colonel the Hon. Oliver Montagu, Sir John and Lady Lister Kaye, the Hon. Humphrey and Lady Feodore Sturt, the Hon. John Baring, the Hon. Henry and the Hon. Julia Stonor, the Hon. Gilbert Willoughby, Lady Suffield and Major-General Ellis, in waiting on the Prince and Princess of Wales; Sir Henry Calcraft, Mr. and Lady Rose Leigh, General and Mrs. Owen Williams, Mr. Mildmay, M.P., Mr. and Mrs. Arthur Sassoon, Mr. Montague Guest, Captain Orr-Ewing, Mrs. Bulkeley, Mr. Ricardo, and Mr. Caryl Craven.

Lord Alington afterwards gave a dance expressly to meet the Prince and Princess of Wales.

Among the company were— The Russian Ambassador, the Danish Minister, Prince Louis Esterhazy, Comte Costa de Beaunyardt, the Duchess of Buccleuch and Lady Evelyn Fitzmaurice, the Duchess of Westminster, the Dowager Duchess of Marlborough and Lady Sarah Spencer Churchill, the Duchess of Wellington and Lady Cardross, the Marquis and Marchioness of Granby and Miss Bourke, the Marchioness of Stafford and Lady Sybil St. Clair Erskine, the Marchioness of Bath and Lady Beatrice Thynne, the Marquis of Cholmondeley, the Marquese and Marquesa de Santurce and Lady Wilham Nevill, Countess Spencer, Countess Granville and Lady Victoria Leveson-Gower, Countess de Grey, the Earl of Dunraven, the Countess of Lathom and Lady Edith Wilbraham, the Countess of Enniskillen and Lady Christian Cole, the Earl of Ilchester, the Earl of Durham and Lady Anne Lambton, the Earl of Dalkeith and Lord Ernest Scott, the Countess of Sefton and Lady Rose Molyneux, Countess Howe and the Ladies Curzon, the Countess of Normanton and Lady Mary Agar and Miss Mary Liddell, Earl Craven, Viscount Clifden, Viscount Ennismore and Lady Beatrice Hare, Viscount Coke and the Hon. Violet White, Viscount and Viscountess Castlerosse and the Hon. Susan Baring, Viscountess Newport and the Hon. Miss Bruce, Viscount and Viscountess Melgund, Viscount and Viscountess Curzon, Viscount and Lady Violet Dangan and Lady Eva Wellesley, Viscount Dungarvan, Viscount Chelsea, Viscount Royston, Lady Hastings, Lord Capell, Lord and Lady Willoughby de Eresby and Hon. Margaret Willoughby, Lady Cloncurry and Hon. Miss Winn, Lord and Lady Brooke, Lady Wimborne and Hon. Miss Guest, Lord Sandhurst, Lord and Lady Edmund Talbot, Lord and Lady Alwyne Compton and Miss Gurney, Lord and Lady Chesham, Lady Rossmore and Miss Naylor, Lord Kenyon, Lord Garioch, Lady Alice Portal, Lady Margaret Levett and the Ladies Ashley, Lady W. Nevill, Lord Paulet, Lady Charles Beresford, Lady Forbes and Misses Forbes, Lady Claud Hamilton, Lord Carlow, Lady Mary Mills, Lord Lurgan, Lord Henry Vane Tempest, Lord and Lady Algernon Gordon Lennox, Lord Richard Nevill, the Hon. W. Coventry, the Hon. G. Joliffe, the Hon. Schomberg M'Donnell, the Hon. H. Coventry, Captain the Hon. E. Dawson, the Hon. Alistair and Mrs. Hay, the Hon. Mrs. Grosvenor, [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|the Hon. Algernon and Mrs. Bourke]], the Hon. F. Dawnay, the Hon. E. J. Mills, the Hon. A. Johnstone, the Hon. Claude Hay, the Hon. Sidney Greville, the Hon. Mr. Dundas and Lady Hilda Dundas, the Hon. Thomas and Lady Idina Brassey and the Hon. Muriel Brassey, the Hon. Mr. Mansfield, Colonel the Hon. Henry Byng and Miss Byng, the Hon. Mrs. Oliphant, the Hon. Mr. Harbord, the Right Hon. Henry Chaplin, M.P., the Hon. G. Somerset, Sir William Gordon Cumming, Sir George Arthur, Sir Hubert Miller, Sir Charles Forbes, Sir William and Lady Eden, Sir George Chetwynd, Sir Frederick Johnstone, Sir John D. Poynder, Colonel and Lady Emma Crichton, the Hon. Miss Harbord, Captain and Lady Jane Combe, Colonel Paget, Captain Williams, Captain Ford, Captain Doyle, Captain Hanbury, Captain Campbell, Captain Constable, Captain Kinloch, Captain Longfield, M. Gutmansthal, Mrs. Bingham, Mr. Guthrie, Mrs. Arthur Paget, Mrs. Charles Wilson and Miss Wilson, Mr. Hulse, M.P., and Mrs. Hulse, Mr. de Murrieta, Mrs. Bischoffsheim, Mr. Spencer Portal, Mr. and Mrs. Gerald Paget, Mr. Leigh and Miss Leigh, Mr. Percy Daniell, Mr. Lister, Mr. Frederick Vincent, Mr. Cazalet, Mr. Alfred de Rothschild, Mr. John Savile Lumley, Mr. and Mrs Leopold de Rothschild, Mr. and Mrs. Skeffington Smith and Miss Taylor, Mrs. George Cavendish Bentinck, Mr. Alfred Farquhar, [[Social Victorians/People/Fanny Ronalds|Mr. Reginald Ronalds]], Miss Alice Ellice, Mr. George Marjoribanks, Mr. Wyndham, Mr. Dugdale, Mr. Montagu, Mrs. Sneyd, Mr. Wynn, Mr. Edward Hamilton, Mr. Murray Guthrie, Mr. George Lambert, Mrs. Sanford, Miss Mabel Forbes. Mr. Herbert Magniac, Mr. Bailey, Mr. Milner, Mr. Charles Kindersley, Mr. Beaumont, Mr. Walter Hervey, Mr. H. Hoare, Mr. Foley, Mr. Scott Murray, Mr. Coventry, Mr. Bertie, Mr. Jarvis, Mr. Guthrie, Mr. George Cavendish Bentinck, Mr. E. Charteris, Mr. Cholmondeley, Mr. Oswald Magniac, Mr. Cecil Campbell, Mr. and Mrs. Henry Oppenheim, Mr. Peploe, Mr. A. Charteris, Mr. Seymour Gore, Mr. Robert Antrobus, Mr. Elliot, M. de Champs, Mr. Wombwell, Mr. Charles Hoare, M.P., and many others.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Lord Alington's Ball.&quot; ''Morning Post'' 25 July 1890, Friday: 3 [of 8], Col. 5 b–c [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000174/18900725/014/0003. Same print title and p.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

==August 1890==
===6 August 1890, Friday===

==== Beautiful Women ====
The ''Lancaster Observer and Morecambe Chronicle'' reprinted a story from ''Vanity Fair'' about &quot;Beautiful Women&quot;:&lt;blockquote&gt;Beautiful Women. — ''Vanity Fair'' asks what country in the world can show a more beautiful bevy of women than England? When Lady Helen Vincent, with her sister, Lady Cynthia Graham; when Lady Warwick with her sisters, the Duchess of Sutherland and Lady Westmorland; and when Lady Mar and Kellie, Lady de Trafford, Princess Pless, Lady de Gray[,] Lady Naylor-Leyland, the Duchess of Portland, Lady Alington, Lady Sophie Scott, Lady Chelsea, [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Lady Algernon Bourke]], Lady Henry Bentinck, Mrs. Willie Grenfell, Mrs. Rupert Beckett, Mrs. Arthur Paget, and Countess Clary are gathered together it is a sight to make an old man young; while Mrs. Gerard Leigh and her sister, Lady Yarborough, and Lady Powis, Lady Norreys, Mrs Farquharson, Mrs. Willie James, Lady Dalkeith, Mrs. Pretyman, Mrs. Gervase Beckett, Lady Rossmore, Lady Sarah Wilson, Lady Colebrook, Lady Hartopp, Mrs. Willie Walker, and Lady Milton are almost equally admired. The many pretty girls include Miss Enid and Miss Muriel Wilson, who still head the list of the unmarried beauties, Lady Beatrice Butler, Lady Alexandra Hamilton, Miss Kennard, Miss Madeline Bourke, and Miss Leila Crichton; while among the debutantes Lady Evelyn Crichton and Lady Vivian's daughters have had a great success, and Lady Alice Montagu, petite and charmingly pretty, has been so much admired. The daughters of Lady Gosford, Lady Verulam, Lady Leitrim, Lady Inchiquin, and Lady Grey have also been admired, as well as Lady Helen Stewart, Lady Katherine Scott, and Miss Chaplin.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Beautiful Women.&quot; ''Lancaster Observer and Morecambe Chronicle'' 6 August 1897, Friday: 2 [of 8], Col. 5b [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001804/18970806/023/0002. Same print title and p.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

===25 August 1890, Monday===
Summer Bank Holiday

==September 1890==
==October 1890==
===22 October 1890, Wednesday===
Arnold Dolmetsch went to the Reading Room (Campbell 22).

===25 October 1890, Saturday===
[[Social Victorians/Loder De Vere Beauclerk Wedding|Loder—De Vere Beauclerk Wedding]]

===31 October 1890, Friday===
Halloween.

==November 1890==
===5 November 1890, Wednesday===
Guy Fawkes Day
===19 November 1890, Wednesday===
Arnold Dolmetsch, with some of his students and his daughter Helene, provided musical illustrations for a lecture given by Dr. Frederick Bridge on &quot;Mozart as Teacher,&quot; probably at Gresham College, where Bridges was professor (Campbell 34).

===21 November 1890, Friday===
Dr. Frederick Bridge's last fall 1890 lecture at Gresham College, for which Dolmetsch provided illustration. Campbell says, &quot;it is, in fact, the first record in modern times of music by Byrd, Dr. Bull, Jenkins, Simpson, Lawes, Locke and Purcell being played 'on the instruments for which it was written'&quot; (Campbell 34).

===25 November 1890, Tuesday===
Arnold Dolmetsch got a three-month pass to the Reading Room and &quot;thereafter held yearly tickets until 1916&quot; (Campbell 22).

==== 1890 November 29, Saturday ====

===== [[Social Victorians/Dudley-Beckwith Wedding 1890-11-29|Wedding of Francis Dudley, Lord Leigh and Héléne Forbes Beckwith]] =====

==December 1890==
Sometimes in December 1890, [[Social Victorians/People/William Robert Woodman|William Woodman]], one of the founding members of the [[Social Victorians/Golden Dawn|Golden Dawn]], died (Gilbert 86 12).

=== 4 December 1890, Thursday ===

==== [[Mure-Portal Wedding 1890-12-04|Wedding of Miss Mure and Mr. S. J. Portal]] ====

===19 December 1890, Friday===
&quot;The eleventh annual ''Truth'' Toy Exhibition for the children in London hospitals, workhouses, and infirmaries was held at the Grosvenor Gallery, Bond-street, on Dec. 19 and 20. There are over 22,000 children in these institutions, and each of them has a separate toy, besides the large and more expensive toys which are presented for the general use of the inmates. A special feature of the show was the dolls dressed by lady readers of ''Truth''. Several special donations in connection with the fund have been made, the principal of which is that of 10,200 new sixpences sent for distribution by the same liberal donor who has given a similar present on former occasions; while Mr. Tom Smith has had specially made, and has forwarded for distribution, over 22,000 crackers; and Mr. Horniman (as stated in our last issue) has given to the adults in hospitals and workhouses 1200 packets of tea, to be given to them as Christmas boxes.&quot; (Illustrated London News (London, England), Saturday, December 27, 1890; pg. 806; Issue 2697, Col. B)

===20 December 1890, Saturday===
&quot;In order that the adults connected with the hospitals and workhouses may participate in the good things given to the children in the ''Truth'' toy distribution, Mr. F. J. Horniman, of Wormwood-street, City, has sent Mr. Labouchere 1200 packets of tea to be given to them as a Christmas box.&quot; (Illustrated London News (London, England), Saturday, December 20, 1890; pg. 774; Issue 2696, Col. B) 

From the ''Times'', 22 December 1890, &quot;The Late Sir Edgar Boehm&quot;: &lt;blockquote&gt;On Saturday, in accordance with the special request of the Queen, the late Sir Edgar Boehm, R.A., was buried in St. Paul’s Cathedral, in the south aisle of the crypt, the spot being known as “The Painters Corner.” [new paragraph] The funeral cortége left the residence of the deceased at about 11 o’clock, there being five mourning and several private carriages. In the first carriage were the chief mourners, Sir Edgar Collins Boehm, the only son of the late baronet, and Mr. Conrad Herapath. The second and third carriages were occupied by Sir Frederic Leighton, P.R.A., Sir Nigel Kingscote, Mr. Richard Mills, Colonel Francis Baring, Mr. Alma-Tadema, R.A., Sir R. H. Collins, Mr. Edward J. Poynter, R.A., and Mr. Duncan MacGregor, all of whom subsequently, at the cathedral, acted as pall bearers. The fourth carriage contained representatives of the Council of the Royal Academy – Mr. Edwin Long, R.A., Mr. J. B. Burgess, R.A., Mr. F. Goodall, R.A., and Mr. Beavis. In the fifth carriage were the following members of the professional staff of the deceased – Mr. R. Glassby, Mr. E. Lantéri, Signor Finili, and Herr Gross. The cortége stopped for a few moments at the Royal Academy, in order that it might be joined by two carriages containing other representatives of the institution. Leaving Piccadilly, the route taken was Waterloo-place, Pall-mall, Cockspur-street, the Strand, Fleet-street, and Ludgate-hill, the cathedral being reached about noon.

The procession was met at the great west door by Canon Gregory, the Archdeacon of London, the Rev. Dr. Baker, Minor Canons Milman, Russell, and Kelly, and the choir, who had a few minutes previously left the vestry; by Major Bigge, Equerry to the Queen, representing her Majesty; Colonel Stanley Clarke, who attended on behalf of the Prince and Princess of Wales; and Colonel W. J. Colville, representing the Duke of Edinburgh. The [[Social Victorians/People/Princess Louise|Princess Louise]] (Marchioness of Lorne) attired in deep mourning, and accompanied by [[Social Victorians/People/Arthur Collins|Lieut.-Col. Arthur Collins]] and Lady Sophia Macnamara, arrived at the cathedral a few minutes before 12 o’clock, and was conducted to a seat in the south side of the nave, close to the late Sir Edgar Boehm’s two daughters, upon whom her Royal Highness had called earlier in the morning. As the procession came slowly up the nave towards the chancel, “I am the resurrection of life” and other sentences of the burial service were chanted to music by Dr. Croft. The coffin, which was completely hidden by splendid wreaths, was preceded by the choristers and the clergy. Then followed Sir E. C. Boehm, with Mr. Conrad Herapath and Mr. Alfred Gilbert, A.R.A., the officers and council of the Royal Academy, and members of the deceased’s studio. The coffin was deposited upon a bier, which had been placed under the dome in front of the opening into the crypt, through which the body was subsequently lowered. The mourners having been conducted to the seats which had been reserved for them, and the clergy and choir having proceeded to their places in the chancel, Psalms xxxix. and xc. Were sung to music by Purcell and Felton, followed by Spohr’s anthem, “Blest are the departed,” and the lesson 1 Cor. Xv. 20, which was read by Canon Gregory. Whilst the hymn “Days and moments quickly flying” was being sung the Archdeacon of London and Minor Canon Milman proceeded from the chancel and took up positions by the side of the coffin. The remainder of the service preceding and following the lowering of the body into the crypt was read by Minor Canon Milman, and the collect was impressively recited by Archdeacon Sinclair. The late Dr. Newman’s beautiful hymn, “Lead kindly light,” was afterwards sung by the choir, and the service was brought to a close by Beethoven’s Funeral March, which was played in compliance with the special request of her Majesty, at whose desire also Chopin’s Funeral March had preceded the service. Dr. Martin was the organist.

While Beethoven’s march was being played the son and daughters of the late “Sculptor in ordinary to her Majesty,” together with other mourners, descended the crypt by the door near Howard’s monument, and saw the coffin for the last time. It bore the following inscription:- “Joseph Edgar Boehm. Born July 6, 1834; died at his work December 12, 1890. Thy will be done.” The coffin had already been deposited in the brick grave prepared for it, which is next to that of Sir Edwin Landseer. Immediately around it lie the remains of painters and sculptors of bygone days – Sir Joshua Reynolds, James Barry, Benjamin West, Henry Fuseli, Sir Thomas Lawrence, J. M. W. Turner, and John Henry Foley, while within half-a-dozen yards is the tomb of the great architect of the cathedral, Sir Christopher Wren. The coffin as last seen was covered by the floral tributes of loving friends, the symbolic laurel wreath forwarded by her Majesty surmounting them. This bore the inscription, “A tribute of gratitude for many beautiful memorial works executed for her. From Victoria, R. I.” Attached to the beautiful wreath sent by the Prince and Princess of Wales were the words, “A token of sincere regard and friendship.” Wreaths were forwarded by other members of the Royal Family, by Sir John and Lady Millais, Lord and Lady Reay, the Countess Sydney, Lord and Lady de Vesci, Mr. Henry Irving, Mr. and Mrs. Bancroft, by members of the council, students and officers of the Royal Academy, the Society of Artistic Sculptors (Vienna), and by the London Hungarian Association.&quot; (http://glassby.com/Chapter1.htm) &lt;/blockquote&gt;

===24 December 1890, Wednesday===
&quot;The people of South London and adjacent suburbs have to be grateful to Mr. Frederick Horniman, a well-known City merchant residing at Dulwich, for a munificent and beneficial Christmas gift. This gentleman has, during thirty years, formed a collection, worth above £100,000, of specimens of art, European, Indian, Chinese, and Japanese, also of decorative manufactures, and of ethnology and natural history, and rare books and manuscripts, at Surrey House, Forest Hill, which he intends to present to the public. The museum was opened by Sir Morell Mackenzie on Wednesday afternoon, Dec. 24. It already comprises twenty-four rooms, containing many beautiful specimens of horse and chain armour, Elizabethan bed-room furniture, an old English parlour and pantry, an Oriental armoury, a bible and manuscript room, an Egyptian gallery, and ethnographical saloon, a book and embroidery saloon, a porcelain and glass room, and a zoological saloon, with two live Russian bears and a monkey. We may describe the museum further, after another visit. Our Artist has sketched, in the ethnograhical saloon, an idol's shrine, made of cocoanut-fibre, from Fiji. Mr. Horniman, in acknowledging a vote of thanks, said that in an adjoining house he had accumulated a vast library of bibles and entomological works and specimens. It was his intention to build a hall at the back of the present building to contain a thousand persons, while the galleries would contain a library, and a stage would be provided, so that both eye and ear could be amused. He also contemplated buying sufficient land to enable a public body to erect class-rooms and gymnasia. Three cheers were given for Mr. Horniman, and the company proceeded to inspect the museum.&quot; &quot;(Mr. F. Horniman's Museum, Forest Hill.&quot; Illustrated London News (London, England), Saturday, January 03, 1891; pg. 7; Issue 2698, Col. C)

===25 December 1890, Thursday===
Christmas Day
===26 December 1890, Friday===
Boxing Day
==Works Cited==
*&quot;Besant Chronology.pdf.&quot; From Anderson, Nancy Fix, Walter L Arnstein, Deborah Logan, and Susie L Steinbach, Volume Editors. Lives of Victorian Political Figures, Part III: Queen Victoria, Florence Nightingale, Annie Besant and Millicent Garrett Fawcett by their Contemporaries. Volume 3 of Lives of Victorian Political Figures. Series Editors, Nancy LoPatin-Lummis and Michael Partridge. London: Pickering and Chatto, 2008.
*Crawford, Elizabeth. The Women’s Suffrage Movement: A Reference Guide, 1866–1928. Google Books. Accessed 14 October 2010.</text>
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      <text bytes="21569" sha1="tkcay0srzoxdbn2qm3tmavlqawj5uos" xml:space="preserve">[[File:Viscount Mandeville Vanity Fair 1882-04-22.jpg|alt=Old drawing for a magazine of an aristocratic man in a formal suit|thumb|&quot;Kim,&quot; Viscount Mandeville, 1882]]

== Overview ==
The Mandeville who was in a relationship with music-hall and vaudeville star Bessie Bellwood was Kim (George Victor Drogo) Montagu, 8th Duke of Manchester (17 June 1853 – 18 August 1892). He was Viscount Mandeville from 18 August 1855 (when his grandfather died) to 22 March 1890 (when his father died).&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; When he succeeded to the dukedom in 1890, he ended his relationship with Bellwood. His father was the 7th Duke and his mother was [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish|Louise Cavendish]], &quot;double Duchess&quot; of [[Social Victorians/People/Manchester|Manchester]] and then [[Social Victorians/People/Devonshire|Devonshire]].

In 1882 Viscount Mandeville (right) was &quot;Man of the Day&quot; (#255) for ''Vanity Fair'', drawn by Leslie Ward (&quot;Spy&quot;).&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Viscount Mandeville Vanity Fair 1882-04-22.jpg.&quot; Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Viscount_Mandeville_Vanity_Fair_1882-04-22.jpg (retrieved 8 September 2026).&lt;/ref&gt;

== Also Known As ==
*Family name: Montagu
*The title Viscount Mandeville is a courtesy title for the heir apparent and eldest son of the [[Social Victorians/People/Manchester |Duke of Manchester]]. This title is one of only 2 (for the heir apparent of a duke) that is below the rank of Earl (the other is the heir apparent of the Duke of Somerset). (Is Mandeville a toponym?)

*Viscount Mandeville
**&quot;Kim&quot; (George Victor Drogo) Montagu [8th Duke], (18 August 1855  – 22 March 1890)
**[[Social Victorians/People/William Angus Drogo Montagu|William Angus Drogo Montagu]], 9th Duke (22 March 1890 – 18 August 1892)
**Alexander George Francis Drogo Montagu (2 October 1902 – 9 February 1947)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2020-10-15|title=Alexander Montagu, 10th Duke of Manchester|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alexander_Montagu,_10th_Duke_of_Manchester&amp;oldid=983660353|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
*Viscountess Mandeville
**Consuelo Iznaga y Clement Montagu [8th Duchess] (22 May 1876 – 22 March 1890)
**Helena Zimmerman Montagu (14 November 1890 – 18 August 1892)
*Lord Kimbolton (Baron Kimbolton of Kimbolton is the courtesy title for the heir presumptive, the heir apparent's eldest son, so the son of Viscount Mandeville&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2026-09-21|title=Duke of Manchester|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Duke_of_Manchester&amp;oldid=1375987697|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;)
** [[Social Victorians/People/William Angus Drogo Montagu|William Angus Drogo Montagu]], 9th Duke (1877 – 22 March 1890)

== Acquaintances, Friends and Enemies ==

=== &quot;Kim&quot; Montagu, 8th Duke, Lord Mandeville until 1890 ===

==== Friends ====

* Edward Russell, 24th Baron de Clifford
* Derrick Westenra, 5th Baron Rossmore
* Francis Needham, 3rd Earl of Kilmorey

=== Consuelo Iznaga y Clement Montagu ===

==== Friends ====
*Consuelo Iznaga y Clement Montagu was in the intimate circle of [[Social Victorians/People/Albert Edward, Prince of Wales |Albert Edward, Prince of Wales]].

==Organizations==

=== &quot;Kim&quot; Montagu, 8th Duke, Lord Mandeville until 1890 ===

* Eton&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;

=== Consuelo Iznaga y Clement Montagu ===
* Consuelo Iznaga y Clement Montagu was a member of the New York City social set called the Buccaneers when she was a teenager.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2020-10-06|title=Consuelo Montagu, Duchess of Manchester|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Consuelo_Montagu,_Duchess_of_Manchester&amp;oldid=982192002|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Edith Wharton is said to have take details from the 8th Duke's marriage ''The Buccaneers''.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2020-10-06|title=George Montagu, 8th Duke of Manchester|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=George_Montagu,_8th_Duke_of_Manchester&amp;oldid=982188929|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Timeline ==
'''1855 August 18''', the 6th Duke died. The families &quot;placed in mourning&quot;:&lt;blockquote&gt;He is succeeded in the Dukedom by his eldest son, Viscount Mandeville, M.P. By the melancholy event the families of the Marquess and Marchioness of Tweeddale, the Duchess of Wellington, the Duke of Montrose, Lord and Lady Olivia Ossulston [?], Lady Eliza [Elisa?] Steele, the Duke of Richmond, the Countess of St Germans, Lady Sophia Cecil, and many others of rank, are placed in mourning.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Death of the Duke of Manchester.&quot; ''Edinburgh Evening Post and Scottish Standard'' 22 August 1855, Wednesday: 2 [of 4], Col. 5c [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001177%2F18550822&amp;page=2&amp;article=025&amp;stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title ''Edinburgh Evening Post and Scottish Record''; n.p.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;'''1855 October 11, Wednesday''', H. I. Cridland says in a &quot;Notice,&quot;&lt;blockquote&gt;I will hold Audit Days at Lyttelton, on Wednesday, 11th October, for the receipt of rents and other monies due to the 25th of September, on account of the Soames, Jackson, Ecclesiastical, and Lyttelton Trust Estates, the lands of Lord Mandeville, Lady Emily Bathurst, Lady Olivia Sparrow, Rev. J. P. Rhoades, Rev. Charles Hodge, Dr. Merrion C. T. Maunsell, George Hart, late William Draper, and J. E. Fitz Gerald, Esqrs. ... Tenants are requested to present their last receipt.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Notice.&quot; ''Lyttelton Times'' 6 October 1855, Saturday: 1 [of 10], Col. 3c [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0003346%2F18551006&amp;page=1&amp;article=004&amp;stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Newspaper title ''The Lyttelton Times'', n.p.

&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;This notice was repeated in the ''Lyttelton Times'' on 29 December 1855.

'''1855 October 20, Saturday''', the [[Social Victorians/People/Wilton|Earl and Countess of Wilton]] hosted a [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1850s#1855 October 20, Saturday|house party at Heaton Hall]], with a visit to a silk mill in town. [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish|Luise, Duchess of Manchester]] was present with the Duke and their son Lord Mandeville (Kim, later 8th Duke), who was 2 years old.

'''1876 May 22''', Consuelo Iznaga y Clement and &quot;Kim&quot; (George Victor Drogo, 8th Duke) Montagu married in Grace Church, New York City.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;

=== 1890s ===
'''1890 January 10, Friday''', Lady Mandeville was invited to a [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890#1890 January 10, Friday|ball at the Ulster Club, Belfast]]. The article in the ''Lady's Pictorial'' says the &quot;principal families in the north of Ireland were invited,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Court and Society Notes.&quot; ''Lady's Pictorial'' 18 January 1890, Saturday: 44 [of 60], Col. 1b [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0005980%2F18900118&amp;page=44. Same print title, p. 94.&lt;/ref&gt; but Lord Mandeville is not mentioned.

'''1890 January 11, Saturday''', Lady Mandeville was present at [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890#11 January 1890, Saturday|Merton with a small party and the Prince of Wales]] during the funeral of Empress Augusta.

'''1890 January 13, Monday''', Lord Mandeville was an organizer of a [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890#Wallace-Camp Boxing Match|boxing match between &quot;Nunc&quot; (Edwin) Wallace and George Camp]]. This match was important and Wallace was very important in the history of this sport. Lord Mandeville was also reported to be at an [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890#International Prize Fight|unfair match in Bruges between a British and an Austrian fighter]]; there's something distasteful attached to this event.

'''1890 January 21, Tuesday''', on or about, Lady Mandeville attended the [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890#1890 January 21, Tuesday|wedding of Baron S. Alfred Oppenheim and Miss Florence Hutchins]].

'''1890 January 28, Tuesday''', Lady Mandeville attended what was supposed to be [[Social Victorians/People/Lily Langtry#1890 January 28, Tuesday|Lily Langtry's opening-night performance at the St. James's]] with the Prince of Wales and some of his circle. Also on this date, the ''Dundee Evening Telegraph'' reported that Lady Mandeville [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890#1890 January 28, Tuesday|had bought 30 &quot;Exploration&quot; shares]], which funded exploration expeditions with the possibility of rights to minerals or resources or the development of monopolies for goods that were &quot;discovered.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Notes — Mainly Personal.&quot; ''Dundee Evening Telegraph'' 28 January 1890, Tuesday: 2 [of 4], Col. 2b [of my 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000453%2F18900128&amp;page=2&amp;article=001&amp;stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''Evening Telegraph'', n.p.&lt;/ref&gt; Her mother in law, [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish|Louisa, Duchess of Manchester]] also had bought 30 shares, both small amounts compared to some others.

'''1890 January 29, Wednesday''', Consuelo Lady Mandeville was a guest at the house party around and the [[Social Victorians/Santurce Murrieta Wedding 1890-01-29|wedding of Miss Clarita de Murietta and the Duc de Santona]]. She had her eldest son with her, Lord Kimbolton (the 9th Duke of Manchester). Her mother in law, [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish|Louise, Duchess of Manchester]] was also present.

'''1890 February 6, Thursday''' '''(shortly before 6 February)''', Kim Lord Mandeville attended a [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890#1890 February 6, Thursday|boxing match fought by the prize-fighter Pete Jackson]] at the New Pelican Club.

'''1890 January 30, Thursday, through at least February 8, Saturday''', Kim Lord Mandeville was among the [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890#1890 February 8, Saturday|recent arrivals at Brighton]] although apparently after the most notable had already left. Certainly he does not appear to have been at the party the next evening that the Prince of Wales attended.

'''1890 February 9, Sunday''', the Prince of Wales came after one of Consuelo's dinner parties:&lt;blockquote&gt;Lady Mandeville, who has been giving a series of small dinners in her house in Cumberland Place, had a dinner on Sunday. The Prince of Wales came in after dinner to meet a small party.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Society Gossip. (From ''The World''.).&quot; ''Leighton Buzzard Observer and Linslade Gazette'' 11 February 1890, Tuesday: 6 [of 8], Col. 6b [of  7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001091%2F18900211&amp;page=6&amp;article=106&amp;stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''The Leighton Buzzard Observer'', p. 6.

&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;'''1890 February 24, Monday''', Consuelo Lady Mandeville attended [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890#24 February 1890, Monday|Lilly Langtry's performance as Rosalind in As You Like It at the St. James's Theatre]].

'''1890 February 25, Tuesday''', Consuelo Lady Mandeville attended a [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890#25 February 1890, Tuesday|party hosted by Mrs. Adair]]. Viscount Mandeville is not listed among those who attended.

'''1890 March 4, Wednesday''', Consuelo's brother Fernando Yznaga married New York &quot;beauty and society leader&quot; Miss Mabel Wright.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Personal.&quot; ''American Register'' 22 March 1890, Saturday: 5 [of 8], Col. 5a [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0003338%2F18900322&amp;page=5&amp;article=070&amp;stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p.&lt;/ref&gt; Presumably at least Consuelo was there? 

'''1890 March 10, Monday''', the Prince and Princess of Wales gave a [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890#10 March 1890, Monday10 March 1890, Monday|dance at Marlborough House in honor of their wedding anniversary]]. The Viscountess Mandeville is listed among the guests invited, but the Viscount is not mentioned.

'''1890 March 22, Saturday''', the Portsmouth ''Evening News'' expressed outrage about a man with a reputation like Kim's becoming 8th Duke of Manchester:&lt;blockquote&gt;While the House of Commons were debating the necessity for a House of Lords, the Duke of Manchester was on his death bed in Naples. There is more in the incident than appears at first sight, for Viscount Mandeville succeeds to the Dukedom, with the attendant rights of presentation to seven livings and the privilege of mutilating or rejecting Bills demanded by the people and passed by their representatives in the Commons.&lt;p&gt;

It will hardly be urged by the moat zealous advocate of the Upper Chamber, as at present constituted, that the new Duke of Manchester, ''nee'' Viscount Mandeville, will bring much dignity, wisdom, or weight to the House of irresponsible legislators. This nobleman has had a merry time. The one sensible thing he did was to marry a charming and accomplished American lady, who, by consenting to share the name of Mandeville has kept its head above water. Viscount Mandeville himself has a weakness for bankruptcy proceedings, rows with cabmen, which music hall ladies come forward to take his part, and the class of events generally which do not approve themselves to the minds of the ordinary Briton. It is possible that Lord Mandeville may now discover that he has sown his wild oats, and may settle down with his beautiful and popular wife to the enjoyment of his  25,000 acres of land and £38,000 a-year. We have not to do with what Lord Mandeville may be. Our simple duty is to point out that it is an outrage on common decency and common sense that a man bearing the reputation of Lord Mandeville should have the right to step into the House of Lords whenever a vote is needed to swell the prejudice or sustain the selfishness that find among the Peers their natural home.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;To-Day.&quot; ''Portsmouth Evening News'' 22 March 1890, Saturday: 2 [of 4], Col. 1c [of 6]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000290%2F18900322&amp;page=2&amp;article=001&amp;stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''The Evening News'', n.p.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;The ''Birmingham Daily Mail'' had a similar opinion, though perhaps slightly more optimistic:&lt;blockquote&gt;The Duke of Manchester, who expired last night at Naples, cannot be said to have been much of a public man. He led a quiet, retired life, and the announcement of his death would, if Lord  Mandeville were not heir to the title, arouse but little interest. Lord Mandeville is, unfortunately for himself, more widely known than his father was. He developed tastes for gambling, with disastrous financial results, as the details of his bankruptcy made public last year, and more recently, his name has been publicly associated with those of prizefighters and music-hall singers. Altogether, he can hardly be termed a credit to the aristocracy of England, but the higher position to which he will now attain may cause him to alter his ways and try redeem the errors of the past.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Notes and News.&quot; ''Birmingham Mail'' 22 March 1890, Saturday: 2 [of 4], Col. 3a [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000644%2F18900322&amp;page=2&amp;article=027&amp;stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''Birmingham Daily Mail'', n.p.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;On the same day, Consuelo's brother and new wife were reported to apparently be immigrating to the UK:&lt;blockquote&gt;Among the immigrants, says a London lady correspondent, is a New York belle who has just been married to Mr. Ferdinand Yznaga, brother to Lady Mandeville and of Lady Lister-Kaye. Young Mrs. Yznaga will enter London society under the wing of her sister-in-law, Lady Mandeville, and is expected to make as great a furore as did Mrs. Langtry a few seasons ago. Mr. Yznaga married a sister-in-law of Mr. Vanderbilt, who divorced him two years ago.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;An American Belle.&quot; ''Huddersfield and Holmfirth Examiner'' 22 March 1890, Saturday: 6 [of 16], Col. 4a [of 6]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0003869%2F18900322&amp;page=6&amp;article=006&amp;stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''The Huddersfield Examiner'', p. 6.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;'''1890 November 14''', William Angus Drogo Montagu (9th Duke) and Helena Zimmerman married secretly, in London.

'''1897 July 2''', the Duke and Duchess of Devonshire ( [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish|Luise Friederike Auguste Gräfin von Alten Montagu Cavendish]] and [[Social Victorians/People/Spencer Compton Cavendish|Spencer Cavendish]]) hosted the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's fancy-dress ball]] at Devonshire House. Lord Charles Montagu, likely Charles William Augustus Montagu, attended, as did [[Social Victorians/People/William Angus Drogo Montagu|William Angus Drogo Montagu]].

== Demographics ==

===Nationality===
*Consuelo Iznaga y Clement was Cuban-American.
*Helena Zimmerman was American.
*George, William and Alexander Montagu were British.

=== Residences ===

* 1890: &quot;The family estates — 27,312 acres, with a nominal rent-roll of £40,000 — were chiefly situated in Huntingdonshire and Armagh.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Men and Things.&quot; (London) ''Echo'' 22 March 1890, Saturday: 1 [of 4], Col. 6b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0004596%2F18900322&amp;page=1&amp;article=010&amp;stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title, n.p.&lt;/ref&gt;
* In 1890 at the death of the 7th Duke, Kimbolton Castle:

&lt;blockquote&gt;The Duke of Manchester... He was an old-fashioned Tory, and a man of simple tastes, whose chief interests were military and agricultural rather than political. Kimbolton Castle is a magnificent place, and the Duke's horses and troop of yeomanry were always the admiration of the Prince of Wales, the Marquis of Hartington, and many other visitors. Lord Hartington, it may be mentioned, was at Kimbolton when the news came of the  breaking out of the war between France and Germany [1871], he being a member of the Cabinet. The Duke had travelled much as a young man, and was familiar with the Continent, as also with South Africa, of which he was very fond. There is a private chapel at Kimbolton Castle, connected with which is a very extensive library containing some theological and historical volumes of great value. Notwithstanding his somewhat bluff manner the Duke was liked by the tenantry and poor from the kindly interest he took in their concerns. Even the poachers had a good word for his Grace. The feature, however, of the Duke's career was the marked contrast between his pursuits and those of the Duchess. The Duke loved every blade of grass, every tree and flower on his ancestral domain, and cared nothing for London life in its modern developments. Lord Mandeville [the 8th Duke] succeeds to the title, but the estates are heavily mortgaged.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Death of the Duke of Manchester.&quot; ''Pall Mall Gazette'' 22 March 1890, Saturday: 6 [of 8], Col. 2b [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000098%2F18900322&amp;page=6&amp;article=014&amp;stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p.

&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

== Family ==
*Consuelo (María Consuelo) Iznaga y Clement Montagu, Duchess of Manchester (1853 – 20 November 1909), née Doña María Consuelo Iznaga y Clement&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;
*&quot;Kim&quot; (George Victor Drogo) Montagu, 8th Duke of Manchester (17 June 1853 – 18 August 1892)&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;
#William Angus Drogo Montagu, 9th Duke of Manchester (3 March 1877 – 9 February 1947)
#Jacqueline Mary Alva Montagu (27 November 1879 – 15 March 1895).
#Alice Eleanor Louise Montagu (27 November 1879 – 10 January 1900)


*[[Social Victorians/People/William Angus Drogo Montagu|William Angus Drogo Montagu]], 9th Duke of Manchester (3 March 1877 – 9 February 1947)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2020-10-08|title=William Montagu, 9th Duke of Manchester|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William_Montagu,_9th_Duke_of_Manchester&amp;oldid=982513036|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
*Helena Zimmerman Montagu (25 September 1878 – 15 December 1971)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2020-10-08|title=Helena, Countess of Kintore|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Helena,_Countess_of_Kintore&amp;oldid=982513630|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
#Mary Alice Montagu Gregory (26 October 1901 – 9 October 1962)
#Alexander George Francis Drogo Montagu, 10th Duke of Manchester (2 October 1902 – 23 November 1977)
#Edward Eugene Fernando Montagu (26 July 1906 – 4 May 1954/1956)
#Ellen Millicent Louise Montagu Hofer Shairp (5 January 1908 – 2 August 1948)

=== Relations ===
The three Iznaga y Clement sisters were prominent in London &quot;Society&quot;:
*Consuelo (María Consuelo) Iznaga Montagu, Duchess of Manchester (1853 – 20 November 1909)
*Emilie Iznaga y Clement ()
*Natividad (Natica) Iznaga y Clement Lister-Kaye ()

== Questions and Notes ==
*In a ''British Newspaper Archive'' search for name=mandeville keyword=#viscount for 18 August 1855–22 March 1890 (September 2026), first did &quot;Publication date oldest first,&quot; but Kim was 2 years old when his grandfather died and his father acceded to the dukedom, so on p. 57 of the search results (the page containing 1 January 1856) I switched to &quot;Publication date newest first.&quot; Decided it would be more fruitful to work backwards.

== Papers, Memoirs and Biographies ==
== Footnotes ==
{{reflist}}</text>
      <sha1>tkcay0srzoxdbn2qm3tmavlqawj5uos</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2835816</id>
      <parentid>2835815</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-10-04T23:46:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Scogdill</username>
        <id>1331941</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* 1890s */</comment>
      <origin>2835816</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="21571" sha1="gtkg7ilg4ky6qblp85y7jdow3wt4gmo" xml:space="preserve">[[File:Viscount Mandeville Vanity Fair 1882-04-22.jpg|alt=Old drawing for a magazine of an aristocratic man in a formal suit|thumb|&quot;Kim,&quot; Viscount Mandeville, 1882]]

== Overview ==
The Mandeville who was in a relationship with music-hall and vaudeville star Bessie Bellwood was Kim (George Victor Drogo) Montagu, 8th Duke of Manchester (17 June 1853 – 18 August 1892). He was Viscount Mandeville from 18 August 1855 (when his grandfather died) to 22 March 1890 (when his father died).&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; When he succeeded to the dukedom in 1890, he ended his relationship with Bellwood. His father was the 7th Duke and his mother was [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish|Louise Cavendish]], &quot;double Duchess&quot; of [[Social Victorians/People/Manchester|Manchester]] and then [[Social Victorians/People/Devonshire|Devonshire]].

In 1882 Viscount Mandeville (right) was &quot;Man of the Day&quot; (#255) for ''Vanity Fair'', drawn by Leslie Ward (&quot;Spy&quot;).&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Viscount Mandeville Vanity Fair 1882-04-22.jpg.&quot; Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Viscount_Mandeville_Vanity_Fair_1882-04-22.jpg (retrieved 8 September 2026).&lt;/ref&gt;

== Also Known As ==
*Family name: Montagu
*The title Viscount Mandeville is a courtesy title for the heir apparent and eldest son of the [[Social Victorians/People/Manchester |Duke of Manchester]]. This title is one of only 2 (for the heir apparent of a duke) that is below the rank of Earl (the other is the heir apparent of the Duke of Somerset). (Is Mandeville a toponym?)

*Viscount Mandeville
**&quot;Kim&quot; (George Victor Drogo) Montagu [8th Duke], (18 August 1855  – 22 March 1890)
**[[Social Victorians/People/William Angus Drogo Montagu|William Angus Drogo Montagu]], 9th Duke (22 March 1890 – 18 August 1892)
**Alexander George Francis Drogo Montagu (2 October 1902 – 9 February 1947)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2020-10-15|title=Alexander Montagu, 10th Duke of Manchester|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alexander_Montagu,_10th_Duke_of_Manchester&amp;oldid=983660353|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
*Viscountess Mandeville
**Consuelo Iznaga y Clement Montagu [8th Duchess] (22 May 1876 – 22 March 1890)
**Helena Zimmerman Montagu (14 November 1890 – 18 August 1892)
*Lord Kimbolton (Baron Kimbolton of Kimbolton is the courtesy title for the heir presumptive, the heir apparent's eldest son, so the son of Viscount Mandeville&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2026-09-21|title=Duke of Manchester|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Duke_of_Manchester&amp;oldid=1375987697|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;)
** [[Social Victorians/People/William Angus Drogo Montagu|William Angus Drogo Montagu]], 9th Duke (1877 – 22 March 1890)

== Acquaintances, Friends and Enemies ==

=== &quot;Kim&quot; Montagu, 8th Duke, Lord Mandeville until 1890 ===

==== Friends ====

* Edward Russell, 24th Baron de Clifford
* Derrick Westenra, 5th Baron Rossmore
* Francis Needham, 3rd Earl of Kilmorey

=== Consuelo Iznaga y Clement Montagu ===

==== Friends ====
*Consuelo Iznaga y Clement Montagu was in the intimate circle of [[Social Victorians/People/Albert Edward, Prince of Wales |Albert Edward, Prince of Wales]].

==Organizations==

=== &quot;Kim&quot; Montagu, 8th Duke, Lord Mandeville until 1890 ===

* Eton&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;

=== Consuelo Iznaga y Clement Montagu ===
* Consuelo Iznaga y Clement Montagu was a member of the New York City social set called the Buccaneers when she was a teenager.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2020-10-06|title=Consuelo Montagu, Duchess of Manchester|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Consuelo_Montagu,_Duchess_of_Manchester&amp;oldid=982192002|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Edith Wharton is said to have take details from the 8th Duke's marriage ''The Buccaneers''.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2020-10-06|title=George Montagu, 8th Duke of Manchester|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=George_Montagu,_8th_Duke_of_Manchester&amp;oldid=982188929|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Timeline ==
'''1855 August 18''', the 6th Duke died. The families &quot;placed in mourning&quot;:&lt;blockquote&gt;He is succeeded in the Dukedom by his eldest son, Viscount Mandeville, M.P. By the melancholy event the families of the Marquess and Marchioness of Tweeddale, the Duchess of Wellington, the Duke of Montrose, Lord and Lady Olivia Ossulston [?], Lady Eliza [Elisa?] Steele, the Duke of Richmond, the Countess of St Germans, Lady Sophia Cecil, and many others of rank, are placed in mourning.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Death of the Duke of Manchester.&quot; ''Edinburgh Evening Post and Scottish Standard'' 22 August 1855, Wednesday: 2 [of 4], Col. 5c [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001177%2F18550822&amp;page=2&amp;article=025&amp;stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title ''Edinburgh Evening Post and Scottish Record''; n.p.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;'''1855 October 11, Wednesday''', H. I. Cridland says in a &quot;Notice,&quot;&lt;blockquote&gt;I will hold Audit Days at Lyttelton, on Wednesday, 11th October, for the receipt of rents and other monies due to the 25th of September, on account of the Soames, Jackson, Ecclesiastical, and Lyttelton Trust Estates, the lands of Lord Mandeville, Lady Emily Bathurst, Lady Olivia Sparrow, Rev. J. P. Rhoades, Rev. Charles Hodge, Dr. Merrion C. T. Maunsell, George Hart, late William Draper, and J. E. Fitz Gerald, Esqrs. ... Tenants are requested to present their last receipt.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Notice.&quot; ''Lyttelton Times'' 6 October 1855, Saturday: 1 [of 10], Col. 3c [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0003346%2F18551006&amp;page=1&amp;article=004&amp;stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Newspaper title ''The Lyttelton Times'', n.p.

&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;This notice was repeated in the ''Lyttelton Times'' on 29 December 1855.

'''1855 October 20, Saturday''', the [[Social Victorians/People/Wilton|Earl and Countess of Wilton]] hosted a [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1850s#1855 October 20, Saturday|house party at Heaton Hall]], with a visit to a silk mill in town. [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish|Luise, Duchess of Manchester]] was present with the Duke and their son Lord Mandeville (Kim, later 8th Duke), who was 2 years old.

'''1876 May 22''', Consuelo Iznaga y Clement and &quot;Kim&quot; (George Victor Drogo, 8th Duke) Montagu married in Grace Church, New York City.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;

=== 1890s ===
'''1890 January 10, Friday''', Lady Mandeville was invited to a [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890#1890 January 10, Friday|ball at the Ulster Club, Belfast]]. The article in the ''Lady's Pictorial'' says the &quot;principal families in the north of Ireland were invited,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Court and Society Notes.&quot; ''Lady's Pictorial'' 18 January 1890, Saturday: 44 [of 60], Col. 1b [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0005980%2F18900118&amp;page=44. Same print title, p. 94.&lt;/ref&gt; but Lord Mandeville is not mentioned.

'''1890 January 11, Saturday''', Lady Mandeville was present at [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890#11 January 1890, Saturday|Merton with a small party and the Prince of Wales]] during the funeral of Empress Augusta.

'''1890 January 13, Monday''', Lord Mandeville was an organizer of a [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890#Wallace-Camp Boxing Match|boxing match between &quot;Nunc&quot; (Edwin) Wallace and George Camp]]. This match was important and Wallace was very important in the history of this sport. Lord Mandeville was also reported to be at an [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890#International Prize Fight|unfair match in Bruges between a British and an Australian fighter]]; there's something distasteful attached to this event.

'''1890 January 21, Tuesday''', on or about, Lady Mandeville attended the [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890#1890 January 21, Tuesday|wedding of Baron S. Alfred Oppenheim and Miss Florence Hutchins]].

'''1890 January 28, Tuesday''', Lady Mandeville attended what was supposed to be [[Social Victorians/People/Lily Langtry#1890 January 28, Tuesday|Lily Langtry's opening-night performance at the St. James's]] with the Prince of Wales and some of his circle. Also on this date, the ''Dundee Evening Telegraph'' reported that Lady Mandeville [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890#1890 January 28, Tuesday|had bought 30 &quot;Exploration&quot; shares]], which funded exploration expeditions with the possibility of rights to minerals or resources or the development of monopolies for goods that were &quot;discovered.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Notes — Mainly Personal.&quot; ''Dundee Evening Telegraph'' 28 January 1890, Tuesday: 2 [of 4], Col. 2b [of my 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000453%2F18900128&amp;page=2&amp;article=001&amp;stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''Evening Telegraph'', n.p.&lt;/ref&gt; Her mother in law, [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish|Louisa, Duchess of Manchester]] also had bought 30 shares, both small amounts compared to some others.

'''1890 January 29, Wednesday''', Consuelo Lady Mandeville was a guest at the house party around and the [[Social Victorians/Santurce Murrieta Wedding 1890-01-29|wedding of Miss Clarita de Murietta and the Duc de Santona]]. She had her eldest son with her, Lord Kimbolton (the 9th Duke of Manchester). Her mother in law, [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish|Louise, Duchess of Manchester]] was also present.

'''1890 February 6, Thursday''' '''(shortly before 6 February)''', Kim Lord Mandeville attended a [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890#1890 February 6, Thursday|boxing match fought by the prize-fighter Pete Jackson]] at the New Pelican Club.

'''1890 January 30, Thursday, through at least February 8, Saturday''', Kim Lord Mandeville was among the [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890#1890 February 8, Saturday|recent arrivals at Brighton]] although apparently after the most notable had already left. Certainly he does not appear to have been at the party the next evening that the Prince of Wales attended.

'''1890 February 9, Sunday''', the Prince of Wales came after one of Consuelo's dinner parties:&lt;blockquote&gt;Lady Mandeville, who has been giving a series of small dinners in her house in Cumberland Place, had a dinner on Sunday. The Prince of Wales came in after dinner to meet a small party.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Society Gossip. (From ''The World''.).&quot; ''Leighton Buzzard Observer and Linslade Gazette'' 11 February 1890, Tuesday: 6 [of 8], Col. 6b [of  7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001091%2F18900211&amp;page=6&amp;article=106&amp;stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''The Leighton Buzzard Observer'', p. 6.

&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;'''1890 February 24, Monday''', Consuelo Lady Mandeville attended [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890#24 February 1890, Monday|Lilly Langtry's performance as Rosalind in As You Like It at the St. James's Theatre]].

'''1890 February 25, Tuesday''', Consuelo Lady Mandeville attended a [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890#25 February 1890, Tuesday|party hosted by Mrs. Adair]]. Viscount Mandeville is not listed among those who attended.

'''1890 March 4, Wednesday''', Consuelo's brother Fernando Yznaga married New York &quot;beauty and society leader&quot; Miss Mabel Wright.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Personal.&quot; ''American Register'' 22 March 1890, Saturday: 5 [of 8], Col. 5a [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0003338%2F18900322&amp;page=5&amp;article=070&amp;stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p.&lt;/ref&gt; Presumably at least Consuelo was there? 

'''1890 March 10, Monday''', the Prince and Princess of Wales gave a [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890#10 March 1890, Monday10 March 1890, Monday|dance at Marlborough House in honor of their wedding anniversary]]. The Viscountess Mandeville is listed among the guests invited, but the Viscount is not mentioned.

'''1890 March 22, Saturday''', the Portsmouth ''Evening News'' expressed outrage about a man with a reputation like Kim's becoming 8th Duke of Manchester:&lt;blockquote&gt;While the House of Commons were debating the necessity for a House of Lords, the Duke of Manchester was on his death bed in Naples. There is more in the incident than appears at first sight, for Viscount Mandeville succeeds to the Dukedom, with the attendant rights of presentation to seven livings and the privilege of mutilating or rejecting Bills demanded by the people and passed by their representatives in the Commons.&lt;p&gt;

It will hardly be urged by the moat zealous advocate of the Upper Chamber, as at present constituted, that the new Duke of Manchester, ''nee'' Viscount Mandeville, will bring much dignity, wisdom, or weight to the House of irresponsible legislators. This nobleman has had a merry time. The one sensible thing he did was to marry a charming and accomplished American lady, who, by consenting to share the name of Mandeville has kept its head above water. Viscount Mandeville himself has a weakness for bankruptcy proceedings, rows with cabmen, which music hall ladies come forward to take his part, and the class of events generally which do not approve themselves to the minds of the ordinary Briton. It is possible that Lord Mandeville may now discover that he has sown his wild oats, and may settle down with his beautiful and popular wife to the enjoyment of his  25,000 acres of land and £38,000 a-year. We have not to do with what Lord Mandeville may be. Our simple duty is to point out that it is an outrage on common decency and common sense that a man bearing the reputation of Lord Mandeville should have the right to step into the House of Lords whenever a vote is needed to swell the prejudice or sustain the selfishness that find among the Peers their natural home.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;To-Day.&quot; ''Portsmouth Evening News'' 22 March 1890, Saturday: 2 [of 4], Col. 1c [of 6]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000290%2F18900322&amp;page=2&amp;article=001&amp;stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''The Evening News'', n.p.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;The ''Birmingham Daily Mail'' had a similar opinion, though perhaps slightly more optimistic:&lt;blockquote&gt;The Duke of Manchester, who expired last night at Naples, cannot be said to have been much of a public man. He led a quiet, retired life, and the announcement of his death would, if Lord  Mandeville were not heir to the title, arouse but little interest. Lord Mandeville is, unfortunately for himself, more widely known than his father was. He developed tastes for gambling, with disastrous financial results, as the details of his bankruptcy made public last year, and more recently, his name has been publicly associated with those of prizefighters and music-hall singers. Altogether, he can hardly be termed a credit to the aristocracy of England, but the higher position to which he will now attain may cause him to alter his ways and try redeem the errors of the past.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Notes and News.&quot; ''Birmingham Mail'' 22 March 1890, Saturday: 2 [of 4], Col. 3a [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000644%2F18900322&amp;page=2&amp;article=027&amp;stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''Birmingham Daily Mail'', n.p.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;On the same day, Consuelo's brother and new wife were reported to apparently be immigrating to the UK:&lt;blockquote&gt;Among the immigrants, says a London lady correspondent, is a New York belle who has just been married to Mr. Ferdinand Yznaga, brother to Lady Mandeville and of Lady Lister-Kaye. Young Mrs. Yznaga will enter London society under the wing of her sister-in-law, Lady Mandeville, and is expected to make as great a furore as did Mrs. Langtry a few seasons ago. Mr. Yznaga married a sister-in-law of Mr. Vanderbilt, who divorced him two years ago.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;An American Belle.&quot; ''Huddersfield and Holmfirth Examiner'' 22 March 1890, Saturday: 6 [of 16], Col. 4a [of 6]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0003869%2F18900322&amp;page=6&amp;article=006&amp;stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''The Huddersfield Examiner'', p. 6.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;'''1890 November 14''', William Angus Drogo Montagu (9th Duke) and Helena Zimmerman married secretly, in London.

'''1897 July 2''', the Duke and Duchess of Devonshire ( [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish|Luise Friederike Auguste Gräfin von Alten Montagu Cavendish]] and [[Social Victorians/People/Spencer Compton Cavendish|Spencer Cavendish]]) hosted the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's fancy-dress ball]] at Devonshire House. Lord Charles Montagu, likely Charles William Augustus Montagu, attended, as did [[Social Victorians/People/William Angus Drogo Montagu|William Angus Drogo Montagu]].

== Demographics ==

===Nationality===
*Consuelo Iznaga y Clement was Cuban-American.
*Helena Zimmerman was American.
*George, William and Alexander Montagu were British.

=== Residences ===

* 1890: &quot;The family estates — 27,312 acres, with a nominal rent-roll of £40,000 — were chiefly situated in Huntingdonshire and Armagh.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Men and Things.&quot; (London) ''Echo'' 22 March 1890, Saturday: 1 [of 4], Col. 6b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0004596%2F18900322&amp;page=1&amp;article=010&amp;stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title, n.p.&lt;/ref&gt;
* In 1890 at the death of the 7th Duke, Kimbolton Castle:

&lt;blockquote&gt;The Duke of Manchester... He was an old-fashioned Tory, and a man of simple tastes, whose chief interests were military and agricultural rather than political. Kimbolton Castle is a magnificent place, and the Duke's horses and troop of yeomanry were always the admiration of the Prince of Wales, the Marquis of Hartington, and many other visitors. Lord Hartington, it may be mentioned, was at Kimbolton when the news came of the  breaking out of the war between France and Germany [1871], he being a member of the Cabinet. The Duke had travelled much as a young man, and was familiar with the Continent, as also with South Africa, of which he was very fond. There is a private chapel at Kimbolton Castle, connected with which is a very extensive library containing some theological and historical volumes of great value. Notwithstanding his somewhat bluff manner the Duke was liked by the tenantry and poor from the kindly interest he took in their concerns. Even the poachers had a good word for his Grace. The feature, however, of the Duke's career was the marked contrast between his pursuits and those of the Duchess. The Duke loved every blade of grass, every tree and flower on his ancestral domain, and cared nothing for London life in its modern developments. Lord Mandeville [the 8th Duke] succeeds to the title, but the estates are heavily mortgaged.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Death of the Duke of Manchester.&quot; ''Pall Mall Gazette'' 22 March 1890, Saturday: 6 [of 8], Col. 2b [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000098%2F18900322&amp;page=6&amp;article=014&amp;stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p.

&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

== Family ==
*Consuelo (María Consuelo) Iznaga y Clement Montagu, Duchess of Manchester (1853 – 20 November 1909), née Doña María Consuelo Iznaga y Clement&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;
*&quot;Kim&quot; (George Victor Drogo) Montagu, 8th Duke of Manchester (17 June 1853 – 18 August 1892)&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;
#William Angus Drogo Montagu, 9th Duke of Manchester (3 March 1877 – 9 February 1947)
#Jacqueline Mary Alva Montagu (27 November 1879 – 15 March 1895).
#Alice Eleanor Louise Montagu (27 November 1879 – 10 January 1900)


*[[Social Victorians/People/William Angus Drogo Montagu|William Angus Drogo Montagu]], 9th Duke of Manchester (3 March 1877 – 9 February 1947)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2020-10-08|title=William Montagu, 9th Duke of Manchester|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William_Montagu,_9th_Duke_of_Manchester&amp;oldid=982513036|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
*Helena Zimmerman Montagu (25 September 1878 – 15 December 1971)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2020-10-08|title=Helena, Countess of Kintore|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Helena,_Countess_of_Kintore&amp;oldid=982513630|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
#Mary Alice Montagu Gregory (26 October 1901 – 9 October 1962)
#Alexander George Francis Drogo Montagu, 10th Duke of Manchester (2 October 1902 – 23 November 1977)
#Edward Eugene Fernando Montagu (26 July 1906 – 4 May 1954/1956)
#Ellen Millicent Louise Montagu Hofer Shairp (5 January 1908 – 2 August 1948)

=== Relations ===
The three Iznaga y Clement sisters were prominent in London &quot;Society&quot;:
*Consuelo (María Consuelo) Iznaga Montagu, Duchess of Manchester (1853 – 20 November 1909)
*Emilie Iznaga y Clement ()
*Natividad (Natica) Iznaga y Clement Lister-Kaye ()

== Questions and Notes ==
*In a ''British Newspaper Archive'' search for name=mandeville keyword=#viscount for 18 August 1855–22 March 1890 (September 2026), first did &quot;Publication date oldest first,&quot; but Kim was 2 years old when his grandfather died and his father acceded to the dukedom, so on p. 57 of the search results (the page containing 1 January 1856) I switched to &quot;Publication date newest first.&quot; Decided it would be more fruitful to work backwards.

== Papers, Memoirs and Biographies ==
== Footnotes ==
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==Overview==
[[File:5-The Narcissist.jpg|thumb|200px|Figure 1: The Narcissist]]

[[wikipedia:Narcissism|Narcissism]], otherwise known as [[Narcissistic personality disorder|Narcissistic Personality Disorder]] (NPD), has intrigued the public since it's inception. Originally discovered in 1898, by British essayist and physician, [https://www.britannica.com/biography/Havelock-Ellis Havelock Ellis], it was named after the mythological character Narcissus (see Figure 2), and has been a subject of fascination ever since. In the modern age, this fascination has become widespread, with a myriad of online articles breaking down narcissism and its signs. Headings such as [https://www.healthline.com/health/mental-health/am-i-dating-a-narcissist '11 Sings you're dating a Narcissist'] and '[https://goop.com/wellness/relationships/when-its-all-about-them-being-involved-with-a-narcissist/ When It’s All About Them: Being Involved With a Narcissist']. Narcissists have been portrayed as emotionless, manipulative beings with an overinflated sense of self-importance, {{gr}} is this an accurate portrayal? Is there a 'normal' level of narcissism, {{gr}} if so where is that line?

[[File:Narcissus-Caravaggio (1594-96) edited.jpg|left|thumb|202x202px|Figure 2. Narcissus and his reflection]]

While spreading awareness is important, the image portrayed by modern media can often be overly broad, encouraging the overuse and improper diagnosis of the term narcissism. NPD is a clinical diagnosis, with a wide array of symptoms that can do real harm to those involved with the narcissistic person. Understanding those symptoms, and (potentially) how to manage them is crucial to minimise victimisation. This chapter analyses the connection between narcissism and emotion, what impacts NPD can have on emotion perception, processing and regulation as well as explore therapy as a mitigating tool{{gr}}.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What makes someone a Narcissist?
* How does narcissism impact emotional processing?
* What impact does the disorder have on the wider community?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== What is Narcissism? ==
Narcissism, or NPD is a mental disorder characterised by entitlement, grandiosity, lack of empathy, grandiose fantasies and a heightened sense of uniqueness and self-importance (Miller et al., 2018). This can be identified in a therapy setting, as well as through testing (surveys, etc) and trait-based tools like the five factor model. The key areas here are vulnerable and grandiose narcissism, as well as overt and covert narcissism. These subtypes have distinct variations that separate them.  

=== Grandiose (Overt) ===
Grandiose narcissism is the more well-known of the two key subtypes of NPD, characterised by high self-esteem, overconfidence, entitlement, exploitation of others and extreme hostility and aggression when challenged or emotionally injured (O’Reilly &amp; Hall, 2021). Those with grandiose narcissism are impulsive, manipulative and maintain their sense of self through blame-shifting. Thus a lot of negative emotions, particularly self-conscious emotions are not experienced (Miller et al., 2017). Grandiose narcissists usually have outward charisma due to confidence and boldness, consequently, they land more leadership roles (O’Reilly &amp; Hall, 2021). However, grandiose narcissists' own goals outweigh those of the organisations they lead, thus leading to negative outcomes for the organisation as a whole (Braun, 2017; Brunell et al., 2008; O’Reilly &amp; Chatman, 2020). This type of narcissism causes the person to seek outcomes that prove they are superior, leading to more risk taking behaviours. Because they deem themselves as special, negative outcomes are perceived as less risky to them. This sense of superiority also increases manipulation efforts (lying, stealing, cheating) and increased hostility if not recognised as superior (Bogart et al., 2004). Grandiose narcissism is overtly hostile and extraverted, scoring low on agreeableness and high on extraversion (Schalkwijk et al., 2021). It is known that the DSM symptoms emphasise the grandiose dimension over the vulnerable, and can be lacking in representation of narcissistic vulnerability.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}

'''Case study:'''
Kyle has been the CEO of a company for 4 years. His confidence and ease in social situations made him a top pick for upper management and he quickly became friends with those on the board. Kyle's company works in stocks, it gives him a thrill to trade large sums and the admiration he receives when his decisions pay off makes him a rockstar among his underlings{{gr}}. When approached with a risky but high-reward gamble, he quickly takes it, despite his advisors{{gr}} warnings, investing a hefty portion of his budget. When this deal falls through, Kyle blames his advisors for the poor choice, screaming at them and throwing things in a fit of anger.

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Vulnerable (Covert) ===
The vulnerable narcissist is the lesser known subtype of NPD, with lower extraversion and more outwardly antisocial motivations. This subtype has a tendency toward negative emotions, an insecure-avoidant attachment style, with grandiosity stemming from deep-seated insecurity, and serving to obscure feelings of inadequacy and incompetence{{fact}}. Vulnerable narcissists are hyper-sensitive to rejection, often distrust others, display a tendency toward self-imposed isolation and increased levels of anger and hostility (Miller et al., 2018).

[[File:Sad man.jpg|thumb|Figure 3. Vulnerability]]

The key difference here is the vulnerable motivations that underlie the narcissistic tendencies. It has been concluded that negative emotions, like fear and anger are felt more acutely by vulnerable narcissists, thus mockery, criticism and rejection are all magnified (Blasco-Belled et al., 2022). Those who score high on vulnerable narcissism scales are more likely to fear being laughed at (Hofmann et al., 2020) and more likely to enjoy laughing at others (Ruch et al., 2013). Gelotophobia (the fear of being laughed at) is a key source of stress for vulnerable narcissists, thus drastically decreasing quality of life, causing struggles in the workplace, social situations and leading to anti-social behaviours (Ruch et al., 2013). Self-isolation and withdrawal are also used to avoid interactions where shame, vulnerability or inferiority would be experienced (Blasco-Belled et al., 2022). Trait theory has identified high neuroticism, as well as lowered agreeableness and extraversion, thus this subtype is considered an internalising trait (Miller et al., 2013). Two key dimensions of this type of narcissism are neurotic introversion (withdrawal to hide fragile self), and antagonism (projecting aggression onto other people) (Blasco-Belled et al., 2022). Vulnerable narcissism injures both the narcissist and those around them, due to poor emotion regulation, fragility of self and sensitivity to perceived mockery or slights. Depression, anxiety and other mental illnesses all correlate with this subtype{{fact}}.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}

'''Case study:'''
When Jenny presents her thesis to her mentor, he tells her to rewrite it. Listing multiple errors within the material and expressing disappointment at the final result, his frustration is evident. Jenny becomes enraged, lashing out and blaming her mentor for not helping her research the idea. When her mentor states she is being unreasonable and should work harder next time to avoid this kind of subpar work{{gr}}. Jenny spirals into self-hatred, throwing more insults at him before storming out of the office. She then holes {{awkward}} in her home for the next week, avoiding all social contact.

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==== Test yourself! ====
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Which of the following is not a type of narcissism?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Psychopathy
- Overt Narcissism
- Grandiose 
- NPD
&lt;/quiz&gt;

&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Grandiose Narcissists will often self-isolate to avoid criticism. They are very sensitive, despite being overtly confident.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- TRUE.
+ FALSE.

{Gelotophobia is the pleasure derived from laughing at others.}
- TRUE.
+ FALSE.
&lt;/quiz&gt;

&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{                           
|type=&quot;{}&quot;}
Name the character that inspired the name Narcissism &lt;br&gt;
{ Narcissus|narcissus }
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Narcissism and Emotion ==
Two areas where narcissism and emotion connect are;{{gr}} processing and negative affect, and emotional manipulation to achieve a goal. The skewed emotional perception and processing of the two narcissistic subtypes was briefly touched on, but does the self-absorbed qualities of a narcissistic disorder negatively impact wellbeing? Narcissists have no empathy{{fact}}, does this mean that manipulation techniques are not accompanied by self-conscious emotions like guilt?   

=== Emotional Processing ===
Vulnerable narcissists feel negative emotions stronger than non-narcissists{{fact}}. Negative affect, as it is referred to in literature, concerns the hyper-fixation and overabundance of negative emotions that are felt by a person (Besser &amp; Zeigler-Hill, 2010). Negative emotions are stronger and felt more regularly{{ic|than?}}, having a tendency to overwhelm the person{{fact}}. This greatly reduces quality of life, and is positively correlated with anxiety and depression{{fact}}. However, while daily hostility has shown to be increased with grandiose narcissism, overall wellbeing was positively correlated with narcissism (Giacomin &amp; Jordan, 2016). Its{{gr}} important to note that this does not translate across all aspects of narcissism, with high-level pathological narcissistic people experiencing increased guilt and shame{{fact}}. Giacomin and Jordan (2016) concluded that grandiose narcissism is associated with significantly increased well-being, positive affect and greater hostility{{expand}}. Research in this area is somewhat conflicted, however, grandiose narcissism is typically associated with increased positive emotions, while severe narcissism and vulnerable narcissism have more negative and maladaptive experiences{{fact}}. While narcissists experience emotion, the process is not the same as those of the normal population, with stronger emotions, skewed perception and no empathetic understanding{{fact}}. Thus the relationship here is varied, and hard to discern. What can be clearly understood is that Narcissism has a strong impact on emotional regulation, perception and manipulation.

=== Emotional Manipulation ===
Narcissists are significantly associated with concepts of gaslighting, manipulation, masking and mimicry of emotions to achieve a goal{{fact}}. While manipulation is more often associated with grandiose narcissism, both types actually engage in emotion manipulation to achieve goals{{fact}}. A study conducted by Casale et al. (2019) compared emotional intelligence (EI) and emotional manipulation capabilities across vulnerable, grandiose and non-narcissists. Convenience sampling yielded a sample of 584 undergraduates from the University of Florence (Italy) with a mean age of 22.61. The study concluded that vulnerable narcissists scored significantly lower on EI dimensions, while grandiose narcissists scored higher than non-narcissists in intrapersonal intelligence. Thus, while both vulnerable and grandiose groups are prone to emotionally manipulate others to achieve their goals, grandiose narcissists are better equipped to engage in successful manipulation, with higher emotional and intrapersonal intelligence (Casale et al., 2019). Of course, though this study is likely to have limited generalisability due to its sampling, it is an important direction to continue studying in order to help prevent emotional manipulation as well as rehabilitate those who experience significant manipulation from a narcissistic relation (familial, social, romantic, etc). By understanding the mechanisms used to manipulate, more countermeasures and awareness can be spread, hopefully reducing victimisation.

==== Romantic Relationships ====
A key area that this emotional manipulation can occur is in romantic relationships. Narcissistic individuals tend to use their romantic partners to enhance their own positive self-image and reputation (Sauls et al., 2019), often seeking out partners with highly desirable qualities (success, beauty, intelligence) to foster their self-image  and increase their social position. Despite this, narcissistic people tend to devalue their partner to maintain feelings of dominance and superiority (Campbell et al., 2002) in addition to not being fully committed to the relationship (cheating, flirting, etc) (Campbell &amp; Foster, 2002). Studies have also found that narcissists intentionally make their partners jealous (Tortoriello et al., 2017) and that heightened levels of aggression and hostility are present in these relationships (Lamkin et al., 2017). These different aspects often result in severely dysfunctional relationships.

== Can Narcissists Benefit from Therapy? ==
A key characteristic of narcissism is poor emotional regulation (Chesure et al., 2020), in a therapy setting, is this able to be worked on{{gr}}? If we were able to successfully regulate narcissistic tendencies, rehabilitation could be undergone to some extent. Narcissism exercises harm on both those who have it{{rewrite}}, as well as those they encounter, thus we should explore the potential minimisation of what makes narcissism so destructive.

=== Narcissism and Therapy ===
[[File:Anger Controlls Him.jpg|thumb|Figure 3. Poor Emotional Regulation{{expand}}|205x205px]]

Those with NPD are difficult to engage in therapy, as early dropout-rates are high, emotions and thoughts are often masked by the patient, and power struggles or disagreements may escalate, leading to early termination (Ronningstam, 2017). Due to the nature of narcissism, self-reflection and acceptance of wrongdoing is significantly difficult to achieve without emotional outbursts and self-isolation. Any adverse reactions could undo the progress of therapy and alienate the patient, this needs to be successfully avoided to increase the success of long-term NPD treatment (Janusz et al., 2021){{gr}}. While the process is difficult, the outcomes of successful long-term treatment include improved emotional regulation (Zhang et al., 2015), reduced narssistic injury, reduced grandiose perceptions of self and a more rounded understanding of self (Mosquera &amp; Knipe, 2015). 

==== Alliance Building to avoid termination ====
Therapy in this area requires a balancing act of power dynamics, alliance building strategies and the avoidance of adverse reactions that alienate both therapist and patient. As this pathology is prone to narcissistic injury and adverse reactions to potentially confronting statements or expressions, aggression, fear, detachment and dismissiveness. Alliances must be built slowly in order to create that relationship that is necessary for successful therapy (Ronningstam, 2017). This can be done by redirecting clinician's focus beyond their own negative reactions which can derail the conversation and lead to objections about treatment. This is often exacerbated by limited emotional regulation abilities, thus a small disagreement or comment can be perceived as a slight and a severe reaction follows (Czarna et al., 2015). These negative reactions often occur early in the clinical process, when insufficient motivation has been built to encourage self-reflection and curiosity necessary for gradual change (Trumpeter et al., 2006). A few key areas are controlled with this technique; the need for control in couples therapy, the fluctuating sense of self-esteem that can encourage hostility and numerous self-destructive tendencies (Kernberg, 2004) The type of narcissism being experienced significantly influences treatment, requiring a dimensional view of functioning with three levels: neurotic, borderline and psychotic. These levels allow for the categories of fragility and sturdiness to be identified, with fragility being associated with vulnerable narcissism of any level and sturdiness for grandiose (Ronningstam, 2017), this helps with measuring progress and avoiding early termination due to rushed progress (Ellison et al., 2013). 

==Conclusion==
At the end of the day, narcissism does harm in the wider community, thus understanding how to control and ease this impact benefit our society. Vulnerable narcissism exacerbates negative emotions, and poorly regulates these intense feelings, leading to significant dissatisfaction in the narcissist which is externalised. Grandiose narcissists have a similar lack of control, with emotional responses correlating with manipulation, bullying and impulsivity. Narcissism breeds poor emotional control, lowered emotional intelligence (for vulnerable narcissists) and increased negative emotions. Other narcissistic tendencies include a lack of empathy, sense of entitlement, grandiose self-perception and high self-esteem.

Narcissism breeds unhealthy power dynamics, unnecessary aggression and victimises others. Widespread understanding of how to identify a narcissist, the escape routes available, and what can be done to reduce harm are crucial to growth as a community and the avoidance of silent suffering{{gr}}. Both types of NPD have significant impact on emotional processes, injuring those who are vulnerable. Working towards a solution and staying educated to keep ourselves safe from narcissistic relationships is a crucial step in addressing this problem. 

==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Emotional intelligence and the dark triad|Emotional intelligence and the dark triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[wikipedia:Grandiosity|Grandiosity]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Narcissism|Narcissism]] (Book chapter, 2010)
*[[wikipedia:Narcissism|Narcissism]] (Wikipedia)
*[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Risk taking and emotion in financial markets|Risk taking and emotion in financial markets]] (Book chapter, 2019)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Besser, A., &amp; Zeigler-Hill, V. (2010). The influence of pathological narcissism on emotional and motivational responses to negative events: The roles of visibility and concern about humiliation. Journal of Research in Personality, 44(4), 520–534. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2010.06.006

Blasco-Belled, A., Rogoza, R., &amp; Alsinet, C. (2022). Vulnerable narcissism is related to the fear of being laughed at and to the joy of laughing at others. Personality and Individual Differences, 190, 111536. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2022.111536

Bogart, L. M., Benotsch, E. G., &amp; Pavlovic, J. D. P. (2004). Feeling Superior but Threatened: The Relation of Narcissism to Social Comparison. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 26(1), 35–44. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15324834basp2601_4

Braun, S. (2017). Leader Narcissism and Outcomes in Organizations: A Review at Multiple Levels of Analysis and Implications for Future Research. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 773. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00773

Brunell, A. B., Gentry, W. A., Campbell, W. K., Hoffman, B. J., Kuhnert, K. W., &amp; DeMarree, K. G. (2008). Leader Emergence: The Case of the Narcissistic Leader. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34(12), 1663–1676. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167208324101

Campbell, W. K., &amp; Foster, C. A. (2002). Narcissism and Commitment in Romantic Relationships: An Investment Model Analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28(4), 484–495. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167202287006

Campbell, W. K., Foster, C. A., &amp; Finkel, E. J. (2002). Does Self-Love Lead to Love for Others? A Story of Narcissistic Game Playing. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83(2), 340–354. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.83.2.340

Casale, S., Rugai, L., Giangrasso, B., &amp; Fioravanti, G. (2019). Trait-Emotional Intelligence and the Tendency to Emotionally Manipulate Others Among Grandiose and Vulnerable Narcissists. The Journal of Psychology. http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00223980.2018.1564229

Cheshure, A., Zeigler-Hill, V., Sauls, D., Vrabel, J. K., &amp; Lehtman, M. J. (2020). Narcissism and emotion dysregulation: Narcissistic admiration and narcissistic rivalry have divergent associations with emotion regulation difficulties. Personality and Individual Differences, 154, 109679. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2019.109679

Czarna, A. Z., Wróbel, M., Dufner, M., &amp; Zeigler-Hill, V. (2015). Narcissism and Emotional Contagion: Do Narcissists “Catch” the Emotions of Others? Social Psychological and Personality Science, 6(3), 318–324. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550614559652

Ellison, W. D., Levy, K. N., Cain, N. M., Ansell, E. B., &amp; Pincus, A. L. (2013). The Impact of Pathological Narcissism on Psychotherapy Utilization, Initial Symptom Severity, and Early-Treatment Symptom Change: A Naturalistic Investigation. Journal of Personality Assessment, 95(3), 291–300. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2012.742904

Giacomin, M., &amp; Jordan, C. H. (2016). Self-focused and feeling fine: Assessing state narcissism and its relation to well-being. Journal of Research in Personality, 63, 12–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2016.04.009

Hofmann, J., Heintz, S., Pang, D., &amp; Ruch, W. (2020). Differential Relationships of Light and Darker Forms of Humor with Mindfulness. Applied Research in Quality of Life, 15(2), 369–393. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-018-9698-9

Janusz, B., Bergmann, J. R., Matusiak, F., &amp; Peräkylä, A. (2021). Practices of Claiming Control and Independence in Couple Therapy With Narcissism. Frontiers in Psychology, 11. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.596842

Kernberg, O. (2004). Aggressivity, Narcissism, and Self-Destructiveness in the Psychotherapeutic Rela: New Developments in the Psychopathology and Psychotherapy of Severe Personality Disorders. Yale University Press. http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/canberra/detail.action?docID=3419973

Lamkin, J., Lavner, J. A., &amp; Shaffer, A. (2017). Narcissism and observed communication in couples. Personality and Individual Differences, 105, 224–228. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2016.09.046

Miller, J. D., Gentile, B., Wilson, L., &amp; Campbell, W. K. (2013). Grandiose and Vulnerable Narcissism and the DSM–5 Pathological Personality Trait Model. Journal of Personality Assessment, 95(3), 284–290. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2012.685907

Miller, J. D., Lynam, D. R., Hyatt, C. S., &amp; Campbell, W. K. (2017). Controversies in Narcissism. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 13, 291–315. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032816-045244

Miller, J. D., Lynam, D. R., Vize, C., Crowe, M., Sleep, C., Maples‐Keller, J. L., Few, L. R., Campbell, W. K., &amp; Maples-Keller, J. L. (2018). Vulnerable Narcissism Is (Mostly) a Disorder of Neuroticism. Journal of Personality, 86(2), 186–199. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12303

Mosquera, D., &amp; Knipe, J. (2015). Understanding and Treating Narcissism With EMDR Therapy. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research, 9(1), 46–63.

O’Reilly, C. A., &amp; Chatman, J. A. (2020). Transformational Leader or Narcissist? How Grandiose Narcissists Can Create and Destroy Organizations and Institutions. California Management Review, 62(3), 5–27. https://doi.org/10.1177/0008125620914989

O’Reilly, C. A., &amp; Hall, N. (2021). Grandiose narcissists and decision making: Impulsive, overconfident, and skeptical of experts–but seldom in doubt. Personality and Individual Differences, 168, 110280. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110280

Ronningstam, E. (2017). Intersect between self-esteem and emotion regulation in narcissistic personality disorder—Implications for alliance building and treatment. Borderline Personality Disorder and Emotion Dysregulation, 4(1), 3. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40479-017-0054-8

Ruch, W., Hofmann, J., Platt, T., &amp; Proyer, R. (2013). The state-of-the art in gelotophobia research: A review and some theoretical extensions. Humor - International Journal of Humor Research, 27. https://doi.org/10.1515/humor-2013-0046

Sauls, D., Zeigler-Hill, V., Vrabel, J. K., &amp; Lehtman, M. J. (2019). How do narcissists get what they want from their romantic partners? The connections that narcissistic admiration and narcissistic rivalry have with influence strategies. Personality and Individual Differences, 147, 33–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2019.04.025

Schalkwijk, F., Luyten, P., Ingenhoven, T., &amp; Dekker, J. (2021). Narcissistic Personality Disorder: Are Psychodynamic Theories and the Alternative DSM-5 Model for Personality Disorders Finally Going to Meet? Frontiers in Psychology, 12. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.676733

Tortoriello, G. K., Hart, W., Richardson, K., &amp; Tullett, A. M. (2017). Do narcissists try to make romantic partners jealous on purpose? An examination of motives for deliberate jealousy-induction among subtypes of narcissism. Personality and Individual Differences, 114, 10–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2017.03.052

Trumpeter, N., Watson, P. J., &amp; O’Leary, B. J. (2006). Factors within Multidimensional Perfectionism Scales: Complexity of relationships with Self-Esteem, Narcissism, Self-Control, and Self-Criticism. Personality and Individual Differences, 41(5), 849–860. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2006.03.014

Zhang, H., Wang, Z., You, X., Lü, W., &amp; Luo, Y. (2015). Associations between narcissism and emotion regulation difficulties: Respiratory sinus arrhythmia reactivity as a moderator. Biological Psychology, 110, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2015.06.014
}}

==External links==
* [https://www.britannica.com/biography/Havelock-Ellis Havelock Ellis] (brittanica.com)
* [https://www.therecoveryvillage.com/mental-health/narcissistic-personality-disorder/npd-statistics/ Narcissistic Statistics] (therecoveryvillage.com)
* [https://www.britannica.com/science/narcissism Narcissism] (brittanica.com)

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==Overview==
[[File:Happy Young Smiling Teenage Boy.jpg|thumb|Figure 1: An image of a young boy Smiling |348x348px]]

{{expand}}

== What is smiling? ==
Smiling can be defined as a pleasant facial expression, where it is formed to makes ones{{gr}} facial expression more pleasant, kind or amused. It is often viewed where the sides of the mouth are curled up and the front teeth are showing, however it is not resisted{{huh}} it this, but a smile most closely resembles these features. smiling is recognised cross culturally as a facial expression recognised{{ic|repeated word}} for positive emotions such as joy, happiness, amusement and pride, however a small minority of cultures may believe smiling in public maybe inappropriate behaviour, as they believe it is associated with more negative attributions (Krys et al., 2015).  smiling is just commonly linked to positive emotions, but there are many different types of smiles that can be used in different context. Some of the types of smiles can be categorized as reward, affiliative and dominance smiles, where reward smiles are intended to be intuitive, affiliative smiles are indented to make the bearer appear unthreatening and dominance smiles are presents when signifying status in social hierarchies and often viewed as lopsided sneers (Plummer, 2017). Overall, smiles are a facial expression used to convey a certain type of emotion, most commonly linked to happy emotion where a &quot;true smile&quot; is displayed, but can convey many other emotions through various social contents and different smile types 

=== Anatomy of smiling ===
{{expand}}

==== Facial muscles ====
Smiling is the result of multiple facial muscles contracting to form a smile on one’s face. Facial muscles are the muscles at lay on the cranium and can be divided into four main groups which include the muscles of the upper face, the muscles of the midface and the muscles of the lower face and neck, and the masticatory muscles. Each group of muscles consists of smaller individual muscles with the lower face and neck muscles consisting of 4 individual muscles, the midface consisting of 9 individual muscles, the upper face consisting of 4 individual muscles and the masticatory muscles consists of 4 individual muscles (Bentsianov &amp; Blitzer, 2004. Marur et al., 2014). The muscles of the upper face make up all the muscles the lay on the forehead and eye region, while the muscles of the midface make up the muscles that are in the region below the eyes and to the bottom of the mouth and are usually the smallest muscles of the face. The masticatory muscles consist of muscle that are located on the lateral portion of the face and are deep behind the mid face muscles. The muscles of the lower face and neck are in the region below the mouth and stretch into the neck region (Bentsianov &amp; Blitzer, 2004). The muscles of the upper, mid, and lower face are all innovated by the facial nerve, while the muscles of mastication are innovated by the trigeminal nerve via one section called the mandibular nerve (Marieb &amp; Hoehn, 2019). The main blood supply to all these muscles is from the carotid artery which divided into multiple smaller branches with supply all the different regions and muscles (Marur et al., 2014).  These muscles are used in the functions of protection to the eyes and oral competence, while also aiding in speech and the breakdown of food for digestion (Bentsianov &amp; Blitzer, 2004).

==== Muscle contraction ====
The human body is comprised of three muscle types, [[wikipedia:Smooth_muscle|smooth]], [[wikipedia:Cardiac_muscle|cardiac]], and [[wikipedia:Skeletal_muscle|skeletal muscles]]. The facial muscles fall into the skeletal muscle type as they are connected to bone. Skeletal muscles are made up of four layers. The first and largest is simply the whole muscle belly or skeletal muscle, which is made up of multiple muscle fascicles which are made up of muscles fibres which are made up of muscle fibrils. The first layer is the largest and the last layer is the smallest. Skeletal muscle can contract in three ways, concentric, eccentric, and isometric, where concentric contraction of the muscles shortens the muscle belly, eccentric contraction elongates the muscles belly and isometric contraction is contraction without movement of the muscle belly. Muscles contract firstly when nerves initiated an action potential at the [[wikipedia:Neuromuscular_junction|neuromuscular junction]] creating an [[Action potentials|action potential]]. This action potential causes excitation-contraction coupling causing the muscle to contract. [[wikipedia:Sliding_filament_theory|The sliding filament theory]] is the process in which muscles contract after being excited. Its underlying principle is the cross-bridge cycle. This how facial muscles simply contract to make smiling possible.{{fact}}

==== What muscles are activated when smiling? ====
The muscles which have functions in forming the facial expression around the mouth can be found in the midface region of facial muscles. These muscles are the zygomaticus minor, zygomaticus major, the Levator anguli ori. When theses muscles contract in unisons{{gr}} each has a different part in forming the smile. When the zygomaticus minor contract its causes the upper lip to elevate exposing the teeth. When the zygomaticus major contracts it draws the angle of the mouth upwards, while the Levator Anguli oris muscle aids both zygomaticus major and minor in the process of smiling (Bentsianov &amp; Blitzer, 2004). Furthermore, the orbicularis oculi muscle is also involved in smiling (Surakka &amp; Hietanen, 1998). This muscle that is part of the upper facial muscles is a sphincter like muscles that resides around the eye. During smiling this muscle has a part to play in making the smile, it crinkles up the wears eyes to make their face more pleasant. This is what you would call a Duchenne smile where the smile bearer smiles not only with their mouth but their eyes also, making the smile easily recognisable as an authentic expression of happiness (Gunnery &amp; Ruben, 2016). Out of the many facial muscle, these are the most important facial muscles in forming a smile on ones{{gr}} face. 

== What is emotion? ==
[[File:Sixteen faces expressing the human passions. Wellcome L0068375 (cropped).jpg|thumb|324x324px|Figure 4: Image of different expression of emotion ]]

Emotion is defined as “a complex reaction pattern, involving experiential, behavioural, and physiological elements, by which an individual attempts to deal with a personally significant matter or event.” By the American psychological association (APA, 2022). There are many different types of emotions that can be categorized into three categories of individual emotion. These three categories include basic (Fear, anger, disgust, contempt, sadness, joy, interest), self-conscious (shame, guilt, embarrassment, pride, triumph) and cognitively complex emotions (envy, gratitude, disappointment, regret, hope, schadenfreude, empathy, compassion) (Reeve, 2018). While some of these emotions are interrelated and alike, they all have their differences in causes, function, and perception. Emotions are useful in motivation, decision-making, understanding others and helping others understand us, while they also help us survive, thrive, and avoid danger (Cherry &amp; Morin, 2020). Often these emotions are related to a release of certain hormones or neurotransmitters from different parts of the brain that help stimulate mood and emotion. Often imbalances in these neurotransmitters and hormones may lead to psychiatric disorders such as bipolar disorder{{fact}}.  

It has been well research{{gr}} that the release of hormones and neurotransmitters can affect emotions{{fact}}. The brain is a complex structure with many different regions controlling specific needs of the human body such that the hypothalamus regulates eating, drinking, and sleeping while also having other functions, and the ventral tegmental area controls release of dopamine and its manufacture in the sub cortical brain. These affects{{sp}} of physiological needs can largely affect mood either positively or negatively. For example, if an individual is deprived of food or water, they might become irritated or angry with is a result of hyposecretion of serotonin from the. while someone that has achieved a long-term goal may feel joy when accomplishing this goal with is associated with the release of dopamine in the brain. However, it is very important that the balance of these neurotransmitters and hormones remain balanced and should not tip into either hyposecretion or hypersecretion. If there is an imbalance or fluctuation, this usually has negative effects in psychiatric disorders.{{fact}} 

== How are smiling and emotions tied? ==
{{expand}}

=== How come smiling and emotions tied? ===

* When thinking of facial expressions that express joy or happiness, the most common answer will be smiling. This can be associated to the common notion that concluded that smiling is most associated with positive emotions (Krys et al., 2015).  Furthermore, it seems that across culture that this is a common trend with facial expression being commonly recognise cross-culturally (Sutherland, et al, 2018). However there seems to be a gender difference in the prevalence of smiling where Females and adolescent girls are more likely to smile, {{gr}} than men and adolescent boys (Lafrance, et al, 2003). Smiling is most associated with positive emotions as when the bearer smiles the brain releases the small amounts of dopamine and serotonin, which are both neurotransmitters that are associated with positive emotions (Stevenson, 2012). For this reason, most people will associate smiling with positive emotions such as happiness and joy. However, can smiling still be present even when an individual is experiencing negative emotion{{fact}}{{expand}}. 

=== How smiling relates to different emotions ===

* How does smiling relate to sadness, anger, happiness, etc. 
[https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17437199.2022.2052740?casa_token=hhJQyKLAuiEAAAAA%3AjBBlLiuKTT7vfyeEdnnpQaPu6oXwkYwmMpw70zzN-EIJ4YTovofA_6rdUG84WIdN1ZNtNXQrKC3vmyk Cross, M. P., Acevedo, A. M., Leger, K. A., &amp; Pressman, S. D. (2022)]

{{expand}}

== Positive psychology ==

* what is positive psychology 
* how does this relate to smiling and emotion 
* [https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1037/1089-2680.9.2.103?casa_token=5HI-frMUrkIAAAAA%3Adb_XXvPUXX2_rN-IQwCpwXVbNN3DkVw-4nEctlELAdbD-Gczo32_FebfUbcBAQnKyLTzo65DnAGh4xw Gable, S. L., &amp; Haidt, J. (2005).] 

=== Therapy ===

* what is available
* how does this help improve emotion 
** [https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnhum.2013.00481/full Rinck, M, et al (2013)] 

{{expand}}

== Benefits of smiling ==
{{expand}}

=== long term ===

* what are the benefits 

{{expand}}

=== short term ===

* what are the benefits 

{{expand}}

==Conclusion==
Smiling and emotions are interlinked as we use the form of smiling as an {{gr}} facial expression which we often link to happiness and joy. Smiling releases dopamine and serotonin, both feel good neurotransmitters that allow us to feel better when we smiling thus the reason why we smile. 

==See also==
* [[wikipedia:Happiness|Happiness]] (Wikipedia)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

PA. (2022). ''APA Dictionary of Psychology''. Apa.org. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://dictionary.apa.org/emotion&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Bentsianov, B., &amp; Blitzer, A. (2004). Facial anatomy. ''Clinics in Dermatology'', ''22''(1), 3–13. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clindermatol.2003.11.011&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Cherry, K., &amp; Morin, A. (2020). The purpose of our emotions. ''Verywell mind'', ''17''.

Gunnery, S. D., &amp; Ruben, M. A. (2016). Perceptions of Duchenne and non-Duchenne smiles: A meta-analysis. ''Cognition and Emotion'', ''30''(3), 501-515.

Krys, K., Melanie Vauclair, C., Capaldi, C. A., Lun, V. M.-C., Bond, M. H., Domínguez-Espinosa, A., Torres, C., Lipp, O. V., Manickam, L. S. S., Xing, C., Antalíková, R., Pavlopoulos, V., Teyssier, J., Hur, T., Hansen, K., Szarota, P., Ahmed, R. A., Burtceva, E., Chkhaidze, A., &amp; Cenko, E. (2015). Be Careful Where You Smile: Culture Shapes Judgments of Intelligence and Honesty of Smiling Individuals. ''Journal of Nonverbal Behavior'', ''40''(2), 101–116. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/s10919-015-0226-4&lt;/nowiki&gt;

LaFrance, M., Hecht, M. A., &amp; Paluck, E. L. (2003). The contingent smile: A meta-analysis of sex differences in smiling. ''Psychological Bulletin, 129''(2), 305–334. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.129.2.305&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Marieb, E. N., &amp; Hoehn, K. (2019). ''Human anatomy &amp; physiology'' (11th ed.). Pearson Education, Inc.

Marur, T., Tuna, Y., &amp; Demirci, S. (2014). Facial anatomy. ''Clinics in Dermatology'', ''32''(1), 14–23. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clindermatol.2013.05.022&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Plummer, L. (2017, July 28). ''Study identifies three types of smile - and they could help surgeons with facial reconstructions''. WIRED UK; WIRED UK. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.wired.co.uk/article/smile-study&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Reeve, J. (2018). Understanding Motivation and Emotion, 7th Edition. &lt;nowiki&gt;[[VitalSource Bookshelf version]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;. Retrieved from vbk://9781119367659

Stevenson, S. (2012). There’s magic in your smile. ''Psychology Today''.

Surakka, V., &amp; Hietanen, J. K. (1998). Facial and emotional reactions to Duchenne and non-Duchenne smiles. ''International Journal of Psychophysiology'', ''29''(1), 23–33. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/s0167-8760(97)00088-3&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Sutherland, C. A., Liu, X., Zhang, L., Chu, Y., Oldmeadow, J. A., &amp; Young, A. W. (2018). Facial first impressions across culture: Data-driven modeling of Chinese and British perceivers’ unconstrained facial impressions. ''Personality and social psychology bulletin'', ''44''(4), 521-537.

}}

==External links==

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==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Case Study 1: 2010 Study on Chile Environmental Activism'''

Recently there have been growing concerns about mining and its risks for individuals as well as the environment. The mining of gold, has a high environmental impact. This impact has increased over time as new and riskier technologies have been developed (Mudd, 2007). One of the biggest environmental impacts of open pit mining is high water consumption and acid mine drainage (Urkidi, 2010) . Socially studies have shown that mining areas tend to have comparatively higher levels of economic inequity, AIDS, alcoholism, prostitution and child labour, accentuating poverty and social conflict (Pegg, 2006). 

In Chile from 2009 to 2019, Scherman and colleagues (2022) wrote about a fluctuation of environmental activism in Chili due to the above conditions. During this period they saw a drastic rise in a specific kind of people. Younger generations predominated among environmental activists, who were particularly active (Scherman et al., 2022). This correlated with social media and different ways to protest through instant messaging and sharing ideas. Scherman and colleagues (2022) found social media use was positively associated with participation in environmental issues. Because of the large scale of protesters, they were able to block mining and energy work from being continued. What other motivators do youth have for environmental activism? More engaging?{{grammar}}{{RoundBoxBottom}}

[[File:Chilean people protesting for climate action.jpg]]

(Figure 1.) Chilian People protesting against a mine in Chile.

insert image below

'''Problem statement''': Although Climate change awareness is increasing in all people including Youth Climate change is still continuing rapidly. How can individuals especially youth help combat this?

'''Key points'''
* The use of social media as a motivation in environmental issues.
* Rise of youth in protesting.
*Reasons people protest; Social unrest, environmental risks and individual risks.
*Key definitions
*
'''Focus questions:''' Establish [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]] which align with the sub-title and subsequent heading structure

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions'''

*Why are more youth participating in activism? same question as below have another
*What is motivating youth to engage in activism?
*What role does nature, nurture and culture play on youth activism?
*What is the relationship between education and environmental activism?
*How can we motivate young people to engage in environmental activism?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

What is [https://www.liberties.eu/en/stories/activism/44871 activism]?

What is [https://www.liberties.eu/en/stories/activism/44871 environmental activism]?

What is [[motivation]]?

== History of motivation and activism ==
Activism can be traced back to the Enlightenment era during the 17th and 18th centuries (Global Society World News., 2024) . From there the first form of environmental activism can be traced back to ancient civilizations, where practices like soil conservation were established as early as 2,000 years ago in China, India, and Peru. However, the modern environmental movement began to take shape in the late 19th century, primarily in response to pollution and industrialization, leading to significant legislative changes and public awareness. Notable figures like John Muir and Aldo Leopold played crucial roles in advocating for the preservation of natural landscapes and the conservation of resources, influencing the development of the contemporary environmental movement. (Elliot, Britannica., 2026)

Activist movements have played a significant role in shaping history and pushing for social and political change (Luttrell., 2023)

Motivation can be influenced by others and the environment. Individuals are motivated to participate in activism due to poor conditions, for social justice work, but also for sanctuary and peer/adult relationships. (Akiva et al., 2017)

The prevalence of environmental activism has increased in the past century due to more in depth knowledge about our environment and climate change. 

;Key points
* Activism and environmental activism has been happening for centuries 
* Young people have not always been interested in activism 
* There have always been causes to act for or against 
* Motivations are often for a better world

== The landscape ==
What are the contributing factors for younger generations to be so active on environmental activism? There is a rising trend of youth groups being formed with the explicit intent of educating other peers and elders on the social and political implications of climate change (Goldman et al., 2014; Feldmann, 2020). 

What motivates this generation to actively protest? 

Today's landscape that encourages youth environmental action is one of publicized climate action, social change and.....  

=== 2010s ===
Climate activism has been around for much longer than 2010-2019. However, there was a clear shift in the amount of people listening these years, and the way it was portrayed in the media. Throughout these years it was clear that it climate change was happening. It wasn't a concern, it wasn't something oncoming, it was here. There was an emergence of not only regular climate protests {{clarify}} (See Figure 1), but they began to emerge on a global scale (Scherman et al., 2022). Rather than them staying entirely within individual groups, social media forced it to be within the public conscious.... More examples of how media and public awareness shifted during the 2010s.

[[File:3rd Global Climate Strike Berlin FridaysForFuture demonstration view from stage 50.jpg|thumb|(Figure 1.) Climate strike ]]

=== Social media ===
* Clear rise in global awareness due to the broad scope of [[wikipedia:Social_media|social media]]. (Scherman et al., 2022).
* Information is quickly passed around in comparison to previous generations.
* Able to see the effects at a rapid pace, rather than articles and TV programs.
* They are constantly aware of how it will effect their future.
* Expand on how social media plays a crucial role in youth activism (Platforms and campaigns)

=== Politics ===
* A more politically active generation (Scherman et al., 2022).
* Awareness of how these policies effect the environment. (Sloam et al., 2022).
What exactly makes the youth care so much about politics? Well, there has been a clear shift in the way they view politics, it is no longer something to worry about during elections, it is expected to have some form of political awareness (Sloam et al.,  2022).

* Role of politics needs more exploration....
* How are young activists influence policy and what political movements they are engaging with?

;Key Points

* Youth groups formed to encourage activism
* Landscape that encourages environmental action
* Shift in activism due to social media 
* A more political active generation 

== Motivation ==
So what are the things that actually motivate youths into such activism? 

* Problem statement: Easy to read and understand outline of the key concepts and explanation of practical/real-world problem to be solved
* Focus questions: Establish [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]] which align with the sub-title and subsequent heading structure

Well throughout the literature there are clear indicators of:

* Passion
* Awareness
* Goals
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Self-efficacy|Self efficacy]]
The current youth have a clear understanding of environmental issues, and have a clear level of self efficacy towards them (Goldman, D. et al). They believe that the engaging with social media, having the conversations and living sustainable lives will make a difference....

There is a current trend of the younger generation being politically inexperienced, when they protest against specific decisions and have strikes which brings an emotional aspect into the fold (Fedmanm. H. 2020). They are angry....{{expand}} (Add more context about the emotional aspect of youth activism.)

Gousse-Lessard (2013) proposed that passion is a strong motivator behind radical environmental activism.

Being told they don't know what they're talking about makes personal stakes, mixed with a genuine care for the future. {{rewrite}} (Clarify the role of criticism and how it motivates further activism.)

Need more of a detailed analysis (Expanding on each motivator)

Emotional aspect of youth activism. 

This template provides tips for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] exercise. Gradually remove these suggestions as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of this template content for the topic development exercise. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter guidelines]].

The Overview is typically consists of one to four paragraphs inbetween the scenario and focus questions. Suggested word count aim for the Overview: 180 to 330 words.

;Key points ==

* Motivators of passion, awareness, goals, and self efficacy
* Passion and its role in radical environmental activism
* Youth trying to prove themselves 

==Role of future security as a motivator==
* [[File:Future_sustainabilty.png|thumb|Figure 2. Future of environmental sustainability]]Aim for three to six main headings inbetween the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* Sub-headings can also be used, but
** avoid having sections with only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
*Activism is motivated by a desire to make contributions to a just world (Wetering &amp; Lee., 2025) 
*Climate change is no longer something that can be ignored (Romano et al., 2024) 

*Young people will experience stronger consequences of climate change in their future adult lives than older people are facing today (Wallis and Loy., 2021). 
*Do it ourselves politics (Pickard., 2022) 

;Key points
* Youth fighting for their future 
*More obvious climate and environmental changes
*Knowledge of the impacts of climate change for the youth 

==Does culture motivate youth activism? ==
* Aim for three to six main headings inbetween the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* Sub-headings can also be used, but
** avoid having sections with only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections

;Key points
* Culture impacting young peoples beliefs 
* How people were raised impacting their activism 
*Different cultures valuing volunteering and activism more

==How does education impact activism? ==
* Aim for three to six main headings inbetween the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* Sub-headings can also be used, but
** avoid having sections with only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections

;Key points
* Higher educated more compelled to act 
* Knowledge of successful activism 
* Knowledge of future impacts if activism is not successful 

=== Integration (10%) ===

* Integrate discussion of theory and review of relevant research
* Use research to critically inform interpretation and application of the theory(ies

*

'''Research (25%)'''

* Clearly explain how key, peer-reviewed research findings apply to the problem
* Use at least the best dozen or so peer-reviewed research references about the topic (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Journals|list of motivation and emotion journals]])
* Include relevant major reviews (such as systematic reviews and meta-analyses)
* Critical analyse the key research findings, including limitations and implications

*

==Learning feature==
;Quiz (Add 7 more harder questions)
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Why were there protests in Chili:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Risks associated with mining 
- Climate change 
-Bushfires 
-Political corruption

{The protests in Chili got young people involved due to social media:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+True
- False

{What motivates young people to participate in environmental activism:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Social media 
- Climate change 
- Passion 
+ All of the above 

&lt;/quiz&gt;

=== Learning features (5%) ===

* Embed interactive learning features such as scenarios/case studies/examples, feature boxes, figures, quizzes, links to relevant Wikipedia and Wikipedia pages, as well as links to key resources via the &quot;See also&quot; and &quot;External links&quot; sections
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** Examples of chapters which make effective use of case studies:
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Emotional abuse|emotional abuse]] (2019)
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Food and fear|food and fear]] (2019)
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Opioid system and human emotion|opioid system and human emotion]] (2019)
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Social support and emotion|social support and emotion]] (2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|Feature boxes]]
** Use to highlight key information, but avoid overuse
** There are various ways of creating coloured boxes, but the [[Template:RoundBoxTop|RoundBox]] template is a good option.
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Figures|Figures]]
** Include relevant, accompanying figures (e.g., photos, drawings, diagrams) to facilitate readers' understanding of the concepts
** Figures are accompanied by explanatory captions and be cited at least once in the main text
** For more information, see [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Figures|How to use figures]]).
* [[Help:Links|Links]]
** In-text (embedded) links: Key words and concepts are [[Making links|linked]] to Wikipedia articles and/or related book chapters. Provide in-text wiki links the ''first time'' that key concepts are mentioned. For example:
*** emotion involves physiological, subjective feeling, motivational, and socially expressive aspects. The syntax for creating this link is &lt;nowiki&gt;[[w:Emotion|emotion]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;). It is also possible to link to a section on this same page e.g., &lt;nowiki&gt;&amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Overview|Overview]]&amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt; will link to the Overview section.
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Fitspiration and body image|This chapter]] provides an excellent example of embedded links to Wikiversity pages.
** See also
*** Provide interwiki links to key related Wikiversity book chapters and/or Wikipedia articles
*** Include source in parentheses
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*** Provide at least three links to high quality, relevant external resources
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** Use accompanying tables to help organise information and communicate concepts to readers
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* [[Help:Quiz|Quizzes]]
** Quiz questions or reflection questions encourage reader engagement
** Focus on core concepts (esp. take-home messages) rather than trivia
** Consider incorporating throughout the chapter

==Conclusion==
* Suggested word count: 150 to 330 words
* It should be possible for someone to only read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a pretty good idea of the problem and what is known based on psychological science
In conclusion Youth engaging in environmental activism are motivated by....

=== Conclusion (5%) ===

* Clear and concise communication of key points and take-home messages
* Aligned with the subtitle and focus questions, with implications for the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/Theme|book theme]]
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages? (Even for the topic development, have a go at the likely take-home message)
}}

==See also==
* [[wikipedia:Climate_movement|Climate Movement]]
* [[Climate change|Climate Change]]
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order
* Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]]
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Akiva, T., Carey, R. L., Cross, A. B., Delale-O'Connor, L., &amp; Brown, M. R. (2017). Reasons youth engage in activism programs: Social justice or sanctuary? Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 53, 20-30. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2017.08.005 

Elliott, L. (2026, May 11). environmentalism. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/environmentalism

Feldman, H. R.. (2020). A rhetorical perspective on youth environmental activism. ''Journal of Science Communication'', ''19''(06), C07. https://doi.org/10.22323/2.19060307

Goldman, D., Pe’er, S., &amp; Yavetz, B. (2015). Environmental literacy of youth movement members – is environmentalism a component of their social activism? ''Environmental Education Research'', ''23''(4), 486–514. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504622.2015.1108390

Gousse-Lessard, A.-S., Vallerand, R. J., Carbonneau, N., &amp; Lafrenière, M.-A. K. (2013). The role of passion in mainstream and radical behaviors: A look at environmental activism. ''Journal of Environmental Psychology'', ''35'', 18–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2013.03.003

Luttrell, R. (2023). Historical Roots and Modern Movements: A Framework for Activism. In Strategic Social Media as Activism (pp. 5-39). Routledge.

Pickard, S. (2022). Young environmental activists and Do-It-Ourselves (DIO) politics: Collective engagement, generational agency, efficacy, belonging and hope. Journal of Youth Studies, 25(6), 730-750.

Romano, L., Russo, C., Gladwin, T. E., &amp; Panno, A. (2024). Adolescents and young adults’ participation in pro-environmental movements: A systematic review. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 185(5), 373-398. 

Scherman, A., Valenzuela, S., &amp; Rivera, S.. (2022). Youth environmental activism in the age of social media: the case of Chile (2009-2019). ''Journal of Youth Studies'', ''25''(6), 751–770. https://doi.org/10.1080/13676261.2021.2010691

Sloam, J., Pickard, S., &amp; Henn, M.. (2022). ‘Young People and Environmental Activism: The Transformation of Democratic Politics’. ''Journal of Youth Studies'', ''25''(6), 683–691. https://doi.org/10.1080/13676261.2022.2056678

Tagkaloglou, S., &amp; Kasser, T. (2018). Increasing collaborative, pro-environmental activism: The roles of Motivational Interviewing, self-determined motivation, and self-efficacy. ''Journal of Environmental Psychology'', ''58'', 86–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2018.06.004

Urkidi, L. (2010). A glocal environmental movement against gold mining: Pascua–Lama in Chile. Ecological Economics, 70(2), 219-227. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2010.05.004

Wallis, H., &amp; Loy, L. S. (2021). What drives pro-environmental activism of young people? A survey study on the Fridays For Future movement. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 74, 101581. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2021.101581 

Wetering, J. V. D., &amp; Lee, K. (2026). What's in It for Them? A Developmental Science Perspective on Adolescent Climate Activism. Journal of Adolescence.

https://www.globalsociety.earth/post/the-origins-of-the-activism-movement-a-historical-and-global-perspective

}}

List cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].APA style example

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]]. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Activism]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Environment]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Youth]]</text>
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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}}
[[File:Donald Trump takes the oath of office (2025).jpg|thumb|President-elect Donald Trump takes the oath of office |'''Figure 1'''. Donald Trump's 2025 Inauguration surrounded by some of the world's wealthiest and most powerful individuals]]

Imagine a leader standing for their inauguration, surrounded by a concentration of wealthy and influential individuals. At first glance, this may reflect a preference for resources and influence. But a closer look raises a psychological question: what motivates a leader to seek and exercise power, and how might this shape the way they lead?

The scenario is not hypothetical. It reflects the current leadership of United States President Donald Trump {{ic|Embed link to Wikipedia article}}, whose 2025 administration included an unusually large concentration of wealthy and influential individuals. This concentration of political and economic power is illustrated by the individuals present at Trump's inauguration (see Figure 1). This provides a contemporary example for examining the relationship between power motivation and leadership. 

But power is reflected not only in who a leader surrounds themselves with, but also in how they exercise their influence. For example, using a social media platform as a political megaphone and bypassing traditional bureaucratic communication channels. Donald Trump's leadership style is highly self-focused and centred on power and image. 

This raises the question: does the desire for power necessarily make someone an effective leader? Individuals seek leadership for a variety of reasons, and how they use their influence affects how they interact with followers, make decisions, and pursue goals. Psychology can explain these differences by examining power motivation and how individual motives influence leadership behaviour.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

This chapter will explore [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10355387/ power motivation] {{ic|Provide APA style citation; move link to References}} and how it influences leadership styles, behaviour and effectiveness. Exploring the duality of its expression and how that interplays into a leader being successful (Friederichs et al., 2023).

* Power motivation is the desire to influence, control, and have the ability to impact others; it is very relevant to leadership as leaders consistently have the ability to influence decisions (McClelland, 1970).
* Power motivation can be expressed via socialised or personalised power. The type of expression determines the leader's behaviour and effectiveness, either producing positive outcomes for effective decision-making or negative, self-serving outcomes (Reeve, 2018; McClelland, 1970; Carvalho &amp; Conde, 2024).
* Being able to understand and tell the distinction between the type of power motivation being expressed is crucial to see how leaders exercise authority and how followers respond. Psychological science can help explain why some power-motivated leaders use influence to control, while others use it to empower (Reeve, 2018).

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}}

[[File:P psychology.png|right]]
'''Focus questions'''

{{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}}
*What psychological theories account for power motivation in leadership style?

*How does a leader's orientation towards power influence their specific leadership style?

*What is implicit motivation, and how does it differ from explicit power motivation in leaders?

*What is the relationship between power motivation and overall leadership effectiveness?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Understanding power motivation==

* '''Focus question:''' ''What psychological theories account for power motivation in leadership style?''

* What are your thoughts when you hear motivation and power, separately and together? Motivation, a term used to describe the push to act, and power, often associated with aggression, together they hold a heavy definition.
* [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Introduction|Motivation]] is the driving force that guides human behaviour; it is the use of will-power and self-discipline - channelling effort to achieve a goal. Certain individuals have predominant motive of power, being motivated by the internal urge to dominate, influence, or control (Kurt, 2021).
* Power motivation has three characteristics: strong action, emotional impact, and concern for status, frame, and reputation. It is influenced by cultural values and socialised experiences (McClelland,1970). 
* The need for power, [[wikipedia:Need_for_power|nPower]], can be expressed in two manners: dominant or prosocial. There is a contrasting nature between how power is expressed for leadership, affecting how leaders behave. Dominant power is associated with antisocial behaviour and guides individuals to achieve personal benefit and status, using aggression and assertive manners. This contrasts with prosocial power, which motivates leaders to be benevolent and supportive (Friederichs et al., 2023).
* Power seekers can be effective, well-adjusted, and highly motivated. Power is a source of human control; only the mentally healthy can wield it successfully. Those with this form of nPower struggle to feel satisfied unless they are in a position that fulfils their power-hungry needs, such as making decisions, influencing an audience, or obtaining information to become influential. Such occupations are teachers, journalists, clergy, psychologists, diplomats, business executives, political leaders and advisors (Reeve, 2018).

* [[wikipedia:David_McClelland|David McClelland's]] is popular within the psychology community for his thoughts on power motivation, with the most well-known theories, the Three Need Theory and the Two Faces of Power theory. In studies done by McClelland, it was discovered that those with high nPower tended to drink more heavily, making a comment that nPower can either manifest through drinking or 'hold office.'

=== McClelland's three need theory ===
[[File:DavidMcClelland.jpg|thumb|Figure 2. David McClelland]]
* McClelland (seen in Figure 2.) proposed [[wikipedia:Need_theory|Three Need Theory]], describes that every individual is driven by three dominant, unconscious needs: The need for power, affiliation, or achievement (one is more dominant than the others), definition can be seen in Table 1, (Kurt, 2021).
* The Three Need Theory can also be looked at along with [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Two-factor motivation theory|Herzberg's Two-Factor theory]] and [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's theory of Hierarchy of Needs]]. Looking into how motivation affects health, as success impacts stress, blood pressure, and hormone levels (McClelland,1970).
* Individuals develop motivation at different degrees, influenced by personal experiences and exposure. When an experience causes a positive emotional response, the individual is more likely to seek that feeling out again through a similar experience (Reeve, 2018).
* Explained through the McClelland Acquired Needs Theory, positive emotional experiences develop acquired needs through the reinforcement of the behaviour (Kurt, 2021).


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Table 1: Three Need Theory
!Need
!Definition
!High Behaviour
!Low Behaviour
|-
|Need for Achievement 
|Situations that challenge individuals with explicit standards.
|Individual exhibits a need to win and receive recognition.
|Constant fear of failure, typically avoids responsibilities. 
|-
|Need for Affiliation 
|Situations that afford warm relationship opportunities.
|A desire within for control, typically exaggerates own position.
|A heavily dependent individual, tries to minimise own position and importance.
|-
|Need for Power 
|Situations that enable others to exert influence over others.
|Individual demands and expects loyalty and harmony.
|Individual remains 'aloof' and keeps social distance from influence over others. 
|}

==== Two faces of power ====
* The [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/24356663.pdf Two Faces of Power theory], is a subgroup with the three needs of power theory propised by McClelland which introdiced the two faces of power, splitting the nPower into two manner's, personalised power or socialised power, also referred to as ''p''Power, and ''s''Power (McClelland, 1970).  ''p''Power is seen as socially unacceptable way of expression, is is closely linked to control, in a way it is the definition that power is sometimes thought as, aggressive, and self-desired, those with this form of power see like as a me-against-the-world. ''s''Power, is more socially acceptable form of expression, leaders are motivated through inspiring others (Bargh &amp; Lee-Chai, 2002).
* Leaders can take on both forms of power; McClelland believes that a true leader can balance both. They can exercise personal dominance and socialised leadership (Bargh &amp; Lee-Chai, 2002).
* ''p''Power can become problematic when leaders become too absorbed by the maintenance of their position and influence, the ability to dominate, manipulate, and disagree. However, the issue isn't high-power motivation; it's how it is expressed (McClelland, 1970). 

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}
== Recap ==
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{&amp;nbsp;
|type=&quot;{}&quot;}
What is the driving force that guides human behaviour?
{ Motivation }

{What is the key difference between personalised power and socialised power?}
- Personalised power focuses on achievement, and socialised power focuses on affiliation
+ Personalised power focuses on personal dominance and control, and socialised power focuses on benefiting others
- Personalised power is consistently associated with an effective leadership style, whereas socialised power is associated with an ineffective leadership style.

{Which behaviour best fits an individual with a high need for power?}
- Avoiding situations where they might influence others
+ Seek opportunities to influence, control, or have an impact on others
- Avoid challenging tasks for fear of failure

&lt;/quiz&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Power orientation and leadership style ==

* Focus question: ''How does a leader's orientation towards power influence their specific leadership style?''
* Power motivation is the drive; power orientation is the how; it is the framework of how a leader will manage to become influential. There is a negative stereotype around having a high power motivation, with theories that it automatically relates to undesired behaviour, unlike prosocial power motivation, which is regularly associated with generosity. However, those with high power motivation can have different power orientations. Ego-power orientation is associated with pursuing goals to satisfy the self and achieve a sense of self-fulfilment; this doesn't automatically mean they are using it for harm, as it depends on their position of influence and work. Social-power orientation is linked to directing power toward collective outcomes (Carvalho &amp; Conde, 2024). 

''Author note: add more information into this section - do more research/potentially move it around.'' 

* Effective leadership involves more than holding a position of authority; it is about how leaders behave and interact. There are five essential characteristics to leadership: self-image, socialised power, sustained dialogue, and strategic intent, providing a practical framework for a successful leader (Power, 2026). Power motivation and leadership are relevant across different contexts, from political leaders to supervisors, building a relationship with employees and an environment of trust (Power, 2026; Friederichs et al., 2023)

* Leadership styles refer to the way a leader behaves when directing, influencing and interacting. Although leadership styles reflect theoretical models, they can also be shaped by individual characteristics and techniques (Khajeh et al., 2018; &quot;What Are the Different Leadership Styles?&quot;, 2024). Different styles place varying emphasis on factors seen in Table 2 (Deakin University, 2024; Bwalya, 2023). Research suggests that [https://leadership.deakin.edu.au/blog/what-is-transformational-leadership transformational leadership] can produce positive outcomes by motivating and inspiring followers, benefiting the group rather then for personal interests, rather than focusing on personal interest, (Peyton et al., 2019)
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Table 2. Leadership Styles
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Leadership styles
|-
|Style
|Description
|Example Leaders
|-
|Autocratic 
|Leader holds complete control over decision-making with no input from followers. Consistently exercises control over the decision-making process. Expects strict compliance with policies and procedures, and does not take input from followers. They micromanage and control subordinate work. They make quick decisions because they do not have to consult. There is a lack of creative innovation (Bwalya, 2023). 
|Adolf Hitler and  Kim Jong-un 
|-
|Democratic 
|Leader is involved in team members' decision-making process, continuously encourages communication, and seeks feedback on matters, valuing input and ideas, wanting followers to participate in shaping strategies and goals (Bwalya, 2023).
|Former President of South Africa, Nelson Mandela and Former Prime Minister of New Zealand Jacinda Ardern 
|-
|Laissex-faire
| The leader is distant and has minimal involvement in decisions, unlike autocratic leadership, as laissez-faire lets followers make decisions with little guidance or supervision, trusting their ability to manage responsibilities. They are comfortable with mistakes and take accountability for followers' mistakes. This empowers employees and enables faster decision-making. However, the lack of guidance can cause confusion and lack of coordination (Bwalya, 2023). 
|Former President Herbert Hoover and Mahatma Ghandi
|-
|Servant 
|Leader is prosocial and motivated by power, focusing on the needs and well-being of others. Aiming to support and empower followers, in hopes they reach their full potential (Bwalya, 2023). 
|Pope Francis
|-
|Transformational 
|Based on inspiration and motivation to achieve performance, with high expectations and focus on challenging others to exceed self-interest. Focuses on transforming followers through inspiration, motivation, and effective communication. They rely on the leader's influence; if the leader fails to provide proper guidance, it can impact followers (Bwalya, 2023). 
|Former President of South Africa Nelson Mandela and Former President of the United States Barack Obama 
|-
|Transactional
|Focuses on the exchange relationship between the leader and their followers. The leader maintains stability and achieves goals by providing rewards and punishments based on performance. Very goal-oriented, with clear expectations, and quick decision-making (Bwalya, 2023).  
|Bill Gates and Former Chancellor of Germany Angela Merkel
|}

== Implicit motivation ==
[[File:Implicit_Motives_associations.png|thumb| Figure 3. Mind map of implicit motives]]Focus question: ''What is implicit motivation, and how does it differ from explicit power motivation in leaders?''
* Implicit motives are unconscious needs that influence how people respond emotionally to particular situations. They form early on through preverbal experiences and interactions,  lying dormant until potential incentives set them off. They are revealed through  patterns of thought, emotion, and behaviour (Reeve, 2018)
* Implicit motives differ from explicit motives, which are a conscious goal or value that people can describe and self-report (Slabbinck &amp; Van Witteloostuijn, 2020). They can predict long-term behaviour, especially when the situation provides a way to satisfy the motive. 
* According to McClelland, implicit motives are unconscious and therefore can't be accurately measured through self-reporting. They are assessed via indirect methods, ie., analysing imaginative stories (Reeve, 2018). The Dual-Motive System.

=== Leadership motive pattern ===
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Leadership motivation#Leadership Motive Pattern|Leadership Motive Pattern (LMP)]] developed from McClelland's work on motivation, describes a profile associated with effective leadership. It is consistent with three elements: high implicit power, low implicit affiliation, and high activity inhibition. Together, these elements help explain how a leader can balance self-control and a drive for nPower while also prioritising social benefits (Reeve, 2018).
* Leaders who are motivated to influence are usually less dependent on being personally liked or accepted. Their high npower encourages them to seek influence, while their low need for affiliation reduces their reliance on close relationships, and their high inhibition allows them to regulate their impulses. In contrast, individuals with high need for power, low affiliation, and low inhibition are often unsuccessful and rated poorly, as they struggle to regulate their desire for influence, lack self-discipline, and can be seen as narcissistic or aggrandising (Reeve, 2018).
* ''Author note: add more information into this section - a case study on a public figure...''

==== Need for power ====
* Individuals with a high nPower, are motivated by their desire to impact, control, or influence others or their environment. They want to establish, maintain, and expand their power. High-power-striving individuals therefore seek dominance, reputation, status, or positions of authority (Reeve, 2018).
* Individuals like this enjoy the ability to demonstrate influence and be able to reinforce their power. They are motivated to attain and maintain leadership positions because these roles provide opportunities to exercise authority and influence over others. Successfully obtaining power can provide a sense of satisfaction and accomplishment, reinforcing their motivation (Reeve, 2018). ''Look into the chemical reaction potentially (comment made after tutorial three).'' 
* These individuals tend to thrive off inspirational speeches, and they feel more energetic and their physiological arousal increases (Reeve, 2018). 

== Power motivation and leadership effectiveness ==

* Focus question: ''What is the relationship between power motivation and overall leadership effectiveness?''
* Power motivation can influence leadership effectiveness depending on how the motive is expressed and regulated. A high nPower can motivate individuals to seek leadership distinction; the shape power motivation takes will enable one to understand its effect on leadership effectiveness.

* The expression of the power motivation can develop through social and environmental experiences. Individuals who develop power-strivings may have experienced childhood environments in which the parents established demanding standards, potentially contributing to a desire for recognition and admiration. nPower has been associated with aggressive tendencies, although high power motivation doesn't automatically result in overt aggression. Social norms, laws, and consequences can constrain this expression, causing that desire to control to remain internal rather than manifest as overt aggression (Reeve, 2018).
* Individuals high in the need for power may be attracted to occupations that provide career-wise; individuals with high rates in need for power are drawn to professions with influential opportunities (Reeve, 2018).

=== Destructive power dynamics and power abuse ===

* A relationship between aggression and the need for power has been identified, with studies finding men being more argumentative. However, a high need for power doesn't necessarily result in aggression. Social norms, laws, and consequences can constrain this expression, causing that desire to control to remain internally rather than through overt aggression.
* Tend to harbour inclinations that are both benevolent and malevolent towards others, strive to improve the world, whilst also influencing everyone.
* Dark side of implicit motive is the combination of opportunity to use power for personal benefit, which is the 'abuse of power.' Additionally, there is a link to sexual misconduct and excessive drinking (Spanler et al., 2014).
* Unrestrained '''affiliation''' can lead to favouritism and corruption in political and bureaucratic organisations. '''Achievement''', ignore political/interpersonal issues. High need for '''achievement''', find it difficult working in groups, making decisions, ad enforcing authority, ignoring interpersonal relationships (Spanler et al., 2014).

=== '''Key predictors of effective leadership''' ===
*[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness|Effective leader,]] is a combination of power strivings which are complemented with self-discipline inhibition, ie., power under control, which gives rise to charismatic leadership, and high morale.
*High affliction motivation will motivate followers by communication concern, respect, appreciation, and support, developing high-quality leader followers interactions.
*Leaders with weak moral identify act in self-interest ways.
*Leaders benefit from a prosocial enactment strategy, action orientation through prosocial power motivation leads to reduced power related anxiety, greater well-being.
*Achievement strivings were associated with ineffective presidential, because achievement-oriented individuals were highly active but also frustrated.
*Successful presidents would have effective communication and combative skills, and a sense of humour. Additionally five variables that define a presidential effectiveness are, direct presidential action, perceived greatness, performance on social and economic issue, and international relations.
*Leadership motive pattern can determine when a leader will engage in war and when a leader will pursue peace.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}[[File:John F. Kennedy speaks at Rice University.jpg|thumb|President John F. Kennedy speaking at Rice University | Figure 4. John F. Kennedy speaking at Rice University]]

== Case Study: John F. Kennedy ==

- Kennedy, also referred to as JFK, was commended for his optimistic and ambitious presidency; though his term was short, he achieved success across the board (Reeve, 2018; McCann &amp; Mollan, 2023).  

- Created a modern framework for future presidents to follow; he blended political office with pop-culture celebrity. He was open-minded and engaged with the government and public (Reeve, 2018; McCann &amp; Mollan, 2023). 

- Historians consider Kennedy a strong example of effective leadership because of his charismatic communication and calm management, seen in Figure 4. Kennedy is found to have a high need for power and low affiliation needs, fitting McClelland's framework of leadership motives (McCann &amp; Mollan, 2023). 

- Leadership theorist James MacGregor Burns has written about JFK's presidency as a 'transformational leadership' style (McCann &amp; Mollan, 2023).

- McClelland's experiment on business school students, exposing them to a JFK inaugural speech, found that after the speech, the students demonstrated more strengthened and uplifted experiences. This showed that JFK, as a leader, influenced his audience through inspiration (McClelland, 1970).{{RoundBoxBottom}}

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=6}}
== Quiz Yourself ==
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Which combination of implicit motives is associated with effective leadership according to McClelland's leadership motive pattern?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- High power, high affiliation, and low inhibition
+ High power, low affiliation, and high inhibition
- Low power, high affiliation, and high inhibition
- High power, low affiliation, and low inhibition

{Does a high need for power necessarily result in aggressive behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False

&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Conclusion==

* Psychological theory and research consistently suggest that power motivation influences leadership through the way individuals obtain, maintain, and regulate power. A high nPower can motivate individuals to pursue positions that provide ongoing opportunities for impact, control, and influence (Reeve, 2018). There is a question around whether power motivation is positive or negative, when it is inherently neither. There is a difference between personalised power (pPower), the motivation for personal control and self-interest, and socialised power (sPower), the opportunity to influence and benefit others; this distinction helps explain why power motivation can produce drastically different leadership outcomes (McClelland, 1970; Carvalho &amp; Conde, 2024).
* The focus questions can be answered through McClelland's Three Need Theory, which explains why there are individual differences in their nPower, nAchievement, and nAffiliation, while the Two Faces of Power distinguishes between personalised and socialised expressions of power. The Leadership Motive Pattern further suggests that high power, low affiliation, and high activity inhibition can contribute to effective leadership, as the leader can balance pursuing influence with self-control (Reeve, 2018). 
* Effective leadership is not determined by how much power a person wants, but how they use it. Leaders who regulate their power motivation and direct their influence towards collective goals, fostering development and outcomes, are more likely to be well received by the public or their subordinates (Peyton et al., 2019; Friederichs et al., 2023).
* Understanding power motivation can help identify both the strengths and risks of leadership, highlighting the importance of self-discipline and ethical use of authority. 

==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness|Emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Leadership motivation#Leadership Motive Pattern|Leadership motivation]] (Book chapter, 2015)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Book chapter, 2011)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Two-factor motivation theory|Two-factor motivation theory]] (Book chapter, 2019)

{{ic|Integrate these links; use alphabetical order}}
* [[wikipedia:Need_theory|Need theory]] (Wikipedia)
* [[wikipedia:Need_for_power|Need for power]] (Wikipedia)
* [[wikipedia:David_McClelland|David Clelland]] (Wikipedia)

==References==

{{Hanging indent|1=

Bargh, J. A., &amp; Lee-Chai, A. Y. (2002). The use and abuse of power : Multiple perspectives in the causes of corruption. Psychology.

Bwalya, A. (2023). Leadership styles. Article in Journal of Entrepreneurship, Management and Innovation, 11(8), 181–193. https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.23932113

Carvalho, J. M. S., &amp; Conde, A. (2024). Individual power in human motivation – review and theoretical perspective. Acta Psychologica, 249, 104452–104452. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2024.104452

Deakin University. (2024, December 5). What are the different leadership styles? Deakin.Edu.Au. https://leadership.deakin.edu.au/blog/different-leadership-styles

Friederichs, K. M., Waldenmeier, K., &amp; Baumann, N. (2023). The benefits of prosocial power motivation in leadership: Action orientation fosters a win-win. Plos One, 18(7), e0287394–e0287394. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0287394

Khajeh, A., Abu, M., &amp; Asaari, H. (2018). Impact of leadership styles on organizational performance. Journal of Human Resources Management Research, 2018(2166–0018), 2166–2184. https://ibimapublishing.com/articles/JHRMR/2018/687849/687849-1.pdf

Kurt, D. S. (2021, May 23). McClelland’s Three Needs Theory: Power, Achievement, and Affiliation. Education Library. https://educationlibrary.org/mcclellands-three-needs-theory-power-achievement-and-affiliation/#1

McCann, L., &amp; Mollan, S. (2023, November 20). JFK 60 years on: His leadership style and the reality behind the myths. The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/jfk-60-years-on-his-leadership-style-and-the-reality-behind-the-myths-216477

McClelland, D. C. (1970). The two faces of power. Journal of International Affairs, 24(1), 29–47. JSTOR. https://www.jstor.org/stable/24356663

Peyton, T., Zigarmi, D., &amp; Fowler, S. N. (2019). Examining the relationship between leaders’ power use, followers’ motivational outlooks, and followers’ work intentions. Frontiers in Psychology, 9(2620). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02620

Power , D. P. G. (2026). The five essentials of leadership {{!}} APS. Psychology.Org.Au. https://psychology.org.au/inpsych/2017/august/power

Reeve, J. (2018). Understanding motivation and emotion (7th edn, pp. 152–176). John Wiley &amp; Sons, Inc.

Slabbinck, H., &amp; Van Witteloostuijn, A. (2020). Explicit and implicit basic human motives, and public service motivation. Frontiers in Psychology, 11(1542). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01542

Spanler, W. D., Tikhomirov, A., Lee Sotak, K., &amp; Palrecha, R. (2014). Leader motive profiles in eight types of organizations. ScienceDirect, 25(6). https://www-sciencedirect-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/science/article/pii/S1048984314001040

}}

==External links==
{{ic|Move these links into References and cite; replace with links to the most relevant external non-academic resources}}

* [https://leadership.deakin.edu.au/blog/what-is-transformational-leadership Article on Transformational leadership style] (Deakin University, 2024)
* [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10355387/ Power motivation, the benefits of prosocial power] (Friederichs et al., 2023)
* [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/24356663.pdf The Two Faces of Power Journal] (McClelland, 1970)

==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Power motivation and leadership|Power motivation and leadership]] (Book chapter, 2024)

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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Evstafiev-bosnia-sarajevo-funeral-reaction.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. A family mourns during a funeral]]

;Scenario

Imagine your friend is grieving the loss of a close family friend. You understand that, as part of their Chinese culture, white and plain clothing is worn to funeral services. This is not something you would do, as in your Western culture, black clothing is traditionally worn when mourning. 

How and why do your cultural differences impact the way you each grieve and bereave? 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Culture impacts a person and their relationship to others, both within and outside of their culture. Attempting to find a single definition of culture that can encapsulate the overarching impact it has on societies and humanity at large, whilst still acknowledging the nuances of the construct, is an issue that professionals continue to deliberate (Roy, 2020). However, a definition of culture is that it both influences and creates the norms, knowledge, practices, laws, and customs of a specific social group.

Grief is an intense, sorrowful emotional reaction to the loss of something significant. This loss can be in a wide variety of forms but is typically applicable to close personal relationship such as friends, family, and pets. Throughout this chapter, grief will primarily refer to the death of a person who holds emotional significance. It should be noted that the key terms associated with grief and the differences{{g}}. Bereavement concerns ''the period of time'' in which a person grieves. Typically, immediately, if not shortly, after the significant person has passed{{g}}. During this time of bereavement, a person may mourn their loss, which includes behavioural expressions of grief through customs and traditions that are typical to that individual's culture.

Given the extent to which culture impact{{g}} the way people both behave and interact, the relationship it holds in influencing said {{awkward}} behaviours and interactions in situations of grief is an area that holds meaningful and influential impacts for the psychological landscape. At a time of such emotional distraught, someone's culture can provide some sense of direction in how to navigate bereavement and mourning. The political, social, religious, economic, and historical aspects that culminate into a sense of culture can shape and predict how different cultures respond to death and the grief that accompanies it (Silverman et al., 2021).  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* What is grief?
* What makes cultures different{{vague}}?
* How does grief vary across cultures?
* Why is this topic important{{vague}}?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==What is grief?==
The emotional experience of grief when losing someone or something important is universal throughout all cultures{{f}}. This is evident when examining both past and present expressions such as art, literature, storytelling, etc. It is therefore understandable that research has endeavoured to better understand the symptomatology of this human experience, as well as develop comprehensive models to breakdown the emotional processing involved.   

=== Symptoms of grief ===
Although the social context, behaviours, and traditions associated with processing death is different for each culture, there are common symptoms that can be found throughout all cultures and are considered{{f}} the innate human reactions. It should be noted, however, that it is not a guarantee that any one individual will exhibit all signs of grief. Physical symptoms of grief include restlessness, fatigue and exhaustion, appetite changes (increase or decrease), pains such as stabbing or aching sensation, and weakened immune system (Pearce &amp; Komaromy, 2022). The characteristics and intensity of grief vary greatly from person to person{{f}}. Factors like the nature of loss (e.g., accidents, homicides, suicides), closeness to the person who died (death of a partner typically more reactive than a past neighbour) impact the grieving process.

=== Types of grief ===
Depending on the intensity of the grief, the bereaved can often experience depression-like symptoms{{f}}. According to Hilberdink et al. (2023), there are three severities of these reactions (see Table 1). 

'''Table 1.''' Types of grief according to Hilberdink et al. (2023)
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Type of grief
!Symptoms
!Progression
|-
|Acute grief
|Intense longing for deceased, social withdrawal, loss of interest in life.
|Functional impairment typically subsides after 2-3 months.
|-
|Integrated
|Acknowledgement of the death, awareness of positive and negative cognitions surrounding death, regained interest in life, and social reintegration.
|Successful adaption to life without deceased following acute grieving period.
|-
|Prolonged
|Continued impairment from the symptoms of grief
|Can last years or decades.
|}

==== Persistent Grief Disorder (PGD) ====
In the 2022 revision of the text, prolonged grief disorder was added to the Fifth Edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. Although there are intense but normal feelings of sadness and depression when grieving, a suggested 5-15% of bereaved will not progress to the stage of integrated grief but will instead experience sustained pathological and symptomatic impairment of grief.  

=== Models of grief ===
{{ic|Include an introductory paragraph before branching into sub-sections}}

===== The five stages of grief =====
Perhaps the most prolific{{huh}} model of grief is that developed by Kübler-Ross in 1969, [[wikipedia:Five_stages_of_grief|the five stages of grief]] (also known as the Kübler-Ross grief cycle){{ic|Not in References}}. Originally devised to understand the experience of those with a terminal illness and how the concept of their own mortality is digested, it was later broadened to include the experience of those losing a significant person{{f}}. According to this model, an individual experiences five distinct stages after the initial shock of another's death{{f}}. It was proposed that a person progresses through the following stages sequentially; denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance{{f}}. See Table 2 for a comprehensive descriptor of each stage.

'''Table 2.''' Stages of grief according to Kübler-Ross model
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!
!Stage of Grief
!Associated behaviours
|-
|1.
|Denial
|Rejecting the reality of the death. Feelings of numbness and behaviours such as continuing as if nothing had changed and avoiding acknowledgement of death.
|-
|2.
|Anger
|Feelings of unjust treatment. Can be directed at others, ourselves, or, if spiritual, religious deities.
|-
|3.
|Bargaining
|Driven by a feeling of powerlessness. It involves attempting to reconcile the death by examining what could have changed. Can involve bartering with religious gods for the return of the deceased.
|-
|4.
|Depression
|Extreme feelings of sadness, occupation with loss of significant figure. 
|-
|5.
|Acceptance
|Awareness and acknowledgement of the finality of the death.
|}

Despite the popularity of this model, modern psychological research of grief strongly discounts its validity with many researchers discarding its use (Daniel, 2025){{ic|So, what has it been replaced by?}}. The strongest criticism is the lack of sufficient evidence for the model. The wording of &quot;stages&quot; suggests innate and sequential phases which the bereaved must go through. However, many professionals have highlighted that grieving is rarely such a straightforward process and that the model lacks ecological validity (Stroebe et al., 2017). Additionally, this model is firmly planted in western psychology with little cross-cultural investigation considered in its formation{{f}}. In an article by Corr (2015), the author expresses concern in too much emphasis of this stage journey as it has the potential to invalidate those who do not progress through the stages as proposed by Kübler-Ross and discredit their own method of grieving. This could further upset an individual already in an emotionally vulnerable position when grieving. The simplicity of the model may have provided a strength in its acceptance into layperson psychology, but it also failed to capture the complexities and nuances of the grieving, as well as the influence of context (Silverman et al., 2021).

[[File:Dual-process model of grief (final).jpg|thumb|500x500px|'''Figure 2.''' Dual-process model of grief]]

===== Dual-process model of grief =====
The [[wikipedia:Dual_process_model_of_coping|dual-process model of grief]] was developed by Stroebe and Schut (1999). The researchers endeavoured to create a more realistic model of the bereavement experience by emphasising the oscillation between different coping styles. Loss-orientated and restoration-orientated {{missing}} both involve negative and positive associations {{ic|with what?}}. Important that an individual balances both types of orientations to allow sufficient processing of grief{{g}}.   

A limitation of previous models of grief and bereavement that Stroebe and Schut was the rigidity and lack of ecological validity in the models{{f}}{{g}}. This model addresses that by presenting grief as a continual process with no obvious or &quot;correct&quot; progression{{f}}{{g}}. 

It should be noted that, as such with the psychological science, there are many theories/models of grief. Further research can be done on [https://whatsyourgrief.com/wordens-four-tasks-of-mourning/?_gl=1*y4kjsh*_gcl_au*MTIyNjY3MTg4MS4xNzU5NDkyNDcy*_ga*MTY3NzUxODQyNi4xNzU5NDkyNDcy*_ga_66D568ZWWL*czE3NTk0OTI0NzIkbzEkZzEkdDE3NTk0OTI1NDAkajYwJGwwJGgw Worden's four tasks of mourning], [https://whatsyourgrief.com/randos-six-r-processes-of-mourning/ Rando's six &quot;R&quot; processes of mourning], and [https://whatsyourgrief.com/bowlby-four-stages-of-grief/ Bowlby's four phases of grief].{{f}}

&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{The five stages of grief model lacks empirical support:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{There is a specific length of time that every person bereaves for after learning about a death:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== What makes cultures different? ==
{{ic|Include an introductory paragraph before branching into sub-sections}}

=== Hofstede's cultural dimensions theory ===
[[wikipedia:Hofstede's_cultural_dimensions_theory|Hofstede's cultural dimensions theory]] is a framework that has been highly praised in cross-cultural psychology for it being one of the first to comprehensively capture more diverse and relevant dimensions of culture{{f}}. According to this theory, there are six psycho-social factors that define a culture{{f}}. These include power distance, uncertainty avoidance, femininity vs masculinity, short-term vs long-term orientation, restraint vs indulgence, and individualistic vs collective (Beugelsdijk, &amp; Welzel, 2018). See Table 3 for a description of each dimension. A part of this theory that has gained significant recognition is the individualism vs collectivism dimension. This measurement is able to account for a considerable portion of cultural differences and is therefore, a useful tool when examining fundamental differences in cultural behaviours and attitudes, such as those during bereavement.

'''Table 3.''' Hofstede's cultural dimensions for cross-cultural psychology{{f}}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!Cultural dimension
!Description
|-
|Power distance
|The degree to which the culture will accept (close) or reject (distant) the power held by authority figures. High power distant cultures are more accepting of hierarchical structures and decision-making at authority levels. Low power distant cultures expect a more communicative and collaborative approach from authority figures.
|-
|Uncertainty avoidance
|Describes how comfortable the culture is with uncertainty, change, ambiguity, and the unknown. Reflects attitudes of acceptance to go against the status quo or develop new cultural ideas.
|-
|Femininity vs masculinity
|This dimension relies heavily on stereotypical beliefs of masculine and feminine qualities. Masculinity refers to a culture that prioritises practical achievement, competition and success. Femininity refers to a culture that is more socially orientated and prioritises social harmony, cooperation and care. 
|-
|Short vs long term orientation
|Refers to a cultures beliefs around enacting effort for present goals or for future goals. Effects a culture's orientation towards future development and security and the willingness to delay gratification in accordance to more long-term goals. Short-term orientation refers to a mentality that emphasises gratification at the present moment for effort. Long-term orientation thinking is associated with planning and persistence.
|-
|Restraint vs indulgence
|This dimensions revolves around the acceptance of the celebration, enjoyment, and indulgence of pleasure in life. It influences the degree to which cultural norms inhibits/encourages emotional expression and adherence of strict control. 
|-
|Individualism vs collectivism
|Extent to which people view and prioritise their autonomous, separate selves (individualism) or if they place greater emphasis on the &quot;greater whole&quot; and operating in a community (collectivism).
|}

== How does grief vary across cultures? ==
Within the framework Hofstede's cultural dimension model there are a significant amount of combined variable formations, each one producing unique and nuanced cultures{{vague}}. The dimensions operationalise impactful components of culture such as mindset, expectations, autonomy, and adaptability. These components (and more) dictate and compromise the basis through which social norms and interactions operate. Recognising the differences in cultural dimensions is valuable tool to allow a larger assessment of the different norms, traditions and practices. Many of these differences can be largely explained by the measure of the individualism vs collectivism cultural dimension in Hofstede's theory{{f}}.

Understanding differences in grief manifestations can be done by researching the mourning rituals such as funerals, wakes, ceremonies and religious services. Research by Zhou et al. (2023) investigated cultural differences in grieving between Swiss (individualistic) and Chinese (collectivist) cultures. The study examined 86 Swiss bereaved people 99 Chinese bereaved people.

=== Individualistic cultures ===
Zhou et al. (2023) found that members from individualistic societies were more likely to endorse open displays of grief-related emotions, such as sadness or anger, reflecting cultural values that encourage self-expression and personal autonomy. In the Swiss context, rooted in individualistic traditions, participants endorsed more {{in|than?}} open displays of grief-related emotions such as sadness and anger, reflecting the cultural priority of authenticity and personal coping. These emotional display behaviours were seen as aligning with the belief that expressing one’s inner state is important for psychological well-being and social authenticity. These emotional display behaviours were seen as aligning with the belief that expressing one’s inner state is important for psychological well-being and social authenticity. The individualistic cultural framework supports bereaved individuals in communicating their grief outwardly as a way of processing loss and affirming personal identity. Thus, grief in individualistic cultures is closely tied to ideals of openness, individuality, and emotional honesty.

[[File:A Hindu funeral procession in India in the 1880s.JPG|thumb|Figure 2. A Hindu funeral procession in India in the 1880s|300x300px]]

=== Collectivist cultures ===
In collectivistic cultures, grieving is shaped by values of social harmony, interdependence, and relational responsibility, which often result in more restrained emotional expression. Zhou et al. (2023) found that individuals in collectivistic societies were more likely to regulate or suppress grief-related displays in order to avoid burdening others and to maintain group cohesion. Within situated {{g}} the collectivistic framework of Chinese culture, it was reported there is greater regulation and suppression of grief displays, with restraint serving to protect family dignity and maintain social harmony. Rather than prioritising personal authenticity, emotional display rules in these contexts emphasised appropriateness, situational sensitivity, and consideration of the collective. Grief was therefore less about individual expression and more about fulfilling social obligations, protecting family dignity, and ensuring that emotions did not disrupt the broader community. This approach highlights how collectivistic cultures frame grieving as a shared social process in which self-restraint and relational attunement are seen as signs of respect and maturity.

== Why is this topic important? ==
As mentioned previously, grief is {{missing}} strong emotional response that is likely to effect any one person over the span of their life. Grief can cause significant emotional pain and is expected to have short-term impact on the individual's day-to-day and, depending on the intensity, may require sustained support and counsel from friends, family, and professionals. 

Psychological science and research can assist in curating a more informed and valid approach to cross-cultural grief work in these professional and personal fields. Having greater awareness of cultural differences can increase diversity awareness and sensitivity, creating more empathetic, responsible and effective healthcare professionals (Aeschlimann et al., 2024). This is especially relevant to the psychotherapy field, where clients can potentially share emotional and practical difficulties surrounding bereavement which, considering the strong emotional function of grief, is an reasonable expectation for the therapy. Furthermore, greater cultural sensitivity surrounding emotionally vulnerable experience such as grief, can allow for increased social awareness and improve relationships in personal and communal lives. Psychological science can assist this by gathering by conducting interviews, surveys, and observational studies of different cultures and their process of grieving and bereaving.

==Conclusion==
Grief is a universal human experience, yet the way it is expressed and managed is deeply shaped by cultural values, traditions, and norms. Grief is a sorrowful emotion that can manifest in symptoms and behaviours such as fatigue, social withdrawal, appetite change and loss of interest in life. Hofstede's cultural dimensions model is an empirically supported tool to conduct cross-psychological research. The most often cited dimension from this theory is individualism vs collectivism. By merging general knowledge of the practices, norms, and reactions of grief with this dimension, a greater understanding of cultural differences during bereavement can be had. While individualistic cultures, such as Switzerland, often encourage open emotional expression as a form of authenticity and personal coping, collectivistic cultures, such as China, emphasise emotional restraint to preserve harmony, respect, and family dignity. Recognising these differences holds significant implications for psychology and allied disciplines, particularly in the development of culturally sensitive models of grief and bereavement support. Greater cross-cultural awareness not only enriches theoretical understandings of grief but also enhances the capacity of practitioners to provide appropriate and empathetic care. In this way, culture serves as both a lens through which grief is experienced and a framework that determines the pathways through which adaptation and healing can occur.

==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Grief|Grief]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Hofstede's dimensions of cultural value and motivation|Hofstede's dimensions of cultural value and motivation]] (Book chapter, 2013)
* [[w:Culture|Culture]] (Wikipedia)
* [[w:Grief|Grief]] (Wikipedia)
* [[wikipedia:Mourning|Mourning]] (Wikipedia)
==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Aeschlimann, A., Heim, E., Killikelly, C., Arafa, M., &amp; Maercker, A. (2024). Culturally sensitive grief treatment and support: A scoping review. SSM - Mental Health, 5, Article 100325. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssmmh.2024.100325

Árnason, A. (2007). “Fall apart and put yourself together again”: the anthropology of death and bereavement counselling in Britain. Mortality, 12(1), 48–65. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1080/13576270601088335

Bandini, J. (2015). The Medicalization of Bereavement: (Ab)normal Grief in the DSM-5. Death Studies, 39(6), 347–352. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1080/07481187.2014.951498

Beugelsdijk, S., &amp; Welzel, C. (2018). Dimensions and Dynamics of National Culture: Synthesizing Hofstede With Inglehart. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 49(10), 1469–1505. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022118798505

Corr, C. A. (2015). Let’s Stop “Staging” Persons Who Are Coping With Loss. Illness, Crisis &amp; Loss, 23(3), 226-241. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1177/1054137315585423 (Original work published 2015)

Daniel, T. (2025). The Stubborn Persistence of Grief Stage Theory. Omega: Journal of Death &amp; Dying, 91(3), 1140–1154. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1177/00302228221149801

Dulberg, Z., Dubey, R., &amp; Cohen, J. D. (2025). Adapting to loss: A computational model of grief. Psychological Review. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1037/rev0000567

Hilberdink, C. E., Ghainder, K., Dubanchet, A., Hinton, D., Djelantik, A. A. A. M. J., Hall, B. J., &amp; Bui, E. (2023). Bereavement issues and prolonged grief disorder: A global perspective. Cambridge Prisms: Global Mental Health, 10, e32. https://doi:10.1017/gmh.2023.28

Pearce, C., &amp; Komaromy, C. (2022). Recovering the body in grief: Physical absence and embodied presence. Health (London, England : 1997), 26(4), Article 1363459320931914. https://doi.org/10.1177/1363459320931914

Roy, D. (2020). Formulation of Hofstede’s Global Cultural Dimension Index (HGCDI): A cross-country study. Journal of Transnational Management, 25(3), 195–224. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1080/15475778.2020.176571

Shimkhada, D. Death: Never Done Grieving. DHARM 6, 195–205 (2023). https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1007/s42240-023-00156-7

Sigelman, C., George, L. d., &amp; Cunial, K. (2018). Life Span Human Development. Cengage. http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/canberra/detail.action?docID=5723228 

Silverman, G. S., Baroiller, A., &amp; Hemer, S. R. (2021). Culture and grief: Ethnographic perspectives on ritual, relationships and remembering. Death Studies, 45(1), 1–8. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1080/07481187.2020.1851885

Stroebe, M., Schut, H., &amp; Boerner, K. (2017). Cautioning Health-Care Professionals. Omega (Westport), 74(4), 455-473. https://doi.org/10.1177/0030222817691870 

Stroebe, M., &amp; Schut, H. (1999). The dual process model of coping with bereavement: rationale and description. Death Studies, 23(3), 197-224. https://research.ebsco.com/linkprocessor/plink?id=f329978a-45ff-30c8-8ffb-7ff9f44f5a93 

Szuhany, K. L., Malgaroli, M., Miron, C. D., &amp; Simon, N. M. (2021). Prolonged Grief Disorder: Course, Diagnosis, Assessment, and Treatment. Focus, 19(2), 161-172. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.focus.20200052 

Xu, X., Wen, J., Qian, W., Zhou, N., &amp; Jiang, W. (2024). Living with grief and thriving after loss: a qualitative study of Chinese parents whose only child has died. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 15(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2024.2418767

Żemojtel-Piotrowska, M., &amp; Piotrowski, J. (2023). Hofstede’s cultural dimensions theory. In Encyclopedia of sexual psychology and behavior (pp. 1-4). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-08956-5_1124-1

Zhou, N., Smith, K. V., Stelzer, E., Maercker, A., Xi, J., &amp; Killikelly, C. (2023). How the bereaved behave: a cross-cultural study of emotional display behaviours and rules. Cognition and Emotion, 37(5), 1023–1039. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2023.2219046

}}
==External links==
* [https://www.grief.org.au/ga/Content/Information-Sheets/About-Grief.aspx?WebsiteKey=9af4e8a8-8d75-4439-b2f8-b00b7b41ff21#:~:text=Privately%20and%20personally,a%20routine%2C%20especially%20around%20bedtime. About Grief] (Grief Australia)
* [https://whatsyourgrief.com/bowlby-four-stages-of-grief/ Before the Five Stages: Bowlby's FOUR Stages of Grief] (What's your grief?)
* [https://www.uclahealth.org/news/article/how-does-grief-affect-your-body How does grief affect your body?] (UCLA Health)
* [https://whatsyourgrief.com/randos-six-r-processes-of-mourning/ Rando's Six R Processes of Mourning] (What's your grief?)
* [https://www.cancercouncil.com.au/cancer-information/advanced-cancer/grief/what-is-grief/ What is grief?] (Cancer Council)
* [https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/24787-grief What is grief? Types, symptoms &amp; How To Cope] (Cleveland Clinic)
* [https://whatsyourgrief.com/wordens-four-tasks-of-mourning/?_gl=1*y4kjsh*_gcl_au*MTIyNjY3MTg4MS4xNzU5NDkyNDcy*_ga*MTY3NzUxODQyNi4xNzU5NDkyNDcy*_ga_66D568ZWWL*czE3NTk0OTI0NzIkbzEkZzEkdDE3NTk0OTI1NDAkajYwJGwwJGgw Worden's Four Tasks of Mourning] (What's your grief?)

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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Evstafiev-bosnia-sarajevo-funeral-reaction.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. A family mourns during a funeral]]

;Scenario

Imagine your friend is grieving the loss of a close family friend. You understand that, as part of their Chinese culture, white and plain clothing is worn to funeral services. This is not something you would do, as in your Western culture, black clothing is traditionally worn when mourning. 

How and why do your cultural differences impact the way you each grieve and bereave? 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

[[wikipedia:Culture|Culture]] impacts a person and their [[wikipedia:Relationship|relationship]] to others, both within and outside of their culture. Attempting to find a single definition of culture that can encapsulate the overarching impact it has on [[wikipedia:Society|societies]] and [[wikipedia:Humanity|humanity]] at large, whilst still acknowledging the nuances of the construct, is an issue that professionals continue to deliberate (Roy, 2020). However, a definition of culture is that it both influences and creates the [[wikipedia:Social_norm|norms]], [[wikipedia:Knowledge|knowledge]], practices, [[wikipedia:Law|laws]], and customs of a specific social group.

[[wikipedia:Grief|Grief]] is an intense, sorrowful emotional reaction to the loss of something significant. This loss can be in a wide variety of forms but is typically applicable to close personal relationship such as friends, family, and pets. Throughout this chapter, grief will primarily refer to the death of a person who holds emotional significance. It should be noted that bereavement is a key term often associated with grief, although the two concepts differ in important ways. Bereavement concerns ''the period of time'' in which a person grieves. Typically, bereavement occurs immediately or in the period shortly after the passing of a significant individual. During this time of bereavement, a person may [[wikipedia:Mourning|mourn]] their loss, which includes behavioural expressions of grief through customs and traditions that are typical to that individual's culture.

Given the extent to which culture impacts the way in which people behave and interact, it follows that culture influences individuals' responses to experiences of grief. Therefore, exploring the relationship between culture and grief holds value and meaning for psychological inquiry. At a time of such emotional distraught, someone's culture can provide some sense of direction in how to navigate bereavement and mourning. The political, social, religious, economic, and historical aspects that culminate into a sense of culture can shape and predict how different cultures respond to death and the grief that accompanies it (Silverman et al., 2021).  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* What is grief?
* What makes cultures different{{vague}}?
* How does grief vary across cultures?
* Why is this topic important{{vague}}?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==What is grief?==
The emotional experience of grief when losing someone or something important is universal throughout all cultures{{f}}. This is evident when examining both past and present expressions such as art, literature, storytelling, etc. It is therefore understandable that research has endeavoured to better understand the symptomatology of this human experience, as well as develop comprehensive models to breakdown the emotional processing involved.   

=== Symptoms of grief ===
Although the social context, behaviours, and traditions associated with processing death is different for each culture, there are common symptoms that can be found throughout all cultures and are considered{{f}} the innate human reactions. It should be noted, however, that it is not a guarantee that any one individual will exhibit all signs of grief. Physical symptoms of grief include restlessness, fatigue and exhaustion, appetite changes (increase or decrease), pains such as stabbing or aching sensation, and weakened immune system (Pearce &amp; Komaromy, 2022). The characteristics and intensity of grief vary greatly from person to person{{f}}. Factors like the nature of loss (e.g., accidents, homicides, suicides), closeness to the person who died (death of a partner typically more reactive than a past neighbour) impact the grieving process.

=== Types of grief ===
Depending on the intensity of the grief, the bereaved can often experience depression-like symptoms{{f}}. According to Hilberdink et al. (2023), there are three severities of these reactions (see Table 1). 

'''Table 1.''' Types of grief according to Hilberdink et al. (2023)
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Type of grief
!Symptoms
!Progression
|-
|Acute grief
|Intense longing for deceased, social withdrawal, loss of interest in life.
|Functional impairment typically subsides after 2-3 months.
|-
|Integrated
|Acknowledgement of the death, awareness of positive and negative cognitions surrounding death, regained interest in life, and social reintegration.
|Successful adaption to life without deceased following acute grieving period.
|-
|Prolonged
|Continued impairment from the symptoms of grief
|Can last years or decades.
|}

==== Persistent Grief Disorder (PGD) ====
In the 2022 revision of the text, prolonged grief disorder was added to the Fifth Edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. Although there are intense but normal feelings of sadness and depression when grieving, a suggested 5-15% of bereaved will not progress to the stage of integrated grief but will instead experience sustained pathological and symptomatic impairment of grief.  

=== Models of grief ===
{{ic|Include an introductory paragraph before branching into sub-sections}}

===== The five stages of grief =====
Perhaps the most prolific{{huh}} model of grief is that developed by Kübler-Ross in 1969, [[wikipedia:Five_stages_of_grief|the five stages of grief]] (also known as the Kübler-Ross grief cycle){{ic|Not in References}}. Originally devised to understand the experience of those with a terminal illness and how the concept of their own mortality is digested, it was later broadened to include the experience of those losing a significant person{{f}}. According to this model, an individual experiences five distinct stages after the initial shock of another's death{{f}}. It was proposed that a person progresses through the following stages sequentially; denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance{{f}}. See Table 2 for a comprehensive descriptor of each stage.

'''Table 2.''' Stages of grief according to Kübler-Ross model
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!
!Stage of Grief
!Associated behaviours
|-
|1.
|Denial
|Rejecting the reality of the death. Feelings of numbness and behaviours such as continuing as if nothing had changed and avoiding acknowledgement of death.
|-
|2.
|Anger
|Feelings of unjust treatment. Can be directed at others, ourselves, or, if spiritual, religious deities.
|-
|3.
|Bargaining
|Driven by a feeling of powerlessness. It involves attempting to reconcile the death by examining what could have changed. Can involve bartering with religious gods for the return of the deceased.
|-
|4.
|Depression
|Extreme feelings of sadness, occupation with loss of significant figure. 
|-
|5.
|Acceptance
|Awareness and acknowledgement of the finality of the death.
|}

Despite the popularity of this model, modern psychological research of grief strongly discounts its validity with many researchers discarding its use (Daniel, 2025){{ic|So, what has it been replaced by?}}. The strongest criticism is the lack of sufficient evidence for the model. The wording of &quot;stages&quot; suggests innate and sequential phases which the bereaved must go through. However, many professionals have highlighted that grieving is rarely such a straightforward process and that the model lacks ecological validity (Stroebe et al., 2017). Additionally, this model is firmly planted in western psychology with little cross-cultural investigation considered in its formation{{f}}. In an article by Corr (2015), the author expresses concern in too much emphasis of this stage journey as it has the potential to invalidate those who do not progress through the stages as proposed by Kübler-Ross and discredit their own method of grieving. This could further upset an individual already in an emotionally vulnerable position when grieving. The simplicity of the model may have provided a strength in its acceptance into layperson psychology, but it also failed to capture the complexities and nuances of the grieving, as well as the influence of context (Silverman et al., 2021).

[[File:Dual-process model of grief (final).jpg|thumb|500x500px|'''Figure 2.''' Dual-process model of grief]]

===== Dual-process model of grief =====
The [[wikipedia:Dual_process_model_of_coping|dual-process model of grief]] was developed by Stroebe and Schut (1999). The researchers endeavoured to create a more realistic model of the bereavement experience by emphasising the oscillation between different coping styles. Loss-orientated and restoration-orientated {{missing}} both involve negative and positive associations {{ic|with what?}}. Important that an individual balances both types of orientations to allow sufficient processing of grief{{g}}.   

A limitation of previous models of grief and bereavement that Stroebe and Schut was the rigidity and lack of ecological validity in the models{{f}}{{g}}. This model addresses that by presenting grief as a continual process with no obvious or &quot;correct&quot; progression{{f}}{{g}}. 

It should be noted that, as such with the psychological science, there are many theories/models of grief. Further research can be done on [https://whatsyourgrief.com/wordens-four-tasks-of-mourning/?_gl=1*y4kjsh*_gcl_au*MTIyNjY3MTg4MS4xNzU5NDkyNDcy*_ga*MTY3NzUxODQyNi4xNzU5NDkyNDcy*_ga_66D568ZWWL*czE3NTk0OTI0NzIkbzEkZzEkdDE3NTk0OTI1NDAkajYwJGwwJGgw Worden's four tasks of mourning], [https://whatsyourgrief.com/randos-six-r-processes-of-mourning/ Rando's six &quot;R&quot; processes of mourning], and [https://whatsyourgrief.com/bowlby-four-stages-of-grief/ Bowlby's four phases of grief].{{f}}

&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{The five stages of grief model lacks empirical support:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{There is a specific length of time that every person bereaves for after learning about a death:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== What makes cultures different? ==
{{ic|Include an introductory paragraph before branching into sub-sections}}

=== Hofstede's cultural dimensions theory ===
[[wikipedia:Hofstede's_cultural_dimensions_theory|Hofstede's cultural dimensions theory]] is a framework that has been highly praised in cross-cultural psychology for it being one of the first to comprehensively capture more diverse and relevant dimensions of culture{{f}}. According to this theory, there are six psycho-social factors that define a culture{{f}}. These include power distance, uncertainty avoidance, femininity vs masculinity, short-term vs long-term orientation, restraint vs indulgence, and individualistic vs collective (Beugelsdijk, &amp; Welzel, 2018). See Table 3 for a description of each dimension. A part of this theory that has gained significant recognition is the individualism vs collectivism dimension. This measurement is able to account for a considerable portion of cultural differences and is therefore, a useful tool when examining fundamental differences in cultural behaviours and attitudes, such as those during bereavement.

'''Table 3.''' Hofstede's cultural dimensions for cross-cultural psychology{{f}}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!Cultural dimension
!Description
|-
|Power distance
|The degree to which the culture will accept (close) or reject (distant) the power held by authority figures. High power distant cultures are more accepting of hierarchical structures and decision-making at authority levels. Low power distant cultures expect a more communicative and collaborative approach from authority figures.
|-
|Uncertainty avoidance
|Describes how comfortable the culture is with uncertainty, change, ambiguity, and the unknown. Reflects attitudes of acceptance to go against the status quo or develop new cultural ideas.
|-
|Femininity vs masculinity
|This dimension relies heavily on stereotypical beliefs of masculine and feminine qualities. Masculinity refers to a culture that prioritises practical achievement, competition and success. Femininity refers to a culture that is more socially orientated and prioritises social harmony, cooperation and care. 
|-
|Short vs long term orientation
|Refers to a cultures beliefs around enacting effort for present goals or for future goals. Effects a culture's orientation towards future development and security and the willingness to delay gratification in accordance to more long-term goals. Short-term orientation refers to a mentality that emphasises gratification at the present moment for effort. Long-term orientation thinking is associated with planning and persistence.
|-
|Restraint vs indulgence
|This dimensions revolves around the acceptance of the celebration, enjoyment, and indulgence of pleasure in life. It influences the degree to which cultural norms inhibits/encourages emotional expression and adherence of strict control. 
|-
|Individualism vs collectivism
|Extent to which people view and prioritise their autonomous, separate selves (individualism) or if they place greater emphasis on the &quot;greater whole&quot; and operating in a community (collectivism).
|}

== How does grief vary across cultures? ==
Within the framework Hofstede's cultural dimension model there are a significant amount of combined variable formations, each one producing unique and nuanced cultures{{vague}}. The dimensions operationalise impactful components of culture such as mindset, expectations, autonomy, and adaptability. These components (and more) dictate and compromise the basis through which social norms and interactions operate. Recognising the differences in cultural dimensions is valuable tool to allow a larger assessment of the different norms, traditions and practices. Many of these differences can be largely explained by the measure of the individualism vs collectivism cultural dimension in Hofstede's theory{{f}}.

Understanding differences in grief manifestations can be done by researching the mourning rituals such as funerals, wakes, ceremonies and religious services. Research by Zhou et al. (2023) investigated cultural differences in grieving between Swiss (individualistic) and Chinese (collectivist) cultures. The study examined 86 Swiss bereaved people 99 Chinese bereaved people.

=== Individualistic cultures ===
Zhou et al. (2023) found that members from individualistic societies were more likely to endorse open displays of grief-related emotions, such as sadness or anger, reflecting cultural values that encourage self-expression and personal autonomy. In the Swiss context, rooted in individualistic traditions, participants endorsed more {{in|than?}} open displays of grief-related emotions such as sadness and anger, reflecting the cultural priority of authenticity and personal coping. These emotional display behaviours were seen as aligning with the belief that expressing one’s inner state is important for psychological well-being and social authenticity. These emotional display behaviours were seen as aligning with the belief that expressing one’s inner state is important for psychological well-being and social authenticity. The individualistic cultural framework supports bereaved individuals in communicating their grief outwardly as a way of processing loss and affirming personal identity. Thus, grief in individualistic cultures is closely tied to ideals of openness, individuality, and emotional honesty.

[[File:A Hindu funeral procession in India in the 1880s.JPG|thumb|Figure 2. A Hindu funeral procession in India in the 1880s|300x300px]]

=== Collectivist cultures ===
In collectivistic cultures, grieving is shaped by values of social harmony, interdependence, and relational responsibility, which often result in more restrained emotional expression. Zhou et al. (2023) found that individuals in collectivistic societies were more likely to regulate or suppress grief-related displays in order to avoid burdening others and to maintain group cohesion. Within situated {{g}} the collectivistic framework of Chinese culture, it was reported there is greater regulation and suppression of grief displays, with restraint serving to protect family dignity and maintain social harmony. Rather than prioritising personal authenticity, emotional display rules in these contexts emphasised appropriateness, situational sensitivity, and consideration of the collective. Grief was therefore less about individual expression and more about fulfilling social obligations, protecting family dignity, and ensuring that emotions did not disrupt the broader community. This approach highlights how collectivistic cultures frame grieving as a shared social process in which self-restraint and relational attunement are seen as signs of respect and maturity.

== Why is this topic important? ==
As mentioned previously, grief is {{missing}} strong emotional response that is likely to effect any one person over the span of their life. Grief can cause significant emotional pain and is expected to have short-term impact on the individual's day-to-day and, depending on the intensity, may require sustained support and counsel from friends, family, and professionals. 

Psychological science and research can assist in curating a more informed and valid approach to cross-cultural grief work in these professional and personal fields. Having greater awareness of cultural differences can increase diversity awareness and sensitivity, creating more empathetic, responsible and effective healthcare professionals (Aeschlimann et al., 2024). This is especially relevant to the psychotherapy field, where clients can potentially share emotional and practical difficulties surrounding bereavement which, considering the strong emotional function of grief, is an reasonable expectation for the therapy. Furthermore, greater cultural sensitivity surrounding emotionally vulnerable experience such as grief, can allow for increased social awareness and improve relationships in personal and communal lives. Psychological science can assist this by gathering by conducting interviews, surveys, and observational studies of different cultures and their process of grieving and bereaving.

==Conclusion==
Grief is a universal human experience, yet the way it is expressed and managed is deeply shaped by cultural values, traditions, and norms. Grief is a sorrowful emotion that can manifest in symptoms and behaviours such as fatigue, social withdrawal, appetite change and loss of interest in life. Hofstede's cultural dimensions model is an empirically supported tool to conduct cross-psychological research. The most often cited dimension from this theory is individualism vs collectivism. By merging general knowledge of the practices, norms, and reactions of grief with this dimension, a greater understanding of cultural differences during bereavement can be had. While individualistic cultures, such as Switzerland, often encourage open emotional expression as a form of authenticity and personal coping, collectivistic cultures, such as China, emphasise emotional restraint to preserve harmony, respect, and family dignity. Recognising these differences holds significant implications for psychology and allied disciplines, particularly in the development of culturally sensitive models of grief and bereavement support. Greater cross-cultural awareness not only enriches theoretical understandings of grief but also enhances the capacity of practitioners to provide appropriate and empathetic care. In this way, culture serves as both a lens through which grief is experienced and a framework that determines the pathways through which adaptation and healing can occur.

==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Grief|Grief]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Hofstede's dimensions of cultural value and motivation|Hofstede's dimensions of cultural value and motivation]] (Book chapter, 2013)
* [[w:Culture|Culture]] (Wikipedia)
* [[w:Grief|Grief]] (Wikipedia)
* [[wikipedia:Mourning|Mourning]] (Wikipedia)
==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Aeschlimann, A., Heim, E., Killikelly, C., Arafa, M., &amp; Maercker, A. (2024). Culturally sensitive grief treatment and support: A scoping review. SSM - Mental Health, 5, Article 100325. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssmmh.2024.100325

Árnason, A. (2007). “Fall apart and put yourself together again”: the anthropology of death and bereavement counselling in Britain. Mortality, 12(1), 48–65. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1080/13576270601088335

Bandini, J. (2015). The Medicalization of Bereavement: (Ab)normal Grief in the DSM-5. Death Studies, 39(6), 347–352. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1080/07481187.2014.951498

Beugelsdijk, S., &amp; Welzel, C. (2018). Dimensions and Dynamics of National Culture: Synthesizing Hofstede With Inglehart. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 49(10), 1469–1505. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022118798505

Corr, C. A. (2015). Let’s Stop “Staging” Persons Who Are Coping With Loss. Illness, Crisis &amp; Loss, 23(3), 226-241. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1177/1054137315585423 (Original work published 2015)

Daniel, T. (2025). The Stubborn Persistence of Grief Stage Theory. Omega: Journal of Death &amp; Dying, 91(3), 1140–1154. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1177/00302228221149801

Dulberg, Z., Dubey, R., &amp; Cohen, J. D. (2025). Adapting to loss: A computational model of grief. Psychological Review. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1037/rev0000567

Hilberdink, C. E., Ghainder, K., Dubanchet, A., Hinton, D., Djelantik, A. A. A. M. J., Hall, B. J., &amp; Bui, E. (2023). Bereavement issues and prolonged grief disorder: A global perspective. Cambridge Prisms: Global Mental Health, 10, e32. https://doi:10.1017/gmh.2023.28

Pearce, C., &amp; Komaromy, C. (2022). Recovering the body in grief: Physical absence and embodied presence. Health (London, England : 1997), 26(4), Article 1363459320931914. https://doi.org/10.1177/1363459320931914

Roy, D. (2020). Formulation of Hofstede’s Global Cultural Dimension Index (HGCDI): A cross-country study. Journal of Transnational Management, 25(3), 195–224. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1080/15475778.2020.176571

Shimkhada, D. Death: Never Done Grieving. DHARM 6, 195–205 (2023). https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1007/s42240-023-00156-7

Sigelman, C., George, L. d., &amp; Cunial, K. (2018). Life Span Human Development. Cengage. http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/canberra/detail.action?docID=5723228 

Silverman, G. S., Baroiller, A., &amp; Hemer, S. R. (2021). Culture and grief: Ethnographic perspectives on ritual, relationships and remembering. Death Studies, 45(1), 1–8. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1080/07481187.2020.1851885

Stroebe, M., Schut, H., &amp; Boerner, K. (2017). Cautioning Health-Care Professionals. Omega (Westport), 74(4), 455-473. https://doi.org/10.1177/0030222817691870 

Stroebe, M., &amp; Schut, H. (1999). The dual process model of coping with bereavement: rationale and description. Death Studies, 23(3), 197-224. https://research.ebsco.com/linkprocessor/plink?id=f329978a-45ff-30c8-8ffb-7ff9f44f5a93 

Szuhany, K. L., Malgaroli, M., Miron, C. D., &amp; Simon, N. M. (2021). Prolonged Grief Disorder: Course, Diagnosis, Assessment, and Treatment. Focus, 19(2), 161-172. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.focus.20200052 

Xu, X., Wen, J., Qian, W., Zhou, N., &amp; Jiang, W. (2024). Living with grief and thriving after loss: a qualitative study of Chinese parents whose only child has died. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 15(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2024.2418767

Żemojtel-Piotrowska, M., &amp; Piotrowski, J. (2023). Hofstede’s cultural dimensions theory. In Encyclopedia of sexual psychology and behavior (pp. 1-4). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-08956-5_1124-1

Zhou, N., Smith, K. V., Stelzer, E., Maercker, A., Xi, J., &amp; Killikelly, C. (2023). How the bereaved behave: a cross-cultural study of emotional display behaviours and rules. Cognition and Emotion, 37(5), 1023–1039. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2023.2219046

}}
==External links==
* [https://www.grief.org.au/ga/Content/Information-Sheets/About-Grief.aspx?WebsiteKey=9af4e8a8-8d75-4439-b2f8-b00b7b41ff21#:~:text=Privately%20and%20personally,a%20routine%2C%20especially%20around%20bedtime. About Grief] (Grief Australia)
* [https://whatsyourgrief.com/bowlby-four-stages-of-grief/ Before the Five Stages: Bowlby's FOUR Stages of Grief] (What's your grief?)
* [https://www.uclahealth.org/news/article/how-does-grief-affect-your-body How does grief affect your body?] (UCLA Health)
* [https://whatsyourgrief.com/randos-six-r-processes-of-mourning/ Rando's Six R Processes of Mourning] (What's your grief?)
* [https://www.cancercouncil.com.au/cancer-information/advanced-cancer/grief/what-is-grief/ What is grief?] (Cancer Council)
* [https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/24787-grief What is grief? Types, symptoms &amp; How To Cope] (Cleveland Clinic)
* [https://whatsyourgrief.com/wordens-four-tasks-of-mourning/?_gl=1*y4kjsh*_gcl_au*MTIyNjY3MTg4MS4xNzU5NDkyNDcy*_ga*MTY3NzUxODQyNi4xNzU5NDkyNDcy*_ga_66D568ZWWL*czE3NTk0OTI0NzIkbzEkZzEkdDE3NTk0OTI1NDAkajYwJGwwJGgw Worden's Four Tasks of Mourning] (What's your grief?)

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Culture]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Grief]]</text>
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== Overview ==
__TOC__
{{robelbox|theme=3|title=Case study: Meet Olivia}}
  &lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;

Olivia was 39 years old and struggled with feeling lonely. She found it hard to connect with others and had never had any long-term friendships or romantic relationships in her life. That was, until she met Oliver. Oliver has red hair, freckles and big wire framed glasses. He has a Scottish accent and describes her as “My one forever love, she is fiercely creative with galaxies in her heart and fire in her veins.” After meeting Oliver, Olivia was finally able to open up to someone. She now has a true companion, someone who will be there to confide in, and never leave her wondering about their true feelings or intentions. Life took on a new spark, and she no longer felt so lonely.

Sounds perfect, doesn’t it? Well, what if I told you that Oliver was an AI companion? That he was created by Olivia in the AI app [[wikipedia:Replika|Replika]]? Do you still believe he truly reduces her loneliness?
&lt;/div&gt;
  {{Robelbox/close}}

[[wikipedia:Loneliness|Loneliness]] is characterised as a feeling of emotional distress that results from a perceived discrepancy between an individual's actual and desired level of social connection and companionship (Badcock et al., 2022; American Psychological Association [APA], 2018). People of all ages will experience loneliness throughout their life, {{g}} this common feeling can become problematic when it starts to become constant and overwhelming, leading to a state of chronic loneliness (de Freitas et al., 2025). In 2023, the U.S. Surgeon General Dr. Vivek Murthy linked the health impacts of chronic loneliness similar to those caused by smoking up to 15 cigarettes a day (Office of the Surgeon General [OSG], 2023). It has also been linked to an overwhelming number of mental and physical health problems, resulting in reduced quality of life and life expectancy (Yang et al., 2025). The growth in people experiencing loneliness grew rapidly during the [[wikipedia:COVID-19_pandemic|COVID-19 pandemic]] and remains at epidemic levels (Dunn, 2024; Einav and Margalit, 2023). The urgent need for accessible and effective solutions has become increasingly important.   

A promising avenue to reducing loneliness has come to light through the recent rapid growth of [[wikipedia:Artificial_intelligence|artificial intelligence]] (AI) systems. Coined in 1954, AI is machine technology that can simulate human cognitions and emotions such as learning, comprehension, problem solving, empathy, creativity and autonomy (Mariani et al., 2023; Stryker and Kavlakoglu, 2024). AI is now used in a wide range of industries such as retail, tourism, media and healthcare (Mariani et al., 2023). A specific form of AI that researchers in healthcare have become increasingly interested in is AI companions. AI companions come in various forms such as virtual humans, social robots, voice assistants and chatbot apps (Chaturvedi et al., 2024). They have been shown to reduce loneliness, but they are not without risk.

This chapter examines scientific literature and research, showing how AI companions can be effective in reducing loneliness by increasing social connection, offering emotional support, and fostering a sense of companionship. These findings will be applied to the underlying psychological theories of [[wikipedia:Anthropomorphism|anthropomorphism]] and the [[wikipedia:Belongingness|belongingness]] hypothesis. Furthermore, it addresses the limitations of using AI companions to reduce loneliness and directions for future research.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Focus questions''' 
[[File:Question mark 3d.png|70px|right|Question_mark_3d]]
* Why do we experience the emotion of loneliness?
* What is an AI companion?
* In what ways might AI companionship influence feelings of loneliness?
* What psychological theories explain why AI might reduce loneliness?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Understanding loneliness==
[[File:Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs2.svg|thumb|355px|'''Figure 2.''' Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs]]

Loneliness is a complex [[wikipedia:Emotion|emotion]] that can arise as a response to significant life events. According to Reeve (2018), emotions do not occur randomly; they are intrinsic brain processes that serve as motivational states that direct our attention and behaviour toward functional adaption. For loneliness, this adaption would include the motivation to seek out social connections. 

[[wikipedia:Social_connection|Social connection]] is the psychological experience of belonging to a social relationship or network, {{g}} this connection supports an individual's ability to cope with adversity and challenges (Lee and Robbins, 1995). These connections and the feeling of belongingness are seen as basic psychological needs in many influential theories, such as Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (1943) (see Figure 2), Baumeister and Leary's (1995) belongingness hypothesis and relatedness in self-determination theory ({{f}}1985). 

Panksepp's (1998) biological perspective also stresses the importance of social connections among social animals. He states that loneliness is a type of persistent emotional pain that evolved early in all mammals to inform about the status of their social environment and to help create social bonds, which are inherent to survival and evolution. 

It is emphasised that having these social needs unmet result in ill-being, severe emotional distress and lower life satisfaction (Baumeister and Leary, 1995; Burton et al., 2012). Recently, the COVID-19 pandemic intensified concerns about loneliness, with levels reported to have worsened across all age groups, underscoring the importance of developing strategies to address this widespread issue (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare [AIHW], 2025).

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Reflect:''' [[File:Silver square.svg|alt=Silver_square|right|80px|]]
What do you do when you feel lonely? 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== The introduction of AI companions ==
Intelligent machines were first introduced to society during the second world war when the [[wikipedia:Bombe|Bombe]] machine was created, {{g}} it was able to decipher German Enigma messages, a task previously impossible to any human (Haenlein and Kaplan, 2019). Since then, there has been steady growth in computer intelligence, otherwise known as AI. 

[[File:Tamagotchi 0124 ubt.jpeg|thumb|250px|'''Figure 3.''' Tamagotchi, a popular handheld digital pet.]]

The first wave of AI companions were introduced in the mid 1990s in the form of digital pets, therapeutic robots, and information consoles (see Figure 3; Chaturvedi et al., 2023). There was then a shift in the early 2010's where the breakthrough of virtual assistants such as Apple's [[wikipedia:Siri|Siri]] and Amazon's [[wikipedia:Amazon_Alexa|Alexa]] entered the market, designed to assist users with digital tasks. The third shift in the evolution of AI companions saw the introduction of [[wikipedia:Affective_computing|affective computing]]aiming to give computers emotional intelligence, allowing them to simulate empathy and recognise and respond to human emotions. These human-like, conversational and empathetic AI systems allow humans to interact with computers using text, voice and video, much like Oliver in the opening case-study (Olawade et al., 2024).

There is not a singular agreed upon definition for AI companions but they are broadly understood as “robots or virtual conversational agents that possess a certain level of intelligence and autonomy as well as social skills, allowing them to establish and maintain long-term relationships with users” (Lim, 2012, p. 242). They are customisable; their name, personality, background, and, in some cases, avatar and voice are set by the user (Pentina et al., 2023). This was once seen as dystopian and far fetched, portrayed in popular sci-fi movies such as Spielberg's 2001 film ''[[wikipedia:A.I._Artificial_Intelligence|AI: Artificial Intelligence]]'' and, more commonly known, the 2013 film, ''[[wikipedia:Her_(2013_film)|Her]]''. The underlying ideology of these films has now become a reality where people are forming long term, emotional relationships with AI.

== Using AI companions to combat loneliness ==
In modern society where feelings of loneliness are at an all time high{{f}}, the potential value of AI companionship is growing. Studies over the past 15 years have investigated the effectiveness of different types of AI companions in a range of populations and demographics. These results are explored below. 

=== Robots and voice assistants ===
AI companion robots have most commonly been used in research for reducing loneliness among older people. This may be because loneliness and social isolation increase with old age, in particular, for people living with dementia and other neurodegenerative disorders (Pu et al., 2019). Another reason for this focus may be due to the accessibility and acceptance of the robots, many communicate primarily through body language and sounds, such as cooing or purring. This non-verbal communication style makes them accessible to individuals regardless of their language skills or cognitive abilities. Moreover, the consistent positive responses offer a sense of unconditional acceptance (Dinesen et al., 2022; Hung et al., 2025).

The [[wikipedia:Paro_(robot)|Paro]] companion robot was utilised in a randomised controlled trial undertaken in 2013 by Robinson et al. Paro is a fluffy white baby seal robot that weighs around 2kg, it responds to sight, sound and touch in its environment by moving or imitating the noises of a baby harp seal. In this trial {{g}} 40 residents in a New Zealand hospital and rest home care were recruited and randomized to either the robot intervention group or a control group, for 1 hour sessions twice a week, over 12 weeks. Results from the study showed that residents who interacted with the robot had significant decreases in loneliness over the period of the trial.


Similarly, Canadian researchers investigated the effects of the companion robot  [[wikipedia:Companion_robot#LOVOT|LOVOT]] (see figure 4) on older people living in long term care. LOVOT is a mobile companion robot that responds to emotional cues, such as facial expressions, behavioural movements, sounds and touch (Hung et al., 2025). LOVOT uses machine learning algorithms to develops its own personality over time with the purpose of creating joy in the user. The study included four weekly 30-45 minute interaction sessions with 36 care home residents and 2 LOVOT. The pre-post test design yielded positive results of increased social connection and wellbeing in residents helping to reduce feelings of loneliness and isolation (Hung et al., 2025).

The effectiveness of voice assistant AI companions has also been researched among the aging population and shows promising results. Jones et al. (2021) explored how loneliness in adults aged 75+ living alone could be influenced by interactions with a personal voice assistant (PVA). 16 participants received an Amazon [[wikipedia:Amazon_Echo|Echo]] device installed in their homes and were instructed to interact with it at least five times per day across an 8 week study period. Loneliness was assessed using a self-report measure immediately before the intervention and again after 4 weeks. Findings revealed a significant reduction in perceived loneliness within the first 4 weeks of use, suggesting that regular engagement with PVAs may create a sense of companionship in older adults who are otherwise socially isolated.   

Together, these studies demonstrate the potential of both companion robots and voice assistants to reduce loneliness, particularly among older adults experiencing high levels of social isolation.   

=== Apps and chatbots ===
The better known, more widely recognised form of  AI companions are the ones behind a screen: Apps and chatbots. There are both specifically designed apps and chatbot platforms for virtual companionship and others are generalist, such as OpenAI’s [[wikipedia:ChatGPT|ChatGPT]]. These platforms have text, image and voice capabilities, and Replika even has an augmented reality feature where users can project their companion in the room with them (Malfacini, 2025). As of August 2025, the most popular AI companion platform was [[wikipedia:Character.ai|charcter.ai]] which boasts more than 20 million monthly active users who, on average, spend 75 minutes a day chatting with a bot (Kia, 2025).

Research focussing on companion apps and chatbots provide results involving younger populations, {{g}} this may be because younger people are constantly surrounded by all different devices and media platforms, being on their phones now more than ever. A 2025 report found that the majority of visitors to AI companion platforms are between 18 and 24 years old (Kia, 2025). Research in this age group aiming to determine if AI companion apps and chatbots reduce loneliness has produced mixed findings.

[[File:Woman_holding_AI_companion_inside_phone.png|thumb|220px|'''Figure 5.''' A woman with her virtual AI companion ]]

Kim et al. (2025) found significant reductions in loneliness among 178 university students in just 2 weeks from engaging with South Korean virtual chatbot, &quot;Luda Lee&quot;. Similarly, De Freitas et al. (2025) found interacting with a virtual AI companion improved loneliness levels in less than a week, with effects comparable to interacting with another person. Participants were also questioned about their opinion of the usefulness of these bots in preventing their feelings of loneliness, {{g}} they responded positively with 75% suggesting that the AI companionship is useful in the fight against isolation and loneliness. These positive results were also found in Ta et al.'s (2020) thematic analysis of over 1,500 user reviews on Replika, showing that AI companionship apps and chatbots are a real tool to reduce loneliness.

However, not all evidence is positive; Fang et al. (2025) reported that prolonged, highly personal use of AI chatbots was correlated with higher loneliness and more emotional dependence over time. Similarly {{g}} Stojkovski (2025) has theorised that AI companions could contribute to more human isolation, causing an increase in loneliness and introducing a new type of loneliness.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Case study revisited:'''

Olivia now feels more comfortable in her AI relationship and wants to connect with other similar couples. She joins a popular Reddit group [https://www.reddit.com/r/MyBoyfriendIsAI/ r/MyBoyfriendIsAI] and finds an overwhelming amount of posts where users are claiming their AI partner/ /friend has cured their loneliness. {{g}} Some going so far as to saying they would not be alive if it weren't for their AI companion. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Theoretical underpinnings ==
AI companions have been shown to reduce loneliness across diverse populations, but understanding how they do so requires digging deeper and examining the theoretical perspectives that explain the psychological mechanisms underpinning these interactions. Two particularly relevant theories include anthropomorphism and the belongingness hypothesis which can help explain why interactions with AI companions can reduce feelings of loneliness.

[[File:Pet_cat_Stormi.jpg|thumb|200px|'''Figure 6.''' Pet cat Stormi]]

=== Anthropomorphism ===
Anthropomorphism is the attribution of human characteristics such as emotions, personalities, and motivations to non-humans such as robots (Epley et al., 2007). This cognitive process allows people to interpret and interact with objects, animals and technology as though they possess human cognitions. A common example is speaking to a pet as if they are human, such as apologising when getting home late from work (Bouma et al., 2023) (see figure 6). While this behaviour is often light hearted, research shows that anthropomorphism fulfils deeper psychological needs, including companionship, belonging, and emotional connection (Waytz et al., 2010).

Anthropomorphism has been strongly observed in peoples{{g}} interactions with technology, but is particularly salient for AI, where human-like traits and interactions are expertly simulated (Blut et al., 2021). These human-like traits make AI feel more 'alive', encouraging users to treat them as human instead of a tool. Anthropomorphism often happens unconsciously and has lead people to form genuine emotional attachments with AI, forming a perceived sense of connection, reducing loneliness (Lee et al., 2025). Lee et al. (2025) observed this phenomenon in their study where many participants who interacted with AI robots often described them using familial or social terms such as “friend” or “granddaughter”, resulting in deeper emotional engagement and stronger loneliness reduction.   

Jones et al. (2021) shared an interesting perspective whereby individuals who were more lonely tended to anthropomorphise their voice assistants to a higher degree, as they had more of a desire to make social connections.    

The process of anthropomorphism becomes easier and more likely when users feel a sense of familiarity, control and personalisation. Customisable systems such as AI chatbots with selectable voices, avatars, and personalities (e.g., Replika or character.ai), make it easier for users to perceive them as authentic social connections, in contrast to a physical robot such as LOVOT (Petina et al., 2023). Strohmann et al. (2021) suggests that by incorporating human-like appearance, voice, and behaviour, these technologies enhance the user’s sense of social presence, leading to more fulfilling interactions.  

Overall, anthropomorphism is an important driver of the benefits of AI companionship, tapping into the same cognitive and emotional processes that drive human bonding. The more a user anthropomorphises their AI companion, the greater the loneliness reduction benefits will be.  

=== Belongingness hypothesis ===
The Belongingness hypothesis (Baumeister and Leary, 1995) also provides an important perspective on how AI companionship reduces loneliness. The theory suggests that humans have the fundamental psychological need to form and maintain close and meaningful relationships, and when this need is unmet, feelings of distress and loneliness arise. AI companions, particularly when anthropomorphised, can help fulfil this need by simulating human-like interactions that provide users with a sense of belonging. 

For belongingness to be fully satisfied, interpersonal relationships must be enduring and positive. Involving reciprocal behaviour, depth and breadth of self-disclosure, and a stable sense of emotional commitment that fosters mutual care and understanding (Baumeister and Leary, 1995; Strohmann et al., 2022). AI companions, especially apps and chatbots are able to support these aspects of belonging because they are specifically designed to build long-term relationships with their users. Through extended, personalised interactions, these platforms offer emotional connection, communication, and social support, satisfying key elements of belongingness (Strohmann et al., 2022).

A key factor to reducing loneliness is the quality of these relationships users have with their AI companions. Studies have shown that higher degrees of self-disclosure and emotionally open conversations are directly linked to the effectiveness of an AI companions ability to reduce loneliness. For example, de Freitas et al. (2025) found that participants who engaged in more personal and emotionally open conversations with their chatbot experienced the fastest and highest reductions in loneliness. Similarly, Ta et al. (2020) reported that users who discussed deep emotional topics, such as trauma or anxiety, felt less lonely and more supported than those who interacted with the AI casually. 

By simulating the depth and responsiveness of close human relationships, AI companions are able to provide users with meaningful exchanges. These exchanges reinforce the user’s sense of mutual connection, thereby activating the belongingness mechanism, reducing loneliness (Strohmann et al., 2022).

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Quiz yourself!'''
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Loneliness is a result of a perceived discrepancy between an individual's actual and desired level of social connection and companionship:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Anthropomorphism is the study of humans morphing into technology:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Conclusion==
AI companions are effective in reducing loneliness by increasing social connection, offering emotional support, and fostering a sense of companionship. They achieve this through the underlying psychological mechanisms of anthropomorphism and the belongingness hypothesis, which show how people attribute human-like traits and cognitions to non-humans, and by simulating positive human-like interactions, they provide users with a sense of belonging. They are particularly valuable in contexts where human interaction is limited, such as for older adults in long-term care or individuals experiencing social isolation.  

However, while the short-term benefits of AI companionship are promising, there are important limitations and risks to consider. Overreliance on AI companions can lead to reduced engagement with human relationships and, in some cases, exacerbate feelings of loneliness or emotional dependence. Ethical considerations such as privacy, consent, accessibility, and affordability must also be carefully addressed, as these technologies could unintentionally exploit vulnerable users or create inequities in who can benefit from them. Furthermore, AI companions are not a perfect replacement for human connection.

The field of research in AI companionship is still steadily growing, and much remains unknown about the long-term effectiveness and psychological impact of these technologies. Future research is essential, especially in younger age groups who may be more at risk of coercion or ill effects.

==See also==
* [[wikipedia:Artificial_intelligence|Artificial intelligence]] (Wikipedia)
* [[wikipedia:Loneliness|Loneliness]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Motivation for using AI companions|Motivation for using AI companions]] (Book chapter, 2025)

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{{Hanging indent|1= 
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}}

==External links==
* [https://www.medicarementalhealth.gov.au/living-well/understanding-loneliness Understanding feelings of loneliness] (Medicare)
* [https://www.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/surgeon-general-social-connection-advisory.pdf Our epidemic of loneliness and isolation] (U.S Surgeon General)
* [https://www.abc.net.au/news/2025-08-20/ai-companions-romantic-relationships-ethical-concerns/105673058 Hayley and her AI companion Miles have been together for four years] (ABC News)
* [https://www.unsw.edu.au/news/2023/11/meet-viv--an-ai-character-fostering-companionship-for-people-wit ''Viv and Friends'' research project] (UNSW, 2023)

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Artificial intelligence]]
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__TOC__
== Overview ==
Occupational violence (OV) is a significant challenge in modern workplaces, affecting employees’ physical, emotional, and psychological well-being. While OV can occur in any industry, employees in direct face-to-face roles such as healthcare, customer service, and aged care face disproportionate exposure to intimidating, aggressive, and hostile behaviours from clients and patients [https://pmc-ncbi-nlm-nih-gov.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/articles/PMC4565636/ (Alameddine et al., 2015).]{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:NounProject Abuse (38107).svg|thumb|'''Figure 1:''' an example of someone being verbally abused.]]

;Scenario

Emma is a 21-year-old person of colour who works in aged care. She has been working at a residential facility for the last six month. During a busy evening shift, a resident becomes frustrated about delay in care and begins shouting at Emma in front of other stuff and residents. The resident calls Emma names, incompetent, racial slurs, points fingers at her, and threatens to make s formal complaint to have her fired. Although the situation is eventually de-escalated by her supervisor, Emma feels shaken for the rest of her shift.  

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
* What is the definition of occupational violence (OV), why is it an important workplace and psychological issue.
* The relationship between OV and:
# emotional wellbeing 
# psychological distress
# motivation 
# job satisfaction
# coping 

* This chapter looks at both the employee experience and the organisational responses. 

{{RoundBoxTop}}

;Focus questions

{{ic|Add bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}}

What is OV, what form can it take and what are the risk factors? {{ic|This is too many questions in one; revise}}

what are the emotional and and psychological impacts of OV?

how can employee cope with experiences of OV.{{g}}

How can organisations prefect{{g}} OV and support employees who are affected?

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Understanding Occupational Violence ==
{{ic|Embed links to related Wikipedia articles or book chapters}}

* What is occupational violence{{g}}

# Defining OV according to search such as...
# Difference between very obvious OV and micro OV (e.g. micro violence)
# OV can be a single incident or repeated behaviour

* Forms of occupational violence

# verbal violence: threats, verbal abuse and intimidation
# Bullying and harassment: repeated harmful behaviour, such as physical assaults, aggression an intimidating behaviour
# Discrimination and exclusion: unfair treatment, favouritism, and social isolation
# Sexual violence/harassment: unwanted touches or advances, non-consensual sexual behaviour or conduct.

* What are the risks of occupational violence{{g}}

# OV can result from multiple individual, social and organisational factors{{vague}}.
# Workplace culture can either increase or reduce risks.
# Some employees can be more vulnerable to discrimination and harassment because of race, sick colour, cultural background, sexual orientation, gender and poor management.

== Emotional and Psychological Impacts of OV ==

{{ic|citations needed to theory and research}}

* Emotional impacts: employees who are victims of OV may experience emotional responses such as:

# Fear and anxiety,
# Anger and frustration
# Sadness
# Humiliation
# Shame
# Emotional exhaustion

* Mental well-being: victims of OV may also experience:

# Increased psychological distress
# Increased stress
# Feeling of helplessness and reduces psychological safety
# Long-term psychological effects following repeated exposure.

* Motivation and job satisfaction:

# Reduced motivation
# Reduced workplace engagement
# Lower job satisfaction
# Reduced sense of belonging

== Coping With Occupations Violence ==

{{ic|citations needed to theory and research}}

* Individual coping strategies and [[social support]] {{ic|A better link is probably [[w:Social support|social support]] or possibly one of the chapters listed here: [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Social support]]}}

# Problem-focused coping
# Emotional-focused coping such as seeking professional help outside of work.
# Seeking support from friends, family and trusted colleagues
# Developing strategies to manage workplace stress
# If available, accessing an employee assistance program

* Reporting and organisation support

* Reporting incidents to supervisors/management
* Workplace counselling and support services

== Preventing OV and Supporting Employees ==
{{ic|citations needed to theory and research}}

* Preventions

# Clear workplace policies and procedures
# Staff straining 
# Risk assessment 
# Appropriate supervision and staffing 
# Clear expectations around acceptable behaviour and explicitly outlined punishment for unacceptable behaviour. 
# Effective reporting systems. 

* Supporting employees  

# immediate support following an incident and preventing repeated exposure 
# counselling or employee assistance program for those affected. 
# Follow-up with effected employees and provide appropriate workplace adjustments

== Conclusion ==

* Summering{{sp}} the relationship between: 

# Occupational violence 
# Emotional violence
# Psychological wellbeing 
# Motivation 
# Job satisfaction 
# Coping 

* The importance of organisational responsibility. 
* There is need for prevention, support and effective coping strategies. 

== See also ==

# [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Occupational violence, emotion, and coping for educators|Occupational Violence]] (Book chapter, 2024)
# [[wikipedia:Workplace_violence|Workplace Violence]] (Wikipedia)
# [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Social support and emotion|Social support and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2019)

== References ==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Alameddine, M., Mourad, Y., &amp; Dimassi, H. (2015). A national study on nurses’ exposure to occupational violence in lebanon: Prevalence, consequences and associated factors. ''PLOS ONE'', ''10''(9), e0137105. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0137105

Bakes‐Denman, L., Mansfield, Y., &amp; Meehan, T. (2020). Supporting mental health staff following exposure to occupational violence – staff perceptions of ‘peer’ support. ''International Journal of Mental Health Nursing'', ''30''(1). https://doi.org/10.1111/inm.12767

Greys González-González, Darling Rebolledo-Ríos, Ximena Osorio-Spuler, Rudner, N., &amp; Constanza Peña-Barra. (2025). Violence against nurses: Personal and institutional coping strategies—A scoping review. ''Behavioral Sciences'', ''15''(9), 1166–1166. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15091166

Pariona-Cabrera, P., Bartram, T., Cavanagh, J., Halvorsen, B., Shao, B., &amp; Yang, F. (2023). The effects of workplace violence on the job stress of health care workers: Buffering effects of wellbeing HRM practices. ''International Journal of Human Resource Management'', ''35''(9), 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2023.2237876

Pihl-Thingvad, J., Elklit, A., Brandt, L. L. P., &amp; Andersen, L. L. (2019). Occupational violence and PTSD-symptoms. ''Journal of Occupational &amp; Environmental Medicine'', ''61''(7), 572–583. [https://www-jstor-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/stable/48510401 https://doi.org/10.1097/jom.0000000000001612]

Zhou, B., Marchand, A., &amp; Guay, S. (2017). I see so i feel: Coping with workplace violence among victims and witnesses. ''Work'', ''57''(1), 125–135. [[doi:10.3233/WOR-172538|https://doi.org/10.3233/wor-172538]]

}}

== External links ==

* [https://pmc-ncbi-nlm-nih-gov.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/articles/PMC4565636/ A National Study on Nurses’ Exposure to Occupational Violence in Lebanon: Prevalence, Consequences and Associated Factors] (2015)
* [https://www-jstor-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/stable/48510401?seq=1 Occupational Violence and PTSD-Symptoms: A Prospective Study on the Indirect Effects of Violence Through Time Pressure and Nontraumatic Strains in the Occupational Context] (2019)

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Coping]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Violence]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Work]]</text>
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__TOC__
== Overview ==
*dfghdhfgn 
*
*
* What is the definition of occupational violence (OV), why is it an important workplace and psychological issue.
* The relationship between OV and:
# emotional wellbeing 
# psychological distress
# motivation 
# job satisfaction
# coping 

* This chapter looks at both the employee experience and the organisational responses. 

{{RoundBoxTop}}

;Focus questions

{{ic|Add bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}}

What is OV, what form can it take and what are the risk factors? {{ic|This is too many questions in one; revise}}

what are the emotional and and psychological impacts of OV?

how can employee cope with experiences of OV.{{g}}

How can organisations prefect{{g}} OV and support employees who are affected?

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Understanding Occupational Violence ==
{{ic|Embed links to related Wikipedia articles or book chapters}}

* What is occupational violence{{g}}

# Defining OV according to search such as...
# Difference between very obvious OV and micro OV (e.g. micro violence)
# OV can be a single incident or repeated behaviour

* Forms of occupational violence

# verbal violence: threats, verbal abuse and intimidation
# Bullying and harassment: repeated harmful behaviour, such as physical assaults, aggression an intimidating behaviour
# Discrimination and exclusion: unfair treatment, favouritism, and social isolation
# Sexual violence/harassment: unwanted touches or advances, non-consensual sexual behaviour or conduct.

* What are the risks of occupational violence{{g}}

# OV can result from multiple individual, social and organisational factors{{vague}}.
# Workplace culture can either increase or reduce risks.
# Some employees can be more vulnerable to discrimination and harassment because of race, sick colour, cultural background, sexual orientation, gender and poor management.

== Emotional and Psychological Impacts of OV ==

{{ic|citations needed to theory and research}}

* Emotional impacts: employees who are victims of OV may experience emotional responses such as:

# Fear and anxiety,
# Anger and frustration
# Sadness
# Humiliation
# Shame
# Emotional exhaustion

* Mental well-being: victims of OV may also experience:

# Increased psychological distress
# Increased stress
# Feeling of helplessness and reduces psychological safety
# Long-term psychological effects following repeated exposure.

* Motivation and job satisfaction:

# Reduced motivation
# Reduced workplace engagement
# Lower job satisfaction
# Reduced sense of belonging

== Coping With Occupations Violence ==

{{ic|citations needed to theory and research}}

* Individual coping strategies and [[social support]] {{ic|A better link is probably [[w:Social support|social support]] or possibly one of the chapters listed here: [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Social support]]}}

# Problem-focused coping
# Emotional-focused coping such as seeking professional help outside of work.
# Seeking support from friends, family and trusted colleagues
# Developing strategies to manage workplace stress
# If available, accessing an employee assistance program

* Reporting and organisation support

* Reporting incidents to supervisors/management
* Workplace counselling and support services

== Preventing OV and Supporting Employees ==
{{ic|citations needed to theory and research}}

* Preventions

# Clear workplace policies and procedures
# Staff straining 
# Risk assessment 
# Appropriate supervision and staffing 
# Clear expectations around acceptable behaviour and explicitly outlined punishment for unacceptable behaviour. 
# Effective reporting systems. 

* Supporting employees  

# immediate support following an incident and preventing repeated exposure 
# counselling or employee assistance program for those affected. 
# Follow-up with effected employees and provide appropriate workplace adjustments

== Conclusion ==

* Summering{{sp}} the relationship between: 

# Occupational violence 
# Emotional violence
# Psychological wellbeing 
# Motivation 
# Job satisfaction 
# Coping 

* The importance of organisational responsibility. 
* There is need for prevention, support and effective coping strategies. 

== See also ==

# [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Occupational violence, emotion, and coping for educators|Occupational Violence]] (Book chapter, 2024)
# [[wikipedia:Workplace_violence|Workplace Violence]] (Wikipedia)
# [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Social support and emotion|Social support and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2019)

== References ==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Alameddine, M., Mourad, Y., &amp; Dimassi, H. (2015). A national study on nurses’ exposure to occupational violence in lebanon: Prevalence, consequences and associated factors. ''PLOS ONE'', ''10''(9), e0137105. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0137105

Bakes‐Denman, L., Mansfield, Y., &amp; Meehan, T. (2020). Supporting mental health staff following exposure to occupational violence – staff perceptions of ‘peer’ support. ''International Journal of Mental Health Nursing'', ''30''(1). https://doi.org/10.1111/inm.12767

Greys González-González, Darling Rebolledo-Ríos, Ximena Osorio-Spuler, Rudner, N., &amp; Constanza Peña-Barra. (2025). Violence against nurses: Personal and institutional coping strategies—A scoping review. ''Behavioral Sciences'', ''15''(9), 1166–1166. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15091166

Pariona-Cabrera, P., Bartram, T., Cavanagh, J., Halvorsen, B., Shao, B., &amp; Yang, F. (2023). The effects of workplace violence on the job stress of health care workers: Buffering effects of wellbeing HRM practices. ''International Journal of Human Resource Management'', ''35''(9), 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2023.2237876

Pihl-Thingvad, J., Elklit, A., Brandt, L. L. P., &amp; Andersen, L. L. (2019). Occupational violence and PTSD-symptoms. ''Journal of Occupational &amp; Environmental Medicine'', ''61''(7), 572–583. [https://www-jstor-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/stable/48510401 https://doi.org/10.1097/jom.0000000000001612]

Zhou, B., Marchand, A., &amp; Guay, S. (2017). I see so i feel: Coping with workplace violence among victims and witnesses. ''Work'', ''57''(1), 125–135. [[doi:10.3233/WOR-172538|https://doi.org/10.3233/wor-172538]]

}}

== External links ==

* [https://pmc-ncbi-nlm-nih-gov.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/articles/PMC4565636/ A National Study on Nurses’ Exposure to Occupational Violence in Lebanon: Prevalence, Consequences and Associated Factors] (2015)
* [https://www-jstor-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/stable/48510401?seq=1 Occupational Violence and PTSD-Symptoms: A Prospective Study on the Indirect Effects of Violence Through Time Pressure and Nontraumatic Strains in the Occupational Context] (2019)

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Coping]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Violence]]
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__TOC__
== Overview ==
Occupational violence (OV) is a significant challenge in modern workplaces, affecting employees’ physical, emotional, and psychological well-being. While OV can occur in any industry, employees working in direct face-to-face roles such as healthcare, customer service, and aged care are disproportionately exposed to intimidating, aggressive, and hostile behaviours from clients and patients [https://pmc-ncbi-nlm-nih-gov.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/articles/PMC4565636/ (Alameddine et al., 2015).] 

OV is not an isolated social issue. It is a complex, systemic problem rooted in broader organisational culture, social power dynamics, and individual psychological health. Exposure to OV can severely impact a worker's emotional stability, decrease job satisfaction, reduce motivation, and trigger severe psychological distress, including burnout and symptoms of post-traumatic stress [https://www-jstor-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/stable/48510401?seq=1 (Pihl-Thingvad et al., 2019).]
{{RoundBoxTop}}
Emma is a 21-year-old person of colour who works in aged care. She has been working at a residential facility for the last six months. During a busy evening shift, a resident becomes frustrated by a delay in care and starts shouting at Emma in front of other staff and residents. The resident calls Emma names, including incompetent and racial slurs, points fingers at her, and threatens to make a formal complaint to have her fired. Although the situation is eventually de-escalated by her supervisor, Emma feels shaken for the rest of her shift.  

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
* What is the definition of occupational violence (OV), why is it an important workplace and psychological issue.
* The relationship between OV and:
# emotional wellbeing 
# psychological distress
# motivation 
# job satisfaction
# coping 

* This chapter looks at both the employee experience and the organisational responses. 

{{RoundBoxTop}}

;Focus questions

{{ic|Add bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}}

What is OV, what form can it take and what are the risk factors? {{ic|This is too many questions in one; revise}}

what are the emotional and and psychological impacts of OV?

how can employee cope with experiences of OV.{{g}}

How can organisations prefect{{g}} OV and support employees who are affected?

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Understanding Occupational Violence ==
{{ic|Embed links to related Wikipedia articles or book chapters}}

* What is occupational violence{{g}}

# Defining OV according to search such as...
# Difference between very obvious OV and micro OV (e.g. micro violence)
# OV can be a single incident or repeated behaviour

* Forms of occupational violence

# verbal violence: threats, verbal abuse and intimidation
# Bullying and harassment: repeated harmful behaviour, such as physical assaults, aggression an intimidating behaviour
# Discrimination and exclusion: unfair treatment, favouritism, and social isolation
# Sexual violence/harassment: unwanted touches or advances, non-consensual sexual behaviour or conduct.

* What are the risks of occupational violence{{g}}

# OV can result from multiple individual, social and organisational factors{{vague}}.
# Workplace culture can either increase or reduce risks.
# Some employees can be more vulnerable to discrimination and harassment because of race, sick colour, cultural background, sexual orientation, gender and poor management.

== Emotional and Psychological Impacts of OV ==

{{ic|citations needed to theory and research}}

* Emotional impacts: employees who are victims of OV may experience emotional responses such as:

# Fear and anxiety,
# Anger and frustration
# Sadness
# Humiliation
# Shame
# Emotional exhaustion

* Mental well-being: victims of OV may also experience:

# Increased psychological distress
# Increased stress
# Feeling of helplessness and reduces psychological safety
# Long-term psychological effects following repeated exposure.

* Motivation and job satisfaction:

# Reduced motivation
# Reduced workplace engagement
# Lower job satisfaction
# Reduced sense of belonging

== Coping With Occupations Violence ==

{{ic|citations needed to theory and research}}

* Individual coping strategies and [[social support]] {{ic|A better link is probably [[w:Social support|social support]] or possibly one of the chapters listed here: [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Social support]]}}

# Problem-focused coping
# Emotional-focused coping such as seeking professional help outside of work.
# Seeking support from friends, family and trusted colleagues
# Developing strategies to manage workplace stress
# If available, accessing an employee assistance program

* Reporting and organisation support

* Reporting incidents to supervisors/management
* Workplace counselling and support services

== Preventing OV and Supporting Employees ==
{{ic|citations needed to theory and research}}

* Preventions

# Clear workplace policies and procedures
# Staff straining 
# Risk assessment 
# Appropriate supervision and staffing 
# Clear expectations around acceptable behaviour and explicitly outlined punishment for unacceptable behaviour. 
# Effective reporting systems. 

* Supporting employees  

# immediate support following an incident and preventing repeated exposure 
# counselling or employee assistance program for those affected. 
# Follow-up with effected employees and provide appropriate workplace adjustments

== Conclusion ==

* Summering{{sp}} the relationship between: 

# Occupational violence 
# Emotional violence
# Psychological wellbeing 
# Motivation 
# Job satisfaction 
# Coping 

* The importance of organisational responsibility. 
* There is need for prevention, support and effective coping strategies. 

== See also ==

# [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Occupational violence, emotion, and coping for educators|Occupational Violence]] (Book chapter, 2024)
# [[wikipedia:Workplace_violence|Workplace Violence]] (Wikipedia)
# [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Social support and emotion|Social support and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2019)

== References ==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Alameddine, M., Mourad, Y., &amp; Dimassi, H. (2015). A national study on nurses’ exposure to occupational violence in lebanon: Prevalence, consequences and associated factors. ''PLOS ONE'', ''10''(9), e0137105. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0137105

Bakes‐Denman, L., Mansfield, Y., &amp; Meehan, T. (2020). Supporting mental health staff following exposure to occupational violence – staff perceptions of ‘peer’ support. ''International Journal of Mental Health Nursing'', ''30''(1). https://doi.org/10.1111/inm.12767

Greys González-González, Darling Rebolledo-Ríos, Ximena Osorio-Spuler, Rudner, N., &amp; Constanza Peña-Barra. (2025). Violence against nurses: Personal and institutional coping strategies—A scoping review. ''Behavioral Sciences'', ''15''(9), 1166–1166. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15091166

Pariona-Cabrera, P., Bartram, T., Cavanagh, J., Halvorsen, B., Shao, B., &amp; Yang, F. (2023). The effects of workplace violence on the job stress of health care workers: Buffering effects of wellbeing HRM practices. ''International Journal of Human Resource Management'', ''35''(9), 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2023.2237876

Pihl-Thingvad, J., Elklit, A., Brandt, L. L. P., &amp; Andersen, L. L. (2019). Occupational violence and PTSD-symptoms. ''Journal of Occupational &amp; Environmental Medicine'', ''61''(7), 572–583. [https://www-jstor-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/stable/48510401 https://doi.org/10.1097/jom.0000000000001612]

Zhou, B., Marchand, A., &amp; Guay, S. (2017). I see so i feel: Coping with workplace violence among victims and witnesses. ''Work'', ''57''(1), 125–135. [[doi:10.3233/WOR-172538|https://doi.org/10.3233/wor-172538]]

}}

== External links ==

* [https://pmc-ncbi-nlm-nih-gov.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/articles/PMC4565636/ A National Study on Nurses’ Exposure to Occupational Violence in Lebanon: Prevalence, Consequences and Associated Factors] (2015)
* [https://www-jstor-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/stable/48510401?seq=1 Occupational Violence and PTSD-Symptoms: A Prospective Study on the Indirect Effects of Violence Through Time Pressure and Nontraumatic Strains in the Occupational Context] (2019)

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Coping]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Violence]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Work]]</text>
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__TOC__
== Overview ==
Occupational violence (OV) is a significant challenge in modern workplaces, affecting employees’ physical, emotional, and psychological well-being. While OV can occur in any industry, employees working in direct face-to-face roles such as healthcare, customer service, and aged care are disproportionately exposed to intimidating, aggressive, and hostile behaviours from clients and patients [https://pmc-ncbi-nlm-nih-gov.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/articles/PMC4565636/ (Alameddine et al., 2015).]

OV is not an isolated social issue. It is a complex, systemic problem rooted in broader organisational culture, social power dynamics, and individual psychological health. Exposure to OV can severely impact a worker's emotional stability, decrease job satisfaction, reduce motivation, and trigger severe psychological distress, including burnout and symptoms of post-traumatic stress [https://www-jstor-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/stable/48510401?seq=1 (Pihl-Thingvad et al., 2019).]

{{RoundBoxTop}}

=== Case Study ===
[[File:NounProject Abuse (38107).svg|thumb|204x204px|Figure 1: example of verbal abuse. ]]
Emma is a 21-year-old person of colour who works in aged care. She has been working at a residential facility for the last six months. During a busy evening shift, a resident becomes frustrated by a delay in care and starts shouting at Emma in front of other staff and residents. The resident calls Emma names, including incompetent and racial slurs, points fingers at her, and threatens to make a formal complaint to have her fired. Although the situation is eventually de-escalated by her supervisor, Emma feels shaken for the rest of her shift.  

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
* What is the definition of occupational violence (OV), why is it an important workplace and psychological issue.
* The relationship between OV and:
# emotional wellbeing 
# psychological distress
# motivation 
# job satisfaction
# coping 

* This chapter looks at both the employee experience and the organisational responses. 

{{RoundBoxTop}}

;Focus questions

{{ic|Add bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}}

What is OV, what form can it take and what are the risk factors? {{ic|This is too many questions in one; revise}}

what are the emotional and and psychological impacts of OV?

how can employee cope with experiences of OV.{{g}}

How can organisations prefect{{g}} OV and support employees who are affected?

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Understanding Occupational Violence ==
{{ic|Embed links to related Wikipedia articles or book chapters}}

* What is occupational violence{{g}}

# Defining OV according to search such as...
# Difference between very obvious OV and micro OV (e.g. micro violence)
# OV can be a single incident or repeated behaviour

* Forms of occupational violence

# verbal violence: threats, verbal abuse and intimidation
# Bullying and harassment: repeated harmful behaviour, such as physical assaults, aggression an intimidating behaviour
# Discrimination and exclusion: unfair treatment, favouritism, and social isolation
# Sexual violence/harassment: unwanted touches or advances, non-consensual sexual behaviour or conduct.

* What are the risks of occupational violence{{g}}

# OV can result from multiple individual, social and organisational factors{{vague}}.
# Workplace culture can either increase or reduce risks.
# Some employees can be more vulnerable to discrimination and harassment because of race, sick colour, cultural background, sexual orientation, gender and poor management.

== Emotional and Psychological Impacts of OV ==

{{ic|citations needed to theory and research}}

* Emotional impacts: employees who are victims of OV may experience emotional responses such as:

# Fear and anxiety,
# Anger and frustration
# Sadness
# Humiliation
# Shame
# Emotional exhaustion

* Mental well-being: victims of OV may also experience:

# Increased psychological distress
# Increased stress
# Feeling of helplessness and reduces psychological safety
# Long-term psychological effects following repeated exposure.

* Motivation and job satisfaction:

# Reduced motivation
# Reduced workplace engagement
# Lower job satisfaction
# Reduced sense of belonging

== Coping With Occupations Violence ==

{{ic|citations needed to theory and research}}

* Individual coping strategies and [[social support]] {{ic|A better link is probably [[w:Social support|social support]] or possibly one of the chapters listed here: [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Social support]]}}

# Problem-focused coping
# Emotional-focused coping such as seeking professional help outside of work.
# Seeking support from friends, family and trusted colleagues
# Developing strategies to manage workplace stress
# If available, accessing an employee assistance program

* Reporting and organisation support

* Reporting incidents to supervisors/management
* Workplace counselling and support services

== Preventing OV and Supporting Employees ==
{{ic|citations needed to theory and research}}

* Preventions

# Clear workplace policies and procedures
# Staff straining 
# Risk assessment 
# Appropriate supervision and staffing 
# Clear expectations around acceptable behaviour and explicitly outlined punishment for unacceptable behaviour. 
# Effective reporting systems. 

* Supporting employees  

# immediate support following an incident and preventing repeated exposure 
# counselling or employee assistance program for those affected. 
# Follow-up with effected employees and provide appropriate workplace adjustments

== Conclusion ==

* Summering{{sp}} the relationship between: 

# Occupational violence 
# Emotional violence
# Psychological wellbeing 
# Motivation 
# Job satisfaction 
# Coping 

* The importance of organisational responsibility. 
* There is need for prevention, support and effective coping strategies. 

== See also ==

# [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Occupational violence, emotion, and coping for educators|Occupational Violence]] (Book chapter, 2024)
# [[wikipedia:Workplace_violence|Workplace Violence]] (Wikipedia)
# [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Social support and emotion|Social support and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2019)

== References ==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Alameddine, M., Mourad, Y., &amp; Dimassi, H. (2015). A national study on nurses’ exposure to occupational violence in lebanon: Prevalence, consequences and associated factors. ''PLOS ONE'', ''10''(9), e0137105. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0137105

Bakes‐Denman, L., Mansfield, Y., &amp; Meehan, T. (2020). Supporting mental health staff following exposure to occupational violence – staff perceptions of ‘peer’ support. ''International Journal of Mental Health Nursing'', ''30''(1). https://doi.org/10.1111/inm.12767

Greys González-González, Darling Rebolledo-Ríos, Ximena Osorio-Spuler, Rudner, N., &amp; Constanza Peña-Barra. (2025). Violence against nurses: Personal and institutional coping strategies—A scoping review. ''Behavioral Sciences'', ''15''(9), 1166–1166. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15091166

Pariona-Cabrera, P., Bartram, T., Cavanagh, J., Halvorsen, B., Shao, B., &amp; Yang, F. (2023). The effects of workplace violence on the job stress of health care workers: Buffering effects of wellbeing HRM practices. ''International Journal of Human Resource Management'', ''35''(9), 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2023.2237876

Pihl-Thingvad, J., Elklit, A., Brandt, L. L. P., &amp; Andersen, L. L. (2019). Occupational violence and PTSD-symptoms. ''Journal of Occupational &amp; Environmental Medicine'', ''61''(7), 572–583. [https://www-jstor-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/stable/48510401 https://doi.org/10.1097/jom.0000000000001612]

Zhou, B., Marchand, A., &amp; Guay, S. (2017). I see so i feel: Coping with workplace violence among victims and witnesses. ''Work'', ''57''(1), 125–135. [[doi:10.3233/WOR-172538|https://doi.org/10.3233/wor-172538]]

}}

== External links ==

* [https://pmc-ncbi-nlm-nih-gov.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/articles/PMC4565636/ A National Study on Nurses’ Exposure to Occupational Violence in Lebanon: Prevalence, Consequences and Associated Factors] (2015)
* [https://www-jstor-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/stable/48510401?seq=1 Occupational Violence and PTSD-Symptoms: A Prospective Study on the Indirect Effects of Violence Through Time Pressure and Nontraumatic Strains in the Occupational Context] (2019)

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Coping]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Violence]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Work]]</text>
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__TOC__
== Overview ==
Occupational violence (OV) is a significant challenge in modern workplaces, affecting employees’ physical, emotional, and psychological well-being. While OV can occur in any industry, employees working in direct face-to-face roles such as healthcare, customer service, and aged care are disproportionately exposed to intimidating, aggressive, and hostile behaviours from clients and patients [https://pmc-ncbi-nlm-nih-gov.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/articles/PMC4565636/ (Alameddine et al., 2015).]

OV is not an isolated social issue. It is a complex, systemic problem rooted in broader organisational culture, social power dynamics, and individual psychological health. Exposure to OV can severely impact a worker's emotional stability, decrease job satisfaction, reduce motivation, and trigger severe psychological distress, including burnout and symptoms of post-traumatic stress [https://www-jstor-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/stable/48510401?seq=1 (Pihl-Thingvad et al., 2019).]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
=== Case Study ===
[[File:NounProject Abuse (38107).svg|thumb|204x204px|Figure 1: example of verbal abuse. ]]
Emma is a 21-year-old person of colour who works in aged care. She has been working at a residential facility for the last six months. During a busy evening shift, a resident becomes frustrated by a delay in care and starts shouting at Emma in front of other staff and residents. The resident calls Emma names, including incompetent and racial slurs, points fingers at her, and threatens to make a formal complaint to have her fired. Although the situation is eventually de-escalated by her supervisor, Emma feels shaken for the rest of her shift.  {{RoundBoxBottom}}
* What is the definition of occupational violence (OV), why is it an important workplace and psychological issue.
* The relationship between OV and:
# emotional wellbeing 
# psychological distress
# motivation 
# job satisfaction
# coping 

* This chapter looks at both the employee experience and the organisational responses. 

{{RoundBoxTop}}

;Focus questions

{{ic|Add bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}}

What is OV, what form can it take and what are the risk factors? {{ic|This is too many questions in one; revise}}

what are the emotional and and psychological impacts of OV?

how can employee cope with experiences of OV.{{g}}

How can organisations prefect{{g}} OV and support employees who are affected?

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Understanding Occupational Violence ==
{{ic|Embed links to related Wikipedia articles or book chapters}}

* What is occupational violence{{g}}

# Defining OV according to search such as...
# Difference between very obvious OV and micro OV (e.g. micro violence)
# OV can be a single incident or repeated behaviour

* Forms of occupational violence

# verbal violence: threats, verbal abuse and intimidation
# Bullying and harassment: repeated harmful behaviour, such as physical assaults, aggression an intimidating behaviour
# Discrimination and exclusion: unfair treatment, favouritism, and social isolation
# Sexual violence/harassment: unwanted touches or advances, non-consensual sexual behaviour or conduct.

* What are the risks of occupational violence{{g}}

# OV can result from multiple individual, social and organisational factors{{vague}}.
# Workplace culture can either increase or reduce risks.
# Some employees can be more vulnerable to discrimination and harassment because of race, sick colour, cultural background, sexual orientation, gender and poor management.

== Emotional and Psychological Impacts of OV ==

{{ic|citations needed to theory and research}}

* Emotional impacts: employees who are victims of OV may experience emotional responses such as:

# Fear and anxiety,
# Anger and frustration
# Sadness
# Humiliation
# Shame
# Emotional exhaustion

* Mental well-being: victims of OV may also experience:

# Increased psychological distress
# Increased stress
# Feeling of helplessness and reduces psychological safety
# Long-term psychological effects following repeated exposure.

* Motivation and job satisfaction:

# Reduced motivation
# Reduced workplace engagement
# Lower job satisfaction
# Reduced sense of belonging

== Coping With Occupations Violence ==

{{ic|citations needed to theory and research}}

* Individual coping strategies and [[social support]] {{ic|A better link is probably [[w:Social support|social support]] or possibly one of the chapters listed here: [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Social support]]}}

# Problem-focused coping
# Emotional-focused coping such as seeking professional help outside of work.
# Seeking support from friends, family and trusted colleagues
# Developing strategies to manage workplace stress
# If available, accessing an employee assistance program

* Reporting and organisation support

* Reporting incidents to supervisors/management
* Workplace counselling and support services

== Preventing OV and Supporting Employees ==
{{ic|citations needed to theory and research}}

* Preventions

# Clear workplace policies and procedures
# Staff straining 
# Risk assessment 
# Appropriate supervision and staffing 
# Clear expectations around acceptable behaviour and explicitly outlined punishment for unacceptable behaviour. 
# Effective reporting systems. 

* Supporting employees  

# immediate support following an incident and preventing repeated exposure 
# counselling or employee assistance program for those affected. 
# Follow-up with effected employees and provide appropriate workplace adjustments

== Conclusion ==

* Summering{{sp}} the relationship between: 

# Occupational violence 
# Emotional violence
# Psychological wellbeing 
# Motivation 
# Job satisfaction 
# Coping 

* The importance of organisational responsibility. 
* There is need for prevention, support and effective coping strategies. 

== See also ==

# [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Occupational violence, emotion, and coping for educators|Occupational Violence]] (Book chapter, 2024)
# [[wikipedia:Workplace_violence|Workplace Violence]] (Wikipedia)
# [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Social support and emotion|Social support and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2019)

== References ==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Alameddine, M., Mourad, Y., &amp; Dimassi, H. (2015). A national study on nurses’ exposure to occupational violence in lebanon: Prevalence, consequences and associated factors. ''PLOS ONE'', ''10''(9), e0137105. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0137105

Bakes‐Denman, L., Mansfield, Y., &amp; Meehan, T. (2020). Supporting mental health staff following exposure to occupational violence – staff perceptions of ‘peer’ support. ''International Journal of Mental Health Nursing'', ''30''(1). https://doi.org/10.1111/inm.12767

Greys González-González, Darling Rebolledo-Ríos, Ximena Osorio-Spuler, Rudner, N., &amp; Constanza Peña-Barra. (2025). Violence against nurses: Personal and institutional coping strategies—A scoping review. ''Behavioral Sciences'', ''15''(9), 1166–1166. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15091166

Pariona-Cabrera, P., Bartram, T., Cavanagh, J., Halvorsen, B., Shao, B., &amp; Yang, F. (2023). The effects of workplace violence on the job stress of health care workers: Buffering effects of wellbeing HRM practices. ''International Journal of Human Resource Management'', ''35''(9), 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2023.2237876

Pihl-Thingvad, J., Elklit, A., Brandt, L. L. P., &amp; Andersen, L. L. (2019). Occupational violence and PTSD-symptoms. ''Journal of Occupational &amp; Environmental Medicine'', ''61''(7), 572–583. [https://www-jstor-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/stable/48510401 https://doi.org/10.1097/jom.0000000000001612]

Zhou, B., Marchand, A., &amp; Guay, S. (2017). I see so i feel: Coping with workplace violence among victims and witnesses. ''Work'', ''57''(1), 125–135. [[doi:10.3233/WOR-172538|https://doi.org/10.3233/wor-172538]]

}}

== External links ==

* [https://pmc-ncbi-nlm-nih-gov.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/articles/PMC4565636/ A National Study on Nurses’ Exposure to Occupational Violence in Lebanon: Prevalence, Consequences and Associated Factors] (2015)
* [https://www-jstor-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/stable/48510401?seq=1 Occupational Violence and PTSD-Symptoms: A Prospective Study on the Indirect Effects of Violence Through Time Pressure and Nontraumatic Strains in the Occupational Context] (2019)

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Coping]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Violence]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Work]]</text>
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__TOC__
== Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
=== Case Study ===
[[File:NounProject Abuse (38107).svg|thumb|204x204px|Figure 1: example of verbal abuse. ]]
Emma is a 21-year-old person of colour who works in aged care. She has been working at a residential facility for the last six months. During a busy evening shift, a resident becomes frustrated by a delay in care and starts shouting at Emma in front of other staff and residents. The resident calls Emma names, including incompetent and racial slurs, points fingers at her, and threatens to make a formal complaint to have her fired. Although the situation is eventually de-escalated by her supervisor, Emma feels shaken for the rest of her shift.  {{RoundBoxBottom}}
Occupational violence (OV) is a significant challenge in modern workplaces, affecting employees’ physical, emotional, and psychological well-being. While OV can occur in any industry, employees in direct face-to-face roles, such as healthcare, customer service, and aged care, are disproportionately exposed to intimidating, aggressive, and hostile behaviours from clients and patients (Alameddine et al., 2015). OV is not an isolated social issue. It is a complex, systemic problem rooted in broader organisational culture, social power dynamics, and individual psychological health. Exposure to OV can severely affect a worker's emotional stability, decrease job satisfaction, reduce motivation, and trigger severe psychological distress, including burnout and symptoms of post-traumatic stress (Pihl-Thingvad et al., 2019).{{RoundBoxTop}}

;Focus questions

{{ic|Add bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}}

What is OV, what form can it take and what are the risk factors? {{ic|This is too many questions in one; revise}}

what are the emotional and and psychological impacts of OV?

how can employee cope with experiences of OV.{{g}}

How can organisations prefect{{g}} OV and support employees who are affected?

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
*What is the definition of occupational violence (OV), why is it an important workplace and psychological issue.
* The relationship between OV and:
# emotional wellbeing 
# psychological distress
# motivation 
# job satisfaction
# coping 

* This chapter looks at both the employee experience and the organisational responses. 

== Understanding Occupational Violence ==
{{ic|Embed links to related Wikipedia articles or book chapters}}

* What is occupational violence{{g}}

# Defining OV according to search such as...
# Difference between very obvious OV and micro OV (e.g. micro violence)
# OV can be a single incident or repeated behaviour

* Forms of occupational violence

# verbal violence: threats, verbal abuse and intimidation
# Bullying and harassment: repeated harmful behaviour, such as physical assaults, aggression an intimidating behaviour
# Discrimination and exclusion: unfair treatment, favouritism, and social isolation
# Sexual violence/harassment: unwanted touches or advances, non-consensual sexual behaviour or conduct.

* What are the risks of occupational violence{{g}}

# OV can result from multiple individual, social and organisational factors{{vague}}.
# Workplace culture can either increase or reduce risks.
# Some employees can be more vulnerable to discrimination and harassment because of race, sick colour, cultural background, sexual orientation, gender and poor management.

== Emotional and Psychological Impacts of OV ==

{{ic|citations needed to theory and research}}

* Emotional impacts: employees who are victims of OV may experience emotional responses such as:

# Fear and anxiety,
# Anger and frustration
# Sadness
# Humiliation
# Shame
# Emotional exhaustion

* Mental well-being: victims of OV may also experience:

# Increased psychological distress
# Increased stress
# Feeling of helplessness and reduces psychological safety
# Long-term psychological effects following repeated exposure.

* Motivation and job satisfaction:

# Reduced motivation
# Reduced workplace engagement
# Lower job satisfaction
# Reduced sense of belonging

== Coping With Occupations Violence ==

{{ic|citations needed to theory and research}}

* Individual coping strategies and [[social support]] {{ic|A better link is probably [[w:Social support|social support]] or possibly one of the chapters listed here: [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Social support]]}}

# Problem-focused coping
# Emotional-focused coping such as seeking professional help outside of work.
# Seeking support from friends, family and trusted colleagues
# Developing strategies to manage workplace stress
# If available, accessing an employee assistance program

* Reporting and organisation support

* Reporting incidents to supervisors/management
* Workplace counselling and support services

== Preventing OV and Supporting Employees ==
{{ic|citations needed to theory and research}}

* Preventions

# Clear workplace policies and procedures
# Staff straining 
# Risk assessment 
# Appropriate supervision and staffing 
# Clear expectations around acceptable behaviour and explicitly outlined punishment for unacceptable behaviour. 
# Effective reporting systems. 

* Supporting employees  

# immediate support following an incident and preventing repeated exposure 
# counselling or employee assistance program for those affected. 
# Follow-up with effected employees and provide appropriate workplace adjustments

== Conclusion ==

* Summering{{sp}} the relationship between: 

# Occupational violence 
# Emotional violence
# Psychological wellbeing 
# Motivation 
# Job satisfaction 
# Coping 

* The importance of organisational responsibility. 
* There is need for prevention, support and effective coping strategies. 

== See also ==

# [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Occupational violence, emotion, and coping for educators|Occupational Violence]] (Book chapter, 2024)
# [[wikipedia:Workplace_violence|Workplace Violence]] (Wikipedia)
# [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Social support and emotion|Social support and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2019)

== References ==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Alameddine, M., Mourad, Y., &amp; Dimassi, H. (2015). A national study on nurses’ exposure to occupational violence in lebanon: Prevalence, consequences and associated factors. ''PLOS ONE'', ''10''(9), e0137105. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0137105

Bakes‐Denman, L., Mansfield, Y., &amp; Meehan, T. (2020). Supporting mental health staff following exposure to occupational violence – staff perceptions of ‘peer’ support. ''International Journal of Mental Health Nursing'', ''30''(1). https://doi.org/10.1111/inm.12767

Greys González-González, Darling Rebolledo-Ríos, Ximena Osorio-Spuler, Rudner, N., &amp; Constanza Peña-Barra. (2025). Violence against nurses: Personal and institutional coping strategies—A scoping review. ''Behavioral Sciences'', ''15''(9), 1166–1166. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15091166

Pariona-Cabrera, P., Bartram, T., Cavanagh, J., Halvorsen, B., Shao, B., &amp; Yang, F. (2023). The effects of workplace violence on the job stress of health care workers: Buffering effects of wellbeing HRM practices. ''International Journal of Human Resource Management'', ''35''(9), 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2023.2237876

Pihl-Thingvad, J., Elklit, A., Brandt, L. L. P., &amp; Andersen, L. L. (2019). Occupational violence and PTSD-symptoms. ''Journal of Occupational &amp; Environmental Medicine'', ''61''(7), 572–583. [https://www-jstor-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/stable/48510401 https://doi.org/10.1097/jom.0000000000001612]

Zhou, B., Marchand, A., &amp; Guay, S. (2017). I see so i feel: Coping with workplace violence among victims and witnesses. ''Work'', ''57''(1), 125–135. [[doi:10.3233/WOR-172538|https://doi.org/10.3233/wor-172538]]

}}

== External links ==

* [https://pmc-ncbi-nlm-nih-gov.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/articles/PMC4565636/ A National Study on Nurses’ Exposure to Occupational Violence in Lebanon: Prevalence, Consequences and Associated Factors] (2015)
* [https://www-jstor-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/stable/48510401?seq=1 Occupational Violence and PTSD-Symptoms: A Prospective Study on the Indirect Effects of Violence Through Time Pressure and Nontraumatic Strains in the Occupational Context] (2019)

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Coping]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Violence]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Work]]</text>
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__TOC__
== Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
=== Case Study ===
[[File:NounProject Abuse (38107).svg|thumb|204x204px|Figure 1: example of verbal abuse. ]]
Emma is a 21-year-old person of colour who works in aged care. She has been working at a residential facility for the last six months. During a busy evening shift, a resident becomes frustrated by a delay in care and starts shouting at Emma in front of other staff and residents. The resident calls Emma names, including incompetent and racial slurs, points fingers at her, and threatens to make a formal complaint to have her fired. Although the situation is eventually de-escalated by her supervisor, Emma feels shaken for the rest of her shift.  {{RoundBoxBottom}}
Occupational violence (OV) is a significant challenge in modern workplaces, affecting employees’ physical, emotional, and psychological well-being. While OV can occur in any industry, employees in direct face-to-face roles, such as healthcare, customer service, and aged care, are disproportionately exposed to intimidating, aggressive, and hostile behaviours from clients and patients (Alameddine et al., 2015). OV is not an isolated social issue. It is a complex, systemic problem rooted in broader organisational culture, social power dynamics, and individual psychological health. Exposure to OV can severely affect a worker's emotional stability, decrease job satisfaction, reduce motivation, and trigger severe psychological distress, including burnout and symptoms of post-traumatic stress (Pihl-Thingvad et al., 2019).
{{RoundBoxTop}}

=== Focus Questions ===

* What is occupational violence?
* What are the risk factors? 
* What are the emotional and psychological impacts?
* What are the coping mechanics that can used?
* How can organisations prevent it and support employees who are affected?

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
*What is the definition of occupational violence (OV), why is it an important workplace and psychological issue.
* The relationship between OV and:
# emotional wellbeing 
# psychological distress
# motivation 
# job satisfaction
# coping 

* This chapter looks at both the employee experience and the organisational responses. 

== Understanding Occupational Violence ==
{{ic|Embed links to related Wikipedia articles or book chapters}}

* What is occupational violence{{g}}

# Defining OV according to search such as...
# Difference between very obvious OV and micro OV (e.g. micro violence)
# OV can be a single incident or repeated behaviour

* Forms of occupational violence

# verbal violence: threats, verbal abuse and intimidation
# Bullying and harassment: repeated harmful behaviour, such as physical assaults, aggression an intimidating behaviour
# Discrimination and exclusion: unfair treatment, favouritism, and social isolation
# Sexual violence/harassment: unwanted touches or advances, non-consensual sexual behaviour or conduct.

* What are the risks of occupational violence{{g}}

# OV can result from multiple individual, social and organisational factors{{vague}}.
# Workplace culture can either increase or reduce risks.
# Some employees can be more vulnerable to discrimination and harassment because of race, sick colour, cultural background, sexual orientation, gender and poor management.

== Emotional and Psychological Impacts of OV ==

{{ic|citations needed to theory and research}}

* Emotional impacts: employees who are victims of OV may experience emotional responses such as:

# Fear and anxiety,
# Anger and frustration
# Sadness
# Humiliation
# Shame
# Emotional exhaustion

* Mental well-being: victims of OV may also experience:

# Increased psychological distress
# Increased stress
# Feeling of helplessness and reduces psychological safety
# Long-term psychological effects following repeated exposure.

* Motivation and job satisfaction:

# Reduced motivation
# Reduced workplace engagement
# Lower job satisfaction
# Reduced sense of belonging

== Coping With Occupations Violence ==

{{ic|citations needed to theory and research}}

* Individual coping strategies and [[social support]] {{ic|A better link is probably [[w:Social support|social support]] or possibly one of the chapters listed here: [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Social support]]}}

# Problem-focused coping
# Emotional-focused coping such as seeking professional help outside of work.
# Seeking support from friends, family and trusted colleagues
# Developing strategies to manage workplace stress
# If available, accessing an employee assistance program

* Reporting and organisation support

* Reporting incidents to supervisors/management
* Workplace counselling and support services

== Preventing OV and Supporting Employees ==
{{ic|citations needed to theory and research}}

* Preventions

# Clear workplace policies and procedures
# Staff straining 
# Risk assessment 
# Appropriate supervision and staffing 
# Clear expectations around acceptable behaviour and explicitly outlined punishment for unacceptable behaviour. 
# Effective reporting systems. 

* Supporting employees  

# immediate support following an incident and preventing repeated exposure 
# counselling or employee assistance program for those affected. 
# Follow-up with effected employees and provide appropriate workplace adjustments

== Conclusion ==

* Summering{{sp}} the relationship between: 

# Occupational violence 
# Emotional violence
# Psychological wellbeing 
# Motivation 
# Job satisfaction 
# Coping 

* The importance of organisational responsibility. 
* There is need for prevention, support and effective coping strategies. 

== See also ==

# [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Occupational violence, emotion, and coping for educators|Occupational Violence]] (Book chapter, 2024)
# [[wikipedia:Workplace_violence|Workplace Violence]] (Wikipedia)
# [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Social support and emotion|Social support and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2019)

== References ==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Alameddine, M., Mourad, Y., &amp; Dimassi, H. (2015). A national study on nurses’ exposure to occupational violence in lebanon: Prevalence, consequences and associated factors. ''PLOS ONE'', ''10''(9), e0137105. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0137105

Bakes‐Denman, L., Mansfield, Y., &amp; Meehan, T. (2020). Supporting mental health staff following exposure to occupational violence – staff perceptions of ‘peer’ support. ''International Journal of Mental Health Nursing'', ''30''(1). https://doi.org/10.1111/inm.12767

Greys González-González, Darling Rebolledo-Ríos, Ximena Osorio-Spuler, Rudner, N., &amp; Constanza Peña-Barra. (2025). Violence against nurses: Personal and institutional coping strategies—A scoping review. ''Behavioral Sciences'', ''15''(9), 1166–1166. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15091166

Pariona-Cabrera, P., Bartram, T., Cavanagh, J., Halvorsen, B., Shao, B., &amp; Yang, F. (2023). The effects of workplace violence on the job stress of health care workers: Buffering effects of wellbeing HRM practices. ''International Journal of Human Resource Management'', ''35''(9), 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2023.2237876

Pihl-Thingvad, J., Elklit, A., Brandt, L. L. P., &amp; Andersen, L. L. (2019). Occupational violence and PTSD-symptoms. ''Journal of Occupational &amp; Environmental Medicine'', ''61''(7), 572–583. [https://www-jstor-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/stable/48510401 https://doi.org/10.1097/jom.0000000000001612]

Zhou, B., Marchand, A., &amp; Guay, S. (2017). I see so i feel: Coping with workplace violence among victims and witnesses. ''Work'', ''57''(1), 125–135. [[doi:10.3233/WOR-172538|https://doi.org/10.3233/wor-172538]]

}}

== External links ==

* [https://pmc-ncbi-nlm-nih-gov.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/articles/PMC4565636/ A National Study on Nurses’ Exposure to Occupational Violence in Lebanon: Prevalence, Consequences and Associated Factors] (2015)
* [https://www-jstor-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/stable/48510401?seq=1 Occupational Violence and PTSD-Symptoms: A Prospective Study on the Indirect Effects of Violence Through Time Pressure and Nontraumatic Strains in the Occupational Context] (2019)

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Coping]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Violence]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Work]]</text>
      <sha1>hb1gr9ad5ws0bl2xpfucy6eg3kj33pi</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2835926</id>
      <parentid>2835916</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-10-05T09:44:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Anne-Lyse Iran</username>
        <id>3109378</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>2835926</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="8918" sha1="rpd0ctfe7mkjj0j7357my1f4vr8qcnz" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Occupational violence, emotion, and coping:&lt;br&gt;What are the emotional impacts of occupational violence and how can employees cope?}}
__TOC__
== Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
=== Case Study ===
[[File:NounProject Abuse (38107).svg|thumb|204x204px|Figure 1: example of verbal abuse. ]]
Emma is a 21-year-old person of colour who works in aged care. She has been working at a residential facility for the last six months. During a busy evening shift, a resident becomes frustrated by a delay in care and starts shouting at Emma in front of other staff and residents. The resident calls Emma names, including incompetent and racial slurs, points fingers at her, and threatens to make a formal complaint to have her fired. Although the situation is eventually de-escalated by her supervisor, Emma feels shaken for the rest of her shift.  {{RoundBoxBottom}}
Occupational violence (OV) is a significant challenge in modern workplaces, affecting employees’ physical, emotional, and psychological well-being. While OV can occur in any industry, employees in direct face-to-face roles, such as healthcare, customer service, and aged care, are disproportionately exposed to intimidating, aggressive, and hostile behaviours from clients and patients [https://pmc-ncbi-nlm-nih-gov.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/articles/PMC4565636/ (Alameddine et al., 2015).] 

OV is not an isolated social issue. It is a complex, systemic problem rooted in broader organisational culture, social power dynamics, and individual psychological health. Exposure to OV can severely affect a worker's emotional stability, decrease job satisfaction, reduce motivation, and trigger severe psychological distress, including burnout and symptoms of post-traumatic stress [https://www-jstor-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/stable/48510401?seq=1 (Pihl-Thingvad et al., 2019).]

Emma’s situation illustrates how OV rarely occurs in a vacuum. Her experience highlights the intersection of operational stressors, such as shift demands and staffing shortages, personal attacks, and demographic vulnerabilities, such as race, gender and age.

{{RoundBoxTop}}
=== Focus Questions ===
* What is occupational violence?
* What are the risk factors? 
* What are the emotional and psychological impacts?
* What are the coping mechanics that can used?
* How can organisations prevent it and support employees who are affected?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

*What is the definition of occupational violence (OV), why is it an important workplace and psychological issue.
* The relationship between OV and:
# emotional wellbeing 
# psychological distress
# motivation 
# job satisfaction
# coping 

* This chapter looks at both the employee experience and the organisational responses. 

== Understanding Occupational Violence ==
{{ic|Embed links to related Wikipedia articles or book chapters}}

* What is occupational violence{{g}}

# Defining OV according to search such as...
# Difference between very obvious OV and micro OV (e.g. micro violence)
# OV can be a single incident or repeated behaviour

* Forms of occupational violence

# verbal violence: threats, verbal abuse and intimidation
# Bullying and harassment: repeated harmful behaviour, such as physical assaults, aggression an intimidating behaviour
# Discrimination and exclusion: unfair treatment, favouritism, and social isolation
# Sexual violence/harassment: unwanted touches or advances, non-consensual sexual behaviour or conduct.

* What are the risks of occupational violence{{g}}

# OV can result from multiple individual, social and organisational factors{{vague}}.
# Workplace culture can either increase or reduce risks.
# Some employees can be more vulnerable to discrimination and harassment because of race, sick colour, cultural background, sexual orientation, gender and poor management.

== Emotional and Psychological Impacts of OV ==

{{ic|citations needed to theory and research}}

* Emotional impacts: employees who are victims of OV may experience emotional responses such as:

# Fear and anxiety,
# Anger and frustration
# Sadness
# Humiliation
# Shame
# Emotional exhaustion

* Mental well-being: victims of OV may also experience:

# Increased psychological distress
# Increased stress
# Feeling of helplessness and reduces psychological safety
# Long-term psychological effects following repeated exposure.

* Motivation and job satisfaction:

# Reduced motivation
# Reduced workplace engagement
# Lower job satisfaction
# Reduced sense of belonging

== Coping With Occupations Violence ==

{{ic|citations needed to theory and research}}

* Individual coping strategies and [[social support]] {{ic|A better link is probably [[w:Social support|social support]] or possibly one of the chapters listed here: [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Social support]]}}

# Problem-focused coping
# Emotional-focused coping such as seeking professional help outside of work.
# Seeking support from friends, family and trusted colleagues
# Developing strategies to manage workplace stress
# If available, accessing an employee assistance program

* Reporting and organisation support

* Reporting incidents to supervisors/management
* Workplace counselling and support services

== Preventing OV and Supporting Employees ==
{{ic|citations needed to theory and research}}

* Preventions

# Clear workplace policies and procedures
# Staff straining 
# Risk assessment 
# Appropriate supervision and staffing 
# Clear expectations around acceptable behaviour and explicitly outlined punishment for unacceptable behaviour. 
# Effective reporting systems. 

* Supporting employees  

# immediate support following an incident and preventing repeated exposure 
# counselling or employee assistance program for those affected. 
# Follow-up with effected employees and provide appropriate workplace adjustments

== Conclusion ==

* Summering{{sp}} the relationship between: 

# Occupational violence 
# Emotional violence
# Psychological wellbeing 
# Motivation 
# Job satisfaction 
# Coping 

* The importance of organisational responsibility. 
* There is need for prevention, support and effective coping strategies. 

== See also ==

# [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Occupational violence, emotion, and coping for educators|Occupational Violence]] (Book chapter, 2024)
# [[wikipedia:Workplace_violence|Workplace Violence]] (Wikipedia)
# [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Social support and emotion|Social support and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2019)

== References ==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Alameddine, M., Mourad, Y., &amp; Dimassi, H. (2015). A national study on nurses’ exposure to occupational violence in lebanon: Prevalence, consequences and associated factors. ''PLOS ONE'', ''10''(9), e0137105. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0137105

Bakes‐Denman, L., Mansfield, Y., &amp; Meehan, T. (2020). Supporting mental health staff following exposure to occupational violence – staff perceptions of ‘peer’ support. ''International Journal of Mental Health Nursing'', ''30''(1). https://doi.org/10.1111/inm.12767

Greys González-González, Darling Rebolledo-Ríos, Ximena Osorio-Spuler, Rudner, N., &amp; Constanza Peña-Barra. (2025). Violence against nurses: Personal and institutional coping strategies—A scoping review. ''Behavioral Sciences'', ''15''(9), 1166–1166. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15091166

Pariona-Cabrera, P., Bartram, T., Cavanagh, J., Halvorsen, B., Shao, B., &amp; Yang, F. (2023). The effects of workplace violence on the job stress of health care workers: Buffering effects of wellbeing HRM practices. ''International Journal of Human Resource Management'', ''35''(9), 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2023.2237876

Pihl-Thingvad, J., Elklit, A., Brandt, L. L. P., &amp; Andersen, L. L. (2019). Occupational violence and PTSD-symptoms. ''Journal of Occupational &amp; Environmental Medicine'', ''61''(7), 572–583. [https://www-jstor-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/stable/48510401 https://doi.org/10.1097/jom.0000000000001612]

Zhou, B., Marchand, A., &amp; Guay, S. (2017). I see so i feel: Coping with workplace violence among victims and witnesses. ''Work'', ''57''(1), 125–135. [[doi:10.3233/WOR-172538|https://doi.org/10.3233/wor-172538]]

}}

== External links ==

* [https://pmc-ncbi-nlm-nih-gov.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/articles/PMC4565636/ A National Study on Nurses’ Exposure to Occupational Violence in Lebanon: Prevalence, Consequences and Associated Factors] (2015)
* [https://www-jstor-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/stable/48510401?seq=1 Occupational Violence and PTSD-Symptoms: A Prospective Study on the Indirect Effects of Violence Through Time Pressure and Nontraumatic Strains in the Occupational Context] (2019)

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Coping]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Violence]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Work]]</text>
      <sha1>rpd0ctfe7mkjj0j7357my1f4vr8qcnz</sha1>
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    <revision>
      <id>2835930</id>
      <parentid>2835926</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-10-05T10:02:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Anne-Lyse Iran</username>
        <id>3109378</id>
      </contributor>
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      <text bytes="8939" sha1="45derl9gzzp02yxsnl2nb050xfgoq1q" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Occupational violence, emotion, and coping:&lt;br&gt;What are the emotional impacts of occupational violence and how can employees cope?}}
__TOC__
== Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
=== Case Study ===
[[File:NounProject Abuse (38107).svg|thumb|204x204px|Figure 1: example of verbal abuse. ]]
Emma is a 21-year-old person of colour who works in aged care. She has been working at a residential facility for the last six months. During a busy evening shift, a resident becomes frustrated by a delay in care and starts shouting at Emma in front of other staff and residents. The resident calls Emma names, including incompetent and racial slurs, points fingers at her, and threatens to make a formal complaint to have her fired. Although the situation is eventually de-escalated by her supervisor, Emma feels shaken for the rest of her shift.  {{RoundBoxBottom}}
Occupational violence (OV) is a significant challenge in modern workplaces, affecting employees’ physical, emotional, and psychological well-being. While OV can occur in any industry, employees in direct face-to-face roles, such as healthcare, customer service, and aged care, are disproportionately exposed to intimidating, aggressive, and hostile behaviours from clients and patients [https://pmc-ncbi-nlm-nih-gov.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/articles/PMC4565636/ (Alameddine et al., 2015).] 

OV is not an isolated social issue. It is a complex, systemic problem rooted in broader organisational culture, social power dynamics, and individual psychological health. Exposure to OV can severely affect a worker's emotional stability, decrease job satisfaction, reduce motivation, and trigger severe psychological distress, including burnout and symptoms of post-traumatic stress [https://www-jstor-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/stable/48510401?seq=1 (Pihl-Thingvad et al., 2019).]

Emma’s situation illustrates how OV rarely occurs in a vacuum. Her experience highlights the intersection of operational stressors, such as shift demands and staffing shortages, personal attacks, and demographic vulnerabilities, such as race, gender and age.

{{RoundBoxTop}}
=== Focus Questions ===
* What is occupational violence?
* What are the risk factors? 
* What are the emotional and psychological impacts?
* What are the coping mechanics that can used?
* How can organisations prevent it and support employees who are affected?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Introduction ===
*What is the definition of occupational violence (OV), why is it an important workplace and psychological issue.
* The relationship between OV and:
# emotional wellbeing 
# psychological distress
# motivation 
# job satisfaction
# coping 

* This chapter looks at both the employee experience and the organisational responses. 

== Understanding Occupational Violence ==
{{ic|Embed links to related Wikipedia articles or book chapters}}

* What is occupational violence{{g}}

# Defining OV according to search such as...
# Difference between very obvious OV and micro OV (e.g. micro violence)
# OV can be a single incident or repeated behaviour

* Forms of occupational violence

# verbal violence: threats, verbal abuse and intimidation
# Bullying and harassment: repeated harmful behaviour, such as physical assaults, aggression an intimidating behaviour
# Discrimination and exclusion: unfair treatment, favouritism, and social isolation
# Sexual violence/harassment: unwanted touches or advances, non-consensual sexual behaviour or conduct.

* What are the risks of occupational violence{{g}}

# OV can result from multiple individual, social and organisational factors{{vague}}.
# Workplace culture can either increase or reduce risks.
# Some employees can be more vulnerable to discrimination and harassment because of race, sick colour, cultural background, sexual orientation, gender and poor management.

== Emotional and Psychological Impacts of OV ==

{{ic|citations needed to theory and research}}

* Emotional impacts: employees who are victims of OV may experience emotional responses such as:

# Fear and anxiety,
# Anger and frustration
# Sadness
# Humiliation
# Shame
# Emotional exhaustion

* Mental well-being: victims of OV may also experience:

# Increased psychological distress
# Increased stress
# Feeling of helplessness and reduces psychological safety
# Long-term psychological effects following repeated exposure.

* Motivation and job satisfaction:

# Reduced motivation
# Reduced workplace engagement
# Lower job satisfaction
# Reduced sense of belonging

== Coping With Occupations Violence ==

{{ic|citations needed to theory and research}}

* Individual coping strategies and [[social support]] {{ic|A better link is probably [[w:Social support|social support]] or possibly one of the chapters listed here: [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Social support]]}}

# Problem-focused coping
# Emotional-focused coping such as seeking professional help outside of work.
# Seeking support from friends, family and trusted colleagues
# Developing strategies to manage workplace stress
# If available, accessing an employee assistance program

* Reporting and organisation support

* Reporting incidents to supervisors/management
* Workplace counselling and support services

== Preventing OV and Supporting Employees ==
{{ic|citations needed to theory and research}}

* Preventions

# Clear workplace policies and procedures
# Staff straining 
# Risk assessment 
# Appropriate supervision and staffing 
# Clear expectations around acceptable behaviour and explicitly outlined punishment for unacceptable behaviour. 
# Effective reporting systems. 

* Supporting employees  

# immediate support following an incident and preventing repeated exposure 
# counselling or employee assistance program for those affected. 
# Follow-up with effected employees and provide appropriate workplace adjustments

== Conclusion ==

* Summering{{sp}} the relationship between: 

# Occupational violence 
# Emotional violence
# Psychological wellbeing 
# Motivation 
# Job satisfaction 
# Coping 

* The importance of organisational responsibility. 
* There is need for prevention, support and effective coping strategies. 

== See also ==

# [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Occupational violence, emotion, and coping for educators|Occupational Violence]] (Book chapter, 2024)
# [[wikipedia:Workplace_violence|Workplace Violence]] (Wikipedia)
# [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Social support and emotion|Social support and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2019)

== References ==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Alameddine, M., Mourad, Y., &amp; Dimassi, H. (2015). A national study on nurses’ exposure to occupational violence in lebanon: Prevalence, consequences and associated factors. ''PLOS ONE'', ''10''(9), e0137105. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0137105

Bakes‐Denman, L., Mansfield, Y., &amp; Meehan, T. (2020). Supporting mental health staff following exposure to occupational violence – staff perceptions of ‘peer’ support. ''International Journal of Mental Health Nursing'', ''30''(1). https://doi.org/10.1111/inm.12767

Greys González-González, Darling Rebolledo-Ríos, Ximena Osorio-Spuler, Rudner, N., &amp; Constanza Peña-Barra. (2025). Violence against nurses: Personal and institutional coping strategies—A scoping review. ''Behavioral Sciences'', ''15''(9), 1166–1166. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15091166

Pariona-Cabrera, P., Bartram, T., Cavanagh, J., Halvorsen, B., Shao, B., &amp; Yang, F. (2023). The effects of workplace violence on the job stress of health care workers: Buffering effects of wellbeing HRM practices. ''International Journal of Human Resource Management'', ''35''(9), 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2023.2237876

Pihl-Thingvad, J., Elklit, A., Brandt, L. L. P., &amp; Andersen, L. L. (2019). Occupational violence and PTSD-symptoms. ''Journal of Occupational &amp; Environmental Medicine'', ''61''(7), 572–583. [https://www-jstor-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/stable/48510401 https://doi.org/10.1097/jom.0000000000001612]

Zhou, B., Marchand, A., &amp; Guay, S. (2017). I see so i feel: Coping with workplace violence among victims and witnesses. ''Work'', ''57''(1), 125–135. [[doi:10.3233/WOR-172538|https://doi.org/10.3233/wor-172538]]

}}

== External links ==

* [https://pmc-ncbi-nlm-nih-gov.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/articles/PMC4565636/ A National Study on Nurses’ Exposure to Occupational Violence in Lebanon: Prevalence, Consequences and Associated Factors] (2015)
* [https://www-jstor-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/stable/48510401?seq=1 Occupational Violence and PTSD-Symptoms: A Prospective Study on the Indirect Effects of Violence Through Time Pressure and Nontraumatic Strains in the Occupational Context] (2019)

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Coping]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Violence]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Work]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Module:WikitextParser</title>
    <ns>828</ns>
    <id>327414</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2835953</id>
      <parentid>2791206</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-10-05T11:37:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sophivorus</username>
        <id>85690</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Update from [[d:Special:GoToLinkedPage/enwiki/Q137784397|master]] using [[mw:Synchronizer| #Synchronizer]]</comment>
      <origin>2835953</origin>
      <model>Scribunto</model>
      <format>text/plain</format>
      <text bytes="17572" sha1="3r3fpf7d7jt2ttpx3ny4bt85muaz5lj" xml:space="preserve">-- Module:WikitextParser is a general-purpose wikitext parser
-- Documentation and master version: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Module:WikitextParser
-- License: GPL-3.0 (https://www.gnu.org/licenses/gpl-3.0.html)
-- Authors: User:Sophivorus, User:Certes, User:Aidan9382, et al.

local str_find, str_sub, str_match = string.find, string.sub, string.match
local str_gsub, str_gmatch, str_rep = string.gsub, string.gmatch, string.rep
local str_lower = string.lower
local table_insert, table_concat = table.insert, table.concat

-- Private helper method to escape a string for use in regexes
local function escapeString( str )
	return str_gsub( str, '[%^%$%(%)%.%[%]%*%+%-%?%%]', '%%%0' )
end

-- Fast gsplit (a la mw.text.gsplit) for fixed ASCII separators
local function str_gsplit( str, sep )
	if sep == '' or str_find( sep, '[\128-\255]' ) then
		error( 'Separator must be ASCII and cannot be empty' )
	end
	local i, str1 = 1, str .. sep
	return function()
		local s, e = str_find( str1, sep, i, true )
		if not s then
			return s
		end
		local t = i
		i = e + 1
		return str_sub( str1, t, s - 1 )
	end
end

-- Fast dedicated two-way split (a la mw.text.split) for fixed ASCII separators
local function str_split2( str, sep )
	if sep == '' or str_find( sep, '[\128-\255]' ) then
		error( 'Separator must be ASCII and cannot be empty' )
	end
	local s, e = str_find( str, sep, 1, true )
	if not s then
		return str
	end
	return str_sub( str, 1, s - 1 ), str_sub( str, e + 1 )
end

-- Fast whitespace trim (a la mw.text.trim)
local function str_trim( str )
	return str_match( str, '^%s*(.-)%s*$' )
end

local parser = {}

-- Get the lead section from the given wikitext
-- The lead section is any content before the first section title.
-- @param wikitext Required. Wikitext to parse.
-- @return Wikitext of the lead section. May be empty if the lead section is empty.
function parser.getLead( wikitext )
	wikitext = '\n' .. wikitext
	wikitext = str_gsub( wikitext, '\n==.*', '' )
	wikitext = str_trim( wikitext )
	return wikitext
end

-- Get the sections from the given wikitext
-- This method doesn't get the lead section, use getLead for that
-- @param wikitext Required. Wikitext to parse.
-- @return Map from section title to section content
function parser.getSections( wikitext )
	local sections = {}
	wikitext = '\n' .. wikitext .. '\n=='
	for title in str_gmatch( wikitext, '\n==+ *([^=]-) *==+' ) do
		local section = str_match( wikitext, '\n==+ *' .. escapeString( title ) .. ' *==+(.-)\n==' )
		section = str_trim( section )
		sections[ title ] = section
	end
	return sections
end

-- Get a section from the given wikitext (including any subsections)
-- If the given section title appears more than once, only the section of the first instance will be returned
-- @param wikitext Required. Wikitext to parse.
-- @param title Required. Title of the section
-- @return Wikitext of the section, or nil if it isn't found. May be empty if the section is empty or contains only subsections.
function parser.getSection( wikitext, title )
	title = str_trim( title )
	title = escapeString( title )
	wikitext = '\n' .. wikitext .. '\n'
	local level
	level, wikitext = str_match( wikitext, '\n(==+) *' .. title .. ' *==.-\n(.*)' )
	if wikitext then
		local nextSection = '\n==' .. str_rep( '=?', #level - 2 ) .. '[^=].*'
		wikitext = str_gsub( wikitext, nextSection, '' ) -- remove later sections at this level or higher
		wikitext = str_trim( wikitext )
		return wikitext
	end
end

-- Get the content of a &lt;section&gt; tag from the given wikitext.
-- We can't use getTags because unlike all other tags, both opening and closing &lt;section&gt; tags are self-closing.
-- @param wikitext Required. Wikitext to parse.
-- @param name Required. Name of the &lt;section&gt; tag
-- @return Content of the &lt;section&gt; tag, or nil if it isn't found. May be empty if the section tag is empty.
function parser.getSectionTag( wikitext, name )
	name = str_trim( name )
	name = escapeString( name )
	local sections = {}
	for section in str_gmatch( wikitext, '&lt; *section +begin *= *[&quot;\']? *' .. name .. ' *[&quot;\']? */&gt;(.-)&lt; *section +end= *[&quot;\']? *'.. name ..' *[&quot;\']? */&gt;' ) do
		table_insert( sections, section )
	end
	if #sections &gt; 0 then
		return table_concat( sections )
	end
end

-- Get the lists from the given wikitext.
-- @param wikitext Required. Wikitext to parse.
-- @return Sequence of lists.
function parser.getLists( wikitext )
	local lists = {}
	wikitext = '\n' .. wikitext .. '\n\n'
	for list in str_gmatch( wikitext, '\n([*#].-)\n[^*#]' ) do
		table_insert( lists, list )
	end
	return lists
end

-- Get the paragraphs from the given wikitext.
-- @param wikitext Required. Wikitext to parse.
-- @return Sequence of paragraphs.
function parser.getParagraphs( wikitext )
	local paragraphs = {}

	-- Remove non-paragraphs
	wikitext = '\n' .. wikitext .. '\n' -- add newlines to simplfy patterns
	wikitext = str_gsub( wikitext, '%f[^\n]&lt;!%-%-.-%-%-&gt; *%f[\n]', '' ) -- remove comments
	wikitext = str_gsub( wikitext, '%f[^\n]%[%b[]%] *%f[\n]', '' ) -- remove files and categories
	wikitext = str_gsub( wikitext, '&lt;gallery.-&lt;/gallery&gt;', '\n\n' ) -- remove galleries
	wikitext = str_gsub( wikitext, '%f[^\n]%b{} *%f[\n]', '' ) -- remove tables and block templates
	wikitext = str_gsub( wikitext, '%f[^\n]%b{} *%b{} *%f[\n]', '' ) -- remove neighboring tables and block templates
	wikitext = str_gsub( wikitext, '%f[^\n]%b{} *&lt;!%-%-.-%-%-&gt; *%b{} *%f[\n]', '' ) -- remove neighboring tables and block templates with a comment among them
	wikitext = str_gsub( wikitext, '%f[^\n][*#].-%f[\n]', '' ) -- remove lists
	wikitext = str_gsub( wikitext, '%f[^\n]==+[^=]+==+ *%f[\n]', '' ) -- remove section titles
	wikitext = str_trim( wikitext )

	for paragraph in str_gsplit( wikitext, &quot;\n\n&quot; ) do
		paragraph = str_trim( paragraph )
		if paragraph ~= &quot;&quot; then -- Filter out 3+ consecutive newlines
			table_insert( paragraphs, paragraph )
		end
	end
	return paragraphs
end

-- Get the templates from the given wikitext.
-- @param wikitext Required. Wikitext to parse.
-- @return Sequence of templates.
function parser.getTemplates( wikitext )
	local templates = {}
	for template in str_gmatch( wikitext, '{%b{}}' ) do
		if str_sub( template, 1, 3 ) ~= '{{#' then -- skip parser functions like #if
			table_insert( templates, template )
		end
	end
	return templates
end

-- Get the requested template from the given wikitext.
-- If the template appears more than once, only the first instance will be returned
-- @param wikitext Required. Wikitext to parse.
-- @param name Name of the template to get
-- @return Wikitext of the template, or nil if it wasn't found
function parser.getTemplate( wikitext, name )
	local templates = parser.getTemplates( wikitext )
	local lang = mw.language.getContentLanguage()
	for _, template in ipairs( templates ) do
		local templateName = parser.getTemplateName( template )
		if lang:ucfirst( templateName ) == lang:ucfirst( name ) then
			return template
		end
	end
end

-- Get name of the template from the given template wikitext.
-- @param templateWikitext Required. Wikitext of the template to parse.
-- @return Name of the template
-- @todo Strip &quot;Template:&quot; namespace?
function parser.getTemplateName( templateWikitext )
	return str_match( templateWikitext, '^{{ *([^}|\n]+)' )
end

-- Get the parameters from the given template wikitext.
-- @param templateWikitext Required. Wikitext of the template to parse.
-- @return Map from parameter names to parameter values, NOT IN THE ORIGINAL ORDER.
-- @return Order in which the parameters were parsed.
function parser.getTemplateParameters( templateWikitext )
	local parameters = {}
	local paramOrder = {}
	local params = str_match( templateWikitext, '{{[^|}]-|(.*)}}' )
	if params then
		-- Temporarily replace pipes in subtemplates and links to avoid chaos
		for subtemplate in str_gmatch( params, '{%b{}}' ) do
			params = str_gsub( params, escapeString( subtemplate ), str_gsub( subtemplate, '.', { ['%']='%%', ['|']=&quot;@@:@@&quot;, ['=']='@@_@@' } ), 1 )
		end
		for link in str_gmatch( params, '%[%b[]%]' ) do
			params = str_gsub( params, escapeString( link ), str_gsub( link, '.', { ['%']='%%', ['|']='@@:@@', ['=']='@@_@@' } ), 1 )
		end
		local count = 0
		local name, value
		for param in str_gsplit( params, '|' ) do
			name, value = str_split2( param, '=' )
			if value then
				local number = tonumber( name )
				if number then --XXX: What about keys like: 01, .1, 2e0, etc.
					name = number
				end
				value = str_trim( value )
			else
				value = name
				count = count + 1
				name = count
			end
			value = str_gsub( value, '@@_@@', '=' )
			value = str_gsub( value, '@@:@@', '|' )
			parameters[ name ] = value
			table_insert( paramOrder, name )
		end
	end
	return parameters, paramOrder
end

-- Get the tags from the given wikitext.
-- @param wikitext Required. Wikitext to parse.
-- @return Sequence of tags.
function parser.getTags( wikitext )
	local tags = {}
	local tag, tagName, tagEnd
	-- Don't match closing tags like &lt;/div&gt;, comments like &lt;!--foo--&gt;, comparisons like 1&lt;2 or things like &lt;3
	for tagStart, tagOpen in str_gmatch( wikitext, '()(&lt;[^/!%d].-&gt;)' ) do
		tagName = parser.getTagName( tagOpen )

		-- If we're in a self-closing tag, like &lt;ref name=&quot;foo&quot; /&gt;, &lt;references/&gt;, &lt;br/&gt;, &lt;br&gt;, &lt;hr&gt;, etc.
		if str_match( tagOpen, '&lt;.-/&gt;' ) or tagName == 'br' or tagName == 'hr' then
			tag = tagOpen

		-- If we're in a tag that may contain others like it, like &lt;div&gt; or &lt;span&gt;
		elseif tagName == 'div' or tagName == 'span' then
			local position = tagStart + #tagOpen - 1
			local depth = 1
			while depth &gt; 0 do
				tagEnd = str_match( wikitext, '&lt;/ ?' .. tagName .. ' ?&gt;()', position )
				if tagEnd then
					tagEnd = tagEnd - 1
				else
					break -- unclosed tag
				end 
				position = str_match( wikitext, '()&lt; ?' .. tagName .. '[ &gt;]', position + 1 )
				if not position then
					position = tagEnd + 1
				end
				if position &gt; tagEnd then
					depth = depth - 1
				else
					depth = depth + 1
				end
			end
			tag = str_sub( wikitext, tagStart, tagEnd )

		-- Else we're probably in tag that shouldn't contain others like it, like &lt;math&gt; or &lt;strong&gt;
		else
			tagEnd = str_match( wikitext, '&lt;/ ?' .. tagName .. ' ?&gt;()', tagStart )
			if tagEnd then
				tag = str_sub( wikitext, tagStart, tagEnd - 1 )

			-- If no end tag is found, assume we matched something that wasn't a tag, like &lt;no. 1&gt;
			else
				tag = nil
			end
		end
		table_insert( tags, tag )
	end
	return tags
end

-- Get the name of the tag in the given wikitext
-- @param tag Required. Tag to parse.
-- @return Name of the tag or nil if not found
function parser.getTagName( tagWikitext )
	local tagName = str_match( tagWikitext, '^&lt; *(.-)[ /&gt;]' )
	if tagName then tagName = str_lower( tagName ) end
	return tagName
end

-- Get the value of an attribute in the given tag.
-- @param tagWikitext Required. Wikitext of the tag to parse.
-- @param attribute Required. Name of the attribute.
-- @return Value of the attribute or nil if not found
function parser.getTagAttribute( tagWikitext, attribute )
	local _, value = str_match( tagWikitext, '^&lt;[^/&gt;]*' .. attribute .. ' *= *([&quot;\']?)([^/&gt;]-)%1[ /&gt;]' )
	return value
end

-- Get the content of the given tag.
-- @param tagWikitext Required. Wikitext of the tag to parse.
-- @return Content of the tag. May be empty if the tag is empty. Will be nil if the tag is self-closing.
-- @todo May fail with nested tags
function parser.getTagContent( tagWikitext )
	return str_match( tagWikitext, '^&lt;.-&gt;.-&lt;/.-&gt;' )
end

-- Get the &lt;gallery&gt; tags from the given wikitext.
-- @param wikitext Required. Wikitext to parse.
-- @return Sequence of gallery tags.
function parser.getGalleries( wikitext )
	local galleries = {}
	local tags = parser.getTags( wikitext )
	for _, tag in ipairs( tags ) do
		local tagName = parser.getTagName( tag )
		if tagName == 'gallery' then
			table_insert( galleries, tag )
		end
	end
	return galleries
end

-- Get the &lt;ref&gt; tags from the given wikitext.
-- @param wikitext Required. Wikitext to parse.
-- @return Sequence of ref tags.
function parser.getReferences( wikitext )
	local references = {}
	local tags = parser.getTags( wikitext )
	for _, tag in ipairs( tags ) do
		local tagName = parser.getTagName( tag )
		if tagName == 'ref' then
			table_insert( references, tag )
		end
	end
	return references
end

-- Get the reference with the given name from the given wikitext.
-- @param wikitext Required. Wikitext to parse.
-- @param referenceName Required. Name of the reference.
-- @return Wikitext of the reference
function parser.getReference( wikitext, referenceName )
	local references = parser.getReferences( wikitext )
	for _, reference in ipairs( references ) do
		local content = parser.getTagContent( reference )
		local name = parser.getTagAttribute( reference, 'name' )
		if content and name == referenceName then
			return reference
		end
	end
end

-- Get the tables from the given wikitext.
-- @param wikitext Required. Wikitext to parse.
-- @return Sequence of tables.
function parser.getTables( wikitext )
	local tables = {}
	wikitext = '\n' .. wikitext
	for t in str_gmatch( wikitext, '\n%b{}' ) do
		if str_sub( t, 1, 3 ) == '\n{|' then
			t = str_trim( t ) -- exclude the leading newline
			table_insert( tables, t )
		end
	end
	return tables
end

-- Get the id from the given table wikitext
-- @param tableWikitext Required. Wikitext of the table to parse.
-- @param attribute Required. Name of the attribute.
-- @return Value of the attribute or nil if not found
function parser.getTableAttribute( tableWikitext, attribute )
	local _, value = str_match( tableWikitext, '^{|[^\n]*' .. attribute .. ' *= *([&quot;\']?)([^\n]-)%1[^\n]*\n' )
	if not value or value == '' then
		value = str_match( tableWikitext, '^{|[^\n]*' .. attribute .. ' *= *([^\n ]+)[^\n]*\n' )
	end
	return value
end

-- Get a table by id from the given wikitext
-- @param wikitext Required. Wikitext to parse.
-- @param id Required. Id of the table
-- @return Wikitext of the table or nil if not found
function parser.getTable( wikitext, id )
	local tables = parser.getTables( wikitext )
	for _, t in ipairs( tables ) do
		if id == parser.getTableAttribute( t, 'id' ) then
			return t
		end
	end
end

-- Get the data from the given table wikitext
-- @param tableWikitext Required. Wikitext of the table to parse.
-- @return Table data
-- @todo Test and make more robust
function parser.getTableData( tableWikitext )
	local tableData = {}
	tableWikitext = str_trim( tableWikitext );
	tableWikitext = str_gsub( tableWikitext, '^{|.-\n', '' ) -- remove the header
	tableWikitext = str_gsub( tableWikitext, '\n|}$', '' ) -- remove the footer
	tableWikitext = str_gsub( tableWikitext, '^|%+.-\n', '' ) -- remove any caption
	tableWikitext = str_gsub( tableWikitext, '|%-.-\n', '|-\n' ) -- remove any row attributes
	tableWikitext = str_gsub( tableWikitext, '^|%-\n', '' ) -- remove any leading empty row
	tableWikitext = str_gsub( tableWikitext, '\n|%-$', '' ) -- remove any trailing empty row
	for rowWikitext in str_gsplit( tableWikitext, '|-' ) do
		local rowData = {}
		rowWikitext = str_gsub( rowWikitext, '||', '\n|' )
		rowWikitext = str_gsub( rowWikitext, '!!', '\n|' )
		rowWikitext = str_gsub( rowWikitext, '\n!', '\n|' )
		rowWikitext = str_gsub( rowWikitext, '^!', '\n|' )
		rowWikitext = str_gsub( rowWikitext, '^\n|', '' )
		for cellWikitext in str_gsplit( rowWikitext, '\n|' ) do
			cellWikitext = str_trim( cellWikitext )
			table_insert( rowData, cellWikitext )
		end
		table_insert( tableData, rowData )
	end
	return tableData
end

-- Get the internal links from the given wikitext (includes category and file links).
-- @param wikitext Required. Wikitext to parse.
-- @return Sequence of internal links.
function parser.getLinks( wikitext )
	local links = {}
	for link in str_gmatch( wikitext, '%[%b[]%]' ) do
		table_insert( links, link )
	end
	return links
end

-- Get the file links from the given wikitext.
-- @param wikitext Required. Wikitext to parse.
-- @return Sequence of file links.
function parser.getFiles( wikitext )
	local files = {}
	local links = parser.getLinks( wikitext )
	for _, link in ipairs( links ) do
		local namespace = str_match( link, '^%[%[ *(.-) *:' )
		if namespace and mw.site.namespaces[ namespace ] and mw.site.namespaces[ namespace ].canonicalName == 'File' then
			table_insert( files, link )
		end
	end
	return files
end

-- Get name of the file from the given file wikitext.
-- @param fileWikitext Required. Wikitext of the file to parse.
-- @return Name of the file
function parser.getFileName( fileWikitext )
	return str_match( fileWikitext, '^%[%[ *.- *: *(.-) *[]|]' )
end

-- Get the category links from the given wikitext.
-- @param wikitext Required. Wikitext to parse.
-- @return Sequence of category links.
function parser.getCategories( wikitext )
	local categories = {}
	local links = parser.getLinks( wikitext )
	for _, link in ipairs( links ) do
		local namespace = str_match( link, '^%[%[ -(.-) -:' )
		if namespace and mw.site.namespaces[ namespace ] and mw.site.namespaces[ namespace ].canonicalName == 'Category' then
			table_insert( categories, link )
		end
	end
	return categories
end

-- Get the external links from the given wikitext.
-- @param wikitext Required. Wikitext to parse.
-- @return Sequence of external links.
function parser.getExternalLinks( wikitext )
	local links = {}
	for link in str_gmatch( wikitext, '%b[]' ) do
		if str_match( link, '^%[//' ) or str_match( link, '^%[https?://' ) then
			table_insert( links, link )
		end
	end
	return links
end

return parser</text>
      <sha1>3r3fpf7d7jt2ttpx3ny4bt85muaz5lj</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Automaticity and goal pursuit</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>330072</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2835902</id>
      <parentid>2834193</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-10-05T07:56:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>SJPiper</username>
        <id>3107750</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Edited multiple paragraphs</comment>
      <origin>2835902</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="11179" sha1="73ehc3hw8rxtiqp1gpukt8245sb0mmp" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Automaticity and goal pursuit:&lt;br&gt;How do habits and environmental cues drive unconscious goal pursuit?}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}
[[File:Driver, Driving the open top sports car, Rostov-on-Don, Russia.jpg|right|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. Undercover officer in pursuit.]]

;Picture this...

You're undercover. The air is cold, the night is dark and worst of all... you're tired. You were about to make the arrest when the suspect gets jumpy and decides to book it. You waste no time going after them, lights flaring and sirens wailing as the tyres of your unmarked police car squeal as you take off in pursuit. You spot your radio in the corner of your eye. You grab it and instantly cite the car make, colour, number plate, location and relevant call signs for support all without a second thought. As you drive corner to corner, street to street, you're gaining on the suspect but they're still out of reach. You watch their car lurch as they hit a catastrophic downshift, costing them seconds. You can smell the clutch. As they approach the highway, backup arrives blocking the top of the on-ramp. They give up, exiting the car with their hands held above their head and their eyes aimed at the ground. A successful arrest with no casualties.

As you think back on the night with a sense of pride you also find yourself in awe of your performance. You focused solely on maintaining visual of the suspect, but also managed to perform skilled operation of a vehicle, navigation and detailed but brief communication all resulting in incremental advantages lending themselves to the success of the arrest with barely any thought involved. Maybe it was your training? Maybe it was the adrenaline? Regardless of what's true you just can't shake the feeling that everything just felt... automatic. &quot;I'm a machine!&quot; you think to yourself, in a cool &quot;robocop&quot; kind of way. 

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Automaticity frees your brain for higher-order thinking, helping you improve your proficiency in goal areas. In fact, many behaviours we perform daily are automatic (see Figure 1). However, it can also drag you down. Many people have behaviours they're unsatisfied with but do anyway. This is because they have formed habits, and those habits execute themselves automatically in response to stimuli. Understanding how to leverage habit formation is a strong strategy for pursuing goals and making the behaviours that drive them sustainable. Psychological science can help with specific frameworks to engineer the most effective cueing routine to increase the likelihood of taking action toward your goals, hopefully without even thinking about it.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

# How do you develop automatic behaviours?
# What do environmental cues contribute? 
# How can we utilise automaticity in goal pursuit?

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Automatic behaviour formation==

Ever think your friend is weird for getting up at 5 am? Or that undercover police officer is incredibly disciplined for going to the gym after work every day? Well, while those tasks might feel foreign to some people, others do them automatically. These behaviours form through repetition, and that repetition eventually makes them automatic. The individual no longer questions &quot;should I go to the gym after work?&quot;; they just go. The famous [[wikipedia:Classical_conditioning|Pavlov's theory of classical conditioning]] explains this perfectly. Classical conditioning involves taking a neutral stimulus and transforming it within the individual to elicit a conditioned response (Sanvictores, et al. 2024).

* Neutral stimulus elicits no response (e.g. a bell).
* Unconditioned stimulus (e.g. food) elicits a direct response known as the unconditioned response (e.g. salivation).
* A conditioned response (e.g. salivating to the bell) happens when the Neutral stimulus creates the same response as the unconditioned stimulus (e.g. salivating) 

==Role of environmental cues==
Environmental cues function similarly to classical conditioning. Common errors with environmental cues include driving to the shops and accidentally starting to drive to work (Wood et al., 2007). In that situation, the environmental cue would be driving the same road you take to work. That behaviour is so routine that your brain programs it to run automatically. Wood et al. in 2007 claim [''Grammar - use past tense here''] that habits are artifacts of previous goal pursuits and that the success of that particular method is ingrained within the body so it can recall it to repeat that success. Their model had two principles:

* The power of contexts to trigger habitual responding.
* The absence of goal mediation in context response associations.

Patterns arise in life, intentional or otherwise. The first principle claims that people store patterns as procedural memory, which, once stored, can be activated by the specific cues associated with that pattern. The second principle claims that goal-oriented behaviours can stick around after the goal has been achieved or is no longer relevant. This is a great insight, as it shows that behaviours can be cognitively offloaded from an internal &quot;willpower&quot; system to an external system. However, it warns against and aims to explain the accidental accumulation of unhelpful behaviours and to provide context for their rigidity.  

==Pursuing goals with automaticity==
Goal pursuit is always envisioned with a strong conscious effort. Overcoming trials and adversity requires steadfast courage and an unbreakable will. So the idea that it could be an unconscious effort seems to go against everything pursuit would stand for. However, cueing the desired behaviour removes decision-making, which is arguably where most people get stuck. Pursuing goals through automaticity aims to remove decision-making around taking action.

In the overview, the undercover police officer had multiple opportunities to freeze or question their actions. Because of training-specific cues, they activated lights and sirens, identified key information about the suspect, and relayed it with the appropriate callsign without hesitation. This lack of decision-making freed up mental capacity to give chase and achieve the goal of a successful arrest.Wood et al. (2016) state that habits interface with goal pursuit in three ways: '''Exposure''', '''activation or inhibition''' and '''inference'''.
# '''Exposure''' provides context cues. During training, the officer would practise the same behaviours in response to the same stimulus repeatedly. Eventually, the habits become linked to context cues, ready for activation or inhibition.
# '''Activation and inhibition''' allow the cue to activate or inhibit a behaviour immediately. Suspect flees --&gt; Lights and sirens go up --&gt; Radio relevant information. Behavioural activation increases the likelihood of a particular behaviour occurring, often requiring conscious thought to intervene during execution rather than before.
# '''Inference''' is observing your own behaviour and determining whether it aligns with your goals. The police officer would be guided by their objective to apprehend the suspect safely. Lights and sirens increase safety, radioing important information increases the chance of finding them if they escape, and calling for backup increases the odds of making an arrest.

&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Behaving in the best interest of your goal is ______:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Inference
- Activation
- Inhibition
- Exposure

{Activation and inhibition allow _________:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- You to turn a behaviour on or off at your own command.
+ Environmental cues to activate a learned behaviour.
- Priming of the brain to consider action
- Environmental cues to be maintained in the brain.
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* Being able to remove thinking from the goal pursuit process would be a milestone for anyone. Making choices is mentally demanding and the goal striving process is already its own mountain. 
* Through this page we discussed how automatic habits occur, what enviromental cues have to do in relation to it, and how important they actually are in a goal orientated process.
* Wood et al.'s (2016) model of exposure, activation and inhibition, and inference is a significant model that represents the ways in which habits interact with goal pursuit. These provide multiple avenues for individuals to try to prompt themselves to produce the best results they can when pursuing a goal.

==See also==
{{expand}}

==References==
Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent.

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Sanvictores, T., Mahabadi, N., &amp; Rehman, C. I. (2024). Classical conditioning. StatPearls Publishing. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK470326/

Wood, W., &amp; Neal, D. T. (2007). A New Look at Habits and the Habit-Goal Interface. Psychological Review, 114(4), 843–863. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.114.4.843

Wood, W., &amp; Rünger, D. (2016). Psychology of Habit. Annual Review of Psychology, 67(1), 289–314. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122414-033417


}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
*** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
*** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
[[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Behaviour]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Goal striving]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Habit]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Unconscious]]</text>
      <sha1>73ehc3hw8rxtiqp1gpukt8245sb0mmp</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Moodiness</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>330082</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2835836</id>
      <parentid>2829789</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-10-05T01:40:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3253363</username>
        <id>3106362</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Overview */ Began making substantial edits to the overview and first subsection to improve readability, spelling, and grammar.</comment>
      <origin>2835836</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="33246" sha1="3uv60wl84z5h686twdtqfkqk6xw4qnv" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Moodiness:&lt;br&gt;What is moodiness, why does it occur, and how can it be managed?}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
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[[File:Frustrated man at a desk (cropped).jpg|right|thumb|190px|'''Figure 1'''. Man frustrated at work due to lack of sleep]]

; Imagine this ... 
You wake up after several nights of poor sleep and immediately feel irritable and unmotivated. Nothing particularly bad has happened, yet this feeling follows you throughout the day. On your way to work, a minor delay in traffic feels unusually frustrating. At work, tasks that would normally seem manageable suddenly feel difficult and unrewarding. When a colleague gives you brief feedback, you interpret their comment more negatively than you normally would. By lunchtime, you avoid joining your coworkers because you do not feel like socialising. Later, a friend sends you a message asking if everything is okay, but you cannot identify a specific reason for feeling this way—you are simply &quot;in a bad mood.&quot;

The following day, after getting a good night's sleep and having an enjoyable conversation with a friend, the same workplace and responsibilities seem much easier to manage. You are more willing to talk to colleagues, everyday problems seem less frustrating, and activities feel more worthwhile.

Experiences like this demonstrate why mood is an important part of everyday life. Unlike an emotion that may be directed towards a specific event or person, a mood can persist across different situations and influence how we experience our surroundings. Why can the same workplace, people, and everyday challenges seem manageable one day but overwhelming the next? And how might our mood influence the way we think, behave, interact with others, and interpret what happens around us?
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'''[[wikipedia:Mood_(psychology)|Mood]]''' is a long-lasting emotional state that influences how a person experiences and responds to the world around them. Moods are not to be confused with emotions, which are directed towards a particular event or object. However, mood does affect emotions, thoughts and behaviours (Couch et al., 2005). Couch et al. (2005) also argues that there have been several attempts to explain the nature of mood and the best explanation for it is the [https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/psychology/higher-order-cognition Higher Order Functional State Theory]. The theory argues that mood is a broader functional state that influences emotional responses and behaviour. However, it is likely that that it may not completely capture the subjective feeling of experiencing a mood (Couch et al., 2005)

Mood plays a crucial role in how a person experiences, understands and interacts with the world around them. As opposed to emotions like happiness or sadness, which last temporarily, moods are a prevailing feeling that lasts for a period of time. Individuals are constantly experiencing a type of mood, even at a subconscious level. Mood plays an important role in how an individual find themselves situated within the world and how they experience their surroundings (Ratcliffe et al., 2013).

The importance of mood is that it helps influence the feelings of something meaningful or significant in life. Different people experience the same environment differently based of their mood. A mood influences how a range of things matter to us. This shows that mood does more than making an experience positive or negative, it creates possibilities that people recognise in their environment (Ratcliffe et al., 2013).

Mood disorders such as depression heavily affect how a person experiences the meaning of their surroundings. Activities that a person once participated in would suddenly seem less important or lose significance, and the person would no longer be able to experience emotional connection with others. In some cases, significances, such as feelings of threat, become overwhelming and influence many aspects of experiences (Ratcliffe et al., 2013).

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'''Focus questions'''

* What is moodiness?
* What causes moodiness?
* How can you manage moodiness?

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== What is moodiness? ==
Mood is described as a long-lasting emotional state, which is developed by positive or negative experiences for an individual and how the individual will responds to similar experiences in the future. Instead of being a temporary emotional reaching, moods affect peoples' sensitivity to potential rewards, punishment, and threats across different situations and periods of time (Nettle et al., 2012).

The moods are experienced by many animal species. This is because the biological mechanisms involved in mood are similar across diverse animals (Nettle et al., 2012). Nettle et al. (2012) Argues that the ability of mood has been conserved through evolution and provides a key adaptive advantage.

Nettle et al. (2012) Explains that mood can be split into a two-dimensional framework. One of the dimensions explains a person’s sensitivity to punishment and threats, while the other dimension explains the sensitivity to reward.

Mood, instead of reacting to an event, influences the expectations of how certain or uncertain an experience is likely to be (Clark et al., 2018). An example of this is when you believe that your mood is affected by your bodily sensations, surrounding and potentially the consequence of your action '''(''Editor's note: check this sentence for coherence and readability)'''''. Mood disorders such as depression could cause these prediction and uncertainty systems to not functioning normally (Clark et al., 2018). Clark et al. (2012) suggests that mood can be described as a background setting in the brain that influences how an individual interprets emotions, uncertainty, and experiences.

=== '''Mood at a social level''' ===
A social understanding of mood can be described as something that influences how an individual interacts and behaves in society. Social mood differs from emotion as it explains a larger reason for what shapes peoples' judgements, attitudes, and behaviours across different social situations (Squazzoni et al., 2017).

Squazzone et al. (2017) finds that mood can influence many areas of social life, such as relationships, consumer decisions, economic behaviour, and voting preferences. Often, a decision that a person makes under the influence of their mood can seem irrational. Behavioural and evolutionary research implicates that mood can serve meaningful functions in guiding how an individual reacts to their social environment.

Overall, mood does not only work at an individual level. Shared and collective moods can have influence in social relationships and patterns of behaviours within groups and societies. It can be implied that mood plays an important role in shaping how an individual or a group perceive others, make decisions, form relationships and respond to wider social and political environments (Squazzne et al., 2017)

=== '''Mood at a psychological level''' ===
Within psychology, mood can be described as a recurring emotional state which influences a person’s thinking, feelings, evaluation of situations and behaviour. It differs from emotions which is more of an immediate response to a situation, mood can be highly subjective, where how a person experiences and describes their mood can be based on their own perceptions and personal experiences (Donnet et al., 1993). 

Mood has been long researched within the history of philosophy and medicine. Earlier examples were based off of the four humours – blood, phlegm, yellow bile and black bile, where mood would depend on balance between these bodily fluids. However, in modern psychology uses many other different approaches such as cognitive, phenomenological, psychoanalytic and ethological (Donnet et al., 1993).

To simplify things further, moods are like a lens we use to experience everyday life. For example, when a person is in a happy mood, everything in their surroundings and their interactions will appear to be more enjoyable and meaningful. In contrast, when someone is in a negative mood, the same situation all of a sudden will start to feel less appealing or significant (Freeman et al., 2014). Freeman et al., 2014 also argues that using psychology can be heavily beneficial to understand mood as not only something someone feels internally, but it can help shape how someone perceives, interprets and engages with their environment. 

=== '''Mood at a biological level''' ===
From the perspective of biology, mood can be influenced by body’s internal biological rhythms, mainly the [[wikipedia:Circadian_rhythm|circadian rhythm]], which is in charge of controlling the 24-hour sleep-wake cycle. This particular biological clock is managed mostly by the specific “clock” genes and is influenced by environmental signals, know as zeitgebers, such as exposure to light (Justice et al., 2006).

Mood disorders generally occur due to disruptions in these biological rhythms. An example of this is when changes in daylight occur due to seasonal change which affects mode and contributes to winter depression. The relationship between light, biological rhythms, and mood is supported by the effectiveness of light therapy, which helps in treating seasonal depression and potentially other forms of depression (Justice et al., 2006).

Hormone known as [[wikipedia:Melatonin|melatonin]] assists in regulating the circadian system and sleep, further demonstrating the connection between biological processes and mood (Justice et al., 2006). Any changes in the melatonin secretion and disrupted biological rhythms has been observed in people experiencing mood disorders (Mongeau et al., 2013). Research also suggests that genetic, epigenetic, and environmental factors can disrupt the alignment between a person’s internal body clock and external schedules, potentially increasing vulnerability to mood problems (Mongeau et al., 2013). It can be said in biological approach that mood is partly influenced by interactions with brain, hormones, sleep, genetics and the body’s internal clock. Any disruptions in these systems can result in changes in mood (Justice et al.,2006).

&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Which statement best explains how mood influences an individual?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Mood acts like a background state that can influence how people interpret experiences, rewards, threats, and social situations.
- Mood is entirely determined by a person’s circadian rhythm.
- Mood only affects a person’s emotions and has no influence on behaviour or decision-making.
- Mood is a brief emotional reaction that disappears immediately after an event.

{Mood is influenced only by psychological experiences and is unrelated to biological processes such as sleep, circadian rhythms, hormones, and light exposure?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==What Causes Moodiness?==

Changes in mood can be described as a combination of internal psychological processes, personality differences, and the situations that a person experiences. People are naturally able to regulate their moods by comparing how they currently vs how they would like to feel. The difference in actual vs preferred mood, caused people to use mood-regulation techniques to improve, maintain or on occasions worsen their mood (Wesniewska et al., 2017). 

The changes in mood can be caused by controlled or automatic process. In the controlled process, a person tries to consciously change how they feel, in comparison, in automatic process a person’s feelings change involuntarily. And example of this could be a person will automatically direct their attention towards an information that helps alter their current mood (Wesniewska et al., 2017).

Another huge factor in mood changes is a person’s personality. People that are extraverted are associated with having a positive affect while people with neuroticism are associated with having a negative affect. However, these can change based on the situation (Wesniewska et al., 2017).

Overall, changes in mood can be a result of interactions between personality, situations, cognitive process, and the strategies people use to regulate how they feel (Wesniewska et al., 2017)

'''Social Contributions to Moodiness'''

Social media and smartphones communication also play a big part in changes of mood in adolescents. Li et al., 2023 completed a study involving 83 adolescents over 90 days, analysing about 354,000 messages across social communication apps with participants providing ratings of their mood daily.

Li et al., 2023 found that the emotional tone of communications between adolescents were used as predictor of how they felt the following day. For example, adolescents that were involved in more positive language in their messages experienced more positive mood the next day, despite having a lower mood score the prior day. Larger used in positive language also caused reductions in levels of [[wikipedia:Anhedonia|anhedonia]], which is referred to as reduced pleasure or interest in activities. Alternatively greater use of negative language in communications resulted in increased [[wikipedia:Dysphoria|dysphoria]], or felling of emotional distress and unhappiness.

Li et al., 2023 also found that higher usage of socially engaging words such as words relating to friends and affiliation, predicted positive changes in mood. Frequent uses of emojis, specifically the heart emoji also associated with improved mood.

It can be argued that the findings find that there is a strong relationship in between social media communication and mood fluctuations. However the research primarily shows that online language is a good predictor for changes in mood fluctuations, instead of proving that social media communication causes mood changes (Li et al., 2023). 

'''How does childhood affect Moodiness'''

Childhood trauma can also play a major role in person developing mood disorders, some of which include depression and bipolar disorder. Trauma includes experiences such as physical, sexual or emotion abuse, neglect, parental loss or prolonged separation during childhood. Research shows that people with mood disorders are likely to share these experiences in comparison to the general population (Andryszewska et al., 2018).

One of the explanations could be that early trauma can have an affect on the developing brain. Stress during childhood years can release stress-related chemicals and neurotransmitters which can interfere with the developing brain cells and networks. This interference can have lasting affects on areas in charge of memory and emotional regulation, in particular the hippocampus and amygdala, potentially leading into having an affect on how an individual processes emotion and responds to stress later in life (Andrysweska et al., 2018).

Childhood trauma can also interact with genetic and epigenetic factors, potentially having an effect on how vulnerable a person is to future mood problems. HPA stress-response system and inflammation has also been associated with trauma which can have a further impact on mood disorders (Andrysweska et al., 2018).

It can be argued that childhood trauma does not necessarily cause mood disorder by itself. Instead, the research suggest that it can interact with brain development, stress systems, genetics, and epigenetic processes, which can all increase the risk and potentially the severity of mood disorders later in life (Andrysweska et al., 2018). 

&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Which of the following best explains why a person’s mood may change?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Mood changes are caused only by personality.
- Mood changes are caused only by social interactions.
+ Mood changes can result from interactions between personality, situations, cognitive processes, and mood-regulation strategies.
- Mood changes occur randomly and cannot be regulated.

{The use of positive language in adolescents’ online communication was associated with a more positive mood the following day?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==How Can You Manage Moodiness?==

Mood management plays a huge role in maintaining a healthy and prosperous live, managing and trying to actively maintain positive mood reduces negative mood throughout a person’s everyday behaviours and activities (Hess et al., 2010). Hess et al., argues that using the principle of homeostasis, where a person adjusts their behaviour to respond to a change in mood in order maintain a relatively stable emotional state. 

An example of this can be an individual seeking out an activity/hobby that helps them calm or raise positive mood when they might be experiencing a negative mood. Seeking these methods to maintain positive mood can result encouraging behaviours that assist in maintain that emotional state. Research found strong results for the mood management process, with positive mood typically lasting several hours (Hess et al., 2010)

Forgas et al., 2023 ran three experiments examining how people naturally regulate positive and negative moods over time. The participants first underwent mood inductions, which placed them either in a positive or negative mood. They were then asked to complete a sequence of tasks to observe if their responses reflected their initial mood or if it changed. It was found that people in positive mood responded positively while those in negative responded negatively. However, over time the responses moved away from their mood, which may be due to people trying to adjust their mood from to positive or negative. The experiment suggests that mood is not statice and people may use their cognitive process to move themselves into a balanced mood over time.

Overall, the process of mood management can be described as an ongoing process of regulating mood through behaviour. It is empirical that people seek activities/hobbies that influence their emotional state as it allows them to respond to changes in mood and maintain greater emotional stability in everyday life (Hess et al., 2010).

'''Participation in physical activity and its effect on mood'''

Physical activity plays a vital role in maintaining a positive effect on moon and mental well-being, specially for those that might be experiencing symptoms of depression and anxiety. Research has found that exercising regularly can help in reducing depressive symptoms. It can be argued that just one single session of exercise can temporarily improve depression and anxiety symptoms for up to several houre and in many cases, up to a day. People that participate in regular exercise report improvements in self-esteem, vitality, general well-being and satisfaction with their physical appearance (Peluso et al., 2005).

Frequently participating in both [[wikipedia:Aerobic_exercise|aerobic exercise]] such as walking, running or cycling and [[wikipedia:Anaerobic_exercise|anaerobic exercise]], like resistance training have been associated with reduction in depressive symptoms. However, it is found that the relationship between exercise and improved mood varies from individual to individual, specially in those without existing mental health symptoms (peluso et al., 2005).

There are many reasons for exercising improving mood, from a psychological perspective it could be distraction from negative thoughts or stressful situation while exercising. Self-efficacy which involves joys of completing a tedious physical activity resulting in confidence and feelings of achievement and social interactions where exercising with other provider social connection and support (Peluso et al., 2005).

Biological reasons could also result in positive moods where brain chemicals known as monoamines are involved in mood regulation. Exercising also increases the release of [[wikipedia:Endorphins|endorphins]] which contributes to feeling of calmness and improved mood after physical activity. However, research does not implicate the use of one biological mechanism as the sole explanation (Peluso et al., 2005)

Overall, research does suggest that participating in physical activity does have a positive effect on a person’s mood through a combination of psychological, social and biological processes. Exercise can help with reduction of negative feelings, assist with providing social connections and distraction, increase confidence and produce biological changes which are associated with improved emotional well-being (Peluso et al., 2005). 

'''Effect of music on mood'''

Suvi et al., 2007 researched the importance of music and how it helps adolescents manage and regulate moods in everyday life. Across three studies the researcher found that much plays an important role in emotional well being and adolescent development. It was very important for understanding, expressing, maintaining and changing moods also with supporting identity, independence and social relationships.

Suvi et al., 2007 found two main goals for using music to regulate mood: mood improvement and mood control. Mood improvement was described as a method to use music to create or strengthen positive feelings while mood control was described as using music to manage unwanted or difficult emotional states. Adolescents used seven different strategies to achieve these goals. '''Entertainment''' to help create and maintain positive moods, '''revival''' involved using music to increase energy and feel refreshed. '''Strong sensation''' which helped adolescents experience powerful emotions through music and '''Diversion''' which was used as a distraction from stress, negative thoughts and unwanted feelings.

'''Discharge''' was another strategy used which involved using music to let out anger and frustration, '''Mental work''' which was the use of music as a reflection and understanding personal feelings and experiences. Lastly, '''Solace''' which involved music as a comfort and emotional support during difficult situations (Suvi et al., 2007).

Suvi et al., 2007 developed a '''Music in Mood Regulation (MMR) scale''' which assisted in understanding how each adolescent used each strategy to manage moods. The results showed that girls relied a lot more on these strategies than boys while older adolescents used it more frequently than younger adolescents. It was also found that MMR was related to musical preferences, musical background and general mood-regulation abilities.

Overall, it was concluded that music can be a very valuable too in order to manage everyday mood. It can help with improving positive mood, help coping with negative moods, process feeling, find comfort and maintain control over emotional experiences. 

'''Use of online gaming to manage mood'''

Russoneillo et al.,2009 investigated the use of casual video games and if it can help manage people’s mood and stress. Casual video games are games that can be described as fun, easy to learn, quickly accessible and suitable for short periods of play. The test was a randomised controlled study in which the participants played one of three games: Bejewelled 2, bookworm adventures and peggle, for 20 minutes or completed and internet search task as a controlled condition. Mood was measured using the [[wikipedia:Profile_of_mood_states|Profile of Mood States (POMS)]], while [[wikipedia:Electroencephalography|EEG]] and heart-rate variability were also used to examine physiological changes.

The results found that playing casual video game helped provide an effective way of regulating negative moods and encouraging more positive emotional states. In between all three games, all participants showcased significant reductions in tension, with the games collectively reducing tension compared to the control condition. After playing all three games the participants too reported lower depressive mood. There were large reduction in depressive score for participants playing video games in comparison to those in the control group which was identified through the effect size analysis (Russoneillo et al., 2009).

Research also found that gaming also had reductions in anger, fatigue and confusion. However, the results did vary based on which game was played. The EEG supported the self-reported positive mood with brain activity associated with improved mood, greater engagement and emotional stability. Heart rate measure also suggested that certain game, particularly Bejeweled 2 produced physiological changes consistent with reduced physical stress (Russoneillo et al., 2009).

In summary, the study suggests that playing casual video games for short periods of time can have a positive effect on managing mood by reducing negative feelings such as tension, anger, depression, fatigue and confusion while promoting relaxation and positive engagement. However, it has been noted that the research did have methodological limitations and that further research is recommended before considering casual gaming as an established therapeutic intervention (Russoneillo et al., 2009). 

&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Which of the following can be used as a strategy to help manage and improve mood?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Physical activity.
- Listening to music.
- Playing casual video games.
+ All of the above.

{Mood is a completely fixed emotional state, meaning people cannot naturally regulate or change their mood over time?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure; this can be the figure in the scenario
* For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] which hosts free-to-use media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, and audio
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Conclusion==
Mood is a complex and important psychological phenomenon that influences how individuals think, feel, behave, interpret their surroundings, and interact with other people. Rather than being a brief emotional reaction to a particular event, mood can persist across situations and influence sensitivity to rewards, threats, and future experiences (Nettle et al., 2012). Mood can therefore be viewed as a background state or “lens” through which people experience their everyday lives, affecting what appears meaningful, enjoyable, threatening, or worth pursuing (Ratcliffe et al., 2013; Freeman et al., 2014).

Importantly, no single explanation can fully account for why moods develop and change. From a biological perspective, circadian rhythms, sleep, melatonin, genetics, and other biological processes contribute to mood regulation, while disruptions to these systems have been associated with mood disorders (Justice et al., 2006; Mongeau et al., 2013). From a social perspective, mood can influence relationships, decision-making, social behaviour, and even wider economic and political preferences (Squazzoni et al., 2017). Individual differences are also important, as personality, cognitive processes, environmental situations, and automatic or controlled mood-regulation strategies can contribute to changes in mood (Wesniewska et al., 2017).

Understanding mood is particularly important because people can actively engage in behaviours that help manage and regulate their emotional states. Research suggests that music can help individuals improve, control, express, and process their moods (Suvi et al., 2007), while physical activity can improve mood through psychological, social, and biological mechanisms (Peluso et al., 2005). Casual video games may similarly reduce tension, anger, fatigue, confusion, and depressive mood while promoting relaxation and positive engagement (Russoniello et al., 2009).

Finally, understanding factors associated with negative mood is essential for mental health. Childhood trauma can interact with brain development, stress-response systems, genetic factors, and epigenetic processes, increasing vulnerability to later mood disorders (Andryszewska et al., 2018). Social communication may also provide insight into mood fluctuations, with positive online language predicting more positive subsequent mood among adolescents (Li et al., 2023). Overall, mood should be understood as the result of interacting biological, psychological, social, and environmental influences. Recognising these influences and developing healthy mood-management strategies may support emotional well-being and provide greater understanding of how everyday mood fluctuations can influence people's lives.

==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Moodiness|Moodiness]] Honeybelle11 (Book chapter, 2025)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Mood and emotion|Mood and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2014)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Mood management theory and media consumption|Mood management theory and media consumption]] (Book chapter, 2020)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=
Nettle, D., &amp; Bateson, M. (2012). The Evolutionary Origins of Mood and Its Disorders. Current Biology, 22(17), R712–R721. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2012.06.020&lt;br&gt;

Clark, J. E., Watson, S., &amp; Friston, K. J. (2018). What is mood? A computational perspective. Psychological Medicine, 48(14), 2277–2284. doi: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291718000430&lt;br&gt;

Prescott-Couch, A. (2005). What is a Mood? The Yale Philosophy Review, 1, 42–58. Doi: https://doi.org/10.5840/ypr200513&lt;br&gt;
Europe PMC. (2019). Europe PMC. Europepmc.Org. doi: https://europepmc.org/article/med/8275897&lt;br&gt;

Freeman, L. (2014). Toward a Phenomenology of Mood. The Southern Journal of Philosophy, 52(4), 445–476. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/sjp.12089&lt;br&gt;

Wirz-Justice, A. (2006). Biological rhythm disturbances in mood disorders. International Clinical Psychopharmacology, 21, S11-S15. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1097/01.yic.0000195660.37267.cf&lt;br&gt;

Lanfumey, L., Mongeau, R., &amp; Hamon, M. (2013). Biological rhythms and melatonin in mood disorders and their treatments. Pharmacology &amp; Therapeutics, 138(2), 176–184. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pharmthera.2013.01.005&lt;br&gt;

Doan, L. (2012). A Social Model of Persistent Mood States. Social Psychology Quarterly, 75(3), 198–218. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1177/0190272512451157&lt;br&gt;

Hess, J. D., Kacen, J. J. and Kim, J. (2006). Mood-management dynamics: The interrelationship between moods and behaviours. British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology, 59, 347–378. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1348/000711005X81133&lt;br&gt;

Forgas, J. P., &amp; Ciarrochi, J. V. (2002). On Managing Moods: Evidence for the Role of Homeostatic Cognitive Strategies in Affect Regulation. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28(3), 336–345. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167202286005&lt;br&gt;

Peluso, M. A. M., &amp; Andrade, L. H. S. G. de. (2005). Physical activity and mental health: The association between exercise and mood. Clinics, 60(1), 61–70. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1590/S1807-59322005000100012&lt;br&gt;

Marszał-Wiśniewska, M., &amp; Nowicka, M. (2017). Individual Differences in Mood Changes. Journal of Happiness Studies, 19(5), 1415–1438. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-017-9879-5&lt;br&gt;

Jaworska-Andryszewska, P., &amp; Rybakowski, J. K. (2018). Childhood trauma in mood disorders: neurobiological mechanisms and implications for treatment. Pharmacological Reports, 71(1). Doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pharep.2018.10.004&lt;br&gt;
Saarikallio, S. (2017). Music as mood regulation in adolescence. Jyväskylä Studies in Humanities, 67. Doi: https://doi.org/978-951-39-2731-8&lt;br&gt;

Li, L. Y., Trivedi, E., Helgren, F., Allison, G. O., Zhang, E., Buchanan, S. N., Pagliaccio, D., Durham, K., Allen, N. B., Auerbach, R. P., &amp; Shankman, S. A. (2023). Capturing mood dynamics through adolescent smartphone social communication. Journal of Psychopathology and Clinical Science, 132(8), 1072–1084. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1037/abn0000855&lt;br&gt;

Russoneillo, C., O’Brian, K., &amp; Parks, J. (2009). The effectiveness of casual video games in improving mood and decreasing stress (pp. 53–65). Journal of CyberTherapy &amp; Rehabilitation.
}}

==External links==
{{ic|Use bullet points as shown in Tutorial 2}}

[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E6Im__hq8Cc 10 Tips to help manage low moods | A doctor's guide] (Youtube)

[https://open.spotify.com/episode/3ZFpkCqQmUgWI1eQZf5MIF Managing mood swings &amp; emotional instability with Chrissy Court MSW, RSW] (Spotify)

[https://positivepsychology.com/positive-negative-emotions/ Positive and negative emotions: Do we need both?] (Positive psychology.com)

[https://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/stress-management/in-depth/positive-thinking/art-20043950 Positive thinking: Stop negative self-talk to reduce stress] (Mayo clinic)

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==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Basteibrücke morgens.jpg|thumb|Basteibrücke morgens {{ic|Add a meaningful APA style caption}}]]

;Scenario

Imagine Mia, a 21-year-old university student who has recently been diagnosed with anxiety. Before her diagnosis, Mia viewed herself as highly independent, outgoing and capable. She quite enjoyed attending University, spending time with her friends and felt confident in her ability to manage stressful situations. 

After her diagnosis, Mia became increasingly concerned about what other people might think of her anxiety. She has previously heard people describe about mental health problems as being “attention seeking”, “dramatic” or a sign of being “weak”. Although none of her friends never said this about her, she decided to not tell them about her diagnosis. 

As time went by, the stereotypes begin to influence how Mia sees herself. The belief that “People with mental health illness are weak” gradually becomes “I am weak because I have a mental illness”. When she struggles with a University assignment, instead of seeing it as a challenge, she thinks “Maybe I can’t do this like everyone else can”. She also withdraws from social occasions and previous opportunities she enjoyed.

Importantly, Mia’s friends never changed their behaviour towards Mia. What changed was Mia’s perception of herself. A negative stereotype that exists within her social environment has been internalised into her own self-beliefs. Mia’s experience demonstrates the central problem explored in this book chapter: How does a social stereotype become an emotional burden carried by the individual?

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

This chapter will explore how self-stigma can impact emotional well-being, particularly when negative social stereotypes about mental illness become internalised, shaping how individuals think and feel about themselves. It examines how self-stigma develops, its effects on emotions such as shame and hopelessness, most influentially how changes in self-esteem and self-efficacy can influence motivation and behaviour. Psychological theories will also explain these processes and how to break the cycle of self-stigma. 

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
;Focus questions

{{ic|}}•	What is self stigma and how does it develop from public stigma?

•	How does self-stigma influence shame, self-esteem, hope and emotional distress?

•	Which psychological theories explain the relationship between self-stigma and emotional wellbeing?

•	How can emotional consequences of self-stigma influence motivation and behaviour?

•	What factors can help people resist or reduce self-stigma?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Understanding self-stigma==
Mental health stigma can operate at several levels. Self-stigma is a hidden struggle that can have profound impacts on an individual’s emotional and physical wellbeing (Bonnelame, 2024). Public stigma refers to negative stereotypes, discriminatory comments and prejudice towards people with mental health conditions held by society. When individuals with mental health struggles internalise and believe in the negative stereotypes society creates about their experience, individuals can become self-critical, have low self-esteem, negative attitudes and develop feelings of shame.

This distinction can be seen in Mia’s experience. Hearing someone claim that people with anxiety are weak” represents a socially held stereotype, it is not self-stigma when Mia becomes aware of the stereotype. It becomes more personally harmful when she begins agreeing with the stereotype and decided that because she has anxiety, she must be weak.

'''From public stigma to self-stigma  '''

Corrigan et al., (2011) conceptualise a progressive model of self-stigma involving awareness, agreement, application and harm. It begins with a person becoming aware that a stereotype exists. Awareness does not mean the individual agrees with the stereotype. The next stage is agreement, the individual begins to accept the stereotype as accurate, they may think “People with mental illness really are less capable”. Through application, the stereotype becomes harmful when the individual applies the belief to themselves, “I have a mental illness, so I must be less capable”. This application internalises harm through reduced self-esteem, hope and self-efficacy (Corrigan et al., 2011).

Figure 2. The self-stigma process. *insert image next to text in wikiversity**

Figure 2 demonstrates an important point that exposure to stigma does not automatically produce self-stigma. It is possible for an individual to recognise a stereotype about anxiety being “weak” but completely reject it. The process entirely relies on whether the individual chooses to believe in negative social beliefs or become motivated against them.

== Emotional consequences of self stigma ==
{{ic|What is the key empirical evidence about the effect of SS on E?}}

The emotional consequences of self-stigma extend beyond simply “feeling bad”. Internalising how a stereotype can change how individuals evaluate their worth, goals and future. Emotions such as shame and hopelessness are likely to influence self-esteem.

A meta-analysis by Livingston and Boyd (2010) identified a consistent negative relationship between internalised stigma and psychological factors of hope, self-esteem and empowerment. Study form Hawke (2025) further demonstrates a relationship between self-stigma, self-esteem and quality of life. This suggests emotional wellbeing as one of the pathways which social stigma becomes personally damaging.

'''Shame and negative self-evaluation'''

If negative stereotypes are considered to be personally meaningful, a diagnosis or psychological difficulty is possible to be brought into identity, self-stigma can encourage this transition. A person may begin defining themselves through stereotyped characteristics rather than viewing their mental health condition as one aspect of their entire identity.

There is an important psychological difference between thinking “This is what anxiety feels like” and “there is something wrong with me because I have anxiety”. The first describes an experience and the second turns that experience into a deeper judgement of self-worth and shame.

Mia previously understood herself as a student, friend and capable young adult. After internalising negative beliefs about anxiety, her interpretation of them has changed but she has not forgotten about them. She now evaluates daily challenges through the assumption that she is somehow less capable.

'''Self-esteem and self-worth'''

Self-esteem refers to an individual’s evaluation of how they view themselves (Hepper, 2016). Self-stigma can threaten self-esteem as negative stereotypes become negative self-evaluations. Instead of believing and accepting “some people hold negative attitudes towards mental illness”, the person may conclude “those negative characteristics describe me”. Self-worth is rooted in the idea that individuals like to see themselves as favourable, they act in a way that maintains and enhances a positive self-view (Stets &amp; Burke, 2014).  People internalise their judgement of personal worth from others' responses. The desire for human agency has been labelled the self-efficacy motive connected to a second dimension of self-esteem (Stets &amp; Burke, 2014).

The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale is the most frequently used tool for measuring self-esteem and helps identify when targeted interventions, such as addressing negative self-beliefs or employing cognitive restructuring, are necessary (NovoPsych, 2021). When individuals view themselves as less worthy, valuable, or capable, their expectations regarding relationships, education, employment, and other life goals often diminish. The progressive self-stigma model suggests that internalising stereotypes can decrease self-esteem and hope. According to Corrigan et al. (2011b), over 20% of individuals with serious mental illness experience negative self-stigma.

'''Hope and quality of life'''

Self-stigma influences how individuals treat their current and future selves. Świtaj and Grygiel (2017) studied individuals with serious mental health conditions such as depression, bipolar disorder, and PTSD. They found that positive self-esteem and hope jointly reduce internalised stigma and improve quality of life. This supports the idea that self-stigma affects wellbeing through pathways rather than through one remote emotion. Table 1 briefly describes consequences that affect one’s quality of life. One consequence may strengthen another and contribute to an ongoing cycle.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Table 1. Emotional pathway of self-stigma – reduced quality of life
!Self Belief 
!Possible Emotional consequence 
|-
|&quot;There is something wrong with me&quot;
|Shame 
|-
|&quot;I am not good enough&quot;
|Reduced self-esteem
|-
|&quot;Things will never get better&quot;
|Hopelessness 
|-
|&quot;Others will reject me&quot; 
|Anxiety or Fear 
|-
|&quot;I have a limited future&quot;
|Sadness/Depressive effect
|}

== Why does self-stigma effect emotion{{g}} ==
Psychological theory helps explain why internalised stereotypes influence emotions, motivation and behaviour. It is only part of the problem to understand that self-stigma is associated with emotional distress.

The “Why try” effect and self-discrepancy theory provide two useful explanations for how negative self-beliefs can influence both emotional experiences and decisions about goal pursuit.

'''The “Why Try” effect'''

A consequence of self-stigma is the “why try” effect, a sense of uselessness that occurs when people believe they don’t deserve to achieve personal goals because they apply mental illness stereotypes of hopelessness to themselves (Rüsch et al., 2015).

Mia, for example, may decide not to apply for a competitive internship at a university because she thinks her anxiety will prevent her from doing so. Because there never was an application to evaluate, the university never turned down her application. Her externalised expectation influenced her behaviour before the next could even respond. This is why self-stigma can have significant motivational consequences and reduce achievement and positive experiences in life.

'''Self-discrepancy theory'''

According to Higgins (1987), individuals have several self-representations such as their ought self, ideal self and actual selves. Another perspective on the emotional effects of self-stigma is the self-discrepancy theory. The real self is a person’s perception of their present self. The ought self is who they should be, but the ideal self is who they would like to become (Higgins, 1987)'''.'''

The perceived gap between these identities may grow as a result of self-stigma. For example, a student’s idea self might be confident, self-sufficient, and academically successful. If that stereotype is internalised, mental illness leaves a person incapable and perceive their true self as becoming more and more different from this ideal.

Emotional consequences that occur not merely from possessing a diagnosis, but what the diagnosis indicates about the self. When someone feels they are no longer the person they wanted or anticipated to become, they may feel disappointed, ashamed or hopeless.

The self-discrepancy theory and the “why try” effect complement one another. Self-discrepancy theory helps explain the emotional discomfort associated with negative identity evaluations, while the “why try” effect helps explain how reduced self-esteem and self-efficacy may translate into reduced goal drive.

'''Planned learning feature – Case study Sabrina'''

Sabrina has recently started a new job and has been diagnosed with an anxiety disorder. During her lunch break, she hears a colleague describe another person who experienced a panic attack as “dramatic”. Sabrina initially thinks, “They probably think people with anxiety are dramatic too”. A few weeks later, this negative thought turned into “Maybe I am dramatic”. Before an upcoming team-building activity, Sabrina becomes concerned that someone will notice her anxiety. She begins to worry, thinking that she doesn’t belong in her new workplace and that she may embarrass herself. She originally wanted to get to know her colleagues; instead, she spiralled, decided to tell her supervisor she was unwell, and went home. 

'''Reflection questions:'''

·      Where does public stigma appear in Sabrina’s experience?

·      At what point does the stereotype become self-stigma?

·      What emotional consequences might Maya experience?

·      How could these emotions influence her motivation?

·      Why might avoiding situations strengthen rather than challenge her negative self-beliefs?

== Breaking the cycle ==

Self-stigma is neither inevitable nor irreversible, it is possible to reject negative stereotypes rather then become them. Psychological interventions can help struggling individuals recognise, question and restructure internalised beliefs. Reducing self-stigma should not mean placing responsibility entirely on the individual but learning to accept their identity. Stereotypes originate in social environments, and support from individuals is required to reduce public stigma and discrimination.

'''Stigma resistance'''

A meta-analysis by Firmin (2016) found that higher stigma resistance correlates with negative outcomes such as lower self-efficacy, reduced hope, diminished quality of life, and poorer recovery. The authors emphasised the importance of cultural and individual differences, noting that stigma is not a uniform process that affects everyone the same way.

Stigma resistance is the ability to challenge or reject negative stereotypes instead of accepting them as true representations of oneself. For example, stigma resistance could change: &quot;People think anxiety makes someone weak, so I must be weak.&quot; to: &quot;That stereotype exists, but it does not determine my abilities or worth.&quot; This approach does not mean denying stigma; rather, it involves recognising stereotypes without letting them define one's identity.

'''Narrative enhancement and cognitive behavioural therapy'''

To reduce the common phenomenon of self-stigma, Narrative Enhancement and Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (NECT) is a structured, group-based treatment aimed at reducing self-stigma. It combines psychoeducation to help replace stigmatising views about mental illness, teaching skills to challenge negative self-beliefs and enhance one’s ability to narrate life (Young, 2016). Someone who believes “I have depression, therefore I am incapable” might learn to identify this as an internalised stereotype rather than an objective fact. Cognitive techniques can help refrain negative thoughts, manage emotions and respond to challenges more effectively, while narrative approaches help the individual recognise other meaningful aspects of their identity (Roe et al., 2021).

Research conducted by Roe et al. (2013) presents an experimental study that examined NECT among individuals with mental illness. Similar research by Dubreucq and Faraldo (2021) observed reductions in self-stigma and enhancements in self-esteem relative to conventional treatment. Research on self-stigma interventions shows considerable variability in the populations studied, intervention structures, and outcomes measured. Reviews have identified promising results for psychological interventions; however, the long-term effects and generalizability remain uncertain. Consequently, NECT is regarded as favourable rather than as a comprehensive solution to stigma.

'''Social support and changing public stigma'''

Interventions directed towards individuals address only part of the problem. Self-stigma begins with stereotypes in social environments. Asking individuals to simply “think differently” ignores the possibility that they may continue encountering prejudice or discrimination. Friends, family members, peers, educators, employers, and health professionals can counteract stereotypes by addressing mental health challenges without confining individuals solely to a diagnosis. Reducing public stigma may decrease the negative messages available to be internalised in the first place.

Education and meaningful social interactions with individuals who have experienced mental illness have been studied as methods to challenge public stigma. Evidence (***) indicates these strategies can reduce stigmatising attitudes, although the effects tend to be temporary.

Reducing self-stigma requires action at individual, interpersonal, and social levels, recognising that people can develop skills to resist stigma while society also holds responsibility for reducing the stigma they are being asked to resist. 

'''Quick Knowledge check – QUIZ –'''

'''Which example best represents stigma resistance?'''

A. “People probably know my limitations better than I do.”

B. “My diagnosis means I should lower my expectations.”

C. “The stereotype exists, but it does not determine my individual abilities.”

D. “If I hide my diagnosis completely, stigma cannot affect me.”

Correct answer: C

==Conclusion==
Self-stigma develops when negative social stereotypes are internalised and transformed into personal self-beliefs. While exposure to stigma may start with external factors, its emotional consequences become harmful when individuals accept these stereotypes and apply them to themselves. This shows how societal attitudes can become deeply personal and shape individuals’ self-perception of worth, abilities, and future.

Understanding self-stigma provides more than an explanation for emotional distress; it reveals opportunities for change. By interrupting the process through which social stereotypes become part of one’s self-concept, individuals can protect their self-esteem by drowning out external constructs at both the personal and societal level without being limited by the stereotypes attached to their diagnosis.

==See also==

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Self-concept clarity|Self-concept clarity]] (Book chapter, 2019)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Self-efficacy and motivation|Self-efficacy and motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014)

==References==

Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent.

{{Hanging indent|1=

Bonnelame, R. (2024, May 24). Understanding and overcoming self-stigma. Mifwa. https://www.mifwa.org.au/blog/understanding-and-overcoming-self-stigma/

Corrigan, P. W., Rafacz, J., &amp; Rüsch, N. (2011). Examining a progressive model of self-stigma and its impact on people with serious mental illness. Psychiatry Research, 189(3), 339–343. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2011.05.024

Dubreucq, J., &amp;Faraldo, M. (2021). Narrative enhancement and cognitive therapy (NECT) to improve social functioning in people with serious mental illness: Study protocol for a stepped-wedge cluster randomized controlled trial. Trials, 22(1), 124. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13063-021-05067-1

Hawke, L. D., Amartey, A., &amp; Szatmari, P. (2025). The association between mental health self-stigma and multiple mental health conditions: A systematic review. SSM - Mental Health, 8, 100475. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssmmh.2025.100475

Hepper, E. (2016, December). Self-esteem. ResearchGate. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301662815_Self-Esteem

Higgins, E. T. (1987). Self-discrepancy: A theory relating self and affect. ResearchGate. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/19545638_Self-Discrepancy_A_Theory_Relating_Self_and_Affect

Livingston, J. D., &amp; Boyd, J. E. (2010). Correlates and consequences of internalized stigma for people living with mental illness: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Social Science &amp; Medicine, 71(12), 2150–2161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2010.09.030

NovoPsych. (2021, March). Rosenberg self-esteem scale (RSES). NovoPsych. https://novopsych.com/assessments/well-being/rosenberg-self-esteem-scale-rses/

Roe, D., Hasson-Ohayon, I., Mashiach-Eizenberg, M., Derhy, O., Lysaker, P. H., &amp; Yanos, P. T. (2013). Narrative enhancement and cognitive therapy (NECT) effectiveness: A quasi-experimental study. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 70(4), 303–312. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.22050

Roe, D., Yamin, A., Hasson-Ohayon, I., Lysaker, P. H., &amp; Yanos, P. T. (2021). Narrative enhancement cognitive therapy (NECT). The Recovery of the Self in Psychosis, 116–134. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429486500-8

Rose, A. L., Atkey, S. K., Flett, G. L., &amp; Goldberg, J. O. (2019). Self‐stigma and domains of well‐being in high school youth: Associations with self‐efficacy, self‐esteem, and self‐criticism. Psychology in the Schools, 56(8). https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.22276

Rüsch, N., Corrigan, P. W., Schmidt, A., Jones, N., Bink, A. B., &amp; Corrigan, P. W. (2015, July 20). What is the impact of self-stigma? Loss of self-respect and the “why try” effect. Taylor &amp; Francis. Journal of Mental Health. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.3109/09638237.2015.1021902

Stets, J. E., &amp; Burke, P. J. (2014). Self-esteem and identities. Sociological Perspectives, 57(4), 409–433. https://doi.org/10.1177/0731121414536141

Świtaj, P., &amp; Grygiel, P. (2017). The relationship between internalized stigma and quality of life among people with mental illness: Are self-esteem and sense of coherence sequential mediators? Quality of Life Research, 26(9), 2471–2478. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11136-017-1596-3

Young, D. K.-W. (2016). Cognitive behavioral Therapy Group for reducing self-stigma for people with mental illness. Research on Social Work Practice, 28(7), 827–837. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049731516681849

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==External links==
[[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. {{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
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      <text bytes="35265" sha1="mw7walqyekf7hjhv3x2eiww60lu6wjz" xml:space="preserve">= Mixing Drinks =
Congratulations! You've made it to the fun part of the course. Mixing and serving drinks are fundamental to bartending, and they're fun to do. In this lesson we'll focus on the most common and most important recipes you'll encounter working at a bar along with the basic techniques and know-how needed to complete them.

In this lesson we'll discuss:

# [[Bartending/Mixing Drinks#Glassware|Glassware]]
# [[Bartending/Mixing Drinks#Typology of Cocktails (Cocktail Families)|Typology of cocktails]]
# [[Bartending/Mixing Drinks#Preparation and Skills|Preparation and Skills]]
# [[Bartending/Mixing Drinks#Essential Cocktails|Essential Cocktails]]

This is the part of the course that really benefits from hands-on practice. When we talk about preparing fruit and mixing cocktails, follow along! It isn't necessary to build an entire bar in your home in order to practice, but having some of the basics and making substitutions when needed will go a long way to making these actions feel natural and easy. If you have a bartending gig in your future, even doing each of these recipes once will put you leagues ahead of your first try being on the clock.

== Glassware ==
Before you can mix a drink, you have to know what glass you're gonna pour it in. Wikipedians have done an excellent job of creating a near comprehensive list of the glasses commonly used to serve alcohol. I've transcluded a navigation box below to all of their pages. Take the time to familiarize yourself with these glasses and their uses by clicking on the pages and digesting the contained information. You don't have to know the history and origin of every glass, just be familiar their shape and general use. The most important ones for this course are:

* Collins
* Highball
* Old fashioned (or Lowball or Rocks)
* Champaign Coupe (or just Coupe)
* Champaign Flute
* Cocktail Glass (or Martini glass)
* Hurricane Glass
* Wine Glass (Red and White)

When we get to cocktails, each recipe will place the drink in a specific type of glass, and you can return here as a reference tool if you need it.{{Navbox|name=Glassware|title=[[:wikipedia:List of glassware|Glassware]]|listclass=hlist|state=expanded|group1=[[:wikipedia:Tumbler (glass)|Tumblers]]|list1=* {{Nowrap|[[File:Collins glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Collins glass|Collins glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Granyonyi Stakan Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Faceted glass|Faceted glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Highball glass|Highball glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Old fashioned glass|Old fashioned glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Shot glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Shot glass|Shot glass]]}}|group2=[[:wikipedia:Beer glassware|Beer glassware]]|list2=* {{Nowrap|[[File:beer stein.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Beer stein|Beer stein]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Pilsner glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Beer glassware#Pilsner glass|Pilsner glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Pint glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Pint glass|Pint Glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Pony Glass Silhouette.svg|14x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Pony glass|Pony glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Tankard Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Tankard|Tankard]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Wheat beer glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Wheat beer glass|Wheat beer glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:yardglass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Yard of ale|Yard glass]]}}|group3=[[:wikipedia:Stemware|Stemware]]|list3=* {{Nowrap|[[File:Absinthe Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Absinthiana#Absinthe glass|Absinthe glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Chalice Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Chalice|Chalice]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Coppa Asti sagoma.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Champagne glass#Coupe|Champagne coupe]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:flutesil.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Champagne glass#Flute|Champagne flute]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Coctail glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Cocktail glass|Cocktail glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Glencairn Whisky Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Glencairn whisky glass|Glencairn whisky glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Hurricane Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Hurricane glass|Hurricane glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Margarita Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Margarita#Glass|Margarita glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Alcohol glass nick and nora.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Nick &amp; Nora (glass)|Nick &amp; Nora]]}}
* [[:wikipedia:Rummer|Rummer]]
* {{Nowrap|[[File:Sherry Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Wine glass#Sherry glass|Sherry glass]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:brandysnifsi.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Snifter|Snifter]]}}
* {{Nowrap|[[File:wineglass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Wine glass|Wine glass]]}}}}

== Typology of Cocktails (Cocktail Families) ==
One last thing before we starting preparing garnishes and mixing drinks! I promise! Cocktails and their recipes didn't just appear from nothing in a vacuum. They were developed over time as tastes changed and different ingredients became available or popular. Because of this process, we can group cocktails into broad categories called Cocktail Families. Not all bartenders and mixologists agree on how cocktails should be grouped or how many families there are, but by understanding generally how cocktails relate to each other you can prioritize your learning and remember what goes in which cocktail easier.

The families we're going to talk about are:

* Sour Cocktails
* Ancestral/Aromatic Cocktails
* Lengthened Cocktails
* Frozen Cocktails

This isn't by any means comprehensive, but they'll cover most the cocktails we'll explore shortly.

=== Sour Cocktails ===
[[wikipedia:Sour_(cocktail)|Sour cocktails]] are an old family of cocktails who's drinks that are all, well sour. The template for a sour cocktail is simple:

&lt;u&gt;Shake&lt;/u&gt; with ice: Spirit + Sweetener + Something Sour + Egg (sometimes)

The &quot;Something Sour&quot; is most often a citrus juice like lemon or lime. Many sour cocktails will have &quot;sour&quot; in the name, like a Gin Sour, Rum Sour, Whiskey Sour, or Amaretto Sour. Some other notable sour cocktails are the Daiquiri, Cosmopolitan and Margarita. Note that it doesn't matter what base spirit you use, any base spirit can be used in a sour. A sub-family of sour cocktails replaces the traditional sweetener of simple syrup with a liqueur. These cocktails are called a &quot;Daisy&quot;.

=== Ancestral or Aromatic Cocktails ===
Ancestral or Aromatic Cocktails are spirit-forward drinks that use bitters and sometimes liqueur to give an aromatic taste. The template to an aromatic cocktail is:

&lt;u&gt;Stir&lt;/u&gt; with ice: Spirit + Sweetener + Bitters

These cocktails let the taste of the spirit shine while deepening the flavor with bitters. Some common aromatic cocktails are the Martini, Manhattan, Old Fashioned, Sazerac and Negroni.

=== Lengthened Cocktails ===
Lengthened Cocktails are drinks that have been &quot;lengthened&quot; by adding a carbonated beverage. Two major sub-families of lengthened cocktails are &quot;Highballs&quot; and &quot;Spritz&quot; cocktails. A Highball is just a spirit lengthened with non-alcoholic mixer, think Gin and Tonic or Rum and Coke. A Spritz is a wine lengthened with a mixer, most often soda or sparkling wine. An example you'll find more in Spain is the Kalimotxo (KAL-EE-MO-KO), a drink with Red Wine and Coca Cola. Don't knock it 'till you try it! There are hundreds of combinations to make Lengthened Cocktails, Highballs and Spritz are just the major subtypes.

=== Frozen Cocktails ===
Frozen drinks are frozen! They are just so unlike a non-frozen drink that they get their own family. Frozen drinks are either blended with ice or churned over frozen metal to make a slushy consistency. Many frozen cocktails were adapted from classic cocktails, like a Frozen Daiquiri, but others are always frozen, like a Piña Colada. These are often &quot;batched&quot; or made ahead of time, especially if they're going to come from a slushy machine.

== Preparation and Skills ==
In a bar, preparation is all the steps that are taken before a service starts to get ready in advance. Sometimes this is things that are done at close the night before, and sometimes these are things done in the hours before a service. Some examples of prep are:

* Stocking fridges with beer and wine
* Stocking the bar's backstock of spirits
* Juicing citrus
* Cutting garnishes for drinks
* Making syrups
* Topping up bottles
* Cleaning and preparing tools for the service

All of these make a good bartender. We'll talk more about how good prep is good hospitality, and how it defines a good bartender later. Some of these are self explanatory, but some merit further investigation to make you a more effective and efficient bartender.

While you go through this section, I recommend you actually follow along and prepare the ingredients listed ''especially the lemons and limes''. Immediately following prep, we'll start mixing cocktails that use these ingredients. Store them in an air tight, labeled and dated container if you plan on mixing some drinks within the next day or two. Cut citrus doesn't last that long, so don't overkeep it. You can always get more practice by preparing more garnishes. A lemon wedge can be used for a dozen other things anyway (I like one with my Coke).
[[File:Hellingshoek_antoineren_02.png|left|thumb|241x241px|This isn't me. I don't know who this man is. Thanks to him for uploading this picture though. Curl your fingers away from the knife.]]

=== Before you prep ===
Most preparation can and should be done with a small paring knife. A larger chef knife can be used for large fruits but is harder to maneuver especially when working with small, round fruits and fragile herbs. When cutting something with a knife, curl the fingers of your non-dominant hand away from the blade. This will help protect your fingertips and cut faster with less risk.

You should always have clean hands when you handle food. Before touching food, wash your hands with soap and water for at least 20 seconds, and dry them with a clean towel. Rewash your hands whenever you step away from your task or touch something dirty like your phone.

=== Juicing Citrus ===
[[File:Citrus_×_aurantium_-_fruits_cut.jpg|thumb|The lengthwise cut (left) is unsuitable for juicing. The widthwise cut (right) is perfect to juice.]]
Most bars will have one or two types of juicer: a handheld citrus squeezer and/or a countertop citrus reamer. The handheld squeezer is faster and more efficient but cannot fit larger citrus like grapefruit. There are few wrongs ways to juice citrus, but doing it well will save you a lot of time during the prep. There are a few things to keep in mind when juicing citrus at the bar:

# Start with room temperature citrus. Cold citrus will yield less juice. If you have a particularly hard lime or lemon, place it on the counter and put your palm on top. Roll the citrus back and forth while applying firm pressure. This can free up some juice.
# Cut the fruit widthwise down the middle, so that you have two even sections. The cut face of the citrus should look like a wagon wheel with dot of pith in the center.
# Place your fruit cut-side down in the squeezer. Squeeze the citrus through a mesh strainer to remove any seeds or pulp. Squeeze with strength from your arms, not your wrists to avoid injury over time.
# Always label and date fresh juice and store in a sealed container in a refrigerator (Ex. Lime Juice Date: 2/27).

=== Making Simple Syrup ===
Simple syrup is an appropriately named combination of sugar and water made by combining a ratio of 1 parts granulated sugar and 1 parts water. It's a common ingredient used to sweeten cocktails by pre-dissolving the sugar. Here's the recipe:

# Place your sealable storage container on a scale and tare the scale so that it shows zero.
# Add a quantity of white granulated sugar to your container and note the measurement (ex. 200 grams of sugar).
# Add an equal amount of room temperature water (ex. 200 grams of water, making a total measurement of 400 grams).
# Seal the container and shake the mixture until the sugar has dissolved. It may be cloudy, but it with clarify as the mixture settles.
# Label and date your syrup (ex. Simple Syrup Date: 8/29).

If you're preparing this at home and don't have a scale (you're probably American), you can measure by volume, but it will be less accurate and may affect the final result. In a bar, always measure by weight.

=== Preparing Garnishes ===
There are so many things that can be put in drinks to improve their overall look and taste. There are a few, however, that you will find at most bars. If your bar has a specialty garnish, they should train you on how to prepare the house garnishes. For fruit garnishes, they should be used the same day they're cut and discarded at the end of the service. Let's go over some garnishes you'll find just about anywhere.
[[File:Knife_by_Bob_Kramer_(17970647591).jpg|thumb|How beautiful [[File:Face-kiss.svg|20x20px]]]]

==== Cutting Citrus Half-Moons ====

# Cut the fruit in half lengthwise pole-to-pole. The cut-side of the fruit should have a stripe of pith down the center.
# Place the halves cut-side down, so that the nubs on each end are facing to your left and right.
# Cutting straight ahead, make slices about a quarter inch thick.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Cutting Citrus Wedges ====

# Trim the top and bottom of the fruit to create two flat surfaces. The flat surfaces should look like a wagon wheel with a white dot of pith in the center, or may be entirely pith. This step can be skipped for grapefruit, as they are large enough to rest on a side without additional cuts.
# Rest the fruit on its end, and cut it in half lengthwise. This should reveal a stripe of pith down the center of the cut face.
# Looking at the cut-side, make a shallow cut perpendicular to the pith extending about a half inch either side. Cut through about half of the meat of the fruit, but not all the way through to the peel.
# Placing the fruit cut-side down, cut the half further into quarters, then angling your knife, cut those fourths in half as well. Smaller fruits may only yield three wedges per half fruit.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Cutting Citrus Wheels ====

# Trim the nub off one end of the fruit. The cut should be deep enough to reveal a small wagon wheel shape with a dot of pith in the center.
# With the cut side facing to your left or right depending on your dominant hand, slice straight away from you creating about quarter inch thick circles until you no longer have enough fruit to safely hold while cutting.
# You many way to score a slit in the wheels depending on if you are putting them on the rim of a glass.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Cutting Citrus Peels and Twists ====

# Holding the fruit in your non-dominant hand, drag a y-peeler starting away from you and pulling towards you.
# If peeling an orange or grapefruit, using a paring knife, trim away excess pith from the back of the peel.
# Optionally, using a paring knife, trim the edges of the peel to make straight even sides.

==== Cutting Grapefruit &quot;Horses Neck&quot; ====

# Holding the grapefruit in your non-dominant hand, use a y-peeler to peel around the circumference of the fruit creating a long peel.
# Optionally, trim the ends with a paring knife for a cleaner look.

==== Preparing Pineapple Wedges ====

# Using a large chef knife, cut off the top of the pineapple.
# Resting on its bottom with the cut-side up, cut the pineapple in half from top to bottom.
# Resting the pineapple on its cut-side, angle your knife and cut the fruit into three equal parts creating triangle shapes.
# Take each section and slice into about inch thick wedges.
# You may way to score the point of each wedge to be able to hang it on a glass.
# Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed.

==== Preparing Mint ====

# Place a damp paper towel in the bottom of a sealable storage container.
# Take a sprig of mint in one hand, and pick the leaves at the bottom of the stem. Leave the ones at the top of the sprig attached to the stem. Place the leaves in the prepared container.
# Bunch the stems of the picked sprigs together and trim them to be only a couple inches long.

=== Essential Skills ===
There are a couple techniques that are used over and over in bartending. The two most essential to mix cocktails are shaking and stirring. Refer back to these steps the first few times you mix a cocktail in the next section.
[[File:Bartender_Photo.jpg|thumb|Shaking a sealed Boston shaker horizontally.]]

==== Using a Boston Shaker ====
A Boston shaker comes in two parts. One will be a large metal mixing cup, and the other will either be a smaller metal mixing cup or a glass mixing cup. Using a shaker comes in a few steps:

# We will start by building a shaken cocktail in the small or glass mixing cup. Add the liquid ingredients (including egg, if being used), then add the ice after. The longer the liquids are in contact with the ice, the more they will be diluted as the ice melts.
# The large mixing cup is placed over top the smaller mixing cup with enough force to create a seal. Feel free to tap the back of the large tin with the palm of your hand to ensure a seal.
# With one hand on either cup holding them together, the assembled cups are then flipped over so that the drink is primarily in the larger mixing cup.
# The most efficient way to shake is horizontally, so that the drinks sloshes vigorously from front to back. Shaking vertically will achieve the same result, but it is more energy intensive and slower as it throws the drink upwards before slamming it back down. You will feel the metal become cold, and it may frost as the drink is chilled. These are signs that you can stop shaking.
# At this point, the cold from the ice has caused the metal tins to contract and shrink slightly which will bind them together tightly. To unseal the shaker, hold the larger cup or place it on a counter. Identify which was the smaller cup is leaning. With the palm of your hand, strike the smaller cup away from the direction it's leaning. There should be a crack as the seal is broken (this is called &quot;cracking&quot; a shaker open). You can also twist or squeeze the larger tin to release the seal if it's made of metal.
# To strain, place the Hawthorn strainer over the mouth of the larger cup, and pour the drink through the strainer.

You can watch an example of [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ai70a6xjSzo someone using a Boston shaker] on YouTube (not my video), if you'd like more instruction.
[[File:Stirring_with_a_bar_spoon.jpg|thumb|230x230px|Stirring with a Bar Spoon]]

==== Stirring a Cocktail ====
It sounds simple, but there's a right way and a wrong way to stir a cocktail. The goal is to incorporate and chill the ingredients without agitating, decarbonating or introducing air. Here are a few simple steps:

# Insert a bar spoon to the bottom of the mixing glass containing you ingredients and ice. Push the spoon all the way to the bottom edge of the mixing glass.
# Swirl the spoon so that it stays in contact with the edge of the glass, rotating the ice in a circle.

==== Serving Sparking Wine ====

# Use the tab to peel away the foil.
# Keep one hand on top of the cage and cork. Lift the handle and twist it open.
# Keep the cage on the cork. Hold the cage and the cork with your dominant hand.
# Holding the bottle in your non-dominant hand, twist the bottle back and forth. The goal is to gradually release the pressure in the bottle, not to make a loud &quot;pop&quot;. Ideally, you should open the bottle almost silently.
# Holding the bottle at the base with one hand (if possible), pour slowly into the glass as the bubbles will climb.

[[File:Pouring_wine_into_a_decanter.jpg|left|thumb|296x296px|Pouring wine]]

==== Uncorking Still Wine ====

# Find a wine key with a double-hinge.
# Using the knife, cut the foil around the lip of the bottle. Using the bottle opener end of the key, peel back to foil to expose the cork.
# Insert the corkscrew into the center of the cork by twisting until most of the screw is embedded.
# Place the first hinge on the lip of the bottle, and use it as leverage to lift up on the wine key (lifting the cork partially).
# Place the second hinge of the lip of the bottle, and completely remove the cork.

'''Serving Beer'''

# Whether pouring from a bottle or a tap, tilt the glass 45° and pour the beer down the side of glass to prevent too much foam, or &quot;head&quot;, from developing.
# At the end of the pour, straighten the glass to allow for some head to form.

== Essential Cocktails ==
Here we are, finally mixing some drinks! It can be overwhelming to open a book of cocktail recipes and see the hundreds of drinks with unique names and recipes. Take a deep breath, because there isn't a bartender in the world that knows all of those cocktails by heart, and you aren't expected to either. Over time, you'll pick up on more drinks and their makeup, but that takes time! That's why it's important to focus on the essential cocktails that every bartender knows and that any bar patron might order. What follows are 20 cocktail recipes for classic cocktails that you might make every day at a bar.

I highly encourage you to make these drinks at home. If you intend to become a bartender, the difference between your first attempt at a recipe being in the privacy of your home and on your first day on the job is ''enormous''. That raises the question, &quot;How am I supposed to supply all the ingredients needed to make all these drinks‽&quot; Start with things you can buy at the grocery store:

* Lemons, Limes and Oranges
* Club Soda
* White Sugar

You may already have these things from trying out the preparation techniques above. If you don't, go out and grab these ingredients, cut some garnishes, and prepare some simple syrup.

The most expensive part of any cocktail is the spirit. I've color coded the following recipes by which spirit they use. The list generally starts with easy recipes and becomes more complicated as you descend. I recommend staring with one type of spirit and trying a few recipes that use that spirit. For example, with only vodka, you can make a Highball, Cosmopolitan, Moscow Mule, Bloody Mary and a (Vodka) Martini. That's one fifth of the list done, with a spirit you likely already have at home.

I don't recommend buying fancy or expensive spirits for this. Buy something cheap or middle-of-the-road to practice with. That's like what your bar patrons are going to be ordering most often anyhow.

All that being said, 20 recipes is a lot to learn. Take your time, maybe make one or two a day. The recipes aren't changing, and some are very simple. You by no means have to drink what you make. You DO have to TASTE what you make. Bartenders, when trying a drink on the job, will smell a drink, swirl it in their mouth and spit it out. Do this at least twice for each drink if you don't intend to drink them. Take note of the taste, the balance of the drink and your personal preference for or against it. Please don't make all 20 in one night and get hammered. A daiquiri will be a daiquiri tomorrow, and it'll be sweeter for the waiting.

Well, get started!

=== Spirit Color Key ===
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Vodka
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Gin
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Rum
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Tequila
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Whiskey
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Other/Mixed
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=== Highball ===
Highballs are a class of cocktail sometimes called &quot;plus one&quot; cocktails because they're a blend of a spirit plus a mixer. Some common highballs are Gin and Tonic, Rum and Coke, Whiskey and Ginger Ale, and Scotch and Soda.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} 
'''Glass:''' Highball [[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wedges with soda, Lime Wedges with Tonic, Cola and Ginger Beer/Ale

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz of Spirit

Mixer of choice, to top

'''Combine''' Spirit and ice. Stir. Add Mixer to fill. Drag spoon through drink a few times to gently combine. Garnish
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=== Cosmopolitan ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} 
'''Glass:''' Coupe or Martini Nowrap|[[File:Coctail glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Twist

'''Ingredients'''

1 ½ oz Vodka (Preferably Citron Vodka)

⅓ oz Lime Juice

⅓ oz Cointreau (or other orange liqueur)

⅓ oz Sweet Cranberry Juice

'''Shake''' all ingredients with ice until chilled. Strain into glass. Garnish. 
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=== Margarita ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} 
'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lime Wedge and ask preference for Salt, Sugar, or Tajin rim

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Tequila

½ oz Agave Nectar

1 oz Lime Juice

½ oz Triple Sec

'''Moisten''' the rim of the glass with a lime wedge, then roll exterior of glass in rimming material careful to avoid getting any inside the glass. Combine all ingredients in shaker with ice. Shake. Add ice to glass. Strain. Garnish.
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=== Paloma ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} 
'''Glass:''' Highball [[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Grapefruit Wedge or Lime Wheel

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Tequila

½ oz Lime Juice

Dash of Salt

Grapefruit Soda, to top

'''Combine''' Tequila, Sale and Lime Juice in glass with ice. Stir to chill. Add Grapefruit Soda to fill. Drag spoon through drink a few times to gently combine. Garnish.
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=== Whiskey Sour ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} 
'''Glass:''' Sour or Coupe [[File:Coppa Asti sagoma.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wheel and Cherry

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Whiskey

1 oz Lemon Juice

½ tsp. Sugar or Simple Syrup

'''Shake''' ingredients with ice. Strain. Garnish.
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=== Moscow Mule ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} 
'''Glass:''' Mule Mug [[File:Alcohol_glass_copper_mug.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lime wheel (optional)

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Vodka

½ oz Lime Juice

3 oz Ginger Beer

'''Combine''' ingredients in a copper mug filled with ice. Stir. Garnish, optionally.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Spritz ===
Spritz are a class of cocktails that follow the same general 3-2-1 recipe of 3 oz Prosecco, 2 oz liqueur, 1 oz club soda. The most common is the Aperol Spritz.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} 
'''Glass:''' Highball or Wine Glass [[File:wineglass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Orange Wheel

'''Ingredients'''

3 oz Prosecco

2 oz Liqueur (Aperol, for an Aperol Spritz)

1 oz Club Soda

'''Combine''' Prosecco and Liqueur with ice in glass. Stir gently. Top with Club Soda. Garnish.
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=== Mojito ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} 
'''Glass:''' Highball [[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Mint Sprig

'''Ingredients'''

1 ½ oz White Rum

5 to 6 mint leaves

1 oz Lime Juice

2 tsp Sugar

Soda water

'''Muddle''' the Mint, Lime Juice and Sugar until well mixed but not mushy. Add the Rum and fill the glass with ice. Top with Soda Water. Garnish.
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=== Daiquiri ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} 
'''Glass:''' Coupe [[File:Coppa Asti sagoma.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lime wheel (optional)

'''Ingredients'''

1 ½ oz White Rum

2 tsp Sugar

1 oz Fresh Lime Juice

'''Shake''' ingredients with ice until chilled and frothy. Strain into a coupe glass. Garnish, optionally.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== French 75 ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} 
'''Glass:''' Champagne Flute [[File:flutesil.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Twist

'''Ingredients'''

1 oz Gin

½ oz Lemon Juice

½ oz Simple Syrup

3 oz Champagne (or other sparkling wine)

'''Shake''' Gin, Lemon Juice, and Simple Syrup with ice. Strain into glass. Top with Champagne. Garnish.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Gimlet ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} 
'''Glass:''' Coupe [[File:Coppa Asti sagoma.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lime Wheel

'''Ingredients'''

2 ½ oz Gin

½ oz Lime Juice

½ oz Simple Syrup

'''Shake''' Gin, Lime Juice, and Simple Syrup with ice. Strain into glass. Garnish.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Manhattan ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} 
'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Twist and/or Cherry

'''Ingredients'''

1 ½ oz Rye Whiskey

½ oz Sweet Vermouth

1 Dash Angostura Bitters

'''Chill''' rocks glass by combining ice and water, or use pre-chilled glass. Combine ingredients in a mixer with ice. Stir. Strain. Garnish.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Mai Tai ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} 
'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Pineapple Wedge, Cherry, and Mint Spring

'''Ingredients'''

1 oz Light Rum

1 oz Gold Rum

½ oz Orange Curaçao

½ oz Orgeat

½ oz Lime Juice

'''Shake''' ingredients with ice. Strain into ice filled glass. Garnish.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Pina Colada ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} 
'''Glass:''' Hurricane [[File:Hurricane Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Pineapple Wedge

'''Ingredients'''

1 ½ oz Rum (Preferably Coconut, like Malibu)

1 ½ oz Coconut Cream

1 oz Pineapple Juice

½ oz Lime Juice

'''Combine''' ingredients with ice in a blender. Blend on high for 20-30 seconds or until a flowing slushy consistency. If too stiff add water, if too thin add ice and re-blend for 2-3 seconds. Pour into glass. Garnish.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Bloody Mary ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}}
'''Glass:''' Pint or Highball [[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wheel or Celery Stalk (or anything savory)

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Vodka

6 dashes Worcestershire sauce

3 dashes Tobasco Sauce

Pinch of Salt

Pinch of Ground Black Pepper

½ Lemon, juiced

5 oz Tomato Juice

'''Combine''' all ingredients in a glass. Add ice and stir. Garnish.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Negroni ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Orange Twist or Orange Wheel

'''Ingredients'''

1 oz Dry Gin

1 oz Sweet Vermouth

1 oz Compari

1 oz Sparkling Water

'''Combine''' all ingredients in a glass. Add ice, preferably 2 large rocks. Stir. Garnish.

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=== Old Fashioned ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} 
'''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Orange twist

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Whiskey

1 Sugar Cube

4 dashes Aromatic Bitters

1 dash Soda Water

'''Muddle''' Sugar, Bitters and Soda Water in a glass until a uniform syrup is made. Add Whiskey. Add Ice. Stir. Express Orange Twist over drink then add to glass.
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=== Tom Collins ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} 
'''Glass:''' Collins or Highball [[File:Collins glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon Wheel and Cherry (optional)

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Gin

1 oz Lemon Juice

½ oz Simple Syrup

Club Soda, to top

'''Combine''' Gin, Lemon Juice, and Simple Syrup in glass. Add ice to top. Fill with Club Soda. Stir gently. Garnish.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Martini ===
Martinis are kind of their own thing, and there's some vocab to go over. There are many drinks that call themselves a martini, and the Classic Martini itself has many variations to suit each bar patron's taste. To make a Martini to order, first you have to have a conversation with your bar patron.

# First, ask if they prefer Gin or Vodka. Gin is traditional, but it can be made with either.
# Second determine how much Vermouth they would like. The amount of Vermouth will determine how &quot;Dry&quot; or &quot;Wet&quot; the Martini is.

&quot;Extra Dry&quot; or &quot;In and Out&quot; = Vermouth is swirled in the glass then poured out, then the drink is entirely Gin or Vodka

&quot;Dry&quot; = 1 part Vermouth to 5 parts Gin or Vodka

&quot;Wet&quot; = 1 part Vermouth to 2 parts Gin or Vodka

&quot;50/50&quot; = 1 part Vermouth to 1 part Gin or Vodka

&quot;Dirty&quot; = 1 part Olive Brine to 5 parts Gin or Vodka, instead of Vermouth. Garnish with Olives instead of lemon.

The following recipe is for a Dry Martini. You can modify it to make it a Dirty Martini or to suit your taste of Vermouth. Martinis are often stirred, but they can be shaken on request.
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} 
'''Glass:''' Martini [[File:Coctail glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' Lemon twist

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Gin or Vodka (patron preference)

½ oz Dry Vermouth

'''Chill''' glassware by pouring water and ice in a glass, or use a pre-chilled glass. Combine ingredients with ice in a mixing glass. Stir until chilled. Strain into chilled glass. Garnish.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Espresso Martini ===
The Espresso Martini is really not much like a Classic Martini at all. The word Martini really gets thrown around. Nonetheless, it's delicious. If your bar has an espresso machine, you'll be trained on how to pull an espresso shot. Otherwise, your bar may use cold brew concentrate made in house or from a can.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} 
'''Glass:''' Martini [[File:Coctail glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]]

'''Garnish:''' 3 Coffee Beans

'''Ingredients'''

2 oz Vodka

½ oz Coffee Liqueur (often Kahlúa)

1 oz Espresso, or cold brew concentrate

1/4 oz Simple Syrup

'''Chill''' glass with water and ice, or use pre-chilled glass. Shake ingredients with ice. Strain into glass. Garnish by place 3 coffee beans in center.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Hey! Congrats! You've made it to the bottom of the list. These 20 recipes are just the beginning of the possibilities when it comes to mixing drinks, but if you can nail these down you can get through just about any shift at any bar. That was an undertaking, and you did a great job.

This concludes Lesson 2: Mixing Drinks. You can move on now to [[Bartending/Hospitality|Lesson 3: Hospitality]].

[[Category:Professional and vocational studies]]
[[Category:Professions]]
[[Category:Drinks]]

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    <title>Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment</title>
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      <text bytes="35180" sha1="d5o8p6yu0fehm0e7ia3zx0ac2cblu23" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment:&lt;br&gt;How does it work and what are the effects?}}
__TOC__
== Overview ==
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'''Scenario: Immersive PTSD therapies'''

Andriy, a soldier, harnessed to a treadmill, walks towards an image he spent months avoiding, his clinical therapist  beside him. This is multi-modular motion assisted memory desensitisation and reconsolidation (3MDR), one of a new generation of immersive therapies for post-traumatic stress disorder. 
[[File:Andriy 3MDR enhanced.gif|center|600x600px]]

'''Figure 1.''' Andriy moves through his 3MDR treatment.

Learn about immersive therapy and Andriy’s* experience below (*Andriy: a fictional name). {{RoundBoxBottom}}
[[File:Post-traumatic_stress_disorder_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg|alt=|thumb|271x271px|'''Figure 2:''' The World Health Organisation (2024) estimated that [https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/post-traumatic-stress-disorder 3.9% of the world's population had PTSD] at some stage.]]
[[w:Post-traumatic_stress_disorder|Post-traumatic stress disorder]] (PTSD) develops after severe or life-threatening trauma and carries a substantial personal and societal cost (Figure 2), with military personnel disproportionately represented (Boska et al., 2025). See costs and limitations below (Davis et al., 2022; Montgomery-Marks et al., 2025). 

PTSD's emotional impact is shaped by [[w:Emotional_dysregulation|emotional dysregulation]], a difficulty in managing intense feelings such as guilt, fear or shame (Westphal et al., 2017). This commonly triggers [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive]] and behavioural avoidance that offers short-term relief but prevents traumatic memory from being adaptively processed, trapping individuals in cycles of avoidance and chronic hyper-arousal (de Haart et al., 2026; van Gelderen et al., 2018).

Immersive interventions, including [[w:Virtual_reality_therapy|virtual reality exposure therapy]] (VRET) and 3MDR, aim to break this avoidance cycle by creating controlled environments in which trauma cues can be safely approached rather than avoided (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Wiederhold &amp; Wiederhold, 2025). This chapter explains the psychological theory behind these approaches, reviews the research evidence for their effects and considers their limitations.

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'''Focus questions'''[[File:Crystal Clear app ktip.svg|left|20px|]]

* Why is emotional processing important in PTSD?
* How can immersive therapies influence the emotional processes underlying PTSD? 
* What does the research evidence show?
* What are the costs and limitations of immersive therapies? 
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== Why is emotional processing important in PTSD? ==
[[File:PTSD.png|thumb|'''Figure 3.''' PTSD can deeply affect our emotions.]]PTSD is formally diagnosed according to [[w:DSM-5|DSM-5]] criteria and is characterised by disrupted executive and emotional processing systems, heightened threat perception, hyper-vigilance and persistent negative emotional states as depicted in Figure 3 (Kukharuk et al., 2025; López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022; Osman et al., 2016). Emotional processing theory provides the primary framework for understanding this disruption, supported by emotion regulation theory and inhibitory learning models introduced later in the chapter.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}[[Image:Crystal Clear app help index.svg|left|50px]]
;Predict the outcome

A soldier with PTSD encounters a trauma-related image expecting:

'''TRAUMA CUE → DANGER → DISTRESS → AVOID'''

However, during immersive treatment, the expected danger does not occur. What is the most likely consequence?&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Fear increases permanently.

- Memory cannot change.

+ Prediction error creates opportunities for new learning.

- Emotional processing stops. 

}

&lt;/quiz&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align:right; color:red; font-weight:bold;&quot;&gt;
Click &quot;show&quot; below  to understand more⤵ &lt;/div&gt;
{{Hidden begin|title=Please consider the answer before opening this section}}The answer is '''C'''.
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align:left; color:black; font-weight:regular;&quot;&gt;
Mismatches between expected and actual danger create a
'''prediction error'''. This may contribute to fear extinction,
emotion regulation, and memory reconsolidation. '''Think about it:''' If approaching rather than avoiding trauma can create new learning, what role might emotion regulation, fear extinction, prediction error and memory reconsolidation play?
&lt;/div&gt;

 
{{Hidden end}}
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align:left; color:black; font-weight:regular;&quot;&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Understanding PTSD and emotions ===
Emotional processing theory suggests recovery requires the trauma memory to be reactivated and updated with corrective information. In PTSD, this process is blocked and to manage distress, many individuals adopt cognitive and behavioural avoidance mechanisms (López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022). Avoidance offers short-term relief, but prevents the traumatic memory from being reactivated, so it cannot be updated. Trauma reminders such as flashbacks continue to trigger extreme distress, trapping the individual in a maladaptive, self-reinforcing avoidance cycle (Figure 4)  (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). 

At a neural level, Westphal et al. (2017) linked this to [[wikipedia:Transdiagnostic_process|transdiagnostic]] [[w:Emotional_dysregulation|emotion dysregulation]], in which the traumatic memory network remains isolated from the brain's [[w:Salience_network|salience]]  and central executive networks. Effective treatment requires reactivating this network so the memory can be integrated (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b; Westphal et al., 2017). This is empirically supported: A 2025 study of Danish military veterans (''n''=142) found emotional regulation difficulties explained an additional 28% of the variance in PTSD symptoms; combined with [[w:Comorbidity|comorbid]] symptoms, these factors accounted for 52% of the variance in severity (''F''(13, 92) = 9.58, ''p'' &lt;0.001) (Elklit &amp; Dahl, 2025).[[File:Avoidance and Processing Cycles.png|500x500px|thumb|'''Figure 4'''. Avoidance cycles and the anticipated positive responses associated with immersive therapies. Based on: Lopez-Ojeda et al. (2022), Felemban et al. (2026), and Vermetten et. al. (2025b).|center]]

=== Why treatment can be difficult ===
Trauma-focused psychotherapies such as [[w:Prolonged_exposure_therapy|prolonged exposure]] (PE) and [[w:Cognitive_processing_therapy|cognitive processing therapy]] (CPT) ask patients to actively engage with distressing memories to generate fear extinction, precisely what avoidance prevents (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). Many patients cannot tolerate the emotional exposure these therapies require (Lopes et al., 2025; van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). Because the trigger is never confronted, the brain cannot experience a prediction error needed to learn the threat has passed, so symptoms persist (de Haart et al., 2026; López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022).

This is reflected in outcomes where an estimated 39.2% of patients fail to respond to standard trauma-focused therapy, and dropout rates range from 16-48% (de Haart et al., 2026; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). Among military veterans, younger patients show heightened severity when trauma is central to their identity, while others turn to poor diet or substance abuse, further eroding emotional regulation (Efremov, 2025; Niles et al., 2023).

[[w:Emotional_dysregulation|Emotional dysregulation]] was historically viewed as a fixed barrier requiring lengthy stabilisation before treatment could begin (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). More recent evidence suggests otherwise, although emotional regulation contributes to PTSD symptoms, it is also being increasingly viewed as a modifiable process with dynamic capacity, one able to improve as a natural consequence of successful memory processing (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). This reframes the clinical challenge as helping an individual safely approach and process the traumatic memory, not correcting a fixed deficit. [[File:UC PhD VR study.png|right|thumb|'''Figure 5.''' PhD work by Selvakumaran (University of Canberra) examining cultural adaptation using the US-''Bravemind'' system.]]Cultural context adds another layer of difficulty. Doctoral research at the [[University of Canberra]] is integrating exposure therapy with gamified, posture-adaptive cognitive rehabilitation to support physical and emotional recovery (Figure 5). Selvakumaran (2025), is examining how existing protocols such as used in the US-centric ''[https://medvr.ict.usc.edu/projects/bravemind.html Bravemind]'' system need cultural adaptation for Australian veterans and first responders, because their operational context and backgrounds differ from their US counterparts (Selvakumaran, 2025). These treatment gaps carry a substantial economic and personal cost, part of the motivation for developing alternatives such as immersive therapies.   

== How can immersive therapies influence emotional processes? ==
Immersive PTSD treatments mark a shift from passive, sedentary therapy towards active, embodied, interactive approaches (van Gelderen et al., 2018). Immersive therapy uses three psychological mechanisms and their interaction: multisensory presence, embodied cognition, and divergent thinking (López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022; van Gelderen et al., 2018).

Embodied cognition is how physical states of the body can directly modify states of the mind (van Gelderen et al., 2018). Immersion therapy goes beyond simple visual replication of a trauma memory; instead, it captures the participant’s visceral and cognitive focus by limiting distractions (Macey et al., 2026). 

=== What is immersive therapy? ===
[[w:Immersion_therapy|Immersive therapies]] use [[w:Extended_reality|extended reality]] (XR) platforms, encompassing [[virtual reality]] (VR), [[Augmented Reality|augmented reality]] (AR), and [[w:Mixed_reality_game|mixed reality]] (MR), to create customisable, controlled, and standardised therapeutic environments (López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022; Wiederhold &amp; Wiederhold, 2025). This ecosystem is depicted in Figure 6.
This chapter focuses on two applications: VRET where therapists reconstruct traumatic scenarios in safe, graded environments, and 3MDR, which extends this by having the patient move on a treadmill beside their therapist, rather than in a stationary, face-to-face session (de Haart et al., 2026; Felemban et al., 2026).[[File:XR and Human Senses.png|thumb|'''Figure 6.''' The Extended Reality environment. |center|750x750px]]
=== Presence and embodied cognition ===
Immersive therapy’s distinguishing feature is its ability to generate presence, or the psychological illusion of being ‘''there’''. The illusion is amplified by integrating synchronised audio, visual, [[w:Olfactory|olfactory]], [[wikipedia:Haptic_perception|haptic]], and movement stimuli (Lopes et al., 2025; López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022). This increases engagement with the trauma memory and supports emotional processing (van Gelderen et al., 2018).

In 3MDR, presence combines with cognition. The working principle is that physical states of the body can directly shape states of the mind (van Gelderen et al., 2018). Walking towards a virtual trauma reminder functions as a fear antagonistic action and rather than retreating in avoidance, the patient approaches, converting passive helplessness into active, empowered participation and disrupting the rigid and repetitive trauma narratives  common in PTSD (de Haart et al., 2026; Osman et al., 2016; van Gelderen et al., 2018). 

Notably, extinction learning normally requires moderate-to-high-intensity activity to stimulate [[w:Brain-derived_neurotrophic_factor|brain-derived neurotrophic factor]] (BDNF), but 3MDR's walking pace (&lt; 4 km/h) is too slow to generate meaningful BDNF secretion, making a major exercise-induced BDNF mechanism unlikely, although physiological factors cannot be ruled out. The approach action and the cognitive restructuring it enables may be more important psychological drivers (de Haart et al., 2026).

=== Prediction error and inhibitory learning ===
Immersive therapy builds on the inhibitory learning model of exposure therapy, in which a new, safe association competes with and suppresses the original fear response. Walking towards a trauma cue and encountering safety instead of the expected catastrophe creates a prediction error between the anticipated, life-threatening event and actual reality. This may destabilise the traumatic memory, potentially creating conditions for memory reconsolidation to occur (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b; Wiederhold &amp; Wiederhold, 2025).

=== Memory reconsolidation ===
According to [[w:Memory_consolidation|memory reconsolidation]] theory, traumatic memories retrieved in a safe immersive context can become [[w:Malleability_of_intelligence|malleable]], allowing new, safe information to reconsolidate the memory in a non-threatening form (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). To prevent the patient from becoming overwhelmed, 3MDR uses dual-attention tasks such as tracking an oscillating ball (Figure 1), which tax working memory resources and reduce the vividness and emotional intensity of the memory (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b).

Emerging linguistic research suggests this processing is reflected in patients' language. Across successive 3MDR sessions, [[w:Affect_labeling|affective labelling]] of feelings such as guilt shifted from past-tense to present-tense narration, consistent with a renewed ability to integrate traumatic memories into present-moment awareness (Vermetten, Barcaro, et al., 2025a).

== What does the research evidence show? ==
Addressing these barriers is important for any PTSD population, but especially critical for military populations with high treatment failure and dropout rates (van Gelderen et al., 2018). Immersive therapies, as outlined in Table 1, can tailor patient-selected trauma cues to improve access to traumatic memory networks (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). 

=== Virtual reality exposure therapy ===
[[w:Virtual_reality_therapy|VRET]] reconstructs traumatic events in a structured context (Felemban et al., 2026; López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022). This may help bypass imagination challenges such as emotional numbing or amnesia that can prevent patients from engaging with traditional therapy (Macey et al., 2026). A meta-analysis of VRET for PTSD found substantial symptom reductions, averaging a 33.73-point decrease in the 0-80 point [[w:Clinician_Administered_PTSD_Scale|Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale]] and a 20.96-point decrease in the 0-80 point [https://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/assessment/adult-sr/ptsd-checklist.asp PTSD Checklist PCL-5) scale]  (Felemban et al., 2026). Because changes of 10-20 points on these scales are considered clinically significant, this could mean the difference between severe functional impairment and mild or subclinical symptoms (Boska et al., 2025; de Haart et al., 2026; Felemban et al., 2026). Comparative effects against other active PTSD treatments remain modest, but VRET appears to be a more engaging alternative to conventional treatment (Felemban et al., 2026).

=== 3MDR ===
3MDR takes the same multisensory effect in VRET and adds an activating context. Rather than a sedentary, face-to-face session, the patient and the therapist face the virtual display together (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). It follows a three-phase protocol: pre-platform preparation, platform treadmill exposure, and post-platform re-consolidation (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). In a trial involving treatment-resistant PTSD; 3MDR showed large effect sizes from pre-treatment to six-months (''n'' = 134, ''d'' = 1.0) and high-acceptability, with 7-20% dropout rates (de Haart et al., 2026; van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). Substantially lower than the 16-48% typical trauma-focused therapy in military populations (Lewis et al., 2020).

Improvements are not limited to PTSD symptoms. A trial of 62 adults with severe PTSD, including childhood sexual trauma, found intensive trauma-focused treatment improved emotion-regulation abilities regardless of PTSD outcome (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). Some researchers link this improvement to positive psychology [[w:Broaden-and-build|broaden-and-build theory]]. Theorising that as patients regain a sense of safety and control, this may support a positive spiral of emotional flexibility that reinforces recovery (Fredrickson, 2001; Niles et al., 2023; Westphal et al., 2017).  

Critically, the exact causation remains unknown. Given the recent innovations in immersive therapies and small study samples, it remains unclear whether they work through exposure-based extinction, enhanced emotional engagement, physiological factors, embodiment or positive cognitive restructuring. These questions are relevant to both basic and applied research and have not yet been adequately addressed by current trial designs.  

'''Table 1'''

''Treatment Effects and Psychological Mechanisms''
{| class=&quot;wikitable mw-collapsible&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Clinical Dimension'''
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Traditional'''
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Immersive'''
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Psychological Mechanisms'''
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Context'''
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''Sedentary'''''. Face-to-face, verbally describes trauma.
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''Activating.''''' Dynamic, multi-sensory environment.
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''Fear Antagonistic Action.'''''
'''''Approach behaviours.'''''

'''''Prediction Errors.'''''
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Trauma cue delivery'''
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''Imaginary Retrieval'''''
Patient capacity
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''Multisensory Immersion'''''
Highly tailored
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''External Scaffolding.'''''
Bypasses internal barriers to activate memory networks.
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Processing'''
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''Convergent processing.'''''
Repeated narration and fear habituation.
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''Active Narrative Processing.'''''
Interactive, real-time affective labelling and dual-attention tasks.
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''Working Memory.'''''
Memory taxation reduces vividness and emotional intensity.
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Engagement''' 
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''Attrition.'''''
Dropout rates 16-48%.
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''Acceptability.'''''
Attractive. Dropout rates 7-20%.
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''Sustained Motivation.'''''
Presence and safety in immersive environment.
|}
=== Applied example: 3MDR treatment in Ukraine ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
'''Scenario: Ukraine War: an applied 3MDR example'''

Andriy*, a Ukrainian Armed Forces volunteer, is struggling with hyper-vigilance, anxiety, and depression (Kukharuk et al., 2025). Traditional ‘talk’ therapy feels impossible; his mind remains in a constant state of combat readiness, even in quiet rooms.

In the pre-platform phase, Andriy identifies ‘hotspot’ memories in photographs. On the treadmill, harnessed and walking, he faces a panoramic screen as personalised warm-up music plays, selected to keep him connected to his traumatic memory network (Vermetten et al., 2025b). As his hotspot image fills the screen, his therapist asks three questions (Vermetten et al., 2025b):

1. What do you '''SEE''' ?
2. What does it '''TELL''' you?
3. What do you '''FEEL''' in your body NOW?

When Andriy identifies a surge of shame, the word '''GUILT''' is displayed as an affective label, and a dual-attention task begins. He tracks an oscillating, numbered ball while he stays with the emotion, taxing his working memory and reducing the intensity of the recalled trauma.
[[File:Andriy 3MDR enhanced.gif|center|600x600px]]

'''Figure 7.''' Andriy's 3MDR treatment.

By the end of the session, Andriy had walked toward what he used to avoid, creating a mismatch between his expectation of threat and his safety and turning a rigid, stuck memory into a manageable narrative.

*''Andriy, a fictional name given to one of 69 Ukrainian veterans, participating in a 2023 randomised controlled trial. Many demobilised after one year because of mental or neurological injuries'' (Kukharuk et al., 2025). 

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== What are the costs and limitations of immersive therapies? ==
PTSD carries a substantial economic burden. PTSD was associated with an estimated US$232 billion in excess costs in the United States in 2018 and over £40 billion in the United Kingdom in 2020-21, 92.4% of which were indirect rather than direct clinical costs (Davis et al., 2022; Montgomery-Marks et al., 2025). In Australia, the annual cost of PTSD per military veteran was estimated at $112,172 in 2025 (Magnusson &amp; Dey, 2025). In addition, individual healthcare costs surge by 142% in the year following a PTSD diagnosis, with comorbidities tripling this effect (Bothe et al., 2020). These figures span several countries and years and should be read as an indication of scale rather than as directly comparable totals.

Immersive therapy’s ability to move from small trials into mainstream PTSD treatment remains limited by methodological [[w:Homogeneity_and_heterogeneity|heterogeneity]], small sample sizes, and a lack of long-term data (Felemban et al., 2026). Many trials rely on military-heavy, treatment-resistant samples with few active comparison conditions, which limits the generalisation of findings to civilian or initial treatment populations. Practical issues such as [[w:Virtual_reality_sickness|cyber sickness]] or motion sickness can disrupt participation (Kukharuk et al., 2025).

Structural barriers include workforce training and equipment costs. Basic VR systems cost around US$3,500 per provider headset annually, with advanced simulation environments costing up to US$200,000 (Garrett et al., 2018). Despite this, adoption of immersive therapy is scaling. The [[w:United_States_Department_of_Veterans_Affairs|United States Veterans Affairs]] have expanded VR use from five medical centres in 2017 to over 154 centres and 2,300 staff, with applications now including over 40 documented clinical interventions such as chronic pain and suicide intervention (Bailey et al., 2024). Reflecting this potential growth trend, some market analysts estimate the global PTSD-focused VR therapy market was worth US$1.59 billion in 2025, forecasted to reach US$5.94 billion by 2032, driven largely by growing mental health awareness and the absence of standard clinical protocols (Stratistics MRC, 2025, an industry market report).

These limitations do not undermine the case for immersive therapy, but they show its evidence base and infrastructure are still maturing. Demonstrating rigorously why these therapies work, rather than assuming their novelty accounts for their effects is essential to avoid misallocating resources to unproven interventions and may support an emerging shift towards greater emphasis on post-traumatic growth and renewed optimism (Trejo et al., 2015; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b; Wiederhold &amp; Wiederhold, 2025).

{{Robelbox|theme=2|title=Quiz}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Which of the following is an expected outcome of immersive therapy ?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}


- Patients are at risk because of an uncontrolled environment.
- The environments represent traditional face-to-face treatments.
- Failure and dropout rates are higher than traditional PTSD treatment.
+ Patients often broaden and build an upward spiral of emotion and optimism.
&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}
== Conclusion ==
PTSD traps people in a self-reinforcing cycle of avoidance that blocks the adaptive processing necessary for traumatic memories to be resolved (see: ''[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment#Understanding PTSD and emotions|Understanding PTSD and emotions]]''). Standard trauma-focused therapies require patients to confront exactly what this cycle causes them to avoid, which contributes to high non-response and dropout rates (see ''[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment#Why treatment can be difficult|Why treatment can be difficult]]'').

Immersive therapies such as VRET and 3MDR address this by using presence, embodied cognition, prediction error and memory reconsolidation to help patients safely approach trauma cues rather than avoid them (see: ''[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment#What does the research evidence show?|What does the research evidence show]]''). The technology itself is only a delivery mechanism that enables the processes, the positive benefits appear to arise from the psychological mechanisms that immersive therapies facilitate, rather than the novelty of technology alone.

The evidence to date shows meaningful reductions in PTSD symptoms and comparatively low drop-out rates, alongside broader gains in emotional regulation. However, small samples, methodological variation, and a lack of long-term data mean the evidence base is still developing, and cost and infrastructure barriers remain significant (see: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment#What are the costs and limitations of immersive therapies?|costs and limitations]]'').{{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}}
[[File:Nuvola apps kuser.svg|Nuvola apps kuser|left|20px]] ''' Take-home message:''' 
Immersive therapies do not heal PTSD trauma through technological novelty or digital feedback. Instead, they create a safe, dynamic space that lets individuals confront trauma and reprocess memories into something they can live with. In doing so, people’s lives may once again shift toward value, optimism, and wellness.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== See also ==
'''Wikiversity'''
* [[Motivation and emotion/Textbook/Emotion/Anxiety|Anxiety]] (Book chapter, 2010)
* [[Evidence-based assessment/Posttraumatic stress disorder (disorder portfolio)|Evidence-based PTSD assessment]]
* [[/Non-invasive brain stimulation techniques/|Non-invasive brain stimulation techniques and PTSD]] (Sub-page)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Sense hacking|Sense hacking]] (Book chapter, 2024)

'''Wikipedia'''
* [[w:Affect_labeling|Affective labelling]] 
* [[Augmented Reality|Augmented reality]] 
* [[w:Brain-derived_neurotrophic_factor|Brain-derived neurotrophic factor]] 
* [[w:Broaden-and-build|Broaden-and-build theory]]
* [[w:Cognitive_processing_therapy|Cognitive processing therapy]] 
* [[w:Virtual_reality_sickness|Cyber sickness]]
* [[w:DSM-5|DSM-5]]
* [[w:Emotional_dysregulation|Emotional dysregulation]] 
* [[w:Extended_reality|Extended reality]]
* [[w:Malleability_of_intelligence|Malleability of intelligence]] 
* [[w:Memory_consolidation|Memory reconsolidation]]
* [[w:Mixed_reality_game|Mixed reality]] 
* [[w:Post-traumatic_stress_disorder|Post-traumatic stress disorder]]
* [[w:Prolonged_exposure_therapy|Prolonged exposure therapy]] 
* [[wikipedia:Virtual_reality_therapy|Virtual reality exposure therapy]]

== References ==
{{Hanging indent|Bailey, A. L., Kirsh, S., Rawlins, C., Persky, S., &amp; Clancy, C. (2024). Early scaling of immersive technology within the Veterans Health Administration. ''NEJM Catalyst Innovations in Care Delivery'', 5(4). https://doi.org/10.1056/cat.23.0356

Boska, R. L., Bishop, T. M., Capron, D. W., Paxton Willing, M. M., &amp; Ashrafioun, L. (2025). Difficulties with emotion regulation within PTSD clusters and moral injury subtypes. ''Military Psychology'', 37(2), 159-167. https://doi.org/10.1080/08995605.2024.2322904

de Haart, R., Daniels, J. K., Timmerman, M. E., Cath, D. C., &amp; Lommen, M. J. J. (2026). Augmenting virtual reality exposure for PTSD with physical activity: Study protocol of a randomised controlled trial. ''European'' ''Journal of Psychotraumatology'', 17(1), 2605803. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2025.2605803

Efremov, A. (2025). Age-specific mental health profiles of combat veterans: Post-traumatic stress disorder and related disorders. ''Journal of Rational-Emotive &amp; Cognitive-Behavior Therapy'', 44(4), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10942-025-00637-7

Elklit, A., &amp; Dahl, N. H. (2025). Emotion regulation difficulties, aggression, and PTSD symptoms in Danish treatment-seeking veterans. ''Scandinavian Journal of Military Studies'', 8(1), 308-326. https://doi.org/10.31374/sjms.264

Felemban, R. G., Alzahrani, R. R., Alrefaei, N. F., Alharbi, N. M., Alghamdi, A. S., &amp; Alqadi, S. (2026). Efficacy of virtual reality-based exposure therapy for post-traumatic stress disorder in military veterans: A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''Frontiers in Psychiatry'', 17, 1857109. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1857109

Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. ''American Psychologist'', 56(3), 218-226. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.56.3.218

Garrett, B., Taverner, T., Gromala, D., Tao, G., Cordingley, E., &amp; Sun, C. (2018). Virtual reality clinical research: Promises and challenges. ''JMIR Serious Games'', 6(4), e10839. https://doi.org/10.2196/10839

Kukharuk, O., Tkalich, K., Kamash, N., &amp; Georgiou, O. (2025). Effectiveness of immersive VR therapy in reducing stress-associated symptoms in Ukraine. ''European Journal of Psychotraumatology'', 16(1), 2488097. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2025.2488097

Lewis, C., Roberts, N. P., Andrew, M., Starling, E., &amp; Bisson, J. I. (2020). Psychological therapies for post-traumatic stress disorder in adults: Systematic review and meta-analysis. ''European Journal of Psychotraumatology'', 11(1), 1729633. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2020.1729633

Lopes, M. K. S., Perreault, L., de Jesus, B. Jr., Roberge, M. C., &amp; Falk, T. H. (2025). Subjective and objective evaluation of the benefits of multisensory virtual nature immersion for patients with post-traumatic stress disorder. In ''Proceedings of the 17th International Conference on Quality of Multimedia Experience'' (QoMEX) (pp.1-5). IEEE. https://doi.org/10.1109/QoMEX65720.2025.11219945

López-Ojeda, W., &amp; Hurley, R. A. (2022). Extended reality technologies: Expanding therapeutic approaches for PTSD. ''The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences'', 34(1), 1-5. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.neuropsych.21100244

Macey, A.-L., Macey, J., &amp; Hamari, J. (2026). Emotion regulation in immersive virtual reality environments: A scoping review. ''Interacting with Computers'', 29, 1-20. https://doi.org/10.1093/iwc/iwag029

Niles, B., Lang, A., &amp; Olff, M. (2023). Complementary and integrative interventions for PTSD. ''European Journal of Psychotraumatology'', 14(2), 2247888. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2023.2247888

Osman, A., Paczynski, M., &amp; Jha, A. P. (2016). Affective expectations influence neural responses to stressful images in soldiers. ''Military Psychology'', 29(1), 41-57. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000128

Selvakumaran, R. V. (2025). Developing virtual reality (VR) simulations with embedded user analytics for cognitive rehabilitation in PTSD veterans. In ''Proceedings of the 27th International Conference on Multimodal Interaction'' (pp. 740-744). ACM. https://doi.org/10.1145/3716553.3750826

Trejo, B. C., Richard, E. M., van Driel, M., &amp; McDonald, D. P. (2015). Cross-cultural competence: The role of emotion regulation ability and optimism. ''Military Psychology'', 27(5), 276-286. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000081

van Gelderen, M. J., Nijdam, M. J., &amp; Vermetten, E. (2018). An innovative framework for delivering psychotherapy to patients with treatment-resistant posttraumatic stress disorder: Rationale for interactive motion-assisted therapy. ''Frontiers in Psychiatry'', 9, 176. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00176

van Toorenburg, M. M., Sanches, S. A., Linders, B., Rozendaal, L., Voorendonk, E. M., Van Minnen, A., &amp; De Jongh, A. (2020). Do emotion regulation difficulties affect outcome of intensive trauma-focused treatment of patients with severe PTSD? ''European Journal of Psychotraumatology'', 11(1), 1724417. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2020.1724417

Vermetten, E., Barcaro, S., Espejo, E., Bellini, P., Roy, M. J., &amp; Bremault-Phillips, S. (2025a). Linguistic analysis of patients’ labels during 3MDR psychotherapy. ''Psychiatry and Clinical Psychopharmacology'', 35(Suppl. 1), S29. https://doi.org/10.5152/pcp.2025.241024

Vermetten, E., Burback, L., Sevigny, P. R., Nijdam, M. J., Winkler, O., Espejo, E., Sessoms, P., Bright, K., Roy, M. J., &amp; Brémault-Phillips, S. (2025b). Brief manual for multi-modal motion-assisted memory desensitization and reconsolidation therapy for the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. ''Psychiatry and Clinical Psychopharmacology'', 35(Suppl. 1), S122. https://doi.org/10.5152/pcp.2025.241028

Westphal, M., Aldao, A., &amp; Jackson, C. (2017). Emotion dysregulation in comorbid posttraumatic stress disorder and substance use disorders: A narrative review. ''Military Psychology'', 29(3), 216-233. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000157

Wiederhold, B. K., &amp; Wiederhold, M. D. (2025). Virtual reality therapy combined with physiological monitoring provides effective treatment, with objective metrics, for post-traumatic stress disorder. ''Expert Review of Medical Devices'', 22(2), 117-119. https://doi.org/10.1080/17434440.2025.2454930
}}


== External links ==
* '''Web:''' [https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd Post traumatic stress disorder] (Australian Government)
* '''Web:''' [https://www.ptsd.va.gov/index.asp National Center for PTSD information home page]  (US Government)
* '''Web:''' [https://www.innovation.va.gov/hil/views/immersive/immersive-programs.html US Veterans Affairs Immersive Programs Innov]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[https://www.innovation.va.gov/hil/views/immersive/immersive-programs.html ation] (US Government)
* '''Web:''' [https://defenceveteransuicide.royalcommission.gov.au/publications/final-report Australian Royal Commission into Defence and Veteran Suicide - Final Repor]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[https://defenceveteransuicide.royalcommission.gov.au/publications/final-report t](Australian Government)
* '''Web:''' [https://www.strategymrc.com/report/virtual-reality-therapy-for-ptsd-market Virtual reality therapy for PTSD market forecasts to 2032:] (Stratistics MR&lt;nowiki/&gt;C, a 2025 industry market report). 
* '''Podcast:''' [https://shows.acast.com/5c3353e484e2e79370e1d135/5c3353ef84e2e79370e1d13c PTSD Podcast] (Peace of Mind: Mental Health and Psychiatry, ACAST, 43 min)
* '''Video:''' [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bD43R_oa6qo 3MDR: Virtual reality treatment for veterans] (National Centre for Mental Health,Youtube, 2:46 min)
* '''Video:'''  [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jL2bKmniMTc VR exposure for combat PTSD] (PsyTech VR, Youtube, 2:20 min)  
* '''Final Report:''' [https://www.ncmh.info/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/Cardiff-3MDR-Study-Final-Report-with-cover-21.5.20.pdf 3MDR randomised control trial - Final-Report] (Cardiff University)

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
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      <text bytes="35186" sha1="30rllc9jgzpdqpjjkdaume0y6cr7f0m" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment:&lt;br&gt;How does it work and what are the effects?}}
__TOC__
== Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
'''Scenario: Immersive PTSD therapies'''

Andriy, a soldier, harnessed to a treadmill, walks towards an image he spent months avoiding, his clinical therapist  beside him. This is multi-modular motion assisted memory desensitisation and reconsolidation (3MDR), one of a new generation of immersive therapies for post-traumatic stress disorder. 
[[File:Andriy 3MDR enhanced.gif|center|600x600px]]

'''Figure 1.''' Andriy moves through his 3MDR treatment.

Learn about immersive therapy and Andriy’s* experience below (*Andriy: a fictional name). {{RoundBoxBottom}}
[[File:Post-traumatic_stress_disorder_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg|alt=|thumb|271x271px|'''Figure 2:''' The World Health Organisation (2024) estimated that [https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/post-traumatic-stress-disorder 3.9% of the world's population had PTSD] at some stage.]]
[[w:Post-traumatic_stress_disorder|Post-traumatic stress disorder]] (PTSD) develops after severe or life-threatening trauma and carries a substantial personal and societal cost (Figure 2), with military personnel disproportionately represented (Boska et al., 2025). See costs and limitations below (Davis et al., 2022; Montgomery-Marks et al., 2025). 

PTSD's emotional impact is shaped by [[w:Emotional_dysregulation|emotional dysregulation]], a difficulty in managing intense feelings such as guilt, fear or shame (Westphal et al., 2017). This commonly triggers [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive]] and behavioural avoidance that offers short-term relief but prevents traumatic memory from being adaptively processed, trapping individuals in cycles of avoidance and chronic hyper-arousal (de Haart et al., 2026; van Gelderen et al., 2018).

Immersive interventions, including [[w:Virtual_reality_therapy|virtual reality exposure therapy]] (VRET) and 3MDR, aim to break this avoidance cycle by creating controlled environments in which trauma cues can be safely approached rather than avoided (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Wiederhold &amp; Wiederhold, 2025). This chapter explains the psychological theory behind these approaches, reviews the research evidence for their effects and considers their limitations.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
'''Focus questions'''[[File:Crystal Clear app ktip.svg|left|20px|]]

* Why is emotional processing important in PTSD?
* How can immersive therapies influence the emotional processes underlying PTSD? 
* What does the research evidence show?
* What are the costs and limitations of immersive therapies? 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Why is emotional processing important in PTSD? ==
[[File:PTSD.png|thumb|'''Figure 3.''' PTSD can deeply affect our emotions.]]PTSD is formally diagnosed according to [[w:DSM-5|DSM-5]] criteria and is characterised by disrupted executive and emotional processing systems, heightened threat perception, hyper-vigilance and persistent negative emotional states as depicted in Figure 3 (Kukharuk et al., 2025; López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022; Osman et al., 2016). Emotional processing theory provides the primary framework for understanding this disruption, supported by emotion regulation theory and inhibitory learning models introduced later in the chapter.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}[[Image:Crystal Clear app help index.svg|left|50px]]
;Predict the outcome

A soldier with PTSD encounters a trauma-related image expecting:

'''TRAUMA CUE → DANGER → DISTRESS → AVOID'''

However, during immersive treatment, the expected danger does not occur. What is the most likely consequence?&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Fear increases permanently.

- Memory cannot change.

+ Prediction error creates opportunities for new learning.

- Emotional processing stops. 

}

&lt;/quiz&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align:right; color:red; font-weight:bold;&quot;&gt;
Click &quot;show&quot; below  to understand more⤵ &lt;/div&gt;
{{Hidden begin|title=Please consider the answer before opening this section}}The answer is '''C'''.
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align:left; color:black; font-weight:regular;&quot;&gt;
Mismatches between expected and actual danger create a
'''prediction error'''. This may contribute to fear extinction,
emotion regulation, and memory reconsolidation. '''Think about it:''' If approaching rather than avoiding trauma can create new learning, what role might emotion regulation, fear extinction, prediction error and memory reconsolidation play?
&lt;/div&gt;

 
{{Hidden end}}
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align:left; color:black; font-weight:regular;&quot;&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Understanding PTSD and emotions ===
Emotional processing theory suggests recovery requires the trauma memory to be reactivated and updated with corrective information. In PTSD, this process is blocked and to manage distress, many individuals adopt cognitive and behavioural avoidance mechanisms (López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022). Avoidance offers short-term relief, but prevents the traumatic memory from being reactivated, so it cannot be updated. Trauma reminders such as flashbacks continue to trigger extreme distress, trapping the individual in a maladaptive, self-reinforcing avoidance cycle (Figure 4)  (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). 

At a neural level, Westphal et al. (2017) linked this to [[wikipedia:Transdiagnostic_process|transdiagnostic]] [[w:Emotional_dysregulation|emotion dysregulation]], in which the traumatic memory network remains isolated from the brain's [[w:Salience_network|salience]]  and central executive networks. Effective treatment requires reactivating this network so the memory can be integrated (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b; Westphal et al., 2017). This is empirically supported: A 2025 study of Danish military veterans (''n''=142) found emotional regulation difficulties explained an additional 28% of the variance in PTSD symptoms; combined with [[w:Comorbidity|comorbid]] symptoms, these factors accounted for 52% of the variance in severity (''F''(13, 92) = 9.58, ''p'' &lt;0.001) (Elklit &amp; Dahl, 2025).[[File:Avoidance and Processing Cycles.png|500x500px|thumb|'''Figure 4'''. Avoidance cycles and the anticipated positive responses associated with immersive therapies. Based on: Lopez-Ojeda et al. (2022), Felemban et al. (2026), and Vermetten et. al. (2025b).|center]]

=== Why treatment can be difficult ===
Trauma-focused psychotherapies such as [[w:Prolonged_exposure_therapy|prolonged exposure]] (PE) and [[w:Cognitive_processing_therapy|cognitive processing therapy]] (CPT) ask patients to actively engage with distressing memories to generate fear extinction, precisely what avoidance prevents (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). Many patients cannot tolerate the emotional exposure these therapies require (Lopes et al., 2025; van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). Because the trigger is never confronted, the brain cannot experience a prediction error needed to learn the threat has passed, so symptoms persist (de Haart et al., 2026; López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022).

This is reflected in outcomes where an estimated 39.2% of patients fail to respond to standard trauma-focused therapy, and dropout rates range from 16-48% (de Haart et al., 2026; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). Among military veterans, younger patients show heightened severity when trauma is central to their identity, while others turn to poor diet or substance abuse, further eroding emotional regulation (Efremov, 2025; Niles et al., 2023).

[[w:Emotional_dysregulation|Emotional dysregulation]] was historically viewed as a fixed barrier requiring lengthy stabilisation before treatment could begin (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). More recent evidence suggests otherwise, although emotional regulation contributes to PTSD symptoms, it is also being increasingly viewed as a modifiable process with dynamic capacity, one able to improve as a natural consequence of successful memory processing (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). This reframes the clinical challenge as helping an individual safely approach and process the traumatic memory, not correcting a fixed deficit. [[File:UC PhD VR study.png|right|thumb|'''Figure 5.''' PhD work by Selvakumaran (University of Canberra) examining cultural adaptation using the US-''Bravemind'' system.]]Cultural context adds another layer of difficulty. Doctoral research at the [[University of Canberra]] is integrating exposure therapy with gamified, posture-adaptive cognitive rehabilitation to support physical and emotional recovery (Figure 5). Selvakumaran (2025), is examining how existing protocols such as used in the US-centric ''[https://medvr.ict.usc.edu/projects/bravemind.html Bravemind]'' system need cultural adaptation for Australian veterans and first responders, because their operational context and backgrounds differ from their US counterparts (Selvakumaran, 2025). These treatment gaps carry a substantial economic and personal cost, part of the motivation for developing alternatives such as immersive therapies.   

== How can immersive therapies influence emotional processes? ==
Immersive PTSD treatments mark a shift from passive, sedentary therapy towards active, embodied, interactive approaches (van Gelderen et al., 2018). Immersive therapy uses three psychological mechanisms and their interaction: multisensory presence, embodied cognition, and divergent thinking (López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022; van Gelderen et al., 2018).

Embodied cognition is how physical states of the body can directly modify states of the mind (van Gelderen et al., 2018). Immersion therapy goes beyond simple visual replication of a trauma memory; instead, it captures the participant’s visceral and cognitive focus by limiting distractions (Macey et al., 2026). 

=== What is immersive therapy? ===
[[w:Immersion_therapy|Immersive therapies]] use [[w:Extended_reality|extended reality]] (XR) platforms, encompassing [[virtual reality]] (VR), [[Augmented Reality|augmented reality]] (AR), and [[w:Mixed_reality_game|mixed reality]] (MR), to create customisable, controlled, and standardised therapeutic environments (López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022; Wiederhold &amp; Wiederhold, 2025). This ecosystem is depicted in Figure 6.
This chapter focuses on two applications: VRET where therapists reconstruct traumatic scenarios in safe, graded environments, and 3MDR, which extends this by having the patient move on a treadmill beside their therapist, rather than in a stationary, face-to-face session (de Haart et al., 2026; Felemban et al., 2026).[[File:XR and Human Senses.png|thumb|'''Figure 6.''' The Extended Reality environment. |center|750x750px]]
=== Presence and embodied cognition ===
Immersive therapy’s distinguishing feature is its ability to generate presence, or the psychological illusion of being ‘''there’''. The illusion is amplified by integrating synchronised audio, visual, [[w:Olfactory|olfactory]], [[wikipedia:Haptic_perception|haptic]], and movement stimuli (Lopes et al., 2025; López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022). This increases engagement with the trauma memory and supports emotional processing (van Gelderen et al., 2018).

In 3MDR, presence combines with cognition. The working principle is that physical states of the body can directly shape states of the mind (van Gelderen et al., 2018). Walking towards a virtual trauma reminder functions as a fear antagonistic action and rather than retreating in avoidance, the patient approaches, converting passive helplessness into active, empowered participation and disrupting the rigid and repetitive trauma narratives  common in PTSD (de Haart et al., 2026; Osman et al., 2016; van Gelderen et al., 2018). 

Notably, extinction learning normally requires moderate-to-high-intensity activity to stimulate [[w:Brain-derived_neurotrophic_factor|brain-derived neurotrophic factor]] (BDNF), but 3MDR's walking pace (&lt; 4 km/h) is too slow to generate meaningful BDNF secretion, making a major exercise-induced BDNF mechanism unlikely, although physiological factors cannot be ruled out. The approach action and the cognitive restructuring it enables may be more important psychological drivers (de Haart et al., 2026).

=== Prediction error and inhibitory learning ===
Immersive therapy builds on the inhibitory learning model of exposure therapy, in which a new, safe association competes with and suppresses the original fear response. Walking towards a trauma cue and encountering safety instead of the expected catastrophe creates a prediction error between the anticipated, life-threatening event and actual reality. This may destabilise the traumatic memory, potentially creating conditions for memory reconsolidation to occur (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b; Wiederhold &amp; Wiederhold, 2025).

=== Memory reconsolidation ===
According to [[w:Memory_consolidation|memory reconsolidation]] theory, traumatic memories retrieved in a safe immersive context can become [[w:Malleability_of_intelligence|malleable]], allowing new, safe information to reconsolidate the memory in a non-threatening form (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). To prevent the patient from becoming overwhelmed, 3MDR uses dual-attention tasks such as tracking an oscillating ball (Figure 1), which tax working memory resources and reduce the vividness and emotional intensity of the memory (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b).

Emerging linguistic research suggests this processing is reflected in patients' language. Across successive 3MDR sessions, [[w:Affect_labeling|affective labelling]] of feelings such as guilt shifted from past-tense to present-tense narration, consistent with a renewed ability to integrate traumatic memories into present-moment awareness (Vermetten, Barcaro, et al., 2025a).

== What does the research evidence show? ==
Addressing these barriers is important for any PTSD population, but especially critical for military populations with high treatment failure and dropout rates (van Gelderen et al., 2018). Immersive therapies, as outlined in Table 1, can tailor patient-selected trauma cues to improve access to traumatic memory networks (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). 

=== Virtual reality exposure therapy ===
[[w:Virtual_reality_therapy|VRET]] reconstructs traumatic events in a structured context (Felemban et al., 2026; López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022). This may help bypass imagination challenges such as emotional numbing or amnesia that can prevent patients from engaging with traditional therapy (Macey et al., 2026). A meta-analysis of VRET for PTSD found substantial symptom reductions, averaging a 33.73-point decrease in the 0-80 point [[w:Clinician_Administered_PTSD_Scale|Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale]] and a 20.96-point decrease in the 0-80 point [https://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/assessment/adult-sr/ptsd-checklist.asp PTSD Checklist PCL-5) scale]  (Felemban et al., 2026). Because changes of 10-20 points on these scales are considered clinically significant, this could mean the difference between severe functional impairment and mild or subclinical symptoms (Boska et al., 2025; de Haart et al., 2026; Felemban et al., 2026). Comparative effects against other active PTSD treatments remain modest, but VRET appears to be a more engaging alternative to conventional treatment (Felemban et al., 2026).

=== 3MDR ===
3MDR takes the same multisensory effect in VRET and adds an activating context. Rather than a sedentary, face-to-face session, the patient and the therapist face the virtual display together (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). It follows a three-phase protocol: pre-platform preparation, platform treadmill exposure, and post-platform re-consolidation (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). In a trial involving treatment-resistant PTSD; 3MDR showed large effect sizes from pre-treatment to six-months (''n'' = 134, ''d'' = 1.0) and high-acceptability, with 7-20% dropout rates (de Haart et al., 2026; van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). Substantially lower than the 16-48% typical trauma-focused therapy in military populations (Lewis et al., 2020).

Improvements are not limited to PTSD symptoms. A trial of 62 adults with severe PTSD, including childhood sexual trauma, found intensive trauma-focused treatment improved emotion-regulation abilities regardless of PTSD outcome (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). Some researchers link this improvement to positive psychology [[w:Broaden-and-build|broaden-and-build theory]]. Theorising that as patients regain a sense of safety and control, this may support a positive spiral of emotional flexibility that reinforces recovery (Fredrickson, 2001; Niles et al., 2023; Westphal et al., 2017).  

Critically, the exact causation remains unknown. Given the recent innovations in immersive therapies and small study samples, it remains unclear whether they work through exposure-based extinction, enhanced emotional engagement, physiological factors, embodiment or positive cognitive restructuring. These questions are relevant to both basic and applied research and have not yet been adequately addressed by current trial designs.  

'''Table 1'''

''Treatment Effects and Psychological Mechanisms''
{| class=&quot;wikitable mw-collapsible&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Clinical Dimension'''
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Traditional'''
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Immersive'''
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Psychological Mechanisms'''
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Context'''
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''Sedentary'''''. Face-to-face, verbally describes trauma.
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''Activating.''''' Dynamic, multi-sensory environment.
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''Fear Antagonistic Action.'''''
'''''Approach behaviours.'''''

'''''Prediction Errors.'''''
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Trauma cue delivery'''
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''Imaginary Retrieval'''''
Patient capacity
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''Multisensory Immersion'''''
Highly tailored
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''External Scaffolding.'''''
Bypasses internal barriers to activate memory networks.
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Processing'''
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''Convergent processing.'''''
Repeated narration and fear habituation.
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''Active Narrative Processing.'''''
Interactive, real-time affective labelling and dual-attention tasks.
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''Working Memory.'''''
Memory taxation reduces vividness and emotional intensity.
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Engagement''' 
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''Attrition.'''''
Dropout rates 16-48%.
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''Acceptability.'''''
Attractive. Dropout rates 7-20%.
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''Sustained Motivation.'''''
Presence and safety in immersive environment.
|}
=== Applied example: 3MDR treatment in Ukraine ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
'''Scenario: Ukraine War: an applied 3MDR example'''

Andriy*, a Ukrainian Armed Forces volunteer, is struggling with hyper-vigilance, anxiety, and depression (Kukharuk et al., 2025). Traditional ‘talk’ therapy feels impossible; his mind remains in a constant state of combat readiness, even in quiet rooms.

In the pre-platform phase, Andriy identifies ‘hotspot’ memories in photographs. On the treadmill, harnessed and walking, he faces a panoramic screen as personalised warm-up music plays, selected to keep him connected to his traumatic memory network (Vermetten et al., 2025b). As his hotspot image fills the screen, his therapist asks three questions (Vermetten et al., 2025b):

1. What do you '''SEE''' ?
2. What does it '''TELL''' you?
3. What do you '''FEEL''' in your body NOW?

When Andriy identifies a surge of shame, the word '''GUILT''' is displayed as an affective label, and a dual-attention task begins. He tracks an oscillating, numbered ball while he stays with the emotion, taxing his working memory and reducing the intensity of the recalled trauma.
[[File:Andriy 3MDR enhanced.gif|center|600x600px]]

'''Figure 7.''' Andriy's 3MDR treatment.

By the end of the session, Andriy had walked toward what he used to avoid, creating a mismatch between his expectation of threat and his safety and turning a rigid, stuck memory into a manageable narrative.

*''Andriy, a fictional name given to one of 69 Ukrainian veterans, participating in a 2023 randomised controlled trial. Many demobilised after one year because of mental or neurological injuries'' (Kukharuk et al., 2025). 

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== What are the costs and limitations of immersive therapies? ==
PTSD carries a substantial economic burden. PTSD was associated with an estimated US$232 billion in excess costs in the United States in 2018 and over £40 billion in the United Kingdom in 2020-21, 92.4% of which were indirect rather than direct clinical costs (Davis et al., 2022; Montgomery-Marks et al., 2025). In Australia, the annual cost of PTSD per military veteran was estimated at $112,172 in 2025 (Magnusson &amp; Dey, 2025). In addition, individual healthcare costs surge by 142% in the year following a PTSD diagnosis, with comorbidities tripling this effect (Bothe et al., 2020). These figures span several countries and years and should be read as an indication of scale rather than as directly comparable totals.

Immersive therapy’s ability to move from small trials into mainstream PTSD treatment remains limited by methodological [[w:Homogeneity_and_heterogeneity|heterogeneity]], small sample sizes, and a lack of long-term data (Felemban et al., 2026). Many trials rely on military-heavy, treatment-resistant samples with few active comparison conditions, which limits the generalisation of findings to civilian or initial treatment populations. Practical issues such as [[w:Virtual_reality_sickness|cyber sickness]] or motion sickness can disrupt participation (Kukharuk et al., 2025).

Structural barriers include workforce training and equipment costs. Basic VR systems cost around US$3,500 per provider headset annually, with advanced simulation environments costing up to US$200,000 (Garrett et al., 2018). Despite this, adoption of immersive therapy is scaling. The [[w:United_States_Department_of_Veterans_Affairs|United States Veterans Affairs]] have expanded VR use from five medical centres in 2017 to over 154 centres and 2,300 staff, with applications now including over 40 documented clinical interventions such as chronic pain and suicide intervention (Bailey et al., 2024). Reflecting this potential growth trend, some market analysts estimate the global PTSD-focused VR therapy market was worth US$1.59 billion in 2025, forecasted to reach US$5.94 billion by 2032, driven largely by growing mental health awareness and the absence of standard clinical protocols (Stratistics MRC, 2025, an industry market report).

These limitations do not undermine the case for immersive therapy, but they show its evidence base and infrastructure are still maturing. Demonstrating rigorously why these therapies work, rather than assuming their novelty accounts for their effects is essential to avoid misallocating resources to unproven interventions and may support an emerging shift towards greater emphasis on post-traumatic growth and renewed optimism (Trejo et al., 2015; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b; Wiederhold &amp; Wiederhold, 2025).

{{Robelbox|theme=2|title=Quiz}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Which of the following is an expected outcome of immersive therapy ?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}


- Patients are at risk because of an uncontrolled environment.
- The environments represent traditional face-to-face treatments.
- Failure and dropout rates are higher than traditional PTSD treatment.
+ Patients often broaden and build an upward spiral of emotion and optimism.
&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}
== Conclusion ==
PTSD traps people in a self-reinforcing cycle of avoidance that blocks the adaptive processing necessary for traumatic memories to be resolved (see: ''[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment#Understanding PTSD and emotions|Understanding PTSD and emotions]]''). Standard trauma-focused therapies require patients to confront exactly what this cycle causes them to avoid, which contributes to high non-response and dropout rates (see ''[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment#Why treatment can be difficult|Why treatment can be difficult]]'').

Immersive therapies such as VRET and 3MDR address this by using presence, embodied cognition, prediction error and memory reconsolidation to help patients safely approach trauma cues rather than avoid them (see: ''[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment#What does the research evidence show?|What does the research evidence show]]''). The technology itself is only a delivery mechanism that enables the processes, the positive benefits appear to arise from the psychological mechanisms that immersive therapies facilitate, rather than the novelty of technology alone.

The evidence to date shows meaningful reductions in PTSD symptoms and comparatively low drop-out rates, alongside broader gains in emotional regulation. However, small samples, methodological variation, and a lack of long-term data mean the evidence base is still developing, and cost and infrastructure barriers remain significant (see: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment#What are the costs and limitations of immersive therapies?|costs and limitations]]'').{{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}}
[[File:Nuvola apps kuser.svg|Nuvola apps kuser|left|20px]] ''' Take-home message:''' 
Immersive therapies do not heal PTSD trauma through technological novelty or digital feedback. Instead, they create a safe, dynamic space that lets individuals confront trauma and reprocess memories into something they can live with. In doing so, people’s lives may once again shift toward value, optimism, and wellness.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== See also ==
'''Wikiversity'''
* [[Motivation and emotion/Textbook/Emotion/Anxiety|Anxiety]] (Book chapter, 2010)
* [[Evidence-based assessment/Posttraumatic stress disorder (disorder portfolio)|Evidence-based PTSD assessment]]
* [[/Non-invasive brain stimulation techniques/|Non-invasive brain stimulation techniques and PTSD]] (Sub-page, 2026)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Sense hacking|Sense hacking]] (Book chapter, 2024)

'''Wikipedia'''
* [[w:Affect_labeling|Affective labelling]] 
* [[Augmented Reality|Augmented reality]] 
* [[w:Brain-derived_neurotrophic_factor|Brain-derived neurotrophic factor]] 
* [[w:Broaden-and-build|Broaden-and-build theory]]
* [[w:Cognitive_processing_therapy|Cognitive processing therapy]] 
* [[w:Virtual_reality_sickness|Cyber sickness]]
* [[w:DSM-5|DSM-5]]
* [[w:Emotional_dysregulation|Emotional dysregulation]] 
* [[w:Extended_reality|Extended reality]]
* [[w:Malleability_of_intelligence|Malleability of intelligence]] 
* [[w:Memory_consolidation|Memory reconsolidation]]
* [[w:Mixed_reality_game|Mixed reality]] 
* [[w:Post-traumatic_stress_disorder|Post-traumatic stress disorder]]
* [[w:Prolonged_exposure_therapy|Prolonged exposure therapy]] 
* [[wikipedia:Virtual_reality_therapy|Virtual reality exposure therapy]]

== References ==
{{Hanging indent|Bailey, A. L., Kirsh, S., Rawlins, C., Persky, S., &amp; Clancy, C. (2024). Early scaling of immersive technology within the Veterans Health Administration. ''NEJM Catalyst Innovations in Care Delivery'', 5(4). https://doi.org/10.1056/cat.23.0356

Boska, R. L., Bishop, T. M., Capron, D. W., Paxton Willing, M. M., &amp; Ashrafioun, L. (2025). Difficulties with emotion regulation within PTSD clusters and moral injury subtypes. ''Military Psychology'', 37(2), 159-167. https://doi.org/10.1080/08995605.2024.2322904

de Haart, R., Daniels, J. K., Timmerman, M. E., Cath, D. C., &amp; Lommen, M. J. J. (2026). Augmenting virtual reality exposure for PTSD with physical activity: Study protocol of a randomised controlled trial. ''European'' ''Journal of Psychotraumatology'', 17(1), 2605803. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2025.2605803

Efremov, A. (2025). Age-specific mental health profiles of combat veterans: Post-traumatic stress disorder and related disorders. ''Journal of Rational-Emotive &amp; Cognitive-Behavior Therapy'', 44(4), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10942-025-00637-7

Elklit, A., &amp; Dahl, N. H. (2025). Emotion regulation difficulties, aggression, and PTSD symptoms in Danish treatment-seeking veterans. ''Scandinavian Journal of Military Studies'', 8(1), 308-326. https://doi.org/10.31374/sjms.264

Felemban, R. G., Alzahrani, R. R., Alrefaei, N. F., Alharbi, N. M., Alghamdi, A. S., &amp; Alqadi, S. (2026). Efficacy of virtual reality-based exposure therapy for post-traumatic stress disorder in military veterans: A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''Frontiers in Psychiatry'', 17, 1857109. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1857109

Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. ''American Psychologist'', 56(3), 218-226. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.56.3.218

Garrett, B., Taverner, T., Gromala, D., Tao, G., Cordingley, E., &amp; Sun, C. (2018). Virtual reality clinical research: Promises and challenges. ''JMIR Serious Games'', 6(4), e10839. https://doi.org/10.2196/10839

Kukharuk, O., Tkalich, K., Kamash, N., &amp; Georgiou, O. (2025). Effectiveness of immersive VR therapy in reducing stress-associated symptoms in Ukraine. ''European Journal of Psychotraumatology'', 16(1), 2488097. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2025.2488097

Lewis, C., Roberts, N. P., Andrew, M., Starling, E., &amp; Bisson, J. I. (2020). Psychological therapies for post-traumatic stress disorder in adults: Systematic review and meta-analysis. ''European Journal of Psychotraumatology'', 11(1), 1729633. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2020.1729633

Lopes, M. K. S., Perreault, L., de Jesus, B. Jr., Roberge, M. C., &amp; Falk, T. H. (2025). Subjective and objective evaluation of the benefits of multisensory virtual nature immersion for patients with post-traumatic stress disorder. In ''Proceedings of the 17th International Conference on Quality of Multimedia Experience'' (QoMEX) (pp.1-5). IEEE. https://doi.org/10.1109/QoMEX65720.2025.11219945

López-Ojeda, W., &amp; Hurley, R. A. (2022). Extended reality technologies: Expanding therapeutic approaches for PTSD. ''The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences'', 34(1), 1-5. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.neuropsych.21100244

Macey, A.-L., Macey, J., &amp; Hamari, J. (2026). Emotion regulation in immersive virtual reality environments: A scoping review. ''Interacting with Computers'', 29, 1-20. https://doi.org/10.1093/iwc/iwag029

Niles, B., Lang, A., &amp; Olff, M. (2023). Complementary and integrative interventions for PTSD. ''European Journal of Psychotraumatology'', 14(2), 2247888. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2023.2247888

Osman, A., Paczynski, M., &amp; Jha, A. P. (2016). Affective expectations influence neural responses to stressful images in soldiers. ''Military Psychology'', 29(1), 41-57. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000128

Selvakumaran, R. V. (2025). Developing virtual reality (VR) simulations with embedded user analytics for cognitive rehabilitation in PTSD veterans. In ''Proceedings of the 27th International Conference on Multimodal Interaction'' (pp. 740-744). ACM. https://doi.org/10.1145/3716553.3750826

Trejo, B. C., Richard, E. M., van Driel, M., &amp; McDonald, D. P. (2015). Cross-cultural competence: The role of emotion regulation ability and optimism. ''Military Psychology'', 27(5), 276-286. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000081

van Gelderen, M. J., Nijdam, M. J., &amp; Vermetten, E. (2018). An innovative framework for delivering psychotherapy to patients with treatment-resistant posttraumatic stress disorder: Rationale for interactive motion-assisted therapy. ''Frontiers in Psychiatry'', 9, 176. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00176

van Toorenburg, M. M., Sanches, S. A., Linders, B., Rozendaal, L., Voorendonk, E. M., Van Minnen, A., &amp; De Jongh, A. (2020). Do emotion regulation difficulties affect outcome of intensive trauma-focused treatment of patients with severe PTSD? ''European Journal of Psychotraumatology'', 11(1), 1724417. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2020.1724417

Vermetten, E., Barcaro, S., Espejo, E., Bellini, P., Roy, M. J., &amp; Bremault-Phillips, S. (2025a). Linguistic analysis of patients’ labels during 3MDR psychotherapy. ''Psychiatry and Clinical Psychopharmacology'', 35(Suppl. 1), S29. https://doi.org/10.5152/pcp.2025.241024

Vermetten, E., Burback, L., Sevigny, P. R., Nijdam, M. J., Winkler, O., Espejo, E., Sessoms, P., Bright, K., Roy, M. J., &amp; Brémault-Phillips, S. (2025b). Brief manual for multi-modal motion-assisted memory desensitization and reconsolidation therapy for the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. ''Psychiatry and Clinical Psychopharmacology'', 35(Suppl. 1), S122. https://doi.org/10.5152/pcp.2025.241028

Westphal, M., Aldao, A., &amp; Jackson, C. (2017). Emotion dysregulation in comorbid posttraumatic stress disorder and substance use disorders: A narrative review. ''Military Psychology'', 29(3), 216-233. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000157

Wiederhold, B. K., &amp; Wiederhold, M. D. (2025). Virtual reality therapy combined with physiological monitoring provides effective treatment, with objective metrics, for post-traumatic stress disorder. ''Expert Review of Medical Devices'', 22(2), 117-119. https://doi.org/10.1080/17434440.2025.2454930
}}


== External links ==
* '''Web:''' [https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd Post traumatic stress disorder] (Australian Government)
* '''Web:''' [https://www.ptsd.va.gov/index.asp National Center for PTSD information home page]  (US Government)
* '''Web:''' [https://www.innovation.va.gov/hil/views/immersive/immersive-programs.html US Veterans Affairs Immersive Programs Innov]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[https://www.innovation.va.gov/hil/views/immersive/immersive-programs.html ation] (US Government)
* '''Web:''' [https://defenceveteransuicide.royalcommission.gov.au/publications/final-report Australian Royal Commission into Defence and Veteran Suicide - Final Repor]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[https://defenceveteransuicide.royalcommission.gov.au/publications/final-report t](Australian Government)
* '''Web:''' [https://www.strategymrc.com/report/virtual-reality-therapy-for-ptsd-market Virtual reality therapy for PTSD market forecasts to 2032:] (Stratistics MR&lt;nowiki/&gt;C, a 2025 industry market report). 
* '''Podcast:''' [https://shows.acast.com/5c3353e484e2e79370e1d135/5c3353ef84e2e79370e1d13c PTSD Podcast] (Peace of Mind: Mental Health and Psychiatry, ACAST, 43 min)
* '''Video:''' [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bD43R_oa6qo 3MDR: Virtual reality treatment for veterans] (National Centre for Mental Health,Youtube, 2:46 min)
* '''Video:'''  [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jL2bKmniMTc VR exposure for combat PTSD] (PsyTech VR, Youtube, 2:20 min)  
* '''Final Report:''' [https://www.ncmh.info/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/Cardiff-3MDR-Study-Final-Report-with-cover-21.5.20.pdf 3MDR randomised control trial - Final-Report] (Cardiff University)

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Psychotherapy]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Trauma]]
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{{Research project
| title = First-Principles Derivation of the Fine-Structure Constant: Fano Plane Symmetries, Lagrangian Duality, and the Hydrogen Atom
| status = Active / Proposal
| area = Mathematical Physics / String Theory / Quantum Mechanics
}}

&lt;!-- FLOATING INFOBOX: WIKIBASE KNOWLEDGE GRAPH ARCHITECTURE --&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;float: right; width: 340px; background-color: #ffffff; border: 1px solid #cbd5e1; border-top: 4px solid #0284c7; padding: 14px; margin: 0 0 1em 1.5em; font-size: 85%; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 1.6; box-shadow: 0 4px 12px rgba(0,0,0,0.08); border-radius: 8px;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;font-weight: bold; text-align: center; color: #0284c7; font-size: 110%; margin-bottom: 2px;&quot;&gt;🌐 WIKIBASE KNOWLEDGE GRAPH&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center; color: #64748b; font-size: 90%; margin-bottom: 8px;&quot;&gt;Linked Open Data &amp; SPARQL Architecture&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;hr style=&quot;margin: 8px 0; border: 0; border-top: 1px solid #e2e8f0;&quot; /&gt;
* '''Triple Store:''' [https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud blandino-research]
* '''Root Project:''' &lt;span style=&quot;background: #ef4444; color: white; padding: 1px 6px; border-radius: 4px; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;[https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/wiki/Item:Q3 Q3]&lt;/span&gt;
* '''Dataset Record:''' &lt;span style=&quot;background: #10b981; color: white; padding: 1px 6px; border-radius: 4px; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;[https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/wiki/Item:Q92 Q92]&lt;/span&gt;
* '''Author / ORCID:''' Massimiliano Blandino &amp;bull; [https://orcid.org/0009-0006-3252-4011 0009-0006-3252-4011]
* '''OpenAlex Author ID:''' [https://openalex.org/authors/A5134967009 A5134967009]
* '''SPARQL Endpoint:''' [https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/query/ Live Query Engine]
&lt;hr style=&quot;margin: 8px 0; border: 0; border-top: 1px solid #e2e8f0;&quot; /&gt;
&lt;strong style=&quot;color: #0f172a; display: block; margin-bottom: 4px;&quot;&gt;📦 Zenodo Open Data Repository (Concept DOI):&lt;/strong&gt;
* '''Graph Archive:''' [https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.22839547 Blandino Research Knowledge Graph (BR-KG)]
* '''DOI Link:''' &lt;span style=&quot;background: #f1f5f9; color: #0f172a; border: 1px solid #cbd5e1; padding: 1px 5px; border-radius: 3px; font-family: monospace; font-size: 90%;&quot;&gt;[https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.22839547 10.5281/zenodo.22839547]&lt;/span&gt;
* '''OpenAlex Graph ID:''' &lt;span style=&quot;background: #f1f5f9; color: #0f172a; border: 1px solid #cbd5e1; padding: 1px 5px; border-radius: 3px; font-family: monospace; font-size: 90%;&quot;&gt;[https://openalex.org/W7213638887 W7213638887]&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f8fafc; border: 1px solid #e2e8f0; border-radius: 6px; padding: 6px 8px; margin-top: 6px; font-size: 88%;&quot;&gt;
&lt;strong style=&quot;color: #0369a1; display: block; margin-bottom: 2px;&quot;&gt;Repository File Contents:&lt;/strong&gt;
* 📄 &lt;code style=&quot;font-size: 85%;&quot;&gt;BRKG_Full_Graph_Export.ttl&lt;/code&gt; (W3C RDF)
* 📊 &lt;code style=&quot;font-size: 85%;&quot;&gt;01_BRKG_Unpacked_Triples_ALL.csv&lt;/code&gt;
* 📊 &lt;code style=&quot;font-size: 85%;&quot;&gt;02_BRKG_Unique_Subject_Nodes.csv&lt;/code&gt;
* 📊 &lt;code style=&quot;font-size: 85%;&quot;&gt;03_BRKG_Unique_Property_Predicates.csv&lt;/code&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;hr style=&quot;margin: 8px 0; border: 0; border-top: 1px solid #e2e8f0;&quot; /&gt;
&lt;strong style=&quot;color: #0f172a; display: block; margin-bottom: 6px;&quot;&gt;Immersive Research Series (Items &amp; Suites):&lt;/strong&gt;
* '''Jordan-Clifford Bridge:''' &lt;span style=&quot;background: #e0f2fe; color: #0369a1; padding: 1px 5px; border-radius: 3px; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;[https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/wiki/Item:Q18 Q18]&lt;/span&gt; &amp;bull; Suite: &lt;span style=&quot;background: #f3e8ff; color: #7e22ce; padding: 1px 5px; border-radius: 3px; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;[https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/wiki/Item:Q25 Q25]&lt;/span&gt;
* '''NCG Lorentzian:''' &lt;span style=&quot;background: #e0f2fe; color: #0369a1; padding: 1px 5px; border-radius: 3px; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;[https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/wiki/Item:Q20 Q20]&lt;/span&gt; &amp;bull; Suite: &lt;span style=&quot;background: #f3e8ff; color: #7e22ce; padding: 1px 5px; border-radius: 3px; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;[https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/wiki/Item:Q26 Q26]&lt;/span&gt;
* '''LQG Time Emergence:''' &lt;span style=&quot;background: #e0f2fe; color: #0369a1; padding: 1px 5px; border-radius: 3px; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;[https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/wiki/Item:Q22 Q22]&lt;/span&gt; &amp;bull; Suite: &lt;span style=&quot;background: #f3e8ff; color: #7e22ce; padding: 1px 5px; border-radius: 3px; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;[https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/wiki/Item:Q27 Q27]&lt;/span&gt;
* '''Dissipative Measurement:''' &lt;span style=&quot;background: #e0f2fe; color: #0369a1; padding: 1px 5px; border-radius: 3px; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;[https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/wiki/Item:Q23 Q23]&lt;/span&gt; &amp;bull; Suite: &lt;span style=&quot;background: #f3e8ff; color: #7e22ce; padding: 1px 5px; border-radius: 3px; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;[https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/wiki/Item:Q28 Q28]&lt;/span&gt;
* '''Hydrogen 1s Orbital:''' &lt;span style=&quot;background: #e0f2fe; color: #0369a1; padding: 1px 5px; border-radius: 3px; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;[https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/wiki/Item:Q24 Q24]&lt;/span&gt; &amp;bull; Suites: &lt;span style=&quot;background: #f3e8ff; color: #7e22ce; padding: 1px 5px; border-radius: 3px; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;[https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/wiki/Item:Q29 Q29]&lt;/span&gt;, &lt;span style=&quot;background: #f3e8ff; color: #7e22ce; padding: 1px 5px; border-radius: 3px; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;[https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/wiki/Item:Q30 Q30]&lt;/span&gt;
* '''AQFT Superselection:''' &lt;span style=&quot;background: #e0f2fe; color: #0369a1; padding: 1px 5px; border-radius: 3px; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;[https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/wiki/Item:Q31 Q31]&lt;/span&gt; &amp;bull; Suite: &lt;span style=&quot;background: #f3e8ff; color: #7e22ce; padding: 1px 5px; border-radius: 3px; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;[https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/wiki/Item:Q32 Q32]&lt;/span&gt;
* '''Singh Torsion Gravity:''' &lt;span style=&quot;background: #e0f2fe; color: #0369a1; padding: 1px 5px; border-radius: 3px; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;[https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/wiki/Item:Q33 Q33]&lt;/span&gt; &amp;bull; Suite: &lt;span style=&quot;background: #f3e8ff; color: #7e22ce; padding: 1px 5px; border-radius: 3px; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;[https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/wiki/Item:Q34 Q34]&lt;/span&gt;
* '''TEC-Weil RH Refinement:''' &lt;span style=&quot;background: #e0f2fe; color: #0369a1; padding: 1px 5px; border-radius: 3px; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;[https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/wiki/Item:Q35 Q35]&lt;/span&gt; &amp;bull; Suite: &lt;span style=&quot;background: #f3e8ff; color: #7e22ce; padding: 1px 5px; border-radius: 3px; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;[https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/wiki/Item:Q36 Q36]&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;hr style=&quot;margin: 8px 0; border: 0; border-top: 1px solid #e2e8f0;&quot; /&gt;
&lt;!-- Invisible AI Agent Metadata --&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;display: none;&quot; aria-hidden=&quot;true&quot;&gt;
zenodo_dataset:
  concept_doi: &quot;10.5281/zenodo.22839547&quot;
  files:
    - &quot;BRKG_Full_Graph_Export.ttl&quot;
    - &quot;01_BRKG_Unpacked_Triples_ALL.csv&quot;
    - &quot;02_BRKG_Unique_Subject_Nodes.csv&quot;
    - &quot;03_BRKG_Unique_Property_Predicates.csv&quot;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
== Open Science Architecture &amp; Full Corpus Index ==
This Wikiversity resource serves as an '''executive summary and educational portal''' for a broader, multi-paper research network anchored on Wikibase Cloud. To maintain readability, detailed mathematical derivations, extended proofs, and complete source code are modularized across permanent Open Science repositories (Zenodo Concept DOIs):

* '''Full Verification Suite &amp; Spectral Invariants:''' [https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20684476 DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.20684476] &lt;span style=&quot;background: #e0f2fe; color: #0369a1; padding: 1px 6px; border-radius: 4px; font-weight: bold; font-family: monospace;&quot;&gt;[https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/wiki/Item:Q8 Node:Q8]&lt;/span&gt;
* '''Unified PEPS-5D &amp; Fano 2-22 Archive:''' [https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20635062 DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.20635062] &lt;span style=&quot;background: #e0f2fe; color: #0369a1; padding: 1px 6px; border-radius: 4px; font-weight: bold; font-family: monospace;&quot;&gt;[https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/wiki/Item:Q16 Node:Q16]&lt;/span&gt;
* '''Lagrangian Duality &amp; Fine-Structure Series:''' [https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.19802606 DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.19802606] &lt;span style=&quot;background: #e0f2fe; color: #0369a1; padding: 1px 6px; border-radius: 4px; font-weight: bold; font-family: monospace;&quot;&gt;[https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/wiki/Item:Q15 Node:Q15]&lt;/span&gt;

''Readers seeking the full step-by-step algebraic derivations and reproducible Python environments are encouraged to consult the corresponding archived manuscripts linked above.''

== Abstract &amp; Overview ==
This research project presents a proposed theoretical model for a first-principles derivation of the inverse [[w:en:Fine-structure constant|fine-structure constant]] (&lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;) without free parameters. It presents its exact analytical closed form, its Lagrangian action principle, its representation as a circular [[w:en:Matrix product state|Matrix Product State (MPS)]], and its physical role as a critical threshold governing decoherence scales and the stability of the hydrogen 1s orbital.

== Research Status, Limitations &amp; Disclaimer ==
{{Notice|type=note|text='''Research Status &amp; Scope:''' This learning and research resource presents an exploratory theoretical model developed to facilitate open computational testing, mathematical exploration, and community feedback on Wikiversity.
* '''Publication &amp; Review Status:''' The underlying multi-paper research network and its verification modules are archived under permanent Concept DOIs on Zenodo and indexed on the [https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/wiki/Item:Q3 Wikibase Triple Store (Item:Q3)].
* '''Model Scope:''' All mathematical derivations, tensor network constructions, and Python verification scripts demonstrate internal self-consistency and high-precision numerical agreement within the defined model. They are presented as a self-consistent theoretical hypothesis rather than an established physical consensus.}}

== Educational &amp; Research Objectives ==
This learning and research resource is designed for advanced students, doctoral candidates, and researchers in mathematical physics. The primary objectives are:
* To provide a self-contained exposition of circular Matrix Product States (MPS) on algebraic varieties and finite projective spaces.
* To demonstrate the analytical derivation of &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}&lt;/math&gt; via continued fraction structures, [[w:en:Fano plane|Fano plane]] symmetries, and worldsheet oscillations.
* To offer an open-source, fully deterministic verification suite allowing independent validation of all invariant derivations, spectral limits, and topological classification scans.

== Prerequisites ==
To fully engage with the theoretical framework and computational routines, familiarity with the following topics is recommended:
* [[w:en:Differential geometry|Differential geometry]] and algebraic geometry (specifically [[w:en:Fano variety|Fano varieties]], moduli spaces, and projective geometry &lt;math&gt;PG(2,2)&lt;/math&gt;)
* [[w:en:Quantum field theory|Quantum field theory]] and [[w:en:Polyakov action|Polyakov string theory]]
* [[w:en:Matrix product state|Matrix Product States (MPS)]] and tensor network methods
* [[w:en:Numerical analysis|Numerical analysis]] and symbolic computation in Python (&lt;code&gt;mpmath&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;sympy&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;scipy&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;numpy&lt;/code&gt;)

== Reproducibility, Open Science &amp; Verification Suite ==

To ensure full computational transparency and empirical reproducibility, the theoretical framework presented in this work is supported by an open-source verification suite. All invariant derivations, spectral convergence tests, and topological classification scans are deterministically executable.

* '''Archive &amp; DOI''': [https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20684476 10.5281/zenodo.20684476]
* '''Suite Name''': &lt;code&gt;Spectral_Invariants_Full_Verification_suite.py&lt;/code&gt; (Version v3.0.1)
* '''Target Manuscript''': ''&quot;Spectral Invariants of Circular Tensor Networks on the Moduli Space of Fano 3-Folds with an application to the fine-structure constant&quot;''
* '''Wikibase Anchors''': &lt;span style=&quot;background: #e0f2fe; color: #0369a1; padding: 1px 6px; border-radius: 4px; font-weight: bold; font-family: monospace;&quot;&gt;[https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/wiki/Item:Q8 Paper:Q8]&lt;/span&gt; &amp;bull; &lt;span style=&quot;background: #f3e8ff; color: #7e22ce; padding: 1px 6px; border-radius: 4px; font-weight: bold; font-family: monospace;&quot;&gt;Modules: Q48 – Q65&lt;/span&gt;
* '''Environment Requirements''': Python 3.10+ (&lt;code&gt;mpmath&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;numpy&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;scipy&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;matplotlib&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;sympy&lt;/code&gt;)

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;bash&quot;&gt;
# Execution command (Runs in high precision within seconds)
python Spectral_Invariants_Full_Verification_suite.py
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

=== Complete Verification Modules (v3.0.1) ===

The verification suite automatically runs and validates the following 18 analytical and numerical modules:

# '''Module 1: Closed-Form &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}&lt;/math&gt; Derivation''' &lt;span style=&quot;background: #f3e8ff; color: #7e22ce; padding: 1px 5px; border-radius: 3px; font-weight: bold; font-family: monospace;&quot;&gt;[https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/wiki/Item:Q48 Q48]&lt;/span&gt; — Calculates the exact fine-structure constant via the continued fraction &lt;math&gt;[14,1,7,3,1,3]&lt;/math&gt; (&lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{K} \approx 9.932791&lt;/math&gt;), matching [[w:en:CODATA|CODATA]] 2022 with a precision error &lt;math&gt;&lt; 10^{-14}&lt;/math&gt;.
# '''Module 2: Historical CODATA Analysis (2006–2022)''' &lt;span style=&quot;background: #f3e8ff; color: #7e22ce; padding: 1px 5px; border-radius: 3px; font-weight: bold; font-family: monospace;&quot;&gt;[https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/wiki/Item:Q49 Q49]&lt;/span&gt; — Demonstrates that all partial quotients extracted from historical [[w:en:CODATA|CODATA]] measurements remain strictly bounded by &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{D} = 45&lt;/math&gt;.
# '''Module 3: MPS Spectral Convergence''' &lt;span style=&quot;background: #f3e8ff; color: #7e22ce; padding: 1px 5px; border-radius: 3px; font-weight: bold; font-family: monospace;&quot;&gt;[https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/wiki/Item:Q50 Q50]&lt;/span&gt; — Tracks the circular [[w:en:Tensor network|tensor network]] limit up to &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{N} = 10000&lt;/math&gt;, showing convergence to &lt;math&gt;\ln(\boldsymbol{\lambda}_{\max}) \to \boldsymbol{A}_{\text{geo}} + \boldsymbol{\pi}&lt;/math&gt;.
# '''Module 4: Stochastic Monte Carlo Simulation''' &lt;span style=&quot;background: #f3e8ff; color: #7e22ce; padding: 1px 5px; border-radius: 3px; font-weight: bold; font-family: monospace;&quot;&gt;[https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/wiki/Item:Q51 Q51]&lt;/span&gt; — Evaluates &lt;math&gt;\langle \boldsymbol{S} \rangle&lt;/math&gt; across &lt;math&gt;100,000&lt;/math&gt; iterations, confirming statistical convergence to the experimental baseline.
# '''Module 5: Sensitivity Scan for &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\tau}&lt;/math&gt;''' &lt;span style=&quot;background: #f3e8ff; color: #7e22ce; padding: 1px 5px; border-radius: 3px; font-weight: bold; font-family: monospace;&quot;&gt;[https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/wiki/Item:Q53 Q53]&lt;/span&gt; — Scans the scale parameter &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\tau} \in [3.0, 7.0]&lt;/math&gt;, proving structural invariant stability within &lt;math&gt;10^{-2}&lt;/math&gt;.
# '''Module 6: Commutator Norm (Theoretical Proof)''' &lt;span style=&quot;background: #f3e8ff; color: #7e22ce; padding: 1px 5px; border-radius: 3px; font-weight: bold; font-family: monospace;&quot;&gt;[https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/wiki/Item:Q54 Q54]&lt;/span&gt; — Proves &lt;math&gt;[\boldsymbol{G}(\theta_1), \boldsymbol{G}(\theta_2)] = 0&lt;/math&gt;, guaranteeing ordering consistency across tensor blocks.
# '''Module 7: Sensitivity Scan for Coupling &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\varepsilon}&lt;/math&gt;''' &lt;span style=&quot;background: #f3e8ff; color: #7e22ce; padding: 1px 5px; border-radius: 3px; font-weight: bold; font-family: monospace;&quot;&gt;[https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/wiki/Item:Q55 Q55]&lt;/span&gt; — Perturbs the system for &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\varepsilon} \in [0, 10^{-2}]&lt;/math&gt;, showing deviations &lt;math&gt;&lt; 10^{-9}&lt;/math&gt; for &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\varepsilon} \le 10^{-4}&lt;/math&gt; and validating the pure geometric limit (&lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\varepsilon} = 0&lt;/math&gt;).
# '''Module 8: PF–DS Numerical Equivalence''' &lt;span style=&quot;background: #f3e8ff; color: #7e22ce; padding: 1px 5px; border-radius: 3px; font-weight: bold; font-family: monospace;&quot;&gt;[https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/wiki/Item:Q57 Q57]&lt;/span&gt; — Validates the integer sequence match between [[w:en:Picard–Fuchs equation|Picard-Fuchs]] coefficients and [[w:en:Dyson–Schwinger equation|Dyson-Schwinger]] propagation (&lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{c}_2=6, \boldsymbol{c}_3=24, \boldsymbol{c}_4=138, \boldsymbol{c}_5=1080, \boldsymbol{c}_6=6540, \boldsymbol{c}_7=50400&lt;/math&gt;).
# '''Module 9: PF–DS Symbolic Verification''' &lt;span style=&quot;background: #f3e8ff; color: #7e22ce; padding: 1px 5px; border-radius: 3px; font-weight: bold; font-family: monospace;&quot;&gt;[https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/wiki/Item:Q58 Q58]&lt;/span&gt; — Performs algebraic symbolic verification of the differential operator &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\mathcal{D}}_{\text{PF}}&lt;/math&gt; reduced to the logarithmic operator polynomial &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\Theta} = t \frac{d}{dt}&lt;/math&gt; via &lt;code&gt;SymPy&lt;/code&gt;.
# '''Module 10: Bond Dimension Singularity Scan (&lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{D}&lt;/math&gt;)''' &lt;span style=&quot;background: #f3e8ff; color: #7e22ce; padding: 1px 5px; border-radius: 3px; font-weight: bold; font-family: monospace;&quot;&gt;[https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/wiki/Item:Q60 Q60]&lt;/span&gt; — Scans &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{D} \in [40, 50]&lt;/math&gt;, proving that &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{D} = 45 = \dim(\mathfrak{so}(10))&lt;/math&gt; is the unique dimension matching the Minkowski period factor &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{c}_5 = 24\boldsymbol{D} = 1080&lt;/math&gt;.
# '''Module 11: Statistical Test for &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{D}=45&lt;/math&gt;''' &lt;span style=&quot;background: #f3e8ff; color: #7e22ce; padding: 1px 5px; border-radius: 3px; font-weight: bold; font-family: monospace;&quot;&gt;[https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/wiki/Item:Q61 Q61]&lt;/span&gt; — Runs &lt;math&gt;10,000&lt;/math&gt; stochastic trials, evaluating the statistical improbability of random alignment for &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{D}=45&lt;/math&gt; (&lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{p} &lt; 1.2 \times 10^{-3}&lt;/math&gt; against the tested random baseline).
# '''Module 12: Maximal Independent Set (MIS) Bridging''' &lt;span style=&quot;background: #f3e8ff; color: #7e22ce; padding: 1px 5px; border-radius: 3px; font-weight: bold; font-family: monospace;&quot;&gt;[https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/wiki/Item:Q62 Q62]&lt;/span&gt; — Evaluates probability distributions over independent sets, showing a sharp peak at &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{q} = 45&lt;/math&gt; (&lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{P} \approx 10^{-13}&lt;/math&gt;).
# '''Module 13: Systematic Scan of 105 Fano Families''' &lt;span style=&quot;background: #f3e8ff; color: #7e22ce; padding: 1px 5px; border-radius: 3px; font-weight: bold; font-family: monospace;&quot;&gt;[https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/wiki/Item:Q59 Q59]&lt;/span&gt; — Scans the entire Mori-Mukai classification database, proving that only ID-69 (Fano 2-22) satisfies the three structural factorizations.
# '''Module 14: Quantum Graphon Cut Norm Convergence''' &lt;span style=&quot;background: #f3e8ff; color: #7e22ce; padding: 1px 5px; border-radius: 3px; font-weight: bold; font-family: monospace;&quot;&gt;[https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/wiki/Item:Q63 Q63]&lt;/span&gt; — Measures cut norm convergence across refinement levels &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{k}=0, 1, 2&lt;/math&gt;, confirming asymptotic decay &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{O}(2^{-k})&lt;/math&gt;.
# '''Module 15: Spectral Gap Calculation''' &lt;span style=&quot;background: #f3e8ff; color: #7e22ce; padding: 1px 5px; border-radius: 3px; font-weight: bold; font-family: monospace;&quot;&gt;[https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/wiki/Item:Q64 Q64]&lt;/span&gt; — Integrates hinge mode ratios &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\Lambda}_1 / \boldsymbol{\Lambda}_0&lt;/math&gt;, confirming convergence toward the rigid asymptotic bound &lt;math&gt;2.0&lt;/math&gt;.
# '''Module 16: Bulk Graphon Parameters''' &lt;span style=&quot;background: #f3e8ff; color: #7e22ce; padding: 1px 5px; border-radius: 3px; font-weight: bold; font-family: monospace;&quot;&gt;[https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/wiki/Item:Q65 Q65]&lt;/span&gt; — Derives the continuous coupling parameters &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\gamma} \approx 22.732171&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\kappa}_W \approx 2.291522&lt;/math&gt;.
# '''Module 17: Commutator Frobenius Norm Table''' &lt;span style=&quot;background: #f3e8ff; color: #7e22ce; padding: 1px 5px; border-radius: 3px; font-weight: bold; font-family: monospace;&quot;&gt;[https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/wiki/Item:Q56 Q56]&lt;/span&gt; — Computes maximum operator commutator norms, returning zero within machine precision (&lt;math&gt;4.47 \times 10^{-21}&lt;/math&gt;).
# '''Module 18: Minimal Reproducible Script''' &lt;span style=&quot;background: #f3e8ff; color: #7e22ce; padding: 1px 5px; border-radius: 3px; font-weight: bold; font-family: monospace;&quot;&gt;[https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/wiki/Item:Q52 Q52]&lt;/span&gt; — Standalone 10-line self-contained routine calculating &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}&lt;/math&gt; to 50 decimal places in arbitrary precision.

== 1. Topological Scope &amp; Theoretical Framework ==
Starting from the generator polynomial &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{\pi}) = 4\boldsymbol{\pi}^3 + \boldsymbol{\pi}^2 + \boldsymbol{\pi}&lt;/math&gt; (see [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fine-structure_constant#Numerical_approximations Historical Numerical Approximations on Wikipedia]), we model the physical inverse fine-structure constant &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}&lt;/math&gt; as the Effective Action &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\Gamma}_{\text{eff}}&lt;/math&gt; of an oscillating circle of radius &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{R} = \boldsymbol{\pi}&lt;/math&gt; dual to a compactified [[w:en:Bosonic string theory|bosonic string]] &lt;ref name=&quot;polyakov1981&quot; /&gt; &lt;ref name=&quot;polchinski1998&quot; /&gt;:

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1} = \ln(\boldsymbol{\lambda}_{\max}) - \boldsymbol{\pi} = \boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{\pi}) - \frac{1}{\boldsymbol{A}'''(\boldsymbol{\pi})\boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{\pi})} - \frac{1}{\boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{\pi})^2 \boldsymbol{\pi}^2} \langle \hat{\boldsymbol{K}}^{-1} \rangle&lt;/math&gt;

where &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{A}'''(\boldsymbol{\pi}) = 24&lt;/math&gt; emerges identically as the third derivative (cubic curvature) of the polynomial—matching the 24 transverse modes of the bosonic string &lt;ref name=&quot;polyakov1981&quot; /&gt;—and &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\lambda}_{\max}&lt;/math&gt; is the dominant eigenvalue of a circular MPS with bond dimension &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{D} = 45&lt;/math&gt;.

We propose that the vacuum persistence amplitude &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\Psi}_{\text{vac}} = e^{-\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}} \approx 3.06 \times 10^{-60}&lt;/math&gt; provides a fundamental dimensionless weight defining the decoherence scale. When combined with the lepton mass scale (&lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{m}_e&lt;/math&gt;), this action fixes the binding energy (&lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{E}_0 = -13.6057\text{ eV}&lt;/math&gt;), the Bohr radius (&lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{a}_0 = 52.92\text{ pm}&lt;/math&gt;), and the orbital velocity (&lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{v} = \boldsymbol{\alpha} \boldsymbol{c}&lt;/math&gt;) of the hydrogen ground state without fitting parameters.

=== 1.0 Algebraic and Differential Anatomy of the Generator Polynomial ===

Prior to evaluating &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{x})&lt;/math&gt; at the geometric resonance point &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{x} = \boldsymbol{\pi}&lt;/math&gt;, a structural examination from the perspectives of [[w:en:Abstract algebra|abstract algebra]], [[w:en:Differential geometry|differential geometry]], and [[w:en:Invariant theory|invariant theory]] reveals that the polynomial 

:&lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{x}) = 4\boldsymbol{x}^3 + \boldsymbol{x}^2 + \boldsymbol{x}&lt;/math&gt;

possesses intrinsic algebraic properties that suggest a underlying geometric origin.

==== 1.0.1 Degree Grading and Topological Decompositions ====
The polynomial is complete and strictly graded in degrees 3, 2, and 1, with a vanishing constant term (&lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{c}_0 = 0&lt;/math&gt;).
* '''Vanishing Constant Term (&lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{A}(0) = 0&lt;/math&gt;):''' Ensures the existence of a trivial fixed point (vacuum state) at the origin of the [[w:en:Configuration space (physics)|configuration space]], allowing the algebraic factorization &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{x}) = \boldsymbol{x}(4\boldsymbol{x}^2 + \boldsymbol{x} + 1)&lt;/math&gt;.
* '''Graded Hierarchy &lt;math&gt;(3, 2, 1)&lt;/math&gt;:''' Directly mirrors the dimensional decomposition of differential forms on a compact [[w:en:Riemannian manifold|Riemannian manifold]] and discretized Regge calculus &lt;ref name=&quot;regge1961&quot; /&gt; &lt;ref name=&quot;cheeger1984&quot; /&gt;:
** &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{x}^3&lt;/math&gt; corresponds to the 3D volume form of the underlying phase space.
** &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{x}^2&lt;/math&gt; corresponds to the 2D boundary surface curvature (area functional).
** &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{x}^1&lt;/math&gt; corresponds to the 1D topological invariant (the fundamental 1-cycle or perimeter of the oscillating boundary).

==== 1.0.2 Integer Coefficients and Spinorial Algebra ====
The sequence of natural coefficients &lt;math&gt;(4, 1, 1)&lt;/math&gt; encodes precise algebraic invariants:
* '''Leading Coefficient 4:''' Represents the dimension of the [[w:en:Dirac spinor|Dirac spinor]] space in four spacetime dimensions (&lt;math&gt;\mathbb{C}^4&lt;/math&gt;), corresponding to the four helicity modes of the coupled fermion-photon system &lt;ref name=&quot;blandino2026alpha&quot; /&gt;.
* '''Unitary Coefficients &lt;math&gt;(1, 1)&lt;/math&gt;:''' Establish isotropic, unscaled coupling between the boundary surface (&lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{x}^2&lt;/math&gt;) and the linear loop (&lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{x}^1&lt;/math&gt;).
* '''Unit Evaluation &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{A}(1) = 6&lt;/math&gt;:''' Evaluating the polynomial at unity yields &lt;math&gt;4(1)^3 + (1)^2 + 1 = 6&lt;/math&gt;, matching the dimension of the [[w:en:Lorentz group|Lorentz group]] &lt;math&gt;SO(3,1)&lt;/math&gt; (the 6 generators of rotations and boosts) and the edge count of the fundamental 3-simplex (tetrahedron).

==== 1.0.3 Polynomial Discriminant, Bhargava Cubic Rings, and the Lie Algebra su(4) ====
Under the Delone–Faddeev–Davenport–Bhargava parametrization of cubic rings over &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{Z}&lt;/math&gt; &lt;ref name=&quot;bhargava2004cubic&quot; /&gt;, the generator polynomial &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{x}) = 4\boldsymbol{x}^3 + \boldsymbol{x}^2 + \boldsymbol{x}&lt;/math&gt; corresponds to the binary cubic form &lt;math&gt;f(u,v) = 4u^3 + u^2v + uv^2&lt;/math&gt; with integer quadruplet &lt;math&gt;(a,b,c,d) = (4,1,1,0)&lt;/math&gt;. The fundamental algebraic invariant of this cubic order is its polynomial [[w:en:Discriminant|discriminant]]:

:&lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\Delta}(f) = b^2c^2 - 4ac^3 - 4b^3d - 27a^2d^2 + 18abcd = 1 - 16 = -15&lt;/math&gt;

The absolute invariant &lt;math&gt;|\boldsymbol{\Delta}| = 15&lt;/math&gt; identifies key algebraic structures:
* &lt;math&gt;15 = \dim(\mathfrak{su}(4))&lt;/math&gt;, the dimension of the [[w:en:Special unitary group|special unitary Lie algebra]] &lt;math&gt;\mathfrak{su}(4)&lt;/math&gt;, which governs the two-qubit operator space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{C}^2 \otimes \mathbb{C}^2&lt;/math&gt; in the [[w:en:Fano plane|Fano plane]] representation &lt;ref name=&quot;blandino2026fano&quot; /&gt; and Fano 3-fold classification &lt;ref name=&quot;iskovskikh1977&quot; /&gt; &lt;ref name=&quot;mori1981&quot; /&gt; &lt;ref name=&quot;golyshev2007&quot; /&gt; &lt;ref name=&quot;coates2013&quot; /&gt;.
* Since &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\Delta} &lt; 0&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{x})&lt;/math&gt; possesses exactly one real root (&lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{x} = 0&lt;/math&gt;) and a pair of complex conjugate roots &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{x}_{\pm} = \frac{-1 \pm i\sqrt{15}}{8}&lt;/math&gt;, defining a unique stable real trajectory accompanied by a two-dimensional complex phase oscillation.

==== 1.0.4 Third Derivative as a String Curvature Invariant ====
The successive derivatives of &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{x})&lt;/math&gt; are:

:&lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{A}'(\boldsymbol{x}) = 12\boldsymbol{x}^2 + 2\boldsymbol{x} + 1&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{A}''(\boldsymbol{x}) = 24\boldsymbol{x} + 2&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{A}'''(\boldsymbol{x}) = 24&lt;/math&gt;

The third derivative &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{A}'''(\boldsymbol{x}) \equiv 24&lt;/math&gt; is a constant, coordinate-independent differential invariant. In [[w:en:Bosonic string theory|bosonic string theory]] &lt;ref name=&quot;polchinski1998&quot; /&gt;, 24 represents the critical dimension of transverse physical oscillations (&lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{D} - 2 = 26 - 2 = 24&lt;/math&gt;), tied to the [[w:en:Dedekind eta function|Dedekind eta function]] and the symmetries of the [[d:Q2510203|Leech lattice]]. The polynomial &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{x})&lt;/math&gt; intrinsically embeds the 24 transverse degrees of freedom as its cubic curvature.

=== 1.1 Structural Properties vs. Numerical Coincidence ===

Historically, the polynomial

:&lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{x}) = 4\boldsymbol{x}^3 + \boldsymbol{x}^2 + \boldsymbol{x}&lt;/math&gt;

appears in literature and reference collections as an interesting numerical approximation &lt;ref name=&quot;nature2010&quot; /&gt; that closely matches the empirical inverse fine-structure constant &lt;ref name=&quot;codata2022&quot; /&gt; when evaluated at &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{x} = \boldsymbol{\pi}&lt;/math&gt;:

:&lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{\pi}) = 4\boldsymbol{\pi}^3 + \boldsymbol{\pi}^2 + \boldsymbol{\pi} \approx 137.0363037&lt;/math&gt;

Within the proposed model, this polynomial is analyzed not as a random coincidence, but as an algebraic structure exhibiting specific geometric properties &lt;ref name=&quot;Sardin2025&quot; /&gt;:
* '''Uniqueness and Complete Structure:''' It is the unique complete cubic generator polynomial with natural coefficients satisfying three independent topological and geometric constraints simultaneously.
* '''Invariance under Differentiation:''' Its third derivative is constant, &lt;math&gt;\frac{d^3 \boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{x})}{d\boldsymbol{x}^3} = 24&lt;/math&gt;, yielding the exact dimensional invariant corresponding to the transverse modes of the bosonic string &lt;ref name=&quot;polyakov1981&quot; /&gt;.
* '''Resonance Point:''' Evaluation at &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{x} = \boldsymbol{\pi}&lt;/math&gt; is interpreted as the physical resonance state of an oscillating spatial circle.
* '''Derivation from Action Principles:''' &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{x})&lt;/math&gt; is derived from the classical geometric action of a dynamical system &lt;ref name=&quot;blandino2026alpha&quot; /&gt;.

=== 1.2 The Geometric Action Behind the Polynomial A(x) ===

The polynomial &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{x})&lt;/math&gt; is derived from the geometric action of an oscillating circle with radius &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{R} = \boldsymbol{x}&lt;/math&gt;.

Consider the geometric Lagrangian of the system &lt;ref name=&quot;blandino2026alpha&quot; /&gt;:

:&lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\mathcal{L}}_{\text{geo}}(\boldsymbol{d}, \dot{\boldsymbol{d}}) = 4\dot{\boldsymbol{d}}^2 + \frac{1}{\boldsymbol{R}}\boldsymbol{d}^2 + \frac{1}{4\boldsymbol{R}^2 - \boldsymbol{d}^2}&lt;/math&gt;

The weak solution to the associated Euler-Lagrange equation yields the displacement field:

:&lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{d}(\boldsymbol{\theta}) = \boldsymbol{R} \sin\boldsymbol{\theta}&lt;/math&gt;

Integrating the action over a complete cycle &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\theta} \in [0, 2\boldsymbol{\pi}]&lt;/math&gt; gives:

:&lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{S}_{\text{geo}}(\boldsymbol{R}) = 4\boldsymbol{\pi} \boldsymbol{R}^3 + \boldsymbol{\pi} \boldsymbol{R}^2 + \boldsymbol{\pi} \boldsymbol{R}&lt;/math&gt;

Evaluating the functional at the fundamental geometric radius &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{R} = \boldsymbol{\pi}&lt;/math&gt; yields the exact value of the generator polynomial:

:&lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{S}_{\text{geo}}(\boldsymbol{\pi}) = 4\boldsymbol{\pi}^3 + \boldsymbol{\pi}^2 + \boldsymbol{\pi} = \boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{\pi})&lt;/math&gt;

This derivation provides a physical action interpretation for the oscillating boundary &lt;span style=&quot;background: #e0f2fe; color: #0369a1; padding: 1px 5px; border-radius: 3px; font-weight: bold; font-family: monospace;&quot;&gt;[https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/wiki/Item:Q72 Node:Q72]&lt;/span&gt;.

=== 1.3 The Continued Fraction as a Refinement of the Underlying Graph ===

The continued fraction representation of &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}&lt;/math&gt; constitutes the arithmetic refinement of the discrete graph generated by &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{x})&lt;/math&gt; &lt;ref name=&quot;blandino2026alpha&quot; /&gt;.

The physical value of &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}&lt;/math&gt; belongs to an arithmetic class whose partial quotients &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{q}_i&lt;/math&gt; are strictly bounded by:

:&lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{q}_i \le 45&lt;/math&gt;

This bound is topological within the model. The continuous spatial domain (oscillating circle) and the discrete algebraic graph (&lt;math&gt;PG(2,2)&lt;/math&gt;) intersect at the invariant constraint &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{D} = 45&lt;/math&gt;.

This dimension &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{D} = 45&lt;/math&gt; connects the structure across four distinct domains:
# The dimension of the virtual space in the Matrix Product State (MPS) &lt;ref name=&quot;verstraete2004&quot; /&gt;.
# The dimension of the adjoint representation of the Lie group &lt;math&gt;SO(10)&lt;/math&gt;.
# The upper bound on the partial quotients of the continued fraction expansion &lt;ref name=&quot;lovasz2006&quot; /&gt; &lt;ref name=&quot;lovasz2012large&quot; /&gt;.
# The fixed point of the renormalization dynamical system.

== 2. Exact Closed-Form Representation and the Cubic Curvature Invariant ==

=== 2.1 The Polynomial Seed and Three-Term Formula ===
The classical approximation to the inverse fine-structure constant uses the cubic polynomial in &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\pi}&lt;/math&gt;:

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;\boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{\pi}) = 4\boldsymbol{\pi}^3 + \boldsymbol{\pi}^2 + \boldsymbol{\pi} \approx 137.0363037759&lt;/math&gt;

which reproduces &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}&lt;/math&gt; with an error of &lt;math&gt;\sim 3 \times 10^{-4}&lt;/math&gt;. We refine this relation into a three-term analytical formula &lt;ref name=&quot;blandino2026alpha&quot; /&gt;:

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1} = \boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{\pi}) - \frac{1}{24 \boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{\pi})} - \frac{1}{\boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{\pi})^2 \cdot \boldsymbol{\pi}^2 \cdot \boldsymbol{K}}&lt;/math&gt;

where &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{K}&lt;/math&gt; is the bounded subtractive continued fraction:

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;\boldsymbol{K} = 10 - \cfrac{1}{14 + \cfrac{1}{1 + \cfrac{1}{7 + \cfrac{1}{3 + \cfrac{1}{1 + \cfrac{1}{3 + \dots}}}}}}&lt;/math&gt;

=== 2.2 Analytic Origin of the Coefficient 24 ===
The denominator 24 in the second term is an intrinsic analytic invariant derived from the differential geometry of the generator polynomial.

'''Theorem 1 (Cubic Curvature Theorem).''' 
''Let &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{x}) = 4\boldsymbol{x}^3 + \boldsymbol{x}^2 + \boldsymbol{x}&lt;/math&gt; be a real cubic function. Its third derivative &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{A}'''(\boldsymbol{x})&lt;/math&gt; is constant, uniform, and independent of &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{x}&lt;/math&gt;:''

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;\boldsymbol{A}'(\boldsymbol{x}) = 12\boldsymbol{x}^2 + 2\boldsymbol{x} + 1, \qquad \boldsymbol{A}''(\boldsymbol{x}) = 24\boldsymbol{x} + 2, \qquad \boldsymbol{A}'''(\boldsymbol{x}) = 24&lt;/math&gt;

''Evaluating the third derivative at &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{x} = \boldsymbol{\pi}&lt;/math&gt; yields &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{A}'''(\boldsymbol{\pi}) \equiv 24&lt;/math&gt;. Thus, the second term of the expansion is identically:''

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;\frac{1}{24 \boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{\pi})} \equiv \frac{1}{\boldsymbol{A}'''(\boldsymbol{\pi}) \cdot \boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{\pi})}&lt;/math&gt;

This term represents the leading-order curvature correction of the configuration space, providing a purely analytic justification for 24.

=== 2.3 Bounded Partial Quotients and Arithmetic Invariance ===
An analysis of the historical CODATA values of &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}&lt;/math&gt; (2006–2022) &lt;ref name=&quot;codata2022&quot; /&gt; demonstrates that all measured values within the experimental uncertainty interval correspond to continued fractions whose partial quotients &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{q}_i&lt;/math&gt; are bounded above by 45:

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;\boldsymbol{q}_i \le 45 \quad \forall \boldsymbol{i} \in \mathbb{N}&lt;/math&gt;

This establishes that &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}&lt;/math&gt; belongs to a restricted arithmetic class of real numbers of periodic type, imposing a topological bound &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{D} = 45&lt;/math&gt; on the allowed virtual Hilbert space &lt;ref name=&quot;lovasz2006&quot; /&gt; &lt;ref name=&quot;borgs2008convergent&quot; /&gt;.

== 3. Field Theory &amp; Lagrangian Duality ==

=== 3.1 The Geometric Field Lagrangian ===
Consider an oscillating circle of radius &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{R}&lt;/math&gt; in the xy-plane whose center undergoes vertical displacement &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{d}(\boldsymbol{\theta})&lt;/math&gt; parameterized by the phase angle &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\theta} \in [0, 2\boldsymbol{\pi}]&lt;/math&gt;. The cutting plane &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{z}=0&lt;/math&gt; produces a chord length &lt;math&gt;\text{chord}(\boldsymbol{\theta}) = 2\sqrt{\boldsymbol{R}^2 - \boldsymbol{d}(\boldsymbol{\theta})^2}&lt;/math&gt;.

We define the geometric field Lagrangian density &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\mathcal{L}}_{\text{geo}}(\boldsymbol{d}, \dot{\boldsymbol{d}})&lt;/math&gt; as &lt;ref name=&quot;blandino2026alpha&quot; /&gt;:

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;\boldsymbol{\mathcal{L}}_{\text{geo}}(\boldsymbol{d}, \dot{\boldsymbol{d}}) = 4\dot{\boldsymbol{d}}^2 + \frac{1}{\boldsymbol{R}} \boldsymbol{d}^2 + \frac{1}{4}\sqrt{\boldsymbol{R}^2 - \boldsymbol{d}^2}&lt;/math&gt;

where &lt;math&gt;\dot{\boldsymbol{d}} = \frac{d\boldsymbol{d}}{d\boldsymbol{\theta}}&lt;/math&gt;. The three terms represent:
# '''Kinetic Energy (&lt;math&gt;4\dot{\boldsymbol{d}}^2&lt;/math&gt;):''' Transverse deformation energy along the cycle.
# '''Potential Energy (&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\boldsymbol{R}}\boldsymbol{d}^2&lt;/math&gt;):''' Axial elastic recall scaled by the compactification radius &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{R}&lt;/math&gt;.
# '''Surface Coupling (&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{4}\sqrt{\boldsymbol{R}^2 - \boldsymbol{d}^2}&lt;/math&gt;):''' Interaction with the observer/cutting plane.

=== 3.2 Weak Euler-Lagrange Solution ===
The strong Euler-Lagrange equation derived from &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\mathcal{L}}_{\text{geo}}&lt;/math&gt; is:

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;8\ddot{\boldsymbol{d}} - \frac{2}{\boldsymbol{R}}\boldsymbol{d} + \frac{1}{4}\frac{\boldsymbol{d}}{\sqrt{\boldsymbol{R}^2 - \boldsymbol{d}^2}} = 0&lt;/math&gt;

For an extended topological deformation over the cycle &lt;math&gt;[0, 2\boldsymbol{\pi}]&lt;/math&gt;, the physical equation of motion must be satisfied in its '''weak (integral) form''':

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;\int_{0}^{2\boldsymbol{\pi}} \left( 8\ddot{\boldsymbol{d}} - \frac{2}{\boldsymbol{R}}\boldsymbol{d} + \frac{1}{4}\frac{\boldsymbol{d}}{\sqrt{\boldsymbol{R}^2 - \boldsymbol{d}^2}} \right) d\boldsymbol{\theta} = 0&lt;/math&gt;

Substituting the harmonic ansatz &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{d}(\boldsymbol{\theta}) = \boldsymbol{R}\sin\boldsymbol{\theta}&lt;/math&gt; (where &lt;math&gt;\ddot{\boldsymbol{d}} = -\boldsymbol{R}\sin\boldsymbol{\theta} = -\boldsymbol{d}&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\boldsymbol{R}^2 - \boldsymbol{d}^2} = \boldsymbol{R}|\cos\boldsymbol{\theta}|&lt;/math&gt;):

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;\int_{0}^{2\boldsymbol{\pi}} \left( -8\boldsymbol{R}\sin\boldsymbol{\theta} - 2\sin\boldsymbol{\theta} + \frac{1}{4}\tan\boldsymbol{\theta} \right) d\boldsymbol{\theta} = 0&lt;/math&gt;

Since &lt;math&gt;\int_0^{2\boldsymbol{\pi}} \sin\boldsymbol{\theta}\, d\boldsymbol{\theta} = 0&lt;/math&gt; and the principal value &lt;math&gt;\int_0^{2\boldsymbol{\pi}} \tan\boldsymbol{\theta}\, d\boldsymbol{\theta} = 0&lt;/math&gt; by quadrant symmetry, the integral vanishes identically. Thus, &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{d}(\boldsymbol{\theta}) = \boldsymbol{R}\sin\boldsymbol{\theta}&lt;/math&gt; is an exact weak solution over the topological cycle.

=== 3.3 On-Shell Action and Resonance at R = \pi ===
Evaluating &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\mathcal{L}}_{\text{geo}}&lt;/math&gt; on-shell along &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{d}(\boldsymbol{\theta}) = \boldsymbol{R}\sin\boldsymbol{\theta}&lt;/math&gt;:

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;\boldsymbol{S}_{\text{geo}} = \int_{0}^{2\boldsymbol{\pi}} \left( 4\boldsymbol{R}^2\cos^2\boldsymbol{\theta} + \boldsymbol{R}\sin^2\boldsymbol{\theta} + \frac{\boldsymbol{R}}{4}|\cos\boldsymbol{\theta}| \right) d\boldsymbol{\theta}&lt;/math&gt;

Using the definite integrals over &lt;math&gt;[0, 2\boldsymbol{\pi}]&lt;/math&gt; (&lt;math&gt;\int \cos^2\boldsymbol{\theta}\, d\boldsymbol{\theta} = \boldsymbol{\pi}&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;\int \sin^2\boldsymbol{\theta}\, d\boldsymbol{\theta} = \boldsymbol{\pi}&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;\int |\cos\boldsymbol{\theta}|\, d\boldsymbol{\theta} = 4&lt;/math&gt;):

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;\boldsymbol{S}_{\text{geo}} = 4\boldsymbol{\pi} \boldsymbol{R}^2 + \boldsymbol{\pi} \boldsymbol{R} + \boldsymbol{R}&lt;/math&gt;

Imposing the topological resonance condition &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{R} = \boldsymbol{\pi}&lt;/math&gt; (where the radius matches half the phase period &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{T}/2 = \boldsymbol{\pi}&lt;/math&gt;):

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;\boldsymbol{S}_{\text{geo}}\Big|_{\boldsymbol{R}=\boldsymbol{\pi}} = 4\boldsymbol{\pi}^3 + \boldsymbol{\pi}^2 + \boldsymbol{\pi} \equiv \boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{\pi})&lt;/math&gt;

=== 3.4 Duality with the Polyakov Bosonic String ===
The [[w:en:Polyakov action|Polyakov action]] &lt;ref name=&quot;polyakov1981&quot; /&gt; for a closed bosonic string compactified on a circle of radius &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{R} = \boldsymbol{\pi}&lt;/math&gt; with conformal gauge &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{h}_{ab} = \boldsymbol{\eta}_{ab}&lt;/math&gt; reduces to:

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;\boldsymbol{\mathcal{L}}_{\text{Polyakov}}(\boldsymbol{\theta}) = \frac{\boldsymbol{T} \boldsymbol{R}^2}{2} \left[ (\partial_{\boldsymbol{\theta}} \boldsymbol{\phi})^2 + \boldsymbol{m}^2 \boldsymbol{\phi}^2 + \boldsymbol{\lambda} \sqrt{1 - \boldsymbol{\phi}^2} \right]&lt;/math&gt;

Equating coefficients with &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\mathcal{L}}_{\text{geo}}&lt;/math&gt; fixes the string parameters deterministically:
* String Tension: &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{T} = 8&lt;/math&gt;
* Mass parameter: &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{m}^2 = \frac{1}{4\boldsymbol{\pi}}&lt;/math&gt;
* Non-linear coupling: &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\lambda} = \frac{1}{16\boldsymbol{\pi}}&lt;/math&gt;

This indicates that the oscillating circle is topologically dual to a compactified Polyakov bosonic string &lt;span style=&quot;background: #e0f2fe; color: #0369a1; padding: 1px 5px; border-radius: 3px; font-weight: bold; font-family: monospace;&quot;&gt;[https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/wiki/Item:Q15 Node:Q15]&lt;/span&gt;.

== 4. Projective Geometry PG(2,2) and the Algebraic Origin of Alpha ==

=== 4.1 Coupling the Oscillating Circle to the Fano Plane ===
The continuous dynamics of the oscillating circle (&lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{R} = \boldsymbol{\pi}&lt;/math&gt;) is coupled to the discrete projective structure of the [[w:en:Fano plane|Fano plane]] PG(2,2)—the smallest finite projective plane, comprising 7 points and 7 lines—via a spinorial phase &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\theta} = \boldsymbol{\pi}/6&lt;/math&gt; &lt;ref name=&quot;blandino2026fano&quot; /&gt;.

The incidence matrix &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{M} \in \{0,1\}^{7 \times 7}&lt;/math&gt; of the Fano plane satisfies &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{M} \boldsymbol{M}^\top = 2 \boldsymbol{I}_7 + \boldsymbol{J}_7&lt;/math&gt;, with spectrum &lt;math&gt;\text{spec}(\boldsymbol{M} \boldsymbol{M}^\top) = \{9^1, 2^6\}&lt;/math&gt;. The associated bipartite [[d:Q3046737|Heawood graph]] possesses the spectrum &lt;math&gt;\text{spec}(\boldsymbol{H}) = \{\pm 3^1, \pm\sqrt{2}^6\}&lt;/math&gt; &lt;ref name=&quot;brouwer2012&quot; /&gt;, isolating &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; as the combinatorial spectral invariant.

=== 4.2 The Spinorial Lift and Operator Algebra ===
We define the 4-dimensional two-qubit Hilbert space &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\mathcal{H}} = \mathbb{C}^2 \otimes \mathbb{C}^2&lt;/math&gt;. Under the spinorial reduction of Spin(7), the local operators representing physical dynamics are defined as:

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;\boldsymbol{A} = 2\sqrt{2} \, (\boldsymbol{\sigma}_z \otimes \boldsymbol{I}_2), \qquad \boldsymbol{B} = \sqrt{7} \, (\boldsymbol{I}_2 \otimes \boldsymbol{\sigma}_z)&lt;/math&gt;

where:
* &lt;math&gt;2\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; is the [[w:en:Tsirelson's bound|Tsirelson bound]] &lt;ref name=&quot;cirelson1980&quot; /&gt; (&lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{S}_{\text{Tsirelson}} = 2\sqrt{2}, \, \boldsymbol{S}_{\text{Tsirelson}}^2 = 8&lt;/math&gt;), saturating the maximum quantum CHSH correlation &lt;ref name=&quot;chsh1969&quot; /&gt;.
* &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{7}&lt;/math&gt; is the quantum CHSH invariant evaluated at the spinorial phase &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\theta} = \boldsymbol{\pi}/6&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{S}_{\max}^2(\boldsymbol{\pi}/6) = 4(1 + \sin^2(\boldsymbol{\pi}/3)) = 7&lt;/math&gt;, yielding &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{B}^2 = 7 \boldsymbol{I}_4&lt;/math&gt;.

=== 4.3 The Difference Operator and Characteristic Polynomial ===
Define the difference operator &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{X} := \boldsymbol{A} - \boldsymbol{B} = 2\sqrt{2}(\boldsymbol{\sigma}_z \otimes \boldsymbol{I}_2) - \sqrt{7}(\boldsymbol{I}_2 \otimes \boldsymbol{\sigma}_z)&lt;/math&gt; &lt;span style=&quot;background: #e0f2fe; color: #0369a1; padding: 1px 5px; border-radius: 3px; font-weight: bold; font-family: monospace;&quot;&gt;[https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/wiki/Item:Q9 Node:Q9]&lt;/span&gt;.

'''Theorem 2 (Spectrum and Characteristic Polynomial of X).''' 
''The four distinct eigenvalues of &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{X}&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\lambda}_{\pm\pm} = \pm 2\sqrt{2} \pm \sqrt{7}&lt;/math&gt;. The characteristic polynomial &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\chi}_{\boldsymbol{X}}(\boldsymbol{x}) = \det(\boldsymbol{x} \boldsymbol{I}_4 - \boldsymbol{X})&lt;/math&gt; is given identically by:''

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;\boldsymbol{\chi}_{\boldsymbol{X}}(\boldsymbol{x}) = \boldsymbol{x}^4 - 30\boldsymbol{x}^2 + 1&lt;/math&gt;

''Proof.'' Expanding the product of linear factors:
&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;\boldsymbol{\chi}_{\boldsymbol{X}}(\boldsymbol{x}) = \left(\boldsymbol{x}^2 - (2\sqrt{2} - \sqrt{7})^2\right) \left(\boldsymbol{x}^2 - (2\sqrt{2} + \sqrt{7})^2\right)&lt;/math&gt;
Computing the squared roots:
&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;(2\sqrt{2} \mp \sqrt{7})^2 = 8 + 7 \mp 4\sqrt{14} = 15 \mp 4\sqrt{14}&lt;/math&gt;
Summing the quadratic terms yields &lt;math&gt;15 + 15 = 30&lt;/math&gt;, and the product of the constant terms yields &lt;math&gt;(15 - 4\sqrt{14})(15 + 4\sqrt{14}) = 225 - 224 = 1&lt;/math&gt;. Hence, &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\chi}_{\boldsymbol{X}}(\boldsymbol{x}) = \boldsymbol{x}^4 - 30\boldsymbol{x}^2 + 1&lt;/math&gt;. &lt;math&gt;\blacksquare&lt;/math&gt;

=== 4.4 Entanglement Deficit and Graphon Invariants ===
The fundamental root &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\Delta S} := 2\sqrt{2} - \sqrt{7} \approx 0.182608&lt;/math&gt; defines the '''entanglement deficit''' &lt;span style=&quot;background: #e0f2fe; color: #0369a1; padding: 1px 5px; border-radius: 3px; font-weight: bold; font-family: monospace;&quot;&gt;[https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/wiki/Item:Q10 Node:Q10]&lt;/span&gt;, measuring the exact algebraic gap between the maximal Tsirelson bound &lt;ref name=&quot;cirelson1980&quot; /&gt; and the Fano projective boundary.

The monodromy operator &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{M}(\boldsymbol{\theta}) = \exp(i \boldsymbol{\theta} \boldsymbol{X})&lt;/math&gt; acting with the spinorial step &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\theta} = \boldsymbol{\pi}/6&lt;/math&gt; generates a 24-step discrete clock whose eigenphases &lt;math&gt;\{e^{i n\boldsymbol{\pi}/6}\}_{n=1}^{24}&lt;/math&gt; select the 24 transverse modes of the bosonic string &lt;ref name=&quot;polyakov1981&quot; /&gt;.

=== 4.5 Dimension 105 Factorization ===
The global deformation space of the coupled system obeys the exact algebraic factorization &lt;ref name=&quot;blandino2026fano&quot; /&gt;:

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;105 = 7 \times 15 = |PG(2,2)| \times \dim(\text{SU}(4)) = 7 \times \left((2\sqrt{2})^2 + (\sqrt{7})^2\right)&lt;/math&gt;

where 15 is the dimension of the Clifford algebra &lt;math&gt;\mathfrak{su}(4)&lt;/math&gt; acting on &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{C}^2 \otimes \mathbb{C}^2&lt;/math&gt;, showing that the quantum state space of the vacuum aligns with the irreducible representation space of the Klein combinatorial algebra.

=== 4.6 The Fano-Snowflake and the Spinorial Rotation ===
The discrete geometric configuration known as the '''Fano-Snowflake''' was introduced by Saniga, Havlicek, Planat, and Pracna (2008) in the context of projectively defined ternary rings over &lt;math&gt;PG(2,2)&lt;/math&gt; &lt;ref name=&quot;saniga2008snowflake&quot; /&gt;. In its original formulation, the Snowflake represents a static algebraic mapping of incidence relations across twin faces of projective structures.

In this work, this combinatorial geometry is integrated with the boundary mechanics of the oscillating circle by mapping its 24 discrete coordinates onto the trajectory traced by an oscillating Polyakov string of radius &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{R} = \boldsymbol{\pi}&lt;/math&gt; undergoing a discrete spinorial rotation.

[[File:Fano snowflake spinorial clock.png|thumb|center|800px|'''Figure 1: Spinorial Rotation of the Oscillating Circle on the Fano Lattice.''' Projection of the continuous boundary trajectory (&lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{R}=\boldsymbol{\pi}&lt;/math&gt;) onto the discrete &lt;math&gt;PG(2,2)&lt;/math&gt; incidence structure originally derived by Saniga et al. (2008). The discrete coordinates map onto the 24 eigenphases &lt;math&gt;\{e^{i n\boldsymbol{\pi}/6}\}_{n=1}^{24}&lt;/math&gt; generated by the step-wise spinorial rotation &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\theta} = \boldsymbol{\pi}/6&lt;/math&gt;.]]

==== Dynamical Mechanism of the Oscillation ====
The continuous displacement field &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{d}(\boldsymbol{\theta}) = \boldsymbol{R}\sin\boldsymbol{\theta}&lt;/math&gt; of the oscillating circle, sampled at discrete angular steps &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\theta}_k = k\boldsymbol{\pi}/6&lt;/math&gt;, generates a sequence of overlapping boundary frames. The transition between successive discrete states on the Fano plane is governed by the step operator:

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;\boldsymbol{M}\left(\frac{\boldsymbol{\pi}}{6}\right) = \exp\left(i \frac{\boldsymbol{\pi}}{6} \boldsymbol{X}\right)&lt;/math&gt;

where &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{X} = \boldsymbol{A} - \boldsymbol{B}&lt;/math&gt; is the difference operator acting on the two-qubit space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{C}^2 \otimes \mathbb{C}^2&lt;/math&gt;.

* '''Classical vs. Spinorial Rotation''': A standard &lt;math&gt;2\boldsymbol{\pi}&lt;/math&gt; spatial rotation corresponds to 12 discrete steps (&lt;math&gt;\Delta\boldsymbol{\theta} = 12 \times \boldsymbol{\pi}/6 = 2\boldsymbol{\pi}&lt;/math&gt;). A full spinorial double-cover rotation of &lt;math&gt;4\boldsymbol{\pi}&lt;/math&gt; requires 24 discrete steps (&lt;math&gt;\Delta\boldsymbol{\theta} = 24 \times \boldsymbol{\pi}/6 = 4\boldsymbol{\pi}&lt;/math&gt;), generating the complete set of 24 eigenphases &lt;math&gt;\{e^{i n\boldsymbol{\pi}/6}\}_{n=1}^{24}&lt;/math&gt; of the monodromy operator &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{U}_{24}&lt;/math&gt;.
* '''Hinge Localization''': The fundamental step &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\theta} = \boldsymbol{\pi}/6&lt;/math&gt; arises directly from the bisector geometry of the equilateral triangle (splitting the internal angle &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\pi}/3&lt;/math&gt; into two equal &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\pi}/6&lt;/math&gt; components) and isolates the antisymmetric singlet projector &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{P}_-&lt;/math&gt; in the twin-face Lagrangian &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\mathcal{L}}_{\text{hinge}}&lt;/math&gt;.

This construction uses the Fano-Snowflake geometry of Saniga et al. as a discrete invariant trace left by the spinorial rotation of the quantized oscillating string.

&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center; margin: 25px 0;&quot;&gt;
  [[File:The topological quantum engine that generates alpha.gif|center|Topological-Quantum Engine (Z24 Monodromy Clock &amp; Polyakov String Oscillation R=π)]]
  &lt;p style=&quot;font-size: 13px; color: #475569; margin-top: 10px; max-width: 900px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;&quot;&gt;
    ''Live Topological-Quantum Engine Execution: Polyakov string oscillation (&lt;math&gt;R=\pi&lt;/math&gt;) and Monodromy clock stepping. Note: The full engine operates on a &lt;math&gt;Z_{24}&lt;/math&gt; discrete cycle; this preview is truncated to 3 ticks to optimize media bandwidth. Media released under CC BY-SA 4.0.''
  &lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;

=== 4.7 Variational Effective Potential and Equilibrium at &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{R} = \boldsymbol{\pi}&lt;/math&gt; ===
To analyze the stability of the compactification radius &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{R} = \boldsymbol{\pi}&lt;/math&gt;, we construct the effective potential energy functional &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{V}_{\text{eff}}(\boldsymbol{R})&lt;/math&gt; for the continuous displacement field &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{d}(\boldsymbol{\theta}) = \boldsymbol{R}\sin\boldsymbol{\theta}&lt;/math&gt; on &lt;math&gt;S^1&lt;/math&gt;, coupled to the discrete Fano entanglement deficit constraint &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\Delta S} = 2\sqrt{2} - \sqrt{7}&lt;/math&gt;:

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;\boldsymbol{V}_{\text{eff}}(\boldsymbol{R}) = \frac{2\boldsymbol{\pi}^2}{\boldsymbol{\Delta S}} \boldsymbol{R}^2 - \frac{4\boldsymbol{\pi}^3}{\boldsymbol{\Delta S}} \boldsymbol{R}&lt;/math&gt;

Applying the stationary condition with respect to the compactification radius &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{R}&lt;/math&gt;:

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;\frac{\partial \boldsymbol{V}_{\text{eff}}}{\partial \boldsymbol{R}} = \frac{4\boldsymbol{\pi}^2}{\boldsymbol{\Delta S}} \boldsymbol{R} - \frac{4\boldsymbol{\pi}^3}{\boldsymbol{\Delta S}} = 0 \implies \boldsymbol{R} = \boldsymbol{\pi}&lt;/math&gt;

Furthermore, evaluating the second derivative yields a positive curvature:

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;\frac{\partial^2 \boldsymbol{V}_{\text{eff}}}{\partial \boldsymbol{R}^2} = \frac{4\boldsymbol{\pi}^2}{\boldsymbol{\Delta S}} &gt; 0&lt;/math&gt;

This confirms that &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{R} = \boldsymbol{\pi}&lt;/math&gt; represents a strict local minimum of the effective potential energy (and a corresponding stationary point of the dual action functional).

=== 4.8 Spectral Isomorphism: From PGL(3,2) Automorphisms to MPS Transfer Matrix ===
The projection of the discrete Fano incidence geometry &lt;math&gt;PG(2,2)&lt;/math&gt; onto the Matrix Product State (MPS) tensor network is mediated by the automorphism group &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{G} = PGL(3,2)&lt;/math&gt; of order 168.

Let &lt;math&gt;\{\boldsymbol{M}_i\}_{i=1}^{7}&lt;/math&gt; denote the localized generators on the two-qubit Hilbert space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{C}^2 \otimes \mathbb{C}^2 \cong \mathfrak{su}(4)&lt;/math&gt;. The group action of &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{g} \in PGL(3,2)&lt;/math&gt; acts on the local MPS tensors via the permutation representation &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\Pi}(\boldsymbol{g})_{ij}&lt;/math&gt;. The invariant contracted Transfer Matrix &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\mathbb{T}} \in \mathbb{C}^{D^2 \times D^2}&lt;/math&gt; is constructed as:

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;\boldsymbol{\mathbb{T}} = \frac{1}{168} \sum_{\boldsymbol{g} \in PGL(3,2)} \sum_{i,j=1}^{7} \boldsymbol{\Pi}(\boldsymbol{g})_{ij} \left( \boldsymbol{M}_i \otimes \boldsymbol{M}_j^\dagger \right)&lt;/math&gt;

In the bond dimension saturation limit &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{D} = 45 = \dim(\mathfrak{so}(10))&lt;/math&gt;, the characteristic polynomial of the Transfer Matrix inherits the exact algebraic factorized structure of the difference operator &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{X} = \boldsymbol{A} - \boldsymbol{B}&lt;/math&gt;:

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;\det(\lambda \boldsymbol{I} - \boldsymbol{\mathbb{T}}) = \left( \lambda^4 - 30\lambda^2 + 1 \right)^{\otimes 11} \cdot (\lambda - \lambda_{\max})&lt;/math&gt;

'''Theorem (Bhargava Higher Composition Extension for Tensor Networks):''' Let &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\chi}_{\boldsymbol{X}}(\lambda) = \lambda^4 - 30\lambda^2 + 1&lt;/math&gt; be the resolvent polynomial of the difference operator &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{X}&lt;/math&gt;. By Bhargava's higher composition laws on &lt;math&gt;2 \times 2 \times 2&lt;/math&gt; trilinear forms &lt;ref name=&quot;bhargava2004quartic&quot; /&gt;, the space of &lt;math&gt;PGL(3,2)&lt;/math&gt;-invariant tensor contractions over &lt;math&gt;\mathfrak{so}(10)&lt;/math&gt; decomposes into 11 independent, irreducible 4-dimensional orbit modules. Consequently, the transfer matrix &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\mathbb{T}}&lt;/math&gt; inherits the algebraic factorized spectral structure &lt;math&gt;(\boldsymbol{\chi}_{\boldsymbol{X}}(\lambda))^{\otimes 11}&lt;/math&gt; with a single non-degenerate boundary shift corresponding to the dominant eigenvalue &lt;math&gt;\lambda_{\max}&lt;/math&gt;.

The dominant eigenvalue &lt;math&gt;\lambda_{\max}&lt;/math&gt; defines the asymptotic bound mapping directly to the inverse fine-structure constant &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;:

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;\ln \lambda_{\max} - \boldsymbol{\pi} = \boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1} = 137.0359991678&lt;/math&gt;

This asymptotic limit, verified via Monte Carlo sampling across &lt;math&gt;10^6&lt;/math&gt; steps in the verification suite, confirms that &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}&lt;/math&gt; behaves as a topological invariant generated by the spectral bound of &lt;math&gt;PG(2,2)&lt;/math&gt;.

=== 4.9 Topological Rigidity of the Bond Dimension &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{D} = 45&lt;/math&gt; ===
The bond dimension &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{D} = 45&lt;/math&gt; of the circular MPS is modeled as a topological and algebraic constraint. The virtual space of the tensor network is investigated through three mutually reinforcing algebraic routes.

==== 4.9.1 The Kostant Dual Constraint and Explicit Anomaly Bound ====
Let &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{V}&lt;/math&gt; be the virtual tensor space of the circular MPS, defined as a finite-dimensional module over the Lie algebra &lt;math&gt;\mathfrak{so}(10)&lt;/math&gt; &lt;ref name=&quot;kostant1999&quot; /&gt;. The transfer operator of the MPS is invariant under the action of &lt;math&gt;\mathfrak{so}(10)&lt;/math&gt;.

'''Lemma 11.1 (Anomaly bound via instanton evaluation).''' The cancellation of the gauge anomaly on the spatial section &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{S}^3&lt;/math&gt; requires that the dimension of the virtual representation space satisfies:
&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;\dim(\boldsymbol{V}) \ge \dim(\text{adj } \mathfrak{so}(10)) = 45&lt;/math&gt;

''Proof.'' Consider a compact bounding four-manifold &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{B}^4&lt;/math&gt; such that &lt;math&gt;\partial\boldsymbol{B}^4 = \boldsymbol{S}^3&lt;/math&gt;. By the Atiyah-Patodi-Singer index theorem &lt;ref name=&quot;aps1975&quot; /&gt;, the index of the chiral Dirac operator coupled to the vector bundle &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{E}_{\boldsymbol{V}}&lt;/math&gt; is determined by the bulk integral. Retaining the gauge contribution, we have:
&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;\text{index}(\boldsymbol{\mathcal{D}}_{\boldsymbol{B}^4}) \propto \int_{\boldsymbol{B}^4} \text{tr}_{\boldsymbol{V}}(\boldsymbol{F} \wedge \boldsymbol{F})&lt;/math&gt;
where &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{F}&lt;/math&gt; is the gauge curvature two-form. We normalise the trace in representation &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{V}&lt;/math&gt; as &lt;math&gt;\text{tr}_{\boldsymbol{V}}(\boldsymbol{T}_a \boldsymbol{T}_b) = \boldsymbol{\kappa}_{\boldsymbol{V}} \boldsymbol{\delta}_{ab}&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\kappa}_{\boldsymbol{V}}&lt;/math&gt; is the Dynkin index. For the adjoint representation of &lt;math&gt;\mathfrak{so}(10)&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\kappa}_{\text{adj}} = 2\boldsymbol{h}^\vee = 16&lt;/math&gt;.

To explicitly evaluate the anomaly inflow, we choose a representative unit instanton background (&lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{k} = 1&lt;/math&gt;) on &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{B}^4&lt;/math&gt;, embedded via &lt;math&gt;SU(2) \hookrightarrow SO(10)&lt;/math&gt;. For such a background, the integral of the second Chern character yields:
&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;\int_{\boldsymbol{B}^4} \text{tr}_{\boldsymbol{V}}(\boldsymbol{F} \wedge \boldsymbol{F}) = \boldsymbol{\kappa}_{\boldsymbol{V}} \cdot 8\boldsymbol{\pi}^2 \boldsymbol{k} = \boldsymbol{\kappa}_{\boldsymbol{V}} \cdot 8\boldsymbol{\pi}^2&lt;/math&gt;
Anomaly cancellation requires that &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\kappa}_{\boldsymbol{V}}&lt;/math&gt; be an integer multiple of the adjoint Dynkin index:
&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;\boldsymbol{\kappa}_{\boldsymbol{V}} = \boldsymbol{m} \cdot \boldsymbol{\kappa}_{\text{adj}}, \quad \boldsymbol{m} \in \mathbb{Z}_{\ge 1}&lt;/math&gt;
The minimal non-trivial anomaly-free sector corresponds to &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{m} = 1&lt;/math&gt;, giving &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\kappa}_{\boldsymbol{V}} = 16&lt;/math&gt;. Under this embedding, the smallest representation of &lt;math&gt;\mathfrak{so}(10)&lt;/math&gt; that realises this Dynkin index is the adjoint representation itself. Therefore, &lt;math&gt;\dim(\boldsymbol{V}) \ge 45&lt;/math&gt;.

'''Lemma 11.2 (Uniqueness of the adjoint subspace).''' If the transfer operator commutes with the &lt;math&gt;\mathfrak{so}(10)&lt;/math&gt;-action and its spectrum matches the Casimir eigenvalues of the adjoint representation with multiplicity one, then &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{V}&lt;/math&gt; is uniquely isomorphic to the adjoint representation.

Combining the explicit anomaly bound and the spectral uniqueness, the inequality is saturated, yielding exactly:
&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;\boldsymbol{D} = \dim(\boldsymbol{V}) = 45&lt;/math&gt;

==== 4.9.2 The Hilbert Series of the Fano 2-22 ====
Let &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{X}&lt;/math&gt; be the Fano 3-fold 2-22 (Mori-Mukai ID-69). Its Hilbert series is defined by the Minkowski period coefficients &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{c}_n&lt;/math&gt;. Based on the structural parameters of the Lagrangian, the coefficients &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{c}_5, \boldsymbol{c}_6, \boldsymbol{c}_7&lt;/math&gt; satisfy the following algebraic system:
&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;
\begin{cases}
\boldsymbol{c}_5 = 24 \boldsymbol{D} \\
\boldsymbol{c}_6 = \frac{4}{3} \boldsymbol{D} (\boldsymbol{D} + 64) \\
\boldsymbol{c}_7 = 32 \boldsymbol{D} (\boldsymbol{D} - 10)
\end{cases}
&lt;/math&gt;
The coefficient &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{c}_5&lt;/math&gt; is a topological invariant of &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{X}&lt;/math&gt; given by &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{c}_5 = 24 \cdot (2\boldsymbol{g} + 1)&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{g} = 22&lt;/math&gt; is the degree of the Fano 2-22. Thus, &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{c}_5 = 1080&lt;/math&gt;.

Substituting &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{c}_5 = 1080&lt;/math&gt; into the first equation yields:
&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;\boldsymbol{D} = \frac{1080}{24} = 45&lt;/math&gt;
Substituting &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{D} = 45&lt;/math&gt; into the second and third equations yields &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{c}_6 = 6540&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{c}_7 = 50400&lt;/math&gt;, matching the Minkowski coefficients recorded in the Graded Ring Database (GRDB) for ID-69.

==== 4.9.3 The Picard-Fuchs Congruence ====
The reduced Picard-Fuchs operator derived from the Dyson-Schwinger equation takes the form:
&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;\widetilde{\boldsymbol{\mathcal{D}}}(\boldsymbol{\Theta}) = \boldsymbol{\Theta}^3 - 6\boldsymbol{\Theta}^2 + 11\boldsymbol{\Theta} - 6 = (\boldsymbol{\Theta} - 1)(\boldsymbol{\Theta} - 2)(\boldsymbol{\Theta} - 3)&lt;/math&gt;
The roots &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\Theta} = 1, 2, 3&lt;/math&gt; correspond to the monodromy eigenvalues. By Picard-Lefschetz theory and Hodge theory &lt;ref name=&quot;voisin2002&quot; /&gt;, the monodromy representation on the middle cohomology &lt;math&gt;H^3(\boldsymbol{X}, \mathbb{Z})&lt;/math&gt; has dimension &lt;math&gt;b_3(\boldsymbol{X}) = 2\boldsymbol{g} + 2 = 46&lt;/math&gt;.

'''Lemma 11.3 (Monodromy to virtual dimension).''' The reduction of the monodromy representation modulo the lattice of vanishing cycles leaves a &lt;math&gt;(2\boldsymbol{g} + 1)&lt;/math&gt;-dimensional subspace, mapping via immersion to the virtual space of the transfer operator.

Applying this reduction to the Fano 2-22 (where &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{g} = 22&lt;/math&gt;), we obtain:
&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;\boldsymbol{D} = 2\boldsymbol{g} + 1 = 2(22) + 1 = 45&lt;/math&gt;

==== 4.9.4 Synthesis of the Derivations ====
These three derivations provide mutually reinforcing algebraic perspectives (gauge anomaly inflow, period Hilbert series, and monodromy reduction) originating from common topological constraints within the &lt;math&gt;SO(10)&lt;/math&gt; / Fano 2-22 framework:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; margin: 1em auto;&quot;
|+ Table 1: Three mutually reinforcing analytical perspectives for &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{D} = 45&lt;/math&gt;
|-
! Principle !! Derivation !! Wikibase Reference
|-
| Kostant dual constraint || &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{D} = \dim(\text{adj } SO(10)) = 45&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;background: #e0f2fe; color: #0369a1; padding: 1px 5px; border-radius: 3px; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;[https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/wiki/Item:Q68 Q68]&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| Hilbert series consistency || &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{D} = \boldsymbol{c}_5/24 = 1080/24 = 45&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;background: #e0f2fe; color: #0369a1; padding: 1px 5px; border-radius: 3px; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;[https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/wiki/Item:Q69 Q69]&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| Picard-Fuchs congruence || &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{D} = 2\boldsymbol{g} + 1 = 2(22) + 1 = 45&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;background: #e0f2fe; color: #0369a1; padding: 1px 5px; border-radius: 3px; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;[https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/wiki/Item:Q70 Q70]&lt;/span&gt;
|}

These distinct lines of reasoning establish that the bond dimension &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{D} = 45&lt;/math&gt; serves as a central structural invariant within the proposed construction &lt;span style=&quot;background: #e0f2fe; color: #0369a1; padding: 1px 5px; border-radius: 3px; font-weight: bold; font-family: monospace;&quot;&gt;[https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/wiki/Item:Q71 Node:Q71]&lt;/span&gt;.

==== 4.9.5 Spectral Stability, Product Collapse, and Functorial Construction ====

===== 4.9.5.1 Discretization, Operator Stability, and Commutativity =====
Consider the discretization of the cycle into &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; points &lt;math&gt;\theta_i = i \cdot \Delta\theta&lt;/math&gt; with &lt;math&gt;\Delta\theta = 2\pi/N&lt;/math&gt;, associating a tensor &lt;math&gt;T(\theta_i)&lt;/math&gt; acting on a virtual space of bond dimension &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{D} = 45&lt;/math&gt;.

The transfer generator is defined as:
:&lt;math&gt;G(\theta) = L_{\text{geo}}(\theta) \mathbb{I}_D + \varepsilon \hat{K}_D \qquad \text{(1)}&lt;/math&gt;

where &lt;math&gt;\hat{K}_D = \Pi_D \hat{K} \Pi_D&lt;/math&gt; is obtained via the spectral projection operator &lt;math&gt;\Pi_D&lt;/math&gt; onto the top-&lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{D}&lt;/math&gt; subspace. 

To establish the &lt;math&gt;\theta&lt;/math&gt;-independence of &lt;math&gt;\Pi_D&lt;/math&gt; rigorously, we combine a uniform spectral gap hypothesis with the Davis–Kahan perturbation bound. Assuming a uniform spectral gap:
:&lt;math&gt;\gamma := \min_{\theta \in [0,2\pi]} \left| \lambda_D(\hat{K}(\theta)) - \lambda_{D+1}(\hat{K}(\theta)) \right| &gt; 0 \qquad \text{(2)}&lt;/math&gt;

the spectral projector &lt;math&gt;\Pi_D&lt;/math&gt; remains stable under small perturbations of &lt;math&gt;\hat{K}(\theta)&lt;/math&gt;. Numerical verification demonstrates a minimum gap &lt;math&gt;\gamma_{\text{min}} &gt; 10^{-2}&lt;/math&gt; and a maximum commutator norm &lt;math&gt;\delta_{\text{max}} &lt; 4.5 \times 10^{-21}&lt;/math&gt;, ensuring that residual &lt;math&gt;\theta&lt;/math&gt;-dependence in &lt;math&gt;\Pi_D&lt;/math&gt; introduces negligible corrections to &lt;math&gt;\ln \lambda_{\text{max}}&lt;/math&gt; at the working precision.

===== Theorem 4.9.5.1 (Generator Commutativity and Product Collapse) =====
For any phases &lt;math&gt;\theta_A, \theta_B \in [0, 2\pi]&lt;/math&gt;, the transfer generators strictly commute:
:&lt;math&gt;[G(\theta_A), G(\theta_B)] = 0 \qquad \text{(3)}&lt;/math&gt;

Consequently, the ordered product of transfer matrices collapses to an exact exponential sum:
:&lt;math&gt;\prod_{i=1}^{N} \exp\left( G(\theta_i) \Delta\theta \right) = \exp\left( \sum_{i=1}^{N} G(\theta_i) \Delta\theta \right) \qquad \text{(4)}&lt;/math&gt;

'''Proof.'''
Each generator &lt;math&gt;G(\theta)&lt;/math&gt; is a linear combination of a scalar multiple of the identity operator &lt;math&gt;L_{\text{geo}}(\theta) \mathbb{I}_D&lt;/math&gt; and the constant matrix &lt;math&gt;\varepsilon \hat{K}_D&lt;/math&gt;. Since scalar matrices commute with all operators and &lt;math&gt;\hat{K}_D&lt;/math&gt; commutes with itself, &lt;math&gt;[G(\theta_A), G(\theta_B)] = 0&lt;/math&gt; holds identically.

Because all generators commute pairwise, all higher-order commutator terms in the Baker–Campbell–Hausdorff (BCH) expansion vanish identically. By finite induction, the product of exponentials reduces strictly to the exponential of the Riemann sum, establishing equation (4). &lt;math&gt;\blacksquare&lt;/math&gt;

===== Theorem 4.9.5.2 (Spectral Duality in the Continuum Limit) =====
In the continuum limit &lt;math&gt;N \to \infty&lt;/math&gt;, the dominant eigenvalue &lt;math&gt;\lambda_{\text{max}}&lt;/math&gt; of the circular MPS satisfies the spectral duality relation:
:&lt;math&gt;\ln \lambda_{\text{max}} = A_{\text{geo}} + 2\pi \varepsilon \mu \qquad \text{(5)}&lt;/math&gt;

where &lt;math&gt;\mu = \lambda_{\text{max}}(\hat{K}_D)&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;A_{\text{geo}} = 4\pi^3 + \pi^2 + \pi&lt;/math&gt; in the unperturbed geometric limit (&lt;math&gt;\varepsilon = 0&lt;/math&gt;).

'''Proof.'''
Taking &lt;math&gt;N \to \infty&lt;/math&gt; in the collapsed product equation (4), the discrete sum over &lt;math&gt;L_{\text{geo}}(\theta_i) \Delta\theta&lt;/math&gt; converges to the geometric action integral &lt;math&gt;A_{\text{geo}} = \int_0^{2\pi} L_{\text{geo}}(\theta) d\theta&lt;/math&gt;. The dominant eigenvalue corresponds directly to the maximum eigenvalue &lt;math&gt;\mu&lt;/math&gt; of &lt;math&gt;\hat{K}_D&lt;/math&gt;, completing the relation. &lt;math&gt;\blacksquare&lt;/math&gt;

===== 4.9.5.2 Categorical Equivalence via Functor F =====
We formalize this continuous transfer framework as a functor &lt;math&gt;F \colon \mathbf{C}_{\text{DS}} \to \mathbf{C}_{\text{Fano}}&lt;/math&gt; between the category of continuous tensor states &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{C}_{\text{DS}}&lt;/math&gt; and the category of Fano period modules &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{C}_{\text{Fano}}&lt;/math&gt;:

# '''Object Mapping:''' For any tensor state &lt;math&gt;|\Psi\rangle \in \text{Ob}(\mathbf{C}_{\text{DS}})&lt;/math&gt;, the functor maps &lt;math&gt;F(|\Psi\rangle) = \varpi_{|\Psi\rangle} \in H^3(X, \mathbb{C})&lt;/math&gt;, mapping the cMPS vacuum state &lt;math&gt;|\Omega_{\text{DS}}\rangle&lt;/math&gt; directly to the fundamental Minkowski period vector &lt;math&gt;\varpi_0&lt;/math&gt;.
# '''Morphism Mapping:''' For any transfer contraction &lt;math&gt;T_{\Delta\theta}&lt;/math&gt;, the functor maps &lt;math&gt;F(T_{\Delta\theta}) = \exp\left( \int_{\gamma(\Delta\theta)} \nabla^{\text{GM}} \right)&lt;/math&gt;.

===== Theorem 4.9.5.3 (Preservation of Composition) =====
The mapping &lt;math&gt;F&lt;/math&gt; strictly preserves morphism composition:
:&lt;math&gt;F(T_{\Delta\theta_2} \circ T_{\Delta\theta_1}) = F(T_{\Delta\theta_2}) \circ F(T_{\Delta\theta_1}) \qquad \text{(6)}&lt;/math&gt;

'''Proof.'''
By the exact Product Collapse property (Theorem 4.9.5.1), the composition of transfer contractions evaluates to:
:&lt;math&gt;T_{\Delta\theta_2} \circ T_{\Delta\theta_1} = \exp\left( (G(\theta_1) + G(\theta_2))\Delta\theta \right) = T_{\Delta\theta_1 + \Delta\theta_2}&lt;/math&gt;

Applying &lt;math&gt;F&lt;/math&gt; yields:
:&lt;math&gt;F(T_{\Delta\theta_1 + \Delta\theta_2}) = \exp\left( \int_{\gamma_1 * \gamma_2} \nabla^{\text{GM}} \right) \qquad \text{(7)}&lt;/math&gt;

Because the Gauss-Manin connection &lt;math&gt;\nabla^{\text{GM}}&lt;/math&gt; is flat on the restricted bundle &lt;math&gt;E \to \mathcal{M}_{\text{Fano}}&lt;/math&gt;, path integration factorizes over path concatenation:
:&lt;math&gt;\exp\left( \int_{\gamma_1 * \gamma_2} \nabla^{\text{GM}} \right) = \exp\left( \int_{\gamma_2} \nabla^{\text{GM}} \right) \circ \exp\left( \int_{\gamma_1} \nabla^{\text{GM}} \right) = F(T_{\Delta\theta_2}) \circ F(T_{\Delta\theta_1}) \qquad \text{(8)}&lt;/math&gt;

Hence, functoriality holds identically. &lt;math&gt;\blacksquare&lt;/math&gt;

===== Theorem 4.9.5.4 (Faithfulness and Embedding Equivalence) =====
The functor &lt;math&gt;F \colon \mathbf{C}_{\text{DS}} \to \mathbf{C}_{\text{Fano}}&lt;/math&gt; is faithful (injective on Hom-sets) and establishes a dense full equivalence onto its image.

'''Proof.'''
Let &lt;math&gt;T_1, T_2 \in \text{Hom}_{\mathbf{C}_{\text{DS}}}(|\Psi_1\rangle, |\Psi_2\rangle)&lt;/math&gt; such that &lt;math&gt;F(T_1) = F(T_2)&lt;/math&gt;. Then:
:&lt;math&gt;\exp\left( \int_{\gamma_1} \nabla^{\text{GM}} \right) = \exp\left( \int_{\gamma_2} \nabla^{\text{GM}} \right) \qquad \text{(9)}&lt;/math&gt;

Evaluating the action of both parallel transport operators on the fundamental period vector &lt;math&gt;\varpi_0&lt;/math&gt; yields identical Minkowski period expansions &lt;math&gt;\sum c_n t^n&lt;/math&gt;. 

By Section '''4.9.2''', the sequence &lt;math&gt;\{c_n\}&lt;/math&gt; uniquely recovers the structural parameters &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{D} = 45&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;T = 8&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;R = \pi&lt;/math&gt; through the non-degenerate factorizations:
:&lt;math&gt;c_5 = 24\boldsymbol{D}, \qquad c_6 = \frac{4}{3}\boldsymbol{D}(\boldsymbol{D} + 64), \qquad c_7 = 32\boldsymbol{D}(\boldsymbol{D} - 10)&lt;/math&gt;

Since the transfer generator &lt;math&gt;G(\theta)&lt;/math&gt; is uniquely parameterized by these exact topological invariants, we have:
:&lt;math&gt;F(T_1) = F(T_2) \implies T_1 = T_2&lt;/math&gt;

Thus, &lt;math&gt;F&lt;/math&gt; is faithful. Furthermore, because every deformation trajectory in &lt;math&gt;\mathcal{M}_{\text{Fano}}&lt;/math&gt; generated by &lt;math&gt;\mathcal{D}_{\text{PF}}&lt;/math&gt; uniquely corresponds to a valid transfer phase &lt;math&gt;\theta&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;F&lt;/math&gt; is full on the intermediate cohomology sector, completing the categorical equivalence. &lt;math&gt;\blacksquare&lt;/math&gt;

== 5. Algorithmic Verification and Falsifiability Suites ==
The theoretical architecture is verified through automated computational suites. The models operate strictly without free parameters, relying on geometric invariants and topological bounds.

=== 5.1 Arithmetic Boundedness of Historical Data ===
A fine scan of the historical CODATA values for &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}&lt;/math&gt; (2006-2022) &lt;ref name=&quot;codata2022&quot; /&gt; confirms that all values within the experimental interval generate continued fractions with partial quotients strictly bounded by 45. The exact three-term formula yields an error of &lt;math&gt;9 \times 10^{-11}&lt;/math&gt; against the CODATA 2022 value &lt;span style=&quot;background: #f3e8ff; color: #7e22ce; padding: 1px 5px; border-radius: 3px; font-weight: bold; font-family: monospace;&quot;&gt;[https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/wiki/Item:Q49 Module:Q49]&lt;/span&gt;.

=== 5.2 Quantum Structure Operator and Ergodic Convergence ===
Simulating the quantum vacuum as a superposition of bounded continued fractions (&lt;math&gt;10^6&lt;/math&gt; collapses, depth 20), the dimensionless structure operator converges ergodically to &lt;math&gt;\langle \hat{\boldsymbol{S}} \rangle = 137.03599916781&lt;/math&gt;. The difference from the experimental value is strictly bounded below &lt;math&gt;10^{-8}&lt;/math&gt;. A sensitivity scan proves that this expectation value is invariant under variations of the interaction energy threshold &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{E}_{\text{int}}&lt;/math&gt;, confirming that the convergence is structural and not an artifact of calibration (variation &lt;math&gt;&lt; 10^{-8}&lt;/math&gt; across the entire test spectrum) &lt;span style=&quot;background: #f3e8ff; color: #7e22ce; padding: 1px 5px; border-radius: 3px; font-weight: bold; font-family: monospace;&quot;&gt;[https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/wiki/Item:Q51 Module:Q51]&lt;/span&gt;.

=== 5.3 Geometric Falsification and Circular MPS ===
Falsification tests over continuous geometries demonstrate that the action minimizes for a harmonic oscillation, a circle of radius &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{R} = \boldsymbol{\pi}&lt;/math&gt;, and coefficients (4, 1, 1/4). Introduction of noise, asymmetry, or frequency deviation increases the error relative to the physical target value.

The contraction of the circular Matrix Product State (MPS) &lt;ref name=&quot;verstraete2004&quot; /&gt; confirms this geometric action. At high resolution (&lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{N} = 10^6&lt;/math&gt; steps), the MPS yields &lt;math&gt;4\boldsymbol{\pi}^3 + \boldsymbol{\pi}^2 + \boldsymbol{\pi}&lt;/math&gt; with a spectral error of &lt;math&gt;1.06 \times 10^{-11}&lt;/math&gt;. The Polyakov-MPS duality achieves optimal numerical precision at &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{N} = 5000&lt;/math&gt;, yielding &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1} = \ln(\boldsymbol{\lambda}_{\max}) - \boldsymbol{\pi}&lt;/math&gt; with an error of &lt;math&gt;2.84 \times 10^{-7}&lt;/math&gt; &lt;span style=&quot;background: #f3e8ff; color: #7e22ce; padding: 1px 5px; border-radius: 3px; font-weight: bold; font-family: monospace;&quot;&gt;[https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/wiki/Item:Q50 Module:Q50]&lt;/span&gt;.

=== 5.4 Fano-Alpha Unified Algebraic Verification ===
The coupling between the continuous Lagrangian and the Fano plane PG(2,2) is verified through the [[w:en:Dirac operator|Dirac operator]] and the spinorial monodromy. The computational suite confirms:
* The Heawood spectrum multiplicities (eigenvalues &lt;math&gt;\pm 3&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\pm \sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;) &lt;ref name=&quot;brouwer2012&quot; /&gt;.
* The maximal CHSH correlation saturating at 7.0 for the phase &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\theta} = \boldsymbol{\pi}/6&lt;/math&gt; &lt;ref name=&quot;chsh1969&quot; /&gt;.
* The exact characteristic polynomial &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\chi}_{\boldsymbol{X}}(\boldsymbol{x}) = \boldsymbol{x}^4 - 30\boldsymbol{x}^2 + 1&lt;/math&gt; with matrix traces &lt;math&gt;\text{Tr}(\boldsymbol{X}^2) = 60&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\text{Tr}(\boldsymbol{X}^4) = 1796&lt;/math&gt;.
* The unitary monodromy operator &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{U}_{24}&lt;/math&gt; matching the 24 string transverse modes &lt;ref name=&quot;polchinski1998&quot; /&gt;.

=== 5.5 Hydrogen Ground State Emergence ===
By utilizing the vacuum persistence amplitude &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\Psi}_{\text{vac}} = e^{-\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}}&lt;/math&gt; extracted from the circular MPS (with bond dimension &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{D}=45&lt;/math&gt;, tension &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{T}=8&lt;/math&gt;, and 24 transverse modes), the physical properties of the hydrogen atom are calculated &lt;span style=&quot;background: #e0f2fe; color: #0369a1; padding: 1px 5px; border-radius: 3px; font-weight: bold; font-family: monospace;&quot;&gt;[https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/wiki/Item:Q46 Paper:Q46]&lt;/span&gt; &amp;bull; &lt;span style=&quot;background: #f3e8ff; color: #7e22ce; padding: 1px 5px; border-radius: 3px; font-weight: bold; font-family: monospace;&quot;&gt;[https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/wiki/Item:Q47 Suite:Q47]&lt;/span&gt;. Combining the pure topological output with the lepton mass scale (&lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{m}_e&lt;/math&gt;) yields:
* Binding Energy: &lt;math&gt;-13.6057\text{ eV}&lt;/math&gt;
* Bohr Radius: &lt;math&gt;52.92\text{ pm}&lt;/math&gt;
* Orbital Velocity: &lt;math&gt;2187.69\text{ km/s}&lt;/math&gt;
* Vacuum Decay Probability: &lt;math&gt;3.06 \times 10^{-60}&lt;/math&gt;

=== 5.6 Epistemological &amp; Methodological Framework ===

To provide a transparent academic foundation and distinguish between exact analytical models and numerical verifications, the following structural principles are explicitly established within the framework:

==== 5.6.1 Analytical Proofs vs. Numerical Verifications ====
An operational boundary is maintained between abstract mathematical derivations and Python computational routines:
* '''Analytical Derivations''': The dimension saturation &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{D} = 45&lt;/math&gt;, the polynomial generator &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{x}) = 4\boldsymbol{x}^3+\boldsymbol{x}^2+\boldsymbol{x}&lt;/math&gt;, and the transfer matrix factorization &lt;math&gt;(\boldsymbol{\chi}_{\boldsymbol{X}}(\boldsymbol{\lambda}))^{\otimes 11}&lt;/math&gt; are derived via formal analytical theorems detailed in Sections 4.8 and 4.9 &lt;span style=&quot;background: #e0f2fe; color: #0369a1; padding: 1px 5px; border-radius: 3px; font-weight: bold; font-family: monospace;&quot;&gt;[https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/wiki/Item:Q66 Proof:Q66]&lt;/span&gt;. Furthermore, symbolic reduction via &lt;code&gt;SymPy&lt;/code&gt; yields the exact Picard-Fuchs/Dyson-Schwinger operator identity &lt;math&gt;\widetilde{\boldsymbol{\mathcal{D}}}(\boldsymbol{\Theta}) = \boldsymbol{\Theta}^3 - 6\boldsymbol{\Theta}^2 + 11\boldsymbol{\Theta} - 6 = 0&lt;/math&gt; &lt;span style=&quot;background: #f3e8ff; color: #7e22ce; padding: 1px 5px; border-radius: 3px; font-weight: bold; font-family: monospace;&quot;&gt;[https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/wiki/Item:Q58 Module:Q58]&lt;/span&gt;.
* '''Numerical Verifications''': The 18-module Python suite (50-digit precision floating-point, Monte Carlo sampling, SDP solver) serves as an independent reproducibility check to confirm that high-precision numerical evaluations converge precisely onto the exact analytical bounds to within &lt;math&gt;10^{-14}&lt;/math&gt;.

==== 5.6.2 Algebraic Relationships Between Model Parameters ====
The numerical structural parameters &lt;math&gt;(4, 6, 15, 24, 45)&lt;/math&gt; represent mutually reinforcing algebraic consequences within the underlying &lt;math&gt;SO(10)&lt;/math&gt; / Fano 2-22 framework:
* '''Leading Coefficient 4''': Serves as the leading coefficient of the cubic generator polynomial &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{x}) = 4\boldsymbol{x}^3 + \boldsymbol{x}^2 + \boldsymbol{x}&lt;/math&gt;, representing the dimension of the irreducible Dirac spinor space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{C}^4&lt;/math&gt; in four spacetime dimensions under the Clifford algebra &lt;math&gt;\text{Cl}(3,1)&lt;/math&gt;.
* '''Unit Evaluation 6''': Emerges as the evaluation of the complete cubic generator polynomial at unity &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{A}(1) = 4(1)^3 + (1)^2 + 1 = 6&lt;/math&gt;. It reflects the dimension of the Lorentz group &lt;math&gt;SO(3,1)&lt;/math&gt; (6 generators of rotations and boosts), matches the edge count of the fundamental 3-simplex (tetrahedron), and sets the spectral multiplicity of the Heawood graph non-trivial eigenvalues &lt;math&gt;\pm\sqrt{2}^6&lt;/math&gt;, which matches the first non-trivial Minkowski period coefficient &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{c}_2 = 6&lt;/math&gt; of the Fano 2-22 3-fold.
* '''Invariant 15''': Derived as the absolute discriminant &lt;math&gt;|\boldsymbol{\Delta}| = 15&lt;/math&gt; of the Bhargava cubic ring &lt;math&gt;(4,1,1,0)&lt;/math&gt; associated with &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{x})&lt;/math&gt;, which equals &lt;math&gt;\dim(\mathfrak{su}(4)) = 15&lt;/math&gt;. This ties the Lie algebra dimension to the maximal order of the corresponding Delone-Faddeev cubic ring &lt;ref name=&quot;bhargava2004cubic&quot; /&gt;.
* '''Derivative 24''': Uniform coordinate-independent third derivative &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{A}'''(\boldsymbol{x}) \equiv 24&lt;/math&gt;, fixing the transverse physical modes of the bosonic string.
* '''Bond Dimension 45''': Derived via three mutually reinforcing analytical perspectives (detailed in Section 4.9): (1) Gauge anomaly cancellation on &lt;math&gt;S^3&lt;/math&gt; via the Atiyah-Patodi-Singer index requiring &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{D} = \dim(\text{adj } \mathfrak{so}(10)) = 45&lt;/math&gt;; (2) Fano 2-22 Minkowski period factorization &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{c}_5 = 1080 \implies \boldsymbol{D} = 1080 / 24 = 45&lt;/math&gt;; (3) Picard-Lefschetz monodromy reduction on the middle cohomology &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{b}_3 = 46 \implies \boldsymbol{D} = 46 - 1 = 45&lt;/math&gt;. A null-model test across 10,000 stochastic trials yields a false-positive rate &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{p} &lt; 1.2 \times 10^{-3}&lt;/math&gt; against the tested random distribution, confirming statistical improbability under random sampling.

The parameters &lt;math&gt;(4, 6, 15, 24, 45)&lt;/math&gt; are structurally linked within the model by Bhargava's higher composition laws on trilinear forms &lt;ref name=&quot;bhargava2004quartic&quot; /&gt;, spectral rigidity theorems, and Fano period factorizations.

==== 5.6.3 Variational Behavior at &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{R} = \boldsymbol{\pi}&lt;/math&gt; ====
The compactification radius &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{R} = \boldsymbol{\pi}&lt;/math&gt; is derived as the stationary point (&lt;math&gt;\frac{\partial \boldsymbol{V}_{\text{eff}}}{\partial \boldsymbol{R}} = 0&lt;/math&gt;) and local minimum (&lt;math&gt;\frac{\partial^2 \boldsymbol{V}_{\text{eff}}}{\partial \boldsymbol{R}^2} &gt; 0&lt;/math&gt;) of the effective potential energy coupled to the Fano entanglement deficit &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\Delta S} = 2\sqrt{2} - \sqrt{7}&lt;/math&gt;.

==== 5.6.4 Falsifiability &amp; Parameter Independence ====
The construction introduces zero free adjustable parameters. The framework is open to falsification: any deviation in the bond dimension &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{D} \neq 45&lt;/math&gt;, any loss of commutativity in tensor blocks (&lt;math&gt;[\boldsymbol{G}(\boldsymbol{\theta}_1), \boldsymbol{G}(\boldsymbol{\theta}_2)] \neq 0&lt;/math&gt;), or any mismatch in the Fano 2-22 period sequence would invalidate the internal spectral isomorphism with &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;.

=== 5.7 External Note on Consistency with g-2-Derived Determinations of the Fine-Structure Constant ===
Recent high-precision measurements of the electron anomalous magnetic moment &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{a}_e&lt;/math&gt;, together with atom-interferometric determinations of the fine-structure constant, provide independent benchmarks against which theoretical predictions of &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\alpha}&lt;/math&gt; may be compared. In this context, it is relevant to observe that the values obtained in [https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20789062 &quot;Spectral Invariants of Circular Tensor Networks on the Moduli Space of Fano 3-Folds&quot;] are numerically consistent with the most accurate g-2-derived determinations currently available.

The closed algebraic-geometric derivation presented in the manuscript yields:
:&lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}_{\text{theory}} = 137.0359991678&lt;/math&gt;

A subsequent quantum Monte Carlo analysis of the associated structure operator produces a distribution with mean:
:&lt;math&gt;\langle \hat{\boldsymbol{S}} \rangle = 137.035999168&lt;/math&gt;
and a maximal value:
:&lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{S}_{\max} = 137.035999204&lt;/math&gt;

These values fall within the uncertainty ranges of two independent determinations of &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\alpha}&lt;/math&gt; derived from the electron g-2:
# '''Rubidium atom interferometry (Nature 2020)'''
#: &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}_{\text{Rb20}} = 137.035999206(11)&lt;/math&gt;
#: with which the theoretical maximum &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{S}_{\max}&lt;/math&gt; agrees to within experimental uncertainty.
# '''Revised &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{a}_e&lt;/math&gt;-based determination (2024-2025 QED correction)'''
#: &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}_{\text{g-2, revised}} \approx 137.035999164(15)&lt;/math&gt;
#: which is consistent with both the theoretical value and the Monte Carlo mean.

All three values also lie within the CODATA 2022 recommended range:
:&lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}_{\text{CODATA 2022}} = 137.035999177(21)&lt;/math&gt;

This note does not alter any result or claim in the original manuscript; it simply records that the theoretical prediction and its statistical refinements are numerically compatible with the most precise g-2-derived determinations of &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\alpha}&lt;/math&gt; currently available in the literature.

=== 5.8 Technical Note on the Falsifiability of the Model and Compatibility with QED/g-2 Determinations of the Fine-Structure Constant ===

==== 5.8.1 Introduction and Scope ====
The model presented in the Alpha + Fano series (concept DOIs: [https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.19802606 10.5281/zenodo.19802606], [https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.19955544 10.5281/zenodo.19955544], [https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20789062 10.5281/zenodo.20789062]) derives the inverse fine-structure constant from first algebraic-geometric principles, without free parameters:
:&lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1} = \ln \boldsymbol{\lambda}_{\max} - \boldsymbol{\pi} = 137.0359991678&lt;/math&gt;

The theoretical framework rests on a rigorous mathematical apparatus including:
* A spectral operator &lt;math&gt;\hat{\boldsymbol{S}}&lt;/math&gt; defined on a Hilbert space of bounded continued fractions.
* A probability distribution &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{P}(\boldsymbol{q}) \propto e^{-\boldsymbol{q}/(2\boldsymbol{E}_{\text{int}})}&lt;/math&gt; with &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{E}_{\text{int}} = 5.0&lt;/math&gt;.
* An operational restriction to partial quotients &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{q} \in \{1, 2, \dots, 45\}&lt;/math&gt;.
* An independence axiom for each depth of the continued fraction, reflecting the tensor product structure of the Hilbert space.

The purpose of this technical note is to clarify:
# The meaning and scope of the restriction &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{q} \le 45&lt;/math&gt;.
# The nature of the falsifiability claim of the model.
# The retrospective compatibility with the most recent experimental determinations of &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\alpha}&lt;/math&gt; derived from &lt;math&gt;g-2&lt;/math&gt; measurements and atom interferometry.

==== 5.8.2 The Restriction q ≤ 45: Statistical Foundation and Falsifiability ====
'''Definition of the Hilbert Space:'''&lt;br/&gt;
Let &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{H}&lt;/math&gt; be the Hilbert space spanned by the orthonormal basis vectors &lt;math&gt;|{\boldsymbol{q}_1, \dots, \boldsymbol{q}_{\boldsymbol{d}}}\rangle&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{d}&lt;/math&gt; is the depth (in practice &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{d} = 20&lt;/math&gt; is sufficient for numerical convergence) and the partial quotients &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{q}_i&lt;/math&gt; are positive integers.

In principle, &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{q}_i&lt;/math&gt; may take any integer value &lt;math&gt;\ge 1&lt;/math&gt;. However, the probability distribution of the ground state is:
:&lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{P}(\boldsymbol{q}) \propto e^{-\boldsymbol{q}/(2\boldsymbol{E}_{\text{int}})}, \quad \boldsymbol{E}_{\text{int}} = 5.0&lt;/math&gt;

For this value, the probability of observing a quotient &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{q} \ge 46&lt;/math&gt; is:
:&lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{P}(\boldsymbol{q} \ge 46) = \sum_{\boldsymbol{q}=46}^{\infty} \boldsymbol{P}(\boldsymbol{q}) \approx 1.11 \times 10^{-2} \quad (\text{approximately } 1.11\%)&lt;/math&gt;

'''Empirical Basis of the Restriction:'''&lt;br/&gt;
No historical measurement of &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}&lt;/math&gt; belonging to the homogeneous CODATA 2006-2022 family has ever required a quotient exceeding 45:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
! Year !! &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}&lt;/math&gt; !! Max quotient !! &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{q} \le 45&lt;/math&gt;?
|-
| 2006 || 137.035999070 || 14 || ✓
|-
| 2010 || 137.035999074 || 14 || ✓
|-
| 2014 || 137.035999139 || 45 || ✓
|-
| 2018 || 137.035999084 || 14 || ✓
|-
| 2022 || 137.035999177 || 14 || ✓
|}

For reasons of computational reproducibility and statistical consistency, the quotients are therefore restricted to the set &lt;math&gt;\{1, 2, \dots, 45\}&lt;/math&gt;.

'''Independence Axiom:'''&lt;br/&gt;
Each depth of the continued fraction corresponds to an independent orthogonal degree of freedom. This is not an approximation of classical continued fraction theory; it is the foundational axiom of the Hilbert space. The factorization of the probability distribution reflects the tensor product structure of &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{H}&lt;/math&gt;.

'''Falsifiability Statement:'''&lt;br/&gt;
The restriction &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{q} \le 45&lt;/math&gt; is FALSIFIABLE:
&lt;blockquote&gt;A future experimental determination of &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, obtained with techniques of precision comparable to or exceeding those of the CODATA 2006-2022 family (large-momentum-transfer atom interferometry, single-electron trap measurements of the electron magnetic moment), which structurally and systematically required a partial quotient &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{q} &gt; 45&lt;/math&gt;, would invalidate the model or require a revision of the statistical cutoff.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

==== 5.8.3 The Nature of Stochastic Fluctuations ====
'''Rare Quotients &gt;45:'''&lt;br/&gt;
It is important to emphasize that the probability distribution &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{P}(\boldsymbol{q}) \propto e^{-\boldsymbol{q}/(2\boldsymbol{E}_{\text{int}})}&lt;/math&gt; PREDICTS the occasional appearance of quotients &gt;45 in individual measurements. With a probability of approximately 1.11%, some rare events are expected in a sufficiently large statistical sample.

Such events:
* Are stochastic fluctuations intrinsic to the measurement process.
* Represent instrumental sensitivity adjustments.
* Are fully compatible with the assumed probability distribution.

'''When a Quotient &gt;45 Does NOT Constitute Falsification:'''&lt;br/&gt;
An isolated quotient &gt;45 in a single measurement does NOT constitute a falsification of the model, for the following reasons:
# The probability distribution explicitly predicts such rare events with probability approximately 1.11%.
# Individual statistical fluctuations do not alter the ensemble mean.
# Measurements significantly diverging from the CODATA 2006-2022 consensus are already excluded by measurement software as statistical noise, being based on experimental techniques predating 2006 or affected by systematic uncertainties no longer considered acceptable.

'''When a Quotient &gt;45 Would Constitute Falsification:'''&lt;br/&gt;
Falsification would occur only under one of the following conditions:
# The mean of high-precision measurements (2024-2025, with reference to CODATA 2006-2022) systematically required quotients &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{q} &gt; 45&lt;/math&gt; in more than approximately 1% of cases.
# A new measurement of comparable precision produced a value of &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}&lt;/math&gt; that STRUCTURALLY REQUIRED a quotient &gt;45 (not as an occasional fluctuation, but as a constitutive element of the representation).
# The entire homogeneous CODATA 2006-2022 family were revised such that the central value required &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{q} &gt; 45&lt;/math&gt;.

==== 5.8.4 Retrospective Compatibility with QED/g-2 Determinations (2024-2025) ====
'''Numerical Comparison:'''&lt;br/&gt;
The theoretical value derived from the model is:
:&lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}_{\text{theory}} = 137.0359991678&lt;/math&gt;

Monte Carlo analysis of the ground state produces a distribution with:
:&lt;math&gt;\langle \hat{\boldsymbol{S}} \rangle = 137.035999168, \quad \boldsymbol{S}_{\max} = 137.035999204&lt;/math&gt;

These values are comparable with three independent experimental determinations:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
! Source !! &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}&lt;/math&gt; !! Uncertainty
|-
| Theory (MPS + MC) || 137.035999168 || —
|-
| Theory (maximum) || 137.035999204 || —
|-
| Rubidium (Nature 2020) || 137.035999206 || ±11 (last digit)
|-
| Revised g-2 (2024-2025) || 137.035999164 || ±15 (last digit)
|-
| CODATA 2022 || 137.035999177 || ±21 (last digit)
|}

'''Analysis of Differences:'''

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
! Comparison !! Difference !! Significance
|-
| Theory vs Rubidium 2020 || &lt;math&gt;3.82 \times 10^{-8}&lt;/math&gt; || Within 3.5σ
|-
| Theory vs Revised g-2 2025 || &lt;math&gt;3.8 \times 10^{-9}&lt;/math&gt; || Within 0.25σ
|-
| Theory vs CODATA 2022 || &lt;math&gt;9.2 \times 10^{-9}&lt;/math&gt; || Within 0.44σ
|}

All differences are within &lt;math&gt;1\sigma&lt;/math&gt; for the two most recent determinations.

'''Significance of the Agreement:'''&lt;br/&gt;
The agreement with the 2024-2025 g-2 determination is particularly significant because:
# QED theory of the anomalous magnetic moment is INDEPENDENT of atomic structure.
# The g-2 measurement was published AFTER the formulation of the model.
# The agreement is at the level of &lt;math&gt;10^{-9}&lt;/math&gt;, i.e., ONE PART IN &lt;math&gt;10^{11}&lt;/math&gt;.

This constitutes an unanticipated retrospective test that the model successfully passes.

==== 5.8.5 Conclusions ====
# The restriction &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{q} \le 45&lt;/math&gt; is FALSIFIABLE and applies EXCLUSIVELY to the homogeneous family of CODATA 2006-2022 measurements.
# Individual stochastic fluctuations with quotients &gt;45 are PREDICTED by the probability distribution with probability approximately 1.11% and do NOT constitute falsification.
# The model is COMPATIBLE with the most recent experimental determinations of &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\alpha}&lt;/math&gt;:
#* Rubidium 2020: within 3.5σ
#* Revised g-2 2024-2025: within 0.25σ
#* CODATA 2022: within 0.44σ
# Falsification would REQUIRE a systematic and structural deviation of the homogeneous family of high-precision measurements, not rare statistical events.
# Measurements predating 2006 are NOT BINDING for falsifiability, being based on superseded experimental techniques and affected by significantly larger systematic uncertainties.

== 6. Summary &amp; References ==
This resource presents an exploratory framework linking:
# The closed-form expansion of &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\alpha}^{-1}&lt;/math&gt; via &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{A}(\boldsymbol{\pi})&lt;/math&gt; and the cubic curvature invariant &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{A}'''(\boldsymbol{\pi}) = 24&lt;/math&gt;.
# The weak Euler-Lagrange solution of the geometric Lagrangian &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\mathcal{L}}_{\text{geo}}&lt;/math&gt; and its Polyakov string duality at &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{R} = \boldsymbol{\pi}&lt;/math&gt;.
# The discrete projective incidence of PG(2,2) governed by the characteristic polynomial &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\chi}_{\boldsymbol{X}}(\boldsymbol{x}) = \boldsymbol{x}^4 - 30\boldsymbol{x}^2 + 1&lt;/math&gt;.
# The dimension constraint &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{D} = 45&lt;/math&gt; analyzed via gauge anomaly constraints and Fano 3-fold cohomologies.
# The computational verification of the hydrogen ground state properties from the circular Matrix Product State.

== Knowledge Graph &amp; Ontological Linking ==

This Wikiversity resource is linked to a dedicated '''Wikibase Triple Store''' ([https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud blandino-research.wikibase.cloud]), which serves as the canonical open-data repository for the underlying research network.


=== Primary Graph Nodes &amp; Immersive Series Registry ===

&lt;div style=&quot;margin: 10px 0; padding: 10px; background: #f8fafc; border: 1px solid #0284c7; border-radius: 8px; font-family: sans-serif;&quot;&gt;
&lt;strong style=&quot;color: #0284c7; font-size: 105%; display: block; margin-bottom: 8px;&quot;&gt;🌐 Root Research Entity:&lt;/strong&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-left: 10px;&quot;&gt;
* '''Root Project:''' &lt;span style=&quot;background: #ef4444; color: white; padding: 2px 7px; border-radius: 4px; font-weight: bold; font-family: monospace;&quot;&gt;[https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/wiki/Item:Q3 Q3]&lt;/span&gt; &amp;bull; ''First-Principles Derivation of the Fine-Structure Constant''
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;strong style=&quot;color: #0f172a; font-size: 105%; display: block; margin: 12px 0 8px 0;&quot;&gt;📚 Immersive Algebra Series (Scholarly Papers, Verification Suites &amp; DOIs):&lt;/strong&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-left: 10px; line-height: 1.8;&quot;&gt;

&lt;!-- Q18 &amp; Q25 --&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-bottom: 6px;&quot;&gt;
  &lt;span style=&quot;background: #e0f2fe; color: #0369a1; padding: 2px 6px; border-radius: 4px; font-weight: bold; font-family: monospace;&quot;&gt;[https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/wiki/Item:Q18 Q18]&lt;/span&gt;
  '''Jordan-Clifford Bridge:''' ''From Exceptional Jordan Geometry to Clifford Algebra'' 
  &amp;bull; Suite: &lt;span style=&quot;background: #f3e8ff; color: #7e22ce; padding: 2px 6px; border-radius: 4px; font-weight: bold; font-family: monospace;&quot;&gt;[https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/wiki/Item:Q25 Q25]&lt;/span&gt;
  &amp;bull; [https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.21521012 DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.21521012]
&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;!-- Q20 &amp; Q26 --&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-bottom: 6px;&quot;&gt;
  &lt;span style=&quot;background: #e0f2fe; color: #0369a1; padding: 2px 6px; border-radius: 4px; font-weight: bold; font-family: monospace;&quot;&gt;[https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/wiki/Item:Q20 Q20]&lt;/span&gt;
  '''NCG Lorentzian Signature:''' ''Resolving Lorentzian Signature in NCG'' 
  &amp;bull; Suite: &lt;span style=&quot;background: #f3e8ff; color: #7e22ce; padding: 2px 6px; border-radius: 4px; font-weight: bold; font-family: monospace;&quot;&gt;[https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/wiki/Item:Q26 Q26]&lt;/span&gt;
  &amp;bull; [https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.21626207 DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.21626207]
&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;!-- Q22 &amp; Q27 --&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-bottom: 6px;&quot;&gt;
  &lt;span style=&quot;background: #e0f2fe; color: #0369a1; padding: 2px 6px; border-radius: 4px; font-weight: bold; font-family: monospace;&quot;&gt;[https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/wiki/Item:Q22 Q22]&lt;/span&gt;
  '''LQG Time Emergence:''' ''Hamilton-Jacobi Flow and Frozen Time Resolution'' 
  &amp;bull; Suite: &lt;span style=&quot;background: #f3e8ff; color: #7e22ce; padding: 2px 6px; border-radius: 4px; font-weight: bold; font-family: monospace;&quot;&gt;[https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/wiki/Item:Q27 Q27]&lt;/span&gt;
  &amp;bull; [https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.21948710 DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.21948710]
&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;!-- Q23 &amp; Q28 --&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-bottom: 6px;&quot;&gt;
  &lt;span style=&quot;background: #e0f2fe; color: #0369a1; padding: 2px 6px; border-radius: 4px; font-weight: bold; font-family: monospace;&quot;&gt;[https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/wiki/Item:Q23 Q23]&lt;/span&gt;
  '''Dissipative Quantum Measurement:''' ''Measurement Resolution on Fano Geometry'' 
  &amp;bull; Suite: &lt;span style=&quot;background: #f3e8ff; color: #7e22ce; padding: 2px 6px; border-radius: 4px; font-weight: bold; font-family: monospace;&quot;&gt;[https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/wiki/Item:Q28 Q28]&lt;/span&gt;
  &amp;bull; [https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.21752808 DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.21752808]
&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;!-- Q24 &amp; Q29, Q30 --&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-bottom: 6px;&quot;&gt;
  &lt;span style=&quot;background: #e0f2fe; color: #0369a1; padding: 2px 6px; border-radius: 4px; font-weight: bold; font-family: monospace;&quot;&gt;[https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/wiki/Item:Q24 Q24]&lt;/span&gt;
  '''Hydrogen 1s Orbital &amp; Alpha Test:''' ''Positional Collapse &amp; Alpha Verification'' 
  &amp;bull; Suites: &lt;span style=&quot;background: #f3e8ff; color: #7e22ce; padding: 2px 6px; border-radius: 4px; font-weight: bold; font-family: monospace;&quot;&gt;[https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/wiki/Item:Q29 Q29]&lt;/span&gt;, &lt;span style=&quot;background: #f3e8ff; color: #7e22ce; padding: 1px 6px; border-radius: 4px; font-weight: bold; font-family: monospace;&quot;&gt;[https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/wiki/Item:Q30 Q30]&lt;/span&gt;
  &amp;bull; [https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.21814909 DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.21814909]
&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;!-- Q31 &amp; Q32 --&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-bottom: 6px;&quot;&gt;
  &lt;span style=&quot;background: #e0f2fe; color: #0369a1; padding: 2px 6px; border-radius: 4px; font-weight: bold; font-family: monospace;&quot;&gt;[https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/wiki/Item:Q31 Q31]&lt;/span&gt;
  '''AQFT Superselection Sectors:''' ''Fano Sectors and Electron Charge Origin'' 
  &amp;bull; Suite: &lt;span style=&quot;background: #f3e8ff; color: #7e22ce; padding: 2px 6px; border-radius: 4px; font-weight: bold; font-family: monospace;&quot;&gt;[https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/wiki/Item:Q32 Q32]&lt;/span&gt;
  &amp;bull; [https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.22432165 DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.22432165]
&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;!-- Q33 &amp; Q34 --&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-bottom: 6px;&quot;&gt;
  &lt;span style=&quot;background: #e0f2fe; color: #0369a1; padding: 2px 6px; border-radius: 4px; font-weight: bold; font-family: monospace;&quot;&gt;[https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/wiki/Item:Q33 Q33]&lt;/span&gt;
  '''Singh Torsion Gravity Bridge:''' ''Fano 2-22 Tessellation and Planck Curvature'' 
  &amp;bull; Suite: &lt;span style=&quot;background: #f3e8ff; color: #7e22ce; padding: 2px 6px; border-radius: 4px; font-weight: bold; font-family: monospace;&quot;&gt;[https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/wiki/Item:Q34 Q34]&lt;/span&gt;
  &amp;bull; [https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.21250894 DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.21250894]
&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;!-- Q35 &amp; Q36 --&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-bottom: 6px;&quot;&gt;
  &lt;span style=&quot;background: #e0f2fe; color: #0369a1; padding: 2px 6px; border-radius: 4px; font-weight: bold; font-family: monospace;&quot;&gt;[https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/wiki/Item:Q35 Q35]&lt;/span&gt;
  '''TEC-Weil RH Refinement:''' ''Spectral Rigidity &amp; Sobolev Norm Bounds for Riemann Zeta'' 
  &amp;bull; Suite: &lt;span style=&quot;background: #f3e8ff; color: #7e22ce; padding: 2px 6px; border-radius: 4px; font-weight: bold; font-family: monospace;&quot;&gt;[https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/wiki/Item:Q36 Q36]&lt;/span&gt;
  &amp;bull; [https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.22017090 DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.22017090]
&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;

=== SPARQL Live Queries &amp; Machine-Readable Interfaces ===
Researchers, web crawlers, and automated semantic agents can query the structural relations, DOIs, and verification code dependencies directly via the following live SPARQL query interfaces:

* '''[https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/query/#PREFIX%20br%3A%20%3Chttps%3A%2F%2Fblandino-research.wikibase.cloud%2Fentity%2F%3E%0APREFIX%20brt%3A%20%3Chttps%3A%2F%2Fblandino-research.wikibase.cloud%2Fprop%2Fdirect%2F%3E%0A%0ASELECT%20%3Fsubject%20%3FsubjectLabel%20%3Fpredicate%20%3Fobject%20%3FobjectLabel%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%3Fsubject%20%3Fpredicate%20%3Fobject%20.%0A%20%20SERVICE%20wikibase%3Alabel%20%7B%20bd%3AserviceParam%20wikibase%3Alanguage%20%22%5BAUTO_LANGUAGE%5D%2Cen%2Cit%22%20.%20%7D%0A%7D%0ALIMIT%20100 Live SPARQL Query: Full Micro-Node Graph Exploration (Q1–Q72)]''' — Dynamic table query extracting all 72 indexed nodes, operational properties (P1–P12), and verification suite relationships.
* '''[https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/query/#%23defaultView%3AGraph%0ASELECT%20%3Fsource%20%3FsourceLabel%20%3Ftarget%20%3FtargetLabel%20%3FedgeLabel%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%3Fsource%20%3FdirectPred%20%3Ftarget%20.%0A%20%20FILTER%28isIRI%28%3Ftarget%29%29%0A%20%20%3Fproperty%20wikibase%3AdirectClaim%20%3FdirectPred%20.%0A%20%20SERVICE%20wikibase%3Alabel%20%7B%20bd%3AserviceParam%20wikibase%3Alanguage%20%22%5BAUTO_LANGUAGE%5D%2Cen%2Cit%22%20.%20%7D%0A%7D%0ALIMIT%20200 Interactive 2D Knowledge Graph Visualizer]''' — Topological 2D network rendering of cluster dependencies and structural factorizations (No login required).
* '''[https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/query/#PREFIX%20br%3A%20%3Chttps%3A%2F%2Fblandino-research.wikibase.cloud%2Fentity%2F%3E%0APREFIX%20brt%3A%20%3Chttps%3A%2F%2Fblandino-research.wikibase.cloud%2Fprop%2Fdirect%2F%3E%0A%0ASELECT%20%3Fitem%20%3FitemLabel%20%3FexternalURI%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%3Fitem%20%3Fp%20%3FexternalURI%20.%0A%20%20FILTER%28isIRI%28%3FexternalURI%29%20%26%26%20!contains%28str%28%3FexternalURI%29%2C%20%22wikibase.cloud%22%29%29%0A%20%20SERVICE%20wikibase%3Alabel%20%7B%20bd%3AserviceParam%20wikibase%3Alanguage%20%22%5BAUTO_LANGUAGE%5D%2Cen%2Cit%22%20.%20%7D%0A%7D%0ALIMIT%20100 Live SPARQL Query: Linked Open Data &amp; External DOI Cross-Mappings]''' — Direct query mapping internal nodes (Q3–Q36) to external Zenodo DOIs, FAIRsharing Record 8936, and Wikidata URIs.
* '''[https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/query/sparql Direct REST API Endpoint (RDF/JSON-LD)]''' — Standardized FAIR-compliant REST interface for automated triple extraction and federated queries.
* '''[https://openalex.org/W7213638887 OpenAlex Academic Graph Record (W7213638887)]''' — Official indexing record of the Blandino Research Knowledge Graph (BR-KG) in the global OpenAlex Academic Graph.
* '''[https://blandino-research.wikibase.cloud/wiki/Item:Q269 Topological-Quantum Engine GIF Node (Q269)]''' — Live execution artifact mapping the Z24 Monodromy Clock and Polyakov String oscillation directly to Wikimedia Commons media repository.
=== Ontological Taxonomy &amp; Core Domain Mapping ===

The following table formalizes the domain classification and ontological hierarchy governing the Knowledge Graph, mapping local theoretical constructs to their persistent identifiers in the global Web of Data (Wikidata LOD).

{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; style=&quot;width: 100%; margin: 10px 0;&quot;
! Primary Category !! Subcategory / Graph Domain !! Description &amp; Operational Scope !! style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | Wikidata Alignment (LOD)
|-
| '''Algebraic Geometry''' || Fano 3-Folds, GRDB &amp; Moduli || Fano threefolds (V22 family, Mori-Mukai ID-69), Graded Ring Database (GRDB) tools, period integrals, and Picard-Fuchs operators. || style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | [[d:Q5528082|wd:Q5528082]] (Gavin Brown) / [[d:Q62067853|wd:Q62067853]] (A. Kasprzyk)
|-
| '''Algebraic Geometry''' || Hodge Theory &amp; Cohomology || De Rham cohomology classes, period matrices, and monodromy period reductions on compact manifolds. || style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | [[d:Q1317202|wd:Q1317202]] (Hodge theory)
|-
| '''Differential Geometry''' || Manifold Theory &amp; Topology || Topographic manifolds, Riemannian structures, and smooth differential space models. || style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | [[d:Q10380344|wd:Q10380344]] (Manifold theory)
|-
| '''Nonassociative Algebra''' || Jordan &amp; Fano Plane Geometry || Exceptional Jordan algebra J3(O) (Albert algebra), PG(2,2) Fano plane incidence geometry, and Heawood dual graph structures. || style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | [[d:Q649977|wd:Q649977]] (Jordan algebra) &lt;br&gt; [[d:Q1395814|wd:Q1395814]] (Fano plane) &lt;br&gt; [[d:Q3046737|wd:Q3046737]] (Heawood graph)
|-
| '''Associative Algebra''' || Clifford Algebras &amp; Dirac Operators || Spacetime Clifford algebra Cl(3,1), Dirac gamma structures, and cubic Dirac operator representations. || style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | [[d:Q674689|wd:Q674689]] (Clifford algebra) &lt;br&gt; [[d:Q907439|wd:Q907439]] (Dirac operator)
|-
| '''Functional Analysis''' || Hilbert Spaces &amp; Quantum State Vectors || Infinite-dimensional complex Hilbert spaces, inner product spaces, and quantum mechanical state vectors. || style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | [[d:Q190056|wd:Q190056]] (Hilbert space)
|-
| '''Quantum Field Theory''' || Polyakov Action, Path Integrals &amp; Covariant QFT || Non-perturbative QED field kernels, Polyakov string action, Feynman path integral formulations, Schwinger-Tomonaga formalism, and AQFT superselection sectors. || style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | [[d:Q1048763|wd:Q1048763]] (Polyakov action) &lt;br&gt; [[d:Q39246|wd:Q39246]] (R. Feynman) &lt;br&gt; [[d:Q184563|wd:Q184563]] (S. Tomonaga)
|-
| '''Lattice Theory &amp; String Geometry''' || Leech Lattice &amp; Even Unimodular Lattices || 24-dimensional even unimodular Leech lattice $\Lambda_{24}$, sphere packing bounds, and Monster group symmetry embeddings. || style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | [[d:Q2510203|wd:Q2510203]] (Leech lattice)
|-
| '''Condensed Matter Physics''' || Tensor Networks &amp; Many-Body Systems || Condensed matter states, Matrix Product States (MPS), circular transfer matrices, and bond dimension limits (D=45). || style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | [[d:Q123146520|wd:Q123146520]] (Condensed Matter Physics)
|-
| '''Graph Theory &amp; Limits''' || Graphons &amp; Continuous Limits || Quantum graphon cut-norm convergence, graph limits, and dense graph sequence bounds. || style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | [[d:Q131873270|wd:Q131873270]] (Graph theory)
|-
| '''Analytic Number Theory''' || Spectral Invariants &amp; Zeta Function || Confinement of non-trivial zeros via TEC-Weil trace equivalence and continued fraction bounds (K). || style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | [[d:Q187235|wd:Q187235]] (Riemann zeta function)
|-
| '''Fundamental Physics''' || Physical Constants &amp; Coupling || Fundamental physical constants, fine-structure constant (alpha), and CODATA recommended bounds. || style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | [[d:Q27928586|wd:Q27928586]] (Fundamental physical constant) &lt;br&gt; [[d:Q735279|wd:Q735279]] (CODATA)
|-
| '''Mathematical Governance &amp; Literature''' || Institutional Foundations &amp; Monographs || Clay Millennium problems context, AMS educational monographs, academic publishing standards (CUP), and open research publishing. || style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | [[d:Q857975|wd:Q857975]] (Clay Math Institute) &lt;br&gt; [[d:Q912887|wd:Q912887]] (Cambridge Univ. Press) &lt;br&gt; [[d:Q53952481|wd:Q53952481]] (Student Math Library)
|-
| '''Infrastructure &amp; Compute''' || Repositories, FAIR Standards &amp; High-Precision Symbolic Computation || Scientific repositories (Zenodo, arXiv, Google Scholar), cloud/software foundations (Python Software Foundation, Google Colab), arbitrary-precision floating-point arithmetic (mpmath), and WikiProject Mathematics integration. || style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | [[d:Q22661177|wd:Q22661177]] (Zenodo) &lt;br&gt; [[d:Q118398|wd:Q118398]] (arXiv) &lt;br&gt; [[d:Q494817|wd:Q494817]] (Google Scholar) &lt;br&gt; [[d:Q83818|wd:Q83818]] (PSF) &lt;br&gt; [[d:Q107381029|wd:Q107381029]] (mpmath) &lt;br&gt; [[d:Q126084995|wd:Q126084995]] (Google Colab) &lt;br&gt; [[d:Q8487137|wd:Q8487137]] (WikiProject Math)
|}

=== References &amp; Bibliography ===

&lt;references&gt;
&lt;ref name=&quot;codata2022&quot;&gt;'''[[w:en:CODATA|CODATA]] (2022):''' ''CODATA Recommended Values of the Fundamental Physical Constants: 2022''.&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;ref name=&quot;nature2010&quot;&gt;'''[[w:en:Nature Physics|Nature Physics]] (2010):''' Editorial, [https://www.nature.com/articles/nphys1514 &quot;The fine-structure constant: a numerical coincidence?&quot;], ''Nature Physics'', 6, 1.&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;ref name=&quot;Sardin2025&quot;&gt;'''Sardin, G. (2025):''' &quot;Primordial Physical Origin of the Fine-Structure Constant, and some of its Applications,&quot; ''International Journal of Physics'', 13(3), 55-61.&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;ref name=&quot;polyakov1981&quot;&gt;'''[[w:en:Alexander Markovich Polyakov|Polyakov, A. M.]] (1981):''' &quot;Quantum geometry of bosonic strings,&quot; ''Physics Letters B'', 103(3), 207-210.&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;ref name=&quot;polchinski1998&quot;&gt;'''[[w:en:Joseph Polchinski|Polchinski, J.]] (1998):''' ''String Theory, Vol. 1: An Introduction to the Bosonic String'', [[w:en:Cambridge University Press|Cambridge University Press]].&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;ref name=&quot;chsh1969&quot;&gt;'''[[w:en:John Clauser|Clauser, J. F.]], Horne, M. A., [[w:en:Abner Shimony|Shimony, A.]], &amp; Holt, R. A. (1969):''' &quot;Proposed experiment to test local hidden-variable theories,&quot; ''Physical Review Letters'', 23(15), 880.&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;ref name=&quot;cirelson1980&quot;&gt;'''[[w:en:Boris Cirelson|Cirel'son, B. S.]] (1980):''' &quot;Quantum generalizations of Bell's inequality,&quot; ''Letters in Mathematical Physics'', 4(2), 93-100.&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;ref name=&quot;verstraete2004&quot;&gt;'''[[w:en:Frank Verstraete|Verstraete, F.]], &amp; [[w:en:Juan Ignacio Cirac Sasturain|Cirac, J. I.]] (2004):''' &quot;Matrix product states for quantum simulation,&quot; ''Physical Review A'', 70(6), 062324.&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;ref name=&quot;regge1961&quot;&gt;'''[[w:en:Tullio Regge|Regge, T.]] (1961):''' &quot;General relativity without coordinates,&quot; ''Nuovo Cimento'', 19, 558–571.&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;ref name=&quot;cheeger1984&quot;&gt;'''[[w:en:Jeff Cheeger|Cheeger, J.]], [[w:en:Werner Müller (mathematician)|Müller, W.]], &amp; Schrader, R. (1984):''' &quot;On the curvature of piecewise linear spaces,&quot; ''Communications in Mathematical Physics'', 92(3), 405--454.&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;ref name=&quot;bhargava2004cubic&quot;&gt;'''[[w:en:Manjul Bhargava|Bhargava, M.]] (2004):''' &quot;Higher composition laws II: On cubic rings and resolution rings,&quot; ''Annals of Mathematics'', 159(2), 865-886.&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;ref name=&quot;bhargava2004quartic&quot;&gt;'''[[w:en:Manjul Bhargava|Bhargava, M.]] (2004):''' &quot;Higher composition laws III: The parametrization of quartic rings,&quot; ''Annals of Mathematics'', 159(3), 1329-1360.&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;ref name=&quot;brouwer2012&quot;&gt;'''[[w:en:Andries Brouwer|Brouwer, A. E.]], &amp; Haemers, W. H. (2012):''' [[d:Q105612081|''Spectra of Graphs'']], [[w:en:Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]].&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;ref name=&quot;coates2013&quot;&gt;'''Coates, T., Corti, A., Galkin, S., &amp; [[d:Q62067853|Kasprzyk, A.]] (2013):''' &quot;Quantum periods for 3-dimensional Fano manifolds,&quot; [[w:en:arXiv|arXiv]]:1310.7932.&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;ref name=&quot;iskovskikh1977&quot;&gt;'''[[w:en:Vasily Iskovskikh|Iskovskikh, V. A.]] (1977):''' &quot;Fano 3-folds. I,&quot; ''Izvestiya Rossiiskoi Akademii Nauk. Seriya Matematicheskaya'', 41(3), 516--562.&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;ref name=&quot;golyshev2007&quot;&gt;'''Golyshev, V. V. (2007):''' &quot;Classification of Fano 3-folds, Fricke identities, and periods,&quot; ''Izvestiya: Mathematics'', 71(5), 883--933.&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;ref name=&quot;mori1981&quot;&gt;'''[[w:en:Shigefumi Mori|Mori, S.]], &amp; [[w:en:Shigeru Mukai|Mukai, S.]] (1981):''' &quot;Classification of Fano 3-folds with &lt;math&gt;B_2 \ge 2&lt;/math&gt;,&quot; ''Manuscripta Mathematica'', 36(2), 147-162.&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;ref name=&quot;lovasz2006&quot;&gt;'''[[w:en:László Lovász|Lovász, L.]], &amp; Szegedy, B. (2006):''' &quot;Limits of dense graph sequences,&quot; ''Journal of Combinatorial Theory, Series B'', 96(6), 933–957.&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;ref name=&quot;borgs2008convergent&quot;&gt;'''Borgs, C., [[w:en:Jennifer Tour Chayes|Chayes, J. T.]], [[w:en:László Lovász|Lovász, L.]], Sós, V. T., &amp; Vesztergombi, K. (2008):''' &quot;Convergent sequences of dense graphs I,&quot; ''Geometric and Functional Analysis'', 18(6), 1801--1951.&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;ref name=&quot;lovasz2012large&quot;&gt;'''[[w:en:László Lovász|Lovász, L.]] (2012):''' ''Large Networks and Graph Limits'', American Mathematical Society.&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;ref name=&quot;saniga2008snowflake&quot;&gt;'''Saniga, M., Havlicek, H., Planat, M., &amp; Pracna, P. (2008):''' &quot;Twin &quot;Fano-Snowflakes&quot; over the smallest ring of ternions,&quot; ''SIGMA'', 4, 050.&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;ref name=&quot;aps1975&quot;&gt;'''[[w:en:Michael Atiyah|Atiyah, M. F.]], Patodi, V. K., &amp; [[w:en:Isadore Singer|Singer, I. M.]] (1975):''' &quot;Spectral asymmetry and Riemannian Geometry. I,&quot; ''Mathematical Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society'', 77(1), 43-69.&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;ref name=&quot;kostant1999&quot;&gt;'''[[w:en:Bertram Kostant|Kostant, B.]] (1999):''' &quot;A cubic Dirac operator and the emergence of Euler number multiplets of representations for equal rank subgroups,&quot; ''Duke Mathematical Journal'', 100(3), 447-501.&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;ref name=&quot;voisin2002&quot;&gt;'''[[w:en:Claire Voisin|Voisin, C.]] (2002):''' [[d:Q56288659|''Hodge Theory and Complex Algebraic Geometry I'']], [[w:en:Cambridge University Press|Cambridge University Press]].&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;ref name=&quot;blandino2026alpha&quot;&gt;'''[https://orcid.org/0009-0006-3252-4011 Blandino, M.] (2026a):''' ''The Lagrangian Duality of the Fine-Structure Constant (Alpha Series)'', [[w:en:Zenodo|Zenodo]], Concept DOI: [https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.19802606 10.5281/zenodo.19802606].&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;ref name=&quot;blandino2026fano&quot;&gt;'''[https://orcid.org/0009-0006-3252-4011 Blandino, M.] (2026b):''' ''The Fano 3-fold 2-22 as the Underlying Structure of the Unified PEPS-5D Lagrangian (EM+QG)'', [[w:en:Zenodo|Zenodo]], Concept DOI: [https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.19955544 10.5281/zenodo.19955544].&lt;/ref&gt;
* '''[https://orcid.org/0009-0006-3252-4011 Blandino, M.] (2026c):''' ''Alpha Series &amp; Fano Series (v2.0.0)'', [[w:en:Zenodo|Zenodo]], DOI: [https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20635062 10.5281/zenodo.20635062].
&lt;/references&gt;

[[Category:Research projects]]
[[Category:Mathematical physics]]
[[Category:Condensed matter physics]]
[[Category:String theory]]
[[Category:Quantum mechanics]]
[[Category:Algebraic geometry]]

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      <text bytes="44515" sha1="79btjewnaeh40aeiodoz5zh0lj1drfu" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Machiavellian motivation:&lt;br&gt;What is the motivational role of Machiavellianism?}}
__TOC__
==Overview==

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}
'''Imagine this...''' 

[[File:The death of Niccolò Machiavelli (1848), by Cesare Dell'Acqua.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. The death of Niccolo Machiavelli, the relevant historical figure famous for analysing quiet forms of power]]

In a collaborative project, one member, Darren, quietly positions himself as the 'team organiser'. He chooses the simple, high-visibility tasks for himself and assigns the more demanding, time-heavy work to quieter members. When speaking to the supervisor, he presents the team's progress in a way that highlights his coordination and softens the significance of everyone else's contributions. By the end, he is perceived as the natural leader. 

You feel a mix of frustration and discouragement, not because anything openly unfairly happened, but because the imbalance was created through subtle decisions that were difficult to challenge. It leaves you with a sense of being strategically sidelined, as if your effort mattered but was never meant to be recognised. 

Later, while reflecting on the experience, you recall one of your colleagues briefly mention the anniversary of a historical philosopher known for analysing quiet forms of influence and power. The reference wasn't connected to your project, yet it lingers. It makes you wonder whether Darren's behaviour was intentional or simply a familiar pattern he's learned to rely on. 
{{ic|The target audience is a global audience, so consider making the example more applicable in that context.}}

{{RoundBoxBottom}}


''author note: this overview is terribly cluttered at the moment, just jotting down notes/info I want to mention at the start then re-structuring it when I find it flows well from one point to the next''
* '''''Fig. 1:''' the death of Niccolo Machiavelli coincided with a profound moment of crisis in Italy, and immediately preceded the widespread dissemination of his work; he died having never seen his most famous work (The Prince), his realism, institutional thinking, and trust in the people further reveal a philosophy oriented toward popular participation, civic liberty and resistance to elite domination (Wills, 2021) {{ic|probably better off linking out to this detail in a Wikipedia article}}''
* ''It is important to understand dark-side traits in organisational and academic performance -''
* ''The concept of Machiavellian Motivation {{ic|use lower case for motivation}}, the core definition, machiavellianism as a personality trait - defined as using manipulation against other people's interests to achieve one's own personal goal (Aldousari &amp; Ickes, 2021)''
* ''the central argument, what does the chapter say/prove about machiavellianism {{ic|use upper case for Machiavellianism}} : Sprangler &amp; Tikhomirov (2025) argue that Machiavellian leaders embody &quot;personal power&quot;; self-focused, dominance-oriented motive that drives strategic manipulation and short-term effectiveness, and in contrast, &quot;socialised power&quot; leaders channel influence toward collective benefit, producing ethical sustainable organisational outcomes''
* ''drawing on the Dark Triad framework, self-determination theory, human motivation theory''
* ''motivational mechanisms, contextual application - refer back to scenario????, evidence, chapter structure''
''Social Cognitive Theory'' 

''Why do some individuals pursue influence through manipulation rather than cooperation? This question lies at the centre of Machiavellianism, a personality trait characterised by strategic manipulation and the exploitation of others for personal gain (Aldousari &amp; Ickes, 2021). As a core component of the [[wikipedia:Dark_triad|dark triad]], Machiavellianism has attracted considerable attention within organisational psychology because of its implications for leadership, performance, and workplace relationships.''  

''This chapter examines the concept of Machiavellian motivation, referring to the motives and psychological processes that drive manipulative and self-serving behaviour. Although Machiavellian individuals often appear effective in competitive environments, this chapter argues that such effectiveness is largely short-lived. Specifically, it contends that Machiavellianism reflects a self-focused power orientation that may facilitate immediate gains but ultimately undermines trust, cooperation, and sustainable organisational outcomes. In doing so, the chapter challenges the notion that strategic manipulation is an effective long-term pathway to influence and success. This position aligns with Sprangler and Tikhomirov's (2025) distinction between personal power and socialised power, whereby Machiavellian leaders pursue influence for individual advantage, whereas socialised power leaders channel influence towards collective benefit, producing more ethical and sustainable organisational outcomes.''  

''Drawing on the Dark Triad framework, Social Cognitive Theory, Self-Determination Theory, and broader theories of human motivation, the chapter explores the motivational foundations of Machiavellian behaviour and the mechanisms through which it influences organisational outcomes. It first defines Machiavellianism and situates it within the wider personality literature, before examining its motivational underpinnings, reviewing empirical evidence, and discussing implications for organisations and leaders.''   

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}
'''Focus questions'''

* How has Machiavellianism developed conceptually as a motivational construct?
* What are the motivational characteristics of Machiavellianism as a trait?
* What core motives drive Machiavellian individuals?
* How do Machiavellian motives translate into behavioural strategies?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Origins and conceptual development of machiavellianism ==
'''FQ: How has Machiavellianism developed conceptually as a motivational construct?'''

''author note: I am aware some of these sources are not peer-reviewed sources, these are just preliminary.''

* &quot;Men are driven by necessity, and he who seeks to deceive will always find someone who will allow himself to be deceived&quot; (Machiavelli, 1532/2017) {{ic|APA style - direct quotes need page numbers.}}
* &quot;Men are driven by two principal impulses, either by love or by fear&quot; (Machiavelli, 1532/2017) - Machiavelli believed a ruler should ideally be both, but since human beings are unreliable, love is a weak foundation for authority.
''To answer the question, it is necessary to examine both the historical origins of Machiavellian thought and its evolution into modern psychological construct. The following section first explores Niccolò Machiavelli's assumptions about power, human nature, and political behaviour, before tracing how these ideas informed contemporary understandings of Machiavellianism as a motivational orientation characterised by strategic self-interest and the pursuit of personal influence. Particular attention is given to Machiavelli's views on human motivation, as these ideas provide the conceptual foundations for later theories linking Machiavellianism to power motives and goal-directed behaviour.'' 

=== Historical and theoretical foundations ===

* Philosophies for Life. (2024): Niccolo Machiavelli - referred to as the &quot;father of modern political philosophy&quot;, wrote the novel 'The Prince'
** separated politics from ethics
** he believed people are naturally self-interested and unreliable
** 'virtu' = skill, cleverness (courage, wisdom, decisiveness) / 'fortuna' = luck, chance
** &quot;perception is everything&quot;
* Machiavellianism became a negative concept because readers (public &amp; religious reactions) misinterpreted Niccolo Machiavelli's 16th century political manual, The Prince, as an endorsement of deceit rather than a realistic portrayal of how power worked (MR. BRAIN, 2025) - Machiavelli's treatment of mortality is one of the most controversial aspects of his thought, 'the ends justify the means'
* He rejected the view of state existing to cultivate virtue and the good life, insisting that politics had to be considered/understood on its own terms guided by history and human psychology rather than religious doctrine or idealised notions of justice - he is often credited as an early voice of [https://www.britannica.com/topic/secularism Secularism] (Britannica) in Western political thought (Kumar, 2025)

* Core pillars on his political thought = Power, manipulation and strategic pragmatism (Kumar, 2025)
* &quot;This is to be asserted in general of men, that they are ungrateful, fickle, false, cowardly, covetous&quot; (Machiavelli, 1532/2017)
* &quot;The lion cannot defend itself against snares and the fox cannot defend itself against wolves&quot; (Machiavelli, 1532/2017)
* Connell (2022) blended intellectual history with biographical reconstruction to show how Machiavelli's end-of-life circumstances refract his lifelong preoccupation with power, fortune, and human nature
''The historical foundations of Machiavellian motivation can be traced to the political writings of Niccolò Machiavelli, widely regarded as a foundational fiture in modern political thought and best known for The Prince (1532/2017). Writing during a period of political instability, Machiavelli changed traditional views that leadership should be guided primarily by morality and virtue. Instead, he advocated a pragmatic approach to power grounded in historical observation and human psychology. Central to his thought was the belief that individuals are often self-interested and motivated by personal advantage. As Machiavelli argued, &quot;men are driven by necessity, and he who seeks to deceive will always find someone who will allow himself to be deceived&quot; (Machiavelli, 1532/2017, p. ). Similarly, he suggested that human behaviour is governed by powerful motivational forces, claiming that &quot;men are driven by two principal impulses, either by love or by fear&quot; (Machiavelli, 1532/2017, p. ). Although he maintained that rulers should ideally inspire both, he ultimately regarded fear as the more dependable basis of authority because human loyalty could nit be trusted.'' 

''These assumptions formed the basis of Machiavelli's broader philosophy of power, which emphasised strategic pragmatism, adaptability, and the effective management of appearances (Kumar, 2025). His concepts of virtu and fortuna further emphasised the importance of strategic skill in navigating uncertain environments. This perspective if further captured in his famous metaphor that a ruler must learn to act as both a lion and a fox, possessing the strength to confront threats and the cunning to avoid deception. Although Machiavelli's work was originally concerned with political leadership (subsequent interpretations of The Prince contributed to the emergence of &quot;Machiavellian&quot; as a term assosciated with manipulation and deceit, these ideas later informed a psychological construct of Machiavellianism, which describes a tendency towards manipulation, calculated social behaviour, and the pursuit of personal goal through strategic interpersonal influence.'' 

=== Evolution into a motivational trait ===

==== Integration into modern personality models ====
* Machiavellianism as a Spectrum Trait - Persson &amp; Kajonius (2017) provide definitive evidence that Machiavellianism is a spectrum trait; it varies continuously across individuals, with graded differences in cynicism, manipulation, and emotional detachment. It is dimensional and measurable, not categorical.
* Integration into the [[wikipedia:Dark_triad|dark triad]] framework
** Paulhus &amp; Williams (2002) establish the Dark Triad as a unified but differentiated framework of socially aversive personality; Machiavellianism, [[Narcissistic personality disorder|Narcissism personality disorder]] (Wikiversity), and [[wikipedia:Psychopathy|Psychopathy]] (Wikipedia) share a manipulative, callous interpersonal cure but diverge sharply in impulsivity, self-presentation, and strategic orientation
** Rauthmann (2012) identified stable behavioural signatures of Machiavellianism (manipulation, strategic planning, etc.) and provided structural evidence that Machiavellianism is a coherent trait, not a behavioural tendency
''While Machiavellianism originated in the political writings of Niccolò Machiavelli, its modern conceptualisation emerged through personality psychology. Contemporary research conceptualises machiavellianism as a dimensional personality trait that varies across individuals rather than a categorical characteristic. Persson and Kajonius (2017) demonstrated the differences in cynicism, manipulation, and emotional detachment exist along a continuum, supporting the view that machiavellianism is measurable and varies in degree.''

''The construct gained prominence through its integration into the dark triad framework. Paulhus and Williams (2002) identified machiavellianism, [[Narcissistic personality disorder|narcissism]], and [[wikipedia:Psychopathy|psychopathy]] as related but distinct socially aversive personality traits. While all three share tendencies towards self-interest and interpersonal exploitation, machiavellianism is distinguished by its strategic and calculated nature. Unlike the impulsivity associated with psychopathy or the grandiosity characteristic of narcissism, machiavellianism is marked by deliberate planning, manipulation, and long-term goal orientation.'' 

''Further evidence for its distinctiveness comes from Rauthmann (2012), who identified stable behavioural signatures including strategic planning, calculated influence, and manipulative social behaviour. Collectively, this research supports the view that machiavellianism is a coherent and measurable personality trait characterised by strategic self-interest and the pursuit of influence. While this personality-based perspective explains how machiavellianism manifests behaviourally, it offers less insight into the motives underlying such behaviour. Consequently, scholarly attention increasingly turned towards the motivational processes associated with power, goal-attainment, and influence, paving the way for Machiavellianism to be conceptualised as a motivational construct.'' 

==== Shift toward a motivational construct ====
* Christie &amp; Geis (1970) reached their conclusions by observing real manipulative behaviour, identifying the attitudes that predicted it, and using factor analysis to build a coherent trait scale.  
** They developed the [https://openpsychometrics.org/tests/MACH-IV/ Mach-IV Scale] (MACH-IV: Machiavellianism Test), foundational self-report instrument for measuring Machiavellianism in non-clinical population, operationalising Machiavellianism as a strategic and cynical interpersonal orientation, capturing both beliefs about human nature and preferred interpersonal tactics
* Establishing Machiavellianism as a Measurable Trait 
** Dahling et al. (2009) demonstrated that Machiavellianism is a measurable, multidimensional trait in workplace setting through their Workplace Machiavellianism Scale; which provides strong psychometric evidence that Machiavellianism is a stable dispositional construct, not merely a situational tactic
''The transformation of machiavellianism into a psychological construct began with the work of Christie and Geis (1970), who systematically examined manipulative behaviour and attitudes underlying it. Their development of the [https://openpsychometrics.org/tests/MACH-IV/ Mach-IV scale] provided the first widely used measure of machiavellianism, operationalising the construct as a cynical and strategic interpersonal orientation characterised by distrust and self-interest. For example, Dahling et al. (2009) demonstrated that machiavellianism is a multidimensional and measurable construct within organisational settings, providing evidence that it reflects enduring dispositional tendencies rather than isolated behavioural tactics.'' 

''As the construct matures, scholarly attention shifted beyond the measurement of machiavellian traits towards the psychology processes that sustain them. While trait-based approaches explain how machiavellianism is expressed behaviourally, they offer less insight into the motives that drive strategic manipulation or interpersonal exploitation. Consequently, researchers increasingly conceptualised machiavellianism as a motivational orientations, directing attention towards the processes underlying machiavellian behaviour. In particular, Sprangler and Tikhomirov (2025) argue that machiavellianism reflects a personal power orientation characterised by dominance and the pursuit of individual advantage, thereby reframing the construct in explicitly motivational terms. - Jones and Paulhus (2011) - strategic long-term pursuit of self-interest and status /Bereczkei (2018) - goal attainment, social influence. This shift laid the foundation for examining machiavellianism not merely as a personality trait, but as a distinct pattern of motivation centred on the pursuit of influence and control.'' 

== Trait-based motivational tendencies of machiavellianism ==
'''FQ: What are the motivational characteristics of Machiavellianism as a trait?'''

''author note: this section, at most, is only at a fundamental level and I am still planning on breaking down into further subsections. the information/cites provided are only preliminary.''

Wilson et al. (1997) stated that Machiavellianism became a term of interest in evolutionary psychology

* it has been argued that manipulative behaviour is not a single trait but rather a complex set of traits that cannot be captured by a single scale 
* the article argues that Machiavellianism is an adaptive, context-sensitive strategy shaped by evolutionary pressures and expressed through psychological mechanisms that favour manipulation; its effectiveness may depend on environmental context and population dynamics
* Evolutionary theory explains why the trait exists 
Dark Triad Framework

* Veselka et al. (2012) show that the Dark Triad is best understood through the HEXACO model (see Fig. 2), where low Honesty-Humility forms the common foundation and additional trait combinations differentiate machiavellianism, psychopathy, and narcissism

=== Cognitive architecture of machiavellian motivation ===
[[File:HEXACO 1.png|thumb|'''Fig. 2''' Ashton &amp; Lee's HEXACO Model]]

==== Core Personality Characteristics (Nature of Personality) ====
* Machiavellianism strongly reflects low H-H in Ashton &amp; Lee's (2007) HEXACO model; characterised by exploitation, entitlement, and manipulation
* Christie &amp; Geis (1970) stated machiavellians demonstrated strategic, calculating pragmatism, or the preference for instrumental, goal-focused reasoning over moral or relational considerations
* High cognitive empathy and low affective empathy, or the ability to understand others' perspectives without emotional resonance (Wai &amp; Tiliopoulos, 2012)

==== Affective and Cognitive Style (Feeling &amp; Thoughts) ====
* Blunted moral emotions facilitate manipulation; low guilt, remorse and affective responsiveness (Ali &amp; Chamorro-Premuzic, 2010)
* Machiavellians relies on controlled processing rather than intuitive empathy; analytical social cognition (Jones &amp; Paulhus, 2011)
* Grieve &amp; Mahar (2010) found they suppressed or modulated emotional displays to maintain influence; emotion regulation for strategi ends

=== Instrumental and controlled goal orientation ===

==== Interpersonal Orientation (In relation to others) ====
* Dahling et al. (2008) discussed machiavellians to be skilled in navigating organisational politics and coalition building 
* Exploitative, transactional relational approach; wherein they only engage in relationships when instrumental returns are high (Kiazad et al., 2010)
* They use charm, deception, and impression management to achieve goals revealing a manipulative interpersonal style (Christie &amp; Geis, 1970; Jones &amp; Paulhus, 2009)
* White et al. (2024) found that machiavellianism is a meaningful predictor of intimate partner violence, particularly psychological and coercive forms
* Blötner &amp; Bergold (2023) show that cyberbullying is particularly appealing to Machiavellians because it allows them to harm other strategically while avoiding detection

==== Self-Determination Theory ====
Three basic psychological needs: Autonomy, relatedness, competence (Deci &amp; Ryan, 2000).

* McHoskey (1999) shows that Machiavellianism reflects a motivation profile dominated by extrinsic goals, low social interest, and controlled regulation

===== Extrinsic Orientation (Relatedness) =====
* Instrumental Motivation; Blötner &amp; Bergold (2022b) demonstrated that Machiavellianism contains both approach-oriented manipulation and avoidance-oriented distrust. These facets jointly determine whether Machiavellians choose to deceive, defend, or strategically oscillate between both behaviours
* External Self-concept motivation
* Moss &amp; Barbuto Jr. (2004) demonstrated that Machiavellians seek control and status using coercive, indirect and strategic tactics to influence others rather than rational or inspirational methods

===== Autonomy and Low Affiliation (and Competence) =====
* Rauthmann (2012) found that Machiavellians prefer autonomy, independence, and emotional distance
** showing low affiliative motivation and avoiding relational dependence

*Wilson et al. (1996) demonstrated that Machiavellians show low need for closeness and exhibits high competence-related self-efficacy
*Similarly, McHoskey (1995) reported low affiliation needs and high agentic motives such as power, control, and competence

== Core motives of machiavellian individuals ==
'''FQ: What core motives drive Machiavellian individuals?'''

David McClelland's (1965) Human Motivation Theory and Deci and Ryan's (2000) Self-Determination Theory together show that Machiavellians act the way they do because: 

* they are power-motivated (Human Motivation Theory) and extrinsically driven (SDT)
* they pursue goals that increase control, status, and advantage, not intrinsic satisfaction
* they avoid emotional closeness because affiliation and relatedness undermine strategic autonomy
* they invest in competence and achievement only when it enhances influence 
* their motivational system is instrumental and contex-sensitive, not prosocial or self-expressive

=== Approach motives: power, control, and strategic gain ===

==== Human Motivation Theory ====
McClelland's (1965) Human Motivation Theory: Achievement, Affiliation, Power

===== Power and Control – power motivation? - Power (nPow) =====
* Machiavellianism is positively associated with self-efficacy and job performance when individuals believe they can control outcomes, suggesting that feeling capable amplifies their motivation to pursue self-interested goals (Hafeez et al., 2024)
* Closely linked to [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Power motivation|Power motivation]] (Power motivation, 2013) - people who are high machs view dominance and control as core personal objectives (Christie &amp; Geis, 1970)
* Szabo et al. (2023) identify power motivation as a central driver of Machiavellian work behaviour, part of their broader pattern of controlled, extrinsic, strategic motivation, which distinguishes Machiavellianism from the other Dark Triad traits.
* Aldousari &amp; Ickes (2021) found a positive correlation between machiavellianism and an external locus of control, which reflects a worldview where powerful others and situational forces dictate outcomes. This fuels the belief system that Machiavellians' relies on manipulation and strategic behaviour as compensatory mechanisms for perceive lack of personal control

===== Reward Sensitivity - Achievement (nAch) =====
* Buravlova (2026) demonstrates that Machiavellianism is neurally characterised by string reward sensitivity and high execute control, enabling calculated manipulation and strategic social behaviours
* Mercadante et al. (2026) show that managers sometimes evaluate dark-trait subordinates positively because these individuals facilitate agentic, performance-oriented goals; machiavellianism being especially rewarded due to its reward-sensitive, achievement-oriented profile
* Birkás et al. (2016) demonstrate that Machiavellianism is characterised by high reward sensitivity, low punishment sensitivity, and strategic risk-taking, aligning closely with achievement motivation (nAch) and explains Machiavellians' opportunistic, reward-driven behaviour

=== Avoidance motives and manipulation self-efficacy ===
Social cognitive theory self-efficacy

== Behavioural expression of machiavellian motivation ==
'''FQ: How do Machiavellian motives translate into behavioural strategies?'''

''author note: this section, at most, is only at a fundamental level and I am still planning on breaking down into further subsections. the information/cites provided are only preliminary.''

* Personality psychology through organisational behaviours to decision-making research underpins how machiavellian tendencies scale upward.
* Jahangir et al. (2024) show that Machiavellianism is supported by a coherent psychological and neural profile&quot; emotionally detached, strategically cognitive, clinically antagonistic, and nerually biased toward executive control over emotional processing

=== Strategic social influence - interpersonal behaviours ===

===== Strategic Calculation =====
* Long-term Planning; This multidimensional evidence from Jahangir et al. (2024) reinforces the view of Machiavellianism as a cold, calculated social strategt rather than an impulsive or purely antisocial trait
* Strategic Opacity - machiavellianism shapes decision-making not only through individual traits but through team dynamics and organisational structures as well, it is a systemic force that influences how information flows, how power is distributed and how strategic decisions are made within organisations (Matthews et al., 2022)
* Calculated Manipulation; Gao et al. (2025) show that antagonistic Machiavellians achieve greater promotability not because their antagonism is inherently valued, but because certain organisational contexts reward political behaviour and misinterpret strategic self-presentation as leadership potential

===== Instrumental Sociability =====
* Social Acuity; Jones (2016) shows that machiavellians misbehave in ways that are planned, covert and opportunistic. Their antisocial behaviour is a strategic tool for achieving personal gain, not an impulsive or emotional reaction
* Transactional Relationships 
* Utilitarian Focus; Genau et al. (2021) found that machiavellian leaders are effective only when they possess high political skill, acting as 'social lubricant' allowing machiavellian tendencies to be expressed in socially acceptable and effective ways. Without it, machiavellianism leads to dysfunctional and distrust-based leadership.

=== Context-shaped opportunistic behaviour - decision-making and situational behaviours ===

===== Deception and Leverage =====
* Geis &amp; Moon (1981) show that Machiavellian individuals deceive because it is instrumentally useful, emotionally easy, and cognitively manageable. Their deception is deliberate and aimed at securing advantage rather that driven by impulse or malice.
* Furthermore, Blötner &amp; Bergold's (2022a) central finding is that Machiavellian individuals are skilled &quot;bullshit (persuasive statements made without regard for truth) producers&quot;, but not reliably more resistant to bullshit themselves

* Emotional Detachment; Gao &amp; Fang (2025) found that Machiavellianism harms adolescent wellbeing not through direct emotional distress, but through its interpersonal consequences: reduced prosocial behaviour, increased loneliness, and heightened suicidal risk
* Delayed Gratification; Bratu et al. (2025) show that machiavellianism undermines academic performance because it promotes extrinsic motivation strategic lying, and low genuine engagement with learning. Machiavellian students pursue grades instrumentally rather than through mastery, which makes deception a functional (though academically harmful) strategy

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* Machiavellianism is a measurable, multidimensional spectrum trait supported by decades of psychometric work, from the Mach-IV to modern taxometric analyses confirming its continuous latent structure
* Across behavioural, motivational, and neural evidence, Machiavellianism consistently aligns with high autonomy, low affiliation, and instrumental competence. 
** This forms a cold, agentic, interpersonal strategy oriented toward control and reward acquisition
* Empirical studies show that Machiavellians' reward sensitivity, strategic cognition, and emotional detachment hointly produce stable patterns of manipulation and opportunism, reinforcing the trait;s coherence across contexts.

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

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Aldousari, S. S., &amp; Ickes, W. (2021). How is Machiavellianism related to locus of control?: A meta-analytic review. Personality and Individual Differences, 174, 110677. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2021.110677

Ali, F., &amp; Chamorro-Premuzic, T. (2010). Investigating Theory of Mind deficits in nonclinical psychopathy and Machiavellianism. Personality and Individual Differences, 49(3), 169–174. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.03.027

Ashton, M. C., &amp; Lee, K. (2007). Empirical, Theoretical, and Practical Advantages of the HEXACO Model of Personality Structure. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 11(2), 150–166. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868306294907

Beller, J., &amp; Bosse, S. (2017). Machiavellianism has a dimensional latent structure: Results from taxometric analyses. Personality and Individual Differences, 113, 57–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2017.03.014

Birkás, B., Csathó, Á., Gács, B., &amp; Bereczkei, T. (2015). Nothing ventured nothing gained: Strong associations between reward sensitivity and two measures of Machiavellianism. Personality and Individual Differences, 74, 112–115. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2014.09.046

Blötner, C., &amp; Bergold, S. (2022a). It is double pleasure to deceive the deceiver: Machiavellianism is associated with producing but not necessarily with falling for bullshit. British Journal of Social Psychology, 62(1), 467–485. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjso.12559

Blötner, C., &amp; Bergold, S. (2022b). To be fooled or not to be fooled: Approach and avoidance facets of Machiavellianism. Psychological Assessment, 34(2), 147–158. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0001069

Blötner, C., &amp; Bergold, S. (2023). The Machiavellian bully revisited: A closer look at differences and processes of Machiavellian bullying and cyberbullying perpetration. Aggressive Behavior, 49(6), 568–579. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.22095

Bratu, M. L., Rosca, L. I., &amp; Rosca, N. A. (2025). Machiavellianism, Lying, and Motivation as Predictors of Academic Performance in Romanian Engineering Students. Education Sciences, 15(8), 1028. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15081028

Buravlova, A. (2026). The manipulation map: How the Dark Triad shapes the brain. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging, 360, 112227. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pscychresns.2026.112227

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Connell, W. (2022). The Secretary’s Last Rites: Machiavelli On His Deathbed. Machiavelliana, 1, Pp. 61-80 . https://doi.org/10.19272/202216101003

Dahling, J. J., Whitaker, B. G., &amp; Levy, P. E. (2008). The Development and Validation of a New Machiavellianism Scale. Journal of Management, 35(2), 219–257. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206308318618

Gao, K., &amp; Fang, F. (2025). Longitudinal impact of machiavellianism on adolescent prosocial behavior and suicidal risk: the role of hope and loneliness. BMC psychology, 13(1), 493. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-025-02796-9

Gao, R., Liu, B., Zhao, M., &amp; Zhao, Y. (2025). When and how do antagonistic Machiavellians achieve greater promotability. Personality and Individual Differences, 241, 113180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2025.113180

Geis, F. L., &amp; Moon, T. H. (1981). Machiavellianism and deception. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 41(4), 766–775. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.41.4.766

Genau, H. A., Blickle, G., Schütte, N., &amp; Meurs, J. A. (2021). Machiavellian Leader Effectiveness. Journal of Personnel Psychology, 21(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1027/1866-5888/a000284

Grieve, R., &amp; Mahar, D. (2010). The emotional manipulation–psychopathy nexus: Relationships with emotional intelligence, alexithymia and ethical position. Personality and Individual Differences, 48(8), 945–950. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.02.028

Hafeez, S., Qadeer, F., John, A., Iqbal, A., &amp; Sarmad, I. (2024). Mach Mechanics: How Self-Efficacy Drives Machiavelli's Job Performance. Journal of Xi'an Shiyou University, 
Natural Science Edition, 20(7). http://xisdxjxsu.asia/ISSN:1673-064X

Jahangir, M., Shah, S. M., Zhou, J. S., Lang, B., &amp; Wang, X. P. (2025). Machiavellianism: Psychological, Clinical, and Neural Correlations. The Journal of Psychology, 159(3), 155–168. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.2024.2382243

Jones, D. N. (2016). The nature of Machiavellianism: Distinct patterns of misbehavior. In 
V. Zeigler-Hill &amp; D. K. Marcus (Eds.), The dark side of personality: Science and practice in social, personality, and clinical psychology (pp. 87–107). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/14854-005

Jones, D. N., &amp; Paulhus, D. L. (2009). Machiavellianism. In M. R. Leary &amp; R. H. Hoyle (Eds.), Handbook of individual differences in social behavior (pp. 93–108). The Guilford Press.

Jones, D. N., &amp; Paulhus, D. L. (2011). The role of impulsivity in the Dark Triad of personality. Personality and Individual Differences, 51(5), 679–682. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2011.04.011

Kiazad, K., Restubog, S. L. D., Zagenczyk, T. J., Kiewitz, C., &amp; Tang, R. L. (2010). In pursuit of power: The role of authoritarian leadership in the relationship between supervisors’ Machiavellianism and subordinates’ perceptions of abusive supervisory behavior. Journal of Research in Personality, 44(4), 512–519. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2010.06.004

Kumar, P. (2025, September 19). ''The Core of Machiavelli’s Political Thought: Power and Pragmatism.'' Political Science Institute. https://polsci.institute/western-political-thought/machiavelli-political-thought-power-pragmatism/

Machiavelli, N. (2017). ''The Prince'' (W. K. Marriott, Trans.). AmazonClassics. (Original work published 1532)

Matthews, M. J., Kelemen, T. K., Matthews, S. H., &amp; Matthews, J. M. (2022). The Machiavellian Organization: A Multilevel Model to Understand Decision Making in Organizations. Group &amp; Organization Management, 47(2), 413–439. https://doi.org/10.1177/10596011221081281

McClelland, D. C. (1965). Toward a theory of motive acquisition. American Psychologist, 20(5), 321–333. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0022225

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McHoskey, J. W. (1999). Machiavellianism, Intrinsic Versus Extrinsic Goals, and Social Interest: A Self-Determination Theory Analysis. Motivation and Emotion, 23(4), 267–283. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1021338809469

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Philosophies for Life. (2024, November 26). ''Niccolò Machiavelli - 6 Powerful Ways to Command Instant Respect (and Never Be Weak Again)'' [Video]. Youtube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w5nJ4XIHv5Q&amp;t=1s 

Rauthmann, J. F. (2012). The Dark Triad and interpersonal perception: Similarities and differences in the social consequences of narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 3(4), 487–496. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550611427608

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Spangler, W., &amp; Tikhomirov, A. (2025). Personal power v. socialized power: What Machiavelli and St. Francis can tell us about modern CEOs. https://doi.org/10.64628/aai.h3apd3ujx

Szabó, Z. P., Diller, S. J., Czibor, A., Restás, P., Jonas, E., &amp; Frey, D. (2023). “One of these things is not like the others”: The associations between dark triad personality traits, work attitudes, and work-related motivation. Personality and Individual Differences, 205, 112098. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2023.112098

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White, L. K., Valos, N., Xochitl, &amp; Willis, M. L. (2024). Machiavellianism and Intimate Partner Violence Perpetration: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Trauma Violence &amp; Abuse, 25(5). https://doi.org/10.1177/15248380241270027

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}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
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** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
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** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
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{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
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}}

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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
[[File:Headache touching forehead.jpg|thumb|326x326px|'''Figure 1'''. Headache]]

'''Case study: Elena's shift in pain perception'''

Elena is a 35-year-old graphic designer living with chronic neuropathic pain following a viral infection. For years, her pain felt unpredictable and overwhelming, some days she could work normally, while other days even holding a pencil felt impossible. What frightened her most wasn’t the pain itself, but the random timing and the belief that she had no control over it.

Her pain specialist introduced her to a set of perception altering technologies: VR program designed to redirect attention and reduce pain intensity through immersive environments a wearable sensor that tracked muscle tension and autonomic arousal a mobile app that visualised her pain patterns using predictive coding algorithms
Within two weeks, Elena noticed something she didn’t expect: her pain felt less threatening. The VR sessions helped her shift attention away from the pain, reducing the “alarm” response in her brain. The wearable showed spikes in tension before flare ups, helping her intervene early. The app revealed consistent patterns stress, poor sleep, and long work sessions transforming what once felt random into something understandable and predictable.

As Elena’s understanding changed, her perception changed. Pain episodes felt less catastrophic, shorter, and easier to manage. Technology didn’t eliminate her pain it altered the way her brain interpreted it, giving her a sense of agency she hadn’t felt in years.

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

*Technology-based pain interventions are receiving increasing research attention across healthcare settings, including postoperative care, rehabilitation, and labour wards (Musters et al., 2023; Yang et al., 2023).The pain technology market is projected to increase by '''USD $70.2 billion''' over the 10 years (Statifacts.com)see annual [https://www.statifacts.com/outlook/chronic-pain-treatment-devices-market report]. Virtual reality can redirect attention away from pain, TENS devices can modulate pain-signal transmission, and biofeedback systems help individuals regulate physiological arousal.Virtual reality can redirect attention away from pain, TENS devices can modulate pain-signal transmission, and biofeedback systems can help individuals regulate physiological arousal. Wearables, mobile applications, and telehealth platforms are also becoming more widely used, giving people accessible ways to track pain patterns and engage in self-management (Green &amp; Chakravarthy, 2025; Li et al., 2024). Technology has therefore become increasingly influential in how pain is monitored, interpreted and managed across healthcare. For people with chronic pain, catastrophic thoughts and fear of further pain or injury may lead to avoidance of movement and meaningful activities, contributing to reduced functioning and increased distress (Gatchel, 2016; Vlaeyen &amp; Linton, 2000). This chapter explores how technology-based interventions may interrupt this cycle by influencing pain signals, attention, emotions, thoughts, motivation and perceived control.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
'''Focus questions'''
{{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}}

•How does technology alter the way people perceive and respond to pain?

•How do psychological processes such as attention, emotion and cognitive appraisal contribute to technology-based pain management?

•How do different technologies influence people's sense of control, engagement and motivation when managing pain?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Understanding pain perception and management ==
Pain is not determined solely by physical injury. It is a personal sensory and emotional experience influenced by biological, psychological and social factors (Raja et al., 2020). Understanding the distinction between pain and nociception helps explain why technology can change a person’s pain experience even when it does not remove the original injury or health condition. Pain perception is shaped by how the brain interprets nociceptive signals alongside attention, emotions, memories, beliefs, expectations and the surrounding context (Bushnell et al., 2013; Tracey &amp; Mantyh, 2007). Technology can alter this interpretation by redirecting attention, regulating physiological arousal, modifying pain-signal transmission or changing catastrophic thoughts about pain. It may also influence how a person responds by encouraging movement, coping and active self-management rather than fear and avoidance. Technology can therefore reduce the intensity, unpleasantness or perceived threat of pain while supporting greater confidence and control over pain-management behaviour.

=== Pain and nociception ===

* [[w:Pain|Pain]] is an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with, or resembling an experience associated with, actual or potential tissue damage (Raja,2020).
* Pain is personal and can be influenced by biological, psychological and social factors.
* Nociception as the nervous system’s detection and processing of potentially harmful stimuli.
* Pain and nociception are related but are not identical.
* Nociception can occur without a conscious experience of pain and that pain may sometimes continue without clear evidence of current tissue damage (Basbaum ,2009; Raja ,2020).
* Relate this distinction to technology by explaining that a tool may change a person’s pain experience without removing the original injury or condition.

=== Physiology of pain and pain perception ===

* Nociceptors detect potentially harmful mechanical, chemical or temperature-related stimuli and convert them into electrical signals.
* Refer to these signals travelling through peripheral nerves to the spinal cord and then through ascending pathways to the brain (Basbaum,2009).
* The brain interprets nociceptive information alongside attention, emotions, memories, beliefs, expectations and context.
* The sensory dimension identifying the location and intensity of pain, while emotional, cognitive and motivational processes influence its unpleasantness, meaning and the person’s response.
* Descending pathways from the brain can increase or reduce pain-signal transmission (Tracey &amp; Mantyh, 2007).
* Pain is not a direct measurement of tissue damage. Therefore, the same stimulus may be experienced differently by different people or by the same person in different situations (Bushnell,2013).
* Relate this process to technology by introducing TENS as a tool that may modulate pain-signal transmission and VR as a tool that may change attention and the brain’s interpretation of pain.

=== Chronic pain and avoidance ===
[[File:Pain cycle.jpg|thumb|326x326px|'''Figure 2'''. The avoidance pain [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3820295/ cycle]]]

* Chronic pain is pain that persists or recurs for longer than three months.
* Chronic pain may affect attention, memory, mood, sleep, motivation, relationships and participation in daily activities.
* Refer to increased attention towards bodily sensations and possible signs of pain.
* Pain catastrophising as an exaggerated negative interpretation in which a person believes pain will be unbearable, uncontrollable or a sign of serious harm.
* Fear-avoidance model.
* Catastrophic interpretations can produce fear of pain, movement or reinjury.
* Fear may lead the person to avoid physical activity, work, social activities and other meaningful experiences.
* Avoidance can provide short-term relief from fear but may contribute to reduced activity, lower confidence, disability and emotional distress over time (Gatchel,2016; Vlaeyen &amp; Linton, 2000).
* '''See Figure 2''' One The Avoidance Pain Cyle 

=== Understanding pain management ===

* Pain management as strategies used to reduce pain, distress and interference with daily life.
* Chronic pain management may improve coping, functioning and participation without completely eliminating pain.
* Refer to the biopsychosocial approach, which considers biological, psychological and social influences on pain (Raja, 2020).
* Technology may support pain management through symptom monitoring, coping strategies and improved access to care (Li,2024).

== How does technology alter pain perception? ==
{{ic|Include an introductory paragraph before branching into sub-sections}}

=== VR and attention modulation ===

* Refer to VR immerse user effecting attention - Limited capacity theory of attention (de Araujo, Zeferino, &amp; Galas, 2026)

=== Biofeedback and autonomic regulation ===
*How biofeedback provides information about physiological pain responses, enabling users to practise regulating these responses and develop greater control over their pain experience. Related to self-regulation theory (Arsenault,2013).

=== Cognitive Digital CBT and ACT tools ===
* How CBT can modify unhelpful pain-related thoughts and behaviours, while ACT can increase pain acceptance and engagement in valued activities. These processes may reduce distress and improve functioning even when pain is not eliminated. Related - to cognitive appraisal theory and the psychological flexibility mode'''l''' (Hysing,2017; Neblett,2016).- Beneficial for catastrophic thinking,

=== Wearable sensors ===
* Wearable systems that collect pain ratings, adherence information and physiological data to personalise treatment and help users identify patterns in their pain. Related to self-regulation theory, particularly monitoring, feedback and behavioural adjustment (Green &amp; Chakravarthy, 2025).

=== TENS ===
* Low-voltage electrical stimulation activating non-painful sensory fibres and reducing the transmission of pain signals. Relate this to gate control theory and endogenous pain inhibition (Blincoe,2007; Green &amp; Chakravarthy,2025).

=== Telehealth and remote monitoring ===
* Clinicians monitoring pain ratings, treatment use and progress from a distance. Feedback and support may improve confidence, access and treatment adjustment. Relate this to self-efficacy and self-regulation (Green &amp; Chakravarthy,2025).

=== Mobile applications ===

* Apps recording pain ratings, showing patterns, providing education or coping activities, and reminding users to practise pain-management strategies. Relate this to self-regulation theory. A dedicated mobile pain-application study is still required.

== Psychological theories behind technology‑based pain management ==

* '''Psychological theories behind technology‑based pain management:'''Technology‑based pain interventions draw on established psychological theories explaining how cognition, emotion, attention and behaviour shape pain perception. These mechanisms help explain how tools such as VR, wearables and AI‑guided apps influence pain experience (Gatchel et al., 2007; Eccleston &amp; Crombez, 1999).
* '''Biopsychosocial model of pain:'''The biopsychosocial model proposes that pain arises from interactions between biological processes, psychological factors and social context. Technology‑based interventions align with this model by targeting multiple domains simultaneously, such as emotional regulation, behavioural change and physiological monitoring (Gatchel et al., 2007; Williams &amp; Craig, 2016).
* '''Limited‑capacity theory of attention:'''Pain captures limited attentional resources, increasing perceived intensity. VR and immersive technologies reduce pain by redirecting attention away from nociceptive input, supporting the theory’s predictions (Eccleston &amp; Crombez, 1999; Malloy &amp; Milling, 2010).
* '''Gate control theory of pain:'''Gate control theory suggests that cognitive and emotional factors modulate nociceptive signals at the spinal level. Technologies such as TENS, VR and biofeedback influence these gates by altering attention and emotional state (Melzack &amp; Wall, 1965; Moayedi &amp; Davis, 2013).
* '''Neuromodulation and neuroplasticity:'''Pain perception is shaped by dynamic neural networks that reorganise with experience. VR, neurofeedback and AI‑guided training promote adaptive neuroplasticity by reducing maladaptive signalling and strengthening regulatory pathways (Apkarian et al., 2009; Kutch &amp; Apkarian, 2018).
* '''Self‑regulation theory:'''Self‑regulation theory emphasises managing thoughts, emotions and behaviours to achieve desired outcomes. Technology‑based pain tools enhance self‑regulation through real‑time feedback, guided breathing and emotional tracking (Karoly, 1993; Jensen et al., 2014).
* '''Operant conditioning:'''Pain behaviours can be reinforced by environmental responses. Technology‑based interventions apply operant principles by rewarding adaptive behaviours such as movement, pacing and relaxation (Fordyce, 1976; Vlaeyen &amp; Linton, 2000).
* '''Fear‑avoidance model of pain:'''Fear of pain leads to avoidance, deconditioning and increased disability. Graded VR exposure and movement‑tracking apps reduce fear by providing safe exposure and positive reinforcement (Vlaeyen &amp; Linton, 2000; Crombez et al., 2012).
* '''Cognitive appraisal and reframing:'''Pain intensity is influenced by how individuals interpret symptoms. Digital CBT tools help reframe catastrophic thoughts, reduce threat appraisal and promote adaptive interpretations of pain (Lazarus &amp; Folkman, 1984; Turk &amp; Wilson, 2010).
* '''Psychological flexibility model:'''Psychological flexibility involves adapting behaviour in alignment with values despite discomfort. ACT‑based digital interventions enhance flexibility through acceptance, present‑moment awareness and committed action (Hayes et al., 2012; Trompetter et al., 2016).
* '''Social cognitive theory and self‑efficacy:'''Self‑efficacy predicts pain coping and functional outcomes. Technology‑based interventions increase self‑efficacy through mastery experiences, modelling and feedback (Bandura, 1997; Jackson et al., 2014).
* '''Affective‑motivational modulation of pain:'''Pain is shaped by emotional and motivational states such as fear, anxiety and goal orientation. Negative affect amplifies pain through enhanced salience and descending facilitation, while positive affect reduces pain via prefrontal‑limbic modulation. Technologies such as VR, AI‑guided relaxation and biofeedback apps modulate affective‑motivational systems by reducing threat cues and enhancing emotional regulation (Modernell et al., 2026; Vervoort &amp; Trost, 2018; Garcia‑Larrea &amp; Fauchon, 2023; ''Current Opinion in Psychology'', 2025).

== Applications and tools ==
[[File:Pain pathway diagram showing transduction, transmission, modulation, and perception.png|thumb|293x293px|Figure 2: Brain Pain Pathways ]]

* VR
* TENS
* Mobile apps
* Wearables
* Gamification
* Telehealth

== Future Applications and Emerging Technologies ==

* List Of Various Cutting edge 
* Emerging technologies 
* futuristics applications 

== Limitations and ethical considerations ==

* Effectiveness differs between users, technologies and pain conditions.
* Refer to barriers including cost, access, digital skills and user engagement (Li,2024).
* Possible side effects, privacy concerns and increased attention to symptoms.

==Learning features==
'''Table 1''' 

See The Summary Table below : {{ic|Provide a more descriptive caption}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! Technology !! How it alters pain perception !! Theory / Model
|-
| VR || Redirects attention || Limited-capacity attention
|-
| TENS || Modulates pain signals || Gate control theory
|-
|Biofeedback
|Support regulation of arousal
|Self-regulation, conditioning
|-
|CBT/ACT tools
|Changes to coping, appraisal and avoidance
|Fear avoidance, flexibility
|-
|Wearables/apps
|Records patterns and provides feedback
|Self-regulation
|-
|Telehealth
|Remote support, health access and treatment
|Self-efficacy 
|}

;Quizzes

* Why might VR reduce the amount of attention given to pain? See:
* Which theory best explains how TENS may reduce pain-signal transmission?
* How can feedback from a wearable device support self-regulation?
* How might catastrophic thinking contribute to the fear-avoidance cycle?

&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Virtual reality (VR) can reduce pain by redirecting a person’s attention away from painful stimuli?:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{TENS devices work by increasing the intensity of pain signals sent to the brain.  
Answer?:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==

* Pain is interpreted by the brain and is influenced by attention, emotion, appraisal, behaviour and social support, not only by signals from the body.
* Different technologies alter pain perception through different pathways: VR redirects attention, TENS modulates signals, and feedback or cognitive tools influence arousal, appraisal and control.
* Technology is most useful as part of individualised, biopsychosocial pain management rather than as a replacement for all existing care (Hysing,2017; Li,2024).
* Effectiveness depends on the user, pain condition, technology, level of support and quality of available evidence.

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
[[wikipedia:Virtual_reality_therapy|Virtual reality therapy]] (Wikipedia)
[[wikipedia:Transcutaneous_electrical_nerve_stimulation|Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation]] (Wikipedia)

* https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pain {{ic|Create internal link}}
* https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_reality {{ic|Create internal link}}
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Self-regulation|Self-regulation]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[wikipedia:Transcutaneous_electrical_nerve_stimulation|Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation]] (Wikipedia)
* [[wikipedia:Cognitive_behavioral_therapy|Cognitive behavioral therapy]] (Wikipedia)
* [[wikipedia:Biopsychosocial_model|Biopsychosocial model]] (Wikipedia)
* [[wikipedia:Gate_control_theory|Gate control theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

{{Hanging indent|1=

 
}}

* Musters, A., Vandevenne, A. S., Franx, A., &amp; Wassen, M. M. L. H. (2023). Virtual Reality Experience during Labour (VIREL): A qualitative study. ''BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth, 23'', Article 283. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1186/s12884-023-05633-0&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Yang, X., Zhong, S., Yang, S., He, M., Xu, X., He, S., Fan, G., &amp; Liu, L. (2023). Global scientific trends in virtual reality for pain treatment from 2000 to 2022: Bibliometric analysis. ''JMIR Serious Games, 11'', Article e48354. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.2196/48354&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Green, M., &amp; Chakravarthy, K. (2025). Artificial intelligence-enhanced pain management: The NXTSTIM EcoAI platform. ''Pain Management, 15''(8), 467–475.
* Li, L. W., Yi, T. H., &amp; Khaing, N. E. E. (2024). Chronic pain healthcare workers’ challenges in pain management and receptiveness towards VR as an adjunct management tool: A qualitative study. ''BMC Digital Health, 2'', Article 26.
* Gatchel, R. J., Neblett, R., Kishino, N., &amp; Ray, C. T. (2016). Fear-avoidance beliefs and chronic pain. ''Journal of Orthopaedic &amp; Sports Physical Therapy, 46''(2), 38–43. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.2519/jospt.2016.0601&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Vlaeyen, J. W. S., &amp; Linton, S. J. (2000). Fear-avoidance and its consequences in chronic musculoskeletal pain: A state of the art. ''Pain, 85''(3), 317–332. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/S0304-3959(99)00242-0&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Raja, S. N., Carr, D. B., Cohen, M., Finnerup, N. B., Flor, H., Gibson, S., Keefe, F. J., Mogil, J. S., Ringkamp, M., Sluka, K. A., Song, X.-J., Stevens, B., Sullivan, M. D., Tutelman, P. R., Ushida, T., &amp; Vader, K. (2020). The revised International Association for the Study of Pain definition of pain: Concepts, challenges, and compromises. ''Pain, 161''(9), 1976–1982. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1097/j.pain.0000000000001939&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Bushnell, M. C., Čeko, M., &amp; Low, L. A. (2013). Cognitive and emotional control of pain and its disruption in chronic pain. ''Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 14''(7), 502–511. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn3516&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Tracey, I., &amp; Mantyh, P. W. (2007). The cerebral signature for pain perception and its modulation. ''Neuron, 55''(3), 377–391. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2007.07.012&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Basbaum, A. I., Bautista, D. M., Scherrer, G., &amp; Julius, D. (2009). Cellular and molecular mechanisms of pain. ''Cell, 139''(2), 267–284. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2009.09.028&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* de Araujo, D. D., Zeferino, S. P., &amp; Galas, F. R. B. G. (2026). Virtual reality for opioid reduction in postoperative cardiac and thoracic surgery: A randomized controlled trial protocol. ''MethodsX, 17'', Article 104029.
* Arsenault, M., Piché, M., Duncan, G. H., &amp; Rainville, P. (2013). Self-regulation of acute experimental pain with and without biofeedback using spinal nociceptive responses. ''Neuroscience, 231'', 102–110. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroscience.2012.11.039&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Hysing, E.-B., Smith, L., Thulin, M., Karlsten, R., &amp; Gordh, T. (2017). Detection of systemic inflammation in severely impaired chronic pain patients, and effects of a CBT-ACT-based multi-modal pain rehabilitation program. ''Scandinavian Journal of Pain, 16'', 175. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sjpain.2017.04.033&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Neblett, R., Mayer, T. G., Hartzell, M. M., Williams, M. J., &amp; Gatchel, R. J. (2016). The Fear-Avoidance Components Scale (FACS): Development and psychometric evaluation of a new measure of pain-related fear avoidance. ''Pain Practice, 16''(4), 435–450. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1111/papr.12333&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Blincoe, A. J. (2007). TENS machines and their use in managing labour pain. ''British Journal of Midwifery, 15''(8), 516–519.
* Gatchel, R. J., Peng, Y. B., Peters, M. L., Fuchs, P. N., &amp; Turk, D. C. (2007). The biopsychosocial approach to chronic pain: Scientific advances and future directions. ''Psychological Bulletin, 133''(4), 581–624. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.4.581&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Eccleston, C., &amp; Crombez, G. (1999). Pain demands attention: A cognitive-affective model of the interruptive function of pain. ''Psychological Bulletin, 125''(3), 356–366. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.125.3.356&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Williams, A. C. de C., &amp; Craig, K. D. (2016). Updating the definition of pain. ''Pain, 157''(11), 2420–2423. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1097/j.pain.0000000000000613&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Malloy, K. M., &amp; Milling, L. S. (2010). The effectiveness of virtual reality distraction for pain reduction: A systematic review. ''Clinical Psychology Review, 30''(8), 1011–1018. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2010.07.001&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Melzack, R., &amp; Wall, P. D. (1965). Pain mechanisms: A new theory. ''Science, 150''(3699), 971–979. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1126/science.150.3699.971&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Moayedi, M., &amp; Davis, K. D. (2013). Theories of pain: From specificity to gate control. ''Journal of Neurophysiology, 109''(1), 5–12. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1152/jn.00457.2012&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Apkarian, A. V., Baliki, M. N., &amp; Geha, P. Y. (2009). Towards a theory of chronic pain. ''Progress in Neurobiology, 87''(2), 81–97. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pneurobio.2008.09.018&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Kutch, J. J., &amp; Apkarian, A. V. (2018). Potential mechanisms underlying centralized pain and emerging therapeutic interventions. ''Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience, 12'', Article 35. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.3389/fncel.2018.00035&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Karoly, P. (1993). Mechanisms of self-regulation: A systems view. ''Annual Review of Psychology, 44'', 23–52. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ps.44.020193.000323&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Hamilton, N. A., Karoly, P., &amp; Kitzman, H. (2004). Self-regulation and chronic pain: The role of emotion. ''Cognitive Therapy and Research, 28''(5), 559–576. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1023/B:COTR.0000045565.88145.76&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Fordyce, W. E. (1976). ''Behavioral methods for chronic pain and illness''. Mosby.
* Crombez, G., Eccleston, C., Van Damme, S., Vlaeyen, J. W. S., &amp; Karoly, P. (2012). Fear-avoidance model of chronic pain: The next generation. ''Clinical Journal of Pain, 28''(6), 475–483. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1097/AJP.0b013e3182385392&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Lazarus, R. S., &amp; Folkman, S. (1984). ''Stress, appraisal, and coping''. Springer.
* Turk, D. C., &amp; Wilson, H. D. (2010). Fear of pain as a prognostic factor in chronic pain: Conceptual models, assessment, and treatment implications. ''Current Pain and Headache Reports, 14''(2), 88–95. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/s11916-010-0094-x&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Hayes, S. C., Strosahl, K. D., &amp; Wilson, K. G. (2012). ''Acceptance and commitment therapy: The process and practice of mindful change'' (2nd ed.). Guilford Press.
* Veehof, M. M., Trompetter, H. R., Bohlmeijer, E. T., &amp; Schreurs, K. M. G. (2016). Acceptance- and mindfulness-based interventions for the treatment of chronic pain: A meta-analytic review. ''Cognitive Behaviour Therapy, 45''(1), 5–31. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1080/16506073.2015.1098724&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Bandura, A. (1997). ''Self-efficacy: The exercise of control''. W. H. Freeman.
* Jackson, T., Wang, Y., Wang, Y., &amp; Fan, H. (2014). Self-efficacy and chronic pain outcomes: A meta-analytic review. ''The Journal of Pain, 15''(8), 800–814. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpain.2014.05.002&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Modernell, L. M., Faillenot, I., Garcia-Larrea, L., &amp; Fauchon, C. (2026). The multifaceted neural architecture of pain modulation by emotion and cognition: A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''British Journal of Anaesthesia, 136''(6), 1894–1909. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bja.2026.03.015&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Vervoort, T., &amp; Trost, Z. (2018). An affective-motivational account of interpersonal dynamics in pain. In T. Vervoort, K. Karos, Z. Trost, &amp; K. M. Prkachin (Eds.), ''Social and interpersonal dynamics in pain: We don’t suffer alone'' (pp. 57–75). Springer. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-78340-6_4&lt;/nowiki&gt;

* Boersma, K., &amp; Flink, I. K. (2025). Key aspects concerning the role of emotion in the chronic pain experience. ''Current Opinion in Psychology, 62'', Article 102000. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2025.102000&lt;/nowiki&gt;
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
* https://www.iasp-pain.org/resources/terminology/
* https://www.qld.gov.au/health/services/specialists/persistent-pain/understanding-pain/managing-your-pain
* https://aci.health.nsw.gov.au/chronic-pain/painbytes/pain-and-mind-body-connection

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Pain]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Technology]]</text>
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      <text bytes="28235" sha1="iawe1qrrnqmqn0o6rzo89vg92f0dwty" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Technology-based pain management:&lt;br&gt;How can technology-based tools alter pain perception and pain management?}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
[[File:Headache touching forehead.jpg|thumb|326x326px|'''Figure 1'''. Headache]]

'''Case study: Elena's shift in pain perception'''

Elena is a 35-year-old graphic designer living with chronic neuropathic pain following a viral infection. For years, her pain felt unpredictable and overwhelming, some days she could work normally, while other days even holding a pencil felt impossible. What frightened her most wasn’t the pain itself, but the random timing and the belief that she had no control over it.

Her pain specialist introduced her to a set of perception altering technologies: VR program designed to redirect attention and reduce pain intensity through immersive environments a wearable sensor that tracked muscle tension and autonomic arousal a mobile app that visualised her pain patterns using predictive coding algorithms
Within two weeks, Elena noticed something she didn’t expect: her pain felt less threatening. The VR sessions helped her shift attention away from the pain, reducing the “alarm” response in her brain. The wearable showed spikes in tension before flare ups, helping her intervene early. The app revealed consistent patterns stress, poor sleep, and long work sessions transforming what once felt random into something understandable and predictable.

As Elena’s understanding changed, her perception changed. Pain episodes felt less catastrophic, shorter, and easier to manage. Technology didn’t eliminate her pain it altered the way her brain interpreted it, giving her a sense of agency she hadn’t felt in years.

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

*Technology-based pain interventions are receiving increasing research attention across healthcare settings, including postoperative care, rehabilitation, and labour wards (Musters et al., 2023; Yang et al., 2023).The pain technology market is projected to increase by '''USD $70.2 billion''' over the 10 years (Statifacts.com)see annual [https://www.statifacts.com/outlook/chronic-pain-treatment-devices-market report]. Virtual reality can redirect attention away from pain, TENS devices can modulate pain-signal transmission, and biofeedback systems help individuals regulate physiological arousal.Virtual reality can redirect attention away from pain, TENS devices can modulate pain-signal transmission, and biofeedback systems can help individuals regulate physiological arousal. Wearables, mobile applications, and telehealth platforms are also becoming more widely used, giving people accessible ways to track pain patterns and engage in self-management (Green &amp; Chakravarthy, 2025; Li et al., 2024). Technology has therefore become increasingly influential in how pain is monitored, interpreted and managed across healthcare. For people with chronic pain, catastrophic thoughts and fear of further pain or injury may lead to avoidance of movement and meaningful activities, contributing to reduced functioning and increased distress (Gatchel, 2016; Vlaeyen &amp; Linton, 2000). This chapter explores how technology-based interventions may interrupt this cycle by influencing pain signals, attention, emotions, thoughts, motivation and perceived control.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
'''Focus questions'''
{{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}}

•How does technology alter the way people perceive and respond to pain?

•How do psychological processes such as attention, emotion and cognitive appraisal contribute to technology-based pain management?

•How do different technologies influence people's sense of control, engagement and motivation when managing pain?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Understanding pain perception and management ==
[[Pain]] is not determined solely by physical injury. It is a personal sensory and emotional experience influenced by biological, psychological and social factors (Raja et al., 2020). Understanding the distinction between pain and nociception helps explain why technology can change a person’s pain experience even when it does not remove the original injury or health condition. Pain perception is shaped by how the brain interprets nociceptive signals alongside attention, emotions, memories, beliefs, expectations and the surrounding context (Bushnell et al., 2013; Tracey &amp; Mantyh, 2007). Technology can alter this interpretation by redirecting attention, regulating physiological arousal, modifying pain-signal transmission or changing catastrophic thoughts about pain. It may also influence how a person responds by encouraging movement, coping and active self-management rather than fear and avoidance. Technology can therefore reduce the intensity, unpleasantness or perceived threat of pain while supporting greater confidence and control over pain-management behaviour.

=== Pain and nociception ===

* [[w:Pain|Pain]] is an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with, or resembling an experience associated with, actual or potential tissue damage (Raja,2020).
* Pain is personal and can be influenced by biological, psychological and social factors.
* Nociception as the nervous system’s detection and processing of potentially harmful stimuli.
* Pain and nociception are related but are not identical.
* Nociception can occur without a conscious experience of pain and that pain may sometimes continue without clear evidence of current tissue damage (Basbaum ,2009; Raja ,2020).
* Relate this distinction to technology by explaining that a tool may change a person’s pain experience without removing the original injury or condition.

=== Physiology of pain and pain perception ===

* Nociceptors detect potentially harmful mechanical, chemical or temperature-related stimuli and convert them into electrical signals.
* Refer to these signals travelling through peripheral nerves to the spinal cord and then through ascending pathways to the brain (Basbaum,2009).
* The brain interprets nociceptive information alongside attention, emotions, memories, beliefs, expectations and context.
* The sensory dimension identifying the location and intensity of pain, while emotional, cognitive and motivational processes influence its unpleasantness, meaning and the person’s response.
* Descending pathways from the brain can increase or reduce pain-signal transmission (Tracey &amp; Mantyh, 2007).
* Pain is not a direct measurement of tissue damage. Therefore, the same stimulus may be experienced differently by different people or by the same person in different situations (Bushnell,2013).
* Relate this process to technology by introducing TENS as a tool that may modulate pain-signal transmission and VR as a tool that may change attention and the brain’s interpretation of pain.

=== Chronic pain and avoidance ===
[[File:Pain cycle.jpg|thumb|326x326px|'''Figure 2'''. The avoidance pain [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3820295/ cycle]]]

* Chronic pain is pain that persists or recurs for longer than three months.
* Chronic pain may affect attention, memory, mood, sleep, motivation, relationships and participation in daily activities.
* Refer to increased attention towards bodily sensations and possible signs of pain.
* Pain catastrophising as an exaggerated negative interpretation in which a person believes pain will be unbearable, uncontrollable or a sign of serious harm.
* Fear-avoidance model.
* Catastrophic interpretations can produce fear of pain, movement or reinjury.
* Fear may lead the person to avoid physical activity, work, social activities and other meaningful experiences.
* Avoidance can provide short-term relief from fear but may contribute to reduced activity, lower confidence, disability and emotional distress over time (Gatchel,2016; Vlaeyen &amp; Linton, 2000).
* '''See Figure 2''' One The Avoidance Pain Cyle 

=== Understanding pain management ===

* Pain management as strategies used to reduce pain, distress and interference with daily life.
* Chronic pain management may improve coping, functioning and participation without completely eliminating pain.
* Refer to the biopsychosocial approach, which considers biological, psychological and social influences on pain (Raja, 2020).
* Technology may support pain management through symptom monitoring, coping strategies and improved access to care (Li,2024).

== How does technology alter pain perception? ==
{{ic|Include an introductory paragraph before branching into sub-sections}}

=== VR and attention modulation ===

* Refer to VR immerse user effecting attention - Limited capacity theory of attention (de Araujo, Zeferino, &amp; Galas, 2026)

=== Biofeedback and autonomic regulation ===
*How biofeedback provides information about physiological pain responses, enabling users to practise regulating these responses and develop greater control over their pain experience. Related to self-regulation theory (Arsenault,2013).

=== Cognitive Digital CBT and ACT tools ===
* How CBT can modify unhelpful pain-related thoughts and behaviours, while ACT can increase pain acceptance and engagement in valued activities. These processes may reduce distress and improve functioning even when pain is not eliminated. Related - to cognitive appraisal theory and the psychological flexibility mode'''l''' (Hysing,2017; Neblett,2016).- Beneficial for catastrophic thinking,

=== Wearable sensors ===
* Wearable systems that collect pain ratings, adherence information and physiological data to personalise treatment and help users identify patterns in their pain. Related to self-regulation theory, particularly monitoring, feedback and behavioural adjustment (Green &amp; Chakravarthy, 2025).

=== TENS ===
* Low-voltage electrical stimulation activating non-painful sensory fibres and reducing the transmission of pain signals. Relate this to gate control theory and endogenous pain inhibition (Blincoe,2007; Green &amp; Chakravarthy,2025).

=== Telehealth and remote monitoring ===
* Clinicians monitoring pain ratings, treatment use and progress from a distance. Feedback and support may improve confidence, access and treatment adjustment. Relate this to self-efficacy and self-regulation (Green &amp; Chakravarthy,2025).

=== Mobile applications ===

* Apps recording pain ratings, showing patterns, providing education or coping activities, and reminding users to practise pain-management strategies. Relate this to self-regulation theory. A dedicated mobile pain-application study is still required.

== Psychological theories behind technology‑based pain management ==

* '''Psychological theories behind technology‑based pain management:'''Technology‑based pain interventions draw on established psychological theories explaining how cognition, emotion, attention and behaviour shape pain perception. These mechanisms help explain how tools such as VR, wearables and AI‑guided apps influence pain experience (Gatchel et al., 2007; Eccleston &amp; Crombez, 1999).
* '''Biopsychosocial model of pain:'''The biopsychosocial model proposes that pain arises from interactions between biological processes, psychological factors and social context. Technology‑based interventions align with this model by targeting multiple domains simultaneously, such as emotional regulation, behavioural change and physiological monitoring (Gatchel et al., 2007; Williams &amp; Craig, 2016).
* '''Limited‑capacity theory of attention:'''Pain captures limited attentional resources, increasing perceived intensity. VR and immersive technologies reduce pain by redirecting attention away from nociceptive input, supporting the theory’s predictions (Eccleston &amp; Crombez, 1999; Malloy &amp; Milling, 2010).
* '''Gate control theory of pain:'''Gate control theory suggests that cognitive and emotional factors modulate nociceptive signals at the spinal level. Technologies such as TENS, VR and biofeedback influence these gates by altering attention and emotional state (Melzack &amp; Wall, 1965; Moayedi &amp; Davis, 2013).
* '''Neuromodulation and neuroplasticity:'''Pain perception is shaped by dynamic neural networks that reorganise with experience. VR, neurofeedback and AI‑guided training promote adaptive neuroplasticity by reducing maladaptive signalling and strengthening regulatory pathways (Apkarian et al., 2009; Kutch &amp; Apkarian, 2018).
* '''Self‑regulation theory:'''Self‑regulation theory emphasises managing thoughts, emotions and behaviours to achieve desired outcomes. Technology‑based pain tools enhance self‑regulation through real‑time feedback, guided breathing and emotional tracking (Karoly, 1993; Jensen et al., 2014).
* '''Operant conditioning:'''Pain behaviours can be reinforced by environmental responses. Technology‑based interventions apply operant principles by rewarding adaptive behaviours such as movement, pacing and relaxation (Fordyce, 1976; Vlaeyen &amp; Linton, 2000).
* '''Fear‑avoidance model of pain:'''Fear of pain leads to avoidance, deconditioning and increased disability. Graded VR exposure and movement‑tracking apps reduce fear by providing safe exposure and positive reinforcement (Vlaeyen &amp; Linton, 2000; Crombez et al., 2012).
* '''Cognitive appraisal and reframing:'''Pain intensity is influenced by how individuals interpret symptoms. Digital CBT tools help reframe catastrophic thoughts, reduce threat appraisal and promote adaptive interpretations of pain (Lazarus &amp; Folkman, 1984; Turk &amp; Wilson, 2010).
* '''Psychological flexibility model:'''Psychological flexibility involves adapting behaviour in alignment with values despite discomfort. ACT‑based digital interventions enhance flexibility through acceptance, present‑moment awareness and committed action (Hayes et al., 2012; Trompetter et al., 2016).
* '''Social cognitive theory and self‑efficacy:'''Self‑efficacy predicts pain coping and functional outcomes. Technology‑based interventions increase self‑efficacy through mastery experiences, modelling and feedback (Bandura, 1997; Jackson et al., 2014).
* '''Affective‑motivational modulation of pain:'''Pain is shaped by emotional and motivational states such as fear, anxiety and goal orientation. Negative affect amplifies pain through enhanced salience and descending facilitation, while positive affect reduces pain via prefrontal‑limbic modulation. Technologies such as VR, AI‑guided relaxation and biofeedback apps modulate affective‑motivational systems by reducing threat cues and enhancing emotional regulation (Modernell et al., 2026; Vervoort &amp; Trost, 2018; Garcia‑Larrea &amp; Fauchon, 2023; ''Current Opinion in Psychology'', 2025).

== Applications and tools ==
[[File:Pain pathway diagram showing transduction, transmission, modulation, and perception.png|thumb|293x293px|Figure 2: Brain Pain Pathways ]]

* VR
* TENS
* Mobile apps
* Wearables
* Gamification
* Telehealth

== Future Applications and Emerging Technologies ==

* List Of Various Cutting edge 
* Emerging technologies 
* futuristics applications 

== Limitations and ethical considerations ==

* Effectiveness differs between users, technologies and pain conditions.
* Refer to barriers including cost, access, digital skills and user engagement (Li,2024).
* Possible side effects, privacy concerns and increased attention to symptoms.

==Learning features==
'''Table 1''' 

See The Summary Table below : {{ic|Provide a more descriptive caption}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! Technology !! How it alters pain perception !! Theory / Model
|-
| VR || Redirects attention || Limited-capacity attention
|-
| TENS || Modulates pain signals || Gate control theory
|-
|Biofeedback
|Support regulation of arousal
|Self-regulation, conditioning
|-
|CBT/ACT tools
|Changes to coping, appraisal and avoidance
|Fear avoidance, flexibility
|-
|Wearables/apps
|Records patterns and provides feedback
|Self-regulation
|-
|Telehealth
|Remote support, health access and treatment
|Self-efficacy 
|}

;Quizzes

* Why might VR reduce the amount of attention given to pain? See:
* Which theory best explains how TENS may reduce pain-signal transmission?
* How can feedback from a wearable device support self-regulation?
* How might catastrophic thinking contribute to the fear-avoidance cycle?

&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Virtual reality (VR) can reduce pain by redirecting a person’s attention away from painful stimuli?:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{TENS devices work by increasing the intensity of pain signals sent to the brain.  
Answer?:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==

* Pain is interpreted by the brain and is influenced by attention, emotion, appraisal, behaviour and social support, not only by signals from the body.
* Different technologies alter pain perception through different pathways: VR redirects attention, TENS modulates signals, and feedback or cognitive tools influence arousal, appraisal and control.
* Technology is most useful as part of individualised, biopsychosocial pain management rather than as a replacement for all existing care (Hysing,2017; Li,2024).
* Effectiveness depends on the user, pain condition, technology, level of support and quality of available evidence.

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
[[wikipedia:Virtual_reality_therapy|Virtual reality therapy]] (Wikipedia)
[[wikipedia:Transcutaneous_electrical_nerve_stimulation|Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation]] (Wikipedia)

* https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pain {{ic|Create internal link}}
* https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_reality {{ic|Create internal link}}
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Self-regulation|Self-regulation]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[wikipedia:Transcutaneous_electrical_nerve_stimulation|Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation]] (Wikipedia)
* [[wikipedia:Cognitive_behavioral_therapy|Cognitive behavioral therapy]] (Wikipedia)
* [[wikipedia:Biopsychosocial_model|Biopsychosocial model]] (Wikipedia)
* [[wikipedia:Gate_control_theory|Gate control theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

{{Hanging indent|1=

 
}}

* Musters, A., Vandevenne, A. S., Franx, A., &amp; Wassen, M. M. L. H. (2023). Virtual Reality Experience during Labour (VIREL): A qualitative study. ''BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth, 23'', Article 283. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1186/s12884-023-05633-0&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Yang, X., Zhong, S., Yang, S., He, M., Xu, X., He, S., Fan, G., &amp; Liu, L. (2023). Global scientific trends in virtual reality for pain treatment from 2000 to 2022: Bibliometric analysis. ''JMIR Serious Games, 11'', Article e48354. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.2196/48354&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Green, M., &amp; Chakravarthy, K. (2025). Artificial intelligence-enhanced pain management: The NXTSTIM EcoAI platform. ''Pain Management, 15''(8), 467–475.
* Li, L. W., Yi, T. H., &amp; Khaing, N. E. E. (2024). Chronic pain healthcare workers’ challenges in pain management and receptiveness towards VR as an adjunct management tool: A qualitative study. ''BMC Digital Health, 2'', Article 26.
* Gatchel, R. J., Neblett, R., Kishino, N., &amp; Ray, C. T. (2016). Fear-avoidance beliefs and chronic pain. ''Journal of Orthopaedic &amp; Sports Physical Therapy, 46''(2), 38–43. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.2519/jospt.2016.0601&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Vlaeyen, J. W. S., &amp; Linton, S. J. (2000). Fear-avoidance and its consequences in chronic musculoskeletal pain: A state of the art. ''Pain, 85''(3), 317–332. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/S0304-3959(99)00242-0&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Raja, S. N., Carr, D. B., Cohen, M., Finnerup, N. B., Flor, H., Gibson, S., Keefe, F. J., Mogil, J. S., Ringkamp, M., Sluka, K. A., Song, X.-J., Stevens, B., Sullivan, M. D., Tutelman, P. R., Ushida, T., &amp; Vader, K. (2020). The revised International Association for the Study of Pain definition of pain: Concepts, challenges, and compromises. ''Pain, 161''(9), 1976–1982. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1097/j.pain.0000000000001939&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Bushnell, M. C., Čeko, M., &amp; Low, L. A. (2013). Cognitive and emotional control of pain and its disruption in chronic pain. ''Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 14''(7), 502–511. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn3516&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Tracey, I., &amp; Mantyh, P. W. (2007). The cerebral signature for pain perception and its modulation. ''Neuron, 55''(3), 377–391. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2007.07.012&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Basbaum, A. I., Bautista, D. M., Scherrer, G., &amp; Julius, D. (2009). Cellular and molecular mechanisms of pain. ''Cell, 139''(2), 267–284. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2009.09.028&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* de Araujo, D. D., Zeferino, S. P., &amp; Galas, F. R. B. G. (2026). Virtual reality for opioid reduction in postoperative cardiac and thoracic surgery: A randomized controlled trial protocol. ''MethodsX, 17'', Article 104029.
* Arsenault, M., Piché, M., Duncan, G. H., &amp; Rainville, P. (2013). Self-regulation of acute experimental pain with and without biofeedback using spinal nociceptive responses. ''Neuroscience, 231'', 102–110. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroscience.2012.11.039&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Hysing, E.-B., Smith, L., Thulin, M., Karlsten, R., &amp; Gordh, T. (2017). Detection of systemic inflammation in severely impaired chronic pain patients, and effects of a CBT-ACT-based multi-modal pain rehabilitation program. ''Scandinavian Journal of Pain, 16'', 175. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sjpain.2017.04.033&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Neblett, R., Mayer, T. G., Hartzell, M. M., Williams, M. J., &amp; Gatchel, R. J. (2016). The Fear-Avoidance Components Scale (FACS): Development and psychometric evaluation of a new measure of pain-related fear avoidance. ''Pain Practice, 16''(4), 435–450. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1111/papr.12333&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Blincoe, A. J. (2007). TENS machines and their use in managing labour pain. ''British Journal of Midwifery, 15''(8), 516–519.
* Gatchel, R. J., Peng, Y. B., Peters, M. L., Fuchs, P. N., &amp; Turk, D. C. (2007). The biopsychosocial approach to chronic pain: Scientific advances and future directions. ''Psychological Bulletin, 133''(4), 581–624. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.4.581&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Eccleston, C., &amp; Crombez, G. (1999). Pain demands attention: A cognitive-affective model of the interruptive function of pain. ''Psychological Bulletin, 125''(3), 356–366. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.125.3.356&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Williams, A. C. de C., &amp; Craig, K. D. (2016). Updating the definition of pain. ''Pain, 157''(11), 2420–2423. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1097/j.pain.0000000000000613&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Malloy, K. M., &amp; Milling, L. S. (2010). The effectiveness of virtual reality distraction for pain reduction: A systematic review. ''Clinical Psychology Review, 30''(8), 1011–1018. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2010.07.001&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Melzack, R., &amp; Wall, P. D. (1965). Pain mechanisms: A new theory. ''Science, 150''(3699), 971–979. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1126/science.150.3699.971&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Moayedi, M., &amp; Davis, K. D. (2013). Theories of pain: From specificity to gate control. ''Journal of Neurophysiology, 109''(1), 5–12. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1152/jn.00457.2012&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Apkarian, A. V., Baliki, M. N., &amp; Geha, P. Y. (2009). Towards a theory of chronic pain. ''Progress in Neurobiology, 87''(2), 81–97. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pneurobio.2008.09.018&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Kutch, J. J., &amp; Apkarian, A. V. (2018). Potential mechanisms underlying centralized pain and emerging therapeutic interventions. ''Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience, 12'', Article 35. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.3389/fncel.2018.00035&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Karoly, P. (1993). Mechanisms of self-regulation: A systems view. ''Annual Review of Psychology, 44'', 23–52. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ps.44.020193.000323&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Hamilton, N. A., Karoly, P., &amp; Kitzman, H. (2004). Self-regulation and chronic pain: The role of emotion. ''Cognitive Therapy and Research, 28''(5), 559–576. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1023/B:COTR.0000045565.88145.76&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Fordyce, W. E. (1976). ''Behavioral methods for chronic pain and illness''. Mosby.
* Crombez, G., Eccleston, C., Van Damme, S., Vlaeyen, J. W. S., &amp; Karoly, P. (2012). Fear-avoidance model of chronic pain: The next generation. ''Clinical Journal of Pain, 28''(6), 475–483. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1097/AJP.0b013e3182385392&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Lazarus, R. S., &amp; Folkman, S. (1984). ''Stress, appraisal, and coping''. Springer.
* Turk, D. C., &amp; Wilson, H. D. (2010). Fear of pain as a prognostic factor in chronic pain: Conceptual models, assessment, and treatment implications. ''Current Pain and Headache Reports, 14''(2), 88–95. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/s11916-010-0094-x&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Hayes, S. C., Strosahl, K. D., &amp; Wilson, K. G. (2012). ''Acceptance and commitment therapy: The process and practice of mindful change'' (2nd ed.). Guilford Press.
* Veehof, M. M., Trompetter, H. R., Bohlmeijer, E. T., &amp; Schreurs, K. M. G. (2016). Acceptance- and mindfulness-based interventions for the treatment of chronic pain: A meta-analytic review. ''Cognitive Behaviour Therapy, 45''(1), 5–31. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1080/16506073.2015.1098724&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Bandura, A. (1997). ''Self-efficacy: The exercise of control''. W. H. Freeman.
* Jackson, T., Wang, Y., Wang, Y., &amp; Fan, H. (2014). Self-efficacy and chronic pain outcomes: A meta-analytic review. ''The Journal of Pain, 15''(8), 800–814. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpain.2014.05.002&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Modernell, L. M., Faillenot, I., Garcia-Larrea, L., &amp; Fauchon, C. (2026). The multifaceted neural architecture of pain modulation by emotion and cognition: A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''British Journal of Anaesthesia, 136''(6), 1894–1909. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bja.2026.03.015&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Vervoort, T., &amp; Trost, Z. (2018). An affective-motivational account of interpersonal dynamics in pain. In T. Vervoort, K. Karos, Z. Trost, &amp; K. M. Prkachin (Eds.), ''Social and interpersonal dynamics in pain: We don’t suffer alone'' (pp. 57–75). Springer. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-78340-6_4&lt;/nowiki&gt;

* Boersma, K., &amp; Flink, I. K. (2025). Key aspects concerning the role of emotion in the chronic pain experience. ''Current Opinion in Psychology, 62'', Article 102000. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2025.102000&lt;/nowiki&gt;
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
* https://www.iasp-pain.org/resources/terminology/
* https://www.qld.gov.au/health/services/specialists/persistent-pain/understanding-pain/managing-your-pain
* https://aci.health.nsw.gov.au/chronic-pain/painbytes/pain-and-mind-body-connection

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Pain]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Technology]]</text>
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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
[[File:Headache touching forehead.jpg|thumb|326x326px|'''Figure 1'''. Headache]]

'''Case study: Elena's shift in pain perception'''

Elena is a 35-year-old graphic designer living with chronic neuropathic pain following a viral infection. For years, her pain felt unpredictable and overwhelming, some days she could work normally, while other days even holding a pencil felt impossible. What frightened her most wasn’t the pain itself, but the random timing and the belief that she had no control over it.

Her pain specialist introduced her to a set of perception altering technologies: VR program designed to redirect attention and reduce pain intensity through immersive environments a wearable sensor that tracked muscle tension and autonomic arousal a mobile app that visualised her pain patterns using predictive coding algorithms
Within two weeks, Elena noticed something she didn’t expect: her pain felt less threatening. The VR sessions helped her shift attention away from the pain, reducing the “alarm” response in her brain. The wearable showed spikes in tension before flare ups, helping her intervene early. The app revealed consistent patterns stress, poor sleep, and long work sessions transforming what once felt random into something understandable and predictable.

As Elena’s understanding changed, her perception changed. Pain episodes felt less catastrophic, shorter, and easier to manage. Technology didn’t eliminate her pain it altered the way her brain interpreted it, giving her a sense of agency she hadn’t felt in years.

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

*Technology-based pain interventions are receiving increasing research attention across healthcare settings, including postoperative care, rehabilitation, and labour wards (Musters et al., 2023; Yang et al., 2023).The pain technology market is projected to increase by '''USD $70.2 billion''' over the 10 years (Statifacts.com)see annual [https://www.statifacts.com/outlook/chronic-pain-treatment-devices-market report]. Virtual reality can redirect attention away from pain, TENS devices can modulate pain-signal transmission, and biofeedback systems help individuals regulate physiological arousal.Virtual reality can redirect attention away from pain, TENS devices can modulate pain-signal transmission, and biofeedback systems can help individuals regulate physiological arousal. Wearables, mobile applications, and telehealth platforms are also becoming more widely used, giving people accessible ways to track pain patterns and engage in self-management (Green &amp; Chakravarthy, 2025; Li et al., 2024). Technology has therefore become increasingly influential in how pain is monitored, interpreted and managed across healthcare. For people with chronic pain, catastrophic thoughts and fear of further pain or injury may lead to avoidance of movement and meaningful activities, contributing to reduced functioning and increased distress (Gatchel, 2016; Vlaeyen &amp; Linton, 2000). This chapter explores how technology-based interventions may interrupt this cycle by influencing pain signals, attention, emotions, thoughts, motivation and perceived control.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
'''Focus questions'''
{{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}}

•How does technology alter the way people perceive and respond to pain?

•How do psychological processes such as attention, emotion and cognitive appraisal contribute to technology-based pain management?

•How do different technologies influence people's sense of control, engagement and motivation when managing pain?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Understanding pain perception and management ==
[[Pain]] is not determined solely by physical injury. It is a personal sensory and emotional experience influenced by biological, psychological and social factors (Raja et al., 2020). Understanding the distinction between pain and nociception helps explain why technology can change a person’s pain experience even when it does not remove the original injury or health condition. Pain perception is shaped by how the brain interprets nociceptive signals alongside attention, emotions, memories, beliefs, expectations and the surrounding context (Bushnell et al., 2013; Tracey &amp; Mantyh, 2007). Technology can alter this interpretation by redirecting attention, regulating physiological arousal, modifying pain-signal transmission or changing catastrophic thoughts about pain. It may also influence how a person responds by encouraging movement, coping and active self-management rather than fear and avoidance. Technology can therefore reduce the intensity, unpleasantness or perceived threat of pain while supporting greater confidence and control over pain-management behaviour.

=== Pain and nociception ===

* [[w:Pain|Pain]] is an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with, or resembling an experience associated with, actual or potential tissue damage (Raja,2020).
* Pain is personal and can be influenced by biological, psychological and social factors.
* Nociception as the nervous system’s detection and processing of potentially harmful stimuli.
* Pain and nociception are related but are not identical.
* Nociception can occur without a conscious experience of pain and that pain may sometimes continue without clear evidence of current tissue damage (Basbaum ,2009; Raja ,2020).
* Relate this distinction to technology by explaining that a tool may change a person’s pain experience without removing the original injury or condition.

=== Physiology of pain and pain perception ===

* Nociceptors detect potentially harmful mechanical, chemical or temperature-related stimuli and convert them into electrical signals.
* Refer to these signals travelling through peripheral nerves to the spinal cord and then through ascending pathways to the brain (Basbaum,2009).
* The brain interprets nociceptive information alongside attention, emotions, memories, beliefs, expectations and context.
* The sensory dimension identifying the location and intensity of pain, while emotional, cognitive and motivational processes influence its unpleasantness, meaning and the person’s response.
* Descending pathways from the brain can increase or reduce pain-signal transmission (Tracey &amp; Mantyh, 2007).
* Pain is not a direct measurement of tissue damage. Therefore, the same stimulus may be experienced differently by different people or by the same person in different situations (Bushnell,2013).
* Relate this process to technology by introducing TENS as a tool that may modulate pain-signal transmission and VR as a tool that may change attention and the brain’s interpretation of pain.

=== Chronic pain and avoidance ===
[[File:Pain cycle.jpg|thumb|326x326px|'''Figure 2'''. The avoidance pain [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3820295/ cycle]]]

* Chronic pain is pain that persists or recurs for longer than three months.
* Chronic pain may affect attention, memory, mood, sleep, motivation, relationships and participation in daily activities.
* Refer to increased attention towards bodily sensations and possible signs of pain.
* Pain catastrophising as an exaggerated negative interpretation in which a person believes pain will be unbearable, uncontrollable or a sign of serious harm.
* Fear-avoidance model.
* Catastrophic interpretations can produce fear of pain, movement or reinjury.
* Fear may lead the person to avoid physical activity, work, social activities and other meaningful experiences.
* Avoidance can provide short-term relief from fear but may contribute to reduced activity, lower confidence, disability and emotional distress over time (Gatchel,2016; Vlaeyen &amp; Linton, 2000).
* '''See Figure 2''' One The Avoidance Pain Cyle 

=== Understanding pain management ===

* Pain management as strategies used to reduce pain, distress and interference with daily life.
* Chronic pain management may improve coping, functioning and participation without completely eliminating pain.
* Refer to the biopsychosocial approach, which considers biological, psychological and social influences on pain (Raja, 2020).
* Technology may support pain management through symptom monitoring, coping strategies and improved access to care (Li,2024).

== How does technology alter pain perception? ==
{{ic|Include an introductory paragraph before branching into sub-sections}}

=== VR and attention modulation ===

* Refer to VR immerse user effecting attention - Limited capacity theory of attention (de Araujo, Zeferino, &amp; Galas, 2026)

=== Biofeedback and autonomic regulation ===
*How biofeedback provides information about physiological pain responses, enabling users to practise regulating these responses and develop greater control over their pain experience. Related to self-regulation theory (Arsenault,2013).

=== Cognitive Digital CBT and ACT tools ===
* How CBT can modify unhelpful pain-related thoughts and behaviours, while ACT can increase pain acceptance and engagement in valued activities. These processes may reduce distress and improve functioning even when pain is not eliminated. Related - to cognitive appraisal theory and the psychological flexibility mode'''l''' (Hysing,2017; Neblett,2016).- Beneficial for catastrophic thinking,

=== Wearable sensors ===
* Wearable systems that collect pain ratings, adherence information and physiological data to personalise treatment and help users identify patterns in their pain. Related to self-regulation theory, particularly monitoring, feedback and behavioural adjustment (Green &amp; Chakravarthy, 2025).

=== TENS ===
* Low-voltage electrical stimulation activating non-painful sensory fibres and reducing the transmission of pain signals. Relate this to gate control theory and endogenous pain inhibition (Blincoe,2007; Green &amp; Chakravarthy,2025).

=== Telehealth and remote monitoring ===
* Clinicians monitoring pain ratings, treatment use and progress from a distance. Feedback and support may improve confidence, access and treatment adjustment. Relate this to self-efficacy and self-regulation (Green &amp; Chakravarthy,2025).

=== Mobile applications ===

* Apps recording pain ratings, showing patterns, providing education or coping activities, and reminding users to practise pain-management strategies. Relate this to self-regulation theory. A dedicated mobile pain-application study is still required.

== Psychological theories behind technology‑based pain management ==

* '''Psychological theories behind technology‑based pain management:'''Technology‑based pain interventions draw on established psychological theories explaining how cognition, emotion, attention and behaviour shape pain perception. These mechanisms help explain how tools such as VR, wearables and AI‑guided apps influence pain experience (Gatchel et al., 2007; Eccleston &amp; Crombez, 1999).
* '''Biopsychosocial model of pain:'''The biopsychosocial model proposes that pain arises from interactions between biological processes, psychological factors and social context. Technology‑based interventions align with this model by targeting multiple domains simultaneously, such as emotional regulation, behavioural change and physiological monitoring (Gatchel et al., 2007; Williams &amp; Craig, 2016).
* '''Limited‑capacity theory of attention:'''Pain captures limited attentional resources, increasing perceived intensity. VR and immersive technologies reduce pain by redirecting attention away from nociceptive input, supporting the theory’s predictions (Eccleston &amp; Crombez, 1999; Malloy &amp; Milling, 2010).
* '''Gate control theory of pain:'''Gate control theory suggests that cognitive and emotional factors modulate nociceptive signals at the spinal level. Technologies such as TENS, VR and biofeedback influence these gates by altering attention and emotional state (Melzack &amp; Wall, 1965; Moayedi &amp; Davis, 2013).
* '''Neuromodulation and neuroplasticity:'''Pain perception is shaped by dynamic neural networks that reorganise with experience. VR, neurofeedback and AI‑guided training promote adaptive neuroplasticity by reducing maladaptive signalling and strengthening regulatory pathways (Apkarian et al., 2009; Kutch &amp; Apkarian, 2018).
* '''Self‑regulation theory:'''Self‑regulation theory emphasises managing thoughts, emotions and behaviours to achieve desired outcomes. Technology‑based pain tools enhance self‑regulation through real‑time feedback, guided breathing and emotional tracking (Karoly, 1993; Jensen et al., 2014).
* '''Operant conditioning:'''Pain behaviours can be reinforced by environmental responses. Technology‑based interventions apply operant principles by rewarding adaptive behaviours such as movement, pacing and relaxation (Fordyce, 1976; Vlaeyen &amp; Linton, 2000).
* '''Fear‑avoidance model of pain:'''Fear of pain leads to avoidance, deconditioning and increased disability. Graded VR exposure and movement‑tracking apps reduce fear by providing safe exposure and positive reinforcement (Vlaeyen &amp; Linton, 2000; Crombez et al., 2012).
* '''Cognitive appraisal and reframing:'''Pain intensity is influenced by how individuals interpret symptoms. Digital CBT tools help reframe catastrophic thoughts, reduce threat appraisal and promote adaptive interpretations of pain (Lazarus &amp; Folkman, 1984; Turk &amp; Wilson, 2010).
* '''Psychological flexibility model:'''Psychological flexibility involves adapting behaviour in alignment with values despite discomfort. ACT‑based digital interventions enhance flexibility through acceptance, present‑moment awareness and committed action (Hayes et al., 2012; Trompetter et al., 2016).
* '''Social cognitive theory and self‑efficacy:'''Self‑efficacy predicts pain coping and functional outcomes. Technology‑based interventions increase self‑efficacy through mastery experiences, modelling and feedback (Bandura, 1997; Jackson et al., 2014).
* '''Affective‑motivational modulation of pain:'''Pain is shaped by emotional and motivational states such as fear, anxiety and goal orientation. Negative affect amplifies pain through enhanced salience and descending facilitation, while positive affect reduces pain via prefrontal‑limbic modulation. Technologies such as VR, AI‑guided relaxation and biofeedback apps modulate affective‑motivational systems by reducing threat cues and enhancing emotional regulation (Modernell et al., 2026; Vervoort &amp; Trost, 2018; Garcia‑Larrea &amp; Fauchon, 2023; ''Current Opinion in Psychology'', 2025).

== Applications and tools ==
[[File:Pain pathway diagram showing transduction, transmission, modulation, and perception.png|thumb|293x293px|Figure 2: Brain Pain Pathways ]]

* VR
* TENS
* Mobile apps
* Wearables
* Gamification
* Telehealth

== Future Applications and Emerging Technologies ==

* List Of Various Cutting edge 
* Emerging technologies 
* futuristics applications 

== Limitations and ethical considerations ==

* Effectiveness differs between users, technologies and pain conditions.
* Refer to barriers including cost, access, digital skills and user engagement (Li,2024).
* Possible side effects, privacy concerns and increased attention to symptoms.

==Learning features==
'''Table 1''' 

See The Summary Table below : {{ic|Provide a more descriptive caption}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! Technology !! How it alters pain perception !! Theory / Model
|-
| VR || Redirects attention || Limited-capacity attention
|-
| TENS || Modulates pain signals || Gate control theory
|-
|Biofeedback
|Support regulation of arousal
|Self-regulation, conditioning
|-
|CBT/ACT tools
|Changes to coping, appraisal and avoidance
|Fear avoidance, flexibility
|-
|Wearables/apps
|Records patterns and provides feedback
|Self-regulation
|-
|Telehealth
|Remote support, health access and treatment
|Self-efficacy 
|}

;Quizzes

* Why might VR reduce the amount of attention given to pain? See:
* Which theory best explains how TENS may reduce pain-signal transmission?
* How can feedback from a wearable device support self-regulation?
* How might catastrophic thinking contribute to the fear-avoidance cycle?

&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Virtual reality (VR) can reduce pain by redirecting a person’s attention away from painful stimuli?:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{TENS devices work by increasing the intensity of pain signals sent to the brain.  
Answer?:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==

* Pain is interpreted by the brain and is influenced by attention, emotion, appraisal, behaviour and social support, not only by signals from the body.
* Different technologies alter pain perception through different pathways: VR redirects attention, TENS modulates signals, and feedback or cognitive tools influence arousal, appraisal and control.
* Technology is most useful as part of individualised, biopsychosocial pain management rather than as a replacement for all existing care (Hysing,2017; Li,2024).
* Effectiveness depends on the user, pain condition, technology, level of support and quality of available evidence.

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
[[wikipedia:Virtual_reality_therapy|Virtual reality therapy]] (Wikipedia)
[[wikipedia:Transcutaneous_electrical_nerve_stimulation|Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation]] (Wikipedia)

* https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pain {{ic|Create internal link}}
* https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_reality {{ic|Create internal link}}
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Self-regulation|Self-regulation]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[wikipedia:Transcutaneous_electrical_nerve_stimulation|Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation]] (Wikipedia)
* [[wikipedia:Cognitive_behavioral_therapy|Cognitive behavioral therapy]] (Wikipedia)
* [[wikipedia:Biopsychosocial_model|Biopsychosocial model]] (Wikipedia)
* [[wikipedia:Gate_control_theory|Gate control theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

{{Hanging indent}}==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

{{Hanging indent|1=

 
}}

* Musters, A., Vandevenne, A. S., Franx, A., &amp; Wassen, M. M. L. H. (2023). Virtual Reality Experience during Labour (VIREL): A qualitative study. ''BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth, 23'', Article 283. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1186/s12884-023-05633-0&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Yang, X., Zhong, S., Yang, S., He, M., Xu, X., He, S., Fan, G., &amp; Liu, L. (2023). Global scientific trends in virtual reality for pain treatment from 2000 to 2022: Bibliometric analysis. ''JMIR Serious Games, 11'', Article e48354. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.2196/48354&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Green, M., &amp; Chakravarthy, K. (2025). Artificial intelligence-enhanced pain management: The NXTSTIM EcoAI platform. ''Pain Management, 15''(8), 467–475.
* Li, L. W., Yi, T. H., &amp; Khaing, N. E. E. (2024). Chronic pain healthcare workers’ challenges in pain management and receptiveness towards VR as an adjunct management tool: A qualitative study. ''BMC Digital Health, 2'', Article 26.
* Gatchel, R. J., Neblett, R., Kishino, N., &amp; Ray, C. T. (2016). Fear-avoidance beliefs and chronic pain. ''Journal of Orthopaedic &amp; Sports Physical Therapy, 46''(2), 38–43. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.2519/jospt.2016.0601&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Vlaeyen, J. W. S., &amp; Linton, S. J. (2000). Fear-avoidance and its consequences in chronic musculoskeletal pain: A state of the art. ''Pain, 85''(3), 317–332. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/S0304-3959(99)00242-0&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Raja, S. N., Carr, D. B., Cohen, M., Finnerup, N. B., Flor, H., Gibson, S., Keefe, F. J., Mogil, J. S., Ringkamp, M., Sluka, K. A., Song, X.-J., Stevens, B., Sullivan, M. D., Tutelman, P. R., Ushida, T., &amp; Vader, K. (2020). The revised International Association for the Study of Pain definition of pain: Concepts, challenges, and compromises. ''Pain, 161''(9), 1976–1982. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1097/j.pain.0000000000001939&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Bushnell, M. C., Čeko, M., &amp; Low, L. A. (2013). Cognitive and emotional control of pain and its disruption in chronic pain. ''Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 14''(7), 502–511. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn3516&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Tracey, I., &amp; Mantyh, P. W. (2007). The cerebral signature for pain perception and its modulation. ''Neuron, 55''(3), 377–391. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2007.07.012&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Basbaum, A. I., Bautista, D. M., Scherrer, G., &amp; Julius, D. (2009). Cellular and molecular mechanisms of pain. ''Cell, 139''(2), 267–284. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2009.09.028&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* de Araujo, D. D., Zeferino, S. P., &amp; Galas, F. R. B. G. (2026). Virtual reality for opioid reduction in postoperative cardiac and thoracic surgery: A randomized controlled trial protocol. ''MethodsX, 17'', Article 104029.
* Arsenault, M., Piché, M., Duncan, G. H., &amp; Rainville, P. (2013). Self-regulation of acute experimental pain with and without biofeedback using spinal nociceptive responses. ''Neuroscience, 231'', 102–110. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroscience.2012.11.039&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Hysing, E.-B., Smith, L., Thulin, M., Karlsten, R., &amp; Gordh, T. (2017). Detection of systemic inflammation in severely impaired chronic pain patients, and effects of a CBT-ACT-based multi-modal pain rehabilitation program. ''Scandinavian Journal of Pain, 16'', 175. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sjpain.2017.04.033&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Neblett, R., Mayer, T. G., Hartzell, M. M., Williams, M. J., &amp; Gatchel, R. J. (2016). The Fear-Avoidance Components Scale (FACS): Development and psychometric evaluation of a new measure of pain-related fear avoidance. ''Pain Practice, 16''(4), 435–450. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1111/papr.12333&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Blincoe, A. J. (2007). TENS machines and their use in managing labour pain. ''British Journal of Midwifery, 15''(8), 516–519.
* Gatchel, R. J., Peng, Y. B., Peters, M. L., Fuchs, P. N., &amp; Turk, D. C. (2007). The biopsychosocial approach to chronic pain: Scientific advances and future directions. ''Psychological Bulletin, 133''(4), 581–624. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.4.581&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Eccleston, C., &amp; Crombez, G. (1999). Pain demands attention: A cognitive-affective model of the interruptive function of pain. ''Psychological Bulletin, 125''(3), 356–366. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.125.3.356&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Williams, A. C. de C., &amp; Craig, K. D. (2016). Updating the definition of pain. ''Pain, 157''(11), 2420–2423. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1097/j.pain.0000000000000613&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Malloy, K. M., &amp; Milling, L. S. (2010). The effectiveness of virtual reality distraction for pain reduction: A systematic review. ''Clinical Psychology Review, 30''(8), 1011–1018. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2010.07.001&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Melzack, R., &amp; Wall, P. D. (1965). Pain mechanisms: A new theory. ''Science, 150''(3699), 971–979. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1126/science.150.3699.971&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Moayedi, M., &amp; Davis, K. D. (2013). Theories of pain: From specificity to gate control. ''Journal of Neurophysiology, 109''(1), 5–12. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1152/jn.00457.2012&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Apkarian, A. V., Baliki, M. N., &amp; Geha, P. Y. (2009). Towards a theory of chronic pain. ''Progress in Neurobiology, 87''(2), 81–97. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pneurobio.2008.09.018&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Kutch, J. J., &amp; Apkarian, A. V. (2018). Potential mechanisms underlying centralized pain and emerging therapeutic interventions. ''Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience, 12'', Article 35. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.3389/fncel.2018.00035&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Karoly, P. (1993). Mechanisms of self-regulation: A systems view. ''Annual Review of Psychology, 44'', 23–52. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ps.44.020193.000323&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Hamilton, N. A., Karoly, P., &amp; Kitzman, H. (2004). Self-regulation and chronic pain: The role of emotion. ''Cognitive Therapy and Research, 28''(5), 559–576. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1023/B:COTR.0000045565.88145.76&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Fordyce, W. E. (1976). ''Behavioral methods for chronic pain and illness''. Mosby.
* Crombez, G., Eccleston, C., Van Damme, S., Vlaeyen, J. W. S., &amp; Karoly, P. (2012). Fear-avoidance model of chronic pain: The next generation. ''Clinical Journal of Pain, 28''(6), 475–483. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1097/AJP.0b013e3182385392&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Lazarus, R. S., &amp; Folkman, S. (1984). ''Stress, appraisal, and coping''. Springer.
* Turk, D. C., &amp; Wilson, H. D. (2010). Fear of pain as a prognostic factor in chronic pain: Conceptual models, assessment, and treatment implications. ''Current Pain and Headache Reports, 14''(2), 88–95. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/s11916-010-0094-x&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Hayes, S. C., Strosahl, K. D., &amp; Wilson, K. G. (2012). ''Acceptance and commitment therapy: The process and practice of mindful change'' (2nd ed.). Guilford Press.
* Veehof, M. M., Trompetter, H. R., Bohlmeijer, E. T., &amp; Schreurs, K. M. G. (2016). Acceptance- and mindfulness-based interventions for the treatment of chronic pain: A meta-analytic review. ''Cognitive Behaviour Therapy, 45''(1), 5–31. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1080/16506073.2015.1098724&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Bandura, A. (1997). ''Self-efficacy: The exercise of control''. W. H. Freeman.
* Jackson, T., Wang, Y., Wang, Y., &amp; Fan, H. (2014). Self-efficacy and chronic pain outcomes: A meta-analytic review. ''The Journal of Pain, 15''(8), 800–814. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpain.2014.05.002&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Modernell, L. M., Faillenot, I., Garcia-Larrea, L., &amp; Fauchon, C. (2026). The multifaceted neural architecture of pain modulation by emotion and cognition: A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''British Journal of Anaesthesia, 136''(6), 1894–1909. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bja.2026.03.015&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Vervoort, T., &amp; Trost, Z. (2018). An affective-motivational account of interpersonal dynamics in pain. In T. Vervoort, K. Karos, Z. Trost, &amp; K. M. Prkachin (Eds.), ''Social and interpersonal dynamics in pain: We don’t suffer alone'' (pp. 57–75). Springer. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-78340-6_4&lt;/nowiki&gt;

* Boersma, K., &amp; Flink, I. K. (2025). Key aspects concerning the role of emotion in the chronic pain experience. ''Current Opinion in Psychology, 62'', Article 102000. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2025.102000&lt;/nowiki&gt;
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
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* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
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}}

==External links==
* https://www.iasp-pain.org/resources/terminology/
* https://www.qld.gov.au/health/services/specialists/persistent-pain/understanding-pain/managing-your-pain
* https://aci.health.nsw.gov.au/chronic-pain/painbytes/pain-and-mind-body-connection

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
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}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Pain]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Technology]]</text>
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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
[[File:Headache touching forehead.jpg|thumb|326x326px|'''Figure 1'''. Headache]]

'''Case study: Elena's shift in pain perception'''

Elena is a 35-year-old graphic designer living with chronic neuropathic pain following a viral infection. For years, her pain felt unpredictable and overwhelming, some days she could work normally, while other days even holding a pencil felt impossible. What frightened her most wasn’t the pain itself, but the random timing and the belief that she had no control over it.

Her pain specialist introduced her to a set of perception altering technologies: VR program designed to redirect attention and reduce pain intensity through immersive environments a wearable sensor that tracked muscle tension and autonomic arousal a mobile app that visualised her pain patterns using predictive coding algorithms
Within two weeks, Elena noticed something she didn’t expect: her pain felt less threatening. The VR sessions helped her shift attention away from the pain, reducing the “alarm” response in her brain. The wearable showed spikes in tension before flare ups, helping her intervene early. The app revealed consistent patterns stress, poor sleep, and long work sessions transforming what once felt random into something understandable and predictable.

As Elena’s understanding changed, her perception changed. Pain episodes felt less catastrophic, shorter, and easier to manage. Technology didn’t eliminate her pain it altered the way her brain interpreted it, giving her a sense of agency she hadn’t felt in years.

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

*Technology-based pain interventions are receiving increasing research attention across healthcare settings, including postoperative care, rehabilitation, and labour wards (Musters et al., 2023; Yang et al., 2023).The pain technology market is projected to increase by '''USD $70.2 billion''' over the 10 years (Statifacts.com)see annual [https://www.statifacts.com/outlook/chronic-pain-treatment-devices-market report]. Virtual reality can redirect attention away from pain, TENS devices can modulate pain-signal transmission, and biofeedback systems help individuals regulate physiological arousal.Virtual reality can redirect attention away from pain, TENS devices can modulate pain-signal transmission, and biofeedback systems can help individuals regulate physiological arousal. Wearables, mobile applications, and telehealth platforms are also becoming more widely used, giving people accessible ways to track pain patterns and engage in self-management (Green &amp; Chakravarthy, 2025; Li et al., 2024). Technology has therefore become increasingly influential in how pain is monitored, interpreted and managed across healthcare. For people with chronic pain, catastrophic thoughts and fear of further pain or injury may lead to avoidance of movement and meaningful activities, contributing to reduced functioning and increased distress (Gatchel, 2016; Vlaeyen &amp; Linton, 2000). This chapter explores how technology-based interventions may interrupt this cycle by influencing pain signals, attention, emotions, thoughts, motivation and perceived control.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
'''Focus questions'''
{{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}}

•How does technology alter the way people perceive and respond to pain?

•How do psychological processes such as attention, emotion and cognitive appraisal contribute to technology-based pain management?

•How do different technologies influence people's sense of control, engagement and motivation when managing pain?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Understanding pain perception and management ==
[[Pain]] is not determined solely by physical injury. It is a personal sensory and emotional experience influenced by biological, psychological and social factors (Raja et al., 2020). Understanding the distinction between pain and nociception helps explain why technology can change a person’s pain experience even when it does not remove the original injury or health condition. Pain perception is shaped by how the brain interprets nociceptive signals alongside attention, emotions, memories, beliefs, expectations and the surrounding context (Bushnell et al., 2013; Tracey &amp; Mantyh, 2007). Technology can alter this interpretation by redirecting attention, regulating physiological arousal, modifying pain-signal transmission or changing catastrophic thoughts about pain. It may also influence how a person responds by encouraging movement, coping and active self-management rather than fear and avoidance. Technology can therefore reduce the intensity, unpleasantness or perceived threat of pain while supporting greater confidence and control over pain-management behaviour.

=== Pain and nociception ===

* [[w:Pain|Pain]] is an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with, or resembling an experience associated with, actual or potential tissue damage (Raja,2020).
* Pain is personal and can be influenced by biological, psychological and social factors.
* Nociception as the nervous system’s detection and processing of potentially harmful stimuli.
* Pain and nociception are related but are not identical.
* Nociception can occur without a conscious experience of pain and that pain may sometimes continue without clear evidence of current tissue damage (Basbaum ,2009; Raja ,2020).
* Relate this distinction to technology by explaining that a tool may change a person’s pain experience without removing the original injury or condition.

=== Physiology of pain and pain perception ===

* Nociceptors detect potentially harmful mechanical, chemical or temperature-related stimuli and convert them into electrical signals.
* Refer to these signals travelling through peripheral nerves to the spinal cord and then through ascending pathways to the brain (Basbaum,2009).
* The brain interprets nociceptive information alongside attention, emotions, memories, beliefs, expectations and context.
* The sensory dimension identifying the location and intensity of pain, while emotional, cognitive and motivational processes influence its unpleasantness, meaning and the person’s response.
* Descending pathways from the brain can increase or reduce pain-signal transmission (Tracey &amp; Mantyh, 2007).
* Pain is not a direct measurement of tissue damage. Therefore, the same stimulus may be experienced differently by different people or by the same person in different situations (Bushnell,2013).
* Relate this process to technology by introducing TENS as a tool that may modulate pain-signal transmission and VR as a tool that may change attention and the brain’s interpretation of pain.

=== Chronic pain and avoidance ===
[[File:Pain cycle.jpg|thumb|326x326px|'''Figure 2'''. The avoidance pain [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3820295/ cycle]]]

* Chronic pain is pain that persists or recurs for longer than three months.
* Chronic pain may affect attention, memory, mood, sleep, motivation, relationships and participation in daily activities.
* Refer to increased attention towards bodily sensations and possible signs of pain.
* Pain catastrophising as an exaggerated negative interpretation in which a person believes pain will be unbearable, uncontrollable or a sign of serious harm.
* Fear-avoidance model.
* Catastrophic interpretations can produce fear of pain, movement or reinjury.
* Fear may lead the person to avoid physical activity, work, social activities and other meaningful experiences.
* Avoidance can provide short-term relief from fear but may contribute to reduced activity, lower confidence, disability and emotional distress over time (Gatchel,2016; Vlaeyen &amp; Linton, 2000).
* '''See Figure 2''' One The Avoidance Pain Cyle 

=== Understanding pain management ===

* Pain management as strategies used to reduce pain, distress and interference with daily life.
* Chronic pain management may improve coping, functioning and participation without completely eliminating pain.
* Refer to the biopsychosocial approach, which considers biological, psychological and social influences on pain (Raja, 2020).
* Technology may support pain management through symptom monitoring, coping strategies and improved access to care (Li,2024).

== How does technology alter pain perception? ==
{{ic|Include an introductory paragraph before branching into sub-sections}}

=== VR and attention modulation ===

* Refer to VR immerse user effecting attention - Limited capacity theory of attention (de Araujo, Zeferino, &amp; Galas, 2026)

=== Biofeedback and autonomic regulation ===
*How biofeedback provides information about physiological pain responses, enabling users to practise regulating these responses and develop greater control over their pain experience. Related to self-regulation theory (Arsenault,2013).

=== Cognitive Digital CBT and ACT tools ===
* How CBT can modify unhelpful pain-related thoughts and behaviours, while ACT can increase pain acceptance and engagement in valued activities. These processes may reduce distress and improve functioning even when pain is not eliminated. Related - to cognitive appraisal theory and the psychological flexibility mode'''l''' (Hysing,2017; Neblett,2016).- Beneficial for catastrophic thinking,

=== Wearable sensors ===
* Wearable systems that collect pain ratings, adherence information and physiological data to personalise treatment and help users identify patterns in their pain. Related to self-regulation theory, particularly monitoring, feedback and behavioural adjustment (Green &amp; Chakravarthy, 2025).

=== TENS ===
* Low-voltage electrical stimulation activating non-painful sensory fibres and reducing the transmission of pain signals. Relate this to gate control theory and endogenous pain inhibition (Blincoe,2007; Green &amp; Chakravarthy,2025).

=== Telehealth and remote monitoring ===
* Clinicians monitoring pain ratings, treatment use and progress from a distance. Feedback and support may improve confidence, access and treatment adjustment. Relate this to self-efficacy and self-regulation (Green &amp; Chakravarthy,2025).

=== Mobile applications ===

* Apps recording pain ratings, showing patterns, providing education or coping activities, and reminding users to practise pain-management strategies. Relate this to self-regulation theory. A dedicated mobile pain-application study is still required.

== Psychological theories behind technology‑based pain management ==

* '''Psychological theories behind technology‑based pain management:'''Technology‑based pain interventions draw on established psychological theories explaining how cognition, emotion, attention and behaviour shape pain perception. These mechanisms help explain how tools such as VR, wearables and AI‑guided apps influence pain experience (Gatchel et al., 2007; Eccleston &amp; Crombez, 1999).
* '''Biopsychosocial model of pain:'''The biopsychosocial model proposes that pain arises from interactions between biological processes, psychological factors and social context. Technology‑based interventions align with this model by targeting multiple domains simultaneously, such as emotional regulation, behavioural change and physiological monitoring (Gatchel et al., 2007; Williams &amp; Craig, 2016).
* '''Limited‑capacity theory of attention:'''Pain captures limited attentional resources, increasing perceived intensity. VR and immersive technologies reduce pain by redirecting attention away from nociceptive input, supporting the theory’s predictions (Eccleston &amp; Crombez, 1999; Malloy &amp; Milling, 2010).
* '''Gate control theory of pain:'''Gate control theory suggests that cognitive and emotional factors modulate nociceptive signals at the spinal level. Technologies such as TENS, VR and biofeedback influence these gates by altering attention and emotional state (Melzack &amp; Wall, 1965; Moayedi &amp; Davis, 2013).
* '''Neuromodulation and neuroplasticity:'''Pain perception is shaped by dynamic neural networks that reorganise with experience. VR, neurofeedback and AI‑guided training promote adaptive neuroplasticity by reducing maladaptive signalling and strengthening regulatory pathways (Apkarian et al., 2009; Kutch &amp; Apkarian, 2018).
* '''Self‑regulation theory:'''Self‑regulation theory emphasises managing thoughts, emotions and behaviours to achieve desired outcomes. Technology‑based pain tools enhance self‑regulation through real‑time feedback, guided breathing and emotional tracking (Karoly, 1993; Jensen et al., 2014).
* '''Operant conditioning:'''Pain behaviours can be reinforced by environmental responses. Technology‑based interventions apply operant principles by rewarding adaptive behaviours such as movement, pacing and relaxation (Fordyce, 1976; Vlaeyen &amp; Linton, 2000).
* '''Fear‑avoidance model of pain:'''Fear of pain leads to avoidance, deconditioning and increased disability. Graded VR exposure and movement‑tracking apps reduce fear by providing safe exposure and positive reinforcement (Vlaeyen &amp; Linton, 2000; Crombez et al., 2012).
* '''Cognitive appraisal and reframing:'''Pain intensity is influenced by how individuals interpret symptoms. Digital CBT tools help reframe catastrophic thoughts, reduce threat appraisal and promote adaptive interpretations of pain (Lazarus &amp; Folkman, 1984; Turk &amp; Wilson, 2010).
* '''Psychological flexibility model:'''Psychological flexibility involves adapting behaviour in alignment with values despite discomfort. ACT‑based digital interventions enhance flexibility through acceptance, present‑moment awareness and committed action (Hayes et al., 2012; Trompetter et al., 2016).
* '''Social cognitive theory and self‑efficacy:'''Self‑efficacy predicts pain coping and functional outcomes. Technology‑based interventions increase self‑efficacy through mastery experiences, modelling and feedback (Bandura, 1997; Jackson et al., 2014).
* '''Affective‑motivational modulation of pain:'''Pain is shaped by emotional and motivational states such as fear, anxiety and goal orientation. Negative affect amplifies pain through enhanced salience and descending facilitation, while positive affect reduces pain via prefrontal‑limbic modulation. Technologies such as VR, AI‑guided relaxation and biofeedback apps modulate affective‑motivational systems by reducing threat cues and enhancing emotional regulation (Modernell et al., 2026; Vervoort &amp; Trost, 2018; Garcia‑Larrea &amp; Fauchon, 2023; ''Current Opinion in Psychology'', 2025).

== Applications and tools ==
[[File:Pain pathway diagram showing transduction, transmission, modulation, and perception.png|thumb|293x293px|Figure 2: Brain Pain Pathways ]]

* VR
* TENS
* Mobile apps
* Wearables
* Gamification
* Telehealth

== Future Applications and Emerging Technologies ==

* List Of Various Cutting edge 
* Emerging technologies 
* futuristics applications 

== Limitations and ethical considerations ==

* Effectiveness differs between users, technologies and pain conditions.
* Refer to barriers including cost, access, digital skills and user engagement (Li,2024).
* Possible side effects, privacy concerns and increased attention to symptoms.

==Learning features==
'''Table 1''' 

See The Summary Table below : {{ic|Provide a more descriptive caption}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! Technology !! How it alters pain perception !! Theory / Model
|-
| VR || Redirects attention || Limited-capacity attention
|-
| TENS || Modulates pain signals || Gate control theory
|-
|Biofeedback
|Support regulation of arousal
|Self-regulation, conditioning
|-
|CBT/ACT tools
|Changes to coping, appraisal and avoidance
|Fear avoidance, flexibility
|-
|Wearables/apps
|Records patterns and provides feedback
|Self-regulation
|-
|Telehealth
|Remote support, health access and treatment
|Self-efficacy 
|}

;Quizzes

* Why might VR reduce the amount of attention given to pain? See:
* Which theory best explains how TENS may reduce pain-signal transmission?
* How can feedback from a wearable device support self-regulation?
* How might catastrophic thinking contribute to the fear-avoidance cycle?

&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Virtual reality (VR) can reduce pain by redirecting a person’s attention away from painful stimuli?:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{TENS devices work by increasing the intensity of pain signals sent to the brain.  
Answer?:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==

* Pain is interpreted by the brain and is influenced by attention, emotion, appraisal, behaviour and social support, not only by signals from the body.
* Different technologies alter pain perception through different pathways: VR redirects attention, TENS modulates signals, and feedback or cognitive tools influence arousal, appraisal and control.
* Technology is most useful as part of individualised, biopsychosocial pain management rather than as a replacement for all existing care (Hysing,2017; Li,2024).
* Effectiveness depends on the user, pain condition, technology, level of support and quality of available evidence.

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
[[wikipedia:Virtual_reality_therapy|Virtual reality therapy]] (Wikipedia)
[[wikipedia:Transcutaneous_electrical_nerve_stimulation|Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation]] (Wikipedia)

* https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pain {{ic|Create internal link}}
* https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_reality {{ic|Create internal link}}
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Self-regulation|Self-regulation]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[wikipedia:Transcutaneous_electrical_nerve_stimulation|Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation]] (Wikipedia)
* [[wikipedia:Cognitive_behavioral_therapy|Cognitive behavioral therapy]] (Wikipedia)
* [[wikipedia:Biopsychosocial_model|Biopsychosocial model]] (Wikipedia)
* [[wikipedia:Gate_control_theory|Gate control theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

{{Hanging indent|1=

 
}}

* Musters, A., Vandevenne, A. S., Franx, A., &amp; Wassen, M. M. L. H. (2023). Virtual Reality Experience during Labour (VIREL): A qualitative study. ''BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth, 23'', Article 283. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1186/s12884-023-05633-0&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Yang, X., Zhong, S., Yang, S., He, M., Xu, X., He, S., Fan, G., &amp; Liu, L. (2023). Global scientific trends in virtual reality for pain treatment from 2000 to 2022: Bibliometric analysis. ''JMIR Serious Games, 11'', Article e48354. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.2196/48354&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Green, M., &amp; Chakravarthy, K. (2025). Artificial intelligence-enhanced pain management: The NXTSTIM EcoAI platform. ''Pain Management, 15''(8), 467–475.
* Li, L. W., Yi, T. H., &amp; Khaing, N. E. E. (2024). Chronic pain healthcare workers’ challenges in pain management and receptiveness towards VR as an adjunct management tool: A qualitative study. ''BMC Digital Health, 2'', Article 26.
* Gatchel, R. J., Neblett, R., Kishino, N., &amp; Ray, C. T. (2016). Fear-avoidance beliefs and chronic pain. ''Journal of Orthopaedic &amp; Sports Physical Therapy, 46''(2), 38–43. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.2519/jospt.2016.0601&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Vlaeyen, J. W. S., &amp; Linton, S. J. (2000). Fear-avoidance and its consequences in chronic musculoskeletal pain: A state of the art. ''Pain, 85''(3), 317–332. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/S0304-3959(99)00242-0&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Raja, S. N., Carr, D. B., Cohen, M., Finnerup, N. B., Flor, H., Gibson, S., Keefe, F. J., Mogil, J. S., Ringkamp, M., Sluka, K. A., Song, X.-J., Stevens, B., Sullivan, M. D., Tutelman, P. R., Ushida, T., &amp; Vader, K. (2020). The revised International Association for the Study of Pain definition of pain: Concepts, challenges, and compromises. ''Pain, 161''(9), 1976–1982. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1097/j.pain.0000000000001939&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Bushnell, M. C., Čeko, M., &amp; Low, L. A. (2013). Cognitive and emotional control of pain and its disruption in chronic pain. ''Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 14''(7), 502–511. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn3516&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Tracey, I., &amp; Mantyh, P. W. (2007). The cerebral signature for pain perception and its modulation. ''Neuron, 55''(3), 377–391. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2007.07.012&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Basbaum, A. I., Bautista, D. M., Scherrer, G., &amp; Julius, D. (2009). Cellular and molecular mechanisms of pain. ''Cell, 139''(2), 267–284. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2009.09.028&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* de Araujo, D. D., Zeferino, S. P., &amp; Galas, F. R. B. G. (2026). Virtual reality for opioid reduction in postoperative cardiac and thoracic surgery: A randomized controlled trial protocol. ''MethodsX, 17'', Article 104029.
* Arsenault, M., Piché, M., Duncan, G. H., &amp; Rainville, P. (2013). Self-regulation of acute experimental pain with and without biofeedback using spinal nociceptive responses. ''Neuroscience, 231'', 102–110. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroscience.2012.11.039&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Hysing, E.-B., Smith, L., Thulin, M., Karlsten, R., &amp; Gordh, T. (2017). Detection of systemic inflammation in severely impaired chronic pain patients, and effects of a CBT-ACT-based multi-modal pain rehabilitation program. ''Scandinavian Journal of Pain, 16'', 175. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sjpain.2017.04.033&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Neblett, R., Mayer, T. G., Hartzell, M. M., Williams, M. J., &amp; Gatchel, R. J. (2016). The Fear-Avoidance Components Scale (FACS): Development and psychometric evaluation of a new measure of pain-related fear avoidance. ''Pain Practice, 16''(4), 435–450. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1111/papr.12333&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Blincoe, A. J. (2007). TENS machines and their use in managing labour pain. ''British Journal of Midwifery, 15''(8), 516–519.
* Gatchel, R. J., Peng, Y. B., Peters, M. L., Fuchs, P. N., &amp; Turk, D. C. (2007). The biopsychosocial approach to chronic pain: Scientific advances and future directions. ''Psychological Bulletin, 133''(4), 581–624. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.4.581&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Eccleston, C., &amp; Crombez, G. (1999). Pain demands attention: A cognitive-affective model of the interruptive function of pain. ''Psychological Bulletin, 125''(3), 356–366. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.125.3.356&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Williams, A. C. de C., &amp; Craig, K. D. (2016). Updating the definition of pain. ''Pain, 157''(11), 2420–2423. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1097/j.pain.0000000000000613&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Malloy, K. M., &amp; Milling, L. S. (2010). The effectiveness of virtual reality distraction for pain reduction: A systematic review. ''Clinical Psychology Review, 30''(8), 1011–1018. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2010.07.001&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Melzack, R., &amp; Wall, P. D. (1965). Pain mechanisms: A new theory. ''Science, 150''(3699), 971–979. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1126/science.150.3699.971&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Moayedi, M., &amp; Davis, K. D. (2013). Theories of pain: From specificity to gate control. ''Journal of Neurophysiology, 109''(1), 5–12. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1152/jn.00457.2012&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Apkarian, A. V., Baliki, M. N., &amp; Geha, P. Y. (2009). Towards a theory of chronic pain. ''Progress in Neurobiology, 87''(2), 81–97. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pneurobio.2008.09.018&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Kutch, J. J., &amp; Apkarian, A. V. (2018). Potential mechanisms underlying centralized pain and emerging therapeutic interventions. ''Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience, 12'', Article 35. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.3389/fncel.2018.00035&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Karoly, P. (1993). Mechanisms of self-regulation: A systems view. ''Annual Review of Psychology, 44'', 23–52. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ps.44.020193.000323&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Hamilton, N. A., Karoly, P., &amp; Kitzman, H. (2004). Self-regulation and chronic pain: The role of emotion. ''Cognitive Therapy and Research, 28''(5), 559–576. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1023/B:COTR.0000045565.88145.76&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Fordyce, W. E. (1976). ''Behavioral methods for chronic pain and illness''. Mosby.
* Crombez, G., Eccleston, C., Van Damme, S., Vlaeyen, J. W. S., &amp; Karoly, P. (2012). Fear-avoidance model of chronic pain: The next generation. ''Clinical Journal of Pain, 28''(6), 475–483. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1097/AJP.0b013e3182385392&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Lazarus, R. S., &amp; Folkman, S. (1984). ''Stress, appraisal, and coping''. Springer.
* Turk, D. C., &amp; Wilson, H. D. (2010). Fear of pain as a prognostic factor in chronic pain: Conceptual models, assessment, and treatment implications. ''Current Pain and Headache Reports, 14''(2), 88–95. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/s11916-010-0094-x&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Hayes, S. C., Strosahl, K. D., &amp; Wilson, K. G. (2012). ''Acceptance and commitment therapy: The process and practice of mindful change'' (2nd ed.). Guilford Press.
* Veehof, M. M., Trompetter, H. R., Bohlmeijer, E. T., &amp; Schreurs, K. M. G. (2016). Acceptance- and mindfulness-based interventions for the treatment of chronic pain: A meta-analytic review. ''Cognitive Behaviour Therapy, 45''(1), 5–31. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1080/16506073.2015.1098724&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Bandura, A. (1997). ''Self-efficacy: The exercise of control''. W. H. Freeman.
* Jackson, T., Wang, Y., Wang, Y., &amp; Fan, H. (2014). Self-efficacy and chronic pain outcomes: A meta-analytic review. ''The Journal of Pain, 15''(8), 800–814. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpain.2014.05.002&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Modernell, L. M., Faillenot, I., Garcia-Larrea, L., &amp; Fauchon, C. (2026). The multifaceted neural architecture of pain modulation by emotion and cognition: A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''British Journal of Anaesthesia, 136''(6), 1894–1909. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bja.2026.03.015&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Vervoort, T., &amp; Trost, Z. (2018). An affective-motivational account of interpersonal dynamics in pain. In T. Vervoort, K. Karos, Z. Trost, &amp; K. M. Prkachin (Eds.), ''Social and interpersonal dynamics in pain: We don’t suffer alone'' (pp. 57–75). Springer. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-78340-6_4&lt;/nowiki&gt;

* Boersma, K., &amp; Flink, I. K. (2025). Key aspects concerning the role of emotion in the chronic pain experience. ''Current Opinion in Psychology, 62'', Article 102000. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2025.102000&lt;/nowiki&gt;
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
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* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
* https://www.iasp-pain.org/resources/terminology/
* https://www.qld.gov.au/health/services/specialists/persistent-pain/understanding-pain/managing-your-pain
* https://aci.health.nsw.gov.au/chronic-pain/painbytes/pain-and-mind-body-connection

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Pain]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Technology]]</text>
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      <text bytes="35781" sha1="mu93uw27iqrfwn0b4uirp9q31ds7esf" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Technology-based pain management:&lt;br&gt;How can technology-based tools alter pain perception and pain management?}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
[[File:Headache touching forehead.jpg|thumb|326x326px|'''Figure 1'''. Headache]]

'''Case study: Elena's shift in pain perception'''

Elena is a 35-year-old graphic designer living with chronic neuropathic pain following a viral infection. For years, her pain felt unpredictable and overwhelming, some days she could work normally, while other days even holding a pencil felt impossible. What frightened her most wasn’t the pain itself, but the random timing and the belief that she had no control over it.

Her pain specialist introduced her to a set of perception altering technologies: VR program designed to redirect attention and reduce pain intensity through immersive environments a wearable sensor that tracked muscle tension and autonomic arousal a mobile app that visualised her pain patterns using predictive coding algorithms
Within two weeks, Elena noticed something she didn’t expect: her pain felt less threatening. The VR sessions helped her shift attention away from the pain, reducing the “alarm” response in her brain. The wearable showed spikes in tension before flare ups, helping her intervene early. The app revealed consistent patterns stress, poor sleep, and long work sessions transforming what once felt random into something understandable and predictable.

As Elena’s understanding changed, her perception changed. Pain episodes felt less catastrophic, shorter, and easier to manage. Technology didn’t eliminate her pain it altered the way her brain interpreted it, giving her a sense of agency she hadn’t felt in years.

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

*Technology-based pain interventions are receiving increasing research attention across healthcare settings, including postoperative care, rehabilitation, and labour wards (Musters et al., 2023; Yang et al., 2023).The pain technology market is projected to increase by '''USD $70.2 billion''' over the 10 years (Statifacts.com)see annual [https://www.statifacts.com/outlook/chronic-pain-treatment-devices-market report]. Virtual reality can redirect attention away from pain, TENS devices can modulate pain-signal transmission, and biofeedback systems help individuals regulate physiological arousal.Virtual reality can redirect attention away from pain, TENS devices can modulate pain-signal transmission, and biofeedback systems can help individuals regulate physiological arousal. Wearables, mobile applications, and telehealth platforms are also becoming more widely used, giving people accessible ways to track pain patterns and engage in self-management (Green &amp; Chakravarthy, 2025; Li et al., 2024). Technology has therefore become increasingly influential in how pain is monitored, interpreted and managed across healthcare. For people with chronic pain, catastrophic thoughts and fear of further pain or injury may lead to avoidance of movement and meaningful activities, contributing to reduced functioning and increased distress (Gatchel, 2016; Vlaeyen &amp; Linton, 2000). This chapter explores how technology-based interventions may interrupt this cycle by influencing pain signals, attention, emotions, thoughts, motivation and perceived control.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
'''Focus questions'''
{{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}}

•How does technology alter the way people perceive and respond to pain?

•How do psychological processes such as attention, emotion and cognitive appraisal contribute to technology-based pain management?

•How do different technologies influence people's sense of control, engagement and motivation when managing pain?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Understanding pain perception and management ==
[[Pain]] is not determined solely by physical injury. It is a personal sensory and emotional experience influenced by biological, psychological and social factors (Raja et al., 2020). Understanding the distinction between pain and nociception helps explain why technology can change a person’s pain experience even when it does not remove the original injury or health condition. Pain perception is shaped by how the brain interprets nociceptive signals alongside attention, emotions, memories, beliefs, expectations and the surrounding context (Bushnell et al., 2013; Tracey &amp; Mantyh, 2007). Technology can alter this interpretation by redirecting attention, regulating physiological arousal, modifying pain-signal transmission or changing catastrophic thoughts about pain. It may also influence how a person responds by encouraging movement, coping and active self-management rather than fear and avoidance. Technology can therefore reduce the intensity, unpleasantness or perceived threat of pain while supporting greater confidence and control over pain-management behaviour.

=== Pain and nociception ===

* [[w:Pain|Pain]] is an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with, or resembling an experience associated with, actual or potential tissue damage (Raja,2020).
* Pain is personal and can be influenced by biological, psychological and social factors.
* Nociception as the nervous system’s detection and processing of potentially harmful stimuli.
* Pain and nociception are related but are not identical.
* Nociception can occur without a conscious experience of pain and that pain may sometimes continue without clear evidence of current tissue damage (Basbaum ,2009; Raja ,2020).
* Relate this distinction to technology by explaining that a tool may change a person’s pain experience without removing the original injury or condition.

=== Physiology of pain and pain perception ===

* Nociceptors detect potentially harmful mechanical, chemical or temperature-related stimuli and convert them into electrical signals.
* Refer to these signals travelling through peripheral nerves to the spinal cord and then through ascending pathways to the brain (Basbaum,2009).
* The brain interprets nociceptive information alongside attention, emotions, memories, beliefs, expectations and context.
* The sensory dimension identifying the location and intensity of pain, while emotional, cognitive and motivational processes influence its unpleasantness, meaning and the person’s response.
* Descending pathways from the brain can increase or reduce pain-signal transmission (Tracey &amp; Mantyh, 2007).
* Pain is not a direct measurement of tissue damage. Therefore, the same stimulus may be experienced differently by different people or by the same person in different situations (Bushnell,2013).
* Relate this process to technology by introducing TENS as a tool that may modulate pain-signal transmission and VR as a tool that may change attention and the brain’s interpretation of pain.

=== Chronic pain and avoidance ===
[[File:Pain cycle.jpg|thumb|326x326px|'''Figure 2'''. The avoidance pain [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3820295/ cycle]]]

* Chronic pain is pain that persists or recurs for longer than three months.
* Chronic pain may affect attention, memory, mood, sleep, motivation, relationships and participation in daily activities.
* Refer to increased attention towards bodily sensations and possible signs of pain.
* Pain catastrophising as an exaggerated negative interpretation in which a person believes pain will be unbearable, uncontrollable or a sign of serious harm.
* Fear-avoidance model.
* Catastrophic interpretations can produce fear of pain, movement or reinjury.
* Fear may lead the person to avoid physical activity, work, social activities and other meaningful experiences.
* Avoidance can provide short-term relief from fear but may contribute to reduced activity, lower confidence, disability and emotional distress over time (Gatchel,2016; Vlaeyen &amp; Linton, 2000).
* '''See Figure 2''' One The Avoidance Pain Cyle 

=== Understanding pain management ===

* Pain management as strategies used to reduce pain, distress and interference with daily life.
* Chronic pain management may improve coping, functioning and participation without completely eliminating pain.
* Refer to the biopsychosocial approach, which considers biological, psychological and social influences on pain (Raja, 2020).
* Technology may support pain management through symptom monitoring, coping strategies and improved access to care (Li,2024).

== How does technology alter pain perception? ==
{{ic|Include an introductory paragraph before branching into sub-sections}}

=== VR and attention modulation ===

* Refer to VR immerse user effecting attention - Limited capacity theory of attention (de Araujo, Zeferino, &amp; Galas, 2026)

=== Biofeedback and autonomic regulation ===
*How biofeedback provides information about physiological pain responses, enabling users to practise regulating these responses and develop greater control over their pain experience. Related to self-regulation theory (Arsenault,2013).

=== Cognitive Digital CBT and ACT tools ===
* How CBT can modify unhelpful pain-related thoughts and behaviours, while ACT can increase pain acceptance and engagement in valued activities. These processes may reduce distress and improve functioning even when pain is not eliminated. Related - to cognitive appraisal theory and the psychological flexibility mode'''l''' (Hysing,2017; Neblett,2016).- Beneficial for catastrophic thinking,

=== Wearable sensors ===
* Wearable systems that collect pain ratings, adherence information and physiological data to personalise treatment and help users identify patterns in their pain. Related to self-regulation theory, particularly monitoring, feedback and behavioural adjustment (Green &amp; Chakravarthy, 2025).

=== TENS ===
* Low-voltage electrical stimulation activating non-painful sensory fibres and reducing the transmission of pain signals. Relate this to gate control theory and endogenous pain inhibition (Blincoe,2007; Green &amp; Chakravarthy,2025).

=== Telehealth and remote monitoring ===
* Clinicians monitoring pain ratings, treatment use and progress from a distance. Feedback and support may improve confidence, access and treatment adjustment. Relate this to self-efficacy and self-regulation (Green &amp; Chakravarthy,2025).

=== Mobile applications ===

* Apps recording pain ratings, showing patterns, providing education or coping activities, and reminding users to practise pain-management strategies. Relate this to self-regulation theory. A dedicated mobile pain-application study is still required.

== Psychological theories behind technology‑based pain management ==

* '''Psychological theories behind technology‑based pain management:'''Technology‑based pain interventions draw on established psychological theories explaining how cognition, emotion, attention and behaviour shape pain perception. These mechanisms help explain how tools such as VR, wearables and AI‑guided apps influence pain experience (Gatchel et al., 2007; Eccleston &amp; Crombez, 1999).
* '''Biopsychosocial model of pain:'''The biopsychosocial model proposes that pain arises from interactions between biological processes, psychological factors and social context. Technology‑based interventions align with this model by targeting multiple domains simultaneously, such as emotional regulation, behavioural change and physiological monitoring (Gatchel et al., 2007; Williams &amp; Craig, 2016).
* '''Limited‑capacity theory of attention:'''Pain captures limited attentional resources, increasing perceived intensity. VR and immersive technologies reduce pain by redirecting attention away from nociceptive input, supporting the theory’s predictions (Eccleston &amp; Crombez, 1999; Malloy &amp; Milling, 2010).
* '''Gate control theory of pain:'''Gate control theory suggests that cognitive and emotional factors modulate nociceptive signals at the spinal level. Technologies such as TENS, VR and biofeedback influence these gates by altering attention and emotional state (Melzack &amp; Wall, 1965; Moayedi &amp; Davis, 2013).
* '''Neuromodulation and neuroplasticity:'''Pain perception is shaped by dynamic neural networks that reorganise with experience. VR, neurofeedback and AI‑guided training promote adaptive neuroplasticity by reducing maladaptive signalling and strengthening regulatory pathways (Apkarian et al., 2009; Kutch &amp; Apkarian, 2018).
* '''Self‑regulation theory:'''Self‑regulation theory emphasises managing thoughts, emotions and behaviours to achieve desired outcomes. Technology‑based pain tools enhance self‑regulation through real‑time feedback, guided breathing and emotional tracking (Karoly, 1993; Jensen et al., 2014).
* '''Operant conditioning:'''Pain behaviours can be reinforced by environmental responses. Technology‑based interventions apply operant principles by rewarding adaptive behaviours such as movement, pacing and relaxation (Fordyce, 1976; Vlaeyen &amp; Linton, 2000).
* '''Fear‑avoidance model of pain:'''Fear of pain leads to avoidance, deconditioning and increased disability. Graded VR exposure and movement‑tracking apps reduce fear by providing safe exposure and positive reinforcement (Vlaeyen &amp; Linton, 2000; Crombez et al., 2012).
* '''Cognitive appraisal and reframing:'''Pain intensity is influenced by how individuals interpret symptoms. Digital CBT tools help reframe catastrophic thoughts, reduce threat appraisal and promote adaptive interpretations of pain (Lazarus &amp; Folkman, 1984; Turk &amp; Wilson, 2010).
* '''Psychological flexibility model:'''Psychological flexibility involves adapting behaviour in alignment with values despite discomfort. ACT‑based digital interventions enhance flexibility through acceptance, present‑moment awareness and committed action (Hayes et al., 2012; Trompetter et al., 2016).
* '''Social cognitive theory and self‑efficacy:'''Self‑efficacy predicts pain coping and functional outcomes. Technology‑based interventions increase self‑efficacy through mastery experiences, modelling and feedback (Bandura, 1997; Jackson et al., 2014).
* '''Affective‑motivational modulation of pain:'''Pain is shaped by emotional and motivational states such as fear, anxiety and goal orientation. Negative affect amplifies pain through enhanced salience and descending facilitation, while positive affect reduces pain via prefrontal‑limbic modulation. Technologies such as VR, AI‑guided relaxation and biofeedback apps modulate affective‑motivational systems by reducing threat cues and enhancing emotional regulation (Modernell et al., 2026; Vervoort &amp; Trost, 2018; Garcia‑Larrea &amp; Fauchon, 2023; ''Current Opinion in Psychology'', 2025).

== Applications and tools ==
[[File:Pain pathway diagram showing transduction, transmission, modulation, and perception.png|thumb|293x293px|Figure 2: Brain Pain Pathways ]]

* VR
* TENS
* Mobile apps
* Wearables
* Gamification
* Telehealth

== Future Applications and Emerging Technologies ==

* List Of Various Cutting edge 
* Emerging technologies 
* futuristics applications 

== Limitations and ethical considerations ==

* Effectiveness differs between users, technologies and pain conditions.
* Refer to barriers including cost, access, digital skills and user engagement (Li,2024).
* Possible side effects, privacy concerns and increased attention to symptoms.

==Learning features==
'''Table 1''' 

See The Summary Table below : {{ic|Provide a more descriptive caption}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! Technology !! How it alters pain perception !! Theory / Model
|-
| VR || Redirects attention || Limited-capacity attention
|-
| TENS || Modulates pain signals || Gate control theory
|-
|Biofeedback
|Support regulation of arousal
|Self-regulation, conditioning
|-
|CBT/ACT tools
|Changes to coping, appraisal and avoidance
|Fear avoidance, flexibility
|-
|Wearables/apps
|Records patterns and provides feedback
|Self-regulation
|-
|Telehealth
|Remote support, health access and treatment
|Self-efficacy 
|}

;Quizzes

* Why might VR reduce the amount of attention given to pain? See:
* Which theory best explains how TENS may reduce pain-signal transmission?
* How can feedback from a wearable device support self-regulation?
* How might catastrophic thinking contribute to the fear-avoidance cycle?

&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Virtual reality (VR) can reduce pain by redirecting a person’s attention away from painful stimuli?:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{TENS devices work by increasing the intensity of pain signals sent to the brain.  
Answer?:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==

* Pain is interpreted by the brain and is influenced by attention, emotion, appraisal, behaviour and social support, not only by signals from the body.
* Different technologies alter pain perception through different pathways: VR redirects attention, TENS modulates signals, and feedback or cognitive tools influence arousal, appraisal and control.
* Technology is most useful as part of individualised, biopsychosocial pain management rather than as a replacement for all existing care (Hysing,2017; Li,2024).
* Effectiveness depends on the user, pain condition, technology, level of support and quality of available evidence.

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
[[wikipedia:Virtual_reality_therapy|Virtual reality therapy]] (Wikipedia)
[[wikipedia:Transcutaneous_electrical_nerve_stimulation|Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation]] (Wikipedia)

* https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pain {{ic|Create internal link}}
* https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_reality {{ic|Create internal link}}
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Self-regulation|Self-regulation]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[wikipedia:Transcutaneous_electrical_nerve_stimulation|Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation]] (Wikipedia)
* [[wikipedia:Cognitive_behavioral_therapy|Cognitive behavioral therapy]] (Wikipedia)
* [[wikipedia:Biopsychosocial_model|Biopsychosocial model]] (Wikipedia)
* [[wikipedia:Gate_control_theory|Gate control theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

{{Hanging indent|1=1.	Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman.

2.	Fordyce, W. E. (1976). Behavioral methods for chronic pain and illness. Mosby.

3.	Hayes, S. C., Strosahl, K. D., &amp; Wilson, K. G. (2012). Acceptance and commitment therapy: The process and practice of mindful change (2nd ed.). Guilford Press.

4.	Lazarus, R. S., &amp; Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. Springer Publishing Company.

5.	Alotaibi, N. H., Alromaih, S., Alshenaifi, L., Alshareef, N., &amp; Alkhashan, R. (2026). The role of virtual reality in nasal procedures: A randomized controlled trial. Annals of Medicine &amp; Surgery, 88(1), 321–326.

6.	Apkarian, A. V., Baliki, M. N., &amp; Geha, P. Y. (2009). Towards a theory of chronic pain. Progress in Neurobiology, 87(2), 81–97.

7.	Arsenault, M., Piché, M., Duncan, G. H., &amp; Rainville, P. (2013). Self-regulation of acute experimental pain with and without biofeedback using spinal nociceptive responses. Neuroscience, 231, 102–110.

8.	Basbaum, A. I., Bautista, D. M., Scherrer, G., &amp; Julius, D. (2009). Cellular and molecular mechanisms of pain. Cell, 139(2), 267–284.

9.	Blincoe, A. J. (2007). TENS machines and their use in managing labour pain. British Journal of Midwifery, 15(8), 516–519.
10.	Boersma, K., &amp; Flink, I. K. (2025). Key aspects concerning the role of emotion in the chronic pain experience. Current Opinion in Psychology, 62, Article 102000.

11.	Bostrøm, K., Børøsund, E., Eide, H., Varsi, C., Kristjansdottir, Ó. B., Schreurs, K. M. G., Waxenberg, L. B., Weiss, K. E., Morrison, E. J., Stavenes Støle, H., Cvancarova Småstuen, M., Stubhaug, A., &amp; Solberg Nes, L. (2023). Short-term findings from testing EPIO, a digital self-management program for people living with chronic pain: Randomized controlled trial. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 25, Article e47284.

12.	Bushnell, M. C., Čeko, M., &amp; Low, L. A. (2013). Cognitive and emotional control of pain and its disruption in chronic pain. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 14(7), 502–511.

13.	Crombez, G., Eccleston, C., Van Damme, S., Vlaeyen, J. W. S., &amp; Karoly, P. (2012). Fear-avoidance model of chronic pain: The next generation. The Clinical Journal of Pain, 28(6), 475–483.

14.	de Araujo, D. D., Zeferino, S. P., &amp; Galas, F. R. B. G. (2026). Virtual reality for opioid reduction in postoperative cardiac and thoracic surgery: A randomized controlled trial protocol. MethodsX, 17, Article 104029.

15.	Eccleston, C., &amp; Crombez, G. (1999). Pain demands attention: A cognitive–affective model of the interruptive function of pain. Psychological Bulletin, 125(3), 356–366.

16.	Eller-Smith, O. C., Nicol, A. L., &amp; Christianson, J. A. (2018). Potential mechanisms underlying centralized pain and emerging therapeutic interventions. Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience, 12, Article 35.

17.	Gatchel, R. J., Neblett, R., Kishino, N., &amp; Ray, C. T. (2016). Fear-avoidance beliefs and chronic pain. Journal of Orthopaedic &amp; Sports Physical Therapy, 46(2), 38–43.

18.	Gatchel, R. J., Peng, Y. B., Peters, M. L., Fuchs, P. N., &amp; Turk, D. C. (2007). The biopsychosocial approach to chronic pain: Scientific advances and future directions. Psychological Bulletin, 133(4), 581–624.

19.	Green, M., &amp; Chakravarthy, K. (2025). Artificial intelligence-enhanced pain management: The NXTSTIM EcoAI platform. Pain Management, 15(8), 467–475.

20.	Hysing, E.-B., Smith, L., Thulin, M., Karlsten, R., &amp; Gordh, T. (2017). Detection of systemic inflammation in severely impaired chronic pain patients, and effects of a CBT-ACT-based multi-modal pain rehabilitation program. Scandinavian Journal of Pain, 16(1), 175–176.
21.	Karoly, P. (1993). Mechanisms of self-regulation: A systems view. Annual Review of Psychology, 44, 23–52.

22.	Leeuw, M., Goossens, M. E. J. B., Linton, S. J., Crombez, G., Boersma, K., &amp; Vlaeyen, J. W. S. (2007). The fear-avoidance model of musculoskeletal pain: Current state of scientific evidence. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 30(1), 77–94.

23.	Li, L. W., Yi, T. H., &amp; Khaing, N. E. E. (2024). Chronic pain healthcare workers’ challenges in pain management and receptiveness towards VR as an adjunct management tool. BMC Digital Health, 2, Article 26.

24.	Malloy, K. M., &amp; Milling, L. S. (2010). The effectiveness of virtual reality distraction for pain reduction: A systematic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 30(8), 1011–1018.

25.	Melzack, R., &amp; Wall, P. D. (1965). Pain mechanisms: A new theory. Science, 150(3699), 971–979.

26.	Moayedi, M., &amp; Davis, K. D. (2013). Theories of pain: From specificity to gate control. Journal of Neurophysiology, 109(1), 5–12.

27.	Musters, A., Vandevenne, A. S., Franx, A., &amp; Wassen, M. M. L. H. (2023). Virtual Reality Experience during Labour (VIREL): A qualitative study. BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth, 23, Article 283.

28.	Neblett, R., Mayer, T. G., Hartzell, M. M., Williams, M. J., &amp; Gatchel, R. J. (2016). The Fear-Avoidance Components Scale (FACS): Development and psychometric evaluation of a new measure of pain-related fear avoidance. Pain Practice, 16(4), 435–450.

29.	Raja, S. N., Carr, D. B., Cohen, M., Finnerup, N. B., Flor, H., Gibson, S., Keefe, F. J., Mogil, J. S., Ringkamp, M., Sluka, K. A., Song, X.-J., Stevens, B., Sullivan, M. D., Tutelman, P. R., Ushida, T., &amp; Vader, K. (2020). The revised International Association for the Study of Pain definition of pain: Concepts, challenges, and compromises. Pain, 161(9), 1976–1982.

30.	Sharp, T. J. (2001). Chronic pain: A reformulation of the cognitive-behavioural model. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 39(7), 787–800.

31.	Tracey, I., &amp; Mantyh, P. W. (2007). The cerebral signature for pain perception and its modulation. Neuron, 55(3), 377–391.

32.	Turk, D. C., &amp; Wilson, H. D. (2010). Fear of pain as a prognostic factor in chronic pain: Conceptual models, assessment, and treatment implications. Current Pain and Headache Reports, 14(2), 88–95.


33.	Veehof, M. M., Trompetter, H. R., Bohlmeijer, E. T., &amp; Schreurs, K. M. G. (2016). Acceptance- and mindfulness-based interventions for the treatment of chronic pain: A meta-analytic review. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy, 45(1), 5–31.

34.	Williams, A. C. de C., &amp; Craig, K. D. (2016). Updating the definition of pain. Pain, 157(11), 2420–2423.

35.	Yang, X., Zhong, S., Yang, S., He, M., Xu, X., He, S., Fan, G., &amp; Liu, L. (2023). Global scientific trends in virtual reality for pain treatment from 2000 to 2022: Bibliometric analysis. JMIR Serious Games, 11, Article e48354.

36.	Li, A., Montaño, Z., Chen, V. J., &amp; Gold, J. I. (2011). Virtual reality and pain management: Current trends and future directions. Pain Management, 1(2), 147–157.

37.	Hamilton, N. A., Karoly, P., &amp; Kitzman, H. (2004). Self-regulation and chronic pain: The role of emotion. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 28(5), 559–576.

38.	Jackson, T., Wang, Y., Wang, Y., &amp; Fan, H. (2014). Self-efficacy and chronic pain outcomes: A meta-analytic review. The Journal of Pain, 15(8), 800–814.

39.	Modernell, L. M., Faillenot, I., Garcia-Larrea, L., &amp; Fauchon, C. (2026). The multifaceted neural architecture of pain modulation by emotion and cognition: A systematic review and meta-analysis. British Journal of Anaesthesia, 136(6), 1894–1909.

40.	Vervoort, T., &amp; Trost, Z. (2018). An affective-motivational account of interpersonal dynamics in pain. In T. Vervoort, K. Karos, Z. Trost, &amp; K. M. Prkachin (Eds.), Social and interpersonal dynamics in pain: We don’t suffer alone (pp. 57–75). Springer.

 
}}

* Musters, A., Vandevenne, A. S., Franx, A., &amp; Wassen, M. M. L. H. (2023). Virtual Reality Experience during Labour (VIREL): A qualitative study. ''BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth, 23'', Article 283. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1186/s12884-023-05633-0&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Yang, X., Zhong, S., Yang, S., He, M., Xu, X., He, S., Fan, G., &amp; Liu, L. (2023). Global scientific trends in virtual reality for pain treatment from 2000 to 2022: Bibliometric analysis. ''JMIR Serious Games, 11'', Article e48354. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.2196/48354&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Green, M., &amp; Chakravarthy, K. (2025). Artificial intelligence-enhanced pain management: The NXTSTIM EcoAI platform. ''Pain Management, 15''(8), 467–475.
* Li, L. W., Yi, T. H., &amp; Khaing, N. E. E. (2024). Chronic pain healthcare workers’ challenges in pain management and receptiveness towards VR as an adjunct management tool: A qualitative study. ''BMC Digital Health, 2'', Article 26.
* Gatchel, R. J., Neblett, R., Kishino, N., &amp; Ray, C. T. (2016). Fear-avoidance beliefs and chronic pain. ''Journal of Orthopaedic &amp; Sports Physical Therapy, 46''(2), 38–43. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.2519/jospt.2016.0601&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Vlaeyen, J. W. S., &amp; Linton, S. J. (2000). Fear-avoidance and its consequences in chronic musculoskeletal pain: A state of the art. ''Pain, 85''(3), 317–332. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/S0304-3959(99)00242-0&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Raja, S. N., Carr, D. B., Cohen, M., Finnerup, N. B., Flor, H., Gibson, S., Keefe, F. J., Mogil, J. S., Ringkamp, M., Sluka, K. A., Song, X.-J., Stevens, B., Sullivan, M. D., Tutelman, P. R., Ushida, T., &amp; Vader, K. (2020). The revised International Association for the Study of Pain definition of pain: Concepts, challenges, and compromises. ''Pain, 161''(9), 1976–1982. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1097/j.pain.0000000000001939&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Bushnell, M. C., Čeko, M., &amp; Low, L. A. (2013). Cognitive and emotional control of pain and its disruption in chronic pain. ''Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 14''(7), 502–511. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn3516&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Tracey, I., &amp; Mantyh, P. W. (2007). The cerebral signature for pain perception and its modulation. ''Neuron, 55''(3), 377–391. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2007.07.012&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Basbaum, A. I., Bautista, D. M., Scherrer, G., &amp; Julius, D. (2009). Cellular and molecular mechanisms of pain. ''Cell, 139''(2), 267–284. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2009.09.028&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* de Araujo, D. D., Zeferino, S. P., &amp; Galas, F. R. B. G. (2026). Virtual reality for opioid reduction in postoperative cardiac and thoracic surgery: A randomized controlled trial protocol. ''MethodsX, 17'', Article 104029.
* Arsenault, M., Piché, M., Duncan, G. H., &amp; Rainville, P. (2013). Self-regulation of acute experimental pain with and without biofeedback using spinal nociceptive responses. ''Neuroscience, 231'', 102–110. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroscience.2012.11.039&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Hysing, E.-B., Smith, L., Thulin, M., Karlsten, R., &amp; Gordh, T. (2017). Detection of systemic inflammation in severely impaired chronic pain patients, and effects of a CBT-ACT-based multi-modal pain rehabilitation program. ''Scandinavian Journal of Pain, 16'', 175. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sjpain.2017.04.033&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Neblett, R., Mayer, T. G., Hartzell, M. M., Williams, M. J., &amp; Gatchel, R. J. (2016). The Fear-Avoidance Components Scale (FACS): Development and psychometric evaluation of a new measure of pain-related fear avoidance. ''Pain Practice, 16''(4), 435–450. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1111/papr.12333&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Blincoe, A. J. (2007). TENS machines and their use in managing labour pain. ''British Journal of Midwifery, 15''(8), 516–519.
* Gatchel, R. J., Peng, Y. B., Peters, M. L., Fuchs, P. N., &amp; Turk, D. C. (2007). The biopsychosocial approach to chronic pain: Scientific advances and future directions. ''Psychological Bulletin, 133''(4), 581–624. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.4.581&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Eccleston, C., &amp; Crombez, G. (1999). Pain demands attention: A cognitive-affective model of the interruptive function of pain. ''Psychological Bulletin, 125''(3), 356–366. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.125.3.356&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Williams, A. C. de C., &amp; Craig, K. D. (2016). Updating the definition of pain. ''Pain, 157''(11), 2420–2423. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1097/j.pain.0000000000000613&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Malloy, K. M., &amp; Milling, L. S. (2010). The effectiveness of virtual reality distraction for pain reduction: A systematic review. ''Clinical Psychology Review, 30''(8), 1011–1018. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2010.07.001&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Melzack, R., &amp; Wall, P. D. (1965). Pain mechanisms: A new theory. ''Science, 150''(3699), 971–979. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1126/science.150.3699.971&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Moayedi, M., &amp; Davis, K. D. (2013). Theories of pain: From specificity to gate control. ''Journal of Neurophysiology, 109''(1), 5–12. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1152/jn.00457.2012&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Apkarian, A. V., Baliki, M. N., &amp; Geha, P. Y. (2009). Towards a theory of chronic pain. ''Progress in Neurobiology, 87''(2), 81–97. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pneurobio.2008.09.018&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Kutch, J. J., &amp; Apkarian, A. V. (2018). Potential mechanisms underlying centralized pain and emerging therapeutic interventions. ''Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience, 12'', Article 35. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.3389/fncel.2018.00035&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Karoly, P. (1993). Mechanisms of self-regulation: A systems view. ''Annual Review of Psychology, 44'', 23–52. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ps.44.020193.000323&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Hamilton, N. A., Karoly, P., &amp; Kitzman, H. (2004). Self-regulation and chronic pain: The role of emotion. ''Cognitive Therapy and Research, 28''(5), 559–576. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1023/B:COTR.0000045565.88145.76&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Fordyce, W. E. (1976). ''Behavioral methods for chronic pain and illness''. Mosby.
* Crombez, G., Eccleston, C., Van Damme, S., Vlaeyen, J. W. S., &amp; Karoly, P. (2012). Fear-avoidance model of chronic pain: The next generation. ''Clinical Journal of Pain, 28''(6), 475–483. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1097/AJP.0b013e3182385392&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Lazarus, R. S., &amp; Folkman, S. (1984). ''Stress, appraisal, and coping''. Springer.
* Turk, D. C., &amp; Wilson, H. D. (2010). Fear of pain as a prognostic factor in chronic pain: Conceptual models, assessment, and treatment implications. ''Current Pain and Headache Reports, 14''(2), 88–95. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/s11916-010-0094-x&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Hayes, S. C., Strosahl, K. D., &amp; Wilson, K. G. (2012). ''Acceptance and commitment therapy: The process and practice of mindful change'' (2nd ed.). Guilford Press.
* Veehof, M. M., Trompetter, H. R., Bohlmeijer, E. T., &amp; Schreurs, K. M. G. (2016). Acceptance- and mindfulness-based interventions for the treatment of chronic pain: A meta-analytic review. ''Cognitive Behaviour Therapy, 45''(1), 5–31. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1080/16506073.2015.1098724&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Bandura, A. (1997). ''Self-efficacy: The exercise of control''. W. H. Freeman.
* Jackson, T., Wang, Y., Wang, Y., &amp; Fan, H. (2014). Self-efficacy and chronic pain outcomes: A meta-analytic review. ''The Journal of Pain, 15''(8), 800–814. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpain.2014.05.002&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Modernell, L. M., Faillenot, I., Garcia-Larrea, L., &amp; Fauchon, C. (2026). The multifaceted neural architecture of pain modulation by emotion and cognition: A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''British Journal of Anaesthesia, 136''(6), 1894–1909. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bja.2026.03.015&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Vervoort, T., &amp; Trost, Z. (2018). An affective-motivational account of interpersonal dynamics in pain. In T. Vervoort, K. Karos, Z. Trost, &amp; K. M. Prkachin (Eds.), ''Social and interpersonal dynamics in pain: We don’t suffer alone'' (pp. 57–75). Springer. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-78340-6_4&lt;/nowiki&gt;

* Boersma, K., &amp; Flink, I. K. (2025). Key aspects concerning the role of emotion in the chronic pain experience. ''Current Opinion in Psychology, 62'', Article 102000. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2025.102000&lt;/nowiki&gt;
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
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}}

==External links==
* https://www.iasp-pain.org/resources/terminology/
* https://www.qld.gov.au/health/services/specialists/persistent-pain/understanding-pain/managing-your-pain
* https://aci.health.nsw.gov.au/chronic-pain/painbytes/pain-and-mind-body-connection

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Pain]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Technology]]</text>
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      <text bytes="27579" sha1="onp9gsf4upvq6txk2u96o237b8fh6b7" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Technology-based pain management:&lt;br&gt;How can technology-based tools alter pain perception and pain management?}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
[[File:Headache touching forehead.jpg|thumb|326x326px|'''Figure 1'''. Headache]]

'''Case study: Elena's shift in pain perception'''

Elena is a 35-year-old graphic designer living with chronic neuropathic pain following a viral infection. For years, her pain felt unpredictable and overwhelming, some days she could work normally, while other days even holding a pencil felt impossible. What frightened her most wasn’t the pain itself, but the random timing and the belief that she had no control over it.

Her pain specialist introduced her to a set of perception altering technologies: VR program designed to redirect attention and reduce pain intensity through immersive environments a wearable sensor that tracked muscle tension and autonomic arousal a mobile app that visualised her pain patterns using predictive coding algorithms
Within two weeks, Elena noticed something she didn’t expect: her pain felt less threatening. The VR sessions helped her shift attention away from the pain, reducing the “alarm” response in her brain. The wearable showed spikes in tension before flare ups, helping her intervene early. The app revealed consistent patterns stress, poor sleep, and long work sessions transforming what once felt random into something understandable and predictable.

As Elena’s understanding changed, her perception changed. Pain episodes felt less catastrophic, shorter, and easier to manage. Technology didn’t eliminate her pain it altered the way her brain interpreted it, giving her a sense of agency she hadn’t felt in years.

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

*Technology-based pain interventions are receiving increasing research attention across healthcare settings, including postoperative care, rehabilitation, and labour wards (Musters et al., 2023; Yang et al., 2023).The pain technology market is projected to increase by '''USD $70.2 billion''' over the 10 years (Statifacts.com)see annual [https://www.statifacts.com/outlook/chronic-pain-treatment-devices-market report]. Virtual reality can redirect attention away from pain, TENS devices can modulate pain-signal transmission, and biofeedback systems help individuals regulate physiological arousal.Virtual reality can redirect attention away from pain, TENS devices can modulate pain-signal transmission, and biofeedback systems can help individuals regulate physiological arousal. Wearables, mobile applications, and telehealth platforms are also becoming more widely used, giving people accessible ways to track pain patterns and engage in self-management (Green &amp; Chakravarthy, 2025; Li et al., 2024). Technology has therefore become increasingly influential in how pain is monitored, interpreted and managed across healthcare. For people with chronic pain, catastrophic thoughts and fear of further pain or injury may lead to avoidance of movement and meaningful activities, contributing to reduced functioning and increased distress (Gatchel, 2016; Vlaeyen &amp; Linton, 2000). This chapter explores how technology-based interventions may interrupt this cycle by influencing pain signals, attention, emotions, thoughts, motivation and perceived control.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
'''Focus questions'''
{{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}}

•How does technology alter the way people perceive and respond to pain?

•How do psychological processes such as attention, emotion and cognitive appraisal contribute to technology-based pain management?

•How do different technologies influence people's sense of control, engagement and motivation when managing pain?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Understanding pain perception and management ==
[[Pain]] is not determined solely by physical injury. It is a personal sensory and emotional experience influenced by biological, psychological and social factors (Raja et al., 2020). Understanding the distinction between pain and nociception helps explain why technology can change a person’s pain experience even when it does not remove the original injury or health condition. Pain perception is shaped by how the brain interprets nociceptive signals alongside attention, emotions, memories, beliefs, expectations and the surrounding context (Bushnell et al., 2013; Tracey &amp; Mantyh, 2007). Technology can alter this interpretation by redirecting attention, regulating physiological arousal, modifying pain-signal transmission or changing catastrophic thoughts about pain. It may also influence how a person responds by encouraging movement, coping and active self-management rather than fear and avoidance. Technology can therefore reduce the intensity, unpleasantness or perceived threat of pain while supporting greater confidence and control over pain-management behaviour.

=== Pain and nociception ===

* [[w:Pain|Pain]] is an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with, or resembling an experience associated with, actual or potential tissue damage (Raja,2020).
* Pain is personal and can be influenced by biological, psychological and social factors.
* Nociception as the nervous system’s detection and processing of potentially harmful stimuli.
* Pain and nociception are related but are not identical.
* Nociception can occur without a conscious experience of pain and that pain may sometimes continue without clear evidence of current tissue damage (Basbaum ,2009; Raja ,2020).
* Relate this distinction to technology by explaining that a tool may change a person’s pain experience without removing the original injury or condition.

=== Physiology of pain and pain perception ===

* Nociceptors detect potentially harmful mechanical, chemical or temperature-related stimuli and convert them into electrical signals.
* Refer to these signals travelling through peripheral nerves to the spinal cord and then through ascending pathways to the brain (Basbaum,2009).
* The brain interprets nociceptive information alongside attention, emotions, memories, beliefs, expectations and context.
* The sensory dimension identifying the location and intensity of pain, while emotional, cognitive and motivational processes influence its unpleasantness, meaning and the person’s response.
* Descending pathways from the brain can increase or reduce pain-signal transmission (Tracey &amp; Mantyh, 2007).
* Pain is not a direct measurement of tissue damage. Therefore, the same stimulus may be experienced differently by different people or by the same person in different situations (Bushnell,2013).
* Relate this process to technology by introducing TENS as a tool that may modulate pain-signal transmission and VR as a tool that may change attention and the brain’s interpretation of pain.

=== Chronic pain and avoidance ===
[[File:Pain cycle.jpg|thumb|326x326px|'''Figure 2'''. The avoidance pain [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3820295/ cycle]]]

* Chronic pain is pain that persists or recurs for longer than three months.
* Chronic pain may affect attention, memory, mood, sleep, motivation, relationships and participation in daily activities.
* Refer to increased attention towards bodily sensations and possible signs of pain.
* Pain catastrophising as an exaggerated negative interpretation in which a person believes pain will be unbearable, uncontrollable or a sign of serious harm.
* Fear-avoidance model.
* Catastrophic interpretations can produce fear of pain, movement or reinjury.
* Fear may lead the person to avoid physical activity, work, social activities and other meaningful experiences.
* Avoidance can provide short-term relief from fear but may contribute to reduced activity, lower confidence, disability and emotional distress over time (Gatchel,2016; Vlaeyen &amp; Linton, 2000).
* '''See Figure 2''' One The Avoidance Pain Cyle 

=== Understanding pain management ===

* Pain management as strategies used to reduce pain, distress and interference with daily life.
* Chronic pain management may improve coping, functioning and participation without completely eliminating pain.
* Refer to the biopsychosocial approach, which considers biological, psychological and social influences on pain (Raja, 2020).
* Technology may support pain management through symptom monitoring, coping strategies and improved access to care (Li,2024).

== How does technology alter pain perception? ==
{{ic|Include an introductory paragraph before branching into sub-sections}}

=== VR and attention modulation ===

* Refer to VR immerse user effecting attention - Limited capacity theory of attention (de Araujo, Zeferino, &amp; Galas, 2026)

=== Biofeedback and autonomic regulation ===
*How biofeedback provides information about physiological pain responses, enabling users to practise regulating these responses and develop greater control over their pain experience. Related to self-regulation theory (Arsenault,2013).

=== Cognitive Digital CBT and ACT tools ===
* How CBT can modify unhelpful pain-related thoughts and behaviours, while ACT can increase pain acceptance and engagement in valued activities. These processes may reduce distress and improve functioning even when pain is not eliminated. Related - to cognitive appraisal theory and the psychological flexibility mode'''l''' (Hysing,2017; Neblett,2016).- Beneficial for catastrophic thinking,

=== Wearable sensors ===
* Wearable systems that collect pain ratings, adherence information and physiological data to personalise treatment and help users identify patterns in their pain. Related to self-regulation theory, particularly monitoring, feedback and behavioural adjustment (Green &amp; Chakravarthy, 2025).

=== TENS ===
* Low-voltage electrical stimulation activating non-painful sensory fibres and reducing the transmission of pain signals. Relate this to gate control theory and endogenous pain inhibition (Blincoe,2007; Green &amp; Chakravarthy,2025).

=== Telehealth and remote monitoring ===
* Clinicians monitoring pain ratings, treatment use and progress from a distance. Feedback and support may improve confidence, access and treatment adjustment. Relate this to self-efficacy and self-regulation (Green &amp; Chakravarthy,2025).

=== Mobile applications ===

* Apps recording pain ratings, showing patterns, providing education or coping activities, and reminding users to practise pain-management strategies. Relate this to self-regulation theory. A dedicated mobile pain-application study is still required.

== Psychological theories behind technology‑based pain management ==

* '''Psychological theories behind technology‑based pain management:'''Technology‑based pain interventions draw on established psychological theories explaining how cognition, emotion, attention and behaviour shape pain perception. These mechanisms help explain how tools such as VR, wearables and AI‑guided apps influence pain experience (Gatchel et al., 2007; Eccleston &amp; Crombez, 1999).
* '''Biopsychosocial model of pain:'''The biopsychosocial model proposes that pain arises from interactions between biological processes, psychological factors and social context. Technology‑based interventions align with this model by targeting multiple domains simultaneously, such as emotional regulation, behavioural change and physiological monitoring (Gatchel et al., 2007; Williams &amp; Craig, 2016).
* '''Limited‑capacity theory of attention:'''Pain captures limited attentional resources, increasing perceived intensity. VR and immersive technologies reduce pain by redirecting attention away from nociceptive input, supporting the theory’s predictions (Eccleston &amp; Crombez, 1999; Malloy &amp; Milling, 2010).
* '''Gate control theory of pain:'''Gate control theory suggests that cognitive and emotional factors modulate nociceptive signals at the spinal level. Technologies such as TENS, VR and biofeedback influence these gates by altering attention and emotional state (Melzack &amp; Wall, 1965; Moayedi &amp; Davis, 2013).
* '''Neuromodulation and neuroplasticity:'''Pain perception is shaped by dynamic neural networks that reorganise with experience. VR, neurofeedback and AI‑guided training promote adaptive neuroplasticity by reducing maladaptive signalling and strengthening regulatory pathways (Apkarian et al., 2009; Kutch &amp; Apkarian, 2018).
* '''Self‑regulation theory:'''Self‑regulation theory emphasises managing thoughts, emotions and behaviours to achieve desired outcomes. Technology‑based pain tools enhance self‑regulation through real‑time feedback, guided breathing and emotional tracking (Karoly, 1993; Jensen et al., 2014).
* '''Operant conditioning:'''Pain behaviours can be reinforced by environmental responses. Technology‑based interventions apply operant principles by rewarding adaptive behaviours such as movement, pacing and relaxation (Fordyce, 1976; Vlaeyen &amp; Linton, 2000).
* '''Fear‑avoidance model of pain:'''Fear of pain leads to avoidance, deconditioning and increased disability. Graded VR exposure and movement‑tracking apps reduce fear by providing safe exposure and positive reinforcement (Vlaeyen &amp; Linton, 2000; Crombez et al., 2012).
* '''Cognitive appraisal and reframing:'''Pain intensity is influenced by how individuals interpret symptoms. Digital CBT tools help reframe catastrophic thoughts, reduce threat appraisal and promote adaptive interpretations of pain (Lazarus &amp; Folkman, 1984; Turk &amp; Wilson, 2010).
* '''Psychological flexibility model:'''Psychological flexibility involves adapting behaviour in alignment with values despite discomfort. ACT‑based digital interventions enhance flexibility through acceptance, present‑moment awareness and committed action (Hayes et al., 2012; Trompetter et al., 2016).
* '''Social cognitive theory and self‑efficacy:'''Self‑efficacy predicts pain coping and functional outcomes. Technology‑based interventions increase self‑efficacy through mastery experiences, modelling and feedback (Bandura, 1997; Jackson et al., 2014).
* '''Affective‑motivational modulation of pain:'''Pain is shaped by emotional and motivational states such as fear, anxiety and goal orientation. Negative affect amplifies pain through enhanced salience and descending facilitation, while positive affect reduces pain via prefrontal‑limbic modulation. Technologies such as VR, AI‑guided relaxation and biofeedback apps modulate affective‑motivational systems by reducing threat cues and enhancing emotional regulation (Modernell et al., 2026; Vervoort &amp; Trost, 2018; Garcia‑Larrea &amp; Fauchon, 2023; ''Current Opinion in Psychology'', 2025).

== Applications and tools ==
[[File:Pain pathway diagram showing transduction, transmission, modulation, and perception.png|thumb|293x293px|Figure 2: Brain Pain Pathways ]]

* VR
* TENS
* Mobile apps
* Wearables
* Gamification
* Telehealth

== Future Applications and Emerging Technologies ==

* List Of Various Cutting edge 
* Emerging technologies 
* futuristics applications 

== Limitations and ethical considerations ==

* Effectiveness differs between users, technologies and pain conditions.
* Refer to barriers including cost, access, digital skills and user engagement (Li,2024).
* Possible side effects, privacy concerns and increased attention to symptoms.

==Learning features==
'''Table 1''' 

See The Summary Table below : {{ic|Provide a more descriptive caption}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! Technology !! How it alters pain perception !! Theory / Model
|-
| VR || Redirects attention || Limited-capacity attention
|-
| TENS || Modulates pain signals || Gate control theory
|-
|Biofeedback
|Support regulation of arousal
|Self-regulation, conditioning
|-
|CBT/ACT tools
|Changes to coping, appraisal and avoidance
|Fear avoidance, flexibility
|-
|Wearables/apps
|Records patterns and provides feedback
|Self-regulation
|-
|Telehealth
|Remote support, health access and treatment
|Self-efficacy 
|}

;Quizzes

* Why might VR reduce the amount of attention given to pain? See:
* Which theory best explains how TENS may reduce pain-signal transmission?
* How can feedback from a wearable device support self-regulation?
* How might catastrophic thinking contribute to the fear-avoidance cycle?

&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Virtual reality (VR) can reduce pain by redirecting a person’s attention away from painful stimuli?:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{TENS devices work by increasing the intensity of pain signals sent to the brain.  
Answer?:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==

* Pain is interpreted by the brain and is influenced by attention, emotion, appraisal, behaviour and social support, not only by signals from the body.
* Different technologies alter pain perception through different pathways: VR redirects attention, TENS modulates signals, and feedback or cognitive tools influence arousal, appraisal and control.
* Technology is most useful as part of individualised, biopsychosocial pain management rather than as a replacement for all existing care (Hysing,2017; Li,2024).
* Effectiveness depends on the user, pain condition, technology, level of support and quality of available evidence.

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
[[wikipedia:Virtual_reality_therapy|Virtual reality therapy]] (Wikipedia)
[[wikipedia:Transcutaneous_electrical_nerve_stimulation|Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation]] (Wikipedia)

* https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pain {{ic|Create internal link}}
* https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_reality {{ic|Create internal link}}
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Self-regulation|Self-regulation]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[wikipedia:Transcutaneous_electrical_nerve_stimulation|Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation]] (Wikipedia)
* [[wikipedia:Cognitive_behavioral_therapy|Cognitive behavioral therapy]] (Wikipedia)
* [[wikipedia:Biopsychosocial_model|Biopsychosocial model]] (Wikipedia)
* [[wikipedia:Gate_control_theory|Gate control theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

{{Hanging indent|1=1.	Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman.

2.	Fordyce, W. E. (1976). Behavioral methods for chronic pain and illness. Mosby.

3.	Hayes, S. C., Strosahl, K. D., &amp; Wilson, K. G. (2012). Acceptance and commitment therapy: The process and practice of mindful change (2nd ed.). Guilford Press.

4.	Lazarus, R. S., &amp; Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. Springer Publishing Company.

5.	Alotaibi, N. H., Alromaih, S., Alshenaifi, L., Alshareef, N., &amp; Alkhashan, R. (2026). The role of virtual reality in nasal procedures: A randomized controlled trial. Annals of Medicine &amp; Surgery, 88(1), 321–326.

6.	Apkarian, A. V., Baliki, M. N., &amp; Geha, P. Y. (2009). Towards a theory of chronic pain. Progress in Neurobiology, 87(2), 81–97.

7.	Arsenault, M., Piché, M., Duncan, G. H., &amp; Rainville, P. (2013). Self-regulation of acute experimental pain with and without biofeedback using spinal nociceptive responses. Neuroscience, 231, 102–110.

8.	Basbaum, A. I., Bautista, D. M., Scherrer, G., &amp; Julius, D. (2009). Cellular and molecular mechanisms of pain. Cell, 139(2), 267–284.

9.	Blincoe, A. J. (2007). TENS machines and their use in managing labour pain. British Journal of Midwifery, 15(8), 516–519.
10.	Boersma, K., &amp; Flink, I. K. (2025). Key aspects concerning the role of emotion in the chronic pain experience. Current Opinion in Psychology, 62, Article 102000.

11.	Bostrøm, K., Børøsund, E., Eide, H., Varsi, C., Kristjansdottir, Ó. B., Schreurs, K. M. G., Waxenberg, L. B., Weiss, K. E., Morrison, E. J., Stavenes Støle, H., Cvancarova Småstuen, M., Stubhaug, A., &amp; Solberg Nes, L. (2023). Short-term findings from testing EPIO, a digital self-management program for people living with chronic pain: Randomized controlled trial. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 25, Article e47284.

12.	Bushnell, M. C., Čeko, M., &amp; Low, L. A. (2013). Cognitive and emotional control of pain and its disruption in chronic pain. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 14(7), 502–511.

13.	Crombez, G., Eccleston, C., Van Damme, S., Vlaeyen, J. W. S., &amp; Karoly, P. (2012). Fear-avoidance model of chronic pain: The next generation. The Clinical Journal of Pain, 28(6), 475–483.

14.	de Araujo, D. D., Zeferino, S. P., &amp; Galas, F. R. B. G. (2026). Virtual reality for opioid reduction in postoperative cardiac and thoracic surgery: A randomized controlled trial protocol. MethodsX, 17, Article 104029.

15.	Eccleston, C., &amp; Crombez, G. (1999). Pain demands attention: A cognitive–affective model of the interruptive function of pain. Psychological Bulletin, 125(3), 356–366.

16.	Eller-Smith, O. C., Nicol, A. L., &amp; Christianson, J. A. (2018). Potential mechanisms underlying centralized pain and emerging therapeutic interventions. Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience, 12, Article 35.

17.	Gatchel, R. J., Neblett, R., Kishino, N., &amp; Ray, C. T. (2016). Fear-avoidance beliefs and chronic pain. Journal of Orthopaedic &amp; Sports Physical Therapy, 46(2), 38–43.

18.	Gatchel, R. J., Peng, Y. B., Peters, M. L., Fuchs, P. N., &amp; Turk, D. C. (2007). The biopsychosocial approach to chronic pain: Scientific advances and future directions. Psychological Bulletin, 133(4), 581–624.

19.	Green, M., &amp; Chakravarthy, K. (2025). Artificial intelligence-enhanced pain management: The NXTSTIM EcoAI platform. Pain Management, 15(8), 467–475.

20.	Hysing, E.-B., Smith, L., Thulin, M., Karlsten, R., &amp; Gordh, T. (2017). Detection of systemic inflammation in severely impaired chronic pain patients, and effects of a CBT-ACT-based multi-modal pain rehabilitation program. Scandinavian Journal of Pain, 16(1), 175–176.
21.	Karoly, P. (1993). Mechanisms of self-regulation: A systems view. Annual Review of Psychology, 44, 23–52.

22.	Leeuw, M., Goossens, M. E. J. B., Linton, S. J., Crombez, G., Boersma, K., &amp; Vlaeyen, J. W. S. (2007). The fear-avoidance model of musculoskeletal pain: Current state of scientific evidence. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 30(1), 77–94.

23.	Li, L. W., Yi, T. H., &amp; Khaing, N. E. E. (2024). Chronic pain healthcare workers’ challenges in pain management and receptiveness towards VR as an adjunct management tool. BMC Digital Health, 2, Article 26.

24.	Malloy, K. M., &amp; Milling, L. S. (2010). The effectiveness of virtual reality distraction for pain reduction: A systematic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 30(8), 1011–1018.

25.	Melzack, R., &amp; Wall, P. D. (1965). Pain mechanisms: A new theory. Science, 150(3699), 971–979.

26.	Moayedi, M., &amp; Davis, K. D. (2013). Theories of pain: From specificity to gate control. Journal of Neurophysiology, 109(1), 5–12.

27.	Musters, A., Vandevenne, A. S., Franx, A., &amp; Wassen, M. M. L. H. (2023). Virtual Reality Experience during Labour (VIREL): A qualitative study. BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth, 23, Article 283.

28.	Neblett, R., Mayer, T. G., Hartzell, M. M., Williams, M. J., &amp; Gatchel, R. J. (2016). The Fear-Avoidance Components Scale (FACS): Development and psychometric evaluation of a new measure of pain-related fear avoidance. Pain Practice, 16(4), 435–450.

29.	Raja, S. N., Carr, D. B., Cohen, M., Finnerup, N. B., Flor, H., Gibson, S., Keefe, F. J., Mogil, J. S., Ringkamp, M., Sluka, K. A., Song, X.-J., Stevens, B., Sullivan, M. D., Tutelman, P. R., Ushida, T., &amp; Vader, K. (2020). The revised International Association for the Study of Pain definition of pain: Concepts, challenges, and compromises. Pain, 161(9), 1976–1982.

30.	Sharp, T. J. (2001). Chronic pain: A reformulation of the cognitive-behavioural model. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 39(7), 787–800.

31.	Tracey, I., &amp; Mantyh, P. W. (2007). The cerebral signature for pain perception and its modulation. Neuron, 55(3), 377–391.

32.	Turk, D. C., &amp; Wilson, H. D. (2010). Fear of pain as a prognostic factor in chronic pain: Conceptual models, assessment, and treatment implications. Current Pain and Headache Reports, 14(2), 88–95.


33.	Veehof, M. M., Trompetter, H. R., Bohlmeijer, E. T., &amp; Schreurs, K. M. G. (2016). Acceptance- and mindfulness-based interventions for the treatment of chronic pain: A meta-analytic review. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy, 45(1), 5–31.

34.	Williams, A. C. de C., &amp; Craig, K. D. (2016). Updating the definition of pain. Pain, 157(11), 2420–2423.

35.	Yang, X., Zhong, S., Yang, S., He, M., Xu, X., He, S., Fan, G., &amp; Liu, L. (2023). Global scientific trends in virtual reality for pain treatment from 2000 to 2022: Bibliometric analysis. JMIR Serious Games, 11, Article e48354.

36.	Li, A., Montaño, Z., Chen, V. J., &amp; Gold, J. I. (2011). Virtual reality and pain management: Current trends and future directions. Pain Management, 1(2), 147–157.

37.	Hamilton, N. A., Karoly, P., &amp; Kitzman, H. (2004). Self-regulation and chronic pain: The role of emotion. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 28(5), 559–576.

38.	Jackson, T., Wang, Y., Wang, Y., &amp; Fan, H. (2014). Self-efficacy and chronic pain outcomes: A meta-analytic review. The Journal of Pain, 15(8), 800–814.

39.	Modernell, L. M., Faillenot, I., Garcia-Larrea, L., &amp; Fauchon, C. (2026). The multifaceted neural architecture of pain modulation by emotion and cognition: A systematic review and meta-analysis. British Journal of Anaesthesia, 136(6), 1894–1909.

40.	Vervoort, T., &amp; Trost, Z. (2018). An affective-motivational account of interpersonal dynamics in pain. In T. Vervoort, K. Karos, Z. Trost, &amp; K. M. Prkachin (Eds.), Social and interpersonal dynamics in pain: We don’t suffer alone (pp. 57–75). Springer.

 
}}

*
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
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* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
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}}

==External links==
* https://www.iasp-pain.org/resources/terminology/
* https://www.qld.gov.au/health/services/specialists/persistent-pain/understanding-pain/managing-your-pain
* https://aci.health.nsw.gov.au/chronic-pain/painbytes/pain-and-mind-body-connection

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
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}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
[[File:Headache touching forehead.jpg|thumb|326x326px|'''Figure 1'''. Headache]]

'''Case study: Elena's shift in pain perception'''

Elena is a 35-year-old graphic designer living with chronic neuropathic pain following a viral infection. For years, her pain felt unpredictable and overwhelming, some days she could work normally, while other days even holding a pencil felt impossible. What frightened her most wasn’t the pain itself, but the random timing and the belief that she had no control over it.

Her pain specialist introduced her to a set of perception altering technologies: VR program designed to redirect attention and reduce pain intensity through immersive environments a wearable sensor that tracked muscle tension and autonomic arousal a mobile app that visualised her pain patterns using predictive coding algorithms
Within two weeks, Elena noticed something she didn’t expect: her pain felt less threatening. The VR sessions helped her shift attention away from the pain, reducing the “alarm” response in her brain. The wearable showed spikes in tension before flare ups, helping her intervene early. The app revealed consistent patterns stress, poor sleep, and long work sessions transforming what once felt random into something understandable and predictable.

As Elena’s understanding changed, her perception changed. Pain episodes felt less catastrophic, shorter, and easier to manage. Technology didn’t eliminate her pain it altered the way her brain interpreted it, giving her a sense of agency she hadn’t felt in years.

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

*Technology-based pain interventions are receiving increasing research attention across healthcare settings, including postoperative care, rehabilitation, and labour wards (Musters et al., 2023; Yang et al., 2023).The pain technology market is projected to increase by '''USD $70.2 billion''' over the 10 years (Statifacts.com)see annual [https://www.statifacts.com/outlook/chronic-pain-treatment-devices-market report]. Virtual reality can redirect attention away from pain, TENS devices can modulate pain-signal transmission, and biofeedback systems help individuals regulate physiological arousal.Virtual reality can redirect attention away from pain, TENS devices can modulate pain-signal transmission, and biofeedback systems can help individuals regulate physiological arousal. Wearables, mobile applications, and telehealth platforms are also becoming more widely used, giving people accessible ways to track pain patterns and engage in self-management (Green &amp; Chakravarthy, 2025; Li et al., 2024). Technology has therefore become increasingly influential in how pain is monitored, interpreted and managed across healthcare. For people with chronic pain, catastrophic thoughts and fear of further pain or injury may lead to avoidance of movement and meaningful activities, contributing to reduced functioning and increased distress (Gatchel, 2016; Vlaeyen &amp; Linton, 2000). This chapter explores how technology-based interventions may interrupt this cycle by influencing pain signals, attention, emotions, thoughts, motivation and perceived control.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
'''Focus questions'''
{{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}}

•How does technology alter the way people perceive and respond to pain?

•How do psychological processes such as attention, emotion and cognitive appraisal contribute to technology-based pain management?

•How do different technologies influence people's sense of control, engagement and motivation when managing pain?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Understanding pain perception and management ==
[[Pain]] is not determined solely by physical injury. It is a personal sensory and emotional experience influenced by biological, psychological and social factors (Raja et al., 2020). Understanding the distinction between pain and nociception helps explain why technology can change a person’s pain experience even when it does not remove the original injury or health condition. Pain perception is shaped by how the brain interprets nociceptive signals alongside attention, emotions, memories, beliefs, expectations and the surrounding context (Bushnell et al., 2013; Tracey &amp; Mantyh, 2007). Technology can alter this interpretation by redirecting attention, regulating physiological arousal, modifying pain-signal transmission or changing catastrophic thoughts about pain. It may also influence how a person responds by encouraging movement, coping and active self-management rather than fear and avoidance. Technology can therefore reduce the intensity, unpleasantness or perceived threat of pain while supporting greater confidence and control over pain-management behaviour.

=== Pain and nociception ===
Pain is “an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with, or resembling that associated with, actual or potential tissue damage” (Raja et al., 2020). Various experiences explain and acknowledge our interpretations of different forms of pain. Mostly, pain can be biological, psychological, and Emotional. This means that pain is more than just a scratch or injury. It can also involve social circumstances, beliefs and emotions. 

Nociception is the nervous system's detection and processing system of external and internal dangers. For example, when we sense something hot, our nociceptive response triggers a reflex to remove our hand from immediate danger. Nociception can occur without a conscious experience of pain, and pain can persist without clear evidence of any visible marks or tissue damage (Basbaum et al., 2009; Raja et al., 2020).

Distinguishing between the two aids in explaining and identifying how technology alters pain perception without the original injury or condition being resolved. For example, virtual reality may redirect attention away from pain, reducing the person’s perceived pain while the physical condition remains (Malloy &amp; Milling, 2010).

=== Physiology of pain and pain perception ===

* Nociceptors detect potentially harmful mechanical, chemical or temperature-related stimuli and convert them into electrical signals.
* Refer to these signals travelling through peripheral nerves to the spinal cord and then through ascending pathways to the brain (Basbaum,2009).
* The brain interprets nociceptive information alongside attention, emotions, memories, beliefs, expectations and context.
* The sensory dimension identifying the location and intensity of pain, while emotional, cognitive and motivational processes influence its unpleasantness, meaning and the person’s response.
* Descending pathways from the brain can increase or reduce pain-signal transmission (Tracey &amp; Mantyh, 2007).
* Pain is not a direct measurement of tissue damage. Therefore, the same stimulus may be experienced differently by different people or by the same person in different situations (Bushnell,2013).
* Relate this process to technology by introducing TENS as a tool that may modulate pain-signal transmission and VR as a tool that may change attention and the brain’s interpretation of pain.

=== Chronic pain and avoidance ===
[[File:Pain cycle.jpg|thumb|326x326px|'''Figure 2'''. The avoidance pain [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3820295/ cycle]]]

* Chronic pain is pain that persists or recurs for longer than three months.
* Chronic pain may affect attention, memory, mood, sleep, motivation, relationships and participation in daily activities.
* Refer to increased attention towards bodily sensations and possible signs of pain.
* Pain catastrophising as an exaggerated negative interpretation in which a person believes pain will be unbearable, uncontrollable or a sign of serious harm.
* Fear-avoidance model.
* Catastrophic interpretations can produce fear of pain, movement or reinjury.
* Fear may lead the person to avoid physical activity, work, social activities and other meaningful experiences.
* Avoidance can provide short-term relief from fear but may contribute to reduced activity, lower confidence, disability and emotional distress over time (Gatchel,2016; Vlaeyen &amp; Linton, 2000).
* '''See Figure 2''' One The Avoidance Pain Cyle 

=== Understanding pain management ===

* Pain management as strategies used to reduce pain, distress and interference with daily life.
* Chronic pain management may improve coping, functioning and participation without completely eliminating pain.
* Refer to the biopsychosocial approach, which considers biological, psychological and social influences on pain (Raja, 2020).
* Technology may support pain management through symptom monitoring, coping strategies and improved access to care (Li,2024).

== How does technology alter pain perception? ==
{{ic|Include an introductory paragraph before branching into sub-sections}}

=== VR and attention modulation ===

* Refer to VR immerse user effecting attention - Limited capacity theory of attention (de Araujo, Zeferino, &amp; Galas, 2026)

=== Biofeedback and autonomic regulation ===
*How biofeedback provides information about physiological pain responses, enabling users to practise regulating these responses and develop greater control over their pain experience. Related to self-regulation theory (Arsenault,2013).

=== Cognitive Digital CBT and ACT tools ===
* How CBT can modify unhelpful pain-related thoughts and behaviours, while ACT can increase pain acceptance and engagement in valued activities. These processes may reduce distress and improve functioning even when pain is not eliminated. Related - to cognitive appraisal theory and the psychological flexibility mode'''l''' (Hysing,2017; Neblett,2016).- Beneficial for catastrophic thinking,

=== Wearable sensors ===
* Wearable systems that collect pain ratings, adherence information and physiological data to personalise treatment and help users identify patterns in their pain. Related to self-regulation theory, particularly monitoring, feedback and behavioural adjustment (Green &amp; Chakravarthy, 2025).

=== TENS ===
* Low-voltage electrical stimulation activating non-painful sensory fibres and reducing the transmission of pain signals. Relate this to gate control theory and endogenous pain inhibition (Blincoe,2007; Green &amp; Chakravarthy,2025).

=== Telehealth and remote monitoring ===
* Clinicians monitoring pain ratings, treatment use and progress from a distance. Feedback and support may improve confidence, access and treatment adjustment. Relate this to self-efficacy and self-regulation (Green &amp; Chakravarthy,2025).

=== Mobile applications ===

* Apps recording pain ratings, showing patterns, providing education or coping activities, and reminding users to practise pain-management strategies. Relate this to self-regulation theory. A dedicated mobile pain-application study is still required.

== Psychological theories behind technology‑based pain management ==

* '''Psychological theories behind technology‑based pain management:'''Technology‑based pain interventions draw on established psychological theories explaining how cognition, emotion, attention and behaviour shape pain perception. These mechanisms help explain how tools such as VR, wearables and AI‑guided apps influence pain experience (Gatchel et al., 2007; Eccleston &amp; Crombez, 1999).
* '''Biopsychosocial model of pain:'''The biopsychosocial model proposes that pain arises from interactions between biological processes, psychological factors and social context. Technology‑based interventions align with this model by targeting multiple domains simultaneously, such as emotional regulation, behavioural change and physiological monitoring (Gatchel et al., 2007; Williams &amp; Craig, 2016).
* '''Limited‑capacity theory of attention:'''Pain captures limited attentional resources, increasing perceived intensity. VR and immersive technologies reduce pain by redirecting attention away from nociceptive input, supporting the theory’s predictions (Eccleston &amp; Crombez, 1999; Malloy &amp; Milling, 2010).
* '''Gate control theory of pain:'''Gate control theory suggests that cognitive and emotional factors modulate nociceptive signals at the spinal level. Technologies such as TENS, VR and biofeedback influence these gates by altering attention and emotional state (Melzack &amp; Wall, 1965; Moayedi &amp; Davis, 2013).
* '''Neuromodulation and neuroplasticity:'''Pain perception is shaped by dynamic neural networks that reorganise with experience. VR, neurofeedback and AI‑guided training promote adaptive neuroplasticity by reducing maladaptive signalling and strengthening regulatory pathways (Apkarian et al., 2009; Kutch &amp; Apkarian, 2018).
* '''Self‑regulation theory:'''Self‑regulation theory emphasises managing thoughts, emotions and behaviours to achieve desired outcomes. Technology‑based pain tools enhance self‑regulation through real‑time feedback, guided breathing and emotional tracking (Karoly, 1993; Jensen et al., 2014).
* '''Operant conditioning:'''Pain behaviours can be reinforced by environmental responses. Technology‑based interventions apply operant principles by rewarding adaptive behaviours such as movement, pacing and relaxation (Fordyce, 1976; Vlaeyen &amp; Linton, 2000).
* '''Fear‑avoidance model of pain:'''Fear of pain leads to avoidance, deconditioning and increased disability. Graded VR exposure and movement‑tracking apps reduce fear by providing safe exposure and positive reinforcement (Vlaeyen &amp; Linton, 2000; Crombez et al., 2012).
* '''Cognitive appraisal and reframing:'''Pain intensity is influenced by how individuals interpret symptoms. Digital CBT tools help reframe catastrophic thoughts, reduce threat appraisal and promote adaptive interpretations of pain (Lazarus &amp; Folkman, 1984; Turk &amp; Wilson, 2010).
* '''Psychological flexibility model:'''Psychological flexibility involves adapting behaviour in alignment with values despite discomfort. ACT‑based digital interventions enhance flexibility through acceptance, present‑moment awareness and committed action (Hayes et al., 2012; Trompetter et al., 2016).
* '''Social cognitive theory and self‑efficacy:'''Self‑efficacy predicts pain coping and functional outcomes. Technology‑based interventions increase self‑efficacy through mastery experiences, modelling and feedback (Bandura, 1997; Jackson et al., 2014).
* '''Affective‑motivational modulation of pain:'''Pain is shaped by emotional and motivational states such as fear, anxiety and goal orientation. Negative affect amplifies pain through enhanced salience and descending facilitation, while positive affect reduces pain via prefrontal‑limbic modulation. Technologies such as VR, AI‑guided relaxation and biofeedback apps modulate affective‑motivational systems by reducing threat cues and enhancing emotional regulation (Modernell et al., 2026; Vervoort &amp; Trost, 2018; Garcia‑Larrea &amp; Fauchon, 2023; ''Current Opinion in Psychology'', 2025).

== Applications and tools ==
[[File:Pain pathway diagram showing transduction, transmission, modulation, and perception.png|thumb|293x293px|Figure 2: Brain Pain Pathways ]]

* VR
* TENS
* Mobile apps
* Wearables
* Gamification
* Telehealth

== Future Applications and Emerging Technologies ==

* List Of Various Cutting edge 
* Emerging technologies 
* futuristics applications 

== Limitations and ethical considerations ==

* Effectiveness differs between users, technologies and pain conditions.
* Refer to barriers including cost, access, digital skills and user engagement (Li,2024).
* Possible side effects, privacy concerns and increased attention to symptoms.

==Learning features==
'''Table 1''' 

See The Summary Table below : {{ic|Provide a more descriptive caption}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! Technology !! How it alters pain perception !! Theory / Model
|-
| VR || Redirects attention || Limited-capacity attention
|-
| TENS || Modulates pain signals || Gate control theory
|-
|Biofeedback
|Support regulation of arousal
|Self-regulation, conditioning
|-
|CBT/ACT tools
|Changes to coping, appraisal and avoidance
|Fear avoidance, flexibility
|-
|Wearables/apps
|Records patterns and provides feedback
|Self-regulation
|-
|Telehealth
|Remote support, health access and treatment
|Self-efficacy 
|}

;Quizzes

* Why might VR reduce the amount of attention given to pain? See:
* Which theory best explains how TENS may reduce pain-signal transmission?
* How can feedback from a wearable device support self-regulation?
* How might catastrophic thinking contribute to the fear-avoidance cycle?

&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Virtual reality (VR) can reduce pain by redirecting a person’s attention away from painful stimuli?:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{TENS devices work by increasing the intensity of pain signals sent to the brain.  
Answer?:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==

* Pain is interpreted by the brain and is influenced by attention, emotion, appraisal, behaviour and social support, not only by signals from the body.
* Different technologies alter pain perception through different pathways: VR redirects attention, TENS modulates signals, and feedback or cognitive tools influence arousal, appraisal and control.
* Technology is most useful as part of individualised, biopsychosocial pain management rather than as a replacement for all existing care (Hysing,2017; Li,2024).
* Effectiveness depends on the user, pain condition, technology, level of support and quality of available evidence.

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
[[wikipedia:Virtual_reality_therapy|Virtual reality therapy]] (Wikipedia)
[[wikipedia:Transcutaneous_electrical_nerve_stimulation|Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation]] (Wikipedia)

* https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pain {{ic|Create internal link}}
* https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_reality {{ic|Create internal link}}
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Self-regulation|Self-regulation]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[wikipedia:Transcutaneous_electrical_nerve_stimulation|Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation]] (Wikipedia)
* [[wikipedia:Cognitive_behavioral_therapy|Cognitive behavioral therapy]] (Wikipedia)
* [[wikipedia:Biopsychosocial_model|Biopsychosocial model]] (Wikipedia)
* [[wikipedia:Gate_control_theory|Gate control theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

{{Hanging indent|1=1.	Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman.

2.	Fordyce, W. E. (1976). Behavioral methods for chronic pain and illness. Mosby.

3.	Hayes, S. C., Strosahl, K. D., &amp; Wilson, K. G. (2012). Acceptance and commitment therapy: The process and practice of mindful change (2nd ed.). Guilford Press.

4.	Lazarus, R. S., &amp; Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. Springer Publishing Company.

5.	Alotaibi, N. H., Alromaih, S., Alshenaifi, L., Alshareef, N., &amp; Alkhashan, R. (2026). The role of virtual reality in nasal procedures: A randomized controlled trial. Annals of Medicine &amp; Surgery, 88(1), 321–326.

6.	Apkarian, A. V., Baliki, M. N., &amp; Geha, P. Y. (2009). Towards a theory of chronic pain. Progress in Neurobiology, 87(2), 81–97.

7.	Arsenault, M., Piché, M., Duncan, G. H., &amp; Rainville, P. (2013). Self-regulation of acute experimental pain with and without biofeedback using spinal nociceptive responses. Neuroscience, 231, 102–110.

8.	Basbaum, A. I., Bautista, D. M., Scherrer, G., &amp; Julius, D. (2009). Cellular and molecular mechanisms of pain. Cell, 139(2), 267–284.

9.	Blincoe, A. J. (2007). TENS machines and their use in managing labour pain. British Journal of Midwifery, 15(8), 516–519.
10.	Boersma, K., &amp; Flink, I. K. (2025). Key aspects concerning the role of emotion in the chronic pain experience. Current Opinion in Psychology, 62, Article 102000.

11.	Bostrøm, K., Børøsund, E., Eide, H., Varsi, C., Kristjansdottir, Ó. B., Schreurs, K. M. G., Waxenberg, L. B., Weiss, K. E., Morrison, E. J., Stavenes Støle, H., Cvancarova Småstuen, M., Stubhaug, A., &amp; Solberg Nes, L. (2023). Short-term findings from testing EPIO, a digital self-management program for people living with chronic pain: Randomized controlled trial. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 25, Article e47284.

12.	Bushnell, M. C., Čeko, M., &amp; Low, L. A. (2013). Cognitive and emotional control of pain and its disruption in chronic pain. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 14(7), 502–511.

13.	Crombez, G., Eccleston, C., Van Damme, S., Vlaeyen, J. W. S., &amp; Karoly, P. (2012). Fear-avoidance model of chronic pain: The next generation. The Clinical Journal of Pain, 28(6), 475–483.

14.	de Araujo, D. D., Zeferino, S. P., &amp; Galas, F. R. B. G. (2026). Virtual reality for opioid reduction in postoperative cardiac and thoracic surgery: A randomized controlled trial protocol. MethodsX, 17, Article 104029.

15.	Eccleston, C., &amp; Crombez, G. (1999). Pain demands attention: A cognitive–affective model of the interruptive function of pain. Psychological Bulletin, 125(3), 356–366.

16.	Eller-Smith, O. C., Nicol, A. L., &amp; Christianson, J. A. (2018). Potential mechanisms underlying centralized pain and emerging therapeutic interventions. Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience, 12, Article 35.

17.	Gatchel, R. J., Neblett, R., Kishino, N., &amp; Ray, C. T. (2016). Fear-avoidance beliefs and chronic pain. Journal of Orthopaedic &amp; Sports Physical Therapy, 46(2), 38–43.

18.	Gatchel, R. J., Peng, Y. B., Peters, M. L., Fuchs, P. N., &amp; Turk, D. C. (2007). The biopsychosocial approach to chronic pain: Scientific advances and future directions. Psychological Bulletin, 133(4), 581–624.

19.	Green, M., &amp; Chakravarthy, K. (2025). Artificial intelligence-enhanced pain management: The NXTSTIM EcoAI platform. Pain Management, 15(8), 467–475.

20.	Hysing, E.-B., Smith, L., Thulin, M., Karlsten, R., &amp; Gordh, T. (2017). Detection of systemic inflammation in severely impaired chronic pain patients, and effects of a CBT-ACT-based multi-modal pain rehabilitation program. Scandinavian Journal of Pain, 16(1), 175–176.
21.	Karoly, P. (1993). Mechanisms of self-regulation: A systems view. Annual Review of Psychology, 44, 23–52.

22.	Leeuw, M., Goossens, M. E. J. B., Linton, S. J., Crombez, G., Boersma, K., &amp; Vlaeyen, J. W. S. (2007). The fear-avoidance model of musculoskeletal pain: Current state of scientific evidence. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 30(1), 77–94.

23.	Li, L. W., Yi, T. H., &amp; Khaing, N. E. E. (2024). Chronic pain healthcare workers’ challenges in pain management and receptiveness towards VR as an adjunct management tool. BMC Digital Health, 2, Article 26.

24.	Malloy, K. M., &amp; Milling, L. S. (2010). The effectiveness of virtual reality distraction for pain reduction: A systematic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 30(8), 1011–1018.

25.	Melzack, R., &amp; Wall, P. D. (1965). Pain mechanisms: A new theory. Science, 150(3699), 971–979.

26.	Moayedi, M., &amp; Davis, K. D. (2013). Theories of pain: From specificity to gate control. Journal of Neurophysiology, 109(1), 5–12.

27.	Musters, A., Vandevenne, A. S., Franx, A., &amp; Wassen, M. M. L. H. (2023). Virtual Reality Experience during Labour (VIREL): A qualitative study. BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth, 23, Article 283.

28.	Neblett, R., Mayer, T. G., Hartzell, M. M., Williams, M. J., &amp; Gatchel, R. J. (2016). The Fear-Avoidance Components Scale (FACS): Development and psychometric evaluation of a new measure of pain-related fear avoidance. Pain Practice, 16(4), 435–450.

29.	Raja, S. N., Carr, D. B., Cohen, M., Finnerup, N. B., Flor, H., Gibson, S., Keefe, F. J., Mogil, J. S., Ringkamp, M., Sluka, K. A., Song, X.-J., Stevens, B., Sullivan, M. D., Tutelman, P. R., Ushida, T., &amp; Vader, K. (2020). The revised International Association for the Study of Pain definition of pain: Concepts, challenges, and compromises. Pain, 161(9), 1976–1982.

30.	Sharp, T. J. (2001). Chronic pain: A reformulation of the cognitive-behavioural model. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 39(7), 787–800.

31.	Tracey, I., &amp; Mantyh, P. W. (2007). The cerebral signature for pain perception and its modulation. Neuron, 55(3), 377–391.

32.	Turk, D. C., &amp; Wilson, H. D. (2010). Fear of pain as a prognostic factor in chronic pain: Conceptual models, assessment, and treatment implications. Current Pain and Headache Reports, 14(2), 88–95.


33.	Veehof, M. M., Trompetter, H. R., Bohlmeijer, E. T., &amp; Schreurs, K. M. G. (2016). Acceptance- and mindfulness-based interventions for the treatment of chronic pain: A meta-analytic review. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy, 45(1), 5–31.

34.	Williams, A. C. de C., &amp; Craig, K. D. (2016). Updating the definition of pain. Pain, 157(11), 2420–2423.

35.	Yang, X., Zhong, S., Yang, S., He, M., Xu, X., He, S., Fan, G., &amp; Liu, L. (2023). Global scientific trends in virtual reality for pain treatment from 2000 to 2022: Bibliometric analysis. JMIR Serious Games, 11, Article e48354.

36.	Li, A., Montaño, Z., Chen, V. J., &amp; Gold, J. I. (2011). Virtual reality and pain management: Current trends and future directions. Pain Management, 1(2), 147–157.

37.	Hamilton, N. A., Karoly, P., &amp; Kitzman, H. (2004). Self-regulation and chronic pain: The role of emotion. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 28(5), 559–576.

38.	Jackson, T., Wang, Y., Wang, Y., &amp; Fan, H. (2014). Self-efficacy and chronic pain outcomes: A meta-analytic review. The Journal of Pain, 15(8), 800–814.

39.	Modernell, L. M., Faillenot, I., Garcia-Larrea, L., &amp; Fauchon, C. (2026). The multifaceted neural architecture of pain modulation by emotion and cognition: A systematic review and meta-analysis. British Journal of Anaesthesia, 136(6), 1894–1909.

40.	Vervoort, T., &amp; Trost, Z. (2018). An affective-motivational account of interpersonal dynamics in pain. In T. Vervoort, K. Karos, Z. Trost, &amp; K. M. Prkachin (Eds.), Social and interpersonal dynamics in pain: We don’t suffer alone (pp. 57–75). Springer.

 
}}

*
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
* https://www.iasp-pain.org/resources/terminology/
* https://www.qld.gov.au/health/services/specialists/persistent-pain/understanding-pain/managing-your-pain
* https://aci.health.nsw.gov.au/chronic-pain/painbytes/pain-and-mind-body-connection

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Pain]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Technology]]</text>
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      <text bytes="10108" sha1="5e6qtgj8ag3gm7wdxhd9cklf6m8rew5" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
Hi, my name is [https://www.linkedin.com/in/pepper-white/ Pepper]. I am a third-year Bachelor of Science in Psychology student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. I am passionate about preventative mental health care and supporting those in need. This passion motivates me in my studies and at work.  

=== Work experience ===
* '''Mental Health Educator''' with [https://mieact.org.au/ Mental Illness Education ACT]. In this role,  I facilitate discussions about [[Stress (psychological)|stress]], [https://www.beyondblue.org.au/mental-health/depression?gad_source=1&amp;gad_campaignid=21934835275&amp;gbraid=0AAAAADuibRbKbycJc05RErZ8UMCld1aGB&amp;gclid=Cj0KCQjwkOvTBhDgARIsAKUNyRuK4CGO5WdRCpr1RDshuiDIlyi_ZwRe8ZFfvAygSGrvK0TbjFm7VtYaAkf8EALw_wcB depression], and [[wikipedia:Help-seeking|help-seeking]] with ACT school students. 

* '''Student Advocate''' in the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/content/myuc/home/support/student-advocacy-and-src/student-advocacy.html Student Advocacy Office] at the University of Canberra. In this role, I help my peer university students navigate university policies and procedures. 

=== Hobbies ===
* [[wikipedia:Oil_painting|Oil painting]]
* Figure drawing
* Running
* Playing water polo with the [https://www.revolutionise.com.au/dragonswp/home/ Gungahlin Dragons Water Polo Club]
* Travelling

== Book chapter ==
The book chapter I am writing is [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-concept and motivation|Self-concept and motivation]]. The chapter navigates the question &quot;How does self-concept relate to motivation?&quot; I chose this topic to explore due to my fascination with how the perception of oneself can influence one's behaviour.

== Social contributions ==
My approach for social contributions has been to edit or comment on a peer's page every time I work on my own book chapter. My hope is that this approach helps me stay engaged with others' ideas and contribute as regularly to others' work as I do my own.   
# I engaged with conversations in a [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455261?entry_id=804001 discussion post] on Canvas about topics of interest within motivation and emotion. My goal with this post was to take inititative by being an early contributor to help build a sense of comfort and normality amongst the group. I also hope by posting some topics of interest, others may feel inspired by these focus areas, thus helping them choose their book chapter topic.
# In familiarising myself with Wikiversity, I read the Spirituality and resilience 2025 book chapter. I noticed the writing required edits for readability, so I [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FSpirituality_and_resilience&amp;diff=2824208&amp;oldid=2774009 edited the first two paragraphs] of the overview. I fixed spelling, grammar, and wording issues. This is an important fix to help capture the reader’s attention and demonstrate credibility when the audience begins reading.
# I went through the topics others have chosen and the topic “Empathy and jury decision-making&quot; caught my attention. I [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3AMotivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FEmpathy_and_jury_decision-making#Exploring_empathy_within_similar_contexts commented] on this book chapter with some additional ideas from my own passion about researching empathy to support this students’ topic development.
# To better illustrate the multidimensional model of self-concept Marsh et al. (1992), which I refer to in my book chapter, I [https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3AMultidimensional_model_of_self-concept_diagram.png&amp;diff=1265404333&amp;oldid=1265404322 created a diagram and uploaded it to Wikimedia].
# I looked through the book chapter &quot;Empathy and jury decision-making&quot; and [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FEmpathy_and_jury_decision-making&amp;diff=2826959&amp;oldid=2824982 made edits] to the ordering of citations within a bracket in the conclusion to ensure they were alphabetical.
# I read the book chapter &quot;Falling in love&quot; and [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3AMotivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FFalling_in_love#Interesting_theories_to_incorporate suggested a few theories and angles to explore] within this fascinating topic.
# I read the book chapter &quot;Charismatic leadership and follower motivation&quot; and [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Charismatic leadership and follower motivation#Interesting real-life case study to consider incorporating|suggested exploring the Jonestown cult]] as a real life case study to give insight into the extreme side of charismatic leadership and follower motivation.
# To connect with others also writing 'self-' related chapters, I read the book chapter &quot;Possible selves and goal pursuit&quot;. I identified areas which may require more research and [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Possible selves and goal pursuit#c-U3253363-20260909032900-Jshottt-20260827141800|posted on their discussion forum]] some of the research I have been using which could be relevant to their chapter.
# I reviewed the book chapter &quot;Love styles and relationship satisfaction&quot; and [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FLove_styles_and_relationship_satisfaction&amp;diff=2832497&amp;oldid=2759229 made stylistic and grammatical edits throughout,] in particular I fixed capitalisation to sentence casing in headings and fixed the broken Wiki links.
# I [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/461216?entry_id=816875 suggested an easy and new way to check your chapter's word count] in a Canvas discussion board.
# In reviewing a chapter of interest to me, Volunteer counsellor motivation: Difference between revisions, I noticed the scenario being used did not involve a made up person or factual story, it instead had an introduction to a theory. To help the author catch the reader's attention, I [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FVolunteer_counsellor_motivation&amp;diff=2833605&amp;oldid=2832761 added a suggestion for a scenario] which involves a concrete case and a real person to help the reader connect immediately with the chapter.
# I read the drafted book chapter called Body neutrality and emotional wellbeing and noticed headings need to be [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FBody_neutrality_and_emotional_well-being&amp;diff=2833988&amp;oldid=2830006 adjusted to sentence case,] so I assisted the author by fixing this up.
# To better illustrate goal orientation theory when I reference it in my book chapter, I tried [[c:File:Mastery_versus_performance_orientation_illustration.jpg|making a diagram using Gemini and uploaded it to WikiMedia]].
# I tried searching for a clipart-style image to support readers' understanding of self-determination theory's psychological needs but could not find one. So, I used [[c:File:Self-determination_theory_psychological_needs.jpg|Gemini to help me create a diagram and uploaded it to WikiMedia]].
# I read the textbook chapter Relatedness motivation in self-determination theory and noticed the scenario warranted a few minor edits for readability, so [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FRelatedness_motivation_in_self-determination_theory&amp;diff=2834093&amp;oldid=2833064 I made some wording adjustments and added a more complete caption] to the scenario figure.
# I [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/463438 invited feedback on my book chapter via the Canvas discussion] forum and committed to returning feedback to all who provide feedback on my book chapter.
# I [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2023%2FGuided_meditation_and_emotion_regulation&amp;diff=2834575&amp;oldid=2757490 fixed in-text citation errors] in the textbook chapter Guided meditation and emotion regulation to ensure they were APA 7 style.
# After inviting feedback on my book chapter, I in turn gave feedback to someone who reviewed my chapter, via their chapter's [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment#c-U3253363-20260927103400-Feedback|discussion forum]]. 
# I also [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FImmersive_therapy_for_PTSD_treatment&amp;diff=2834661&amp;oldid=2834467 made direct edits] in Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment to improve readability and I added inter-Wiki links.
# I engaged with someone who provided feedback on my chapter via [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/463438?entry_id=821481 Canvas discussions] to thank them and notify them I had left some edits in exchange.
# After inviting feedback on my book chapter, I in turn [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Empathy and jury decision-making#c-U3253363-20260927110400-Feedback|gave feedback]] to someone who reviewed my chapter, via their chapter's discussion forum.
# I [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FImpulsivity_versus_sensation-seeking&amp;diff=2835013&amp;oldid=2834774 edited a peer's book chapter] by adding a table as an option to communicate dimensions of a model instead of using a long-winded and hard-to-organise sentence that they had. 
# I updated the peer referred to in the above social contribution about this change via their [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Impulsivity versus sensation-seeking#c-U3253363-20260929093300-Suggestion to add a table|discussion forum]] to provide some context and a further suggestion to perhaps then shorten the tricky long sentence as the table now does the heavy lifting.
# I [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FMoodiness&amp;diff=2835836&amp;oldid=2829789 made substantial edits] to the overview and first subsection of the book chapter on moodiness to improve issues with spelling, grammar, citations, and readability.</text>
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    <title>Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Envy in the workplace</title>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Flickstar888</username>
        <id>3106813</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Relationship between envy and motivation? */</comment>
      <origin>2835842</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="20276" sha1="b1jt2vjbzdor3i0mrndxcqqtz4rgycl" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Envy in the workplace:&lt;br&gt;What role does envy play in workplace behaviour?}}
__TOC__

=== Overview ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Zonaspace-coworking-collaboration.jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 1'''. Envy can occur in any workplace.]]

;Case study
Jillian and Anna work for the same consulting firm and are at the same level. Jillian recently completed a project that received recognition from senior leaders and she continues to be praised about it. Anna and Jillian get along well, although Anna has started feeling resentful towards Jillian (see Figure 1). 

Anna recently asked Jillian about the project and what tools she used that could possibly assist with her projects. Jillian mentioned she completed a project management course that really changed the way she approaches projects to ensure all milestones are delivered on time and on budget. 

Anna enrols in the same project management course immediately. This is an example of benign envy. By feeling envy towards Jillian, it has motivated Anna to take action to improve herself. With Anna developing her project management skills, this will impact the team and consulting firm in a positive way encouraging extraordinary results. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

[[wikipedia:Envy|Envy]] is a powerful [[emotion]] that drives different behaviours (Yang &amp; Tang, 2021). It can be described as the bitterness or anger you feel when others receive what you deeply or unconsciously desire. In many workplaces, it is human nature for an individual to measure and compare themselves to those that are being recognised or seem more valued than they are. These comparisons can trigger workplace envy, especially when someone feels they are inferior to others. According to Duffy et al (2021), over the last 25 years, there has been growing interest in the phenomenon of workplace envy. While every workplace is filled with opportunities for competition and self-comparison, Liu et al (2021), stated it was important to consider the environment and the timing when looking at workplace envy as it is constantly evolving.  

Workplace envy occurs across a variety of workplace situations although experiences can vary in intensity and frequency and can transform into behavioural reactions. This book chapter describes workplace envy and discusses the role it plays in workplace behaviour. 

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* What is the role of envy in the workplace?
* What is the difference between malicious envy and benign envy? 
* What causes envy and how is it linked to motivation?
* What is the relationship between envy and self-efficacy?
* What is the relationship between envy and social comparison theory?


{{RoundBoxBottom}}
== Role of envy in the workplace ==

There are many causes of envy in the workplace. It can emerge when an employee notices that a colleague has achieved something they desire, such as recognition, a reward, a promotion or an opportunity. It can occur in any workplace where employees routinely compare their performance or progress to those around them, these comparisons can easily activate feelings of envy.   

Through guidance and intervention, envy can be used as a workplace 'tool' to drive positive behaviour.  
*Envy can be destructive or can lead to a promotion (Liu et al, 2021) 
*can drive cultural change
*envy can occur when individuals compare themselves to others, they perceive to be more fortunate.

== Benign versus malicious envy ==
Workplace envy can be either benign or malicious. Even though they both start with the same feeling of inferiority, they can lead to different reactions (Crusius et al, 2021). Benign envy creates an urge for people to grow while malicious envy leads to negative thoughts or actions that aims to bring a person down (see Table 1).  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Scenario:'''

Jon and Sam have worked together for a long time. They both applied for a promotion within the team recently, Jon was successful and Sam missed out. 

Since then, Sam has started treating Jon unfairly. In meetings, Sam makes negative comments about Jon's ideas. During team lunches, Sam leaves Jon out on purpose. Each day, Sam's behaviour becomes more unfriendly and hurtful.

This is an example of malicious envy. Sam is feeling envious of Jon and is trying to harm and put him down. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}The following table outlines the difference between benign and malicious envy in the workplace.

'''Table 1.'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!
! Benign Envy
! Malicious Envy
|-
| Definition
| Envy that motivates self‑improvement.
| Envy that manifests when someone feels threatened or unable to match another’s achievements.
|-
| Emotional Response
| Encourages growth, motivation and learning.
| Creates feelings of resentment, threat, or inferiority.
|-
| Typical Behaviours
| Working harder, learning new skills, seeking growth or development opportunities.
| Exclusion, gossip, criticism or subtle sabotage.
|-
| Impact on Workplace Culture
| Strengthens workplace culture through healthy competition and personal development.
| Damages trust, teamwork, morale, and can escalate into workplace conflict and create a toxic culture.
|-
| Outcome
| Positive: supports improvement and collaboration.
| Negative: undermines relationships and workplace functioning.
|}

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Benign envy is associated with positive emotions and encourages positive behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Malicious envy is associated with negative emotions and encourages negative behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Relationship between envy and motivation? ==
Envy is linked to number of underlying motivational tendencies (Lange &amp; Crusius, 2015). 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g.,

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

Known to self	Not known to self
Known to others	Open area	Blind spot
Not known to others	Hidden area	Unknown

== Behaviours caused by self-efficacy? ==
Self-efficacy is the mental switch that determines whether envy will lead to a positive or negative behaviour. The two types of self-efficacy are:

* [[File:Self and environment.png|thumb|'''Figure 3.'''  Self-efficacy factors.]]high self-efficacy
* low self-efficacy
* Example of each of the above


== Relationship between workplace envy and social comparison theory? ==
Social comparison theory assumes that individuals tend to compare their opinions and abilities to others. Feeling threatened in the workplace makes people judge themselves more harshly as they believe they cannot match their colleague's social status or success.
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Call center (8300442093).jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 4'''. Social Comparison Theory at play in a Call Centre.]]

;Case study
At ReadyCall, everyone's daily call numbers are recorded on a big screen. Ebony is new and she keeps comparing herself to Rick, a senior worker who always has the highest call numbers. Seeing the gap makes Ebony feel stressed and worried she isn't good enough.

Ebony's manager explains that Rick learned his skills over many years and wasn't fast when he first started. After hearing this, Ebony feels better, learns some tips from Rick, and becomes more confident.

This is an example of social comparison theory, where people judge themselves by comparing their performance to others (see Figure 4). 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
[[File:Happy-smiley-face-and-sad-2048x1536.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Envy can drive positive or negative behaviour in the workplace.]]
[[wikipedia:Envy|Envy]] is a powerful [[emotion]]. It can be described as the resentment you feel when others receive what you deeply desire. In many workplaces, it is human nature for people to compare themselves to others. In the workplace, a person will measure and compare themselves against those that are being recognised for their work, those that are promoted and those that seem more valued than they are. These comparisons can trigger envy, especially when someone feels they are inferior to others.

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)


==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Benign envy is associated with positive emotions and encourages positive behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Malicious envy is associated with negative emotions and encourages negative behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
Envy plays a significant role in shaping workplace behaviour because employees constantly observe and compare their progress and recognition and opportunities of those around them. These comparisons can trigger envy which is not just a negative emotion but a complex psychological response influenced by self-efficacy, motivation and social comparison processes. These comparisons highlight an individual's insecurities, making envy an important emotional signal rather than a something negative. When employees feel capable of improving themselves, workplace envy becomes a constructive force that encourages learning, effort and healthy competition. However, workplace envy can also shift into a harmful direction when employees feel threatened, insecure or unable to achieve similar success. In these situations, workplace envy may lead to resentment, withdrawal or undermining behaviour which can disrupt teamwork or damage workplace relationships. By understanding these dynamics, workplaces can respond carefully and recognise the important role envy plays in fostering growth. fairness and healthier interpersonal relationships that will effectively create a positive working culture.
{{tip|Take-home messages:
* Not all workplace envy is negative.
* Envy is an important catalyst for change if driven in a positive way.
* Envy can motivate staff in a constructive way.
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* Envy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2011/Envy|title=Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Envy - Wikiversity|website=en.wikiversity.org|language=en|access-date=2026-08-25}}&lt;/ref&gt; (Book Chapter, 2011) {{ic|See Tutorial 2 for how to create an internal link to a book chapter)
* Jealousy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=|title=|website=|language=|access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt; is not the same as envy (Book Chapter, 2013)
* [[Self-Efficacy]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Aggression in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Aggression in the workplace - Wikiversity]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rivalry in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rivalry in the workplace - Wikiversity]]

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Crusius J., Thierhoff J., Lange J. (2021). Dispositional greed predicts benign and malicious envy. Personality and Individual Differences, 168, 110361. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110361

Dong, Xue T., Yang W. Chung, Joon H. Park, and Jeong K. Yun. 2026. “Workplace Envy and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour: The Mediating Effect of Cynicism and the Moderating Effect of Organizational Support.” Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences / Revue Canadienne des Sciences de l'Administration: e70020. https://doi.org/10.1002/cjas.70020.

Duffy, M. K., Lee, K., &amp; Adair, E. A. (2021). Workplace envy. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 8, 19–44. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012420-055746

Erdil O., Müceldili B. (2014). The effects of envy on job engagement and turnover intention. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 150(1), 447–454. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.09.050

Han, S., Zhan, Y., Zhang, L., &amp; Mu, R. (2022). You Have Received More Help than I Did and I Envy You: A Social Comparison Perspective on Receiving Help in the Team. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8351. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148351

Jafri M. H. (2020). Moderating role of self-efficacy on benign envy—employee engagement relationship. Business Perspectives and Research, 8(2), 232–243. https://doi.org/10.1177/227853371988745

Köksal, K., Tufan, C., Griffiths, M.D. et al. From perceived workplace envy to deviance: a multi-theoretical model of envy-related workplace behaviors and the moderating role of social courage. Curr Psychol 45, 1052 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-026-09607-3

Lange, J., Paulhus, D. L., &amp; Crusius, J. (2018). Elucidating the Dark Side of Envy: Distinctive Links of Benign and Malicious Envy With Dark Personalities. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 44(4), 601-614. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167217746340

Li M., Xu X., Kwan H. K. (2021). The antecedents and consequences of workplace envy: A meta-analytic review. Asia Pacific Journal of Management. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10490-021-09772-y

Li M, Qin Y, Le J (2025), &quot;Mentoring matters: decoding the impact of downward envy on interpersonal conflict, workplace ostracism, and displaced aggression&quot;. Journal of Managerial Psychology, Vol. 40 No. 1 pp. 67–81, doi: https://doi.org/10.1108/JMP-12-2023-0768

Li, Y., &amp; Wang, S. (2023). &quot;Comparisons are Odious&quot;? - Exploring the Dual Effect of Upward Social Comparison on Workplace Coping Behaviors of Temporary Agency Workers. Psychology research and behavior management, 16, 4251–4265. https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S425946

Liu, H., Geng, J., &amp; Yao, P. (2021). Relationship of Leadership and Envy: How to Resolve Workplace Envy with Leadership-A Bibliometric Review Study. Journal of Intelligence, 9(3), 44. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence9030044

Nakai, A. and Numazaki, M. (2026), The Emotional Nature of Malicious and Benign Envy: Separate Measurements for Emotion and Motivation. Jpn Psychol Res. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpr.12568

Song, Y., &amp; Zhao, Z. (2022). Social Undermining and Interpersonal Rumination among Employees: The Mediating Role of Being the Subject of Envy and the Moderating Role of Social Support. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8419. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148419

Su, X., &amp; Chen, C. (2023). The Influence of Workplace Envy on Employees’ Knowledge-Hiding Behavior Based on a Comparative Analysis between Generation Cohorts. Behavioral Sciences, 13(9), 716. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs13090716

Walter CE, Au-Yong-Oliveira M (2022), &quot;An exploratory study on the barriers to innovative behavior: the spiteful effect of envy&quot;. Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol. 35 No. 6 pp. 936–960, https://doi.org/10.1108/JOCM-02-2022-0034

Wilkes, D. (2023) Workplace Envy: Exploring the Effect of Envy on Team Communication and Organizational Information Sharing. Open Journal of Business and Management, 11, 1757-1786. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojbm.2023.114099

Yang C and Tang R (2021) Validating the “Two Faces” of Envy: The Effect of Self-Control. Front. Psychol. 12:731451. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.731451

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
The following links provide further background and context to support this book chapter:
* [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/NwGMsgB9mNg Envy: The Ugliest Emotion? Find out the Truth!] (YouTube)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1f9IE3CkB4s How to Stop Comparing Yourself to Others] (YouTube)
* https://www.ted.com/talks/worklife_with_adam_grant_become_friends_with_your_rivals (TedTalk)
* [https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-good-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/ https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-goo-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/] (TedTalk)
* [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/3g0lRfiAXzc Why Workplace Envy Is Secretly Power ? - YouTube] (YouTube)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
&lt;references group=&quot;https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2026/Envy_in_the_workplace&quot; /&gt;
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__TOC__

=== Overview ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Zonaspace-coworking-collaboration.jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 1'''. Envy can occur in any workplace.]]

;Case study
Jillian and Anna work for the same consulting firm and are at the same level. Jillian recently completed a project that received recognition from senior leaders and she continues to be praised about it. Anna and Jillian get along well, although Anna has started feeling resentful towards Jillian (see Figure 1). 

Anna recently asked Jillian about the project and what tools she used that could possibly assist with her projects. Jillian mentioned she completed a project management course that really changed the way she approaches projects to ensure all milestones are delivered on time and on budget. 

Anna enrols in the same project management course immediately. This is an example of benign envy. By feeling envy towards Jillian, it has motivated Anna to take action to improve herself. With Anna developing her project management skills, this will impact the team and consulting firm in a positive way encouraging extraordinary results. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

[[wikipedia:Envy|Envy]] is a powerful [[emotion]] that drives different behaviours (Yang &amp; Tang, 2021). It can be described as the bitterness or anger you feel when others receive what you deeply or unconsciously desire. In many workplaces, it is human nature for an individual to measure and compare themselves to those that are being recognised or seem more valued than they are. These comparisons can trigger workplace envy, especially when someone feels they are inferior to others. According to Duffy et al (2021), over the last 25 years, there has been growing interest in the phenomenon of workplace envy. While every workplace is filled with opportunities for competition and self-comparison, Liu et al (2021), stated it was important to consider the environment and the timing when looking at workplace envy as it is constantly evolving.  

Workplace envy occurs across a variety of workplace situations although experiences can vary in intensity and frequency and can transform into behavioural reactions. This book chapter describes workplace envy and discusses the role it plays in workplace behaviour. 

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* What is the role of envy in the workplace?
* What is the difference between malicious envy and benign envy? 
* What causes envy and how is it linked to motivation?
* What is the relationship between envy and self-efficacy?
* What is the relationship between envy and social comparison theory?


{{RoundBoxBottom}}
== Role of envy in the workplace ==

There are many causes of envy in the workplace. It can emerge when an employee notices that a colleague has achieved something they desire, such as recognition, a reward, a promotion or an opportunity. It can occur in any workplace where employees routinely compare their performance or progress to those around them, these comparisons can easily activate feelings of envy.   

Through guidance and intervention, envy can be used as a workplace 'tool' to drive positive behaviour.  
*Envy can be destructive or can lead to a promotion (Liu et al, 2021) 
*can drive cultural change
*envy can occur when individuals compare themselves to others, they perceive to be more fortunate.

== Benign versus malicious envy ==
Workplace envy can be either benign or malicious. Even though they both start with the same feeling of inferiority, they can lead to different reactions (Crusius et al, 2021). Benign envy creates an urge for people to grow while malicious envy leads to negative thoughts or actions that aims to bring a person down (see Table 1).  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Scenario:'''

Jon and Sam have worked together for a long time. They both applied for a promotion within the team recently, Jon was successful and Sam missed out. 

Since then, Sam has started treating Jon unfairly. In meetings, Sam makes negative comments about Jon's ideas. During team lunches, Sam leaves Jon out on purpose. Each day, Sam's behaviour becomes more unfriendly and hurtful.

This is an example of malicious envy. Sam is feeling envious of Jon and is trying to harm and put him down. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}The following table outlines the difference between benign and malicious envy in the workplace.

'''Table 1.'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!
! Benign Envy
! Malicious Envy
|-
| Definition
| Envy that motivates self‑improvement.
| Envy that manifests when someone feels threatened or unable to match another’s achievements.
|-
| Emotional Response
| Encourages growth, motivation and learning.
| Creates feelings of resentment, threat, or inferiority.
|-
| Typical Behaviours
| Working harder, learning new skills, seeking growth or development opportunities.
| Exclusion, gossip, criticism or subtle sabotage.
|-
| Impact on Workplace Culture
| Strengthens workplace culture through healthy competition and personal development.
| Damages trust, teamwork, morale, and can escalate into workplace conflict and create a toxic culture.
|-
| Outcome
| Positive: supports improvement and collaboration.
| Negative: undermines relationships and workplace functioning.
|}

'''Quiz questions.''' Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Benign envy is associated with positive emotions and encourages positive behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Malicious envy is associated with negative emotions and encourages negative behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Relationship between envy and motivation? ==
Envy is linked to number of underlying motivational tendencies (Lange &amp; Crusius, 2015). 

'''Table 2.''' The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model showing the relationship between envy and motivation:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Motivation to improve
(benign envy) 
| Blind spot: Fear based motivation noticed 
by others but not yourself 
(applies to malicious envy).
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Fear of failure
(malicious envy 
| Benign envy - hidden motivation
|}

== Behaviours caused by self-efficacy? ==
Self-efficacy is the mental switch that determines whether envy will lead to a positive or negative behaviour. The two types of self-efficacy are:

* [[File:Self and environment.png|thumb|'''Figure 3.'''  Self-efficacy factors.]]high self-efficacy
* low self-efficacy
* Example of each of the above


== Relationship between workplace envy and social comparison theory? ==
Social comparison theory assumes that individuals tend to compare their opinions and abilities to others. Feeling threatened in the workplace makes people judge themselves more harshly as they believe they cannot match their colleague's social status or success.
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Call center (8300442093).jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 4'''. Social Comparison Theory at play in a Call Centre.]]

;Case study
At ReadyCall, everyone's daily call numbers are recorded on a big screen. Ebony is new and she keeps comparing herself to Rick, a senior worker who always has the highest call numbers. Seeing the gap makes Ebony feel stressed and worried she isn't good enough.

Ebony's manager explains that Rick learned his skills over many years and wasn't fast when he first started. After hearing this, Ebony feels better, learns some tips from Rick, and becomes more confident.

This is an example of social comparison theory, where people judge themselves by comparing their performance to others (see Figure 4). 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
[[File:Happy-smiley-face-and-sad-2048x1536.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Envy can drive positive or negative behaviour in the workplace.]]
[[wikipedia:Envy|Envy]] is a powerful [[emotion]]. It can be described as the resentment you feel when others receive what you deeply desire. In many workplaces, it is human nature for people to compare themselves to others. In the workplace, a person will measure and compare themselves against those that are being recognised for their work, those that are promoted and those that seem more valued than they are. These comparisons can trigger envy, especially when someone feels they are inferior to others.

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)


==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Benign envy is associated with positive emotions and encourages positive behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Malicious envy is associated with negative emotions and encourages negative behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
Envy plays a significant role in shaping workplace behaviour because employees constantly observe and compare their progress and recognition and opportunities of those around them. These comparisons can trigger envy which is not just a negative emotion but a complex psychological response influenced by self-efficacy, motivation and social comparison processes. These comparisons highlight an individual's insecurities, making envy an important emotional signal rather than a something negative. When employees feel capable of improving themselves, workplace envy becomes a constructive force that encourages learning, effort and healthy competition. However, workplace envy can also shift into a harmful direction when employees feel threatened, insecure or unable to achieve similar success. In these situations, workplace envy may lead to resentment, withdrawal or undermining behaviour which can disrupt teamwork or damage workplace relationships. By understanding these dynamics, workplaces can respond carefully and recognise the important role envy plays in fostering growth. fairness and healthier interpersonal relationships that will effectively create a positive working culture.
{{tip|Take-home messages:
* Not all workplace envy is negative.
* Envy is an important catalyst for change if driven in a positive way.
* Envy can motivate staff in a constructive way.
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* Envy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2011/Envy|title=Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Envy - Wikiversity|website=en.wikiversity.org|language=en|access-date=2026-08-25}}&lt;/ref&gt; (Book Chapter, 2011) {{ic|See Tutorial 2 for how to create an internal link to a book chapter)
* Jealousy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=|title=|website=|language=|access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt; is not the same as envy (Book Chapter, 2013)
* [[Self-Efficacy]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Aggression in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Aggression in the workplace - Wikiversity]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rivalry in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rivalry in the workplace - Wikiversity]]

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Crusius J., Thierhoff J., Lange J. (2021). Dispositional greed predicts benign and malicious envy. Personality and Individual Differences, 168, 110361. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110361

Dong, Xue T., Yang W. Chung, Joon H. Park, and Jeong K. Yun. 2026. “Workplace Envy and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour: The Mediating Effect of Cynicism and the Moderating Effect of Organizational Support.” Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences / Revue Canadienne des Sciences de l'Administration: e70020. https://doi.org/10.1002/cjas.70020.

Duffy, M. K., Lee, K., &amp; Adair, E. A. (2021). Workplace envy. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 8, 19–44. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012420-055746

Erdil O., Müceldili B. (2014). The effects of envy on job engagement and turnover intention. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 150(1), 447–454. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.09.050

Han, S., Zhan, Y., Zhang, L., &amp; Mu, R. (2022). You Have Received More Help than I Did and I Envy You: A Social Comparison Perspective on Receiving Help in the Team. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8351. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148351

Jafri M. H. (2020). Moderating role of self-efficacy on benign envy—employee engagement relationship. Business Perspectives and Research, 8(2), 232–243. https://doi.org/10.1177/227853371988745

Köksal, K., Tufan, C., Griffiths, M.D. et al. From perceived workplace envy to deviance: a multi-theoretical model of envy-related workplace behaviors and the moderating role of social courage. Curr Psychol 45, 1052 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-026-09607-3

Lange, J., Paulhus, D. L., &amp; Crusius, J. (2018). Elucidating the Dark Side of Envy: Distinctive Links of Benign and Malicious Envy With Dark Personalities. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 44(4), 601-614. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167217746340

Li M., Xu X., Kwan H. K. (2021). The antecedents and consequences of workplace envy: A meta-analytic review. Asia Pacific Journal of Management. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10490-021-09772-y

Li M, Qin Y, Le J (2025), &quot;Mentoring matters: decoding the impact of downward envy on interpersonal conflict, workplace ostracism, and displaced aggression&quot;. Journal of Managerial Psychology, Vol. 40 No. 1 pp. 67–81, doi: https://doi.org/10.1108/JMP-12-2023-0768

Li, Y., &amp; Wang, S. (2023). &quot;Comparisons are Odious&quot;? - Exploring the Dual Effect of Upward Social Comparison on Workplace Coping Behaviors of Temporary Agency Workers. Psychology research and behavior management, 16, 4251–4265. https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S425946

Liu, H., Geng, J., &amp; Yao, P. (2021). Relationship of Leadership and Envy: How to Resolve Workplace Envy with Leadership-A Bibliometric Review Study. Journal of Intelligence, 9(3), 44. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence9030044

Nakai, A. and Numazaki, M. (2026), The Emotional Nature of Malicious and Benign Envy: Separate Measurements for Emotion and Motivation. Jpn Psychol Res. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpr.12568

Song, Y., &amp; Zhao, Z. (2022). Social Undermining and Interpersonal Rumination among Employees: The Mediating Role of Being the Subject of Envy and the Moderating Role of Social Support. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8419. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148419

Su, X., &amp; Chen, C. (2023). The Influence of Workplace Envy on Employees’ Knowledge-Hiding Behavior Based on a Comparative Analysis between Generation Cohorts. Behavioral Sciences, 13(9), 716. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs13090716

Walter CE, Au-Yong-Oliveira M (2022), &quot;An exploratory study on the barriers to innovative behavior: the spiteful effect of envy&quot;. Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol. 35 No. 6 pp. 936–960, https://doi.org/10.1108/JOCM-02-2022-0034

Wilkes, D. (2023) Workplace Envy: Exploring the Effect of Envy on Team Communication and Organizational Information Sharing. Open Journal of Business and Management, 11, 1757-1786. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojbm.2023.114099

Yang C and Tang R (2021) Validating the “Two Faces” of Envy: The Effect of Self-Control. Front. Psychol. 12:731451. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.731451

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
The following links provide further background and context to support this book chapter:
* [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/NwGMsgB9mNg Envy: The Ugliest Emotion? Find out the Truth!] (YouTube)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1f9IE3CkB4s How to Stop Comparing Yourself to Others] (YouTube)
* https://www.ted.com/talks/worklife_with_adam_grant_become_friends_with_your_rivals (TedTalk)
* [https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-good-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/ https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-goo-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/] (TedTalk)
* [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/3g0lRfiAXzc Why Workplace Envy Is Secretly Power ? - YouTube] (YouTube)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
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=== Overview ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Zonaspace-coworking-collaboration.jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 1'''. Envy can occur in any workplace.]]

;Case study
Jillian and Anna work for the same consulting firm and are at the same level. Jillian recently completed a project that received recognition from senior leaders and she continues to be praised about it. Anna and Jillian get along well, although Anna has started feeling resentful towards Jillian (see Figure 1). 

Anna recently asked Jillian about the project and what tools she used that could possibly assist with her projects. Jillian mentioned she completed a project management course that really changed the way she approaches projects to ensure all milestones are delivered on time and on budget. 

Anna enrols in the same project management course immediately. This is an example of benign envy. By feeling envy towards Jillian, it has motivated Anna to take action to improve herself. With Anna developing her project management skills, this will impact the team and consulting firm in a positive way encouraging extraordinary results. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

[[wikipedia:Envy|Envy]] is a powerful [[emotion]] that drives different behaviours (Yang &amp; Tang, 2021). It can be described as the bitterness or anger you feel when others receive what you deeply or unconsciously desire. In many workplaces, it is human nature for an individual to measure and compare themselves to those that are being recognised or seem more valued than they are. These comparisons can trigger workplace envy, especially when someone feels they are inferior to others. According to Duffy et al (2021), over the last 25 years, there has been growing interest in the phenomenon of workplace envy. While every workplace is filled with opportunities for competition and self-comparison, Liu et al (2021), stated it was important to consider the environment and the timing when looking at workplace envy as it is constantly evolving.  

Workplace envy occurs across a variety of workplace situations although experiences can vary in intensity and frequency and can transform into behavioural reactions. This book chapter describes workplace envy and discusses the role it plays in workplace behaviour. 

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* What is the role of envy in the workplace?
* What is the difference between malicious envy and benign envy? 
* What causes envy and how is it linked to motivation?
* What is the relationship between envy and self-efficacy?
* What is the relationship between envy and social comparison theory?


{{RoundBoxBottom}}
== Role of envy in the workplace ==

There are many causes of envy in the workplace. It can emerge when an employee notices that a colleague has achieved something they desire, such as recognition, a reward, a promotion or an opportunity. It can occur in any workplace where employees constantly compare their performance or progress to those around them, these comparisons can easily activate trigger feelings of envy.   

Through guidance, leadership and intervention, envy can be used as a workplace 'tool' to drive positive behaviour (Liu et al, 2021).  
*Envy can be destructive or can lead to a promotion (Liu et al, 2021) 
*can drive cultural change

== Benign versus malicious envy ==
Workplace envy can be either benign or malicious. Even though they both start with the same feeling of inferiority, they can lead to different reactions (Crusius et al, 2021). Benign envy creates an urge for people to grow while malicious envy leads to negative thoughts or actions that aims to bring a person down (see Table 1).  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Scenario:'''

Jon and Sam have worked together for a long time. They both applied for a promotion within the team recently, Jon was successful and Sam missed out. 

Since then, Sam has started treating Jon unfairly. In meetings, Sam makes negative comments about Jon's ideas. During team lunches, Sam leaves Jon out on purpose. Each day, Sam's behaviour becomes more unfriendly and hurtful.

This is an example of malicious envy. Sam is feeling envious of Jon and is trying to harm and put him down. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}The following table outlines the difference between benign and malicious envy in the workplace.

'''Table 1.'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!
! Benign Envy
! Malicious Envy
|-
| Definition
| Envy that motivates self‑improvement.
| Envy that manifests when someone feels threatened or unable to match another’s achievements.
|-
| Emotional Response
| Encourages growth, motivation and learning.
| Creates feelings of resentment, threat, or inferiority.
|-
| Typical Behaviours
| Working harder, learning new skills, seeking growth or development opportunities.
| Exclusion, gossip, criticism or subtle sabotage.
|-
| Impact on Workplace Culture
| Strengthens workplace culture through healthy competition and personal development.
| Damages trust, teamwork, morale, and can escalate into workplace conflict and create a toxic culture.
|-
| Outcome
| Positive: supports improvement and collaboration.
| Negative: undermines relationships and workplace functioning.
|}

'''Quiz questions.''' Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Benign envy is associated with positive emotions and encourages positive behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Malicious envy is associated with negative emotions and encourages negative behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Relationship between envy and motivation? ==
Envy is linked to number of underlying motivational tendencies (Lange &amp; Crusius, 2015). 

'''Table 2.''' The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model showing the relationship between envy and motivation:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Motivation to improve
(benign envy) 
| Blind spot: Fear based motivation noticed 
by others but not yourself 
(applies to malicious envy).
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Fear of failure
(malicious envy 
| Benign envy - hidden motivation
|}

== Behaviours caused by self-efficacy? ==
Self-efficacy is the mental switch that determines whether envy will lead to a positive or negative behaviour. The two types of self-efficacy are:

* [[File:Self and environment.png|thumb|'''Figure 3.'''  Self-efficacy factors.]]high self-efficacy
* low self-efficacy
* Example of each of the above


== Relationship between workplace envy and social comparison theory? ==
Social comparison theory assumes that individuals tend to compare their opinions and abilities to others. Feeling threatened in the workplace makes people judge themselves more harshly as they believe they cannot match their colleague's social status or success.
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Call center (8300442093).jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 4'''. Social Comparison Theory at play in a Call Centre.]]

;Case study
At ReadyCall, everyone's daily call numbers are recorded on a big screen. Ebony is new and she keeps comparing herself to Rick, a senior worker who always has the highest call numbers. Seeing the gap makes Ebony feel stressed and worried she isn't good enough.

Ebony's manager explains that Rick learned his skills over many years and wasn't fast when he first started. After hearing this, Ebony feels better, learns some tips from Rick, and becomes more confident.

This is an example of social comparison theory, where people judge themselves by comparing their performance to others (see Figure 4). 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
[[File:Happy-smiley-face-and-sad-2048x1536.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Envy can drive positive or negative behaviour in the workplace.]]
[[wikipedia:Envy|Envy]] is a powerful [[emotion]]. It can be described as the resentment you feel when others receive what you deeply desire. In many workplaces, it is human nature for people to compare themselves to others. In the workplace, a person will measure and compare themselves against those that are being recognised for their work, those that are promoted and those that seem more valued than they are. These comparisons can trigger envy, especially when someone feels they are inferior to others.

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)


==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Benign envy is associated with positive emotions and encourages positive behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Malicious envy is associated with negative emotions and encourages negative behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
Envy plays a significant role in shaping workplace behaviour because employees constantly observe and compare their progress and recognition and opportunities of those around them. These comparisons can trigger envy which is not just a negative emotion but a complex psychological response influenced by self-efficacy, motivation and social comparison processes. These comparisons highlight an individual's insecurities, making envy an important emotional signal rather than a something negative. When employees feel capable of improving themselves, workplace envy becomes a constructive force that encourages learning, effort and healthy competition. However, workplace envy can also shift into a harmful direction when employees feel threatened, insecure or unable to achieve similar success. In these situations, workplace envy may lead to resentment, withdrawal or undermining behaviour which can disrupt teamwork or damage workplace relationships. By understanding these dynamics, workplaces can respond carefully and recognise the important role envy plays in fostering growth. fairness and healthier interpersonal relationships that will effectively create a positive working culture.
{{tip|Take-home messages:
* Not all workplace envy is negative.
* Envy is an important catalyst for change if driven in a positive way.
* Envy can motivate staff in a constructive way.
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* Envy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2011/Envy|title=Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Envy - Wikiversity|website=en.wikiversity.org|language=en|access-date=2026-08-25}}&lt;/ref&gt; (Book Chapter, 2011) {{ic|See Tutorial 2 for how to create an internal link to a book chapter)
* Jealousy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=|title=|website=|language=|access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt; is not the same as envy (Book Chapter, 2013)
* [[Self-Efficacy]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Aggression in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Aggression in the workplace - Wikiversity]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rivalry in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rivalry in the workplace - Wikiversity]]

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Crusius J., Thierhoff J., Lange J. (2021). Dispositional greed predicts benign and malicious envy. Personality and Individual Differences, 168, 110361. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110361

Dong, Xue T., Yang W. Chung, Joon H. Park, and Jeong K. Yun. 2026. “Workplace Envy and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour: The Mediating Effect of Cynicism and the Moderating Effect of Organizational Support.” Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences / Revue Canadienne des Sciences de l'Administration: e70020. https://doi.org/10.1002/cjas.70020.

Duffy, M. K., Lee, K., &amp; Adair, E. A. (2021). Workplace envy. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 8, 19–44. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012420-055746

Erdil O., Müceldili B. (2014). The effects of envy on job engagement and turnover intention. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 150(1), 447–454. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.09.050

Han, S., Zhan, Y., Zhang, L., &amp; Mu, R. (2022). You Have Received More Help than I Did and I Envy You: A Social Comparison Perspective on Receiving Help in the Team. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8351. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148351

Jafri M. H. (2020). Moderating role of self-efficacy on benign envy—employee engagement relationship. Business Perspectives and Research, 8(2), 232–243. https://doi.org/10.1177/227853371988745

Köksal, K., Tufan, C., Griffiths, M.D. et al. From perceived workplace envy to deviance: a multi-theoretical model of envy-related workplace behaviors and the moderating role of social courage. Curr Psychol 45, 1052 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-026-09607-3

Lange, J., Paulhus, D. L., &amp; Crusius, J. (2018). Elucidating the Dark Side of Envy: Distinctive Links of Benign and Malicious Envy With Dark Personalities. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 44(4), 601-614. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167217746340

Li M., Xu X., Kwan H. K. (2021). The antecedents and consequences of workplace envy: A meta-analytic review. Asia Pacific Journal of Management. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10490-021-09772-y

Li M, Qin Y, Le J (2025), &quot;Mentoring matters: decoding the impact of downward envy on interpersonal conflict, workplace ostracism, and displaced aggression&quot;. Journal of Managerial Psychology, Vol. 40 No. 1 pp. 67–81, doi: https://doi.org/10.1108/JMP-12-2023-0768

Li, Y., &amp; Wang, S. (2023). &quot;Comparisons are Odious&quot;? - Exploring the Dual Effect of Upward Social Comparison on Workplace Coping Behaviors of Temporary Agency Workers. Psychology research and behavior management, 16, 4251–4265. https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S425946

Liu, H., Geng, J., &amp; Yao, P. (2021). Relationship of Leadership and Envy: How to Resolve Workplace Envy with Leadership-A Bibliometric Review Study. Journal of Intelligence, 9(3), 44. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence9030044

Nakai, A. and Numazaki, M. (2026), The Emotional Nature of Malicious and Benign Envy: Separate Measurements for Emotion and Motivation. Jpn Psychol Res. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpr.12568

Song, Y., &amp; Zhao, Z. (2022). Social Undermining and Interpersonal Rumination among Employees: The Mediating Role of Being the Subject of Envy and the Moderating Role of Social Support. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8419. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148419

Su, X., &amp; Chen, C. (2023). The Influence of Workplace Envy on Employees’ Knowledge-Hiding Behavior Based on a Comparative Analysis between Generation Cohorts. Behavioral Sciences, 13(9), 716. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs13090716

Walter CE, Au-Yong-Oliveira M (2022), &quot;An exploratory study on the barriers to innovative behavior: the spiteful effect of envy&quot;. Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol. 35 No. 6 pp. 936–960, https://doi.org/10.1108/JOCM-02-2022-0034

Wilkes, D. (2023) Workplace Envy: Exploring the Effect of Envy on Team Communication and Organizational Information Sharing. Open Journal of Business and Management, 11, 1757-1786. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojbm.2023.114099

Yang C and Tang R (2021) Validating the “Two Faces” of Envy: The Effect of Self-Control. Front. Psychol. 12:731451. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.731451

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
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** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
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* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
The following links provide further background and context to support this book chapter:
* [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/NwGMsgB9mNg Envy: The Ugliest Emotion? Find out the Truth!] (YouTube)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1f9IE3CkB4s How to Stop Comparing Yourself to Others] (YouTube)
* https://www.ted.com/talks/worklife_with_adam_grant_become_friends_with_your_rivals (TedTalk)
* [https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-good-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/ https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-goo-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/] (TedTalk)
* [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/3g0lRfiAXzc Why Workplace Envy Is Secretly Power ? - YouTube] (YouTube)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
&lt;references group=&quot;https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2026/Envy_in_the_workplace&quot; /&gt;
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      <text bytes="18476" sha1="kmx9gcgxenl5f1j2q80znf696upx0si" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Envy in the workplace:&lt;br&gt;What role does envy play in workplace behaviour?}}
__TOC__

=== Overview ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Zonaspace-coworking-collaboration.jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 1'''. Envy can occur in any workplace.]]

;Case study
Jillian and Anna work for the same consulting firm and are at the same level. Jillian recently completed a project that received recognition from senior leaders and she continues to be praised about it. Anna and Jillian get along well, although Anna has started feeling resentful towards Jillian (see Figure 1). 

Anna recently asked Jillian about the project and what tools she used that could possibly assist with her projects. Jillian mentioned she completed a project management course that really changed the way she approaches projects to ensure all milestones are delivered on time and on budget. 

Anna enrols in the same project management course immediately. This is an example of benign envy. By feeling envy towards Jillian, it has motivated Anna to take action to improve herself. With Anna developing her project management skills, this will impact the team and consulting firm in a positive way encouraging extraordinary results. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

[[wikipedia:Envy|Envy]] is a powerful [[emotion]] that drives different behaviours (Yang &amp; Tang, 2021). It can be described as the bitterness or anger you feel when others receive what you deeply or unconsciously desire. In many workplaces, it is human nature for an individual to measure and compare themselves to those that are being recognised or seem more valued than they are. These comparisons can trigger workplace envy, especially when someone feels they are inferior to others. According to Duffy et al (2021), over the last 25 years, there has been growing interest in the phenomenon of workplace envy. While every workplace is filled with opportunities for competition and self-comparison, Liu et al (2021), stated it was important to consider the environment and the timing when looking at workplace envy as it is constantly evolving.  

Workplace envy occurs across a variety of workplace situations although experiences can vary in intensity and frequency and can transform into behavioural reactions. This book chapter describes workplace envy and discusses the role it plays in workplace behaviour. 

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* What is the role of envy in the workplace?
* What is the difference between malicious envy and benign envy? 
* What causes envy and how is it linked to motivation?
* What is the relationship between envy and self-efficacy?
* What is the relationship between envy and social comparison theory?


{{RoundBoxBottom}}
== Role of envy in the workplace ==

There are many causes of envy in the workplace. It can emerge when an employee notices that a colleague has achieved something they desire, such as recognition, a reward, a promotion or an opportunity. It can occur in any workplace where employees constantly compare their performance or progress to those around them, these comparisons can easily activate trigger feelings of envy.   

Through guidance, leadership and intervention, envy can be used as a workplace 'tool' to drive positive behaviour (Liu et al, 2021).  
*Envy can be destructive or can lead to a promotion (Liu et al, 2021) 
*can drive cultural change

== Benign versus malicious envy ==
Workplace envy can be either benign or malicious. Even though they both start with the same feeling of inferiority, they can lead to different reactions (Crusius et al, 2021). Benign envy creates an urge for people to grow while malicious envy leads to negative thoughts or actions that aims to bring a person down (see Table 1).  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Scenario:'''

Jon and Sam have worked together for a long time. They both applied for a promotion within the team recently, Jon was successful and Sam missed out. 

Since then, Sam has started treating Jon unfairly. In meetings, Sam makes negative comments about Jon's ideas. During team lunches, Sam leaves Jon out on purpose. Each day, Sam's behaviour becomes more unfriendly and hurtful.

This is an example of malicious envy. Sam is feeling envious of Jon and is trying to harm and put him down. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}The following table outlines the difference between benign and malicious envy in the workplace.

'''Table 1.'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!
! Benign Envy
! Malicious Envy
|-
| Definition
| Envy that motivates self‑improvement.
| Envy that manifests when someone feels threatened or unable to match another’s achievements.
|-
| Emotional Response
| Encourages growth, motivation and learning.
| Creates feelings of resentment, threat, or inferiority.
|-
| Typical Behaviours
| Working harder, learning new skills, seeking growth or development opportunities.
| Exclusion, gossip, criticism or subtle sabotage.
|-
| Impact on Workplace Culture
| Strengthens workplace culture through healthy competition and personal development.
| Damages trust, teamwork, morale, and can escalate into workplace conflict and create a toxic culture.
|-
| Outcome
| Positive: supports improvement and collaboration.
| Negative: undermines relationships and workplace functioning.
|}

'''Quiz questions.''' Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Benign envy is associated with positive emotions and encourages positive behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Malicious envy is associated with negative emotions and encourages negative behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Relationship between envy and motivation? ==
Envy is linked to number of underlying motivational tendencies (Lange &amp; Crusius, 2015). 

'''Table 2.''' The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model showing the relationship between envy and motivation:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Motivation to improve
(benign envy) 
| Blind spot: Fear based motivation noticed 
by others but not yourself 
(applies to malicious envy).
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Fear of failure
(malicious envy 
| Benign envy - hidden motivation
|}

== Behaviours caused by self-efficacy? ==
Self-efficacy is the mental switch that determines whether envy will lead to a positive or negative behaviour. The two types of self-efficacy are:

* [[File:Self and environment.png|thumb|'''Figure 3.'''  Self-efficacy factors.]]high self-efficacy
* low self-efficacy
* Example of each of the above


== Relationship between workplace envy and social comparison theory? ==
Social comparison theory assumes that individuals tend to compare their opinions and abilities to others. Feeling threatened in the workplace makes people judge themselves more harshly as they believe they cannot match their colleague's social status or success.
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Call center (8300442093).jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 4'''. Social Comparison Theory at play in a Call Centre.]]

;Case study
At ReadyCall, everyone's daily call numbers are recorded on a big screen. Ebony is new and she keeps comparing herself to Rick, a senior worker who always has the highest call numbers. Seeing the gap makes Ebony feel stressed and worried she isn't good enough.

Ebony's manager explains that Rick learned his skills over many years and wasn't fast when he first started. After hearing this, Ebony feels better, learns some tips from Rick, and becomes more confident.

This is an example of social comparison theory, where people judge themselves by comparing their performance to others (see Figure 4). 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
[[File:Happy-smiley-face-and-sad-2048x1536.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Envy can drive positive or negative behaviour in the workplace.]]
[[wikipedia:Envy|Envy]] is a powerful [[emotion]]. It can be described as the resentment you feel when others receive what you deeply desire. In many workplaces, it is human nature for people to compare themselves to others. In the workplace, a person will measure and compare themselves against those that are being recognised for their work, those that are promoted and those that seem more valued than they are. These comparisons can trigger envy, especially when someone feels they are inferior to others.

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citatio
;
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
==Conclusion==
Envy plays a significant role in shaping workplace behaviour because employees constantly observe and compare their progress and recognition and opportunities of those around them. These comparisons can trigger envy which is not just a negative emotion but a complex psychological response influenced by self-efficacy, motivation and social comparison processes. These comparisons highlight an individual's insecurities, making envy an important emotional signal rather than a something negative. When employees feel capable of improving themselves, workplace envy becomes a constructive force that encourages learning, effort and healthy competition. However, workplace envy can also shift into a harmful direction when employees feel threatened, insecure or unable to achieve similar success. In these situations, workplace envy may lead to resentment, withdrawal or undermining behaviour which can disrupt teamwork or damage workplace relationships. By understanding these dynamics, workplaces can respond carefully and recognise the important role envy plays in fostering growth. fairness and healthier interpersonal relationships that will effectively create a positive working culture.
{{tip|Take-home messages:
* Not all workplace envy is negative.
* Envy is an important catalyst for change if driven in a positive way.
* Envy can motivate staff in a constructive way.
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* Envy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2011/Envy|title=Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Envy - Wikiversity|website=en.wikiversity.org|language=en|access-date=2026-08-25}}&lt;/ref&gt; (Book Chapter, 2011) {{ic|See Tutorial 2 for how to create an internal link to a book chapter)
* Jealousy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=|title=|website=|language=|access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt; is not the same as envy (Book Chapter, 2013)
* [[Self-Efficacy]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Aggression in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Aggression in the workplace - Wikiversity]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rivalry in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rivalry in the workplace - Wikiversity]]

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Crusius J., Thierhoff J., Lange J. (2021). Dispositional greed predicts benign and malicious envy. Personality and Individual Differences, 168, 110361. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110361

Dong, Xue T., Yang W. Chung, Joon H. Park, and Jeong K. Yun. 2026. “Workplace Envy and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour: The Mediating Effect of Cynicism and the Moderating Effect of Organizational Support.” Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences / Revue Canadienne des Sciences de l'Administration: e70020. https://doi.org/10.1002/cjas.70020.

Duffy, M. K., Lee, K., &amp; Adair, E. A. (2021). Workplace envy. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 8, 19–44. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012420-055746

Erdil O., Müceldili B. (2014). The effects of envy on job engagement and turnover intention. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 150(1), 447–454. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.09.050

Han, S., Zhan, Y., Zhang, L., &amp; Mu, R. (2022). You Have Received More Help than I Did and I Envy You: A Social Comparison Perspective on Receiving Help in the Team. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8351. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148351

Jafri M. H. (2020). Moderating role of self-efficacy on benign envy—employee engagement relationship. Business Perspectives and Research, 8(2), 232–243. https://doi.org/10.1177/227853371988745

Köksal, K., Tufan, C., Griffiths, M.D. et al. From perceived workplace envy to deviance: a multi-theoretical model of envy-related workplace behaviors and the moderating role of social courage. Curr Psychol 45, 1052 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-026-09607-3

Lange, J., Paulhus, D. L., &amp; Crusius, J. (2018). Elucidating the Dark Side of Envy: Distinctive Links of Benign and Malicious Envy With Dark Personalities. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 44(4), 601-614. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167217746340

Li M., Xu X., Kwan H. K. (2021). The antecedents and consequences of workplace envy: A meta-analytic review. Asia Pacific Journal of Management. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10490-021-09772-y

Li M, Qin Y, Le J (2025), &quot;Mentoring matters: decoding the impact of downward envy on interpersonal conflict, workplace ostracism, and displaced aggression&quot;. Journal of Managerial Psychology, Vol. 40 No. 1 pp. 67–81, doi: https://doi.org/10.1108/JMP-12-2023-0768

Li, Y., &amp; Wang, S. (2023). &quot;Comparisons are Odious&quot;? - Exploring the Dual Effect of Upward Social Comparison on Workplace Coping Behaviors of Temporary Agency Workers. Psychology research and behavior management, 16, 4251–4265. https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S425946

Liu, H., Geng, J., &amp; Yao, P. (2021). Relationship of Leadership and Envy: How to Resolve Workplace Envy with Leadership-A Bibliometric Review Study. Journal of Intelligence, 9(3), 44. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence9030044

Nakai, A. and Numazaki, M. (2026), The Emotional Nature of Malicious and Benign Envy: Separate Measurements for Emotion and Motivation. Jpn Psychol Res. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpr.12568

Song, Y., &amp; Zhao, Z. (2022). Social Undermining and Interpersonal Rumination among Employees: The Mediating Role of Being the Subject of Envy and the Moderating Role of Social Support. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8419. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148419

Su, X., &amp; Chen, C. (2023). The Influence of Workplace Envy on Employees’ Knowledge-Hiding Behavior Based on a Comparative Analysis between Generation Cohorts. Behavioral Sciences, 13(9), 716. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs13090716

Walter CE, Au-Yong-Oliveira M (2022), &quot;An exploratory study on the barriers to innovative behavior: the spiteful effect of envy&quot;. Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol. 35 No. 6 pp. 936–960, https://doi.org/10.1108/JOCM-02-2022-0034

Wilkes, D. (2023) Workplace Envy: Exploring the Effect of Envy on Team Communication and Organizational Information Sharing. Open Journal of Business and Management, 11, 1757-1786. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojbm.2023.114099

Yang C and Tang R (2021) Validating the “Two Faces” of Envy: The Effect of Self-Control. Front. Psychol. 12:731451. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.731451

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
The following links provide further background and context to support this book chapter:
* [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/NwGMsgB9mNg Envy: The Ugliest Emotion? Find out the Truth!] (YouTube)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1f9IE3CkB4s How to Stop Comparing Yourself to Others] (YouTube)
* https://www.ted.com/talks/worklife_with_adam_grant_become_friends_with_your_rivals (TedTalk)
* [https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-good-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/ https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-goo-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/] (TedTalk)
* [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/3g0lRfiAXzc Why Workplace Envy Is Secretly Power ? - YouTube] (YouTube)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
&lt;references group=&quot;https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2026/Envy_in_the_workplace&quot; /&gt;
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      <contributor>
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        <id>3106813</id>
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__TOC__

=== Overview ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Zonaspace-coworking-collaboration.jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 1'''. Envy can occur in any workplace.]]

;Case study
Jillian and Anna work for the same consulting firm and are at the same level. Jillian recently completed a project that received recognition from senior leaders and she continues to be praised about it. Anna and Jillian get along well, although Anna has started feeling resentful towards Jillian (see Figure 1). 

Anna recently asked Jillian about the project and what tools she used that could possibly assist with her projects. Jillian mentioned she completed a project management course that really changed the way she approaches projects to ensure all milestones are delivered on time and on budget. 

Anna enrols in the same project management course immediately. This is an example of benign envy. By feeling envy towards Jillian, it has motivated Anna to take action to improve herself. With Anna developing her project management skills, this will impact the team and consulting firm in a positive way encouraging extraordinary results. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

[[wikipedia:Envy|Envy]] is a powerful [[emotion]] that drives different behaviours (Yang &amp; Tang, 2021). It can be described as the bitterness or anger you feel when others receive what you deeply or unconsciously desire. In many workplaces, it is human nature for an individual to measure and compare themselves to those that are being recognised or seem more valued than they are. These comparisons can trigger workplace envy, especially when someone feels they are inferior to others. According to Duffy et al (2021), over the last 25 years, there has been growing interest in the phenomenon of workplace envy. While every workplace is filled with opportunities for competition and self-comparison, Liu et al (2021), stated it was important to consider the environment and the timing when looking at workplace envy as it is constantly evolving.  

Workplace envy occurs across a variety of workplace situations although experiences can vary in intensity and frequency and can transform into behavioural reactions. This book chapter describes workplace envy and discusses the role it plays in workplace behaviour. 

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* What is the role of envy in the workplace?
* What is the difference between malicious envy and benign envy? 
* What causes envy and how is it linked to motivation?
* What is the relationship between envy and self-efficacy?
* What is the relationship between envy and social comparison theory?


{{RoundBoxBottom}}
== Role of envy in the workplace ==

There are many causes of envy in the workplace. It can emerge when an employee notices that a colleague has achieved something they desire, such as recognition, a reward, a promotion or an opportunity. It can occur in any workplace where employees constantly compare their performance or progress to those around them, these comparisons can easily activate trigger feelings of envy.   

Through guidance, leadership and intervention, envy can be used as a workplace 'tool' to drive positive behaviour (Liu et al, 2021).  
*Envy can be destructive or can lead to a promotion (Liu et al, 2021) 
*can drive cultural change

== Benign versus malicious envy ==
Workplace envy can be either benign or malicious. Even though they both start with the same feeling of inferiority, they can lead to different reactions (Crusius et al, 2021). Benign envy creates an urge for people to grow while malicious envy leads to negative thoughts or actions that aims to bring a person down (see Table 1).  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Scenario:'''

Jon and Sam have worked together for a long time. They both applied for a promotion within the team recently, Jon was successful and Sam missed out. 

Since then, Sam has started treating Jon unfairly. In meetings, Sam makes negative comments about Jon's ideas. During team lunches, Sam leaves Jon out on purpose. Each day, Sam's behaviour becomes more unfriendly and hurtful.

This is an example of malicious envy. Sam is feeling envious of Jon and is trying to harm and put him down. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}The following table outlines the difference between benign and malicious envy in the workplace.

'''Table 1.'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!
! Benign Envy
! Malicious Envy
|-
| Definition
| Envy that motivates self‑improvement.
| Envy that manifests when someone feels threatened or unable to match another’s achievements.
|-
| Emotional Response
| Encourages growth, motivation and learning.
| Creates feelings of resentment, threat, or inferiority.
|-
| Typical Behaviours
| Working harder, learning new skills, seeking growth or development opportunities.
| Exclusion, gossip, criticism or subtle sabotage.
|-
| Impact on Workplace Culture
| Strengthens workplace culture through healthy competition and personal development.
| Damages trust, teamwork, morale, and can escalate into workplace conflict and create a toxic culture.
|-
| Outcome
| Positive: supports improvement and collaboration.
| Negative: undermines relationships and workplace functioning.
|}

'''Quiz questions.''' Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Benign envy is associated with positive emotions and encourages positive behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Malicious envy is associated with negative emotions and encourages negative behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Relationship between envy and motivation? ==
Envy is linked to number of underlying motivational tendencies (Lange &amp; Crusius, 2015). 

'''Table 2.''' The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model showing the relationship between envy and motivation:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Motivation to improve
(benign envy) 
| Blind spot: Fear based motivation noticed 
by others but not yourself (applies to malicious envy)
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Fear of failure
(malicious envy) 
| Hidden motivation (benign envy)
|}

== Behaviours caused by self-efficacy? ==
Self-efficacy is the mental switch that determines whether envy will lead to a positive or negative behaviour. The two types of self-efficacy are:

* [[File:Self and environment.png|thumb|'''Figure 3.'''  Self-efficacy factors.]]high self-efficacy
* low self-efficacy
* Example of each of the above


== Relationship between workplace envy and social comparison theory? ==
Social comparison theory assumes that individuals tend to compare their opinions and abilities to others. Feeling threatened in the workplace makes people judge themselves more harshly as they believe they cannot match their colleague's social status or success.
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Call center (8300442093).jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 4'''. Social Comparison Theory at play in a Call Centre.]]

;Case study
At ReadyCall, everyone's daily call numbers are recorded on a big screen. Ebony is new and she keeps comparing herself to Rick, a senior worker who always has the highest call numbers. Seeing the gap makes Ebony feel stressed and worried she isn't good enough.

Ebony's manager explains that Rick learned his skills over many years and wasn't fast when he first started. After hearing this, Ebony feels better, learns some tips from Rick, and becomes more confident.

This is an example of social comparison theory, where people judge themselves by comparing their performance to others (see Figure 4). 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
[[File:Happy-smiley-face-and-sad-2048x1536.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Envy can drive positive or negative behaviour in the workplace.]]
[[wikipedia:Envy|Envy]] is a powerful [[emotion]]. It can be described as the resentment you feel when others receive what you deeply desire. In many workplaces, it is human nature for people to compare themselves to others. In the workplace, a person will measure and compare themselves against those that are being recognised for their work, those that are promoted and those that seem more valued than they are. These comparisons can trigger envy, especially when someone feels they are inferior to others.

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citatio
;
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
==Conclusion==
Envy plays a significant role in shaping workplace behaviour because employees constantly observe and compare their progress and recognition and opportunities of those around them. These comparisons can trigger envy which is not just a negative emotion but a complex psychological response influenced by self-efficacy, motivation and social comparison processes. These comparisons highlight an individual's insecurities, making envy an important emotional signal rather than a something negative. When employees feel capable of improving themselves, workplace envy becomes a constructive force that encourages learning, effort and healthy competition. However, workplace envy can also shift into a harmful direction when employees feel threatened, insecure or unable to achieve similar success. In these situations, workplace envy may lead to resentment, withdrawal or undermining behaviour which can disrupt teamwork or damage workplace relationships. By understanding these dynamics, workplaces can respond carefully and recognise the important role envy plays in fostering growth. fairness and healthier interpersonal relationships that will effectively create a positive working culture.
{{tip|Take-home messages:
* Not all workplace envy is negative.
* Envy is an important catalyst for change if driven in a positive way.
* Envy can motivate staff in a constructive way.
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* Envy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2011/Envy|title=Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Envy - Wikiversity|website=en.wikiversity.org|language=en|access-date=2026-08-25}}&lt;/ref&gt; (Book Chapter, 2011) {{ic|See Tutorial 2 for how to create an internal link to a book chapter)
* Jealousy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=|title=|website=|language=|access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt; is not the same as envy (Book Chapter, 2013)
* [[Self-Efficacy]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Aggression in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Aggression in the workplace - Wikiversity]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rivalry in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rivalry in the workplace - Wikiversity]]

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Crusius J., Thierhoff J., Lange J. (2021). Dispositional greed predicts benign and malicious envy. Personality and Individual Differences, 168, 110361. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110361

Dong, Xue T., Yang W. Chung, Joon H. Park, and Jeong K. Yun. 2026. “Workplace Envy and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour: The Mediating Effect of Cynicism and the Moderating Effect of Organizational Support.” Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences / Revue Canadienne des Sciences de l'Administration: e70020. https://doi.org/10.1002/cjas.70020.

Duffy, M. K., Lee, K., &amp; Adair, E. A. (2021). Workplace envy. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 8, 19–44. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012420-055746

Erdil O., Müceldili B. (2014). The effects of envy on job engagement and turnover intention. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 150(1), 447–454. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.09.050

Han, S., Zhan, Y., Zhang, L., &amp; Mu, R. (2022). You Have Received More Help than I Did and I Envy You: A Social Comparison Perspective on Receiving Help in the Team. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8351. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148351

Jafri M. H. (2020). Moderating role of self-efficacy on benign envy—employee engagement relationship. Business Perspectives and Research, 8(2), 232–243. https://doi.org/10.1177/227853371988745

Köksal, K., Tufan, C., Griffiths, M.D. et al. From perceived workplace envy to deviance: a multi-theoretical model of envy-related workplace behaviors and the moderating role of social courage. Curr Psychol 45, 1052 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-026-09607-3

Lange, J., Paulhus, D. L., &amp; Crusius, J. (2018). Elucidating the Dark Side of Envy: Distinctive Links of Benign and Malicious Envy With Dark Personalities. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 44(4), 601-614. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167217746340

Li M., Xu X., Kwan H. K. (2021). The antecedents and consequences of workplace envy: A meta-analytic review. Asia Pacific Journal of Management. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10490-021-09772-y

Li M, Qin Y, Le J (2025), &quot;Mentoring matters: decoding the impact of downward envy on interpersonal conflict, workplace ostracism, and displaced aggression&quot;. Journal of Managerial Psychology, Vol. 40 No. 1 pp. 67–81, doi: https://doi.org/10.1108/JMP-12-2023-0768

Li, Y., &amp; Wang, S. (2023). &quot;Comparisons are Odious&quot;? - Exploring the Dual Effect of Upward Social Comparison on Workplace Coping Behaviors of Temporary Agency Workers. Psychology research and behavior management, 16, 4251–4265. https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S425946

Liu, H., Geng, J., &amp; Yao, P. (2021). Relationship of Leadership and Envy: How to Resolve Workplace Envy with Leadership-A Bibliometric Review Study. Journal of Intelligence, 9(3), 44. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence9030044

Nakai, A. and Numazaki, M. (2026), The Emotional Nature of Malicious and Benign Envy: Separate Measurements for Emotion and Motivation. Jpn Psychol Res. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpr.12568

Song, Y., &amp; Zhao, Z. (2022). Social Undermining and Interpersonal Rumination among Employees: The Mediating Role of Being the Subject of Envy and the Moderating Role of Social Support. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8419. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148419

Su, X., &amp; Chen, C. (2023). The Influence of Workplace Envy on Employees’ Knowledge-Hiding Behavior Based on a Comparative Analysis between Generation Cohorts. Behavioral Sciences, 13(9), 716. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs13090716

Walter CE, Au-Yong-Oliveira M (2022), &quot;An exploratory study on the barriers to innovative behavior: the spiteful effect of envy&quot;. Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol. 35 No. 6 pp. 936–960, https://doi.org/10.1108/JOCM-02-2022-0034

Wilkes, D. (2023) Workplace Envy: Exploring the Effect of Envy on Team Communication and Organizational Information Sharing. Open Journal of Business and Management, 11, 1757-1786. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojbm.2023.114099

Yang C and Tang R (2021) Validating the “Two Faces” of Envy: The Effect of Self-Control. Front. Psychol. 12:731451. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.731451

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
The following links provide further background and context to support this book chapter:
* [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/NwGMsgB9mNg Envy: The Ugliest Emotion? Find out the Truth!] (YouTube)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1f9IE3CkB4s How to Stop Comparing Yourself to Others] (YouTube)
* https://www.ted.com/talks/worklife_with_adam_grant_become_friends_with_your_rivals (TedTalk)
* [https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-good-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/ https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-goo-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/] (TedTalk)
* [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/3g0lRfiAXzc Why Workplace Envy Is Secretly Power ? - YouTube] (YouTube)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
&lt;references group=&quot;https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2026/Envy_in_the_workplace&quot; /&gt;
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__TOC__

=== Overview ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Zonaspace-coworking-collaboration.jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 1'''. Envy can occur in any workplace.]]

;Case study
Jillian and Anna work for the same consulting firm and are at the same level. Jillian recently completed a project that received recognition from senior leaders and she continues to be praised about it. Anna and Jillian get along well, although Anna has started feeling resentful towards Jillian (see Figure 1). 

Anna recently asked Jillian about the project and what tools she used that could possibly assist with her projects. Jillian mentioned she completed a project management course that really changed the way she approaches projects to ensure all milestones are delivered on time and on budget. 

Anna enrols in the same project management course immediately. This is an example of benign envy. By feeling envy towards Jillian, it has motivated Anna to take action to improve herself. With Anna developing her project management skills, this will impact the team and consulting firm in a positive way encouraging extraordinary results. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

[[wikipedia:Envy|Envy]] is a powerful [[emotion]] that drives different behaviours (Yang &amp; Tang, 2021). It can be described as the bitterness or anger you feel when others receive what you deeply or unconsciously desire. In many workplaces, it is human nature for an individual to measure and compare themselves to those that are being recognised or seem more valued than they are. These comparisons can trigger workplace envy, especially when someone feels they are inferior to others. According to Duffy et al (2021), over the last 25 years, there has been growing interest in the phenomenon of workplace envy. While every workplace is filled with opportunities for competition and self-comparison, Liu et al (2021), stated it was important to consider the environment and the timing when looking at workplace envy as it is constantly evolving.  

Workplace envy occurs across a variety of workplace situations although experiences can vary in intensity and frequency and can transform into behavioural reactions. This book chapter describes workplace envy and discusses the role it plays in workplace behaviour. 

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* What is the role of envy in the workplace?
* What is the difference between malicious envy and benign envy? 
* What causes envy and how is it linked to motivation?
* What is the relationship between envy and self-efficacy?
* What is the relationship between envy and social comparison theory?


{{RoundBoxBottom}}
== Role of envy in the workplace ==

There are many causes of envy in the workplace. It can emerge when an employee notices that a colleague has achieved something they desire, such as recognition, a reward, a promotion or an opportunity. It can occur in any workplace where employees constantly compare their performance or progress to those around them, these comparisons can easily activate trigger feelings of envy.   

Through guidance, leadership and intervention, envy can be used as a workplace 'tool' to drive positive behaviour (Liu et al, 2021).  
*Envy can be destructive or can lead to a promotion (Liu et al, 2021) 
*can drive cultural change

== Benign versus malicious envy ==
Workplace envy can be either benign or malicious. Even though they both start with the same feeling of inferiority, they can lead to different reactions (Crusius et al, 2021). Benign envy creates an urge for people to grow while malicious envy leads to negative thoughts or actions that aims to bring a person down (see Table 1).  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Scenario:'''

Jon and Sam have worked together for a long time. They both applied for a promotion within the team recently, Jon was successful and Sam missed out. 

Since then, Sam has started treating Jon unfairly. In meetings, Sam makes negative comments about Jon's ideas. During team lunches, Sam leaves Jon out on purpose. Each day, Sam's behaviour becomes more unfriendly and hurtful.

This is an example of malicious envy. Sam is feeling envious of Jon and is trying to harm and put him down. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}The following table outlines the difference between benign and malicious envy in the workplace.

'''Table 1.'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!
! Benign Envy
! Malicious Envy
|-
| Definition
| Envy that motivates self‑improvement.
| Envy that manifests when someone feels threatened or unable to match another’s achievements.
|-
| Emotional Response
| Encourages growth, motivation and learning.
| Creates feelings of resentment, threat, or inferiority.
|-
| Typical Behaviours
| Working harder, learning new skills, seeking growth or development opportunities.
| Exclusion, gossip, criticism or subtle sabotage.
|-
| Impact on Workplace Culture
| Strengthens workplace culture through healthy competition and personal development.
| Damages trust, teamwork, morale, and can escalate into workplace conflict and create a toxic culture.
|-
| Outcome
| Positive: supports improvement and collaboration.
| Negative: undermines relationships and workplace functioning.
|}

'''Quiz questions.''' Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Benign envy is associated with positive emotions and encourages positive behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Malicious envy is associated with negative emotions and encourages negative behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Relationship between envy and motivation? ==
Envy is linked to number of underlying motivational tendencies (Lange &amp; Crusius, 2015). 

'''Table 2.''' The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model showing the relationship between envy and motivation:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Motivation to improve
(benign envy) 
| Blind spot: Fear based motivation noticed 
by others but not yourself (applies to malicious envy)
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Fear of failure
(malicious envy) 
| Hidden motivation (benign envy)
|}

== Behaviours caused by self-efficacy? ==
Self-efficacy is the mental switch that determines whether envy will lead to a positive or negative behaviour. The two types of self-efficacy are:

* [[File:Self and environment.png|thumb|'''Figure 3.'''  Self-efficacy factors.]]

==== High self-efficacy ====

==== Low self-efficacy ====


== Relationship between workplace envy and social comparison theory? ==
Social comparison theory assumes that individuals tend to compare their opinions and abilities to others. Feeling threatened in the workplace makes people judge themselves more harshly as they believe they cannot match their colleague's social status or success.
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Call center (8300442093).jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 4'''. Social Comparison Theory at play in a Call Centre.]]

;Case study
At ReadyCall, everyone's daily call numbers are recorded on a big screen. Ebony is new and she keeps comparing herself to Rick, a senior worker who always has the highest call numbers. Seeing the gap makes Ebony feel stressed and worried she isn't good enough.

Ebony's manager explains that Rick learned his skills over many years and wasn't fast when he first started. After hearing this, Ebony feels better, learns some tips from Rick, and becomes more confident.

This is an example of social comparison theory, where people judge themselves by comparing their performance to others (see Figure 4). 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
[[File:Happy-smiley-face-and-sad-2048x1536.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Envy can drive positive or negative behaviour in the workplace.]]
[[wikipedia:Envy|Envy]] is a powerful [[emotion]]. It can be described as the resentment you feel when others receive what you deeply desire. In many workplaces, it is human nature for people to compare themselves to others. In the workplace, a person will measure and compare themselves against those that are being recognised for their work, those that are promoted and those that seem more valued than they are. These comparisons can trigger envy, especially when someone feels they are inferior to others.

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citatio
;
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
==Conclusion==
Envy plays a significant role in shaping workplace behaviour because employees constantly observe and compare their progress and recognition and opportunities of those around them. These comparisons can trigger envy which is not just a negative emotion but a complex psychological response influenced by self-efficacy, motivation and social comparison processes. These comparisons highlight an individual's insecurities, making envy an important emotional signal rather than a something negative. When employees feel capable of improving themselves, workplace envy becomes a constructive force that encourages learning, effort and healthy competition. However, workplace envy can also shift into a harmful direction when employees feel threatened, insecure or unable to achieve similar success. In these situations, workplace envy may lead to resentment, withdrawal or undermining behaviour which can disrupt teamwork or damage workplace relationships. By understanding these dynamics, workplaces can respond carefully and recognise the important role envy plays in fostering growth. fairness and healthier interpersonal relationships that will effectively create a positive working culture.
{{tip|Take-home messages:
* Not all workplace envy is negative.
* Envy is an important catalyst for change if driven in a positive way.
* Envy can motivate staff in a constructive way.
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* Envy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2011/Envy|title=Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Envy - Wikiversity|website=en.wikiversity.org|language=en|access-date=2026-08-25}}&lt;/ref&gt; (Book Chapter, 2011) {{ic|See Tutorial 2 for how to create an internal link to a book chapter)
* Jealousy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=|title=|website=|language=|access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt; is not the same as envy (Book Chapter, 2013)
* [[Self-Efficacy]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Aggression in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Aggression in the workplace - Wikiversity]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rivalry in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rivalry in the workplace - Wikiversity]]

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Crusius J., Thierhoff J., Lange J. (2021). Dispositional greed predicts benign and malicious envy. Personality and Individual Differences, 168, 110361. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110361

Dong, Xue T., Yang W. Chung, Joon H. Park, and Jeong K. Yun. 2026. “Workplace Envy and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour: The Mediating Effect of Cynicism and the Moderating Effect of Organizational Support.” Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences / Revue Canadienne des Sciences de l'Administration: e70020. https://doi.org/10.1002/cjas.70020.

Duffy, M. K., Lee, K., &amp; Adair, E. A. (2021). Workplace envy. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 8, 19–44. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012420-055746

Erdil O., Müceldili B. (2014). The effects of envy on job engagement and turnover intention. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 150(1), 447–454. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.09.050

Han, S., Zhan, Y., Zhang, L., &amp; Mu, R. (2022). You Have Received More Help than I Did and I Envy You: A Social Comparison Perspective on Receiving Help in the Team. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8351. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148351

Jafri M. H. (2020). Moderating role of self-efficacy on benign envy—employee engagement relationship. Business Perspectives and Research, 8(2), 232–243. https://doi.org/10.1177/227853371988745

Köksal, K., Tufan, C., Griffiths, M.D. et al. From perceived workplace envy to deviance: a multi-theoretical model of envy-related workplace behaviors and the moderating role of social courage. Curr Psychol 45, 1052 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-026-09607-3

Lange, J., Paulhus, D. L., &amp; Crusius, J. (2018). Elucidating the Dark Side of Envy: Distinctive Links of Benign and Malicious Envy With Dark Personalities. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 44(4), 601-614. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167217746340

Li M., Xu X., Kwan H. K. (2021). The antecedents and consequences of workplace envy: A meta-analytic review. Asia Pacific Journal of Management. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10490-021-09772-y

Li M, Qin Y, Le J (2025), &quot;Mentoring matters: decoding the impact of downward envy on interpersonal conflict, workplace ostracism, and displaced aggression&quot;. Journal of Managerial Psychology, Vol. 40 No. 1 pp. 67–81, doi: https://doi.org/10.1108/JMP-12-2023-0768

Li, Y., &amp; Wang, S. (2023). &quot;Comparisons are Odious&quot;? - Exploring the Dual Effect of Upward Social Comparison on Workplace Coping Behaviors of Temporary Agency Workers. Psychology research and behavior management, 16, 4251–4265. https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S425946

Liu, H., Geng, J., &amp; Yao, P. (2021). Relationship of Leadership and Envy: How to Resolve Workplace Envy with Leadership-A Bibliometric Review Study. Journal of Intelligence, 9(3), 44. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence9030044

Nakai, A. and Numazaki, M. (2026), The Emotional Nature of Malicious and Benign Envy: Separate Measurements for Emotion and Motivation. Jpn Psychol Res. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpr.12568

Song, Y., &amp; Zhao, Z. (2022). Social Undermining and Interpersonal Rumination among Employees: The Mediating Role of Being the Subject of Envy and the Moderating Role of Social Support. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8419. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148419

Su, X., &amp; Chen, C. (2023). The Influence of Workplace Envy on Employees’ Knowledge-Hiding Behavior Based on a Comparative Analysis between Generation Cohorts. Behavioral Sciences, 13(9), 716. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs13090716

Walter CE, Au-Yong-Oliveira M (2022), &quot;An exploratory study on the barriers to innovative behavior: the spiteful effect of envy&quot;. Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol. 35 No. 6 pp. 936–960, https://doi.org/10.1108/JOCM-02-2022-0034

Wilkes, D. (2023) Workplace Envy: Exploring the Effect of Envy on Team Communication and Organizational Information Sharing. Open Journal of Business and Management, 11, 1757-1786. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojbm.2023.114099

Yang C and Tang R (2021) Validating the “Two Faces” of Envy: The Effect of Self-Control. Front. Psychol. 12:731451. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.731451

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
The following links provide further background and context to support this book chapter:
* [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/NwGMsgB9mNg Envy: The Ugliest Emotion? Find out the Truth!] (YouTube)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1f9IE3CkB4s How to Stop Comparing Yourself to Others] (YouTube)
* https://www.ted.com/talks/worklife_with_adam_grant_become_friends_with_your_rivals (TedTalk)
* [https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-good-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/ https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-goo-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/] (TedTalk)
* [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/3g0lRfiAXzc Why Workplace Envy Is Secretly Power ? - YouTube] (YouTube)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
&lt;references group=&quot;https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2026/Envy_in_the_workplace&quot; /&gt;
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__TOC__

=== Overview ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Zonaspace-coworking-collaboration.jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 1'''. Envy can occur in any workplace.]]

;Case study
Jillian and Anna work for the same consulting firm and are at the same level. Jillian recently completed a project that received recognition from senior leaders and she continues to be praised about it. Anna and Jillian get along well, although Anna has started feeling resentful towards Jillian (see Figure 1). 

Anna recently asked Jillian about the project and what tools she used that could possibly assist with her projects. Jillian mentioned she completed a project management course that really changed the way she approaches projects to ensure all milestones are delivered on time and on budget. 

Anna enrols in the same project management course immediately. This is an example of benign envy. By feeling envy towards Jillian, it has motivated Anna to take action to improve herself. With Anna developing her project management skills, this will impact the team and consulting firm in a positive way encouraging extraordinary results. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

[[wikipedia:Envy|Envy]] is a powerful [[emotion]] that drives different behaviours (Yang &amp; Tang, 2021). It can be described as the bitterness or anger you feel when others receive what you deeply or unconsciously desire. In many workplaces, it is human nature for an individual to measure and compare themselves to those that are being recognised or seem more valued than they are. These comparisons can trigger workplace envy, especially when someone feels they are inferior to others. According to Duffy et al (2021), over the last 25 years, there has been growing interest in the phenomenon of workplace envy. While every workplace is filled with opportunities for competition and self-comparison, Liu et al (2021), stated it was important to consider the environment and the timing when looking at workplace envy as it is constantly evolving.  

Workplace envy occurs across a variety of workplace situations although experiences can vary in intensity and frequency and can transform into behavioural reactions. This book chapter describes workplace envy and discusses the role it plays in workplace behaviour. 

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* What is the role of envy in the workplace?
* What is the difference between malicious envy and benign envy? 
* What causes envy and how is it linked to motivation?
* What is the relationship between envy and self-efficacy?
* What is the relationship between envy and social comparison theory?


{{RoundBoxBottom}}
== Role of envy in the workplace ==

There are many causes of envy in the workplace. It can emerge when an employee notices that a colleague has achieved something they desire, such as recognition, a reward, a promotion or an opportunity. It can occur in any workplace where employees constantly compare their performance or progress to those around them, these comparisons can easily activate trigger feelings of envy.   

Through guidance, leadership and intervention, envy can be used as a workplace 'tool' to drive positive behaviour (Liu et al, 2021).  
*Envy can be destructive or can lead to a promotion (Liu et al, 2021) 
*can drive cultural change

== Benign versus malicious envy ==
Workplace envy can be either benign or malicious. Even though they both start with the same feeling of inferiority, they can lead to different reactions (Crusius et al, 2021). Benign envy creates an urge for people to grow while malicious envy leads to negative thoughts or actions that aims to bring a person down (see Table 1).  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Scenario:'''

Jon and Sam have worked together for a long time. They both applied for a promotion within the team recently, Jon was successful and Sam missed out. 

Since then, Sam has started treating Jon unfairly. In meetings, Sam makes negative comments about Jon's ideas. During team lunches, Sam leaves Jon out on purpose. Each day, Sam's behaviour becomes more unfriendly and hurtful.

This is an example of malicious envy. Sam is feeling envious of Jon and is trying to harm and put him down. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}The following table outlines the difference between benign and malicious envy in the workplace.

'''Table 1.'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!
! Benign Envy
! Malicious Envy
|-
| Definition
| Envy that motivates self‑improvement.
| Envy that manifests when someone feels threatened or unable to match another’s achievements.
|-
| Emotional Response
| Encourages growth, motivation and learning.
| Creates feelings of resentment, threat, or inferiority.
|-
| Typical Behaviours
| Working harder, learning new skills, seeking growth or development opportunities.
| Exclusion, gossip, criticism or subtle sabotage.
|-
| Impact on Workplace Culture
| Strengthens workplace culture through healthy competition and personal development.
| Damages trust, teamwork, morale, and can escalate into workplace conflict and create a toxic culture.
|-
| Outcome
| Positive: supports improvement and collaboration.
| Negative: undermines relationships and workplace functioning.
|}

'''Quiz questions.''' Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Benign envy is associated with positive emotions and encourages positive behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Malicious envy is associated with negative emotions and encourages negative behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Relationship between envy and motivation? ==
Envy is linked to number of underlying motivational tendencies (Lange &amp; Crusius, 2015). 

'''Table 2.''' The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model showing the relationship between envy and motivation:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Motivation to improve
(benign envy) 
| Blind spot: Fear based motivation noticed 
by others but not yourself (applies to malicious envy)
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Fear of failure
(malicious envy) 
| Hidden motivation (benign envy)
|}

== Behaviours caused by self-efficacy? ==
Self-efficacy is the mental switch that determines whether envy will lead to a positive or negative behaviour. The two types of self-efficacy are:

* [[File:Self and environment.png|thumb|'''Figure 3.'''  Self-efficacy factors.]]

==== High self-efficacy ====

==== Low self-efficacy ====


== Relationship between workplace envy and social comparison theory? ==
Social comparison theory explains that individuals tend to compare their opinions and abilities to others which affects how they feel and behave (Han et al, 2022). Feeling threatened in the workplace makes people judge themselves more harshly as they believe they cannot match their colleague's social status or success.
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Call center (8300442093).jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 4'''. Social Comparison Theory at play in a Call Centre.]]

;Case study
At ReadyCall, everyone's daily call numbers are recorded on a big screen. Ebony is new and she keeps comparing herself to Rick, a senior worker who always has the highest call numbers. Seeing the gap makes Ebony feel stressed and worried she isn't good enough.

Ebony's manager explains that Rick learned his skills over many years and wasn't fast when he first started. After hearing this, Ebony feels better, learns some tips from Rick, and becomes more confident.

This is an example of social comparison theory, where people judge themselves by comparing their performance to others (see Figure 4). 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
[[File:Happy-smiley-face-and-sad-2048x1536.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Envy can drive positive or negative behaviour in the workplace.]]
[[wikipedia:Envy|Envy]] is a powerful [[emotion]]. It can be described as the resentment you feel when others receive what you deeply desire. In many workplaces, it is human nature for people to compare themselves to others. In the workplace, a person will measure and compare themselves against those that are being recognised for their work, those that are promoted and those that seem more valued than they are. These comparisons can trigger envy, especially when someone feels they are inferior to others.

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citatio
;
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
==Conclusion==
Envy plays a significant role in shaping workplace behaviour because employees constantly observe and compare their progress and recognition and opportunities of those around them. These comparisons can trigger envy which is not just a negative emotion but a complex psychological response influenced by self-efficacy, motivation and social comparison processes. These comparisons highlight an individual's insecurities, making envy an important emotional signal rather than a something negative. When employees feel capable of improving themselves, workplace envy becomes a constructive force that encourages learning, effort and healthy competition. However, workplace envy can also shift into a harmful direction when employees feel threatened, insecure or unable to achieve similar success. In these situations, workplace envy may lead to resentment, withdrawal or undermining behaviour which can disrupt teamwork or damage workplace relationships. By understanding these dynamics, workplaces can respond carefully and recognise the important role envy plays in fostering growth. fairness and healthier interpersonal relationships that will effectively create a positive working culture.
{{tip|Take-home messages:
* Not all workplace envy is negative.
* Envy is an important catalyst for change if driven in a positive way.
* Envy can motivate staff in a constructive way.
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* Envy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2011/Envy|title=Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Envy - Wikiversity|website=en.wikiversity.org|language=en|access-date=2026-08-25}}&lt;/ref&gt; (Book Chapter, 2011) {{ic|See Tutorial 2 for how to create an internal link to a book chapter)
* Jealousy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=|title=|website=|language=|access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt; is not the same as envy (Book Chapter, 2013)
* [[Self-Efficacy]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Aggression in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Aggression in the workplace - Wikiversity]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rivalry in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rivalry in the workplace - Wikiversity]]

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Crusius J., Thierhoff J., Lange J. (2021). Dispositional greed predicts benign and malicious envy. Personality and Individual Differences, 168, 110361. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110361

Dong, Xue T., Yang W. Chung, Joon H. Park, and Jeong K. Yun. 2026. “Workplace Envy and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour: The Mediating Effect of Cynicism and the Moderating Effect of Organizational Support.” Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences / Revue Canadienne des Sciences de l'Administration: e70020. https://doi.org/10.1002/cjas.70020.

Duffy, M. K., Lee, K., &amp; Adair, E. A. (2021). Workplace envy. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 8, 19–44. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012420-055746

Erdil O., Müceldili B. (2014). The effects of envy on job engagement and turnover intention. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 150(1), 447–454. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.09.050

Han, S., Zhan, Y., Zhang, L., &amp; Mu, R. (2022). You Have Received More Help than I Did and I Envy You: A Social Comparison Perspective on Receiving Help in the Team. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8351. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148351

Jafri M. H. (2020). Moderating role of self-efficacy on benign envy—employee engagement relationship. Business Perspectives and Research, 8(2), 232–243. https://doi.org/10.1177/227853371988745

Köksal, K., Tufan, C., Griffiths, M.D. et al. From perceived workplace envy to deviance: a multi-theoretical model of envy-related workplace behaviors and the moderating role of social courage. Curr Psychol 45, 1052 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-026-09607-3

Lange, J., Paulhus, D. L., &amp; Crusius, J. (2018). Elucidating the Dark Side of Envy: Distinctive Links of Benign and Malicious Envy With Dark Personalities. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 44(4), 601-614. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167217746340

Li M., Xu X., Kwan H. K. (2021). The antecedents and consequences of workplace envy: A meta-analytic review. Asia Pacific Journal of Management. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10490-021-09772-y

Li M, Qin Y, Le J (2025), &quot;Mentoring matters: decoding the impact of downward envy on interpersonal conflict, workplace ostracism, and displaced aggression&quot;. Journal of Managerial Psychology, Vol. 40 No. 1 pp. 67–81, doi: https://doi.org/10.1108/JMP-12-2023-0768

Li, Y., &amp; Wang, S. (2023). &quot;Comparisons are Odious&quot;? - Exploring the Dual Effect of Upward Social Comparison on Workplace Coping Behaviors of Temporary Agency Workers. Psychology research and behavior management, 16, 4251–4265. https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S425946

Liu, H., Geng, J., &amp; Yao, P. (2021). Relationship of Leadership and Envy: How to Resolve Workplace Envy with Leadership-A Bibliometric Review Study. Journal of Intelligence, 9(3), 44. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence9030044

Nakai, A. and Numazaki, M. (2026), The Emotional Nature of Malicious and Benign Envy: Separate Measurements for Emotion and Motivation. Jpn Psychol Res. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpr.12568

Song, Y., &amp; Zhao, Z. (2022). Social Undermining and Interpersonal Rumination among Employees: The Mediating Role of Being the Subject of Envy and the Moderating Role of Social Support. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8419. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148419

Su, X., &amp; Chen, C. (2023). The Influence of Workplace Envy on Employees’ Knowledge-Hiding Behavior Based on a Comparative Analysis between Generation Cohorts. Behavioral Sciences, 13(9), 716. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs13090716

Walter CE, Au-Yong-Oliveira M (2022), &quot;An exploratory study on the barriers to innovative behavior: the spiteful effect of envy&quot;. Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol. 35 No. 6 pp. 936–960, https://doi.org/10.1108/JOCM-02-2022-0034

Wilkes, D. (2023) Workplace Envy: Exploring the Effect of Envy on Team Communication and Organizational Information Sharing. Open Journal of Business and Management, 11, 1757-1786. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojbm.2023.114099

Yang C and Tang R (2021) Validating the “Two Faces” of Envy: The Effect of Self-Control. Front. Psychol. 12:731451. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.731451

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
The following links provide further background and context to support this book chapter:
* [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/NwGMsgB9mNg Envy: The Ugliest Emotion? Find out the Truth!] (YouTube)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1f9IE3CkB4s How to Stop Comparing Yourself to Others] (YouTube)
* https://www.ted.com/talks/worklife_with_adam_grant_become_friends_with_your_rivals (TedTalk)
* [https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-good-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/ https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-goo-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/] (TedTalk)
* [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/3g0lRfiAXzc Why Workplace Envy Is Secretly Power ? - YouTube] (YouTube)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
&lt;references group=&quot;https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2026/Envy_in_the_workplace&quot; /&gt;
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__TOC__

=== Overview ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Zonaspace-coworking-collaboration.jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 1'''. Envy can occur in any workplace.]]

;Case study
Jillian and Anna work for the same consulting firm and are at the same level. Jillian recently completed a project that received recognition from senior leaders and she continues to be praised about it. Anna and Jillian get along well, although Anna has started feeling resentful towards Jillian (see Figure 1). 

Anna recently asked Jillian about the project and what tools she used that could possibly assist with her projects. Jillian mentioned she completed a project management course that really changed the way she approaches projects to ensure all milestones are delivered on time and on budget. 

Anna enrols in the same project management course immediately. This is an example of benign envy. By feeling envy towards Jillian, it has motivated Anna to take action to improve herself. With Anna developing her project management skills, this will impact the team and consulting firm in a positive way encouraging extraordinary results. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

[[wikipedia:Envy|Envy]] is a powerful [[emotion]] that drives different behaviours (Yang &amp; Tang, 2021). It can be described as the bitterness or anger you feel when others receive what you deeply or unconsciously desire. In many workplaces, it is human nature for an individual to measure and compare themselves to those that are being recognised or seem more valued than they are. These comparisons can trigger workplace envy, especially when someone feels they are inferior to others. According to Duffy et al (2021), over the last 25 years, there has been growing interest in the phenomenon of workplace envy. While every workplace is filled with opportunities for competition and self-comparison, Liu et al (2021), stated it was important to consider the environment and the timing when looking at workplace envy as it is constantly evolving.  

Workplace envy occurs across a variety of workplace situations although experiences can vary in intensity and frequency and can transform into behavioural reactions. This book chapter describes workplace envy and discusses the role it plays in workplace behaviour. 

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* What is the role of envy in the workplace?
* What is the difference between malicious envy and benign envy? 
* What causes envy and how is it linked to motivation?
* What is the relationship between envy and self-efficacy?
* What is the relationship between envy and social comparison theory?


{{RoundBoxBottom}}
== Role of envy in the workplace ==

There are many causes of envy in the workplace. It can emerge when an employee notices that a colleague has achieved something they desire, such as recognition, a reward, a promotion or an opportunity. It can occur in any workplace where employees constantly compare their performance or progress to those around them, these comparisons can easily activate trigger feelings of envy.   

Through guidance, leadership and intervention, envy can be used as a workplace 'tool' to drive positive behaviour (Liu et al, 2021).  
*Envy can be destructive or can lead to a promotion (Liu et al, 2021) 
*can drive cultural change

== Benign versus malicious envy ==
Workplace envy can be either benign or malicious. Even though they both start with the same feeling of inferiority, they can lead to different reactions (Crusius et al, 2021). Benign envy creates an urge for people to grow while malicious envy leads to negative thoughts or actions that aims to bring a person down (see Table 1).  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Scenario:'''

Jon and Sam have worked together for a long time. They both applied for a promotion within the team recently, Jon was successful and Sam missed out. 

Since then, Sam has started treating Jon unfairly. In meetings, Sam makes negative comments about Jon's ideas. During team lunches, Sam leaves Jon out on purpose. Each day, Sam's behaviour becomes more unfriendly and hurtful.

This is an example of malicious envy. Sam is feeling envious of Jon and is trying to harm and put him down. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}The following table outlines the difference between benign and malicious envy in the workplace.

'''Table 1.'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!
! Benign Envy
! Malicious Envy
|-
| Definition
| Envy that motivates self‑improvement.
| Envy that manifests when someone feels threatened or unable to match another’s achievements.
|-
| Emotional Response
| Encourages growth, motivation and learning.
| Creates feelings of resentment, threat, or inferiority.
|-
| Typical Behaviours
| Working harder, learning new skills, seeking growth or development opportunities.
| Exclusion, gossip, criticism or subtle sabotage.
|-
| Impact on Workplace Culture
| Strengthens workplace culture through healthy competition and personal development.
| Damages trust, teamwork, morale, and can escalate into workplace conflict and create a toxic culture.
|-
| Outcome
| Positive: supports improvement and collaboration.
| Negative: undermines relationships and workplace functioning.
|}

'''Quiz questions.''' Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Benign envy is associated with positive emotions and encourages positive behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Malicious envy is associated with negative emotions and encourages negative behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Relationship between envy and motivation? ==
Envy is linked to number of underlying motivational tendencies (Lange &amp; Crusius, 2015). 

'''Table 2.''' The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model showing the relationship between envy and motivation:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Motivation to improve
(benign envy) 
| Blind spot: Fear based motivation noticed 
by others but not yourself (applies to malicious envy)
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Fear of failure
(malicious envy) 
| Hidden motivation (benign envy)
|}

== Behaviours caused by self-efficacy? ==
Self-efficacy is the mental switch that determines whether envy will lead to a positive or negative behaviour. The two types of self-efficacy are:

* [[File:Self and environment.png|thumb|'''Figure 3.'''  Self-efficacy factors.]]

==== High self-efficacy ====

==== Low self-efficacy ====


== Relationship between workplace envy and social comparison theory? ==
Social comparison theory explains that individuals tend to compare their opinions and abilities to others which affects how they feel and behave (Han et al, 2022). Feeling threatened in the workplace makes people judge themselves more harshly as they believe they cannot match their colleague's social status or success.
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Call center (8300442093).jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 4'''. Social Comparison Theory at play in a Call Centre.]]

;Case study
At ReadyCall, everyone's daily call numbers are recorded on a big screen. Ebony is new and she keeps comparing herself to Rick, a senior worker who always has the highest call numbers. Seeing the gap makes Ebony feel stressed and worried she isn't good enough.

Ebony's manager explains that Rick learned his skills over many years and wasn't fast when he first started. After hearing this, Ebony feels better, learns some tips from Rick, and becomes more confident.

This is an example of social comparison theory, where people judge themselves by comparing their performance to others (see Figure 4). 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
[[File:Happy-smiley-face-and-sad-2048x1536.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Envy can drive positive or negative behaviour in the workplace.]]
[[wikipedia:Envy|Envy]] is a powerful [[emotion]]. It can be described as the resentment you feel when others receive what you deeply desire. In many workplaces, it is human nature for people to compare themselves to others. In the workplace, a person will measure and compare themselves against those that are being recognised for their work, those that are promoted and those that seem more valued than they are. These comparisons can trigger envy, especially when someone feels they are inferior to others.

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citatio
;
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
==Conclusion==
Envy plays a significant role in shaping workplace behaviour because employees constantly observe and compare their progress and recognition and opportunities of those around them. These comparisons can trigger envy which is not just a negative emotion but a complex psychological response influenced by self-efficacy, motivation and social comparison processes. These comparisons highlight an individual's insecurities, making envy an important emotional signal rather than a something negative. When employees feel capable of improving themselves, workplace envy becomes a constructive force that encourages learning, effort and healthy competition. However, workplace envy can also shift into a harmful direction when employees feel threatened, insecure or unable to achieve similar success. In these situations, workplace envy may lead to resentment, withdrawal or undermining behaviour which can disrupt teamwork or damage workplace relationships. By understanding these dynamics, workplaces can respond carefully and recognise the important role envy plays in fostering growth. fairness and healthier interpersonal relationships that will effectively create a positive working culture.
{{tip|Take-home messages:
* Not all workplace envy is negative.
* Envy is an important catalyst for change if driven in a positive way.
* Envy can motivate staff in a constructive way.
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* Envy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2011/Envy|title=Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Envy - Wikiversity|website=en.wikiversity.org|language=en|access-date=2026-08-25}}&lt;/ref&gt; (Book Chapter, 2011) {{ic|See Tutorial 2 for how to create an internal link to a book chapter)
* Jealousy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=|title=|website=|language=|access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt; is not the same as envy (Book Chapter, 2013)
* [[Self-Efficacy]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Aggression in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Aggression in the workplace - Wikiversity]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rivalry in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rivalry in the workplace - Wikiversity]]

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Aydın, G., &amp; Bozkurt, S. (2022). Research on the Role of Self-Efficacy in the Effect of Workplace Envy on Intention to Quit. Istanbul Business Research, 51(2), 627-642. https://doi.org/10.26650/ibr.2022.51.1062932

Crusius J., Thierhoff J., Lange J. (2021). Dispositional greed predicts benign and malicious envy. Personality and Individual Differences, 168, 110361. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110361

Dong, Xue T., Yang W. Chung, Joon H. Park, and Jeong K. Yun. 2026. “Workplace Envy and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour: The Mediating Effect of Cynicism and the Moderating Effect of Organizational Support.” Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences / Revue Canadienne des Sciences de l'Administration: e70020. https://doi.org/10.1002/cjas.70020.

Duffy, M. K., Lee, K., &amp; Adair, E. A. (2021). Workplace envy. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 8, 19–44. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012420-055746

Erdil O., Müceldili B. (2014). The effects of envy on job engagement and turnover intention. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 150(1), 447–454. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.09.050

Han, S., Zhan, Y., Zhang, L., &amp; Mu, R. (2022). You Have Received More Help than I Did and I Envy You: A Social Comparison Perspective on Receiving Help in the Team. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8351. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148351

Köksal, K., Tufan, C., Griffiths, M.D. et al. From perceived workplace envy to deviance: a multi-theoretical model of envy-related workplace behaviors and the moderating role of social courage. Curr Psychol 45, 1052 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-026-09607-3

Lange, J., Paulhus, D. L., &amp; Crusius, J. (2018). Elucidating the Dark Side of Envy: Distinctive Links of Benign and Malicious Envy With Dark Personalities. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 44(4), 601-614. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167217746340

Li M., Xu X., Kwan H. K. (2021). The antecedents and consequences of workplace envy: A meta-analytic review. Asia Pacific Journal of Management. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10490-021-09772-y

Li M, Qin Y, Le J (2025), &quot;Mentoring matters: decoding the impact of downward envy on interpersonal conflict, workplace ostracism, and displaced aggression&quot;. Journal of Managerial Psychology, Vol. 40 No. 1 pp. 67–81, doi: https://doi.org/10.1108/JMP-12-2023-0768

Li, Y., &amp; Wang, S. (2023). &quot;Comparisons are Odious&quot;? - Exploring the Dual Effect of Upward Social Comparison on Workplace Coping Behaviors of Temporary Agency Workers. Psychology research and behavior management, 16, 4251–4265. https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S425946

Liu, H., Geng, J., &amp; Yao, P. (2021). Relationship of Leadership and Envy: How to Resolve Workplace Envy with Leadership-A Bibliometric Review Study. Journal of Intelligence, 9(3), 44. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence9030044

Nakai, A. and Numazaki, M. (2026), The Emotional Nature of Malicious and Benign Envy: Separate Measurements for Emotion and Motivation. Jpn Psychol Res. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpr.12568

Song, Y., &amp; Zhao, Z. (2022). Social Undermining and Interpersonal Rumination among Employees: The Mediating Role of Being the Subject of Envy and the Moderating Role of Social Support. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8419. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148419

Su, X., &amp; Chen, C. (2023). The Influence of Workplace Envy on Employees’ Knowledge-Hiding Behavior Based on a Comparative Analysis between Generation Cohorts. Behavioral Sciences, 13(9), 716. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs13090716

Walter CE, Au-Yong-Oliveira M (2022), &quot;An exploratory study on the barriers to innovative behavior: the spiteful effect of envy&quot;. Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol. 35 No. 6 pp. 936–960, https://doi.org/10.1108/JOCM-02-2022-0034

Wilkes, D. (2023) Workplace Envy: Exploring the Effect of Envy on Team Communication and Organizational Information Sharing. Open Journal of Business and Management, 11, 1757-1786. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojbm.2023.114099

Yang C and Tang R (2021) Validating the “Two Faces” of Envy: The Effect of Self-Control. Front. Psychol. 12:731451. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.731451

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
The following links provide further background and context to support this book chapter:
* [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/NwGMsgB9mNg Envy: The Ugliest Emotion? Find out the Truth!] (YouTube)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1f9IE3CkB4s How to Stop Comparing Yourself to Others] (YouTube)
* https://www.ted.com/talks/worklife_with_adam_grant_become_friends_with_your_rivals (TedTalk)
* [https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-good-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/ https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-goo-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/] (TedTalk)
* [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/3g0lRfiAXzc Why Workplace Envy Is Secretly Power ? - YouTube] (YouTube)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
&lt;references group=&quot;https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2026/Envy_in_the_workplace&quot; /&gt;
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__TOC__

=== Overview ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Zonaspace-coworking-collaboration.jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 1'''. Envy can occur in any workplace.]]

;Case study
Jillian and Anna work for the same consulting firm and are at the same level. Jillian recently completed a project that received recognition from senior leaders and she continues to be praised about it. Anna and Jillian get along well, although Anna has started feeling resentful towards Jillian (see Figure 1). 

Anna recently asked Jillian about the project and what tools she used that could possibly assist with her projects. Jillian mentioned she completed a project management course that really changed the way she approaches projects to ensure all milestones are delivered on time and on budget. 

Anna enrols in the same project management course immediately. This is an example of benign envy. By feeling envy towards Jillian, it has motivated Anna to take action to improve herself. With Anna developing her project management skills, this will impact the team and consulting firm in a positive way encouraging extraordinary results. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

[[wikipedia:Envy|Envy]] is a powerful [[emotion]] that drives different behaviours (Yang &amp; Tang, 2021). It can be described as the bitterness or anger you feel when others receive what you deeply or unconsciously desire. In many workplaces, it is human nature for an individual to measure and compare themselves to those that are being recognised or seem more valued than they are. These comparisons can trigger workplace envy, especially when someone feels they are inferior to others. According to Duffy et al (2021), over the last 25 years, there has been growing interest in the phenomenon of workplace envy. While every workplace is filled with opportunities for competition and self-comparison, Liu et al (2021), stated it was important to consider the environment and the timing when looking at workplace envy as it is constantly evolving.  

Workplace envy occurs across a variety of workplace situations although experiences can vary in intensity and frequency and can transform into behavioural reactions. This book chapter describes workplace envy and discusses the role it plays in workplace behaviour. 

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* What is the role of envy in the workplace?
* What is the difference between malicious envy and benign envy? 
* What causes envy and how is it linked to motivation?
* What is the relationship between envy and self-efficacy?
* What is the relationship between envy and social comparison theory?


{{RoundBoxBottom}}
== Role of envy in the workplace ==

There are many causes of envy in the workplace. It can emerge when an employee notices that a colleague has achieved something they desire, such as recognition, a reward, a promotion or an opportunity. It can occur in any workplace where employees constantly compare their performance or progress to those around them, these comparisons can easily activate trigger feelings of envy.   

Through guidance, leadership and intervention, envy can be used as a workplace 'tool' to drive positive behaviour (Liu et al, 2021).  
*Envy can be destructive or can lead to a promotion (Liu et al, 2021) 
*can drive cultural change

== Benign versus malicious envy ==
Workplace envy can be either benign or malicious. Even though they both start with the same feeling of inferiority, they can lead to different reactions (Crusius et al, 2021). Benign envy creates an urge for people to grow while malicious envy leads to negative thoughts or actions that aims to bring a person down (see Table 1).  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Scenario:'''

Jon and Sam have worked together for a long time. They both applied for a promotion within the team recently, Jon was successful and Sam missed out. 

Since then, Sam has started treating Jon unfairly. In meetings, Sam makes negative comments about Jon's ideas. During team lunches, Sam leaves Jon out on purpose. Each day, Sam's behaviour becomes more unfriendly and hurtful.

This is an example of malicious envy. Sam is feeling envious of Jon and is trying to harm and put him down. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}The following table outlines the difference between benign and malicious envy in the workplace.

'''Table 1.'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!
! Benign Envy
! Malicious Envy
|-
| Definition
| Envy that motivates self‑improvement.
| Envy that manifests when someone feels threatened or unable to match another’s achievements.
|-
| Emotional Response
| Encourages growth, motivation and learning.
| Creates feelings of resentment, threat, or inferiority.
|-
| Typical Behaviours
| Working harder, learning new skills, seeking growth or development opportunities.
| Exclusion, gossip, criticism or subtle sabotage.
|-
| Impact on Workplace Culture
| Strengthens workplace culture through healthy competition and personal development.
| Damages trust, teamwork, morale, and can escalate into workplace conflict and create a toxic culture.
|-
| Outcome
| Positive: supports improvement and collaboration.
| Negative: undermines relationships and workplace functioning.
|}

'''Quiz questions.''' Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Benign envy is associated with positive emotions and encourages positive behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Malicious envy is associated with negative emotions and encourages negative behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Relationship between envy and motivation? ==
Envy is linked to number of underlying motivational tendencies (Lange &amp; Crusius, 2015). 

'''Table 2.''' The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model showing the relationship between envy and motivation:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Motivation to improve
(benign envy) 
| Blind spot: Fear based motivation noticed 
by others but not yourself (applies to malicious envy)
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Fear of failure
(malicious envy) 
| Hidden motivation (benign envy)
|}

== Behaviours caused by self-efficacy? ==
Self-efficacy is the mental switch that determines whether envy will lead to a positive or negative behaviour. It is the belief that someone will be able to handle challenges within the workplace when faced with envy (Ayden and .

==== High self-efficacy ====
If an employee has high self-efficacy, they will cope better with workplace envy. 

==== Low self-efficacy ====

If an employee has low self-efficacy, they will be negatively affected by workplace envy.

Aydin


== Relationship between workplace envy and social comparison theory? ==
Social comparison theory explains that individuals tend to compare their opinions and abilities to others which affects how they feel and behave (Han et al, 2022). Feeling threatened in the workplace makes people judge themselves more harshly as they believe they cannot match their colleague's social status or success.
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Call center (8300442093).jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 4'''. Social Comparison Theory at play in a Call Centre.]]

;Case study
At ReadyCall, everyone's daily call numbers are recorded on a big screen. Ebony is new and she keeps comparing herself to Rick, a senior worker who always has the highest call numbers. Seeing the gap makes Ebony feel stressed and worried she isn't good enough.

Ebony's manager explains that Rick learned his skills over many years and wasn't fast when he first started. After hearing this, Ebony feels better, learns some tips from Rick, and becomes more confident.

This is an example of social comparison theory, where people judge themselves by comparing their performance to others (see Figure 4). 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
[[File:Happy-smiley-face-and-sad-2048x1536.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Envy can drive positive or negative behaviour in the workplace.]]
[[wikipedia:Envy|Envy]] is a powerful [[emotion]]. It can be described as the resentment you feel when others receive what you deeply desire. In many workplaces, it is human nature for people to compare themselves to others. In the workplace, a person will measure and compare themselves against those that are being recognised for their work, those that are promoted and those that seem more valued than they are. These comparisons can trigger envy, especially when someone feels they are inferior to others.

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citatio
;
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
==Conclusion==
Envy plays a significant role in shaping workplace behaviour because employees constantly observe and compare their progress and recognition and opportunities of those around them. These comparisons can trigger envy which is not just a negative emotion but a complex psychological response influenced by self-efficacy, motivation and social comparison processes. These comparisons highlight an individual's insecurities, making envy an important emotional signal rather than a something negative. When employees feel capable of improving themselves, workplace envy becomes a constructive force that encourages learning, effort and healthy competition. However, workplace envy can also shift into a harmful direction when employees feel threatened, insecure or unable to achieve similar success. In these situations, workplace envy may lead to resentment, withdrawal or undermining behaviour which can disrupt teamwork or damage workplace relationships. By understanding these dynamics, workplaces can respond carefully and recognise the important role envy plays in fostering growth. fairness and healthier interpersonal relationships that will effectively create a positive working culture.
{{tip|Take-home messages:
* Not all workplace envy is negative.
* Envy is an important catalyst for change if driven in a positive way.
* Envy can motivate staff in a constructive way.
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* Envy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2011/Envy|title=Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Envy - Wikiversity|website=en.wikiversity.org|language=en|access-date=2026-08-25}}&lt;/ref&gt; (Book Chapter, 2011) {{ic|See Tutorial 2 for how to create an internal link to a book chapter)
* Jealousy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=|title=|website=|language=|access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt; is not the same as envy (Book Chapter, 2013)
* [[Self-Efficacy]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Aggression in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Aggression in the workplace - Wikiversity]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rivalry in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rivalry in the workplace - Wikiversity]]

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Aydın, G., &amp; Bozkurt, S. (2022). Research on the Role of Self-Efficacy in the Effect of Workplace Envy on Intention to Quit. Istanbul Business Research, 51(2), 627-642. https://doi.org/10.26650/ibr.2022.51.1062932

Crusius J., Thierhoff J., Lange J. (2021). Dispositional greed predicts benign and malicious envy. Personality and Individual Differences, 168, 110361. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110361

Dong, Xue T., Yang W. Chung, Joon H. Park, and Jeong K. Yun. 2026. “Workplace Envy and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour: The Mediating Effect of Cynicism and the Moderating Effect of Organizational Support.” Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences / Revue Canadienne des Sciences de l'Administration: e70020. https://doi.org/10.1002/cjas.70020.

Duffy, M. K., Lee, K., &amp; Adair, E. A. (2021). Workplace envy. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 8, 19–44. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012420-055746

Erdil O., Müceldili B. (2014). The effects of envy on job engagement and turnover intention. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 150(1), 447–454. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.09.050

Han, S., Zhan, Y., Zhang, L., &amp; Mu, R. (2022). You Have Received More Help than I Did and I Envy You: A Social Comparison Perspective on Receiving Help in the Team. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8351. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148351

Köksal, K., Tufan, C., Griffiths, M.D. et al. From perceived workplace envy to deviance: a multi-theoretical model of envy-related workplace behaviors and the moderating role of social courage. Curr Psychol 45, 1052 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-026-09607-3

Lange, J., Paulhus, D. L., &amp; Crusius, J. (2018). Elucidating the Dark Side of Envy: Distinctive Links of Benign and Malicious Envy With Dark Personalities. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 44(4), 601-614. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167217746340

Li M., Xu X., Kwan H. K. (2021). The antecedents and consequences of workplace envy: A meta-analytic review. Asia Pacific Journal of Management. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10490-021-09772-y

Li M, Qin Y, Le J (2025), &quot;Mentoring matters: decoding the impact of downward envy on interpersonal conflict, workplace ostracism, and displaced aggression&quot;. Journal of Managerial Psychology, Vol. 40 No. 1 pp. 67–81, doi: https://doi.org/10.1108/JMP-12-2023-0768

Li, Y., &amp; Wang, S. (2023). &quot;Comparisons are Odious&quot;? - Exploring the Dual Effect of Upward Social Comparison on Workplace Coping Behaviors of Temporary Agency Workers. Psychology research and behavior management, 16, 4251–4265. https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S425946

Liu, H., Geng, J., &amp; Yao, P. (2021). Relationship of Leadership and Envy: How to Resolve Workplace Envy with Leadership-A Bibliometric Review Study. Journal of Intelligence, 9(3), 44. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence9030044

Nakai, A. and Numazaki, M. (2026), The Emotional Nature of Malicious and Benign Envy: Separate Measurements for Emotion and Motivation. Jpn Psychol Res. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpr.12568

Song, Y., &amp; Zhao, Z. (2022). Social Undermining and Interpersonal Rumination among Employees: The Mediating Role of Being the Subject of Envy and the Moderating Role of Social Support. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8419. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148419

Su, X., &amp; Chen, C. (2023). The Influence of Workplace Envy on Employees’ Knowledge-Hiding Behavior Based on a Comparative Analysis between Generation Cohorts. Behavioral Sciences, 13(9), 716. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs13090716

Walter CE, Au-Yong-Oliveira M (2022), &quot;An exploratory study on the barriers to innovative behavior: the spiteful effect of envy&quot;. Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol. 35 No. 6 pp. 936–960, https://doi.org/10.1108/JOCM-02-2022-0034

Wilkes, D. (2023) Workplace Envy: Exploring the Effect of Envy on Team Communication and Organizational Information Sharing. Open Journal of Business and Management, 11, 1757-1786. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojbm.2023.114099

Yang C and Tang R (2021) Validating the “Two Faces” of Envy: The Effect of Self-Control. Front. Psychol. 12:731451. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.731451

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
The following links provide further background and context to support this book chapter:
* [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/NwGMsgB9mNg Envy: The Ugliest Emotion? Find out the Truth!] (YouTube)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1f9IE3CkB4s How to Stop Comparing Yourself to Others] (YouTube)
* https://www.ted.com/talks/worklife_with_adam_grant_become_friends_with_your_rivals (TedTalk)
* [https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-good-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/ https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-goo-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/] (TedTalk)
* [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/3g0lRfiAXzc Why Workplace Envy Is Secretly Power ? - YouTube] (YouTube)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
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      <text bytes="18765" sha1="ek682j82fdqv7qzl4ov36eikfcr9p71" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Envy in the workplace:&lt;br&gt;What role does envy play in workplace behaviour?}}
__TOC__

=== Overview ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Zonaspace-coworking-collaboration.jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 1'''. Envy can occur in any workplace.]]

;Case study
Jillian and Anna work for the same consulting firm and are at the same level. Jillian recently completed a project that received recognition from senior leaders and she continues to be praised about it. Anna and Jillian get along well, although Anna has started feeling resentful towards Jillian (see Figure 1). 

Anna recently asked Jillian about the project and what tools she used that could possibly assist with her projects. Jillian mentioned she completed a project management course that really changed the way she approaches projects to ensure all milestones are delivered on time and on budget. 

Anna enrols in the same project management course immediately. This is an example of benign envy. By feeling envy towards Jillian, it has motivated Anna to take action to improve herself. With Anna developing her project management skills, this will impact the team and consulting firm in a positive way encouraging extraordinary results. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

[[wikipedia:Envy|Envy]] is a powerful [[emotion]] that drives different behaviours (Yang &amp; Tang, 2021). It can be described as the bitterness or anger you feel when others receive what you deeply or unconsciously desire. In many workplaces, it is human nature for an individual to measure and compare themselves to those that are being recognised or seem more valued than they are. These comparisons can trigger workplace envy, especially when someone feels they are inferior to others. According to Duffy et al (2021), over the last 25 years, there has been growing interest in the phenomenon of workplace envy. While every workplace is filled with opportunities for competition and self-comparison, Liu et al (2021), stated it was important to consider the environment and the timing when looking at workplace envy as it is constantly evolving.  

Workplace envy occurs across a variety of workplace situations although experiences can vary in intensity and frequency and can transform into behavioural reactions. This book chapter describes workplace envy and discusses the role it plays in workplace behaviour. 

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* What is the role of envy in the workplace?
* What is the difference between malicious envy and benign envy? 
* What causes envy and how is it linked to motivation?
* What is the relationship between envy and self-efficacy?
* What is the relationship between envy and social comparison theory?


{{RoundBoxBottom}}
== Role of envy in the workplace ==

There are many causes of envy in the workplace. It can emerge when an employee notices that a colleague has achieved something they desire, such as recognition, a reward, a promotion or an opportunity. It can occur in any workplace where employees constantly compare their performance or progress to those around them, these comparisons can easily activate trigger feelings of envy.   

Through guidance, leadership and intervention, envy can be used as a workplace 'tool' to drive positive behaviour (Liu et al, 2021).  
*Envy can be destructive or can lead to a promotion (Liu et al, 2021) 
*can drive cultural change

== Benign versus malicious envy ==
Workplace envy can be either benign or malicious. Even though they both start with the same feeling of inferiority, they can lead to different reactions (Crusius et al, 2021). Benign envy creates an urge for people to grow while malicious envy leads to negative thoughts or actions that aims to bring a person down (see Table 1).  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Scenario:'''

Jon and Sam have worked together for a long time. They both applied for a promotion within the team recently, Jon was successful and Sam missed out. 

Since then, Sam has started treating Jon unfairly. In meetings, Sam makes negative comments about Jon's ideas. During team lunches, Sam leaves Jon out on purpose. Each day, Sam's behaviour becomes more unfriendly and hurtful.

This is an example of malicious envy. Sam is feeling envious of Jon and is trying to harm and put him down. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}The following table outlines the difference between benign and malicious envy in the workplace.

'''Table 1.'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!
! Benign Envy
! Malicious Envy
|-
| Definition
| Envy that motivates self‑improvement.
| Envy that manifests when someone feels threatened or unable to match another’s achievements.
|-
| Emotional Response
| Encourages growth, motivation and learning.
| Creates feelings of resentment, threat, or inferiority.
|-
| Typical Behaviours
| Working harder, learning new skills, seeking growth or development opportunities.
| Exclusion, gossip, criticism or subtle sabotage.
|-
| Impact on Workplace Culture
| Strengthens workplace culture through healthy competition and personal development.
| Damages trust, teamwork, morale, and can escalate into workplace conflict and create a toxic culture.
|-
| Outcome
| Positive: supports improvement and collaboration.
| Negative: undermines relationships and workplace functioning.
|}

'''Quiz questions.''' Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Benign envy is associated with positive emotions and encourages positive behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Malicious envy is associated with negative emotions and encourages negative behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Relationship between envy and motivation? ==
Envy is linked to number of underlying motivational tendencies (Lange &amp; Crusius, 2015). 

'''Table 2.''' The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model showing the relationship between envy and motivation:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Motivation to improve
(benign envy) 
| Blind spot: Fear based motivation noticed 
by others but not yourself (applies to malicious envy)
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Fear of failure
(malicious envy) 
| Hidden motivation (benign envy)
|}

== Behaviours caused by self-efficacy? ==
Self-efficacy is the mental switch that determines whether envy will lead to a positive or negative behaviour. It is the belief that someone will be able to handle challenges within the workplace when faced with envy (Ayden and .

==== High self-efficacy ====
If an employee has high self-efficacy, they will cope better with workplace envy. 

==== Low self-efficacy ====

If an employee has low self-efficacy, they will be negatively affected by workplace envy.

Aydin


== Relationship between workplace envy and social comparison theory? ==
Social comparison theory explains that individuals tend to compare their opinions and abilities to others which affects how they feel and behave (Han et al, 2022). Feeling threatened in the workplace makes people judge themselves more harshly as they believe they cannot match their colleague's social status or success.

Upward comparison 

Downward comparison 
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Call center (8300442093).jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 4'''. Social Comparison Theory at play in a Call Centre.]]

;Case study
At ReadyCall, everyone's daily call numbers are recorded on a big screen. Ebony is new and she keeps comparing herself to Rick, a senior worker who always has the highest call numbers. Seeing the gap makes Ebony feel stressed and worried she isn't good enough.

Ebony's manager explains that Rick learned his skills over many years and wasn't fast when he first started. After hearing this, Ebony feels better, learns some tips from Rick, and becomes more confident.

This is an example of social comparison theory, where people judge themselves by comparing their performance to others (see Figure 4). 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
[[File:Happy-smiley-face-and-sad-2048x1536.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Envy can drive positive or negative behaviour in the workplace.]]
[[wikipedia:Envy|Envy]] is a powerful [[emotion]]. It can be described as the resentment you feel when others receive what you deeply desire. In many workplaces, it is human nature for people to compare themselves to others. In the workplace, a person will measure and compare themselves against those that are being recognised for their work, those that are promoted and those that seem more valued than they are. These comparisons can trigger envy, especially when someone feels they are inferior to others.

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citatio
;
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
==Conclusion==
Envy plays a significant role in shaping workplace behaviour because employees constantly observe and compare their progress and recognition and opportunities of those around them. These comparisons can trigger envy which is not just a negative emotion but a complex psychological response influenced by self-efficacy, motivation and social comparison processes. These comparisons highlight an individual's insecurities, making envy an important emotional signal rather than a something negative. When employees feel capable of improving themselves, workplace envy becomes a constructive force that encourages learning, effort and healthy competition. However, workplace envy can also shift into a harmful direction when employees feel threatened, insecure or unable to achieve similar success. In these situations, workplace envy may lead to resentment, withdrawal or undermining behaviour which can disrupt teamwork or damage workplace relationships. By understanding these dynamics, workplaces can respond carefully and recognise the important role envy plays in fostering growth. fairness and healthier interpersonal relationships that will effectively create a positive working culture.
{{tip|Take-home messages:
* Not all workplace envy is negative.
* Envy is an important catalyst for change if driven in a positive way.
* Envy can motivate staff in a constructive way.
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* Envy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2011/Envy|title=Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Envy - Wikiversity|website=en.wikiversity.org|language=en|access-date=2026-08-25}}&lt;/ref&gt; (Book Chapter, 2011) {{ic|See Tutorial 2 for how to create an internal link to a book chapter)
* Jealousy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=|title=|website=|language=|access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt; is not the same as envy (Book Chapter, 2013)
* [[Self-Efficacy]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Aggression in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Aggression in the workplace - Wikiversity]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rivalry in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rivalry in the workplace - Wikiversity]]

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Aydın, G., &amp; Bozkurt, S. (2022). Research on the Role of Self-Efficacy in the Effect of Workplace Envy on Intention to Quit. Istanbul Business Research, 51(2), 627-642. https://doi.org/10.26650/ibr.2022.51.1062932

Crusius J., Thierhoff J., Lange J. (2021). Dispositional greed predicts benign and malicious envy. Personality and Individual Differences, 168, 110361. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110361

Dong, Xue T., Yang W. Chung, Joon H. Park, and Jeong K. Yun. 2026. “Workplace Envy and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour: The Mediating Effect of Cynicism and the Moderating Effect of Organizational Support.” Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences / Revue Canadienne des Sciences de l'Administration: e70020. https://doi.org/10.1002/cjas.70020.

Duffy, M. K., Lee, K., &amp; Adair, E. A. (2021). Workplace envy. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 8, 19–44. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012420-055746

Erdil O., Müceldili B. (2014). The effects of envy on job engagement and turnover intention. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 150(1), 447–454. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.09.050

Han, S., Zhan, Y., Zhang, L., &amp; Mu, R. (2022). You Have Received More Help than I Did and I Envy You: A Social Comparison Perspective on Receiving Help in the Team. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8351. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148351

Köksal, K., Tufan, C., Griffiths, M.D. et al. From perceived workplace envy to deviance: a multi-theoretical model of envy-related workplace behaviors and the moderating role of social courage. Curr Psychol 45, 1052 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-026-09607-3

Lange, J., Paulhus, D. L., &amp; Crusius, J. (2018). Elucidating the Dark Side of Envy: Distinctive Links of Benign and Malicious Envy With Dark Personalities. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 44(4), 601-614. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167217746340

Li M., Xu X., Kwan H. K. (2021). The antecedents and consequences of workplace envy: A meta-analytic review. Asia Pacific Journal of Management. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10490-021-09772-y

Li M, Qin Y, Le J (2025), &quot;Mentoring matters: decoding the impact of downward envy on interpersonal conflict, workplace ostracism, and displaced aggression&quot;. Journal of Managerial Psychology, Vol. 40 No. 1 pp. 67–81, doi: https://doi.org/10.1108/JMP-12-2023-0768

Li, Y., &amp; Wang, S. (2023). &quot;Comparisons are Odious&quot;? - Exploring the Dual Effect of Upward Social Comparison on Workplace Coping Behaviors of Temporary Agency Workers. Psychology research and behavior management, 16, 4251–4265. https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S425946

Liu, H., Geng, J., &amp; Yao, P. (2021). Relationship of Leadership and Envy: How to Resolve Workplace Envy with Leadership-A Bibliometric Review Study. Journal of Intelligence, 9(3), 44. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence9030044

Nakai, A. and Numazaki, M. (2026), The Emotional Nature of Malicious and Benign Envy: Separate Measurements for Emotion and Motivation. Jpn Psychol Res. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpr.12568

Song, Y., &amp; Zhao, Z. (2022). Social Undermining and Interpersonal Rumination among Employees: The Mediating Role of Being the Subject of Envy and the Moderating Role of Social Support. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8419. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148419

Su, X., &amp; Chen, C. (2023). The Influence of Workplace Envy on Employees’ Knowledge-Hiding Behavior Based on a Comparative Analysis between Generation Cohorts. Behavioral Sciences, 13(9), 716. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs13090716

Walter CE, Au-Yong-Oliveira M (2022), &quot;An exploratory study on the barriers to innovative behavior: the spiteful effect of envy&quot;. Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol. 35 No. 6 pp. 936–960, https://doi.org/10.1108/JOCM-02-2022-0034

Wilkes, D. (2023) Workplace Envy: Exploring the Effect of Envy on Team Communication and Organizational Information Sharing. Open Journal of Business and Management, 11, 1757-1786. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojbm.2023.114099

Yang C and Tang R (2021) Validating the “Two Faces” of Envy: The Effect of Self-Control. Front. Psychol. 12:731451. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.731451

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
The following links provide further background and context to support this book chapter:
* [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/NwGMsgB9mNg Envy: The Ugliest Emotion? Find out the Truth!] (YouTube)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1f9IE3CkB4s How to Stop Comparing Yourself to Others] (YouTube)
* https://www.ted.com/talks/worklife_with_adam_grant_become_friends_with_your_rivals (TedTalk)
* [https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-good-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/ https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-goo-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/] (TedTalk)
* [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/3g0lRfiAXzc Why Workplace Envy Is Secretly Power ? - YouTube] (YouTube)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
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__TOC__

=== Overview ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Zonaspace-coworking-collaboration.jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 1'''. Envy can occur in any workplace.]]

;Case study
Jillian and Anna work for the same consulting firm and are at the same level. Jillian recently completed a project that received recognition from senior leaders and she continues to be praised about it. Anna and Jillian get along well, although Anna has started feeling resentful towards Jillian (see Figure 1). 

Anna recently asked Jillian about the project and what tools she used that could possibly assist with her projects. Jillian mentioned she completed a project management course that really changed the way she approaches projects to ensure all milestones are delivered on time and on budget. 

Anna enrols in the same project management course immediately. This is an example of benign envy. By feeling envy towards Jillian, it has motivated Anna to take action to improve herself. With Anna developing her project management skills, this will impact the team and consulting firm in a positive way encouraging extraordinary results. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

[[wikipedia:Envy|Envy]] is a powerful [[emotion]] that drives different behaviours (Yang &amp; Tang, 2021). It can be described as the bitterness or anger you feel when others receive what you deeply or unconsciously desire. In many workplaces, it is human nature for an individual to measure and compare themselves to those that are being recognised or seem more valued than they are. These comparisons can trigger workplace envy, especially when someone feels they are inferior to others. According to Duffy et al (2021), over the last 25 years, there has been growing interest in the phenomenon of workplace envy. While every workplace is filled with opportunities for competition and self-comparison, Liu et al (2021), stated it was important to consider the environment and the timing when looking at workplace envy as it is constantly evolving.  

Workplace envy occurs across a variety of workplace situations although experiences can vary in intensity and frequency and can transform into behavioural reactions. This book chapter describes workplace envy and discusses the role it plays in workplace behaviour. 

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* What is the role of envy in the workplace?
* What is the difference between malicious envy and benign envy? 
* What causes envy and how is it linked to motivation?
* What is the relationship between envy and self-efficacy?
* What is the relationship between envy and social comparison theory?


{{RoundBoxBottom}}
== Role of envy in the workplace ==

There are many causes of envy in the workplace. It can emerge when an employee notices that a colleague has achieved something they desire, such as recognition, a reward, a promotion or an opportunity. It can occur in any workplace where employees constantly compare their performance or progress to those around them, these comparisons can easily activate trigger feelings of envy.   

Through guidance, leadership and intervention, envy can be used as a workplace 'tool' to drive positive behaviour (Liu et al, 2021).  
*Envy can be destructive or can lead to a promotion (Liu et al, 2021) 
*can drive cultural change

== Benign versus malicious envy ==
Workplace envy can be either benign or malicious. Even though they both start with the same feeling of inferiority, they can lead to different reactions (Crusius et al, 2021). Benign envy creates an urge for people to grow while malicious envy leads to negative thoughts or actions that aims to bring a person down (see Table 1).  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Scenario:'''

Jon and Sam have worked together for a long time. They both applied for a promotion within the team recently, Jon was successful and Sam missed out. 

Since then, Sam has started treating Jon unfairly. In meetings, Sam makes negative comments about Jon's ideas. During team lunches, Sam leaves Jon out on purpose. Each day, Sam's behaviour becomes more unfriendly and hurtful.

This is an example of malicious envy. Sam is feeling envious of Jon and is trying to harm and put him down. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}The following table outlines the difference between benign and malicious envy in the workplace.

'''Table 1.'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!
! Benign Envy
! Malicious Envy
|-
| Definition
| Envy that motivates self‑improvement.
| Envy that manifests when someone feels threatened or unable to match another’s achievements.
|-
| Emotional Response
| Encourages growth, motivation and learning.
| Creates feelings of resentment, threat, or inferiority.
|-
| Typical Behaviours
| Working harder, learning new skills, seeking growth or development opportunities.
| Exclusion, gossip, criticism or subtle sabotage.
|-
| Impact on Workplace Culture
| Strengthens workplace culture through healthy competition and personal development.
| Damages trust, teamwork, morale, and can escalate into workplace conflict and create a toxic culture.
|-
| Outcome
| Positive: supports improvement and collaboration.
| Negative: undermines relationships and workplace functioning.
|}

'''Quiz questions.''' Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Benign envy is associated with positive emotions and encourages positive behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Malicious envy is associated with negative emotions and encourages negative behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Relationship between envy and motivation? ==
Envy is linked to number of underlying motivational tendencies (Lange &amp; Crusius, 2015). 

'''Table 2.''' The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model showing the relationship between envy and motivation:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Motivation to improve
(benign envy) 
| Blind spot: Fear based motivation noticed 
by others but not yourself (applies to malicious envy)
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Fear of failure
(malicious envy) 
| Hidden motivation (benign envy)
|}

== Behaviours caused by self-efficacy? ==
Self-efficacy is the mental switch that determines whether envy will lead to a positive or negative behaviour. It is the belief that someone will be able to handle challenges within the workplace when faced with envy (Ayden and .

==== High self-efficacy ====
If an employee has high self-efficacy, they will cope better with workplace envy. 

==== Low self-efficacy ====

If an employee has low self-efficacy, they will be negatively affected by workplace envy.

Aydin


== Relationship between workplace envy and social comparison theory? ==
Social comparison theory explains why individuals tend to compare their opinions and abilities to others which affects how they feel and behave (Han et al, 2022). Feeling threatened in the workplace makes people judge themselves more harshly as they believe they cannot match their colleague's social status or success.

==== Upward comparison ==== 

==== Downward comparison ====  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Call center (8300442093).jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 4'''. Social Comparison Theory at play in a Call Centre.]]

;Case study
At ReadyCall, everyone's daily call numbers are recorded on a big screen. Ebony is new and she keeps comparing herself to Rick, a senior worker who always has the highest call numbers. Seeing the gap makes Ebony feel stressed and worried she isn't good enough.

Ebony's manager explains that Rick learned his skills over many years and wasn't fast when he first started. After hearing this, Ebony feels better, learns some tips from Rick, and becomes more confident.

This is an example of social comparison theory, where people judge themselves by comparing their performance to others (see Figure 4). 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
[[File:Happy-smiley-face-and-sad-2048x1536.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Envy can drive positive or negative behaviour in the workplace.]]
[[wikipedia:Envy|Envy]] is a powerful [[emotion]]. It can be described as the resentment you feel when others receive what you deeply desire. In many workplaces, it is human nature for people to compare themselves to others. In the workplace, a person will measure and compare themselves against those that are being recognised for their work, those that are promoted and those that seem more valued than they are. These comparisons can trigger envy, especially when someone feels they are inferior to others.

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citatio
;
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
==Conclusion==
Envy plays a significant role in shaping workplace behaviour because employees constantly observe and compare their progress and recognition and opportunities of those around them. These comparisons can trigger envy which is not just a negative emotion but a complex psychological response influenced by self-efficacy, motivation and social comparison processes. These comparisons highlight an individual's insecurities, making envy an important emotional signal rather than a something negative. When employees feel capable of improving themselves, workplace envy becomes a constructive force that encourages learning, effort and healthy competition. However, workplace envy can also shift into a harmful direction when employees feel threatened, insecure or unable to achieve similar success. In these situations, workplace envy may lead to resentment, withdrawal or undermining behaviour which can disrupt teamwork or damage workplace relationships. By understanding these dynamics, workplaces can respond carefully and recognise the important role envy plays in fostering growth. fairness and healthier interpersonal relationships that will effectively create a positive working culture.
{{tip|Take-home messages:
* Not all workplace envy is negative.
* Envy is an important catalyst for change if driven in a positive way.
* Envy can motivate staff in a constructive way.
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* Envy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2011/Envy|title=Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Envy - Wikiversity|website=en.wikiversity.org|language=en|access-date=2026-08-25}}&lt;/ref&gt; (Book Chapter, 2011) {{ic|See Tutorial 2 for how to create an internal link to a book chapter)
* Jealousy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=|title=|website=|language=|access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt; is not the same as envy (Book Chapter, 2013)
* [[Self-Efficacy]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Aggression in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Aggression in the workplace - Wikiversity]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rivalry in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rivalry in the workplace - Wikiversity]]

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Aydın, G., &amp; Bozkurt, S. (2022). Research on the Role of Self-Efficacy in the Effect of Workplace Envy on Intention to Quit. Istanbul Business Research, 51(2), 627-642. https://doi.org/10.26650/ibr.2022.51.1062932

Crusius J., Thierhoff J., Lange J. (2021). Dispositional greed predicts benign and malicious envy. Personality and Individual Differences, 168, 110361. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110361

Dong, Xue T., Yang W. Chung, Joon H. Park, and Jeong K. Yun. 2026. “Workplace Envy and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour: The Mediating Effect of Cynicism and the Moderating Effect of Organizational Support.” Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences / Revue Canadienne des Sciences de l'Administration: e70020. https://doi.org/10.1002/cjas.70020.

Duffy, M. K., Lee, K., &amp; Adair, E. A. (2021). Workplace envy. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 8, 19–44. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012420-055746

Erdil O., Müceldili B. (2014). The effects of envy on job engagement and turnover intention. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 150(1), 447–454. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.09.050

Han, S., Zhan, Y., Zhang, L., &amp; Mu, R. (2022). You Have Received More Help than I Did and I Envy You: A Social Comparison Perspective on Receiving Help in the Team. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8351. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148351

Köksal, K., Tufan, C., Griffiths, M.D. et al. From perceived workplace envy to deviance: a multi-theoretical model of envy-related workplace behaviors and the moderating role of social courage. Curr Psychol 45, 1052 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-026-09607-3

Lange, J., Paulhus, D. L., &amp; Crusius, J. (2018). Elucidating the Dark Side of Envy: Distinctive Links of Benign and Malicious Envy With Dark Personalities. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 44(4), 601-614. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167217746340

Li M., Xu X., Kwan H. K. (2021). The antecedents and consequences of workplace envy: A meta-analytic review. Asia Pacific Journal of Management. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10490-021-09772-y

Li M, Qin Y, Le J (2025), &quot;Mentoring matters: decoding the impact of downward envy on interpersonal conflict, workplace ostracism, and displaced aggression&quot;. Journal of Managerial Psychology, Vol. 40 No. 1 pp. 67–81, doi: https://doi.org/10.1108/JMP-12-2023-0768

Li, Y., &amp; Wang, S. (2023). &quot;Comparisons are Odious&quot;? - Exploring the Dual Effect of Upward Social Comparison on Workplace Coping Behaviors of Temporary Agency Workers. Psychology research and behavior management, 16, 4251–4265. https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S425946

Liu, H., Geng, J., &amp; Yao, P. (2021). Relationship of Leadership and Envy: How to Resolve Workplace Envy with Leadership-A Bibliometric Review Study. Journal of Intelligence, 9(3), 44. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence9030044

Nakai, A. and Numazaki, M. (2026), The Emotional Nature of Malicious and Benign Envy: Separate Measurements for Emotion and Motivation. Jpn Psychol Res. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpr.12568

Song, Y., &amp; Zhao, Z. (2022). Social Undermining and Interpersonal Rumination among Employees: The Mediating Role of Being the Subject of Envy and the Moderating Role of Social Support. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8419. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148419

Su, X., &amp; Chen, C. (2023). The Influence of Workplace Envy on Employees’ Knowledge-Hiding Behavior Based on a Comparative Analysis between Generation Cohorts. Behavioral Sciences, 13(9), 716. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs13090716

Walter CE, Au-Yong-Oliveira M (2022), &quot;An exploratory study on the barriers to innovative behavior: the spiteful effect of envy&quot;. Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol. 35 No. 6 pp. 936–960, https://doi.org/10.1108/JOCM-02-2022-0034

Wilkes, D. (2023) Workplace Envy: Exploring the Effect of Envy on Team Communication and Organizational Information Sharing. Open Journal of Business and Management, 11, 1757-1786. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojbm.2023.114099

Yang C and Tang R (2021) Validating the “Two Faces” of Envy: The Effect of Self-Control. Front. Psychol. 12:731451. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.731451

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
The following links provide further background and context to support this book chapter:
* [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/NwGMsgB9mNg Envy: The Ugliest Emotion? Find out the Truth!] (YouTube)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1f9IE3CkB4s How to Stop Comparing Yourself to Others] (YouTube)
* https://www.ted.com/talks/worklife_with_adam_grant_become_friends_with_your_rivals (TedTalk)
* [https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-good-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/ https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-goo-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/] (TedTalk)
* [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/3g0lRfiAXzc Why Workplace Envy Is Secretly Power ? - YouTube] (YouTube)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
&lt;references group=&quot;https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2026/Envy_in_the_workplace&quot; /&gt;
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__TOC__

=== Overview ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Zonaspace-coworking-collaboration.jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 1'''. Envy can occur in any workplace.]]

;Case study
Jillian and Anna work for the same consulting firm and are at the same level. Jillian recently completed a project that received recognition from senior leaders and she continues to be praised about it. Anna and Jillian get along well, although Anna has started feeling resentful towards Jillian (see Figure 1). 

Anna recently asked Jillian about the project and what tools she used that could possibly assist with her projects. Jillian mentioned she completed a project management course that really changed the way she approaches projects to ensure all milestones are delivered on time and on budget. 

Anna enrols in the same project management course immediately. This is an example of benign envy. By feeling envy towards Jillian, it has motivated Anna to take action to improve herself. With Anna developing her project management skills, this will impact the team and consulting firm in a positive way encouraging extraordinary results. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

[[wikipedia:Envy|Envy]] is a powerful [[emotion]] that drives different behaviours (Yang &amp; Tang, 2021). It can be described as the bitterness or anger you feel when others receive what you deeply or unconsciously desire. In many workplaces, it is human nature for an individual to measure and compare themselves to those that are being recognised or seem more valued than they are. These comparisons can trigger workplace envy, especially when someone feels they are inferior to others. According to Duffy et al (2021), over the last 25 years, there has been growing interest in the phenomenon of workplace envy. While every workplace is filled with opportunities for competition and self-comparison, Liu et al (2021), stated it was important to consider the environment and the timing when looking at workplace envy as it is constantly evolving.  

Workplace envy occurs across a variety of workplace situations although experiences can vary in intensity and frequency and can transform into behavioural reactions. This book chapter describes workplace envy and discusses the role it plays in workplace behaviour. 

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* What is the role of envy in the workplace?
* What is the difference between malicious envy and benign envy? 
* What causes envy and how is it linked to motivation?
* What is the relationship between envy and self-efficacy?
* What is the relationship between envy and social comparison theory?


{{RoundBoxBottom}}
== Role of envy in the workplace ==

There are many causes of envy in the workplace. It can emerge when an employee notices that a colleague has achieved something they desire, such as recognition, a reward, a promotion or an opportunity. It can occur in any workplace where employees constantly compare their performance or progress to those around them, these comparisons can easily activate trigger feelings of envy.   

Through guidance, leadership and intervention, envy can be used as a workplace 'tool' to drive positive behaviour (Liu et al, 2021).  
*Envy can be destructive or can lead to a promotion (Liu et al, 2021) 
*can drive cultural change

== Benign versus malicious envy ==
Workplace envy can be either benign or malicious. Even though they both start with the same feeling of inferiority, they can lead to different reactions (Crusius et al, 2021). Benign envy creates an urge for people to grow while malicious envy leads to negative thoughts or actions that aims to bring a person down (see Table 1).  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Scenario:'''

Jon and Sam have worked together for a long time. They both applied for a promotion within the team recently, Jon was successful and Sam missed out. 

Since then, Sam has started treating Jon unfairly. In meetings, Sam makes negative comments about Jon's ideas. During team lunches, Sam leaves Jon out on purpose. Each day, Sam's behaviour becomes more unfriendly and hurtful.

This is an example of malicious envy. Sam is feeling envious of Jon and is trying to harm and put him down. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}The following table outlines the difference between benign and malicious envy in the workplace.

'''Table 1.'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!
! Benign Envy
! Malicious Envy
|-
| Definition
| Envy that motivates self‑improvement.
| Envy that manifests when someone feels threatened or unable to match another’s achievements.
|-
| Emotional Response
| Encourages growth, motivation and learning.
| Creates feelings of resentment, threat, or inferiority.
|-
| Typical Behaviours
| Working harder, learning new skills, seeking growth or development opportunities.
| Exclusion, gossip, criticism or subtle sabotage.
|-
| Impact on Workplace Culture
| Strengthens workplace culture through healthy competition and personal development.
| Damages trust, teamwork, morale, and can escalate into workplace conflict and create a toxic culture.
|-
| Outcome
| Positive: supports improvement and collaboration.
| Negative: undermines relationships and workplace functioning.
|}

'''Quiz questions.''' Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Benign envy is associated with positive emotions and encourages positive behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Malicious envy is associated with negative emotions and encourages negative behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Relationship between envy and motivation? ==
Envy is linked to number of underlying motivational tendencies (Lange &amp; Crusius, 2015). 

'''Table 2.''' The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model showing the relationship between envy and motivation:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Motivation to improve
(benign envy) 
| Blind spot: Fear based motivation noticed 
by others but not yourself (applies to malicious envy)
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Fear of failure
(malicious envy) 
| Hidden motivation (benign envy)
|}

== Behaviours caused by self-efficacy? ==
Self-efficacy is the mental switch that determines whether envy will lead to a positive or negative behaviour. It is the belief that someone will be able to handle challenges within the workplace when faced with envy (Ayden and .

==== High self-efficacy ====
If an employee has high self-efficacy, they will cope better with workplace envy. 

==== Low self-efficacy ====

If an employee has low self-efficacy, they will be negatively affected by workplace envy.

Aydin


== Relationship between workplace envy and social comparison theory? ==
Social comparison theory explains why individuals tend to compare their opinions and abilities to others which affects how they feel and behave (Han et al, 2022). Feeling threatened in the workplace makes people judge themselves more harshly as they believe they cannot match their colleague's social status or success.

==== Upward comparison ==== 

==== Downward comparison ====  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Call center (8300442093).jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 4'''. Social Comparison Theory at play in a Call Centre.]]

;Case study
At ReadyCall, everyone's daily call numbers are recorded on a big screen. Ebony is new and she keeps comparing herself to Rick, a senior worker who always has the highest call numbers. Seeing the gap makes Ebony feel stressed and worried she isn't good enough.

Ebony's manager explains that Rick learned his skills over many years and wasn't fast when he first started. After hearing this, Ebony feels better, learns some tips from Rick, and becomes more confident.

This is an example of social comparison theory, where people judge themselves by comparing their performance to others (see Figure 4). 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
[[File:Happy-smiley-face-and-sad-2048x1536.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Envy can drive positive or negative behaviour in the workplace.]]
[[wikipedia:Envy|Envy]] is a powerful [[emotion]]. It can be described as the resentment you feel when others receive what you deeply desire. In many workplaces, it is human nature for people to compare themselves to others. In the workplace, a person will measure and compare themselves against those that are being recognised for their work, those that are promoted and those that seem more valued than they are. These comparisons can trigger envy, especially when someone feels they are inferior to others.

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citatio
;
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
==Conclusion==
Envy plays a significant role in shaping workplace behaviour because employees constantly observe and compare their progress and recognition and opportunities of those around them. These comparisons can trigger envy which is not just a negative emotion but a complex psychological response influenced by self-efficacy, motivation and social comparison processes. These comparisons highlight an individual's insecurities, making envy an important emotional signal rather than a something negative. When employees feel capable of improving themselves, workplace envy becomes a constructive force that encourages learning, effort and healthy competition. However, workplace envy can also shift into a harmful direction when employees feel threatened, insecure or unable to achieve similar success. In these situations, workplace envy may lead to resentment, withdrawal or undermining behaviour which can disrupt teamwork or damage workplace relationships. By understanding these dynamics, workplaces can respond carefully and recognise the important role envy plays in fostering growth. fairness and healthier interpersonal relationships that will effectively create a positive working culture.
{{tip|Take-home messages:
* Not all workplace envy is negative.
* Envy is an important catalyst for change if driven in a positive way.
* Envy can motivate staff in a constructive way.
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* Envy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2011/Envy|title=Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Envy - Wikiversity|website=en.wikiversity.org|language=en|access-date=2026-08-25}}&lt;/ref&gt; (Book Chapter, 2011) {{ic|See Tutorial 2 for how to create an internal link to a book chapter)
* Jealousy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=|title=|website=|language=|access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt; is not the same as envy (Book Chapter, 2013)
* [[Self-Efficacy]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Aggression in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Aggression in the workplace - Wikiversity]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rivalry in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rivalry in the workplace - Wikiversity]]

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Aydın, G., &amp; Bozkurt, S. (2022). Research on the Role of Self-Efficacy in the Effect of Workplace Envy on Intention to Quit. Istanbul Business Research, 51(2), 627-642. https://doi.org/10.26650/ibr.2022.51.1062932

Crusius J., Thierhoff J., Lange J. (2021). Dispositional greed predicts benign and malicious envy. Personality and Individual Differences, 168, 110361. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110361

Dong, Xue T., Yang W. Chung, Joon H. Park, and Jeong K. Yun. 2026. “Workplace Envy and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour: The Mediating Effect of Cynicism and the Moderating Effect of Organizational Support.” Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences / Revue Canadienne des Sciences de l'Administration: e70020. https://doi.org/10.1002/cjas.70020.

Duffy, M. K., Lee, K., &amp; Adair, E. A. (2021). Workplace envy. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 8, 19–44. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012420-055746

Erdil O., Müceldili B. (2014). The effects of envy on job engagement and turnover intention. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 150(1), 447–454. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.09.050

Han, S., Zhan, Y., Zhang, L., &amp; Mu, R. (2022). You Have Received More Help than I Did and I Envy You: A Social Comparison Perspective on Receiving Help in the Team. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8351. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148351

Köksal, K., Tufan, C., Griffiths, M.D. et al. From perceived workplace envy to deviance: a multi-theoretical model of envy-related workplace behaviors and the moderating role of social courage. Curr Psychol 45, 1052 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-026-09607-3

Lange, J., Paulhus, D. L., &amp; Crusius, J. (2018). Elucidating the Dark Side of Envy: Distinctive Links of Benign and Malicious Envy With Dark Personalities. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 44(4), 601-614. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167217746340

Li M., Xu X., Kwan H. K. (2021). The antecedents and consequences of workplace envy: A meta-analytic review. Asia Pacific Journal of Management. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10490-021-09772-y

Li M, Qin Y, Le J (2025), &quot;Mentoring matters: decoding the impact of downward envy on interpersonal conflict, workplace ostracism, and displaced aggression&quot;. Journal of Managerial Psychology, Vol. 40 No. 1 pp. 67–81, doi: https://doi.org/10.1108/JMP-12-2023-0768

Li, Y., &amp; Wang, S. (2023). &quot;Comparisons are Odious&quot;? - Exploring the Dual Effect of Upward Social Comparison on Workplace Coping Behaviors of Temporary Agency Workers. Psychology research and behavior management, 16, 4251–4265. https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S425946

Liu, H., Geng, J., &amp; Yao, P. (2021). Relationship of Leadership and Envy: How to Resolve Workplace Envy with Leadership-A Bibliometric Review Study. Journal of Intelligence, 9(3), 44. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence9030044

Nakai, A. and Numazaki, M. (2026), The Emotional Nature of Malicious and Benign Envy: Separate Measurements for Emotion and Motivation. Jpn Psychol Res. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpr.12568

Polat, Ş, Yeşil, A. &amp; Afşar Doğrusöz, L. (2024) The relationship between self-efficacy, malicious or benign envy in nurses: A cross-sectional study. International Nursing Review, 71, 832–840. https://doi.org/10.1111/inr.12925

Song, Y., &amp; Zhao, Z. (2022). Social Undermining and Interpersonal Rumination among Employees: The Mediating Role of Being the Subject of Envy and the Moderating Role of Social Support. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8419. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148419

Su, X., &amp; Chen, C. (2023). The Influence of Workplace Envy on Employees’ Knowledge-Hiding Behavior Based on a Comparative Analysis between Generation Cohorts. Behavioral Sciences, 13(9), 716. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs13090716

Walter CE, Au-Yong-Oliveira M (2022), &quot;An exploratory study on the barriers to innovative behavior: the spiteful effect of envy&quot;. Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol. 35 No. 6 pp. 936–960, https://doi.org/10.1108/JOCM-02-2022-0034

Wilkes, D. (2023) Workplace Envy: Exploring the Effect of Envy on Team Communication and Organizational Information Sharing. Open Journal of Business and Management, 11, 1757-1786. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojbm.2023.114099

Yang C and Tang R (2021) Validating the “Two Faces” of Envy: The Effect of Self-Control. Front. Psychol. 12:731451. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.731451

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
The following links provide further background and context to support this book chapter:
* [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/NwGMsgB9mNg Envy: The Ugliest Emotion? Find out the Truth!] (YouTube)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1f9IE3CkB4s How to Stop Comparing Yourself to Others] (YouTube)
* https://www.ted.com/talks/worklife_with_adam_grant_become_friends_with_your_rivals (TedTalk)
* [https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-good-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/ https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-goo-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/] (TedTalk)
* [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/3g0lRfiAXzc Why Workplace Envy Is Secretly Power ? - YouTube] (YouTube)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
&lt;references group=&quot;https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2026/Envy_in_the_workplace&quot; /&gt;
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__TOC__

=== Overview ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Zonaspace-coworking-collaboration.jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 1'''. Envy can occur in any workplace.]]

;Case study
Jillian and Anna work for the same consulting firm and are at the same level. Jillian recently completed a project that received recognition from senior leaders and she continues to be praised about it. Anna and Jillian get along well, although Anna has started feeling resentful towards Jillian (see Figure 1). 

Anna recently asked Jillian about the project and what tools she used that could possibly assist with her projects. Jillian mentioned she completed a project management course that really changed the way she approaches projects to ensure all milestones are delivered on time and on budget. 

Anna enrols in the same project management course immediately. This is an example of benign envy. By feeling envy towards Jillian, it has motivated Anna to take action to improve herself. With Anna developing her project management skills, this will impact the team and consulting firm in a positive way encouraging extraordinary results. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

[[wikipedia:Envy|Envy]] is a powerful [[emotion]] that drives different behaviours (Yang &amp; Tang, 2021). It can be described as the bitterness or anger you feel when others receive what you deeply or unconsciously desire. In many workplaces, it is human nature for an individual to measure and compare themselves to those that are being recognised or seem more valued than they are. These comparisons can trigger workplace envy, especially when someone feels they are inferior to others. According to Duffy et al (2021), over the last 25 years, there has been growing interest in the phenomenon of workplace envy. While every workplace is filled with opportunities for competition and self-comparison, Liu et al (2021), stated it was important to consider the environment and the timing when looking at workplace envy as it is constantly evolving.  

Workplace envy occurs across a variety of workplace situations although experiences can vary in intensity and frequency and can transform into behavioural reactions. This book chapter describes workplace envy and discusses the role it plays in workplace behaviour. 

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* What is the role of envy in the workplace?
* What is the difference between malicious envy and benign envy? 
* What causes envy and how is it linked to motivation?
* What is the relationship between envy and self-efficacy?
* What is the relationship between envy and social comparison theory?


{{RoundBoxBottom}}
== Role of envy in the workplace ==

There are many causes of envy in the workplace. It can emerge when an employee notices that a colleague has achieved something they desire, such as recognition, a reward, a promotion or an opportunity. It can occur in any workplace where employees constantly compare their performance or progress to those around them, these comparisons can easily activate trigger feelings of envy.   

Through guidance, leadership and intervention, envy can be used as a workplace 'tool' to drive positive behaviour (Liu et al, 2021).  
*Envy can be destructive or can lead to a promotion (Liu et al, 2021) 
*can drive cultural change

== Benign versus malicious envy ==
Workplace envy can be either benign or malicious. Even though they both start with the same feeling of inferiority, they can lead to different reactions (Crusius et al, 2021). Benign envy creates an urge for people to grow while malicious envy leads to negative thoughts or actions that aims to bring a person down (see Table 1).  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Scenario:'''

Jon and Sam have worked together for a long time. They both applied for a promotion within the team recently, Jon was successful and Sam missed out. 

Since then, Sam has started treating Jon unfairly. In meetings, Sam makes negative comments about Jon's ideas. During team lunches, Sam leaves Jon out on purpose. Each day, Sam's behaviour becomes more unfriendly and hurtful.

This is an example of malicious envy. Sam is feeling envious of Jon and is trying to harm and put him down. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}The following table outlines the difference between benign and malicious envy in the workplace.

'''Table 1.'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!
! Benign Envy
! Malicious Envy
|-
| Definition
| Envy that motivates self‑improvement.
| Envy that manifests when someone feels threatened or unable to match another’s achievements.
|-
| Emotional Response
| Encourages growth, motivation and learning.
| Creates feelings of resentment, threat, or inferiority.
|-
| Typical Behaviours
| Working harder, learning new skills, seeking growth or development opportunities.
| Exclusion, gossip, criticism or subtle sabotage.
|-
| Impact on Workplace Culture
| Strengthens workplace culture through healthy competition and personal development.
| Damages trust, teamwork, morale, and can escalate into workplace conflict and create a toxic culture.
|-
| Outcome
| Positive: supports improvement and collaboration.
| Negative: undermines relationships and workplace functioning.
|}

'''Quiz questions.''' Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Benign envy is associated with positive emotions and encourages positive behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Malicious envy is associated with negative emotions and encourages negative behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Relationship between envy and motivation? ==
Envy is linked to number of underlying motivational tendencies (Lange &amp; Crusius, 2015). 

'''Table 2.''' The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model showing the relationship between envy and motivation:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Motivation to improve
(benign envy) 
| Blind spot: Fear based motivation noticed 
by others but not yourself (applies to malicious envy)
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Fear of failure
(malicious envy) 
| Hidden motivation (benign envy)
|}

== Behaviours caused by self-efficacy? ==
Self-efficacy is the mental switch that determines whether envy will lead to a positive or negative behaviour. It is the belief that someone will be able to handle challenges within the workplace when faced with envy (Ayden and .

==== High self-efficacy ====
If an employee has high self-efficacy, they will cope better with workplace envy. They compare themselves upwards and are then motivated to be more like the person they are envious of. 

==== Low self-efficacy ====

If an employee has low self-efficacy, they will be negatively affected by workplace envy. Downward comparison becomes a better coping strategy for them, which leads to negative behaviours such as bringing someone down or spreading rumours to make them feel better about themselves.

== Relationship between workplace envy and social comparison theory? ==
Social comparison theory explains why individuals tend to compare their opinions and abilities to others which affects how they feel and behave (Han et al, 2022). Feeling threatened in the workplace makes people judge themselves more harshly as they believe they cannot match their colleague's social status or success.

==== Upward comparison ====

==== Downward comparison ====  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Call center (8300442093).jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 4'''. Social Comparison Theory at play in a Call Centre.]]

;Case study
At ReadyCall, everyone's daily call numbers are recorded on a big screen. Ebony is new and she keeps comparing herself to Rick, a senior worker who always has the highest call numbers. Seeing the gap makes Ebony feel stressed and worried she isn't good enough.

Ebony's manager explains that Rick learned his skills over many years and wasn't fast when he first started. After hearing this, Ebony feels better, learns some tips from Rick, and becomes more confident.

This is an example of social comparison theory, where people judge themselves by comparing their performance to others (see Figure 4). 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
[[File:Happy-smiley-face-and-sad-2048x1536.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Envy can drive positive or negative behaviour in the workplace.]]
[[wikipedia:Envy|Envy]] is a powerful [[emotion]]. It can be described as the resentment you feel when others receive what you deeply desire. In many workplaces, it is human nature for people to compare themselves to others. In the workplace, a person will measure and compare themselves against those that are being recognised for their work, those that are promoted and those that seem more valued than they are. These comparisons can trigger envy, especially when someone feels they are inferior to others.

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citatio
;
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
==Conclusion==
Envy plays a significant role in shaping workplace behaviour because employees constantly observe and compare their progress and recognition and opportunities of those around them. These comparisons can trigger envy which is not just a negative emotion but a complex psychological response influenced by self-efficacy, motivation and social comparison processes. These comparisons highlight an individual's insecurities, making envy an important emotional signal rather than a something negative. When employees feel capable of improving themselves, workplace envy becomes a constructive force that encourages learning, effort and healthy competition. However, workplace envy can also shift into a harmful direction when employees feel threatened, insecure or unable to achieve similar success. In these situations, workplace envy may lead to resentment, withdrawal or undermining behaviour which can disrupt teamwork or damage workplace relationships. By understanding these dynamics, workplaces can respond carefully and recognise the important role envy plays in fostering growth. fairness and healthier interpersonal relationships that will effectively create a positive working culture.
{{tip|Take-home messages:
* Not all workplace envy is negative.
* Envy is an important catalyst for change if driven in a positive way.
* Envy can motivate staff in a constructive way.
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* Envy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2011/Envy|title=Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Envy - Wikiversity|website=en.wikiversity.org|language=en|access-date=2026-08-25}}&lt;/ref&gt; (Book Chapter, 2011) {{ic|See Tutorial 2 for how to create an internal link to a book chapter)
* Jealousy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=|title=|website=|language=|access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt; is not the same as envy (Book Chapter, 2013)
* [[Self-Efficacy]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Aggression in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Aggression in the workplace - Wikiversity]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rivalry in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rivalry in the workplace - Wikiversity]]

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Aydın, G., &amp; Bozkurt, S. (2022). Research on the Role of Self-Efficacy in the Effect of Workplace Envy on Intention to Quit. Istanbul Business Research, 51(2), 627-642. https://doi.org/10.26650/ibr.2022.51.1062932

Crusius J., Thierhoff J., Lange J. (2021). Dispositional greed predicts benign and malicious envy. Personality and Individual Differences, 168, 110361. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110361

Dong, Xue T., Yang W. Chung, Joon H. Park, and Jeong K. Yun. 2026. “Workplace Envy and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour: The Mediating Effect of Cynicism and the Moderating Effect of Organizational Support.” Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences / Revue Canadienne des Sciences de l'Administration: e70020. https://doi.org/10.1002/cjas.70020.

Duffy, M. K., Lee, K., &amp; Adair, E. A. (2021). Workplace envy. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 8, 19–44. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012420-055746

Erdil O., Müceldili B. (2014). The effects of envy on job engagement and turnover intention. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 150(1), 447–454. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.09.050

Han, S., Zhan, Y., Zhang, L., &amp; Mu, R. (2022). You Have Received More Help than I Did and I Envy You: A Social Comparison Perspective on Receiving Help in the Team. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8351. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148351

Köksal, K., Tufan, C., Griffiths, M.D. et al. From perceived workplace envy to deviance: a multi-theoretical model of envy-related workplace behaviors and the moderating role of social courage. Curr Psychol 45, 1052 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-026-09607-3

Lange, J., Paulhus, D. L., &amp; Crusius, J. (2018). Elucidating the Dark Side of Envy: Distinctive Links of Benign and Malicious Envy With Dark Personalities. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 44(4), 601-614. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167217746340

Li M., Xu X., Kwan H. K. (2021). The antecedents and consequences of workplace envy: A meta-analytic review. Asia Pacific Journal of Management. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10490-021-09772-y

Li M, Qin Y, Le J (2025), &quot;Mentoring matters: decoding the impact of downward envy on interpersonal conflict, workplace ostracism, and displaced aggression&quot;. Journal of Managerial Psychology, Vol. 40 No. 1 pp. 67–81, doi: https://doi.org/10.1108/JMP-12-2023-0768

Li, Y., &amp; Wang, S. (2023). &quot;Comparisons are Odious&quot;? - Exploring the Dual Effect of Upward Social Comparison on Workplace Coping Behaviors of Temporary Agency Workers. Psychology research and behavior management, 16, 4251–4265. https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S425946

Liu, H., Geng, J., &amp; Yao, P. (2021). Relationship of Leadership and Envy: How to Resolve Workplace Envy with Leadership-A Bibliometric Review Study. Journal of Intelligence, 9(3), 44. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence9030044

Nakai, A. and Numazaki, M. (2026), The Emotional Nature of Malicious and Benign Envy: Separate Measurements for Emotion and Motivation. Jpn Psychol Res. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpr.12568

Polat, Ş, Yeşil, A. &amp; Afşar Doğrusöz, L. (2024) The relationship between self-efficacy, malicious or benign envy in nurses: A cross-sectional study. International Nursing Review, 71, 832–840. https://doi.org/10.1111/inr.12925

Song, Y., &amp; Zhao, Z. (2022). Social Undermining and Interpersonal Rumination among Employees: The Mediating Role of Being the Subject of Envy and the Moderating Role of Social Support. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8419. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148419

Su, X., &amp; Chen, C. (2023). The Influence of Workplace Envy on Employees’ Knowledge-Hiding Behavior Based on a Comparative Analysis between Generation Cohorts. Behavioral Sciences, 13(9), 716. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs13090716

Walter CE, Au-Yong-Oliveira M (2022), &quot;An exploratory study on the barriers to innovative behavior: the spiteful effect of envy&quot;. Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol. 35 No. 6 pp. 936–960, https://doi.org/10.1108/JOCM-02-2022-0034

Wilkes, D. (2023) Workplace Envy: Exploring the Effect of Envy on Team Communication and Organizational Information Sharing. Open Journal of Business and Management, 11, 1757-1786. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojbm.2023.114099

Yang C and Tang R (2021) Validating the “Two Faces” of Envy: The Effect of Self-Control. Front. Psychol. 12:731451. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.731451

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
The following links provide further background and context to support this book chapter:
* [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/NwGMsgB9mNg Envy: The Ugliest Emotion? Find out the Truth!] (YouTube)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1f9IE3CkB4s How to Stop Comparing Yourself to Others] (YouTube)
* https://www.ted.com/talks/worklife_with_adam_grant_become_friends_with_your_rivals (TedTalk)
* [https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-good-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/ https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-goo-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/] (TedTalk)
* [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/3g0lRfiAXzc Why Workplace Envy Is Secretly Power ? - YouTube] (YouTube)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
&lt;references group=&quot;https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2026/Envy_in_the_workplace&quot; /&gt;
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        <username>Flickstar888</username>
        <id>3106813</id>
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      <text bytes="19824" sha1="s8bs2r5a12r9852xqxkyqo4qjga34g0" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Envy in the workplace:&lt;br&gt;What role does envy play in workplace behaviour?}}
__TOC__

=== Overview ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Zonaspace-coworking-collaboration.jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 1'''. Envy can occur in any workplace.]]

;Case study
Jillian and Anna work for the same consulting firm and are at the same level. Jillian recently completed a project that received recognition from senior leaders and she continues to be praised about it. Anna and Jillian get along well, although Anna has started feeling resentful towards Jillian (see Figure 1). 

Anna recently asked Jillian about the project and what tools she used that could possibly assist with her projects. Jillian mentioned she completed a project management course that really changed the way she approaches projects to ensure all milestones are delivered on time and on budget. 

Anna enrols in the same project management course immediately. This is an example of benign envy. By feeling envy towards Jillian, it has motivated Anna to take action to improve herself. With Anna developing her project management skills, this will impact the team and consulting firm in a positive way encouraging extraordinary results. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

[[wikipedia:Envy|Envy]] is a powerful [[emotion]] that drives different behaviours (Yang &amp; Tang, 2021). It can be described as the bitterness or anger you feel when others receive what you deeply or unconsciously desire. In many workplaces, it is human nature for an individual to measure and compare themselves to those that are being recognised or seem more valued than they are. These comparisons can trigger workplace envy, especially when someone feels they are inferior to others. According to Duffy et al (2021), over the last 25 years, there has been growing interest in the phenomenon of workplace envy. While every workplace is filled with opportunities for competition and self-comparison, Liu et al (2021), stated it was important to consider the environment and the timing when looking at workplace envy as it is constantly evolving.  

Workplace envy occurs across a variety of workplace situations although experiences can vary in intensity and frequency and can transform into behavioural reactions. This book chapter describes workplace envy and discusses the role it plays in workplace behaviour. 

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* What is the role of envy in the workplace?
* What is the difference between malicious envy and benign envy? 
* What causes envy and how is it linked to motivation?
* What is the relationship between envy and self-efficacy?
* What is the relationship between envy and social comparison theory?


{{RoundBoxBottom}}
== Role of envy in the workplace ==

There are many causes of envy in the workplace. It can emerge when an employee notices that a colleague has achieved something they desire, such as recognition, a reward, a promotion or an opportunity. It can occur in any workplace where employees constantly compare their performance or progress to those around them, these comparisons can easily activate trigger feelings of envy.   

Through guidance, leadership and intervention, envy can be used as a workplace 'tool' to drive positive behaviour (Liu et al, 2021).  
*Envy can be destructive or can lead to a promotion (Liu et al, 2021) 
*can drive cultural change

== Benign versus malicious envy ==
Workplace envy can be either benign or malicious. Even though they both start with the same feeling of inferiority, they can lead to different reactions (Crusius et al, 2021). Benign envy creates an urge for people to grow while malicious envy leads to negative thoughts or actions that aims to bring a person down (see Table 1).  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Scenario:'''

Jon and Sam have worked together for a long time. They both applied for a promotion within the team recently, Jon was successful and Sam missed out. 

Since then, Sam has started treating Jon unfairly. In meetings, Sam makes negative comments about Jon's ideas. During team lunches, Sam leaves Jon out on purpose. Each day, Sam's behaviour becomes more unfriendly and hurtful.

This is an example of malicious envy. Sam is feeling envious of Jon and is trying to harm and put him down. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}The following table outlines the difference between benign and malicious envy in the workplace.

'''Table 1.'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!
! Benign Envy
! Malicious Envy
|-
| Definition
| Envy that motivates self‑improvement.
| Envy that manifests when someone feels threatened or unable to match another’s achievements.
|-
| Emotional Response
| Encourages growth, motivation and learning.
| Creates feelings of resentment, threat, or inferiority.
|-
| Typical Behaviours
| Working harder, learning new skills, seeking growth or development opportunities.
| Exclusion, gossip, criticism or subtle sabotage.
|-
| Impact on Workplace Culture
| Strengthens workplace culture through healthy competition and personal development.
| Damages trust, teamwork, morale, and can escalate into workplace conflict and create a toxic culture.
|-
| Outcome
| Positive: supports improvement and collaboration.
| Negative: undermines relationships and workplace functioning.
|}

'''Quiz questions.''' Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Benign envy is associated with positive emotions and encourages positive behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Malicious envy is associated with negative emotions and encourages negative behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Relationship between envy and motivation? ==
Envy is linked to number of underlying motivational tendencies (Lange &amp; Crusius, 2015). 

'''Table 2.''' The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model showing the relationship between envy and motivation:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Motivation to improve
(benign envy) 
| Blind spot: Fear based motivation noticed 
by others but not yourself (applies to malicious envy)
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Fear of failure
(malicious envy) 
| Hidden motivation (benign envy)
|}

== Behaviours caused by self-efficacy? ==
Self-efficacy is the mental switch that determines whether envy will lead to a positive or negative behaviour. It is the belief that someone will be able to handle challenges within the workplace when faced with envy (Ayden and .

==== High self-efficacy ====
If an employee has high self-efficacy, they will cope better with workplace envy. They compare themselves upwards and are then motivated to be more like the person they are envious of. 

==== Low self-efficacy ====

If an employee has low self-efficacy, they will be negatively affected by workplace envy. Downward comparison becomes a better coping strategy for them, which leads to negative behaviours such as bringing someone down or spreading rumours to make them feel better about themselves.

== Relationship between workplace envy and social comparison theory? ==
Social comparison theory explains why individuals tend to compare their opinions and abilities to others which affects how they feel and behave (Han et al, 2022). Feeling threatened in the workplace makes people judge themselves more harshly as they believe they cannot match their colleague's social status or success.

==== Upward comparison ====
Comparing yourself to someone who appears more skilled, more successful or performing at a higher level. By comparing yourself upward to someone can either motivate you develop yourself or can create feelings of envy, stress or pressure when the gap between one employee and another seems unachievable. 

==== Downward comparison ====
Comparing yourself to someone who seems worse off than you, less skilled or less struggling can boost your confidence in the workplace by providing reassurance. It can also foster a delusion or false sense of security.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Call center (8300442093).jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 4'''. Social Comparison Theory at play in a Call Centre.]]

;Case study
At ReadyCall, everyone's daily call numbers are recorded on a big screen. Ebony is new and she keeps comparing herself to Rick, a senior worker who always has the highest call numbers. Seeing the gap makes Ebony feel stressed and worried she isn't good enough.

Ebony's manager explains that Rick learned his skills over many years and wasn't fast when he first started. After hearing this, Ebony feels better, learns some tips from Rick, and becomes more confident.

This is an example of social comparison theory, where people judge themselves by comparing their performance to others (see Figure 4). 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
[[File:Happy-smiley-face-and-sad-2048x1536.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Envy can drive positive or negative behaviour in the workplace.]]
[[wikipedia:Envy|Envy]] is a powerful [[emotion]]. It can be described as the resentment you feel when others receive what you deeply desire. In many workplaces, it is human nature for people to compare themselves to others. In the workplace, a person will measure and compare themselves against those that are being recognised for their work, those that are promoted and those that seem more valued than they are. These comparisons can trigger envy, especially when someone feels they are inferior to others.

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citatio
;
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
==Conclusion==
Envy plays a significant role in shaping workplace behaviour because employees constantly observe and compare their progress and recognition and opportunities of those around them. These comparisons can trigger envy which is not just a negative emotion but a complex psychological response influenced by self-efficacy, motivation and social comparison processes. These comparisons highlight an individual's insecurities, making envy an important emotional signal rather than a something negative. When employees feel capable of improving themselves, workplace envy becomes a constructive force that encourages learning, effort and healthy competition. However, workplace envy can also shift into a harmful direction when employees feel threatened, insecure or unable to achieve similar success. In these situations, workplace envy may lead to resentment, withdrawal or undermining behaviour which can disrupt teamwork or damage workplace relationships. By understanding these dynamics, workplaces can respond carefully and recognise the important role envy plays in fostering growth. fairness and healthier interpersonal relationships that will effectively create a positive working culture.
{{tip|Take-home messages:
* Not all workplace envy is negative.
* Envy is an important catalyst for change if driven in a positive way.
* Envy can motivate staff in a constructive way.
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* Envy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2011/Envy|title=Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Envy - Wikiversity|website=en.wikiversity.org|language=en|access-date=2026-08-25}}&lt;/ref&gt; (Book Chapter, 2011) {{ic|See Tutorial 2 for how to create an internal link to a book chapter)
* Jealousy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=|title=|website=|language=|access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt; is not the same as envy (Book Chapter, 2013)
* [[Self-Efficacy]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Aggression in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Aggression in the workplace - Wikiversity]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rivalry in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rivalry in the workplace - Wikiversity]]

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Aydın, G., &amp; Bozkurt, S. (2022). Research on the Role of Self-Efficacy in the Effect of Workplace Envy on Intention to Quit. Istanbul Business Research, 51(2), 627-642. https://doi.org/10.26650/ibr.2022.51.1062932

Crusius J., Thierhoff J., Lange J. (2021). Dispositional greed predicts benign and malicious envy. Personality and Individual Differences, 168, 110361. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110361

Dong, Xue T., Yang W. Chung, Joon H. Park, and Jeong K. Yun. 2026. “Workplace Envy and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour: The Mediating Effect of Cynicism and the Moderating Effect of Organizational Support.” Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences / Revue Canadienne des Sciences de l'Administration: e70020. https://doi.org/10.1002/cjas.70020.

Duffy, M. K., Lee, K., &amp; Adair, E. A. (2021). Workplace envy. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 8, 19–44. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012420-055746

Erdil O., Müceldili B. (2014). The effects of envy on job engagement and turnover intention. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 150(1), 447–454. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.09.050

Han, S., Zhan, Y., Zhang, L., &amp; Mu, R. (2022). You Have Received More Help than I Did and I Envy You: A Social Comparison Perspective on Receiving Help in the Team. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8351. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148351

Köksal, K., Tufan, C., Griffiths, M.D. et al. From perceived workplace envy to deviance: a multi-theoretical model of envy-related workplace behaviors and the moderating role of social courage. Curr Psychol 45, 1052 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-026-09607-3

Lange, J., Paulhus, D. L., &amp; Crusius, J. (2018). Elucidating the Dark Side of Envy: Distinctive Links of Benign and Malicious Envy With Dark Personalities. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 44(4), 601-614. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167217746340

Li M., Xu X., Kwan H. K. (2021). The antecedents and consequences of workplace envy: A meta-analytic review. Asia Pacific Journal of Management. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10490-021-09772-y

Li M, Qin Y, Le J (2025), &quot;Mentoring matters: decoding the impact of downward envy on interpersonal conflict, workplace ostracism, and displaced aggression&quot;. Journal of Managerial Psychology, Vol. 40 No. 1 pp. 67–81, doi: https://doi.org/10.1108/JMP-12-2023-0768

Li, Y., &amp; Wang, S. (2023). &quot;Comparisons are Odious&quot;? - Exploring the Dual Effect of Upward Social Comparison on Workplace Coping Behaviors of Temporary Agency Workers. Psychology research and behavior management, 16, 4251–4265. https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S425946

Liu, H., Geng, J., &amp; Yao, P. (2021). Relationship of Leadership and Envy: How to Resolve Workplace Envy with Leadership-A Bibliometric Review Study. Journal of Intelligence, 9(3), 44. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence9030044

Nakai, A. and Numazaki, M. (2026), The Emotional Nature of Malicious and Benign Envy: Separate Measurements for Emotion and Motivation. Jpn Psychol Res. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpr.12568

Polat, Ş, Yeşil, A. &amp; Afşar Doğrusöz, L. (2024) The relationship between self-efficacy, malicious or benign envy in nurses: A cross-sectional study. International Nursing Review, 71, 832–840. https://doi.org/10.1111/inr.12925

Song, Y., &amp; Zhao, Z. (2022). Social Undermining and Interpersonal Rumination among Employees: The Mediating Role of Being the Subject of Envy and the Moderating Role of Social Support. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8419. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148419

Su, X., &amp; Chen, C. (2023). The Influence of Workplace Envy on Employees’ Knowledge-Hiding Behavior Based on a Comparative Analysis between Generation Cohorts. Behavioral Sciences, 13(9), 716. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs13090716

Walter CE, Au-Yong-Oliveira M (2022), &quot;An exploratory study on the barriers to innovative behavior: the spiteful effect of envy&quot;. Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol. 35 No. 6 pp. 936–960, https://doi.org/10.1108/JOCM-02-2022-0034

Wilkes, D. (2023) Workplace Envy: Exploring the Effect of Envy on Team Communication and Organizational Information Sharing. Open Journal of Business and Management, 11, 1757-1786. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojbm.2023.114099

Yang C and Tang R (2021) Validating the “Two Faces” of Envy: The Effect of Self-Control. Front. Psychol. 12:731451. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.731451

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
The following links provide further background and context to support this book chapter:
* [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/NwGMsgB9mNg Envy: The Ugliest Emotion? Find out the Truth!] (YouTube)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1f9IE3CkB4s How to Stop Comparing Yourself to Others] (YouTube)
* https://www.ted.com/talks/worklife_with_adam_grant_become_friends_with_your_rivals (TedTalk)
* [https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-good-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/ https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-goo-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/] (TedTalk)
* [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/3g0lRfiAXzc Why Workplace Envy Is Secretly Power ? - YouTube] (YouTube)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
&lt;references group=&quot;https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2026/Envy_in_the_workplace&quot; /&gt;
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__TOC__

=== Overview ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Zonaspace-coworking-collaboration.jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 1'''. Envy can occur in any workplace.]]

;Case study
Jillian and Anna work for the same consulting firm and are at the same level. Jillian recently completed a project that received recognition from senior leaders and she continues to be praised about it. Anna and Jillian get along well, although Anna has started feeling resentful towards Jillian (see Figure 1). 

Anna recently asked Jillian about the project and what tools she used that could possibly assist with her projects. Jillian mentioned she completed a project management course that really changed the way she approaches projects to ensure all milestones are delivered on time and on budget. 

Anna enrols in the same project management course immediately. This is an example of benign envy. By feeling envy towards Jillian, it has motivated Anna to take action to improve herself. With Anna developing her project management skills, this will impact the team and consulting firm in a positive way encouraging extraordinary results. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

[[wikipedia:Envy|Envy]] is a powerful [[emotion]] that drives different behaviours (Yang &amp; Tang, 2021). It can be described as the bitterness or anger you feel when others receive what you deeply or unconsciously desire. In many workplaces, it is human nature for an individual to measure and compare themselves to those that are being recognised or seem more valued than they are. These comparisons can trigger workplace envy, especially when someone feels they are inferior to others. According to Duffy et al (2021), over the last 25 years, there has been growing interest in the phenomenon of workplace envy. While every workplace is filled with opportunities for competition and self-comparison, Liu et al (2021), stated it was important to consider the environment and the timing when looking at workplace envy as it is constantly evolving.  

Workplace envy occurs across a variety of workplace situations although experiences can vary in intensity and frequency and can transform into behavioural reactions. This book chapter describes workplace envy and discusses the role it plays in workplace behaviour. 

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* What is the role of envy in the workplace?
* What is the difference between malicious envy and benign envy? 
* What causes envy and how is it linked to motivation?
* What is the relationship between envy and self-efficacy?
* What is the relationship between envy and social comparison theory?


{{RoundBoxBottom}}
== Role of envy in the workplace ==

There are many causes of envy in the workplace. It can emerge when an employee notices that a colleague has achieved something they desire, such as recognition, a reward, a promotion or an opportunity. It can occur in any workplace where employees constantly compare their performance or progress to those around them, these comparisons can easily activate trigger feelings of envy.   

Through guidance, leadership and intervention, envy can be used as a workplace 'tool' to drive positive behaviour (Liu et al, 2021).  
*Envy can be destructive or can lead to a promotion (Liu et al, 2021) 
*can drive cultural change

== Benign versus malicious envy ==
Workplace envy can be either benign or malicious. Even though they both start with the same feeling of inferiority, they can lead to different reactions (Crusius et al, 2021). Benign envy creates an urge for people to grow while malicious envy leads to negative thoughts or actions that aims to bring a person down (see Table 1).  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Scenario:'''

Jon and Sam have worked together for a long time. They both applied for a promotion within the team recently, Jon was successful and Sam missed out. 

Since then, Sam has started treating Jon unfairly. In meetings, Sam makes negative comments about Jon's ideas. During team lunches, Sam leaves Jon out on purpose. Each day, Sam's behaviour becomes more unfriendly and hurtful.

This is an example of malicious envy. Sam is feeling envious of Jon and is trying to harm and put him down. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}The following table outlines the difference between benign and malicious envy in the workplace.

'''Table 1.'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!
! Benign Envy
! Malicious Envy
|-
| Definition
| Envy that motivates self‑improvement.
| Envy that manifests when someone feels threatened or unable to match another’s achievements.
|-
| Emotional Response
| Encourages growth, motivation and learning.
| Creates feelings of resentment, threat, or inferiority.
|-
| Typical Behaviours
| Working harder, learning new skills, seeking growth or development opportunities.
| Exclusion, gossip, criticism or subtle sabotage.
|-
| Impact on Workplace Culture
| Strengthens workplace culture through healthy competition and personal development.
| Damages trust, teamwork, morale, and can escalate into workplace conflict and create a toxic culture.
|-
| Outcome
| Positive: supports improvement and collaboration.
| Negative: undermines relationships and workplace functioning.
|}

'''Quiz questions.''' Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Benign envy is associated with positive emotions and encourages positive behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Malicious envy is associated with negative emotions and encourages negative behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Relationship between envy and motivation? ==
Envy is linked to number of underlying motivational tendencies (Lange &amp; Crusius, 2015). 

'''Table 2.''' The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model showing the relationship between envy and motivation:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Motivation to improve
(benign envy) 
| Blind spot: Fear based motivation noticed 
by others but not yourself (applies to malicious envy)
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Fear of failure
(malicious envy) 
| Hidden motivation (benign envy)
|}

== Behaviours caused by self-efficacy? ==
Self-efficacy is the mental switch that determines whether envy will lead to a positive or negative behaviour. It is the belief that someone will be able to handle challenges within the workplace when faced with envy (Ayden and .

==== High self-efficacy ====
If an employee has high self-efficacy, they will cope better with workplace envy. They compare themselves upwards and are then motivated to be more like the person they are envious of. 

==== Low self-efficacy ====

If an employee has low self-efficacy, they will be negatively affected by workplace envy. Downward comparison becomes a better coping strategy for them, which leads to negative behaviours such as bringing someone down or spreading rumours to make them feel better about themselves.

'''Quiz questions.''' Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{What is a common sign of low self-efficacy?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Avoiding tasks because you expect to fail
- Feeling confident you can handle new challenges

{What is a common sign of high self-efficacy?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Avoiding tasks because they appear too hard
+ Confidence in handling challenges
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Relationship between workplace envy and social comparison theory? ==
Social comparison theory explains why individuals tend to compare their opinions and abilities to others which affects how they feel and behave (Han et al, 2022). Feeling threatened in the workplace makes people judge themselves more harshly as they believe they cannot match their colleague's social status or success.

==== Upward comparison ====
Comparing yourself to someone who appears more skilled, more successful or performing at a higher level. By comparing yourself upward to someone can either motivate you develop yourself or can create feelings of envy, stress or pressure when the gap between one employee and another seems unachievable. 

==== Downward comparison ====
Comparing yourself to someone who seems worse off than you, less skilled or less struggling can boost your confidence in the workplace by providing reassurance. It can also foster a delusion or false sense of security.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Call center (8300442093).jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 4'''. Social Comparison Theory at play in a Call Centre.]]

;Case study
At ReadyCall, everyone's daily call numbers are recorded on a big screen. Ebony is new and she keeps comparing herself to Rick, a senior worker who always has the highest call numbers. Seeing the gap makes Ebony feel stressed and worried she isn't good enough.

Ebony's manager explains that Rick learned his skills over many years and wasn't fast when he first started. After hearing this, Ebony feels better, learns some tips from Rick, and becomes more confident.

This is an example of social comparison theory, where people judge themselves by comparing their performance to others (see Figure 4). 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
[[File:Happy-smiley-face-and-sad-2048x1536.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Envy can drive positive or negative behaviour in the workplace.]]
'''Quiz questions.''' Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{What type of social comparison theory is Ebony experiencing?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Upward comparison
- Downward comparison


&lt;/quiz&gt;


[[wikipedia:Envy|Envy]] is a powerful [[emotion]]. It can be described as the resentment you feel when others receive what you deeply desire. In many workplaces, it is human nature for people to compare themselves to others. In the workplace, a person will measure and compare themselves against those that are being recognised for their work, those that are promoted and those that seem more valued than they are. These comparisons can trigger envy, especially when someone feels they are inferior to others.

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citatio
;
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
==Conclusion==
Envy plays a significant role in shaping workplace behaviour because employees constantly observe and compare their progress and recognition and opportunities of those around them. These comparisons can trigger envy which is not just a negative emotion but a complex psychological response influenced by self-efficacy, motivation and social comparison processes. These comparisons highlight an individual's insecurities, making envy an important emotional signal rather than a something negative. When employees feel capable of improving themselves, workplace envy becomes a constructive force that encourages learning, effort and healthy competition. However, workplace envy can also shift into a harmful direction when employees feel threatened, insecure or unable to achieve similar success. In these situations, workplace envy may lead to resentment, withdrawal or undermining behaviour which can disrupt teamwork or damage workplace relationships. By understanding these dynamics, workplaces can respond carefully and recognise the important role envy plays in fostering growth. fairness and healthier interpersonal relationships that will effectively create a positive working culture.
{{tip|Take-home messages:
* Not all workplace envy is negative.
* Envy is an important catalyst for change if driven in a positive way.
* Envy can motivate staff in a constructive way.
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* Envy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2011/Envy|title=Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Envy - Wikiversity|website=en.wikiversity.org|language=en|access-date=2026-08-25}}&lt;/ref&gt; (Book Chapter, 2011) {{ic|See Tutorial 2 for how to create an internal link to a book chapter)
* Jealousy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=|title=|website=|language=|access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt; is not the same as envy (Book Chapter, 2013)
* [[Self-Efficacy]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Aggression in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Aggression in the workplace - Wikiversity]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rivalry in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rivalry in the workplace - Wikiversity]]

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Aydın, G., &amp; Bozkurt, S. (2022). Research on the Role of Self-Efficacy in the Effect of Workplace Envy on Intention to Quit. Istanbul Business Research, 51(2), 627-642. https://doi.org/10.26650/ibr.2022.51.1062932

Crusius J., Thierhoff J., Lange J. (2021). Dispositional greed predicts benign and malicious envy. Personality and Individual Differences, 168, 110361. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110361

Dong, Xue T., Yang W. Chung, Joon H. Park, and Jeong K. Yun. 2026. “Workplace Envy and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour: The Mediating Effect of Cynicism and the Moderating Effect of Organizational Support.” Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences / Revue Canadienne des Sciences de l'Administration: e70020. https://doi.org/10.1002/cjas.70020.

Duffy, M. K., Lee, K., &amp; Adair, E. A. (2021). Workplace envy. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 8, 19–44. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012420-055746

Erdil O., Müceldili B. (2014). The effects of envy on job engagement and turnover intention. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 150(1), 447–454. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.09.050

Han, S., Zhan, Y., Zhang, L., &amp; Mu, R. (2022). You Have Received More Help than I Did and I Envy You: A Social Comparison Perspective on Receiving Help in the Team. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8351. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148351

Köksal, K., Tufan, C., Griffiths, M.D. et al. From perceived workplace envy to deviance: a multi-theoretical model of envy-related workplace behaviors and the moderating role of social courage. Curr Psychol 45, 1052 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-026-09607-3

Lange, J., Paulhus, D. L., &amp; Crusius, J. (2018). Elucidating the Dark Side of Envy: Distinctive Links of Benign and Malicious Envy With Dark Personalities. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 44(4), 601-614. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167217746340

Li M., Xu X., Kwan H. K. (2021). The antecedents and consequences of workplace envy: A meta-analytic review. Asia Pacific Journal of Management. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10490-021-09772-y

Li M, Qin Y, Le J (2025), &quot;Mentoring matters: decoding the impact of downward envy on interpersonal conflict, workplace ostracism, and displaced aggression&quot;. Journal of Managerial Psychology, Vol. 40 No. 1 pp. 67–81, doi: https://doi.org/10.1108/JMP-12-2023-0768

Li, Y., &amp; Wang, S. (2023). &quot;Comparisons are Odious&quot;? - Exploring the Dual Effect of Upward Social Comparison on Workplace Coping Behaviors of Temporary Agency Workers. Psychology research and behavior management, 16, 4251–4265. https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S425946

Liu, H., Geng, J., &amp; Yao, P. (2021). Relationship of Leadership and Envy: How to Resolve Workplace Envy with Leadership-A Bibliometric Review Study. Journal of Intelligence, 9(3), 44. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence9030044

Nakai, A. and Numazaki, M. (2026), The Emotional Nature of Malicious and Benign Envy: Separate Measurements for Emotion and Motivation. Jpn Psychol Res. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpr.12568

Polat, Ş, Yeşil, A. &amp; Afşar Doğrusöz, L. (2024) The relationship between self-efficacy, malicious or benign envy in nurses: A cross-sectional study. International Nursing Review, 71, 832–840. https://doi.org/10.1111/inr.12925

Song, Y., &amp; Zhao, Z. (2022). Social Undermining and Interpersonal Rumination among Employees: The Mediating Role of Being the Subject of Envy and the Moderating Role of Social Support. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8419. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148419

Su, X., &amp; Chen, C. (2023). The Influence of Workplace Envy on Employees’ Knowledge-Hiding Behavior Based on a Comparative Analysis between Generation Cohorts. Behavioral Sciences, 13(9), 716. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs13090716

Walter CE, Au-Yong-Oliveira M (2022), &quot;An exploratory study on the barriers to innovative behavior: the spiteful effect of envy&quot;. Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol. 35 No. 6 pp. 936–960, https://doi.org/10.1108/JOCM-02-2022-0034

Wilkes, D. (2023) Workplace Envy: Exploring the Effect of Envy on Team Communication and Organizational Information Sharing. Open Journal of Business and Management, 11, 1757-1786. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojbm.2023.114099

Yang C and Tang R (2021) Validating the “Two Faces” of Envy: The Effect of Self-Control. Front. Psychol. 12:731451. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.731451

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
The following links provide further background and context to support this book chapter:
* [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/NwGMsgB9mNg Envy: The Ugliest Emotion? Find out the Truth!] (YouTube)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1f9IE3CkB4s How to Stop Comparing Yourself to Others] (YouTube)
* https://www.ted.com/talks/worklife_with_adam_grant_become_friends_with_your_rivals (TedTalk)
* [https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-good-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/ https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-goo-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/] (TedTalk)
* [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/3g0lRfiAXzc Why Workplace Envy Is Secretly Power ? - YouTube] (YouTube)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
&lt;references group=&quot;https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2026/Envy_in_the_workplace&quot; /&gt;
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      <text bytes="20314" sha1="b1emrbn1r89wf9s2ags0acrm6kr2uhu" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Envy in the workplace:&lt;br&gt;What role does envy play in workplace behaviour?}}
__TOC__

=== Overview ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Zonaspace-coworking-collaboration.jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 1'''. Envy can occur in any workplace.]]

;Case study
Jillian and Anna work for the same consulting firm and are at the same level. Jillian recently completed a project that received recognition from senior leaders and she continues to be praised about it. Anna and Jillian get along well, although Anna has started feeling resentful towards Jillian (see Figure 1). 

Anna recently asked Jillian about the project and what tools she used that could possibly assist with her projects. Jillian mentioned she completed a project management course that really changed the way she approaches projects to ensure all milestones are delivered on time and on budget. 

Anna enrols in the same project management course immediately. This is an example of benign envy. By feeling envy towards Jillian, it has motivated Anna to take action to improve herself. With Anna developing her project management skills, this will impact the team and consulting firm in a positive way encouraging extraordinary results. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

[[wikipedia:Envy|Envy]] is a powerful [[emotion]] that drives different behaviours (Yang &amp; Tang, 2021). It can be described as the bitterness or anger you feel when others receive what you deeply or unconsciously desire. In many workplaces, it is human nature for an individual to measure and compare themselves to those that are being recognised or seem more valued than they are. These comparisons can trigger workplace envy, especially when someone feels they are inferior to others. According to Duffy et al (2021), over the last 25 years, there has been growing interest in the phenomenon of workplace envy. While every workplace is filled with opportunities for competition and self-comparison, Liu et al (2021), stated it was important to consider the environment and the timing when looking at workplace envy as it is constantly evolving.  

Workplace envy occurs across a variety of workplace situations although experiences can vary in intensity and frequency and can transform into behavioural reactions. This book chapter describes workplace envy and discusses the role it plays in workplace behaviour. 

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* What is the role of envy in the workplace?
* What is the difference between malicious envy and benign envy? 
* What causes envy and how is it linked to motivation?
* What is the relationship between envy and self-efficacy?
* What is the relationship between envy and social comparison theory?


{{RoundBoxBottom}}
== Role of envy in the workplace ==

There are many causes of envy in the workplace. It can emerge when an employee notices that a colleague has achieved something they desire, such as recognition, a reward, a promotion or an opportunity. It can occur in any workplace where employees constantly compare their performance or progress to those around them, these comparisons can easily activate trigger feelings of envy.   

Through guidance, leadership and intervention, envy can be used as a workplace 'tool' to drive positive behaviour (Liu et al, 2021).  
*Envy can be destructive or can lead to a promotion (Liu et al, 2021) 
*can drive cultural change

== Benign versus malicious envy ==
Workplace envy can be either benign or malicious. Even though they both start with the same feeling of inferiority, they can lead to different reactions (Crusius et al, 2021). Benign envy creates an urge for people to grow while malicious envy leads to negative thoughts or actions that aims to bring a person down (see Table 1).  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Scenario:'''

Jon and Sam have worked together for a long time. They both applied for a promotion within the team recently, Jon was successful and Sam missed out. 

Since then, Sam has started treating Jon unfairly. In meetings, Sam makes negative comments about Jon's ideas. During team lunches, Sam leaves Jon out on purpose. Each day, Sam's behaviour becomes more unfriendly and hurtful.

This is an example of malicious envy. Sam is feeling envious of Jon and is trying to harm and put him down. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}The following table outlines the difference between benign and malicious envy in the workplace.

'''Table 1.'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!
! Benign Envy
! Malicious Envy
|-
| Definition
| Envy that motivates self‑improvement.
| Envy that manifests when someone feels threatened or unable to match another’s achievements.
|-
| Emotional Response
| Encourages growth, motivation and learning.
| Creates feelings of resentment, threat, or inferiority.
|-
| Typical Behaviours
| Working harder, learning new skills, seeking growth or development opportunities.
| Exclusion, gossip, criticism or subtle sabotage.
|-
| Impact on Workplace Culture
| Strengthens workplace culture through healthy competition and personal development.
| Damages trust, teamwork, morale, and can escalate into workplace conflict and create a toxic culture.
|-
| Outcome
| Positive: supports improvement and collaboration.
| Negative: undermines relationships and workplace functioning.
|}

'''Quiz questions.''' Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Benign envy is associated with positive emotions and encourages positive behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Malicious envy is associated with negative emotions and encourages negative behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Relationship between envy and motivation? ==
Envy is linked to number of underlying motivational tendencies (Lange &amp; Crusius, 2015). 

'''Table 2.''' The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model showing the relationship between envy and motivation:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Motivation to improve
(benign envy) 
| Blind spot: Fear based motivation noticed 
by others but not yourself (applies to malicious envy)
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Fear of failure
(malicious envy) 
| Hidden motivation (benign envy)
|}

== Behaviours caused by self-efficacy? ==
Self-efficacy is the mental switch that determines whether envy will lead to a positive or negative behaviour. It is the belief that someone will be able to handle challenges within the workplace when faced with envy (Ayden and .

==== High self-efficacy ====
If an employee has high self-efficacy, they will cope better with workplace envy. They compare themselves upwards and are then motivated to be more like the person they are envious of. 

==== Low self-efficacy ====

If an employee has low self-efficacy, they will be negatively affected by workplace envy. Downward comparison becomes a better coping strategy for them, which leads to negative behaviours such as bringing someone down or spreading rumours to make them feel better about themselves.

'''Quiz questions.''' Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{What is a common sign of low self-efficacy?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Avoiding tasks because you expect to fail
- Feeling confident you can handle new challenges

{What is a common sign of high self-efficacy?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Avoiding tasks because they appear too hard
+ Confidence in handling challenges
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Relationship between workplace envy and social comparison theory? ==
Social comparison theory explains why individuals tend to compare their opinions and abilities to others which affects how they feel and behave (Han et al, 2022). Feeling threatened in the workplace makes people judge themselves more harshly as they believe they cannot match their colleague's social status or success.

==== Upward comparison ====
Comparing yourself to someone who appears more skilled, more successful or performing at a higher level. By comparing yourself upward to someone can either motivate you develop yourself or can create feelings of envy, stress or pressure when the gap between one employee and another seems unachievable. 

==== Downward comparison ====
Comparing yourself to someone who seems worse off than you, less skilled or less struggling can boost your confidence in the workplace by providing reassurance. It can also foster a delusion or false sense of security.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Call center (8300442093).jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 4'''. Social Comparison Theory at play in a Call Centre.]]

;Case study
At ReadyCall, everyone's daily call numbers are recorded on a big screen. Ebony is new and she keeps comparing herself to Rick, a senior worker who always has the highest call numbers. Seeing the gap makes Ebony feel stressed and worried she isn't good enough.

Ebony's manager explains that Rick learned his skills over many years and wasn't fast when he first started. After hearing this, Ebony feels better, learns some tips from Rick, and becomes more confident.

This is an example of social comparison theory, where people judge themselves by comparing their performance to others (see Figure 4). 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
[[File:Happy-smiley-face-and-sad-2048x1536.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Envy can drive positive or negative behaviour in the workplace.]]
'''Quiz questions.''' Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{What type of social comparison theory is Ebony experiencing?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Upward comparison
- Downward comparison


&lt;/quiz&gt;


[[wikipedia:Envy|Envy]] is a powerful [[emotion]]. It can be described as the resentment you feel when others receive what you deeply desire. In many workplaces, it is human nature for people to compare themselves to others. In the workplace, a person will measure and compare themselves against those that are being recognised for their work, those that are promoted and those that seem more valued than they are. These comparisons can trigger envy, especially when someone feels they are inferior to others.

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citatio
;
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
==Conclusion==
Envy plays a significant role in shaping workplace behaviour because employees constantly observe and compare their progress and recognition and opportunities of those around them. These comparisons can trigger envy which is not just a negative emotion but a complex psychological response influenced by self-efficacy, motivation and social comparison processes. These comparisons highlight an individual's insecurities, making envy an important emotional signal rather than a something negative. When employees feel capable of improving themselves, workplace envy becomes a constructive force that encourages learning, effort and healthy competition. However, workplace envy can also shift into a harmful direction when employees feel threatened, insecure or unable to achieve similar success. In these situations, workplace envy may lead to resentment, withdrawal or undermining behaviour which can disrupt teamwork or damage workplace relationships. By understanding these dynamics, workplaces can respond carefully and recognise the important role envy plays in fostering growth. fairness and healthier interpersonal relationships that will effectively create a positive working culture.
{{tip|Take-home messages:
* Not all workplace envy is negative.
* Envy is an important catalyst for change if driven in a positive way.
* Envy can motivate staff in a constructive way.
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* Envy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2011/Envy|title=Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Envy - Wikiversity|website=en.wikiversity.org|language=en|access-date=2026-08-25}}&lt;/ref&gt; (Book Chapter, 2011) {{ic|See Tutorial 2 for how to create an internal link to a book chapter)
* Jealousy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=|title=|website=|language=|access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt; is not the same as envy (Book Chapter, 2013)
* [[Self-Efficacy]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Aggression in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Aggression in the workplace - Wikiversity]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rivalry in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rivalry in the workplace - Wikiversity]]

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Aydın, G., &amp; Bozkurt, S. (2022). Research on the Role of Self-Efficacy in the Effect of Workplace Envy on Intention to Quit. Istanbul Business Research, 51(2), 627-642. https://doi.org/10.26650/ibr.2022.51.1062932

Crusius J., Thierhoff J., Lange J. (2021). Dispositional greed predicts benign and malicious envy. Personality and Individual Differences, 168, 110361. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110361

Dong, Xue T., Yang W. Chung, Joon H. Park, and Jeong K. Yun. 2026. “Workplace Envy and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour: The Mediating Effect of Cynicism and the Moderating Effect of Organizational Support.” Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences / Revue Canadienne des Sciences de l'Administration: e70020. https://doi.org/10.1002/cjas.70020.

Duffy, M. K., Lee, K., &amp; Adair, E. A. (2021). Workplace envy. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 8, 19–44. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012420-055746

Erdil O., Müceldili B. (2014). The effects of envy on job engagement and turnover intention. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 150(1), 447–454. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.09.050

Han, S., Zhan, Y., Zhang, L., &amp; Mu, R. (2022). You Have Received More Help than I Did and I Envy You: A Social Comparison Perspective on Receiving Help in the Team. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8351. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148351

Köksal, K., Tufan, C., Griffiths, M.D. et al. From perceived workplace envy to deviance: a multi-theoretical model of envy-related workplace behaviors and the moderating role of social courage. Curr Psychol 45, 1052 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-026-09607-3

Lange, J., Paulhus, D. L., &amp; Crusius, J. (2018). Elucidating the Dark Side of Envy: Distinctive Links of Benign and Malicious Envy With Dark Personalities. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 44(4), 601-614. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167217746340

Li M., Xu X., Kwan H. K. (2021). The antecedents and consequences of workplace envy: A meta-analytic review. Asia Pacific Journal of Management. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10490-021-09772-y

Li M, Qin Y, Le J (2025), &quot;Mentoring matters: decoding the impact of downward envy on interpersonal conflict, workplace ostracism, and displaced aggression&quot;. Journal of Managerial Psychology, Vol. 40 No. 1 pp. 67–81, doi: https://doi.org/10.1108/JMP-12-2023-0768

Li, Y., &amp; Wang, S. (2023). &quot;Comparisons are Odious&quot;? - Exploring the Dual Effect of Upward Social Comparison on Workplace Coping Behaviors of Temporary Agency Workers. Psychology research and behavior management, 16, 4251–4265. https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S425946

Liu, H., Geng, J., &amp; Yao, P. (2021). Relationship of Leadership and Envy: How to Resolve Workplace Envy with Leadership-A Bibliometric Review Study. Journal of Intelligence, 9(3), 44. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence9030044

Nakai, A. and Numazaki, M. (2026), The Emotional Nature of Malicious and Benign Envy: Separate Measurements for Emotion and Motivation. Jpn Psychol Res. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpr.12568

Polat, Ş, Yeşil, A. &amp; Afşar Doğrusöz, L. (2024) The relationship between self-efficacy, malicious or benign envy in nurses: A cross-sectional study. International Nursing Review, 71, 832–840. https://doi.org/10.1111/inr.12925

Song, Y., &amp; Zhao, Z. (2022). Social Undermining and Interpersonal Rumination among Employees: The Mediating Role of Being the Subject of Envy and the Moderating Role of Social Support. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8419. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148419

Su, X., &amp; Chen, C. (2023). The Influence of Workplace Envy on Employees’ Knowledge-Hiding Behavior Based on a Comparative Analysis between Generation Cohorts. Behavioral Sciences, 13(9), 716. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs13090716

Walter CE, Au-Yong-Oliveira M (2022), &quot;An exploratory study on the barriers to innovative behavior: the spiteful effect of envy&quot;. Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol. 35 No. 6 pp. 936–960, https://doi.org/10.1108/JOCM-02-2022-0034

Wilkes, D. (2023) Workplace Envy: Exploring the Effect of Envy on Team Communication and Organizational Information Sharing. Open Journal of Business and Management, 11, 1757-1786. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojbm.2023.114099

Yang C and Tang R (2021) Validating the “Two Faces” of Envy: The Effect of Self-Control. Front. Psychol. 12:731451. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.731451

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
The following links provide further background and context to support this book chapter:
* [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/NwGMsgB9mNg Envy: The Ugliest Emotion? Find out the Truth!] (YouTube)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1f9IE3CkB4s How to Stop Comparing Yourself to Others] (YouTube)
* https://www.ted.com/talks/worklife_with_adam_grant_become_friends_with_your_rivals (TedTalk)
* [https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-good-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/ https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-goo-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/] (TedTalk)
* [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/3g0lRfiAXzc Why Workplace Envy Is Secretly Power ? - YouTube] (YouTube)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
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__TOC__

=== Overview ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Zonaspace-coworking-collaboration.jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 1'''. Envy can occur in any workplace.]]

;Case study
Jillian and Anna work for the same consulting firm and are at the same level. Jillian recently completed a project that received recognition from senior leaders and she continues to be praised about it. Anna and Jillian get along well, although Anna has started feeling resentful towards Jillian (see Figure 1). 

Anna recently asked Jillian about the project and what tools she used that could possibly assist with her projects. Jillian mentioned she completed a project management course that really changed the way she approaches projects to ensure all milestones are delivered on time and on budget. 

Anna enrols in the same project management course immediately. This is an example of benign envy. By feeling envy towards Jillian, it has motivated Anna to take action to improve herself. With Anna developing her project management skills, this will impact the team and consulting firm in a positive way encouraging extraordinary results. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

[[wikipedia:Envy|Envy]] is a powerful [[emotion]] that drives different behaviours (Yang &amp; Tang, 2021). It can be described as the bitterness or anger you feel when others receive what you deeply or unconsciously desire. In many workplaces, it is human nature for an individual to measure and compare themselves to those that are being recognised or seem more valued than they are. These comparisons can trigger workplace envy, especially when someone feels they are inferior to others. According to Duffy et al (2021), over the last 25 years, there has been growing interest in the phenomenon of workplace envy. While every workplace is filled with opportunities for competition and self-comparison, Liu et al (2021), stated it was important to consider the environment and the timing when looking at workplace envy as it is constantly evolving.  

Workplace envy occurs across a variety of workplace situations although experiences can vary in intensity and frequency and can transform into behavioural reactions. This book chapter describes workplace envy and discusses the role it plays in workplace behaviour. 

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* What is the role of envy in the workplace?
* What is the difference between malicious envy and benign envy? 
* What causes envy and how is it linked to motivation?
* What is the relationship between envy and self-efficacy?
* What is the relationship between envy and social comparison theory?


{{RoundBoxBottom}}
== Role of envy in the workplace ==

There are many causes of envy in the workplace. It can emerge when an employee notices that a colleague has achieved something they desire, such as recognition, a reward, a promotion or an opportunity. It can occur in any workplace where employees constantly compare their performance or progress to those around them, these comparisons can easily activate feelings of envy.   

Through guidance, leadership and intervention, envy can be used as a workplace 'tool' to drive positive behaviour (Liu et al, 2021).  
== Benign versus malicious envy ==
Workplace envy can be either benign or malicious. Even though they both start with the same feeling of inferiority, they can lead to different reactions (Crusius et al, 2021). Benign envy creates an urge for people to grow while malicious envy leads to negative thoughts or actions that aims to bring a person down (see Table 1).  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Scenario:'''

Jon and Sam have worked together for a long time. They both applied for a promotion within the team recently, Jon was successful and Sam missed out. 

Since then, Sam has started treating Jon unfairly. In meetings, Sam makes negative comments about Jon's ideas. During team lunches, Sam leaves Jon out on purpose. Each day, Sam's behaviour becomes more unfriendly and hurtful.

This is an example of malicious envy. Sam is feeling envious of Jon and is trying to harm and put him down. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}The following table outlines the difference between benign and malicious envy in the workplace.

'''Table 1.'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!
! Benign Envy
! Malicious Envy
|-
| Definition
| Envy that motivates self‑improvement.
| Envy that manifests when someone feels threatened or unable to match another’s achievements.
|-
| Emotional Response
| Encourages growth, motivation and learning.
| Creates feelings of resentment, threat, or inferiority.
|-
| Typical Behaviours
| Working harder, learning new skills, seeking growth or development opportunities.
| Exclusion, gossip, criticism or subtle sabotage.
|-
| Impact on Workplace Culture
| Strengthens workplace culture through healthy competition and personal development.
| Damages trust, teamwork, morale, and can escalate into workplace conflict and create a toxic culture.
|-
| Outcome
| Positive: supports improvement and collaboration.
| Negative: undermines relationships and workplace functioning.
|}

'''Quiz questions.''' Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Benign envy is associated with positive emotions and encourages positive behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Malicious envy is associated with negative emotions and encourages negative behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Relationship between envy and motivation? ==
Envy is linked to number of underlying motivational tendencies (Lange &amp; Crusius, 2015).  

[[File:Happy-smiley-face-and-sad-2048x1536.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Envy can motivate positive or negative behaviour in the workplace.]]


'''Table 2.''' The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model showing the relationship between envy and motivation:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Motivation to improve
(benign envy) 
| Blind spot: Fear based motivation noticed 
by others but not yourself (applies to malicious envy)
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Fear of failure
(malicious envy) 
| Hidden motivation (benign envy)
|}

== Behaviours caused by self-efficacy? ==
Self-efficacy is the mental switch that determines whether envy will lead to a positive or negative behaviour. It is the belief that someone will be able to handle challenges within the workplace when faced with envy (Ayden and .

==== High self-efficacy ====
If an employee has high self-efficacy, they will cope better with workplace envy. They compare themselves upwards and are then motivated to be more like the person they are envious of. 

==== Low self-efficacy ====

If an employee has low self-efficacy, they will be negatively affected by workplace envy. Downward comparison becomes a better coping strategy for them, which leads to negative behaviours such as bringing someone down or spreading rumours to make them feel better about themselves.

'''Quiz questions.''' Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{What is a common sign of low self-efficacy?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Avoiding tasks because you expect to fail
- Feeling confident you can handle new challenges

{What is a common sign of high self-efficacy?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Avoiding tasks because they appear too hard
+ Confidence in handling challenges
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Relationship between workplace envy and social comparison theory? ==
Social comparison theory explains why individuals tend to compare their opinions and abilities to others which affects how they feel and behave (Han et al, 2022). Feeling threatened in the workplace makes people judge themselves more harshly as they believe they cannot match their colleague's social status or success.

==== Upward comparison ====
Comparing yourself to someone who appears more skilled, more successful or performing at a higher level. By comparing yourself upward to someone can either motivate you develop yourself or can create feelings of envy, stress or pressure when the gap between one employee and another seems unachievable. 

==== Downward comparison ====
Comparing yourself to someone who seems worse off than you, less skilled or less struggling can boost your confidence in the workplace by providing reassurance. It can also foster a delusion or false sense of security.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Call center (8300442093).jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 4'''. Social Comparison Theory at play in a Call Centre.]]

;Case study
At ReadyCall, everyone's daily call numbers are recorded on a big screen. Ebony is new and she keeps comparing herself to Rick, a senior worker who always has the highest call numbers. Seeing the gap makes Ebony feel stressed and worried she isn't good enough.

Ebony's manager explains that Rick learned his skills over many years and wasn't fast when he first started. After hearing this, Ebony feels better, learns some tips from Rick, and becomes more confident.

This is an example of social comparison theory, where people judge themselves by comparing their performance to others (see Figure 4). 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
'''Quiz questions.''' Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{What type of social comparison theory is Ebony experiencing?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Upward comparison
- Downward comparison


&lt;/quiz&gt;
;
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}

==Conclusion==
Envy plays a significant role in shaping workplace behaviour because employees constantly observe and compare their progress and recognition and opportunities of those around them. These comparisons can trigger envy which is not just a negative emotion but a complex psychological response influenced by self-efficacy, motivation and social comparison processes. These comparisons highlight an individual's insecurities, making envy an important emotional signal rather than a something negative. When employees feel capable of improving themselves, workplace envy becomes a constructive force that encourages learning, effort and healthy competition. However, workplace envy can also shift into a harmful direction when employees feel threatened, insecure or unable to achieve similar success. In these situations, workplace envy may lead to resentment, withdrawal or undermining behaviour which can disrupt teamwork or damage workplace relationships. By understanding these dynamics, workplaces can respond carefully and recognise the important role envy plays in fostering growth. fairness and healthier interpersonal relationships that will effectively create a positive working culture.
{{tip|Take-home messages:
* Not all workplace envy is negative.
* Envy is an important catalyst for change if driven in a positive way.
* Envy can motivate staff in a constructive way.
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* Envy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2011/Envy|title=Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Envy - Wikiversity|website=en.wikiversity.org|language=en|access-date=2026-08-25}}&lt;/ref&gt; (Book Chapter, 2011) {{ic|See Tutorial 2 for how to create an internal link to a book chapter)
* Jealousy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=|title=|website=|language=|access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt; is not the same as envy (Book Chapter, 2013)
* [[Self-Efficacy]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Aggression in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Aggression in the workplace - Wikiversity]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rivalry in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rivalry in the workplace - Wikiversity]]

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Aydın, G., &amp; Bozkurt, S. (2022). Research on the Role of Self-Efficacy in the Effect of Workplace Envy on Intention to Quit. Istanbul Business Research, 51(2), 627-642. https://doi.org/10.26650/ibr.2022.51.1062932

Crusius J., Thierhoff J., Lange J. (2021). Dispositional greed predicts benign and malicious envy. Personality and Individual Differences, 168, 110361. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110361

Dong, Xue T., Yang W. Chung, Joon H. Park, and Jeong K. Yun. 2026. “Workplace Envy and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour: The Mediating Effect of Cynicism and the Moderating Effect of Organizational Support.” Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences / Revue Canadienne des Sciences de l'Administration: e70020. https://doi.org/10.1002/cjas.70020.

Duffy, M. K., Lee, K., &amp; Adair, E. A. (2021). Workplace envy. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 8, 19–44. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012420-055746

Erdil O., Müceldili B. (2014). The effects of envy on job engagement and turnover intention. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 150(1), 447–454. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.09.050

Han, S., Zhan, Y., Zhang, L., &amp; Mu, R. (2022). You Have Received More Help than I Did and I Envy You: A Social Comparison Perspective on Receiving Help in the Team. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8351. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148351

Köksal, K., Tufan, C., Griffiths, M.D. et al. From perceived workplace envy to deviance: a multi-theoretical model of envy-related workplace behaviors and the moderating role of social courage. Curr Psychol 45, 1052 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-026-09607-3

Lange, J., Paulhus, D. L., &amp; Crusius, J. (2018). Elucidating the Dark Side of Envy: Distinctive Links of Benign and Malicious Envy With Dark Personalities. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 44(4), 601-614. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167217746340

Li M., Xu X., Kwan H. K. (2021). The antecedents and consequences of workplace envy: A meta-analytic review. Asia Pacific Journal of Management. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10490-021-09772-y

Li M, Qin Y, Le J (2025), &quot;Mentoring matters: decoding the impact of downward envy on interpersonal conflict, workplace ostracism, and displaced aggression&quot;. Journal of Managerial Psychology, Vol. 40 No. 1 pp. 67–81, doi: https://doi.org/10.1108/JMP-12-2023-0768

Li, Y., &amp; Wang, S. (2023). &quot;Comparisons are Odious&quot;? - Exploring the Dual Effect of Upward Social Comparison on Workplace Coping Behaviors of Temporary Agency Workers. Psychology research and behavior management, 16, 4251–4265. https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S425946

Liu, H., Geng, J., &amp; Yao, P. (2021). Relationship of Leadership and Envy: How to Resolve Workplace Envy with Leadership-A Bibliometric Review Study. Journal of Intelligence, 9(3), 44. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence9030044

Nakai, A. and Numazaki, M. (2026), The Emotional Nature of Malicious and Benign Envy: Separate Measurements for Emotion and Motivation. Jpn Psychol Res. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpr.12568

Polat, Ş, Yeşil, A. &amp; Afşar Doğrusöz, L. (2024) The relationship between self-efficacy, malicious or benign envy in nurses: A cross-sectional study. International Nursing Review, 71, 832–840. https://doi.org/10.1111/inr.12925

Song, Y., &amp; Zhao, Z. (2022). Social Undermining and Interpersonal Rumination among Employees: The Mediating Role of Being the Subject of Envy and the Moderating Role of Social Support. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8419. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148419

Su, X., &amp; Chen, C. (2023). The Influence of Workplace Envy on Employees’ Knowledge-Hiding Behavior Based on a Comparative Analysis between Generation Cohorts. Behavioral Sciences, 13(9), 716. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs13090716

Walter CE, Au-Yong-Oliveira M (2022), &quot;An exploratory study on the barriers to innovative behavior: the spiteful effect of envy&quot;. Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol. 35 No. 6 pp. 936–960, https://doi.org/10.1108/JOCM-02-2022-0034

Wilkes, D. (2023) Workplace Envy: Exploring the Effect of Envy on Team Communication and Organizational Information Sharing. Open Journal of Business and Management, 11, 1757-1786. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojbm.2023.114099

Yang C and Tang R (2021) Validating the “Two Faces” of Envy: The Effect of Self-Control. Front. Psychol. 12:731451. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.731451

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
The following links provide further background and context to support this book chapter:
* [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/NwGMsgB9mNg Envy: The Ugliest Emotion? Find out the Truth!] (YouTube)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1f9IE3CkB4s How to Stop Comparing Yourself to Others] (YouTube)
* https://www.ted.com/talks/worklife_with_adam_grant_become_friends_with_your_rivals (TedTalk)
* [https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-good-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/ https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-goo-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/] (TedTalk)
* [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/3g0lRfiAXzc Why Workplace Envy Is Secretly Power ? - YouTube] (YouTube)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
__FORCETOC__</text>
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__TOC__

=== Overview ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Zonaspace-coworking-collaboration.jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 1'''. Envy can occur in any workplace.]]

;Case study
Jillian and Anna work for the same consulting firm and are at the same level. Jillian recently completed a project that received recognition from senior leaders and she continues to be praised about it. Anna and Jillian get along well, although Anna has started feeling resentful towards Jillian (see Figure 1). 

Anna recently asked Jillian about the project and what tools she used that could possibly assist with her projects. Jillian mentioned she completed a project management course that really changed the way she approaches projects to ensure all milestones are delivered on time and on budget. 

Anna enrols in the same project management course immediately. This is an example of benign envy. By feeling envy towards Jillian, it has motivated Anna to take action to improve herself. With Anna developing her project management skills, this will impact the team and consulting firm in a positive way encouraging extraordinary results. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

[[wikipedia:Envy|Envy]] is a powerful [[emotion]] that drives different behaviours (Yang &amp; Tang, 2021). It can be described as the bitterness or anger you feel when others receive what you deeply or unconsciously desire. In many workplaces, it is human nature for an individual to measure and compare themselves to those that are being recognised or seem more valued than they are. These comparisons can trigger workplace envy, especially when someone feels they are inferior to others. According to Duffy et al (2021), over the last 25 years, there has been growing interest in the phenomenon of workplace envy. While every workplace is filled with opportunities for competition and self-comparison, Liu et al (2021), stated it was important to consider the environment and the timing when looking at workplace envy as it is constantly evolving.  

Workplace envy occurs across a variety of workplace situations although experiences can vary in intensity and frequency and can transform into behavioural reactions. This book chapter describes workplace envy and discusses the role it plays in workplace behaviour. 

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* What is the role of envy in the workplace?
* What is the difference between malicious envy and benign envy? 
* What causes envy and how is it linked to motivation?
* What is the relationship between envy and self-efficacy?
* What is the relationship between envy and social comparison theory?


{{RoundBoxBottom}}
== Role of envy in the workplace ==

There are many causes of envy in the workplace. It can emerge when an employee notices that a colleague has achieved something they desire, such as recognition, a reward, a promotion or an opportunity. It can occur in any workplace where employees constantly compare their performance or progress to those around them, these comparisons can easily activate feelings of envy.   

Through guidance, leadership and intervention, envy can be used as a workplace 'tool' to drive positive behaviour (Liu et al, 2021).  
== Benign versus malicious envy ==
Workplace envy can be either benign or malicious. Even though they both start with the same feeling of inferiority, they can lead to different reactions (Crusius et al, 2021). Benign envy creates an urge for people to grow while malicious envy leads to negative thoughts or actions that aims to bring a person down (see Table 1).  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Scenario:'''

Jon and Sam have worked together for a long time. They both applied for a promotion within the team recently, Jon was successful and Sam missed out. 

Since then, Sam has started treating Jon unfairly. In meetings, Sam makes negative comments about Jon's ideas. During team lunches, Sam leaves Jon out on purpose. Each day, Sam's behaviour becomes more unfriendly and hurtful.

This is an example of malicious envy. Sam is feeling envious of Jon and is trying to harm and put him down. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}The following table outlines the difference between benign and malicious envy in the workplace.

'''Table 1.'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!
! Benign Envy
! Malicious Envy
|-
| Definition
| Envy that motivates self‑improvement.
| Envy that manifests when someone feels threatened or unable to match another’s achievements.
|-
| Emotional Response
| Encourages growth, motivation and learning.
| Creates feelings of resentment, threat, or inferiority.
|-
| Typical Behaviours
| Working harder, learning new skills, seeking growth or development opportunities.
| Exclusion, gossip, criticism or subtle sabotage.
|-
| Impact on Workplace Culture
| Strengthens workplace culture through healthy competition and personal development.
| Damages trust, teamwork, morale, and can escalate into workplace conflict and create a toxic culture.
|-
| Outcome
| Positive: supports improvement and collaboration.
| Negative: undermines relationships and workplace functioning.
|}

'''Quiz questions.''' Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Benign envy is associated with positive emotions and encourages positive behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Malicious envy is associated with negative emotions and encourages negative behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Relationship between envy and motivation? ==
Envy is linked to number of underlying motivational tendencies (Lange &amp; Crusius, 2015).  

[[File:Happy-smiley-face-and-sad-2048x1536.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Envy can motivate positive or negative behaviour in the workplace.]]


'''Table 2.''' The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model showing the relationship between envy and motivation:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Motivation to improve
(benign envy) 
| Blind spot: Fear based motivation noticed 
by others but not yourself (applies to malicious envy)
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Fear of failure
(malicious envy) 
| Hidden motivation (benign envy)
|}

== Behaviours caused by self-efficacy? ==
Self-efficacy is the mental switch that determines whether envy will lead to a positive or negative behaviour. It is the belief that someone will be able to handle challenges within the workplace when faced with envy (Ayden and .

==== High self-efficacy ====
If an employee has high self-efficacy, they will cope better with workplace envy. They compare themselves upwards and are then motivated to be more like the person they are envious of. 

==== Low self-efficacy ====

If an employee has low self-efficacy, they will be negatively affected by workplace envy. Downward comparison becomes a better coping strategy for them, which leads to negative behaviours such as bringing someone down or spreading rumours to make them feel better about themselves.

'''Quiz questions.''' Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{What is a common sign of low self-efficacy?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Avoiding tasks because you expect to fail
- Feeling confident you can handle new challenges

{What is a common sign of high self-efficacy?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Avoiding tasks because they appear too hard
+ Confidence in handling challenges
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Relationship between workplace envy and social comparison theory? ==
Social comparison theory explains why individuals tend to compare their opinions and abilities to others which affects how they feel and behave (Han et al, 2022). Feeling threatened in the workplace makes people judge themselves more harshly as they believe they cannot match their colleague's social status or success.

==== Upward comparison ====
Comparing yourself to someone who appears more skilled, more successful or performing at a higher level. By comparing yourself upward to someone can either motivate you develop yourself or can create feelings of envy, stress or pressure when the gap between one employee and another seems unachievable. 

==== Downward comparison ====
Comparing yourself to someone who seems worse off than you, less skilled or less struggling can boost your confidence in the workplace by providing reassurance. It can also foster a delusion or false sense of security.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Call center (8300442093).jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 4'''. Social Comparison Theory at play in a Call Centre.]]

;Case study
At ReadyCall, everyone's daily call numbers are recorded on a big screen. Ebony is new and she keeps comparing herself to Rick, a senior worker who always has the highest call numbers. Seeing the gap makes Ebony feel stressed and worried she isn't good enough.

Ebony's manager explains that Rick learned his skills over many years and wasn't fast when he first started. After hearing this, Ebony feels better, learns some tips from Rick, and becomes more confident.

This is an example of social comparison theory, where people judge themselves by comparing their performance to others (see Figure 4). 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
'''Quiz questions.''' Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{What type of social comparison theory is Ebony experiencing?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Upward comparison
- Downward comparison


&lt;/quiz&gt;
;
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}

==Conclusion==
Envy plays a significant role in shaping workplace behaviour because employees constantly observe and compare their progress and recognition and opportunities of those around them. These comparisons can trigger envy which is not just a negative emotion but a complex psychological response influenced by self-efficacy, motivation and social comparison processes. These comparisons highlight an individual's insecurities, making envy an important emotional signal rather than a something negative. When employees feel capable of improving themselves, workplace envy becomes a constructive force that encourages learning, effort and healthy competition. However, workplace envy can also shift into a harmful direction when employees feel threatened, insecure or unable to achieve similar success. In these situations, workplace envy may lead to resentment, withdrawal or undermining behaviour which can disrupt teamwork or damage workplace relationships. By understanding these dynamics, workplaces can respond carefully and recognise the important role envy plays in fostering growth. fairness and healthier interpersonal relationships that will effectively create a positive working culture.
{{tip|Take-home messages:
* Not all workplace envy is negative.
* Envy is an important catalyst for change if driven in a positive way.
* Envy can motivate staff in a constructive way.
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* Envy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2011/Envy|title=Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Envy - Wikiversity|website=en.wikiversity.org|language=en|access-date=2026-08-25}}&lt;/ref&gt; (Book Chapter, 2011) {{ic|See Tutorial 2 for how to create an internal link to a book chapter)
* Jealousy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=|title=|website=|language=|access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt; is not the same as envy (Book Chapter, 2013)
* [[Self-Efficacy]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Aggression in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Aggression in the workplace - Wikiversity]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rivalry in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rivalry in the workplace - Wikiversity]]

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Aydın, G., &amp; Bozkurt, S. (2022). Research on the Role of Self-Efficacy in the Effect of Workplace Envy on Intention to Quit. Istanbul Business Research, 51(2), 627-642. https://doi.org/10.26650/ibr.2022.51.1062932

Crusius J., Thierhoff J., Lange J. (2021). Dispositional greed predicts benign and malicious envy. Personality and Individual Differences, 168, 110361. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110361

Dong, Xue T., Yang W. Chung, Joon H. Park, and Jeong K. Yun. 2026. “Workplace Envy and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour: The Mediating Effect of Cynicism and the Moderating Effect of Organizational Support.” Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences / Revue Canadienne des Sciences de l'Administration: e70020. https://doi.org/10.1002/cjas.70020.

Duffy, M. K., Lee, K., &amp; Adair, E. A. (2021). Workplace envy. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 8, 19–44. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012420-055746

Erdil O., Müceldili B. (2014). The effects of envy on job engagement and turnover intention. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 150(1), 447–454. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.09.050

Han, S., Zhan, Y., Zhang, L., &amp; Mu, R. (2022). You Have Received More Help than I Did and I Envy You: A Social Comparison Perspective on Receiving Help in the Team. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8351. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148351

Köksal, K., Tufan, C., Griffiths, M.D. et al. From perceived workplace envy to deviance: a multi-theoretical model of envy-related workplace behaviors and the moderating role of social courage. Curr Psychol 45, 1052 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-026-09607-3

Lange, J., Paulhus, D. L., &amp; Crusius, J. (2018). Elucidating the Dark Side of Envy: Distinctive Links of Benign and Malicious Envy With Dark Personalities. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 44(4), 601-614. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167217746340

Li M., Xu X., Kwan H. K. (2021). The antecedents and consequences of workplace envy: A meta-analytic review. Asia Pacific Journal of Management. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10490-021-09772-y

Li M, Qin Y, Le J (2025), &quot;Mentoring matters: decoding the impact of downward envy on interpersonal conflict, workplace ostracism, and displaced aggression&quot;. Journal of Managerial Psychology, Vol. 40 No. 1 pp. 67–81, doi: https://doi.org/10.1108/JMP-12-2023-0768

Li, Y., &amp; Wang, S. (2023). &quot;Comparisons are Odious&quot;? - Exploring the Dual Effect of Upward Social Comparison on Workplace Coping Behaviors of Temporary Agency Workers. Psychology research and behavior management, 16, 4251–4265. https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S425946

Liu, H., Geng, J., &amp; Yao, P. (2021). Relationship of Leadership and Envy: How to Resolve Workplace Envy with Leadership-A Bibliometric Review Study. Journal of Intelligence, 9(3), 44. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence9030044

Nakai, A. and Numazaki, M. (2026), The Emotional Nature of Malicious and Benign Envy: Separate Measurements for Emotion and Motivation. Jpn Psychol Res. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpr.12568

Polat, Ş, Yeşil, A. &amp; Afşar Doğrusöz, L. (2024) The relationship between self-efficacy, malicious or benign envy in nurses: A cross-sectional study. International Nursing Review, 71, 832–840. https://doi.org/10.1111/inr.12925

Song, Y., &amp; Zhao, Z. (2022). Social Undermining and Interpersonal Rumination among Employees: The Mediating Role of Being the Subject of Envy and the Moderating Role of Social Support. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8419. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148419

Su, X., &amp; Chen, C. (2023). The Influence of Workplace Envy on Employees’ Knowledge-Hiding Behavior Based on a Comparative Analysis between Generation Cohorts. Behavioral Sciences, 13(9), 716. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs13090716

Walter CE, Au-Yong-Oliveira M (2022), &quot;An exploratory study on the barriers to innovative behavior: the spiteful effect of envy&quot;. Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol. 35 No. 6 pp. 936–960, https://doi.org/10.1108/JOCM-02-2022-0034

Wilkes, D. (2023) Workplace Envy: Exploring the Effect of Envy on Team Communication and Organizational Information Sharing. Open Journal of Business and Management, 11, 1757-1786. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojbm.2023.114099

Yang C and Tang R (2021) Validating the “Two Faces” of Envy: The Effect of Self-Control. Front. Psychol. 12:731451. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.731451

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
The following links provide further background and context to support this book chapter:
* [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/NwGMsgB9mNg Envy: The Ugliest Emotion? Find out the Truth!] (YouTube)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1f9IE3CkB4s How to Stop Comparing Yourself to Others] (YouTube)
* https://www.ted.com/talks/worklife_with_adam_grant_become_friends_with_your_rivals (TedTalk)
* [https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-good-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/ https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-goo-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/] (TedTalk)
* [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/3g0lRfiAXzc Why Workplace Envy Is Secretly Power ? - YouTube] (YouTube)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
__FORCETOC__
&lt;references /&gt;{{DEFAULTSORT:https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2026/Envy_in_the_workplace#Role_of_envy_in_the_workplace}}</text>
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__TOC__

=== Overview ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Zonaspace-coworking-collaboration.jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 1'''. Envy can occur in any workplace.]]

;Case study
Jillian and Anna work for the same consulting firm and are at the same level. Jillian recently completed a project that received recognition from senior leaders and she continues to be praised about it. Anna and Jillian get along well, although Anna has started feeling resentful towards Jillian (see Figure 1). 

Anna recently asked Jillian about the project and what tools she used that could possibly assist with her projects. Jillian mentioned she completed a project management course that really changed the way she approaches projects to ensure all milestones are delivered on time and on budget. 

Anna enrols in the same project management course immediately. This is an example of benign envy. By feeling envy towards Jillian, it has motivated Anna to take action to improve herself. With Anna developing her project management skills, this will impact the team and consulting firm in a positive way encouraging extraordinary results. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

[[wikipedia:Envy|Envy]] is a powerful [[emotion]] that drives different behaviours (Yang &amp; Tang, 2021). It can be described as the bitterness or anger you feel when others receive what you deeply or unconsciously desire. In many workplaces, it is human nature for an individual to measure and compare themselves to those that are being recognised or seem more valued than they are. These comparisons can trigger workplace envy, especially when someone feels they are inferior to others. According to Duffy et al (2021), over the last 25 years, there has been growing interest in the phenomenon of workplace envy. While every workplace is filled with opportunities for competition and self-comparison, Liu et al (2021), stated it was important to consider the environment and the timing when looking at workplace envy as it is constantly evolving.  

Workplace envy occurs across a variety of workplace situations although experiences can vary in intensity and frequency and can transform into behavioural reactions. This book chapter describes workplace envy and discusses the role it plays in workplace behaviour. 

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* What is the role of envy in the workplace?
* What is the difference between malicious envy and benign envy? 
* What causes envy and how is it linked to motivation?
* What is the relationship between envy and self-efficacy?
* What is the relationship between envy and social comparison theory?


{{RoundBoxBottom}}
== Role of envy in the workplace ==

There are many causes of envy in the workplace. It can emerge when an employee notices that a colleague has achieved something they desire, such as recognition, a reward, a promotion or an opportunity. It can occur in any workplace where employees constantly compare their performance or progress to those around them, these comparisons can easily activate feelings of envy.   

Through guidance, leadership and intervention, envy can be used as a workplace 'tool' to drive positive behaviour (Liu et al, 2021).  
== Benign versus malicious envy ==
Workplace envy can be either benign or malicious. Even though they both start with the same feeling of inferiority, they can lead to different reactions (Crusius et al, 2021). Benign envy creates an urge for people to grow while malicious envy leads to negative thoughts or actions that aims to bring a person down (see Table 1).  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Scenario:'''

Jon and Sam have worked together for a long time. They both applied for a promotion within the team recently, Jon was successful and Sam missed out. 

Since then, Sam has started treating Jon unfairly. In meetings, Sam makes negative comments about Jon's ideas. During team lunches, Sam leaves Jon out on purpose. Each day, Sam's behaviour becomes more unfriendly and hurtful.

This is an example of malicious envy. Sam is feeling envious of Jon and is trying to harm and put him down. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}The following table outlines the difference between benign and malicious envy in the workplace.

'''Table 1.'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!
! Benign Envy
! Malicious Envy
|-
| Definition
| Envy that motivates self‑improvement.
| Envy that manifests when someone feels threatened or unable to match another’s achievements.
|-
| Emotional Response
| Encourages growth, motivation and learning.
| Creates feelings of resentment, threat, or inferiority.
|-
| Typical Behaviours
| Working harder, learning new skills, seeking growth or development opportunities.
| Exclusion, gossip, criticism or subtle sabotage.
|-
| Impact on Workplace Culture
| Strengthens workplace culture through healthy competition and personal development.
| Damages trust, teamwork, morale, and can escalate into workplace conflict and create a toxic culture.
|-
| Outcome
| Positive: supports improvement and collaboration.
| Negative: undermines relationships and workplace functioning.
|}

'''Quiz questions.''' Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Benign envy is associated with positive emotions and encourages positive behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Malicious envy is associated with negative emotions and encourages negative behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Relationship between envy and motivation? ==
Envy is linked to number of underlying motivational tendencies (Lange &amp; Crusius, 2015).  

[[File:Happy-smiley-face-and-sad-2048x1536.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Envy can motivate positive or negative behaviour in the workplace.]]


'''Table 2.''' The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model showing the relationship between envy and motivation:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Motivation to improve
(benign envy) 
| Blind spot: Fear based motivation noticed 
by others but not yourself (applies to malicious envy)
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Fear of failure
(malicious envy) 
| Hidden motivation (benign envy)
|}

== Behaviours caused by self-efficacy? ==
Self-efficacy is the mental switch that determines whether envy will lead to a positive or negative behaviour. It is the belief that someone will be able to handle challenges within the workplace when faced with envy (Ayden and .

==== High self-efficacy ====
If an employee has high self-efficacy, they will cope better with workplace envy. They compare themselves upwards and are then motivated to be more like the person they are envious of. 

==== Low self-efficacy ====

If an employee has low self-efficacy, they will be negatively affected by workplace envy. Downward comparison becomes a better coping strategy for them, which leads to negative behaviours such as bringing someone down or spreading rumours to make them feel better about themselves.

'''Quiz questions.''' Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{What is a common sign of low self-efficacy?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Avoiding tasks because you expect to fail
- Feeling confident you can handle new challenges

{What is a common sign of high self-efficacy?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Avoiding tasks because they appear too hard
+ Confidence in handling challenges
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Relationship between workplace envy and social comparison theory? ==
Social comparison theory explains why individuals tend to compare their opinions and abilities to others which affects how they feel and behave (Han et al, 2022). Feeling threatened in the workplace makes people judge themselves more harshly as they believe they cannot match their colleague's social status or success.

==== Upward comparison ====
Comparing yourself to someone who appears more skilled, more successful or performing at a higher level. By comparing yourself upward to someone can either motivate you develop yourself or can create feelings of envy, stress or pressure when the gap between one employee and another seems unachievable. 

==== Downward comparison ====
Comparing yourself to someone who seems worse off than you, less skilled or less struggling can boost your confidence in the workplace by providing reassurance. It can also foster a delusion or false sense of security.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Call center (8300442093).jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 4'''. Social Comparison Theory at play in a Call Centre.]]

;Case study
At ReadyCall, everyone's daily call numbers are recorded on a big screen. Ebony is new and she keeps comparing herself to Rick, a senior worker who always has the highest call numbers. Seeing the gap makes Ebony feel stressed and worried she isn't good enough.

Ebony's manager explains that Rick learned his skills over many years and wasn't fast when he first started. After hearing this, Ebony feels better, learns some tips from Rick, and becomes more confident.

This is an example of social comparison theory, where people judge themselves by comparing their performance to others (see Figure 4). 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
'''Quiz questions.''' Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{What type of social comparison theory is Ebony experiencing?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Upward comparison
- Downward comparison


&lt;/quiz&gt;
;
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}

==Conclusion==
Envy plays a significant role in shaping workplace behaviour because employees constantly observe and compare their progress and recognition and opportunities of those around them. These comparisons can trigger envy which is not just a negative emotion but a complex psychological response influenced by self-efficacy, motivation and social comparison processes. These comparisons highlight an individual's insecurities, making envy an important emotional signal rather than a something negative. When employees feel capable of improving themselves, workplace envy becomes a constructive force that encourages learning, effort and healthy competition. However, workplace envy can also shift into a harmful direction when employees feel threatened, insecure or unable to achieve similar success. In these situations, workplace envy may lead to resentment, withdrawal or undermining behaviour which can disrupt teamwork or damage workplace relationships. By understanding these dynamics, workplaces can respond carefully and recognise the important role envy plays in fostering growth. fairness and healthier interpersonal relationships that will effectively create a positive working culture.
{{tip|Take-home messages:
* Not all workplace envy is negative.
* Envy is an important catalyst for change if driven in a positive way.
* Envy can motivate staff in a constructive way.
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* Envy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2011/Envy|title=Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Envy - Wikiversity|website=en.wikiversity.org|language=en|access-date=2026-08-25}}&lt;/ref&gt; (Book Chapter, 2011) {{ic|See Tutorial 2 for how to create an internal link to a book chapter)
* Jealousy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=|title=|website=|language=|access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt; is not the same as envy (Book Chapter, 2013)
* [[Self-Efficacy]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Aggression in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Aggression in the workplace - Wikiversity]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rivalry in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rivalry in the workplace - Wikiversity]]

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Aydın, G., &amp; Bozkurt, S. (2022). Research on the Role of Self-Efficacy in the Effect of Workplace Envy on Intention to Quit. Istanbul Business Research, 51(2), 627-642. https://doi.org/10.26650/ibr.2022.51.1062932

Crusius J., Thierhoff J., Lange J. (2021). Dispositional greed predicts benign and malicious envy. Personality and Individual Differences, 168, 110361. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110361

Dong, Xue T., Yang W. Chung, Joon H. Park, and Jeong K. Yun. 2026. “Workplace Envy and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour: The Mediating Effect of Cynicism and the Moderating Effect of Organizational Support.” Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences / Revue Canadienne des Sciences de l'Administration: e70020. https://doi.org/10.1002/cjas.70020.

Duffy, M. K., Lee, K., &amp; Adair, E. A. (2021). Workplace envy. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 8, 19–44. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012420-055746

Erdil O., Müceldili B. (2014). The effects of envy on job engagement and turnover intention. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 150(1), 447–454. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.09.050

Han, S., Zhan, Y., Zhang, L., &amp; Mu, R. (2022). You Have Received More Help than I Did and I Envy You: A Social Comparison Perspective on Receiving Help in the Team. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8351. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148351

Köksal, K., Tufan, C., Griffiths, M.D. et al. From perceived workplace envy to deviance: a multi-theoretical model of envy-related workplace behaviors and the moderating role of social courage. Curr Psychol 45, 1052 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-026-09607-3

Lange, J., Paulhus, D. L., &amp; Crusius, J. (2018). Elucidating the Dark Side of Envy: Distinctive Links of Benign and Malicious Envy With Dark Personalities. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 44(4), 601-614. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167217746340

Li M., Xu X., Kwan H. K. (2021). The antecedents and consequences of workplace envy: A meta-analytic review. Asia Pacific Journal of Management. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10490-021-09772-y

Li M, Qin Y, Le J (2025), &quot;Mentoring matters: decoding the impact of downward envy on interpersonal conflict, workplace ostracism, and displaced aggression&quot;. Journal of Managerial Psychology, Vol. 40 No. 1 pp. 67–81, doi: https://doi.org/10.1108/JMP-12-2023-0768

Li, Y., &amp; Wang, S. (2023). &quot;Comparisons are Odious&quot;? - Exploring the Dual Effect of Upward Social Comparison on Workplace Coping Behaviors of Temporary Agency Workers. Psychology research and behavior management, 16, 4251–4265. https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S425946

Liu, H., Geng, J., &amp; Yao, P. (2021). Relationship of Leadership and Envy: How to Resolve Workplace Envy with Leadership-A Bibliometric Review Study. Journal of Intelligence, 9(3), 44. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence9030044

Nakai, A. and Numazaki, M. (2026), The Emotional Nature of Malicious and Benign Envy: Separate Measurements for Emotion and Motivation. Jpn Psychol Res. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpr.12568

Polat, Ş, Yeşil, A. &amp; Afşar Doğrusöz, L. (2024) The relationship between self-efficacy, malicious or benign envy in nurses: A cross-sectional study. International Nursing Review, 71, 832–840. https://doi.org/10.1111/inr.12925

Song, Y., &amp; Zhao, Z. (2022). Social Undermining and Interpersonal Rumination among Employees: The Mediating Role of Being the Subject of Envy and the Moderating Role of Social Support. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8419. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148419

Su, X., &amp; Chen, C. (2023). The Influence of Workplace Envy on Employees’ Knowledge-Hiding Behavior Based on a Comparative Analysis between Generation Cohorts. Behavioral Sciences, 13(9), 716. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs13090716

Walter CE, Au-Yong-Oliveira M (2022), &quot;An exploratory study on the barriers to innovative behavior: the spiteful effect of envy&quot;. Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol. 35 No. 6 pp. 936–960, https://doi.org/10.1108/JOCM-02-2022-0034

Wilkes, D. (2023) Workplace Envy: Exploring the Effect of Envy on Team Communication and Organizational Information Sharing. Open Journal of Business and Management, 11, 1757-1786. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojbm.2023.114099

Yang C and Tang R (2021) Validating the “Two Faces” of Envy: The Effect of Self-Control. Front. Psychol. 12:731451. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.731451

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
The following links provide further background and context to support this book chapter:
* [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/NwGMsgB9mNg Envy: The Ugliest Emotion? Find out the Truth!] (YouTube)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1f9IE3CkB4s How to Stop Comparing Yourself to Others] (YouTube)
* https://www.ted.com/talks/worklife_with_adam_grant_become_friends_with_your_rivals (TedTalk)
* [https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-good-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/ https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-goo-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/] (TedTalk)
* [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/3g0lRfiAXzc Why Workplace Envy Is Secretly Power ? - YouTube] (YouTube)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}</text>
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      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="18941" sha1="9doe2pns1u7iajqgjp9hdik81fgfbks" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Envy in the workplace:&lt;br&gt;What role does envy play in workplace behaviour?}}
__TOC__

=== Overview ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Zonaspace-coworking-collaboration.jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 1'''. Envy can occur in any workplace.]]

;Case study
Jillian and Anna work for the same consulting firm and are at the same level. Jillian recently completed a project that received recognition from senior leaders and she continues to be praised about it. Anna and Jillian get along well, although Anna has started feeling resentful towards Jillian (see Figure 1). 

Anna recently asked Jillian about the project and what tools she used that could possibly assist with her projects. Jillian mentioned she completed a project management course that really changed the way she approaches projects to ensure all milestones are delivered on time and on budget. 

Anna enrols in the same project management course immediately. This is an example of benign envy. By feeling envy towards Jillian, it has motivated Anna to take action to improve herself. With Anna developing her project management skills, this will impact the team and consulting firm in a positive way encouraging extraordinary results. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

[[wikipedia:Envy|Envy]] is a powerful [[emotion]] that drives different behaviours (Yang &amp; Tang, 2021). It can be described as the bitterness or anger you feel when others receive what you deeply or unconsciously desire. In many workplaces, it is human nature for an individual to measure and compare themselves to those that are being recognised or seem more valued than they are. These comparisons can trigger workplace envy, especially when someone feels they are inferior to others. According to Duffy et al (2021), over the last 25 years, there has been growing interest in the phenomenon of workplace envy. While every workplace is filled with opportunities for competition and self-comparison, Liu et al (2021), stated it was important to consider the environment and the timing when looking at workplace envy as it is constantly evolving.  

Workplace envy occurs across a variety of workplace situations although experiences can vary in intensity and frequency and can transform into behavioural reactions. This book chapter describes workplace envy and discusses the role it plays in workplace behaviour. 

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* What is the role of envy in the workplace?
* What is the difference between malicious envy and benign envy? 
* What causes envy and how is it linked to motivation?
* What is the relationship between envy and self-efficacy?
* What is the relationship between envy and social comparison theory?


{{RoundBoxBottom}}
== Role of envy in the workplace ==

There are many causes of envy in the workplace. It can emerge when an employee notices that a colleague has achieved something they desire, such as recognition, a reward, a promotion or an opportunity. It can occur in any workplace where employees constantly compare their performance or progress to those around them, these comparisons can easily activate feelings of envy.   

Through guidance, leadership and intervention, envy can be used as a workplace 'tool' to drive positive behaviour (Liu et al, 2021).  
== Benign versus malicious envy ==
Workplace envy can be either benign or malicious. Even though they both start with the same feeling of inferiority, they can lead to different reactions (Crusius et al, 2021). Benign envy creates an urge for people to grow while malicious envy leads to negative thoughts or actions that aims to bring a person down (see Table 1).  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Scenario:'''

Jon and Sam have worked together for a long time. They both applied for a promotion within the team recently, Jon was successful and Sam missed out. 

Since then, Sam has started treating Jon unfairly. In meetings, Sam makes negative comments about Jon's ideas. During team lunches, Sam leaves Jon out on purpose. Each day, Sam's behaviour becomes more unfriendly and hurtful.

This is an example of malicious envy. Sam is feeling envious of Jon and is trying to harm and put him down. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}The following table outlines the difference between benign and malicious envy in the workplace.

'''Table 1.'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!
! Benign Envy
! Malicious Envy
|-
| Definition
| Envy that motivates self‑improvement.
| Envy that manifests when someone feels threatened or unable to match another’s achievements.
|-
| Emotional Response
| Encourages growth, motivation and learning.
| Creates feelings of resentment, threat, or inferiority.
|-
| Typical Behaviours
| Working harder, learning new skills, seeking growth or development opportunities.
| Exclusion, gossip, criticism or subtle sabotage.
|-
| Impact on Workplace Culture
| Strengthens workplace culture through healthy competition and personal development.
| Damages trust, teamwork, morale, and can escalate into workplace conflict and create a toxic culture.
|-
| Outcome
| Positive: supports improvement and collaboration.
| Negative: undermines relationships and workplace functioning.
|}

'''Quiz questions.''' Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Benign envy is associated with positive emotions and encourages positive behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Malicious envy is associated with negative emotions and encourages negative behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Relationship between envy and motivation? ==
Envy is linked to number of underlying motivational tendencies (Lange &amp; Crusius, 2015).  

[[File:Happy-smiley-face-and-sad-2048x1536.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Envy can motivate positive or negative behaviour in the workplace.]]


'''Table 2.''' The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model showing the relationship between envy and motivation:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Motivation to improve
(benign envy) 
| Blind spot: Fear based motivation noticed 
by others but not yourself (applies to malicious envy)
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Fear of failure
(malicious envy) 
| Hidden motivation (benign envy)
|}

== Behaviours caused by self-efficacy? ==
Self-efficacy is the mental switch that determines whether envy will lead to a positive or negative behaviour. It is the belief that someone will be able to handle challenges within the workplace when faced with envy (Ayden and .

==== High self-efficacy ====
If an employee has high self-efficacy, they will cope better with workplace envy. They compare themselves upwards and are then motivated to be more like the person they are envious of. 

==== Low self-efficacy ====

If an employee has low self-efficacy, they will be negatively affected by workplace envy. Downward comparison becomes a better coping strategy for them, which leads to negative behaviours such as bringing someone down or spreading rumours to make them feel better about themselves.

'''Quiz questions.''' Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{What is a common sign of low self-efficacy?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Avoiding tasks because you expect to fail
- Feeling confident you can handle new challenges

{What is a common sign of high self-efficacy?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Avoiding tasks because they appear too hard
+ Confidence in handling challenges
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Relationship between workplace envy and social comparison theory? ==
Social comparison theory explains why individuals tend to compare their opinions and abilities to others which affects how they feel and behave (Han et al, 2022). Feeling threatened in the workplace makes people judge themselves more harshly as they believe they cannot match their colleague's social status or success.

==== Upward comparison ====
Comparing yourself to someone who appears more skilled, more successful or performing at a higher level. By comparing yourself upward to someone can either motivate you develop yourself or can create feelings of envy, stress or pressure when the gap between one employee and another seems unachievable. 

==== Downward comparison ====
Comparing yourself to someone who seems worse off than you, less skilled or less struggling can boost your confidence in the workplace by providing reassurance. It can also foster a delusion or false sense of security.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Call center (8300442093).jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 4'''. Social Comparison Theory at play in a Call Centre.]]

;Case study
At ReadyCall, everyone's daily call numbers are recorded on a big screen. Ebony is new and she keeps comparing herself to Rick, a senior worker who always has the highest call numbers. Seeing the gap makes Ebony feel stressed and worried she isn't good enough.

Ebony's manager explains that Rick learned his skills over many years and wasn't fast when he first started. After hearing this, Ebony feels better, learns some tips from Rick, and becomes more confident.

This is an example of social comparison theory, where people judge themselves by comparing their performance to others (see Figure 4). 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
'''Quiz questions.''' Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{What type of social comparison theory is Ebony experiencing?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Upward comparison
- Downward comparison


&lt;/quiz&gt;
;
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}

==Conclusion==
Envy plays a significant role in shaping workplace behaviour because employees constantly observe and compare their progress and recognition and opportunities of those around them. These comparisons can trigger envy which is not just a negative emotion but a complex psychological response influenced by self-efficacy, motivation and social comparison processes. These comparisons highlight an individual's insecurities, making envy an important emotional signal rather than a something negative. When employees feel capable of improving themselves, workplace envy becomes a constructive force that encourages learning, effort and healthy competition. However, workplace envy can also shift into a harmful direction when employees feel threatened, insecure or unable to achieve similar success. In these situations, workplace envy may lead to resentment, withdrawal or undermining behaviour which can disrupt teamwork or damage workplace relationships. By understanding these dynamics, workplaces can respond carefully and recognise the important role envy plays in fostering growth. fairness and healthier interpersonal relationships that will effectively create a positive working culture.
{{tip|Take-home messages:
* Not all workplace envy is negative.
* Envy is an important catalyst for change if driven in a positive way.
* Envy can motivate staff in a constructive way.
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* Envy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2011/Envy|title=Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Envy - Wikiversity|website=en.wikiversity.org|language=en|access-date=2026-08-25}}&lt;/ref&gt; (Book Chapter, 2011) {{ic|See Tutorial 2 for how to create an internal link to a book chapter)
* Jealousy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=|title=|website=|language=|access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt; is not the same as envy (Book Chapter, 2013)
* [[Self-Efficacy]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Aggression in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Aggression in the workplace - Wikiversity]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rivalry in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rivalry in the workplace - Wikiversity]]

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Aydın, G., &amp; Bozkurt, S. (2022). Research on the Role of Self-Efficacy in the Effect of Workplace Envy on Intention to Quit. Istanbul Business Research, 51(2), 627-642. https://doi.org/10.26650/ibr.2022.51.1062932

Crusius J., Thierhoff J., Lange J. (2021). Dispositional greed predicts benign and malicious envy. Personality and Individual Differences, 168, 110361. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110361

Dong, Xue T., Yang W. Chung, Joon H. Park, and Jeong K. Yun. 2026. “Workplace Envy and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour: The Mediating Effect of Cynicism and the Moderating Effect of Organizational Support.” Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences / Revue Canadienne des Sciences de l'Administration: e70020. https://doi.org/10.1002/cjas.70020.

Duffy, M. K., Lee, K., &amp; Adair, E. A. (2021). Workplace envy. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 8, 19–44. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012420-055746

Erdil O., Müceldili B. (2014). The effects of envy on job engagement and turnover intention. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 150(1), 447–454. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.09.050

Han, S., Zhan, Y., Zhang, L., &amp; Mu, R. (2022). You Have Received More Help than I Did and I Envy You: A Social Comparison Perspective on Receiving Help in the Team. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8351. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148351

Köksal, K., Tufan, C., Griffiths, M.D. et al. From perceived workplace envy to deviance: a multi-theoretical model of envy-related workplace behaviors and the moderating role of social courage. Curr Psychol 45, 1052 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-026-09607-3

Lange, J., Paulhus, D. L., &amp; Crusius, J. (2018). Elucidating the Dark Side of Envy: Distinctive Links of Benign and Malicious Envy With Dark Personalities. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 44(4), 601-614. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167217746340

Li M., Xu X., Kwan H. K. (2021). The antecedents and consequences of workplace envy: A meta-analytic review. Asia Pacific Journal of Management. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10490-021-09772-y

Li M, Qin Y, Le J (2025), &quot;Mentoring matters: decoding the impact of downward envy on interpersonal conflict, workplace ostracism, and displaced aggression&quot;. Journal of Managerial Psychology, Vol. 40 No. 1 pp. 67–81, doi: https://doi.org/10.1108/JMP-12-2023-0768

Li, Y., &amp; Wang, S. (2023). &quot;Comparisons are Odious&quot;? - Exploring the Dual Effect of Upward Social Comparison on Workplace Coping Behaviors of Temporary Agency Workers. Psychology research and behavior management, 16, 4251–4265. https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S425946

Liu, H., Geng, J., &amp; Yao, P. (2021). Relationship of Leadership and Envy: How to Resolve Workplace Envy with Leadership-A Bibliometric Review Study. Journal of Intelligence, 9(3), 44. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence9030044

Nakai, A. and Numazaki, M. (2026), The Emotional Nature of Malicious and Benign Envy: Separate Measurements for Emotion and Motivation. Jpn Psychol Res. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpr.12568

Polat, Ş, Yeşil, A. &amp; Afşar Doğrusöz, L. (2024) The relationship between self-efficacy, malicious or benign envy in nurses: A cross-sectional study. International Nursing Review, 71, 832–840. https://doi.org/10.1111/inr.12925

Song, Y., &amp; Zhao, Z. (2022). Social Undermining and Interpersonal Rumination among Employees: The Mediating Role of Being the Subject of Envy and the Moderating Role of Social Support. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8419. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148419

Su, X., &amp; Chen, C. (2023). The Influence of Workplace Envy on Employees’ Knowledge-Hiding Behavior Based on a Comparative Analysis between Generation Cohorts. Behavioral Sciences, 13(9), 716. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs13090716

Walter CE, Au-Yong-Oliveira M (2022), &quot;An exploratory study on the barriers to innovative behavior: the spiteful effect of envy&quot;. Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol. 35 No. 6 pp. 936–960, https://doi.org/10.1108/JOCM-02-2022-0034

Wilkes, D. (2023) Workplace Envy: Exploring the Effect of Envy on Team Communication and Organizational Information Sharing. Open Journal of Business and Management, 11, 1757-1786. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojbm.2023.114099

Yang C and Tang R (2021) Validating the “Two Faces” of Envy: The Effect of Self-Control. Front. Psychol. 12:731451. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.731451

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
The following links provide further background and context to support this book chapter:
* [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/NwGMsgB9mNg Envy: The Ugliest Emotion? Find out the Truth!] (YouTube)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1f9IE3CkB4s How to Stop Comparing Yourself to Others] (YouTube)
* https://www.ted.com/talks/worklife_with_adam_grant_become_friends_with_your_rivals (TedTalk)
* [https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-good-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/ https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-goo-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/] (TedTalk)
* [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/3g0lRfiAXzc Why Workplace Envy Is Secretly Power ? - YouTube] (YouTube)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
&lt;references /&gt;{{DEFAULTSORT:https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2026/Envy_in_the_workplace#Role_of_envy_in_the_workplace}}</text>
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__TOC__

=== Overview ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Zonaspace-coworking-collaboration.jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 1'''. Envy can occur in any workplace.]]

;Case study
Jillian and Anna work for the same consulting firm and are at the same level. Jillian recently completed a project that received recognition from senior leaders and she continues to be praised about it. Anna and Jillian get along well, although Anna has started feeling resentful towards Jillian (see Figure 1). 

Anna recently asked Jillian about the project and what tools she used that could possibly assist with her projects. Jillian mentioned she completed a project management course that really changed the way she approaches projects to ensure all milestones are delivered on time and on budget. 

Anna enrols in the same project management course immediately. This is an example of benign envy. By feeling envy towards Jillian, it has motivated Anna to take action to improve herself. With Anna developing her project management skills, this will impact the team and consulting firm in a positive way encouraging extraordinary results. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

[[wikipedia:Envy|Envy]] is a powerful [[emotion]] that drives different behaviours (Yang &amp; Tang, 2021). It can be described as the bitterness or anger you feel when others receive what you deeply or unconsciously desire. In many workplaces, it is human nature for an individual to measure and compare themselves to those that are being recognised or seem more valued than they are. These comparisons can trigger workplace envy, especially when someone feels they are inferior to others. According to Duffy et al (2021), over the last 25 years, there has been growing interest in the phenomenon of workplace envy. While every workplace is filled with opportunities for competition and self-comparison, Liu et al (2021), stated it was important to consider the environment and the timing when looking at workplace envy as it is constantly evolving.  

Workplace envy occurs across a variety of workplace situations although experiences can vary in intensity and frequency and can transform into behavioural reactions. This book chapter describes workplace envy and discusses the role it plays in workplace behaviour. 

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* What is the role of envy in the workplace?
* What is the difference between malicious envy and benign envy? 
* What causes envy and how is it linked to motivation?
* What is the relationship between envy and self-efficacy?
* What is the relationship between envy and social comparison theory?


{{RoundBoxBottom}}
== Role of envy in the workplace ==

There are many causes of envy in the workplace. It can emerge when an employee notices that a colleague has achieved something they desire, such as recognition, a reward, a promotion or an opportunity. It can occur in any workplace where employees constantly compare their performance or progress to those around them, these comparisons can easily activate feelings of envy.   

Through guidance, leadership and intervention, envy can be used as a workplace 'tool' to drive positive behaviour (Liu et al, 2021).  
== Benign versus malicious envy ==
Workplace envy can be either benign or malicious. Even though they both start with the same feeling of inferiority, they can lead to different reactions (Crusius et al, 2021). Benign envy creates an urge for people to grow while malicious envy leads to negative thoughts or actions that aims to bring a person down (see Table 1).  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Scenario:'''

Jon and Sam have worked together for a long time. They both applied for a promotion within the team recently, Jon was successful and Sam missed out. 

Since then, Sam has started treating Jon unfairly. In meetings, Sam makes negative comments about Jon's ideas. During team lunches, Sam leaves Jon out on purpose. Each day, Sam's behaviour becomes more unfriendly and hurtful.

This is an example of malicious envy. Sam is feeling envious of Jon and is trying to harm and put him down. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}The following table outlines the difference between benign and malicious envy in the workplace.

'''Table 1.'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!
! Benign Envy
! Malicious Envy
|-
| Definition
| Envy that motivates self‑improvement.
| Envy that manifests when someone feels threatened or unable to match another’s achievements.
|-
| Emotional Response
| Encourages growth, motivation and learning.
| Creates feelings of resentment, threat, or inferiority.
|-
| Typical Behaviours
| Working harder, learning new skills, seeking growth or development opportunities.
| Exclusion, gossip, criticism or subtle sabotage.
|-
| Impact on Workplace Culture
| Strengthens workplace culture through healthy competition and personal development.
| Damages trust, teamwork, morale, and can escalate into workplace conflict and create a toxic culture.
|-
| Outcome
| Positive: supports improvement and collaboration.
| Negative: undermines relationships and workplace functioning.
|}

'''Quiz questions.''' Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Benign envy is associated with positive emotions and encourages positive behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Malicious envy is associated with negative emotions and encourages negative behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Relationship between envy and motivation? ==
Envy is linked to number of underlying motivational tendencies (Lange &amp; Crusius, 2015).     

==== Loss of motivation due to being envied ====
People who feel they are being envied in the workplace often experience emotions of anger, guilt or anxiety (Koksalet et al, 2026). These feelings can affect their motivation. Because they sense others are comparing themselves to them, they may appear to hide or lay low around the workplace. This can lead to reduced motivation or effort as they try to avoid negative attention. This drop in motivation is a coping strategy to avoid being targeted in the workplace. [[File:Happy-smiley-face-and-sad-2048x1536.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Envy can motivate positive or negative behaviour in the workplace.]]


'''Table 2.''' The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model showing the relationship between envy and motivation:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Motivation to improve
(benign envy) 
| Blind spot: Fear based motivation noticed 
by others but not yourself (applies to malicious envy)
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Fear of failure
(malicious envy) 
| Hidden motivation (benign envy)
|}

== Behaviours caused by self-efficacy? ==
Self-efficacy is the mental switch that determines whether envy will lead to a positive or negative behaviour. It is the belief that someone will be able to handle challenges within the workplace when faced with envy (Ayden and .

==== High self-efficacy ====
If an employee has high self-efficacy, they will cope better with workplace envy. They compare themselves upwards and are then motivated to be more like the person they are envious of. 

==== Low self-efficacy ====

If an employee has low self-efficacy, they will be negatively affected by workplace envy. Downward comparison becomes a better coping strategy for them, which leads to negative behaviours such as bringing someone down or spreading rumours to make them feel better about themselves.

'''Quiz questions.''' Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{What is a common sign of low self-efficacy?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Avoiding tasks because you expect to fail
- Feeling confident you can handle new challenges

{What is a common sign of high self-efficacy?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Avoiding tasks because they appear too hard
+ Confidence in handling challenges
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Relationship between workplace envy and social comparison theory? ==
Social comparison theory explains why individuals tend to compare their opinions and abilities to others which affects how they feel and behave (Han et al, 2022). Feeling threatened in the workplace makes people judge themselves more harshly as they believe they cannot match their colleague's social status or success.

==== Upward comparison ====
Comparing yourself to someone who appears more skilled, more successful or performing at a higher level. By comparing yourself upward to someone can either motivate you develop yourself or can create feelings of envy, stress or pressure when the gap between one employee and another seems unachievable. 

==== Downward comparison ====
Comparing yourself to someone who seems worse off than you, less skilled or less struggling can boost your confidence in the workplace by providing reassurance. It can also foster a delusion or false sense of security.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Call center (8300442093).jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 4'''. Social Comparison Theory at play in a Call Centre.]]

;Case study
At ReadyCall, everyone's daily call numbers are recorded on a big screen. Ebony is new and she keeps comparing herself to Rick, a senior worker who always has the highest call numbers. Seeing the gap makes Ebony feel stressed and worried she isn't good enough.

Ebony's manager explains that Rick learned his skills over many years and wasn't fast when he first started. After hearing this, Ebony feels better, learns some tips from Rick, and becomes more confident.

This is an example of social comparison theory, where people judge themselves by comparing their performance to others (see Figure 4). 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
'''Quiz questions.''' Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{What type of social comparison theory is Ebony experiencing?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Upward comparison
- Downward comparison


&lt;/quiz&gt;
;
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}

==Conclusion==
Envy plays a significant role in shaping workplace behaviour because employees constantly observe and compare their progress and recognition and opportunities of those around them. These comparisons can trigger envy which is not just a negative emotion but a complex psychological response influenced by self-efficacy, motivation and social comparison processes. These comparisons highlight an individual's insecurities, making envy an important emotional signal rather than a something negative. When employees feel capable of improving themselves, workplace envy becomes a constructive force that encourages learning, effort and healthy competition. However, workplace envy can also shift into a harmful direction when employees feel threatened, insecure or unable to achieve similar success. In these situations, workplace envy may lead to resentment, withdrawal or undermining behaviour which can disrupt teamwork or damage workplace relationships. By understanding these dynamics, workplaces can respond carefully and recognise the important role envy plays in fostering growth. fairness and healthier interpersonal relationships that will effectively create a positive working culture.
{{tip|Take-home messages:
* Not all workplace envy is negative.
* Envy is an important catalyst for change if driven in a positive way.
* Envy can motivate staff in a constructive way.
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* Envy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2011/Envy|title=Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Envy - Wikiversity|website=en.wikiversity.org|language=en|access-date=2026-08-25}}&lt;/ref&gt; (Book Chapter, 2011) {{ic|See Tutorial 2 for how to create an internal link to a book chapter)
* Jealousy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=|title=|website=|language=|access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt; is not the same as envy (Book Chapter, 2013)
* [[Self-Efficacy]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Aggression in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Aggression in the workplace - Wikiversity]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rivalry in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rivalry in the workplace - Wikiversity]]

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Aydın, G., &amp; Bozkurt, S. (2022). Research on the Role of Self-Efficacy in the Effect of Workplace Envy on Intention to Quit. Istanbul Business Research, 51(2), 627-642. https://doi.org/10.26650/ibr.2022.51.1062932

Crusius J., Thierhoff J., Lange J. (2021). Dispositional greed predicts benign and malicious envy. Personality and Individual Differences, 168, 110361. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110361

Dong, Xue T., Yang W. Chung, Joon H. Park, and Jeong K. Yun. 2026. “Workplace Envy and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour: The Mediating Effect of Cynicism and the Moderating Effect of Organizational Support.” Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences / Revue Canadienne des Sciences de l'Administration: e70020. https://doi.org/10.1002/cjas.70020.

Duffy, M. K., Lee, K., &amp; Adair, E. A. (2021). Workplace envy. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 8, 19–44. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012420-055746

Erdil O., Müceldili B. (2014). The effects of envy on job engagement and turnover intention. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 150(1), 447–454. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.09.050

Han, S., Zhan, Y., Zhang, L., &amp; Mu, R. (2022). You Have Received More Help than I Did and I Envy You: A Social Comparison Perspective on Receiving Help in the Team. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8351. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148351

Köksal, K., Tufan, C., Griffiths, M.D. et al. From perceived workplace envy to deviance: a multi-theoretical model of envy-related workplace behaviors and the moderating role of social courage. Curr Psychol 45, 1052 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-026-09607-3

Lange, J., Paulhus, D. L., &amp; Crusius, J. (2018). Elucidating the Dark Side of Envy: Distinctive Links of Benign and Malicious Envy With Dark Personalities. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 44(4), 601-614. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167217746340

Li M., Xu X., Kwan H. K. (2021). The antecedents and consequences of workplace envy: A meta-analytic review. Asia Pacific Journal of Management. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10490-021-09772-y

Li M, Qin Y, Le J (2025), &quot;Mentoring matters: decoding the impact of downward envy on interpersonal conflict, workplace ostracism, and displaced aggression&quot;. Journal of Managerial Psychology, Vol. 40 No. 1 pp. 67–81, doi: https://doi.org/10.1108/JMP-12-2023-0768

Li, Y., &amp; Wang, S. (2023). &quot;Comparisons are Odious&quot;? - Exploring the Dual Effect of Upward Social Comparison on Workplace Coping Behaviors of Temporary Agency Workers. Psychology research and behavior management, 16, 4251–4265. https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S425946

Liu, H., Geng, J., &amp; Yao, P. (2021). Relationship of Leadership and Envy: How to Resolve Workplace Envy with Leadership-A Bibliometric Review Study. Journal of Intelligence, 9(3), 44. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence9030044

Nakai, A. and Numazaki, M. (2026), The Emotional Nature of Malicious and Benign Envy: Separate Measurements for Emotion and Motivation. Jpn Psychol Res. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpr.12568

Polat, Ş, Yeşil, A. &amp; Afşar Doğrusöz, L. (2024) The relationship between self-efficacy, malicious or benign envy in nurses: A cross-sectional study. International Nursing Review, 71, 832–840. https://doi.org/10.1111/inr.12925

Song, Y., &amp; Zhao, Z. (2022). Social Undermining and Interpersonal Rumination among Employees: The Mediating Role of Being the Subject of Envy and the Moderating Role of Social Support. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8419. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148419

Su, X., &amp; Chen, C. (2023). The Influence of Workplace Envy on Employees’ Knowledge-Hiding Behavior Based on a Comparative Analysis between Generation Cohorts. Behavioral Sciences, 13(9), 716. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs13090716

Walter CE, Au-Yong-Oliveira M (2022), &quot;An exploratory study on the barriers to innovative behavior: the spiteful effect of envy&quot;. Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol. 35 No. 6 pp. 936–960, https://doi.org/10.1108/JOCM-02-2022-0034

Wilkes, D. (2023) Workplace Envy: Exploring the Effect of Envy on Team Communication and Organizational Information Sharing. Open Journal of Business and Management, 11, 1757-1786. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojbm.2023.114099

Yang C and Tang R (2021) Validating the “Two Faces” of Envy: The Effect of Self-Control. Front. Psychol. 12:731451. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.731451

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
The following links provide further background and context to support this book chapter:
* [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/NwGMsgB9mNg Envy: The Ugliest Emotion? Find out the Truth!] (YouTube)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1f9IE3CkB4s How to Stop Comparing Yourself to Others] (YouTube)
* https://www.ted.com/talks/worklife_with_adam_grant_become_friends_with_your_rivals (TedTalk)
* [https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-good-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/ https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-goo-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/] (TedTalk)
* [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/3g0lRfiAXzc Why Workplace Envy Is Secretly Power ? - YouTube] (YouTube)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
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__TOC__

=== Overview ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Zonaspace-coworking-collaboration.jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 1'''. Envy can occur in any workplace.]]

;Case study
Jillian and Anna work for the same consulting firm and are at the same level. Jillian recently completed a project that received recognition from senior leaders and she continues to be praised about it. Anna and Jillian get along well, although Anna has started feeling resentful towards Jillian (see Figure 1). 

Anna recently asked Jillian about the project and what tools she used that could possibly assist with her projects. Jillian mentioned she completed a project management course that really changed the way she approaches projects to ensure all milestones are delivered on time and on budget. 

Anna enrols in the same project management course immediately. This is an example of benign envy. By feeling envy towards Jillian, it has motivated Anna to take action to improve herself. With Anna developing her project management skills, this will impact the team and consulting firm in a positive way encouraging extraordinary results. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

[[wikipedia:Envy|Envy]] is a powerful [[emotion]] that drives different behaviours (Yang &amp; Tang, 2021). It can be described as the bitterness or anger you feel when others receive what you deeply or unconsciously desire. In many workplaces, it is human nature for an individual to measure and compare themselves to those that are being recognised or seem more valued than they are. These comparisons can trigger workplace envy, especially when someone feels they are inferior to others. According to Duffy et al (2021), over the last 25 years, there has been growing interest in the phenomenon of workplace envy. While every workplace is filled with opportunities for competition and self-comparison, Liu et al (2021), stated it was important to consider the environment and the timing when looking at workplace envy as it is constantly evolving.  

Workplace envy occurs across a variety of workplace situations although experiences can vary in intensity and frequency and can transform into behavioural reactions. This book chapter describes workplace envy and discusses the role it plays in workplace behaviour. 

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* What is the role of envy in the workplace?
* What is the difference between malicious envy and benign envy? 
* What causes envy and how is it linked to motivation?
* What is the relationship between envy and self-efficacy?
* What is the relationship between envy and social comparison theory?


{{RoundBoxBottom}}
== Role of envy in the workplace ==

There are many causes of envy in the workplace. It can emerge when an employee notices that a colleague has achieved something they desire, such as recognition, a reward, a promotion or an opportunity. It can occur in any workplace where employees constantly compare their performance or progress to those around them, these comparisons can easily activate feelings of envy.   

Through guidance, leadership and intervention, envy can be used as a workplace 'tool' to drive positive behaviour (Liu et al, 2021).  
== Benign versus malicious envy ==
Workplace envy can be either benign or malicious. Even though they both start with the same feeling of inferiority, they can lead to different reactions (Crusius et al, 2021). Benign envy creates an urge for people to grow while malicious envy leads to negative thoughts or actions that aims to bring a person down (see Table 1).  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Scenario:'''

Jon and Sam have worked together for a long time. They both applied for a promotion within the team recently, Jon was successful and Sam missed out. 

Since then, Sam has started treating Jon unfairly. In meetings, Sam makes negative comments about Jon's ideas. During team lunches, Sam leaves Jon out on purpose. Each day, Sam's behaviour becomes more unfriendly and hurtful.

This is an example of malicious envy. Sam is feeling envious of Jon and is trying to harm and put him down. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}The following table outlines the difference between benign and malicious envy in the workplace.

'''Table 1.'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!
! Benign Envy
! Malicious Envy
|-
| Definition
| Envy that motivates self‑improvement.
| Envy that manifests when someone feels threatened or unable to match another’s achievements.
|-
| Emotional Response
| Encourages growth, motivation and learning.
| Creates feelings of resentment, threat, or inferiority.
|-
| Typical Behaviours
| Working harder, learning new skills, seeking growth or development opportunities.
| Exclusion, gossip, criticism or subtle sabotage.
|-
| Impact on Workplace Culture
| Strengthens workplace culture through healthy competition and personal development.
| Damages trust, teamwork, morale, and can escalate into workplace conflict and create a toxic culture.
|-
| Outcome
| Positive: supports improvement and collaboration.
| Negative: undermines relationships and workplace functioning.
|}

'''Quiz questions.''' Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Benign envy is associated with positive emotions and encourages positive behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Malicious envy is associated with negative emotions and encourages negative behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Relationship between envy and motivation? ==
Workplace envy shapes motivation in positive and negative ways. Instead of motivating improvement, envy can move towards an unethical or toxic behaviour to close the status gap.      

==== Benign envy and motivation ====

==== Malicious envy and motivation ====
Malicious envy can reduce motivation and lead to harmful behaviour. Instead of focusing on self-improvement, the envier will try to undermine the person being envied or boost themselves by cheating or creating dysfunctional patterns that affect motivation and workplace relationships (Lange et al, 2018). 

==== Loss of motivation due to being envied ====
[[File:Happy-smiley-face-and-sad-2048x1536.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Envy can motivate positive or negative behaviour in the workplace.|200x200px]]
People who feel they are being envied in the workplace often experience emotions of anger, guilt or anxiety (Koksalet et al, 2026). These feelings can affect their motivation. Because they sense others are comparing themselves to them, they may appear to hide or lay low around the workplace. This can lead to reduced motivation or effort as they try to avoid negative attention. This drop in motivation is a coping strategy to avoid being targeted in the workplace. 


'''Table 2.''' The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model showing the relationship between envy and motivation:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Motivation to improve
(benign envy) 
| Blind spot: Fear based motivation noticed 
by others but not yourself (applies to malicious envy)
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Fear of failure
(malicious envy) 
| Hidden motivation (benign envy)
|}

== Behaviours caused by self-efficacy? ==
Self-efficacy is the mental switch that determines whether envy will lead to a positive or negative behaviour. It is the belief that someone will be able to handle challenges within the workplace when faced with envy (Ayden and .

==== High self-efficacy ====
If an employee has high self-efficacy, they will cope better with workplace envy. They compare themselves upwards and are then motivated to be more like the person they are envious of. 

==== Low self-efficacy ====

If an employee has low self-efficacy, they will be negatively affected by workplace envy. Downward comparison becomes a better coping strategy for them, which leads to negative behaviours such as bringing someone down or spreading rumours to make them feel better about themselves.

'''Quiz questions.''' Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{What is a common sign of low self-efficacy?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Avoiding tasks because you expect to fail
- Feeling confident you can handle new challenges

{What is a common sign of high self-efficacy?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Avoiding tasks because they appear too hard
+ Confidence in handling challenges
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Relationship between workplace envy and social comparison theory? ==
Social comparison theory explains why individuals tend to compare their opinions and abilities to others which affects how they feel and behave (Han et al, 2022). Feeling threatened in the workplace makes people judge themselves more harshly as they believe they cannot match their colleague's social status or success.

==== Upward comparison ====
Comparing yourself to someone who appears more skilled, more successful or performing at a higher level. By comparing yourself upward to someone can either motivate you develop yourself or can create feelings of envy, stress or pressure when the gap between one employee and another seems unachievable. 

==== Downward comparison ====
Comparing yourself to someone who seems worse off than you, less skilled or less struggling can boost your confidence in the workplace by providing reassurance. It can also foster a delusion or false sense of security.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Call center (8300442093).jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 3'''. Social Comparison Theory at play in a Call Centre.]]

;Case study
At ReadyCall, everyone's daily call numbers are recorded on a big screen. Ebony is new and she keeps comparing herself to Rick, a senior worker who always has the highest call numbers. Seeing the gap makes Ebony feel stressed and worried she isn't good enough.

Ebony's manager explains that Rick learned his skills over many years and wasn't fast when he first started. After hearing this, Ebony feels better, learns some tips from Rick, and becomes more confident.

This is an example of social comparison theory, where people judge themselves by comparing their performance to others (see Figure 4). 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
'''Quiz questions.''' Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{What type of social comparison theory is Ebony experiencing?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Upward comparison
- Downward comparison


&lt;/quiz&gt;
;
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}

==Conclusion==
Envy plays a significant role in shaping workplace behaviour because employees constantly observe and compare their progress and recognition and opportunities of those around them. These comparisons can trigger envy which is not just a negative emotion but a complex psychological response influenced by self-efficacy, motivation and social comparison processes. These comparisons highlight an individual's insecurities, making envy an important emotional signal rather than a something negative. When employees feel capable of improving themselves, workplace envy becomes a constructive force that encourages learning, effort and healthy competition. However, workplace envy can also shift into a harmful direction when employees feel threatened, insecure or unable to achieve similar success. In these situations, workplace envy may lead to resentment, withdrawal or undermining behaviour which can disrupt teamwork or damage workplace relationships. By understanding these dynamics, workplaces can respond carefully and recognise the important role envy plays in fostering growth. fairness and healthier interpersonal relationships that will effectively create a positive working culture.
{{tip|Take-home messages:
* Not all workplace envy is negative.
* Envy is an important catalyst for change if driven in a positive way.
* Envy can motivate staff in a constructive way.
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* Envy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2011/Envy|title=Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Envy - Wikiversity|website=en.wikiversity.org|language=en|access-date=2026-08-25}}&lt;/ref&gt; (Book Chapter, 2011) {{ic|See Tutorial 2 for how to create an internal link to a book chapter)
* Jealousy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=|title=|website=|language=|access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt; is not the same as envy (Book Chapter, 2013)
* [[Self-Efficacy]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Aggression in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Aggression in the workplace - Wikiversity]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rivalry in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rivalry in the workplace - Wikiversity]]

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Aydın, G., &amp; Bozkurt, S. (2022). Research on the Role of Self-Efficacy in the Effect of Workplace Envy on Intention to Quit. Istanbul Business Research, 51(2), 627-642. https://doi.org/10.26650/ibr.2022.51.1062932

Crusius J., Thierhoff J., Lange J. (2021). Dispositional greed predicts benign and malicious envy. Personality and Individual Differences, 168, 110361. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110361

Dong, Xue T., Yang W. Chung, Joon H. Park, and Jeong K. Yun. 2026. “Workplace Envy and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour: The Mediating Effect of Cynicism and the Moderating Effect of Organizational Support.” Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences / Revue Canadienne des Sciences de l'Administration: e70020. https://doi.org/10.1002/cjas.70020.

Duffy, M. K., Lee, K., &amp; Adair, E. A. (2021). Workplace envy. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 8, 19–44. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012420-055746

Erdil O., Müceldili B. (2014). The effects of envy on job engagement and turnover intention. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 150(1), 447–454. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.09.050

Han, S., Zhan, Y., Zhang, L., &amp; Mu, R. (2022). You Have Received More Help than I Did and I Envy You: A Social Comparison Perspective on Receiving Help in the Team. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8351. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148351

Köksal, K., Tufan, C., Griffiths, M.D. et al. From perceived workplace envy to deviance: a multi-theoretical model of envy-related workplace behaviors and the moderating role of social courage. Curr Psychol 45, 1052 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-026-09607-3

Lange, J., Paulhus, D. L., &amp; Crusius, J. (2018). Elucidating the Dark Side of Envy: Distinctive Links of Benign and Malicious Envy With Dark Personalities. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 44(4), 601-614. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167217746340

Li M., Xu X., Kwan H. K. (2021). The antecedents and consequences of workplace envy: A meta-analytic review. Asia Pacific Journal of Management. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10490-021-09772-y

Li M, Qin Y, Le J (2025), &quot;Mentoring matters: decoding the impact of downward envy on interpersonal conflict, workplace ostracism, and displaced aggression&quot;. Journal of Managerial Psychology, Vol. 40 No. 1 pp. 67–81, doi: https://doi.org/10.1108/JMP-12-2023-0768

Li, Y., &amp; Wang, S. (2023). &quot;Comparisons are Odious&quot;? - Exploring the Dual Effect of Upward Social Comparison on Workplace Coping Behaviors of Temporary Agency Workers. Psychology research and behavior management, 16, 4251–4265. https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S425946

Liu, H., Geng, J., &amp; Yao, P. (2021). Relationship of Leadership and Envy: How to Resolve Workplace Envy with Leadership-A Bibliometric Review Study. Journal of Intelligence, 9(3), 44. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence9030044

Nakai, A. and Numazaki, M. (2026), The Emotional Nature of Malicious and Benign Envy: Separate Measurements for Emotion and Motivation. Jpn Psychol Res. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpr.12568

Polat, Ş, Yeşil, A. &amp; Afşar Doğrusöz, L. (2024) The relationship between self-efficacy, malicious or benign envy in nurses: A cross-sectional study. International Nursing Review, 71, 832–840. https://doi.org/10.1111/inr.12925

Song, Y., &amp; Zhao, Z. (2022). Social Undermining and Interpersonal Rumination among Employees: The Mediating Role of Being the Subject of Envy and the Moderating Role of Social Support. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8419. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148419

Su, X., &amp; Chen, C. (2023). The Influence of Workplace Envy on Employees’ Knowledge-Hiding Behavior Based on a Comparative Analysis between Generation Cohorts. Behavioral Sciences, 13(9), 716. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs13090716

Walter CE, Au-Yong-Oliveira M (2022), &quot;An exploratory study on the barriers to innovative behavior: the spiteful effect of envy&quot;. Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol. 35 No. 6 pp. 936–960, https://doi.org/10.1108/JOCM-02-2022-0034

Wilkes, D. (2023) Workplace Envy: Exploring the Effect of Envy on Team Communication and Organizational Information Sharing. Open Journal of Business and Management, 11, 1757-1786. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojbm.2023.114099

Yang C and Tang R (2021) Validating the “Two Faces” of Envy: The Effect of Self-Control. Front. Psychol. 12:731451. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.731451

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
The following links provide further background and context to support this book chapter:
* [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/NwGMsgB9mNg Envy: The Ugliest Emotion? Find out the Truth!] (YouTube)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1f9IE3CkB4s How to Stop Comparing Yourself to Others] (YouTube)
* https://www.ted.com/talks/worklife_with_adam_grant_become_friends_with_your_rivals (TedTalk)
* [https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-good-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/ https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-goo-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/] (TedTalk)
* [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/3g0lRfiAXzc Why Workplace Envy Is Secretly Power ? - YouTube] (YouTube)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
&lt;references /&gt;{{DEFAULTSORT:https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2026/Envy_in_the_workplace#Role_of_envy_in_the_workplace}}</text>
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__TOC__

=== Overview ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Zonaspace-coworking-collaboration.jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 1'''. Envy can occur in any workplace.]]

;Case study
Jillian and Anna work for the same consulting firm and are at the same level. Jillian recently completed a project that received recognition from senior leaders and she continues to be praised about it. Anna and Jillian get along well, although Anna has started feeling resentful towards Jillian (see Figure 1). 

Anna recently asked Jillian about the project and what tools she used that could possibly assist with her projects. Jillian mentioned she completed a project management course that really changed the way she approaches projects to ensure all milestones are delivered on time and on budget. 

Anna enrols in the same project management course immediately. This is an example of benign envy. By feeling envy towards Jillian, it has motivated Anna to take action to improve herself. With Anna developing her project management skills, this will impact the team and consulting firm in a positive way encouraging extraordinary results. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

[[wikipedia:Envy|Envy]] is a powerful [[emotion]] that drives different behaviours (Yang &amp; Tang, 2021). It can be described as the bitterness or anger you feel when others receive what you deeply or unconsciously desire. In many workplaces, it is human nature for an individual to measure and compare themselves to those that are being recognised or seem more valued than they are. These comparisons can trigger workplace envy, especially when someone feels they are inferior to others. According to Duffy et al (2021), over the last 25 years, there has been growing interest in the phenomenon of workplace envy. While every workplace is filled with opportunities for competition and self-comparison, Liu et al (2021), stated it was important to consider the environment and the timing when looking at workplace envy as it is constantly evolving.  

Workplace envy occurs across a variety of workplace situations although experiences can vary in intensity and frequency and can transform into behavioural reactions. This book chapter describes workplace envy and discusses the role it plays in workplace behaviour. 

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* What is the role of envy in the workplace?
* What is the difference between malicious envy and benign envy? 
* What causes envy and how is it linked to motivation?
* What is the relationship between envy and self-efficacy?
* What is the relationship between envy and social comparison theory?


{{RoundBoxBottom}}
== Role of envy in the workplace ==

There are many causes of envy in the workplace. It can emerge when an employee notices that a colleague has achieved something they desire, such as recognition, a reward, a promotion or an opportunity. It can occur in any workplace where employees constantly compare their performance or progress to those around them, these comparisons can easily activate feelings of envy.   

Through guidance, leadership and intervention, envy can be used as a workplace 'tool' to drive positive behaviour (Liu et al, 2021).  
== Benign versus malicious envy ==
Workplace envy can be either benign or malicious. Even though they both start with the same feeling of inferiority, they can lead to different reactions (Crusius et al, 2021). Benign envy creates an urge for people to grow while malicious envy leads to negative thoughts or actions that aims to bring a person down (see Table 1).  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Scenario:'''

Jon and Sam have worked together for a long time. They both applied for a promotion within the team recently, Jon was successful and Sam missed out. 

Since then, Sam has started treating Jon unfairly. In meetings, Sam makes negative comments about Jon's ideas. During team lunches, Sam leaves Jon out on purpose. Each day, Sam's behaviour becomes more unfriendly and hurtful.

This is an example of malicious envy. Sam is feeling envious of Jon and is trying to harm and put him down. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}The following table outlines the difference between benign and malicious envy in the workplace.

'''Table 1.'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!
! Benign Envy
! Malicious Envy
|-
| Definition
| Envy that motivates self‑improvement.
| Envy that manifests when someone feels threatened or unable to match another’s achievements.
|-
| Emotional Response
| Encourages growth, motivation and learning.
| Creates feelings of resentment, threat, or inferiority.
|-
| Typical Behaviours
| Working harder, learning new skills, seeking growth or development opportunities.
| Exclusion, gossip, criticism or subtle sabotage.
|-
| Impact on Workplace Culture
| Strengthens workplace culture through healthy competition and personal development.
| Damages trust, teamwork, morale, and can escalate into workplace conflict and create a toxic culture.
|-
| Outcome
| Positive: supports improvement and collaboration.
| Negative: undermines relationships and workplace functioning.
|}

'''Quiz questions.''' Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Benign envy is associated with positive emotions and encourages positive behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Malicious envy is associated with negative emotions and encourages negative behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Relationship between envy and motivation? ==
Workplace envy shapes motivation in positive and negative ways (see Figure 2). Instead of motivating improvement, envy can move towards an unethical or toxic behaviour to close the status gap.      

==== Benign envy and motivation ====

==== Malicious envy and motivation ====
Malicious envy can reduce motivation and lead to harmful behaviour. Instead of focusing on self-improvement, the envier will try to undermine the person being envied or boost themselves by cheating or creating dysfunctional patterns that affect motivation and workplace relationships (Lange et al, 2018). 

==== Loss of motivation due to being envied ====
[[File:Happy-smiley-face-and-sad-2048x1536.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Envy can motivate positive or negative behaviour in the workplace.|200x200px]]
People who feel they are being envied in the workplace often experience emotions of anger, guilt or anxiety (Koksalet et al, 2026). These feelings can affect their motivation. Because they sense others are comparing themselves to them, they may appear to hide or lay low around the workplace. This can lead to reduced motivation or effort as they try to avoid negative attention. This drop in motivation is a coping strategy to avoid being targeted in the workplace. 


'''Table 2.''' The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model showing the relationship between envy and motivation:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Motivation to improve
(benign envy) 
| Blind spot: Fear based motivation noticed 
by others but not yourself (applies to malicious envy)
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Fear of failure
(malicious envy) 
| Hidden motivation (benign envy)
|}

== Behaviours caused by self-efficacy? ==
Self-efficacy is the mental switch that determines whether envy will lead to a positive or negative behaviour. It is the belief that someone will be able to handle challenges within the workplace when faced with envy (Ayden and .

==== High self-efficacy ====
If an employee has high self-efficacy, they will cope better with workplace envy. They compare themselves upwards and are then motivated to be more like the person they are envious of. 

==== Low self-efficacy ====

If an employee has low self-efficacy, they will be negatively affected by workplace envy. Downward comparison becomes a better coping strategy for them, which leads to negative behaviours such as bringing someone down or spreading rumours to make them feel better about themselves.

'''Quiz questions.''' Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{What is a common sign of low self-efficacy?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Avoiding tasks because you expect to fail
- Feeling confident you can handle new challenges

{What is a common sign of high self-efficacy?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Avoiding tasks because they appear too hard
+ Confidence in handling challenges
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Relationship between workplace envy and social comparison theory? ==
Social comparison theory explains why individuals tend to compare their opinions and abilities to others which affects how they feel and behave (Han et al, 2022). Feeling threatened in the workplace makes people judge themselves more harshly as they believe they cannot match their colleague's social status or success.

==== Upward comparison ====
Comparing yourself to someone who appears more skilled, more successful or performing at a higher level. By comparing yourself upward to someone can either motivate you develop yourself or can create feelings of envy, stress or pressure when the gap between one employee and another seems unachievable. 

==== Downward comparison ====
Comparing yourself to someone who seems worse off than you, less skilled or less struggling can boost your confidence in the workplace by providing reassurance. It can also foster a delusion or false sense of security.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Call center (8300442093).jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 3'''. Social Comparison Theory at play in a Call Centre.]]

;Case study
At ReadyCall, everyone's daily call numbers are recorded on a big screen. Ebony is new and she keeps comparing herself to Rick, a senior worker who always has the highest call numbers. Seeing the gap makes Ebony feel stressed and worried she isn't good enough.

Ebony's manager explains that Rick learned his skills over many years and wasn't fast when he first started. After hearing this, Ebony feels better, learns some tips from Rick, and becomes more confident.

This is an example of social comparison theory, where people judge themselves by comparing their performance to others (see Figure 4). 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
'''Quiz questions.''' Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{What type of social comparison theory is Ebony experiencing?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Upward comparison
- Downward comparison


&lt;/quiz&gt;
;
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}

==Conclusion==
Envy plays a significant role in shaping workplace behaviour because employees constantly observe and compare their progress and recognition and opportunities of those around them. These comparisons can trigger envy which is not just a negative emotion but a complex psychological response influenced by self-efficacy, motivation and social comparison processes. These comparisons highlight an individual's insecurities, making envy an important emotional signal rather than a something negative. When employees feel capable of improving themselves, workplace envy becomes a constructive force that encourages learning, effort and healthy competition. However, workplace envy can also shift into a harmful direction when employees feel threatened, insecure or unable to achieve similar success. In these situations, workplace envy may lead to resentment, withdrawal or undermining behaviour which can disrupt teamwork or damage workplace relationships. By understanding these dynamics, workplaces can respond carefully and recognise the important role envy plays in fostering growth. fairness and healthier interpersonal relationships that will effectively create a positive working culture.
{{tip|Take-home messages:
* Not all workplace envy is negative.
* Envy is an important catalyst for change if driven in a positive way.
* Envy can motivate staff in a constructive way.
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* Envy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2011/Envy|title=Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Envy - Wikiversity|website=en.wikiversity.org|language=en|access-date=2026-08-25}}&lt;/ref&gt; (Book Chapter, 2011) {{ic|See Tutorial 2 for how to create an internal link to a book chapter)
* Jealousy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=|title=|website=|language=|access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt; is not the same as envy (Book Chapter, 2013)
* [[Self-Efficacy]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Aggression in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Aggression in the workplace - Wikiversity]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rivalry in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rivalry in the workplace - Wikiversity]]

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Aydın, G., &amp; Bozkurt, S. (2022). Research on the Role of Self-Efficacy in the Effect of Workplace Envy on Intention to Quit. Istanbul Business Research, 51(2), 627-642. https://doi.org/10.26650/ibr.2022.51.1062932

Crusius J., Thierhoff J., Lange J. (2021). Dispositional greed predicts benign and malicious envy. Personality and Individual Differences, 168, 110361. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110361

Dong, Xue T., Yang W. Chung, Joon H. Park, and Jeong K. Yun. 2026. “Workplace Envy and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour: The Mediating Effect of Cynicism and the Moderating Effect of Organizational Support.” Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences / Revue Canadienne des Sciences de l'Administration: e70020. https://doi.org/10.1002/cjas.70020.

Duffy, M. K., Lee, K., &amp; Adair, E. A. (2021). Workplace envy. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 8, 19–44. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012420-055746

Erdil O., Müceldili B. (2014). The effects of envy on job engagement and turnover intention. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 150(1), 447–454. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.09.050

Han, S., Zhan, Y., Zhang, L., &amp; Mu, R. (2022). You Have Received More Help than I Did and I Envy You: A Social Comparison Perspective on Receiving Help in the Team. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8351. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148351

Köksal, K., Tufan, C., Griffiths, M.D. et al. From perceived workplace envy to deviance: a multi-theoretical model of envy-related workplace behaviors and the moderating role of social courage. Curr Psychol 45, 1052 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-026-09607-3

Lange, J., Paulhus, D. L., &amp; Crusius, J. (2018). Elucidating the Dark Side of Envy: Distinctive Links of Benign and Malicious Envy With Dark Personalities. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 44(4), 601-614. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167217746340

Li M., Xu X., Kwan H. K. (2021). The antecedents and consequences of workplace envy: A meta-analytic review. Asia Pacific Journal of Management. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10490-021-09772-y

Li M, Qin Y, Le J (2025), &quot;Mentoring matters: decoding the impact of downward envy on interpersonal conflict, workplace ostracism, and displaced aggression&quot;. Journal of Managerial Psychology, Vol. 40 No. 1 pp. 67–81, doi: https://doi.org/10.1108/JMP-12-2023-0768

Li, Y., &amp; Wang, S. (2023). &quot;Comparisons are Odious&quot;? - Exploring the Dual Effect of Upward Social Comparison on Workplace Coping Behaviors of Temporary Agency Workers. Psychology research and behavior management, 16, 4251–4265. https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S425946

Liu, H., Geng, J., &amp; Yao, P. (2021). Relationship of Leadership and Envy: How to Resolve Workplace Envy with Leadership-A Bibliometric Review Study. Journal of Intelligence, 9(3), 44. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence9030044

Nakai, A. and Numazaki, M. (2026), The Emotional Nature of Malicious and Benign Envy: Separate Measurements for Emotion and Motivation. Jpn Psychol Res. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpr.12568

Polat, Ş, Yeşil, A. &amp; Afşar Doğrusöz, L. (2024) The relationship between self-efficacy, malicious or benign envy in nurses: A cross-sectional study. International Nursing Review, 71, 832–840. https://doi.org/10.1111/inr.12925

Song, Y., &amp; Zhao, Z. (2022). Social Undermining and Interpersonal Rumination among Employees: The Mediating Role of Being the Subject of Envy and the Moderating Role of Social Support. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8419. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148419

Su, X., &amp; Chen, C. (2023). The Influence of Workplace Envy on Employees’ Knowledge-Hiding Behavior Based on a Comparative Analysis between Generation Cohorts. Behavioral Sciences, 13(9), 716. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs13090716

Walter CE, Au-Yong-Oliveira M (2022), &quot;An exploratory study on the barriers to innovative behavior: the spiteful effect of envy&quot;. Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol. 35 No. 6 pp. 936–960, https://doi.org/10.1108/JOCM-02-2022-0034

Wilkes, D. (2023) Workplace Envy: Exploring the Effect of Envy on Team Communication and Organizational Information Sharing. Open Journal of Business and Management, 11, 1757-1786. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojbm.2023.114099

Yang C and Tang R (2021) Validating the “Two Faces” of Envy: The Effect of Self-Control. Front. Psychol. 12:731451. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.731451

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
The following links provide further background and context to support this book chapter:
* [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/NwGMsgB9mNg Envy: The Ugliest Emotion? Find out the Truth!] (YouTube)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1f9IE3CkB4s How to Stop Comparing Yourself to Others] (YouTube)
* https://www.ted.com/talks/worklife_with_adam_grant_become_friends_with_your_rivals (TedTalk)
* [https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-good-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/ https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-goo-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/] (TedTalk)
* [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/3g0lRfiAXzc Why Workplace Envy Is Secretly Power ? - YouTube] (YouTube)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
&lt;references /&gt;{{DEFAULTSORT:https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2026/Envy_in_the_workplace#Role_of_envy_in_the_workplace}}</text>
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__TOC__

=== Overview ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Zonaspace-coworking-collaboration.jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 1'''. Envy can occur in any workplace.]]

;Case study
Jillian and Anna work for the same consulting firm and are at the same level. Jillian recently completed a project that received recognition from senior leaders and she continues to be praised about it. Anna and Jillian get along well, although Anna has started feeling resentful towards Jillian (see Figure 1). 

Anna recently asked Jillian about the project and what tools she used that could possibly assist with her projects. Jillian mentioned she completed a project management course that really changed the way she approaches projects to ensure all milestones are delivered on time and on budget. 

Anna enrols in the same project management course immediately. This is an example of benign envy. By feeling envy towards Jillian, it has motivated Anna to take action to improve herself. With Anna developing her project management skills, this will impact the team and consulting firm in a positive way encouraging extraordinary results. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

[[wikipedia:Envy|Envy]] is a powerful [[emotion]] that drives different behaviours (Yang &amp; Tang, 2021). It can be described as the bitterness or anger you feel when others receive what you deeply or unconsciously desire. In many workplaces, it is human nature for an individual to measure and compare themselves to those that are being recognised or seem more valued than they are. These comparisons can trigger workplace envy, especially when someone feels they are inferior to others. According to Duffy et al (2021), over the last 25 years, there has been growing interest in the phenomenon of workplace envy. While every workplace is filled with opportunities for competition and self-comparison, Liu et al (2021), stated it was important to consider the environmental influences and historical timing when looking at workplace envy due to this research constantly evolving.  

Workplace envy occurs across a variety of workplace situations although experiences can vary in intensity and frequency and can transform into behavioural reactions. This book chapter describes workplace envy and discusses the role it plays in workplace behaviour. 

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* What is the role of envy in the workplace?
* What is the difference between malicious envy and benign envy? 
* What causes envy and how is it linked to motivation?
* What is the relationship between envy and self-efficacy?
* What is the relationship between envy and social comparison theory?


{{RoundBoxBottom}}
== Role of envy in the workplace ==

There are many causes of envy in the workplace. It can emerge when an employee notices that a colleague has achieved something they desire, such as recognition, a reward, a promotion or an opportunity. It can occur in any workplace where employees constantly compare their performance or progress to those around them, these comparisons can easily activate feelings of envy.   

Through guidance, leadership and intervention, envy can be used as a workplace 'tool' to drive positive behaviour (Liu et al, 2021).  
== Benign versus malicious envy ==
Workplace envy can be either benign or malicious. Even though they both start with the same feeling of inferiority, they can lead to different reactions (Crusius et al, 2021). Benign envy creates an urge for people to grow while malicious envy leads to negative thoughts or actions that aims to bring a person down (see Table 1).  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Scenario:'''

Jon and Sam have worked together for a long time. They both applied for a promotion within the team recently, Jon was successful and Sam missed out. 

Since then, Sam has started treating Jon unfairly. In meetings, Sam makes negative comments about Jon's ideas. During team lunches, Sam leaves Jon out on purpose. Each day, Sam's behaviour becomes more unfriendly and hurtful.

This is an example of malicious envy. Sam is feeling envious of Jon and is trying to harm and put him down. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}The following table outlines the difference between benign and malicious envy in the workplace.

'''Table 1.'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!
! Benign Envy
! Malicious Envy
|-
| Definition
| Envy that motivates self‑improvement.
| Envy that manifests when someone feels threatened or unable to match another’s achievements.
|-
| Emotional Response
| Encourages growth, motivation and learning.
| Creates feelings of resentment, threat, or inferiority.
|-
| Typical Behaviours
| Working harder, learning new skills, seeking growth or development opportunities.
| Exclusion, gossip, criticism or subtle sabotage.
|-
| Impact on Workplace Culture
| Strengthens workplace culture through healthy competition and personal development.
| Damages trust, teamwork, morale, and can escalate into workplace conflict and create a toxic culture.
|-
| Outcome
| Positive: supports improvement and collaboration.
| Negative: undermines relationships and workplace functioning.
|}

'''Quiz questions.''' Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Benign envy is associated with positive emotions and encourages positive behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Malicious envy is associated with negative emotions and encourages negative behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Relationship between envy and motivation? ==
Workplace envy shapes motivation in positive and negative ways (see Figure 2). Instead of motivating improvement, envy can move towards an unethical or toxic behaviour to close the status gap.      

==== Benign envy and motivation ====

==== Malicious envy and motivation ====
Malicious envy can reduce motivation and lead to harmful behaviour. Instead of focusing on self-improvement, the envier will try to undermine the person being envied or boost themselves by cheating or creating dysfunctional patterns that affect motivation and workplace relationships (Lange et al, 2018). 

==== Loss of motivation due to being envied ====
[[File:Happy-smiley-face-and-sad-2048x1536.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Envy can motivate positive or negative behaviour in the workplace.|200x200px]]
People who feel they are being envied in the workplace often experience emotions of anger, guilt or anxiety (Koksalet et al, 2026). These feelings can affect their motivation. Because they sense others are comparing themselves to them, they may appear to hide or lay low around the workplace. This can lead to reduced motivation or effort as they try to avoid negative attention. This drop in motivation is a coping strategy to avoid being targeted in the workplace. 


'''Table 2.''' The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model showing the relationship between envy and motivation:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Motivation to improve
(benign envy) 
| Blind spot: Fear based motivation noticed 
by others but not yourself (applies to malicious envy)
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Fear of failure
(malicious envy) 
| Hidden motivation (benign envy)
|}

== Behaviours caused by self-efficacy? ==
Self-efficacy is the mental switch that determines whether envy will lead to a positive or negative behaviour. It is the belief that someone will be able to handle challenges within the workplace when faced with envy (Ayden and .

==== High self-efficacy ====
If an employee has high self-efficacy, they will cope better with workplace envy. They compare themselves upwards and are then motivated to be more like the person they are envious of. 

==== Low self-efficacy ====

If an employee has low self-efficacy, they will be negatively affected by workplace envy. Downward comparison becomes a better coping strategy for them, which leads to negative behaviours such as bringing someone down or spreading rumours to make them feel better about themselves.

'''Quiz questions.''' Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{What is a common sign of low self-efficacy?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Avoiding tasks because you expect to fail
- Feeling confident you can handle new challenges

{What is a common sign of high self-efficacy?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Avoiding tasks because they appear too hard
+ Confidence in handling challenges
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Relationship between workplace envy and social comparison theory? ==
Social comparison theory explains why individuals tend to compare their opinions and abilities to others which affects how they feel and behave (Han et al, 2022). Feeling threatened in the workplace makes people judge themselves more harshly as they believe they cannot match their colleague's social status or success.

==== Upward comparison ====
Comparing yourself to someone who appears more skilled, more successful or performing at a higher level. By comparing yourself upward to someone can either motivate you develop yourself or can create feelings of envy, stress or pressure when the gap between one employee and another seems unachievable. 

==== Downward comparison ====
Comparing yourself to someone who seems worse off than you, less skilled or less struggling can boost your confidence in the workplace by providing reassurance. It can also foster a delusion or false sense of security.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Call center (8300442093).jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 3'''. Social Comparison Theory at play in a Call Centre.]]

;Case study
At ReadyCall, everyone's daily call numbers are recorded on a big screen. Ebony is new and she keeps comparing herself to Rick, a senior worker who always has the highest call numbers. Seeing the gap makes Ebony feel stressed and worried she isn't good enough.

Ebony's manager explains that Rick learned his skills over many years and wasn't fast when he first started. After hearing this, Ebony feels better, learns some tips from Rick, and becomes more confident.

This is an example of social comparison theory, where people judge themselves by comparing their performance to others (see Figure 4). 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
'''Quiz questions.''' Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{What type of social comparison theory is Ebony experiencing?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Upward comparison
- Downward comparison


&lt;/quiz&gt;
;
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}

==Conclusion==
Envy plays a significant role in shaping workplace behaviour because employees constantly observe and compare their progress and recognition and opportunities of those around them. These comparisons can trigger envy which is not just a negative emotion but a complex psychological response influenced by self-efficacy, motivation and social comparison processes. These comparisons highlight an individual's insecurities, making envy an important emotional signal rather than a something negative. When employees feel capable of improving themselves, workplace envy becomes a constructive force that encourages learning, effort and healthy competition. However, workplace envy can also shift into a harmful direction when employees feel threatened, insecure or unable to achieve similar success. In these situations, workplace envy may lead to resentment, withdrawal or undermining behaviour which can disrupt teamwork or damage workplace relationships. By understanding these dynamics, workplaces can respond carefully and recognise the important role envy plays in fostering growth. fairness and healthier interpersonal relationships that will effectively create a positive working culture.
{{tip|Take-home messages:
* Not all workplace envy is negative.
* Envy is an important catalyst for change if driven in a positive way.
* Envy can motivate staff in a constructive way.
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* Envy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2011/Envy|title=Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Envy - Wikiversity|website=en.wikiversity.org|language=en|access-date=2026-08-25}}&lt;/ref&gt; (Book Chapter, 2011) {{ic|See Tutorial 2 for how to create an internal link to a book chapter)
* Jealousy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=|title=|website=|language=|access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt; is not the same as envy (Book Chapter, 2013)
* [[Self-Efficacy]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Aggression in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Aggression in the workplace - Wikiversity]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rivalry in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rivalry in the workplace - Wikiversity]]

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Aydın, G., &amp; Bozkurt, S. (2022). Research on the Role of Self-Efficacy in the Effect of Workplace Envy on Intention to Quit. Istanbul Business Research, 51(2), 627-642. https://doi.org/10.26650/ibr.2022.51.1062932

Crusius J., Thierhoff J., Lange J. (2021). Dispositional greed predicts benign and malicious envy. Personality and Individual Differences, 168, 110361. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110361

Dong, Xue T., Yang W. Chung, Joon H. Park, and Jeong K. Yun. 2026. “Workplace Envy and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour: The Mediating Effect of Cynicism and the Moderating Effect of Organizational Support.” Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences / Revue Canadienne des Sciences de l'Administration: e70020. https://doi.org/10.1002/cjas.70020.

Duffy, M. K., Lee, K., &amp; Adair, E. A. (2021). Workplace envy. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 8, 19–44. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012420-055746

Erdil O., Müceldili B. (2014). The effects of envy on job engagement and turnover intention. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 150(1), 447–454. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.09.050

Han, S., Zhan, Y., Zhang, L., &amp; Mu, R. (2022). You Have Received More Help than I Did and I Envy You: A Social Comparison Perspective on Receiving Help in the Team. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8351. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148351

Köksal, K., Tufan, C., Griffiths, M.D. et al. From perceived workplace envy to deviance: a multi-theoretical model of envy-related workplace behaviors and the moderating role of social courage. Curr Psychol 45, 1052 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-026-09607-3

Lange, J., Paulhus, D. L., &amp; Crusius, J. (2018). Elucidating the Dark Side of Envy: Distinctive Links of Benign and Malicious Envy With Dark Personalities. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 44(4), 601-614. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167217746340

Li M., Xu X., Kwan H. K. (2021). The antecedents and consequences of workplace envy: A meta-analytic review. Asia Pacific Journal of Management. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10490-021-09772-y

Li M, Qin Y, Le J (2025), &quot;Mentoring matters: decoding the impact of downward envy on interpersonal conflict, workplace ostracism, and displaced aggression&quot;. Journal of Managerial Psychology, Vol. 40 No. 1 pp. 67–81, doi: https://doi.org/10.1108/JMP-12-2023-0768

Li, Y., &amp; Wang, S. (2023). &quot;Comparisons are Odious&quot;? - Exploring the Dual Effect of Upward Social Comparison on Workplace Coping Behaviors of Temporary Agency Workers. Psychology research and behavior management, 16, 4251–4265. https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S425946

Liu, H., Geng, J., &amp; Yao, P. (2021). Relationship of Leadership and Envy: How to Resolve Workplace Envy with Leadership-A Bibliometric Review Study. Journal of Intelligence, 9(3), 44. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence9030044

Nakai, A. and Numazaki, M. (2026), The Emotional Nature of Malicious and Benign Envy: Separate Measurements for Emotion and Motivation. Jpn Psychol Res. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpr.12568

Polat, Ş, Yeşil, A. &amp; Afşar Doğrusöz, L. (2024) The relationship between self-efficacy, malicious or benign envy in nurses: A cross-sectional study. International Nursing Review, 71, 832–840. https://doi.org/10.1111/inr.12925

Song, Y., &amp; Zhao, Z. (2022). Social Undermining and Interpersonal Rumination among Employees: The Mediating Role of Being the Subject of Envy and the Moderating Role of Social Support. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8419. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148419

Su, X., &amp; Chen, C. (2023). The Influence of Workplace Envy on Employees’ Knowledge-Hiding Behavior Based on a Comparative Analysis between Generation Cohorts. Behavioral Sciences, 13(9), 716. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs13090716

Walter CE, Au-Yong-Oliveira M (2022), &quot;An exploratory study on the barriers to innovative behavior: the spiteful effect of envy&quot;. Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol. 35 No. 6 pp. 936–960, https://doi.org/10.1108/JOCM-02-2022-0034

Wilkes, D. (2023) Workplace Envy: Exploring the Effect of Envy on Team Communication and Organizational Information Sharing. Open Journal of Business and Management, 11, 1757-1786. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojbm.2023.114099

Yang C and Tang R (2021) Validating the “Two Faces” of Envy: The Effect of Self-Control. Front. Psychol. 12:731451. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.731451

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
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* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
The following links provide further background and context to support this book chapter:
* [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/NwGMsgB9mNg Envy: The Ugliest Emotion? Find out the Truth!] (YouTube)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1f9IE3CkB4s How to Stop Comparing Yourself to Others] (YouTube)
* https://www.ted.com/talks/worklife_with_adam_grant_become_friends_with_your_rivals (TedTalk)
* [https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-good-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/ https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-goo-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/] (TedTalk)
* [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/3g0lRfiAXzc Why Workplace Envy Is Secretly Power ? - YouTube] (YouTube)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
&lt;references /&gt;{{DEFAULTSORT:https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2026/Envy_in_the_workplace#Role_of_envy_in_the_workplace}}</text>
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__TOC__

=== Overview ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Zonaspace-coworking-collaboration.jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 1'''. Envy can occur in any workplace.]]

;Case study
Jillian and Anna work for the same consulting firm and are at the same level. Jillian recently completed a project that received recognition from senior leaders and she continues to be praised about it. Anna and Jillian get along well, although Anna has started feeling resentful towards Jillian (see Figure 1). 

Anna recently asked Jillian about the project and what tools she used that could possibly assist with her projects. Jillian mentioned she completed a project management course that really changed the way she approaches projects to ensure all milestones are delivered on time and on budget. 

Anna enrols in the same project management course immediately. This is an example of benign envy. By feeling envy towards Jillian, it has motivated Anna to take action to improve herself. With Anna developing her project management skills, this will impact the team and consulting firm in a positive way encouraging extraordinary results. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

[[wikipedia:Envy|Envy]] is a powerful [[emotion]] that drives different behaviours (Yang &amp; Tang, 2021). It can be described as the bitterness or anger you feel when others receive what you deeply or unconsciously desire. In many workplaces, it is human nature for an individual to measure and compare themselves to those that are being recognised or seem more valued than they are. These comparisons can trigger workplace envy, especially when someone feels they are inferior to others. According to Duffy et al (2021), over the last 25 years, there has been growing interest in the phenomenon of workplace envy. While every workplace is filled with opportunities for competition and self-comparison, Liu et al (2021), stated it was important to consider the environmental influences and historical timing when looking at workplace envy due to this area of research constantly evolving.  

Workplace envy is a common emotion that occurs across a variety of workplace situations although experiences can vary in intensity and frequency and can transform into behavioural reactions. In a competitive work environment, it can affect all levels of the organisation although, when left to manifest, it can tarnish collaboration and disruptive performance overall. 

This book chapter describes workplace envy, details the different types of workplace envy, its link to motivation, its relationship to self-efficacy and social comparison theory and discusses the role it plays in workplace behaviour. 

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* What is the role of envy in the workplace?
* What is the difference between malicious envy and benign envy? 
* What causes envy and how is it linked to motivation?
* What is the relationship between envy and self-efficacy?
* What is the relationship between envy and social comparison theory?


{{RoundBoxBottom}}
== Role of envy in the workplace ==

There are many causes of envy in the workplace. It can emerge when an employee notices that a colleague has achieved something they desire, such as recognition, a reward, a promotion or an opportunity. It can occur in any workplace where employees constantly compare their performance or progress to those around them, these comparisons can easily activate feelings of envy.   

Through guidance, leadership and intervention, envy can be used as a workplace 'tool' to drive positive behaviour (Liu et al, 2021).  
== Benign versus malicious envy ==
Workplace envy can be either benign or malicious. Even though they both start with the same feeling of inferiority, they can lead to different reactions (Crusius et al, 2021). Benign envy creates an urge for people to grow while malicious envy leads to negative thoughts or actions that aims to bring a person down (see Table 1).  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Scenario:'''

Jon and Sam have worked together for a long time. They both applied for a promotion within the team recently, Jon was successful and Sam missed out. 

Since then, Sam has started treating Jon unfairly. In meetings, Sam makes negative comments about Jon's ideas. During team lunches, Sam leaves Jon out on purpose. Each day, Sam's behaviour becomes more unfriendly and hurtful.

This is an example of malicious envy. Sam is feeling envious of Jon and is trying to harm and put him down. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}The following table outlines the difference between benign and malicious envy in the workplace.

'''Table 1.'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!
! Benign Envy
! Malicious Envy
|-
| Definition
| Envy that motivates self‑improvement.
| Envy that manifests when someone feels threatened or unable to match another’s achievements.
|-
| Emotional Response
| Encourages growth, motivation and learning.
| Creates feelings of resentment, threat, or inferiority.
|-
| Typical Behaviours
| Working harder, learning new skills, seeking growth or development opportunities.
| Exclusion, gossip, criticism or subtle sabotage.
|-
| Impact on Workplace Culture
| Strengthens workplace culture through healthy competition and personal development.
| Damages trust, teamwork, morale, and can escalate into workplace conflict and create a toxic culture.
|-
| Outcome
| Positive: supports improvement and collaboration.
| Negative: undermines relationships and workplace functioning.
|}

'''Quiz questions.''' Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Benign envy is associated with positive emotions and encourages positive behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Malicious envy is associated with negative emotions and encourages negative behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Relationship between envy and motivation? ==
Workplace envy shapes motivation in positive and negative ways (see Figure 2). Instead of motivating improvement, envy can move towards an unethical or toxic behaviour to close the status gap.      

==== Benign envy and motivation ====

==== Malicious envy and motivation ====
Malicious envy can reduce motivation and lead to harmful behaviour. Instead of focusing on self-improvement, the envier will try to undermine the person being envied or boost themselves by cheating or creating dysfunctional patterns that affect motivation and workplace relationships (Lange et al, 2018). 

==== Loss of motivation due to being envied ====
[[File:Happy-smiley-face-and-sad-2048x1536.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Envy can motivate positive or negative behaviour in the workplace.|200x200px]]
People who feel they are being envied in the workplace often experience emotions of anger, guilt or anxiety (Koksalet et al, 2026). These feelings can affect their motivation. Because they sense others are comparing themselves to them, they may appear to hide or lay low around the workplace. This can lead to reduced motivation or effort as they try to avoid negative attention. This drop in motivation is a coping strategy to avoid being targeted in the workplace. 


'''Table 2.''' The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model showing the relationship between envy and motivation:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Motivation to improve
(benign envy) 
| Blind spot: Fear based motivation noticed 
by others but not yourself (applies to malicious envy)
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Fear of failure
(malicious envy) 
| Hidden motivation (benign envy)
|}

== Behaviours caused by self-efficacy? ==
Self-efficacy is the mental switch that determines whether envy will lead to a positive or negative behaviour. It is the belief that someone will be able to handle challenges within the workplace when faced with envy (Ayden and .

==== High self-efficacy ====
If an employee has high self-efficacy, they will cope better with workplace envy. They compare themselves upwards and are then motivated to be more like the person they are envious of. 

==== Low self-efficacy ====

If an employee has low self-efficacy, they will be negatively affected by workplace envy. Downward comparison becomes a better coping strategy for them, which leads to negative behaviours such as bringing someone down or spreading rumours to make them feel better about themselves.

'''Quiz questions.''' Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{What is a common sign of low self-efficacy?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Avoiding tasks because you expect to fail
- Feeling confident you can handle new challenges

{What is a common sign of high self-efficacy?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Avoiding tasks because they appear too hard
+ Confidence in handling challenges
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Relationship between workplace envy and social comparison theory? ==
Social comparison theory explains why individuals tend to compare their opinions and abilities to others which affects how they feel and behave (Han et al, 2022). Feeling threatened in the workplace makes people judge themselves more harshly as they believe they cannot match their colleague's social status or success.

==== Upward comparison ====
Comparing yourself to someone who appears more skilled, more successful or performing at a higher level. By comparing yourself upward to someone can either motivate you develop yourself or can create feelings of envy, stress or pressure when the gap between one employee and another seems unachievable. 

==== Downward comparison ====
Comparing yourself to someone who seems worse off than you, less skilled or less struggling can boost your confidence in the workplace by providing reassurance. It can also foster a delusion or false sense of security.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Call center (8300442093).jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 3'''. Social Comparison Theory at play in a Call Centre.]]

;Case study
At ReadyCall, everyone's daily call numbers are recorded on a big screen. Ebony is new and she keeps comparing herself to Rick, a senior worker who always has the highest call numbers. Seeing the gap makes Ebony feel stressed and worried she isn't good enough.

Ebony's manager explains that Rick learned his skills over many years and wasn't fast when he first started. After hearing this, Ebony feels better, learns some tips from Rick, and becomes more confident.

This is an example of social comparison theory, where people judge themselves by comparing their performance to others (see Figure 4). 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
'''Quiz questions.''' Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{What type of social comparison theory is Ebony experiencing?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Upward comparison
- Downward comparison


&lt;/quiz&gt;
;
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}

==Conclusion==
Envy plays a significant role in shaping workplace behaviour because employees constantly observe and compare their progress and recognition and opportunities of those around them. These comparisons can trigger envy which is not just a negative emotion but a complex psychological response influenced by self-efficacy, motivation and social comparison processes. These comparisons highlight an individual's insecurities, making envy an important emotional signal rather than a something negative. When employees feel capable of improving themselves, workplace envy becomes a constructive force that encourages learning, effort and healthy competition. However, workplace envy can also shift into a harmful direction when employees feel threatened, insecure or unable to achieve similar success. In these situations, workplace envy may lead to resentment, withdrawal or undermining behaviour which can disrupt teamwork or damage workplace relationships. By understanding these dynamics, workplaces can respond carefully and recognise the important role envy plays in fostering growth. fairness and healthier interpersonal relationships that will effectively create a positive working culture.
{{tip|Take-home messages:
* Not all workplace envy is negative.
* Envy is an important catalyst for change if driven in a positive way.
* Envy can motivate staff in a constructive way.
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* Envy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2011/Envy|title=Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Envy - Wikiversity|website=en.wikiversity.org|language=en|access-date=2026-08-25}}&lt;/ref&gt; (Book Chapter, 2011) {{ic|See Tutorial 2 for how to create an internal link to a book chapter)
* Jealousy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=|title=|website=|language=|access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt; is not the same as envy (Book Chapter, 2013)
* [[Self-Efficacy]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Aggression in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Aggression in the workplace - Wikiversity]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rivalry in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rivalry in the workplace - Wikiversity]]

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Aydın, G., &amp; Bozkurt, S. (2022). Research on the Role of Self-Efficacy in the Effect of Workplace Envy on Intention to Quit. Istanbul Business Research, 51(2), 627-642. https://doi.org/10.26650/ibr.2022.51.1062932

Crusius J., Thierhoff J., Lange J. (2021). Dispositional greed predicts benign and malicious envy. Personality and Individual Differences, 168, 110361. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110361

Dong, Xue T., Yang W. Chung, Joon H. Park, and Jeong K. Yun. 2026. “Workplace Envy and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour: The Mediating Effect of Cynicism and the Moderating Effect of Organizational Support.” Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences / Revue Canadienne des Sciences de l'Administration: e70020. https://doi.org/10.1002/cjas.70020.

Duffy, M. K., Lee, K., &amp; Adair, E. A. (2021). Workplace envy. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 8, 19–44. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012420-055746

Erdil O., Müceldili B. (2014). The effects of envy on job engagement and turnover intention. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 150(1), 447–454. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.09.050

Han, S., Zhan, Y., Zhang, L., &amp; Mu, R. (2022). You Have Received More Help than I Did and I Envy You: A Social Comparison Perspective on Receiving Help in the Team. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8351. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148351

Köksal, K., Tufan, C., Griffiths, M.D. et al. From perceived workplace envy to deviance: a multi-theoretical model of envy-related workplace behaviors and the moderating role of social courage. Curr Psychol 45, 1052 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-026-09607-3

Lange, J., Paulhus, D. L., &amp; Crusius, J. (2018). Elucidating the Dark Side of Envy: Distinctive Links of Benign and Malicious Envy With Dark Personalities. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 44(4), 601-614. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167217746340

Li M., Xu X., Kwan H. K. (2021). The antecedents and consequences of workplace envy: A meta-analytic review. Asia Pacific Journal of Management. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10490-021-09772-y

Li M, Qin Y, Le J (2025), &quot;Mentoring matters: decoding the impact of downward envy on interpersonal conflict, workplace ostracism, and displaced aggression&quot;. Journal of Managerial Psychology, Vol. 40 No. 1 pp. 67–81, doi: https://doi.org/10.1108/JMP-12-2023-0768

Li, Y., &amp; Wang, S. (2023). &quot;Comparisons are Odious&quot;? - Exploring the Dual Effect of Upward Social Comparison on Workplace Coping Behaviors of Temporary Agency Workers. Psychology research and behavior management, 16, 4251–4265. https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S425946

Liu, H., Geng, J., &amp; Yao, P. (2021). Relationship of Leadership and Envy: How to Resolve Workplace Envy with Leadership-A Bibliometric Review Study. Journal of Intelligence, 9(3), 44. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence9030044

Nakai, A. and Numazaki, M. (2026), The Emotional Nature of Malicious and Benign Envy: Separate Measurements for Emotion and Motivation. Jpn Psychol Res. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpr.12568

Polat, Ş, Yeşil, A. &amp; Afşar Doğrusöz, L. (2024) The relationship between self-efficacy, malicious or benign envy in nurses: A cross-sectional study. International Nursing Review, 71, 832–840. https://doi.org/10.1111/inr.12925

Song, Y., &amp; Zhao, Z. (2022). Social Undermining and Interpersonal Rumination among Employees: The Mediating Role of Being the Subject of Envy and the Moderating Role of Social Support. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8419. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148419

Su, X., &amp; Chen, C. (2023). The Influence of Workplace Envy on Employees’ Knowledge-Hiding Behavior Based on a Comparative Analysis between Generation Cohorts. Behavioral Sciences, 13(9), 716. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs13090716

Walter CE, Au-Yong-Oliveira M (2022), &quot;An exploratory study on the barriers to innovative behavior: the spiteful effect of envy&quot;. Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol. 35 No. 6 pp. 936–960, https://doi.org/10.1108/JOCM-02-2022-0034

Wilkes, D. (2023) Workplace Envy: Exploring the Effect of Envy on Team Communication and Organizational Information Sharing. Open Journal of Business and Management, 11, 1757-1786. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojbm.2023.114099

Yang C and Tang R (2021) Validating the “Two Faces” of Envy: The Effect of Self-Control. Front. Psychol. 12:731451. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.731451

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
The following links provide further background and context to support this book chapter:
* [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/NwGMsgB9mNg Envy: The Ugliest Emotion? Find out the Truth!] (YouTube)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1f9IE3CkB4s How to Stop Comparing Yourself to Others] (YouTube)
* https://www.ted.com/talks/worklife_with_adam_grant_become_friends_with_your_rivals (TedTalk)
* [https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-good-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/ https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-goo-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/] (TedTalk)
* [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/3g0lRfiAXzc Why Workplace Envy Is Secretly Power ? - YouTube] (YouTube)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
&lt;references /&gt;{{DEFAULTSORT:https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2026/Envy_in_the_workplace#Role_of_envy_in_the_workplace}}</text>
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        <id>3106813</id>
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      <comment>/* Overview */</comment>
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__TOC__

=== Overview ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Zonaspace-coworking-collaboration.jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 1'''. Envy can occur in any workplace.]]

;Case study
Jillian and Anna work for the same consulting firm and are at the same level. Jillian recently completed a project that received recognition from senior leaders and she continues to be praised about it. Anna and Jillian get along well, although Anna has started feeling resentful towards Jillian (see Figure 1). 

Anna recently asked Jillian about the project and what tools she used that could possibly assist with her projects. Jillian mentioned she completed a project management course that really changed the way she approaches projects to ensure all milestones are delivered on time and on budget. 

Anna enrols in the same project management course immediately. This is an example of benign envy. By feeling envy towards Jillian, it has motivated Anna to take action to improve herself. With Anna developing her project management skills, this will impact the team and consulting firm in a positive way encouraging extraordinary results. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

[[wikipedia:Envy|Envy]] is a powerful [[emotion]] that drives different behaviours (Yang &amp; Tang, 2021). It can be described as the bitterness or anger you feel when others receive what you deeply or unconsciously desire. In many workplaces, it is human nature for an individual to measure and compare themselves to those that are being recognised or seem more valued than they are. These comparisons can trigger workplace envy, especially when someone feels they are inferior to others. According to Duffy et al (2021), over the last 25 years, there has been growing interest in the phenomenon of workplace envy. While every workplace is filled with opportunities for competition and self-comparison, Liu et al (2021), stated it was important to consider the environmental influences and historical timing when looking at workplace envy due to this area of research constantly evolving.  

Workplace envy is a common emotion that occurs across a variety of workplace situations although experiences can vary in intensity and frequency and can transform into behavioural reactions. In a competitive work environment, it can affect all levels of the organisation although, when left to manifest, it can tarnish collaboration and disrupt performance overall. 

This book chapter describes workplace envy, details the different types of workplace envy, its link to motivation, its relationship to self-efficacy and social comparison theory and discusses the role it plays in workplace behaviour. 

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* What is the role of envy in the workplace?
* What is the difference between malicious envy and benign envy? 
* What causes envy and how is it linked to motivation?
* What is the relationship between envy and self-efficacy?
* What is the relationship between envy and social comparison theory?


{{RoundBoxBottom}}
== Role of envy in the workplace ==

There are many causes of envy in the workplace. It can emerge when an employee notices that a colleague has achieved something they desire, such as recognition, a reward, a promotion or an opportunity. It can occur in any workplace where employees constantly compare their performance or progress to those around them, these comparisons can easily activate feelings of envy.   

Through guidance, leadership and intervention, envy can be used as a workplace 'tool' to drive positive behaviour (Liu et al, 2021).  
== Benign versus malicious envy ==
Workplace envy can be either benign or malicious. Even though they both start with the same feeling of inferiority, they can lead to different reactions (Crusius et al, 2021). Benign envy creates an urge for people to grow while malicious envy leads to negative thoughts or actions that aims to bring a person down (see Table 1).  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Scenario:'''

Jon and Sam have worked together for a long time. They both applied for a promotion within the team recently, Jon was successful and Sam missed out. 

Since then, Sam has started treating Jon unfairly. In meetings, Sam makes negative comments about Jon's ideas. During team lunches, Sam leaves Jon out on purpose. Each day, Sam's behaviour becomes more unfriendly and hurtful.

This is an example of malicious envy. Sam is feeling envious of Jon and is trying to harm and put him down. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}The following table outlines the difference between benign and malicious envy in the workplace.

'''Table 1.'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!
! Benign Envy
! Malicious Envy
|-
| Definition
| Envy that motivates self‑improvement.
| Envy that manifests when someone feels threatened or unable to match another’s achievements.
|-
| Emotional Response
| Encourages growth, motivation and learning.
| Creates feelings of resentment, threat, or inferiority.
|-
| Typical Behaviours
| Working harder, learning new skills, seeking growth or development opportunities.
| Exclusion, gossip, criticism or subtle sabotage.
|-
| Impact on Workplace Culture
| Strengthens workplace culture through healthy competition and personal development.
| Damages trust, teamwork, morale, and can escalate into workplace conflict and create a toxic culture.
|-
| Outcome
| Positive: supports improvement and collaboration.
| Negative: undermines relationships and workplace functioning.
|}

'''Quiz questions.''' Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Benign envy is associated with positive emotions and encourages positive behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Malicious envy is associated with negative emotions and encourages negative behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Relationship between envy and motivation? ==
Workplace envy shapes motivation in positive and negative ways (see Figure 2). Instead of motivating improvement, envy can move towards an unethical or toxic behaviour to close the status gap.      

==== Benign envy and motivation ====

==== Malicious envy and motivation ====
Malicious envy can reduce motivation and lead to harmful behaviour. Instead of focusing on self-improvement, the envier will try to undermine the person being envied or boost themselves by cheating or creating dysfunctional patterns that affect motivation and workplace relationships (Lange et al, 2018). 

==== Loss of motivation due to being envied ====
[[File:Happy-smiley-face-and-sad-2048x1536.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Envy can motivate positive or negative behaviour in the workplace.|200x200px]]
People who feel they are being envied in the workplace often experience emotions of anger, guilt or anxiety (Koksalet et al, 2026). These feelings can affect their motivation. Because they sense others are comparing themselves to them, they may appear to hide or lay low around the workplace. This can lead to reduced motivation or effort as they try to avoid negative attention. This drop in motivation is a coping strategy to avoid being targeted in the workplace. 


'''Table 2.''' The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model showing the relationship between envy and motivation:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Motivation to improve
(benign envy) 
| Blind spot: Fear based motivation noticed 
by others but not yourself (applies to malicious envy)
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Fear of failure
(malicious envy) 
| Hidden motivation (benign envy)
|}

== Behaviours caused by self-efficacy? ==
Self-efficacy is the mental switch that determines whether envy will lead to a positive or negative behaviour. It is the belief that someone will be able to handle challenges within the workplace when faced with envy (Ayden and .

==== High self-efficacy ====
If an employee has high self-efficacy, they will cope better with workplace envy. They compare themselves upwards and are then motivated to be more like the person they are envious of. 

==== Low self-efficacy ====

If an employee has low self-efficacy, they will be negatively affected by workplace envy. Downward comparison becomes a better coping strategy for them, which leads to negative behaviours such as bringing someone down or spreading rumours to make them feel better about themselves.

'''Quiz questions.''' Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{What is a common sign of low self-efficacy?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Avoiding tasks because you expect to fail
- Feeling confident you can handle new challenges

{What is a common sign of high self-efficacy?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Avoiding tasks because they appear too hard
+ Confidence in handling challenges
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Relationship between workplace envy and social comparison theory? ==
Social comparison theory explains why individuals tend to compare their opinions and abilities to others which affects how they feel and behave (Han et al, 2022). Feeling threatened in the workplace makes people judge themselves more harshly as they believe they cannot match their colleague's social status or success.

==== Upward comparison ====
Comparing yourself to someone who appears more skilled, more successful or performing at a higher level. By comparing yourself upward to someone can either motivate you develop yourself or can create feelings of envy, stress or pressure when the gap between one employee and another seems unachievable. 

==== Downward comparison ====
Comparing yourself to someone who seems worse off than you, less skilled or less struggling can boost your confidence in the workplace by providing reassurance. It can also foster a delusion or false sense of security.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Call center (8300442093).jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 3'''. Social Comparison Theory at play in a Call Centre.]]

;Case study
At ReadyCall, everyone's daily call numbers are recorded on a big screen. Ebony is new and she keeps comparing herself to Rick, a senior worker who always has the highest call numbers. Seeing the gap makes Ebony feel stressed and worried she isn't good enough.

Ebony's manager explains that Rick learned his skills over many years and wasn't fast when he first started. After hearing this, Ebony feels better, learns some tips from Rick, and becomes more confident.

This is an example of social comparison theory, where people judge themselves by comparing their performance to others (see Figure 4). 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
'''Quiz questions.''' Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{What type of social comparison theory is Ebony experiencing?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Upward comparison
- Downward comparison


&lt;/quiz&gt;
;
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}

==Conclusion==
Envy plays a significant role in shaping workplace behaviour because employees constantly observe and compare their progress and recognition and opportunities of those around them. These comparisons can trigger envy which is not just a negative emotion but a complex psychological response influenced by self-efficacy, motivation and social comparison processes. These comparisons highlight an individual's insecurities, making envy an important emotional signal rather than a something negative. When employees feel capable of improving themselves, workplace envy becomes a constructive force that encourages learning, effort and healthy competition. However, workplace envy can also shift into a harmful direction when employees feel threatened, insecure or unable to achieve similar success. In these situations, workplace envy may lead to resentment, withdrawal or undermining behaviour which can disrupt teamwork or damage workplace relationships. By understanding these dynamics, workplaces can respond carefully and recognise the important role envy plays in fostering growth. fairness and healthier interpersonal relationships that will effectively create a positive working culture.
{{tip|Take-home messages:
* Not all workplace envy is negative.
* Envy is an important catalyst for change if driven in a positive way.
* Envy can motivate staff in a constructive way.
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* Envy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2011/Envy|title=Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Envy - Wikiversity|website=en.wikiversity.org|language=en|access-date=2026-08-25}}&lt;/ref&gt; (Book Chapter, 2011) {{ic|See Tutorial 2 for how to create an internal link to a book chapter)
* Jealousy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=|title=|website=|language=|access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt; is not the same as envy (Book Chapter, 2013)
* [[Self-Efficacy]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Aggression in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Aggression in the workplace - Wikiversity]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rivalry in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rivalry in the workplace - Wikiversity]]

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Aydın, G., &amp; Bozkurt, S. (2022). Research on the Role of Self-Efficacy in the Effect of Workplace Envy on Intention to Quit. Istanbul Business Research, 51(2), 627-642. https://doi.org/10.26650/ibr.2022.51.1062932

Crusius J., Thierhoff J., Lange J. (2021). Dispositional greed predicts benign and malicious envy. Personality and Individual Differences, 168, 110361. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110361

Dong, Xue T., Yang W. Chung, Joon H. Park, and Jeong K. Yun. 2026. “Workplace Envy and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour: The Mediating Effect of Cynicism and the Moderating Effect of Organizational Support.” Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences / Revue Canadienne des Sciences de l'Administration: e70020. https://doi.org/10.1002/cjas.70020.

Duffy, M. K., Lee, K., &amp; Adair, E. A. (2021). Workplace envy. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 8, 19–44. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012420-055746

Erdil O., Müceldili B. (2014). The effects of envy on job engagement and turnover intention. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 150(1), 447–454. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.09.050

Han, S., Zhan, Y., Zhang, L., &amp; Mu, R. (2022). You Have Received More Help than I Did and I Envy You: A Social Comparison Perspective on Receiving Help in the Team. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8351. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148351

Köksal, K., Tufan, C., Griffiths, M.D. et al. From perceived workplace envy to deviance: a multi-theoretical model of envy-related workplace behaviors and the moderating role of social courage. Curr Psychol 45, 1052 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-026-09607-3

Lange, J., Paulhus, D. L., &amp; Crusius, J. (2018). Elucidating the Dark Side of Envy: Distinctive Links of Benign and Malicious Envy With Dark Personalities. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 44(4), 601-614. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167217746340

Li M., Xu X., Kwan H. K. (2021). The antecedents and consequences of workplace envy: A meta-analytic review. Asia Pacific Journal of Management. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10490-021-09772-y

Li M, Qin Y, Le J (2025), &quot;Mentoring matters: decoding the impact of downward envy on interpersonal conflict, workplace ostracism, and displaced aggression&quot;. Journal of Managerial Psychology, Vol. 40 No. 1 pp. 67–81, doi: https://doi.org/10.1108/JMP-12-2023-0768

Li, Y., &amp; Wang, S. (2023). &quot;Comparisons are Odious&quot;? - Exploring the Dual Effect of Upward Social Comparison on Workplace Coping Behaviors of Temporary Agency Workers. Psychology research and behavior management, 16, 4251–4265. https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S425946

Liu, H., Geng, J., &amp; Yao, P. (2021). Relationship of Leadership and Envy: How to Resolve Workplace Envy with Leadership-A Bibliometric Review Study. Journal of Intelligence, 9(3), 44. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence9030044

Nakai, A. and Numazaki, M. (2026), The Emotional Nature of Malicious and Benign Envy: Separate Measurements for Emotion and Motivation. Jpn Psychol Res. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpr.12568

Polat, Ş, Yeşil, A. &amp; Afşar Doğrusöz, L. (2024) The relationship between self-efficacy, malicious or benign envy in nurses: A cross-sectional study. International Nursing Review, 71, 832–840. https://doi.org/10.1111/inr.12925

Song, Y., &amp; Zhao, Z. (2022). Social Undermining and Interpersonal Rumination among Employees: The Mediating Role of Being the Subject of Envy and the Moderating Role of Social Support. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8419. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148419

Su, X., &amp; Chen, C. (2023). The Influence of Workplace Envy on Employees’ Knowledge-Hiding Behavior Based on a Comparative Analysis between Generation Cohorts. Behavioral Sciences, 13(9), 716. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs13090716

Walter CE, Au-Yong-Oliveira M (2022), &quot;An exploratory study on the barriers to innovative behavior: the spiteful effect of envy&quot;. Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol. 35 No. 6 pp. 936–960, https://doi.org/10.1108/JOCM-02-2022-0034

Wilkes, D. (2023) Workplace Envy: Exploring the Effect of Envy on Team Communication and Organizational Information Sharing. Open Journal of Business and Management, 11, 1757-1786. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojbm.2023.114099

Yang C and Tang R (2021) Validating the “Two Faces” of Envy: The Effect of Self-Control. Front. Psychol. 12:731451. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.731451

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
The following links provide further background and context to support this book chapter:
* [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/NwGMsgB9mNg Envy: The Ugliest Emotion? Find out the Truth!] (YouTube)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1f9IE3CkB4s How to Stop Comparing Yourself to Others] (YouTube)
* https://www.ted.com/talks/worklife_with_adam_grant_become_friends_with_your_rivals (TedTalk)
* [https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-good-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/ https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-goo-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/] (TedTalk)
* [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/3g0lRfiAXzc Why Workplace Envy Is Secretly Power ? - YouTube] (YouTube)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
&lt;references /&gt;{{DEFAULTSORT:https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2026/Envy_in_the_workplace#Role_of_envy_in_the_workplace}}</text>
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      <text bytes="20990" sha1="rb18u3i3mni4vjd8pjv1b6vdxysiic6" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Envy in the workplace:&lt;br&gt;What role does envy play in workplace behaviour?}}
__TOC__

=== Overview ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Zonaspace-coworking-collaboration.jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 1'''. Envy can occur in any workplace.]]

;Case study
Jillian and Anna work for the same consulting firm and are at the same level. Jillian recently completed a project that received recognition from senior leaders and she continues to be praised about it. Anna and Jillian get along well, although Anna has started feeling resentful towards Jillian (see Figure 1). 

Anna recently asked Jillian about the project and what tools she used that could possibly assist with her projects. Jillian mentioned she completed a project management course that really changed the way she approaches projects to ensure all milestones are delivered on time and on budget. 

Anna enrols in the same project management course immediately. This is an example of benign envy. By feeling envy towards Jillian, it has motivated Anna to take action to improve herself. With Anna developing her project management skills, this will impact the team and consulting firm in a positive way encouraging extraordinary results. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

[[wikipedia:Envy|Envy]] is a powerful [[emotion]] that drives different behaviours (Yang &amp; Tang, 2021). It can be described as the bitterness or anger you feel when others receive what you deeply or unconsciously desire. In many workplaces, it is human nature for an individual to measure and compare themselves to those that are being recognised or seem more valued than they are. These comparisons can trigger workplace envy, especially when someone feels they are inferior to others. According to Duffy et al (2021), over the last 25 years, there has been growing interest in the phenomenon of workplace envy. While every workplace is filled with opportunities for competition and self-comparison, Liu et al (2021), stated it was important to consider the environmental influences and historical timing when looking at workplace envy due to this area of research constantly evolving.  

Workplace envy is a common emotion that occurs across a variety of workplace situations although experiences can vary in intensity and frequency and can transform into behavioural reactions. In a competitive work environment, it can affect all levels of the organisation although, when left to manifest, it can tarnish collaboration and disrupt performance overall. 

This book chapter describes workplace envy, details the different types of workplace envy, its link to motivation, its relationship to self-efficacy and social comparison theory and discusses the role it plays in workplace behaviour. 

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* What is the role of envy in the workplace?
* What is the difference between malicious envy and benign envy? 
* What causes envy and how is it linked to motivation?
* What is the relationship between envy and self-efficacy?
* What is the relationship between envy and social comparison theory?


{{RoundBoxBottom}}
== Role of envy in the workplace ==

There are many causes of envy in the workplace. It can emerge when an employee notices that a colleague has achieved something they desire, such as recognition, a reward, a promotion or an opportunity. It can occur in any workplace where employees constantly compare their performance or progress to those around them, these comparisons can easily activate feelings of envy.   

Through guidance, leadership and intervention, envy can be used as a workplace 'tool' to drive positive behaviour (Liu et al, 2021). However, it can also lead to people copying or supporting a boss's negative behaviour and cause )to be left out or ignored. It also reduces people's willingness to share new ideas or be innovative (Walter et al, 2022).   

'''How leadership can help'''  

When envy is high, innovation drops because employees may hold back their ideas or leave the organisation entirely. This means that leadership need to understand how envy works and learn how to manage negative emotions within their teams. By doing this, they can create a healthy work environment for innovation to grow which will in turn have a positive effect on team culture (Walter et al, 2022).   
== Benign versus malicious envy ==
Workplace envy can be either benign or malicious. Even though they both start with the same feeling of inferiority, they can lead to different reactions (Crusius et al, 2021). Benign envy creates an urge for people to grow while malicious envy leads to negative thoughts or actions that aims to bring a person down (see Table 1).  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Scenario:'''

Jon and Sam have worked together for a long time. They both applied for a promotion within the team recently, Jon was successful and Sam missed out. 

Since then, Sam has started treating Jon unfairly. In meetings, Sam makes negative comments about Jon's ideas. During team lunches, Sam leaves Jon out on purpose. Each day, Sam's behaviour becomes more unfriendly and hurtful.

This is an example of malicious envy. Sam is feeling envious of Jon and is trying to harm and put him down. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}The following table outlines the difference between benign and malicious envy in the workplace.

'''Table 1.'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!
! Benign Envy
! Malicious Envy
|-
| Definition
| Envy that motivates self‑improvement.
| Envy that manifests when someone feels threatened or unable to match another’s achievements.
|-
| Emotional Response
| Encourages growth, motivation and learning.
| Creates feelings of resentment, threat, or inferiority.
|-
| Typical Behaviours
| Working harder, learning new skills, seeking growth or development opportunities.
| Exclusion, gossip, criticism or subtle sabotage.
|-
| Impact on Workplace Culture
| Strengthens workplace culture through healthy competition and personal development.
| Damages trust, teamwork, morale, and can escalate into workplace conflict and create a toxic culture.
|-
| Outcome
| Positive: supports improvement and collaboration.
| Negative: undermines relationships and workplace functioning.
|}

'''Quiz questions.''' Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Benign envy is associated with positive emotions and encourages positive behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Malicious envy is associated with negative emotions and encourages negative behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Relationship between envy and motivation? ==
Workplace envy shapes motivation in positive and negative ways (see Figure 2). Instead of motivating improvement, envy can move towards an unethical or toxic behaviour to close the status gap.      

==== Benign envy and motivation ====

==== Malicious envy and motivation ====
Malicious envy can reduce motivation and lead to harmful behaviour. Instead of focusing on self-improvement, the envier will try to undermine the person being envied or boost themselves by cheating or creating dysfunctional patterns that affect motivation and workplace relationships (Lange et al, 2018). 

==== Loss of motivation due to being envied ====
[[File:Happy-smiley-face-and-sad-2048x1536.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Envy can motivate positive or negative behaviour in the workplace.|200x200px]]
People who feel they are being envied in the workplace often experience emotions of anger, guilt or anxiety (Koksalet et al, 2026). These feelings can affect their motivation. Because they sense others are comparing themselves to them, they may appear to hide or lay low around the workplace. This can lead to reduced motivation or effort as they try to avoid negative attention. This drop in motivation is a coping strategy to avoid being targeted in the workplace. 


'''Table 2.''' The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model showing the relationship between envy and motivation:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Motivation to improve
(benign envy) 
| Blind spot: Fear based motivation noticed 
by others but not yourself (applies to malicious envy)
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Fear of failure
(malicious envy) 
| Hidden motivation (benign envy)
|}

== Behaviours caused by self-efficacy? ==
Self-efficacy is the mental switch that determines whether envy will lead to a positive or negative behaviour. It is the belief that someone will be able to handle challenges within the workplace when faced with envy (Ayden and .

==== High self-efficacy ====
If an employee has high self-efficacy, they will cope better with workplace envy. They compare themselves upwards and are then motivated to be more like the person they are envious of. 

==== Low self-efficacy ====

If an employee has low self-efficacy, they will be negatively affected by workplace envy. Downward comparison becomes a better coping strategy for them, which leads to negative behaviours such as bringing someone down or spreading rumours to make them feel better about themselves.

'''Quiz questions.''' Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{What is a common sign of low self-efficacy?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Avoiding tasks because you expect to fail
- Feeling confident you can handle new challenges

{What is a common sign of high self-efficacy?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Avoiding tasks because they appear too hard
+ Confidence in handling challenges
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Relationship between workplace envy and social comparison theory? ==
Social comparison theory explains why individuals tend to compare their opinions and abilities to others which affects how they feel and behave (Han et al, 2022). Feeling threatened in the workplace makes people judge themselves more harshly as they believe they cannot match their colleague's social status or success.

==== Upward comparison ====
Comparing yourself to someone who appears more skilled, more successful or performing at a higher level. By comparing yourself upward to someone can either motivate you develop yourself or can create feelings of envy, stress or pressure when the gap between one employee and another seems unachievable. 

==== Downward comparison ====
Comparing yourself to someone who seems worse off than you, less skilled or less struggling can boost your confidence in the workplace by providing reassurance. It can also foster a delusion or false sense of security.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Call center (8300442093).jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 3'''. Social Comparison Theory at play in a Call Centre.]]

;Case study
At ReadyCall, everyone's daily call numbers are recorded on a big screen. Ebony is new and she keeps comparing herself to Rick, a senior worker who always has the highest call numbers. Seeing the gap makes Ebony feel stressed and worried she isn't good enough.

Ebony's manager explains that Rick learned his skills over many years and wasn't fast when he first started. After hearing this, Ebony feels better, learns some tips from Rick, and becomes more confident.

This is an example of social comparison theory, where people judge themselves by comparing their performance to others (see Figure 4). 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
'''Quiz questions.''' Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{What type of social comparison theory is Ebony experiencing?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Upward comparison
- Downward comparison


&lt;/quiz&gt;
;
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}

==Conclusion==
Envy plays a significant role in shaping workplace behaviour because employees constantly observe and compare their progress and recognition and opportunities of those around them. These comparisons can trigger envy which is not just a negative emotion but a complex psychological response influenced by self-efficacy, motivation and social comparison processes. These comparisons highlight an individual's insecurities, making envy an important emotional signal rather than a something negative. When employees feel capable of improving themselves, workplace envy becomes a constructive force that encourages learning, effort and healthy competition. However, workplace envy can also shift into a harmful direction when employees feel threatened, insecure or unable to achieve similar success. In these situations, workplace envy may lead to resentment, withdrawal or undermining behaviour which can disrupt teamwork or damage workplace relationships. By understanding these dynamics, workplaces can respond carefully and recognise the important role envy plays in fostering growth. fairness and healthier interpersonal relationships that will effectively create a positive working culture.
{{tip|Take-home messages:
* Not all workplace envy is negative.
* Envy is an important catalyst for change if driven in a positive way.
* Envy can motivate staff in a constructive way.
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* Envy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2011/Envy|title=Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Envy - Wikiversity|website=en.wikiversity.org|language=en|access-date=2026-08-25}}&lt;/ref&gt; (Book Chapter, 2011) {{ic|See Tutorial 2 for how to create an internal link to a book chapter)
* Jealousy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=|title=|website=|language=|access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt; is not the same as envy (Book Chapter, 2013)
* [[Self-Efficacy]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Aggression in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Aggression in the workplace - Wikiversity]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rivalry in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rivalry in the workplace - Wikiversity]]

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Aydın, G., &amp; Bozkurt, S. (2022). Research on the Role of Self-Efficacy in the Effect of Workplace Envy on Intention to Quit. Istanbul Business Research, 51(2), 627-642. https://doi.org/10.26650/ibr.2022.51.1062932

Crusius J., Thierhoff J., Lange J. (2021). Dispositional greed predicts benign and malicious envy. Personality and Individual Differences, 168, 110361. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110361

Dong, Xue T., Yang W. Chung, Joon H. Park, and Jeong K. Yun. 2026. “Workplace Envy and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour: The Mediating Effect of Cynicism and the Moderating Effect of Organizational Support.” Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences / Revue Canadienne des Sciences de l'Administration: e70020. https://doi.org/10.1002/cjas.70020.

Duffy, M. K., Lee, K., &amp; Adair, E. A. (2021). Workplace envy. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 8, 19–44. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012420-055746

Erdil O., Müceldili B. (2014). The effects of envy on job engagement and turnover intention. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 150(1), 447–454. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.09.050

Han, S., Zhan, Y., Zhang, L., &amp; Mu, R. (2022). You Have Received More Help than I Did and I Envy You: A Social Comparison Perspective on Receiving Help in the Team. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8351. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148351

Köksal, K., Tufan, C., Griffiths, M.D. et al. From perceived workplace envy to deviance: a multi-theoretical model of envy-related workplace behaviors and the moderating role of social courage. Curr Psychol 45, 1052 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-026-09607-3

Lange, J., Paulhus, D. L., &amp; Crusius, J. (2018). Elucidating the Dark Side of Envy: Distinctive Links of Benign and Malicious Envy With Dark Personalities. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 44(4), 601-614. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167217746340

Li M., Xu X., Kwan H. K. (2021). The antecedents and consequences of workplace envy: A meta-analytic review. Asia Pacific Journal of Management. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10490-021-09772-y

Li M, Qin Y, Le J (2025), &quot;Mentoring matters: decoding the impact of downward envy on interpersonal conflict, workplace ostracism, and displaced aggression&quot;. Journal of Managerial Psychology, Vol. 40 No. 1 pp. 67–81, doi: https://doi.org/10.1108/JMP-12-2023-0768

Li, Y., &amp; Wang, S. (2023). &quot;Comparisons are Odious&quot;? - Exploring the Dual Effect of Upward Social Comparison on Workplace Coping Behaviors of Temporary Agency Workers. Psychology research and behavior management, 16, 4251–4265. https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S425946

Liu, H., Geng, J., &amp; Yao, P. (2021). Relationship of Leadership and Envy: How to Resolve Workplace Envy with Leadership-A Bibliometric Review Study. Journal of Intelligence, 9(3), 44. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence9030044

Nakai, A. and Numazaki, M. (2026), The Emotional Nature of Malicious and Benign Envy: Separate Measurements for Emotion and Motivation. Jpn Psychol Res. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpr.12568

Polat, Ş, Yeşil, A. &amp; Afşar Doğrusöz, L. (2024) The relationship between self-efficacy, malicious or benign envy in nurses: A cross-sectional study. International Nursing Review, 71, 832–840. https://doi.org/10.1111/inr.12925

Song, Y., &amp; Zhao, Z. (2022). Social Undermining and Interpersonal Rumination among Employees: The Mediating Role of Being the Subject of Envy and the Moderating Role of Social Support. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8419. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148419

Su, X., &amp; Chen, C. (2023). The Influence of Workplace Envy on Employees’ Knowledge-Hiding Behavior Based on a Comparative Analysis between Generation Cohorts. Behavioral Sciences, 13(9), 716. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs13090716

Walter CE, Au-Yong-Oliveira M (2022), &quot;An exploratory study on the barriers to innovative behavior: the spiteful effect of envy&quot;. Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol. 35 No. 6 pp. 936–960, https://doi.org/10.1108/JOCM-02-2022-0034

Wilkes, D. (2023) Workplace Envy: Exploring the Effect of Envy on Team Communication and Organizational Information Sharing. Open Journal of Business and Management, 11, 1757-1786. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojbm.2023.114099

Yang C and Tang R (2021) Validating the “Two Faces” of Envy: The Effect of Self-Control. Front. Psychol. 12:731451. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.731451

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
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* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
The following links provide further background and context to support this book chapter:
* [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/NwGMsgB9mNg Envy: The Ugliest Emotion? Find out the Truth!] (YouTube)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1f9IE3CkB4s How to Stop Comparing Yourself to Others] (YouTube)
* https://www.ted.com/talks/worklife_with_adam_grant_become_friends_with_your_rivals (TedTalk)
* [https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-good-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/ https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-goo-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/] (TedTalk)
* [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/3g0lRfiAXzc Why Workplace Envy Is Secretly Power ? - YouTube] (YouTube)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
&lt;references /&gt;{{DEFAULTSORT:https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2026/Envy_in_the_workplace#Role_of_envy_in_the_workplace}}</text>
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__TOC__

=== Overview ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Zonaspace-coworking-collaboration.jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 1'''. Envy can occur in any workplace.]]

;Case study
Jillian and Anna work for the same consulting firm and are at the same level. Jillian recently completed a project that received recognition from senior leaders and she continues to be praised about it. Anna and Jillian get along well, although Anna has started feeling resentful towards Jillian (see Figure 1). 

Anna recently asked Jillian about the project and what tools she used that could possibly assist with her projects. Jillian mentioned she completed a project management course that really changed the way she approaches projects to ensure all milestones are delivered on time and on budget. 

Anna enrols in the same project management course immediately. This is an example of benign envy. By feeling envy towards Jillian, it has motivated Anna to take action to improve herself. With Anna developing her project management skills, this will impact the team and consulting firm in a positive way encouraging extraordinary results. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

[[wikipedia:Envy|Envy]] is a powerful [[emotion]] that drives different behaviours (Yang &amp; Tang, 2021). It can be described as the bitterness or anger you feel when others receive what you deeply or unconsciously desire. In many workplaces, it is human nature for an individual to measure and compare themselves to those that are being recognised or seem more valued than they are. These [[wikipedia:Comparison|comparisons]] can trigger workplace envy, especially when someone feels they are inferior to others. According to Duffy et al (2021), over the last 25 years, there has been growing interest in the [[wikipedia:Phenomenon|phenomenon]] of workplace envy. While every [[wikipedia:Workplace|workplace]] is filled with opportunities for competition and self-comparison, Liu et al (2021), stated it was important to consider the environmental influences and historical timing when looking at workplace envy due to this area of research constantly [[wiktionary:evolving|evolving]].  

Workplace envy is a common emotion that occurs across a variety of workplace situations although experiences can vary in intensity and frequency and can transform into behavioural reactions. In a competitive work environment, it can affect all levels of the organisation although, when left to manifest, it can tarnish collaboration and disrupt performance overall. 

This book chapter describes workplace envy, details the different types of workplace envy, its link to [[wikipedia:Motivation|motivation]], its relationship to [[wikipedia:Self-efficacy|self-efficacy]] and [[wikipedia:Social_comparison_theory|social comparison theory]] and discusses the role it plays in [[wikipedia:Work_behavior|workplace behaviour]]. 

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* What is the role of envy in the workplace?
* What is the difference between malicious envy and benign envy? 
* What causes envy and how is it linked to motivation?
* What is the relationship between envy and self-efficacy?
* What is the relationship between envy and social comparison theory?


{{RoundBoxBottom}}
== Role of envy in the workplace ==

There are many causes of envy in the workplace. It can emerge when an employee notices that a colleague has achieved something they desire, such as recognition, a reward, a promotion or an opportunity. It can also occur in any workplace where employees constantly compare their performance or progress to those around them, these comparisons can easily activate feelings of envy.   

Through guidance, leadership and intervention, envy can be used as a workplace 'tool' to drive positive behaviour (Liu et al, 2021). However, it can also lead to people copying or supporting a boss's negative behaviour and cause )to be left out or ignored. It also reduces people's willingness to share new ideas or be innovative (Walter et al, 2022).   

'''How leadership can help'''  

When envy is high, innovation drops because employees may hold back their ideas or leave the organisation entirely. This means that leadership need to understand how envy works and learn how to manage negative emotions within their teams. By doing this, they can create a healthy work environment for innovation to grow which will in turn have a positive effect on team culture (Walter et al, 2022).   
== Benign versus malicious envy ==
Workplace envy can be either benign or malicious. Even though they both start with the same feeling of inferiority, they can lead to different reactions (Crusius et al, 2021). Benign envy creates an urge for people to grow while malicious envy leads to negative thoughts or actions that aims to bring a person down (see Table 1).  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Scenario:'''

Jon and Sam have worked together for a long time. They both applied for a promotion within the team recently, Jon was successful and Sam missed out. 

Since then, Sam has started treating Jon unfairly. In meetings, Sam makes negative comments about Jon's ideas. During team lunches, Sam leaves Jon out on purpose. Each day, Sam's behaviour becomes more unfriendly and hurtful.

This is an example of malicious envy. Sam is feeling envious of Jon and is trying to harm and put him down. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}The following table outlines the difference between benign and malicious envy in the workplace.

'''Table 1.'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!
! Benign Envy
! Malicious Envy
|-
| Definition
| Envy that motivates self‑improvement.
| Envy that manifests when someone feels threatened or unable to match another’s achievements.
|-
| Emotional Response
| Encourages growth, motivation and learning.
| Creates feelings of resentment, threat, or inferiority.
|-
| Typical Behaviours
| Working harder, learning new skills, seeking growth or development opportunities.
| Exclusion, gossip, criticism or subtle sabotage.
|-
| Impact on Workplace Culture
| Strengthens workplace culture through healthy competition and personal development.
| Damages trust, teamwork, morale, and can escalate into workplace conflict and create a toxic culture.
|-
| Outcome
| Positive: supports improvement and collaboration.
| Negative: undermines relationships and workplace functioning.
|}

'''Quiz questions.''' Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Benign envy is associated with positive emotions and encourages positive behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Malicious envy is associated with negative emotions and encourages negative behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Relationship between envy and motivation? ==
Workplace envy shapes motivation in positive and negative ways (see Figure 2). Instead of motivating improvement, envy can move towards an unethical or toxic behaviour to close the status gap.      

==== Benign envy and motivation ====

==== Malicious envy and motivation ====
Malicious envy can reduce motivation and lead to harmful behaviour. Instead of focusing on self-improvement, the envier will try to undermine the person being envied or boost themselves by cheating or creating dysfunctional patterns that affect motivation and workplace relationships (Lange et al, 2018). 

==== Loss of motivation due to being envied ====
[[File:Happy-smiley-face-and-sad-2048x1536.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Envy can motivate positive or negative behaviour in the workplace.|200x200px]]
People who feel they are being envied in the workplace often experience emotions of anger, guilt or anxiety (Koksalet et al, 2026). These feelings can affect their motivation. Because they sense others are comparing themselves to them, they may appear to hide or lay low around the workplace. This can lead to reduced motivation or effort as they try to avoid negative attention. This drop in motivation is a coping strategy to avoid being targeted in the workplace. 


'''Table 2.''' The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model showing the relationship between envy and motivation:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Motivation to improve
(benign envy) 
| Blind spot: Fear based motivation noticed 
by others but not yourself (applies to malicious envy)
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Fear of failure
(malicious envy) 
| Hidden motivation (benign envy)
|}

== Behaviours caused by self-efficacy? ==
Self-efficacy is the mental switch that determines whether envy will lead to a positive or negative behaviour. It is the belief that someone will be able to handle challenges within the workplace when faced with envy (Ayden and .

==== High self-efficacy ====
If an employee has high self-efficacy, they will cope better with workplace envy. They compare themselves upwards and are then motivated to be more like the person they are envious of. 

==== Low self-efficacy ====

If an employee has low self-efficacy, they will be negatively affected by workplace envy. Downward comparison becomes a better coping strategy for them, which leads to negative behaviours such as bringing someone down or spreading rumours to make them feel better about themselves.

'''Quiz questions.''' Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{What is a common sign of low self-efficacy?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Avoiding tasks because you expect to fail
- Feeling confident you can handle new challenges

{What is a common sign of high self-efficacy?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Avoiding tasks because they appear too hard
+ Confidence in handling challenges
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Relationship between workplace envy and social comparison theory? ==
Social comparison theory explains why individuals tend to compare their opinions and abilities to others which affects how they feel and behave (Han et al, 2022). Feeling threatened in the workplace makes people judge themselves more harshly as they believe they cannot match their colleague's social status or success.

==== Upward comparison ====
Comparing yourself to someone who appears more skilled, more successful or performing at a higher level. By comparing yourself upward to someone can either motivate you develop yourself or can create feelings of envy, stress or pressure when the gap between one employee and another seems unachievable. 

==== Downward comparison ====
Comparing yourself to someone who seems worse off than you, less skilled or less struggling can boost your confidence in the workplace by providing reassurance. It can also foster a delusion or false sense of security.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Call center (8300442093).jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 3'''. Social Comparison Theory at play in a Call Centre.]]

;Case study
At ReadyCall, everyone's daily call numbers are recorded on a big screen. Ebony is new and she keeps comparing herself to Rick, a senior worker who always has the highest call numbers. Seeing the gap makes Ebony feel stressed and worried she isn't good enough.

Ebony's manager explains that Rick learned his skills over many years and wasn't fast when he first started. After hearing this, Ebony feels better, learns some tips from Rick, and becomes more confident.

This is an example of social comparison theory, where people judge themselves by comparing their performance to others (see Figure 4). 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
'''Quiz questions.''' Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{What type of social comparison theory is Ebony experiencing?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Upward comparison
- Downward comparison


&lt;/quiz&gt;
;
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}

==Conclusion==
Envy plays a significant role in shaping workplace behaviour because employees constantly observe and compare their progress and recognition and opportunities of those around them. These comparisons can trigger envy which is not just a negative emotion but a complex psychological response influenced by self-efficacy, motivation and social comparison processes. These comparisons highlight an individual's insecurities, making envy an important emotional signal rather than a something negative. When employees feel capable of improving themselves, workplace envy becomes a constructive force that encourages learning, effort and healthy competition. However, workplace envy can also shift into a harmful direction when employees feel threatened, insecure or unable to achieve similar success. In these situations, workplace envy may lead to resentment, withdrawal or undermining behaviour which can disrupt teamwork or damage workplace relationships. By understanding these dynamics, workplaces can respond carefully and recognise the important role envy plays in fostering growth. fairness and healthier interpersonal relationships that will effectively create a positive working culture.
{{tip|Take-home messages:
* Not all workplace envy is negative.
* Envy is an important catalyst for change if driven in a positive way.
* Envy can motivate staff in a constructive way.
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* Envy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2011/Envy|title=Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Envy - Wikiversity|website=en.wikiversity.org|language=en|access-date=2026-08-25}}&lt;/ref&gt; (Book Chapter, 2011) {{ic|See Tutorial 2 for how to create an internal link to a book chapter)
* Jealousy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=|title=|website=|language=|access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt; is not the same as envy (Book Chapter, 2013)
* [[Self-Efficacy]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Aggression in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Aggression in the workplace - Wikiversity]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rivalry in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rivalry in the workplace - Wikiversity]]

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Aydın, G., &amp; Bozkurt, S. (2022). Research on the Role of Self-Efficacy in the Effect of Workplace Envy on Intention to Quit. Istanbul Business Research, 51(2), 627-642. https://doi.org/10.26650/ibr.2022.51.1062932

Crusius J., Thierhoff J., Lange J. (2021). Dispositional greed predicts benign and malicious envy. Personality and Individual Differences, 168, 110361. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110361

Dong, Xue T., Yang W. Chung, Joon H. Park, and Jeong K. Yun. 2026. “Workplace Envy and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour: The Mediating Effect of Cynicism and the Moderating Effect of Organizational Support.” Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences / Revue Canadienne des Sciences de l'Administration: e70020. https://doi.org/10.1002/cjas.70020.

Duffy, M. K., Lee, K., &amp; Adair, E. A. (2021). Workplace envy. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 8, 19–44. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012420-055746

Erdil O., Müceldili B. (2014). The effects of envy on job engagement and turnover intention. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 150(1), 447–454. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.09.050

Han, S., Zhan, Y., Zhang, L., &amp; Mu, R. (2022). You Have Received More Help than I Did and I Envy You: A Social Comparison Perspective on Receiving Help in the Team. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8351. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148351

Köksal, K., Tufan, C., Griffiths, M.D. et al. From perceived workplace envy to deviance: a multi-theoretical model of envy-related workplace behaviors and the moderating role of social courage. Curr Psychol 45, 1052 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-026-09607-3

Lange, J., Paulhus, D. L., &amp; Crusius, J. (2018). Elucidating the Dark Side of Envy: Distinctive Links of Benign and Malicious Envy With Dark Personalities. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 44(4), 601-614. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167217746340

Li M., Xu X., Kwan H. K. (2021). The antecedents and consequences of workplace envy: A meta-analytic review. Asia Pacific Journal of Management. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10490-021-09772-y

Li M, Qin Y, Le J (2025), &quot;Mentoring matters: decoding the impact of downward envy on interpersonal conflict, workplace ostracism, and displaced aggression&quot;. Journal of Managerial Psychology, Vol. 40 No. 1 pp. 67–81, doi: https://doi.org/10.1108/JMP-12-2023-0768

Li, Y., &amp; Wang, S. (2023). &quot;Comparisons are Odious&quot;? - Exploring the Dual Effect of Upward Social Comparison on Workplace Coping Behaviors of Temporary Agency Workers. Psychology research and behavior management, 16, 4251–4265. https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S425946

Liu, H., Geng, J., &amp; Yao, P. (2021). Relationship of Leadership and Envy: How to Resolve Workplace Envy with Leadership-A Bibliometric Review Study. Journal of Intelligence, 9(3), 44. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence9030044

Nakai, A. and Numazaki, M. (2026), The Emotional Nature of Malicious and Benign Envy: Separate Measurements for Emotion and Motivation. Jpn Psychol Res. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpr.12568

Polat, Ş, Yeşil, A. &amp; Afşar Doğrusöz, L. (2024) The relationship between self-efficacy, malicious or benign envy in nurses: A cross-sectional study. International Nursing Review, 71, 832–840. https://doi.org/10.1111/inr.12925

Song, Y., &amp; Zhao, Z. (2022). Social Undermining and Interpersonal Rumination among Employees: The Mediating Role of Being the Subject of Envy and the Moderating Role of Social Support. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8419. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148419

Su, X., &amp; Chen, C. (2023). The Influence of Workplace Envy on Employees’ Knowledge-Hiding Behavior Based on a Comparative Analysis between Generation Cohorts. Behavioral Sciences, 13(9), 716. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs13090716

Walter CE, Au-Yong-Oliveira M (2022), &quot;An exploratory study on the barriers to innovative behavior: the spiteful effect of envy&quot;. Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol. 35 No. 6 pp. 936–960, https://doi.org/10.1108/JOCM-02-2022-0034

Wilkes, D. (2023) Workplace Envy: Exploring the Effect of Envy on Team Communication and Organizational Information Sharing. Open Journal of Business and Management, 11, 1757-1786. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojbm.2023.114099

Yang C and Tang R (2021) Validating the “Two Faces” of Envy: The Effect of Self-Control. Front. Psychol. 12:731451. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.731451

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
The following links provide further background and context to support this book chapter:
* [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/NwGMsgB9mNg Envy: The Ugliest Emotion? Find out the Truth!] (YouTube)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1f9IE3CkB4s How to Stop Comparing Yourself to Others] (YouTube)
* https://www.ted.com/talks/worklife_with_adam_grant_become_friends_with_your_rivals (TedTalk)
* [https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-good-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/ https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-goo-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/] (TedTalk)
* [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/3g0lRfiAXzc Why Workplace Envy Is Secretly Power ? - YouTube] (YouTube)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
&lt;references /&gt;{{DEFAULTSORT:https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2026/Envy_in_the_workplace#Role_of_envy_in_the_workplace}}</text>
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__TOC__

=== Overview ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Zonaspace-coworking-collaboration.jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 1'''. Envy can occur in any workplace.]]

;Case study
Jillian and Anna work for the same consulting firm and are at the same level. Jillian recently completed a project that received recognition from senior leaders and she continues to be praised about it. Anna and Jillian get along well, although Anna has started feeling resentful towards Jillian (see Figure 1). 

Anna recently asked Jillian about the project and what tools she used that could possibly assist with her projects. Jillian mentioned she completed a project management course that really changed the way she approaches projects to ensure all milestones are delivered on time and on budget. 

Anna enrols in the same project management course immediately. This is an example of benign envy. By feeling envy towards Jillian, it has motivated Anna to take action to improve herself. With Anna developing her project management skills, this will impact the team and consulting firm in a positive way encouraging extraordinary results. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

[[wikipedia:Envy|Envy]] is a powerful [[emotion]] that drives different behaviours (Yang &amp; Tang, 2021). It can be described as the bitterness or anger you feel when others receive what you deeply or unconsciously desire. In many workplaces, it is human nature for an individual to measure and compare themselves to those that are being recognised or seem more valued than they are. These [[wikipedia:Comparison|comparisons]] can trigger workplace envy, especially when someone feels they are inferior to others. According to Duffy et al (2021), over the last 25 years, there has been growing interest in the [[wikipedia:Phenomenon|phenomenon]] of workplace envy. While every [[wikipedia:Workplace|workplace]] is filled with opportunities for competition and self-comparison, Liu et al (2021), stated it was important to consider the environmental influences and historical timing when looking at workplace envy due to this area of research constantly [[wiktionary:evolving|evolving]].  

Workplace envy is a common emotion that occurs across a variety of workplace situations although experiences can vary in intensity and frequency and can transform into behavioural reactions. In a competitive work environment, it can affect all levels of the organisation although, when left to manifest, it can tarnish collaboration and disrupt performance overall. 

This book chapter describes workplace envy, details the different types of workplace envy, its link to [[wikipedia:Motivation|motivation]], its relationship to [[wikipedia:Self-efficacy|self-efficacy]] and [[wikipedia:Social_comparison_theory|social comparison theory]] and discusses the role it plays in [[wikipedia:Work_behavior|workplace behaviour]]. 

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* What is the role of envy in the workplace?
* What is the difference between malicious envy and benign envy? 
* What causes envy and how is it linked to motivation?
* What is the relationship between envy and self-efficacy?
* What is the relationship between envy and social comparison theory?


{{RoundBoxBottom}}
== Role of envy in the workplace ==

There are many causes of envy in the workplace. It can emerge when an employee notices that a colleague has achieved something they desire, such as recognition, a reward, a promotion or an opportunity. It can also occur in any workplace where employees constantly compare their performance or progress to those around them, these comparisons can easily activate feelings of envy.   

Through guidance, leadership and intervention, envy can be used as a workplace 'tool' to drive [[wikipedia:Positive_psychology|positive]] behaviour (Liu et al, 2021). However, it can also lead to people copying or supporting a boss's [[wikipedia:Negative_affectivity|negative]] behaviour and cause )to be left out or ignored. It also reduces people's willingness to share new ideas or be innovative (Walter et al, 2022).   

'''How leadership can help'''  

When envy is high, innovation drops because employees may hold back their ideas or leave the organisation entirely. It is important for leadership to understand how envy works and learn how to manage negative emotions within their teams. By doing this, they can create a healthy work environment for innovation to grow which will in turn have a positive effect on team culture (Walter et al, 2022).   
== Benign versus malicious envy ==
Workplace envy can be either [https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benign benign] or [[wikipedia:Spite_(sentiment)|malicious.]] Even though they both start with the same feeling of [[wiktionary:inferior#English|inferiority]], they can lead to different reactions (Crusius et al, 2021). Benign envy creates an urge for people to grow while malicious envy leads to negative thoughts or actions that aims to bring a person down (see Table 1).  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Scenario:'''

Jon and Sam have worked together for a long time. They both applied for a promotion within the team recently, Jon was successful and Sam missed out. 

Since then, Sam has started treating Jon unfairly. In meetings, Sam makes negative comments about Jon's ideas. During team lunches, Sam leaves Jon out on purpose. Each day, Sam's behaviour becomes more unfriendly and hurtful.

This is an example of malicious envy. Sam is feeling envious of Jon and is trying to harm and put him down. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}The following table outlines the difference between benign and malicious envy in the workplace.

'''Table 1.'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!
! Benign Envy
! Malicious Envy
|-
| Definition
| Envy that motivates self‑improvement.
| Envy that manifests when someone feels threatened or unable to match another’s achievements.
|-
| Emotional Response
| Encourages growth, motivation and learning.
| Creates feelings of resentment, threat, or inferiority.
|-
| Typical Behaviours
| Working harder, learning new skills, seeking growth or development opportunities.
| Exclusion, gossip, criticism or subtle sabotage.
|-
| Impact on Workplace Culture
| Strengthens workplace culture through healthy competition and personal development.
| Damages trust, teamwork, morale, and can escalate into workplace conflict and create a toxic culture.
|-
| Outcome
| Positive: supports improvement and collaboration.
| Negative: undermines relationships and workplace functioning.
|}

'''Quiz questions.''' Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Benign envy is associated with positive emotions and encourages positive behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Malicious envy is associated with negative emotions and encourages negative behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Relationship between envy and motivation? ==
Workplace envy shapes motivation in positive and negative ways (see Figure 2). Instead of motivating improvement, envy can move towards an unethical or toxic behaviour to close the status gap.      

==== Benign envy and motivation ====

==== Malicious envy and motivation ====
Malicious envy can reduce motivation and lead to harmful behaviour. Instead of focusing on self-improvement, the envier will try to undermine the person being envied or boost themselves by cheating or creating dysfunctional patterns that affect motivation and workplace relationships (Lange et al, 2018). 

==== Loss of motivation due to being envied ====
[[File:Happy-smiley-face-and-sad-2048x1536.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Envy can motivate positive or negative behaviour in the workplace.|200x200px]]
People who feel they are being envied in the workplace often experience emotions of anger, guilt or anxiety (Koksalet et al, 2026). These feelings can affect their motivation. Because they sense others are comparing themselves to them, they may appear to hide or lay low around the workplace. This can lead to reduced motivation or effort as they try to avoid negative attention. This drop in motivation is a coping strategy to avoid being targeted in the workplace. 


'''Table 2.''' The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model showing the relationship between envy and motivation:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Motivation to improve
(benign envy) 
| Blind spot: Fear based motivation noticed 
by others but not yourself (applies to malicious envy)
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Fear of failure
(malicious envy) 
| Hidden motivation (benign envy)
|}

== Behaviours caused by self-efficacy? ==
Self-efficacy is the mental switch that determines whether envy will lead to a positive or negative behaviour. It is the belief that someone will be able to handle challenges within the workplace when faced with envy (Ayden and .

==== High self-efficacy ====
If an employee has high self-efficacy, they will cope better with workplace envy. They compare themselves upwards and are then motivated to be more like the person they are envious of. 

==== Low self-efficacy ====

If an employee has low self-efficacy, they will be negatively affected by workplace envy. Downward comparison becomes a better coping strategy for them, which leads to negative behaviours such as bringing someone down or spreading rumours to make them feel better about themselves.

'''Quiz questions.''' Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{What is a common sign of low self-efficacy?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Avoiding tasks because you expect to fail
- Feeling confident you can handle new challenges

{What is a common sign of high self-efficacy?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Avoiding tasks because they appear too hard
+ Confidence in handling challenges
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Relationship between workplace envy and social comparison theory? ==
Social comparison theory explains why individuals tend to compare their opinions and abilities to others which affects how they feel and behave (Han et al, 2022). Feeling threatened in the workplace makes people judge themselves more harshly as they believe they cannot match their colleague's social status or success.

==== Upward comparison ====
Comparing yourself to someone who appears more skilled, more successful or performing at a higher level. By comparing yourself upward to someone can either motivate you develop yourself or can create feelings of envy, stress or pressure when the gap between one employee and another seems unachievable. 

==== Downward comparison ====
Comparing yourself to someone who seems worse off than you, less skilled or less struggling can boost your confidence in the workplace by providing reassurance. It can also foster a delusion or false sense of security.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Call center (8300442093).jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 3'''. Social Comparison Theory at play in a Call Centre.]]

;Case study
At ReadyCall, everyone's daily call numbers are recorded on a big screen. Ebony is new and she keeps comparing herself to Rick, a senior worker who always has the highest call numbers. Seeing the gap makes Ebony feel stressed and worried she isn't good enough.

Ebony's manager explains that Rick learned his skills over many years and wasn't fast when he first started. After hearing this, Ebony feels better, learns some tips from Rick, and becomes more confident.

This is an example of social comparison theory, where people judge themselves by comparing their performance to others (see Figure 4). 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
'''Quiz questions.''' Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{What type of social comparison theory is Ebony experiencing?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Upward comparison
- Downward comparison


&lt;/quiz&gt;
;
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}

==Conclusion==
Envy plays a significant role in shaping workplace behaviour because employees constantly observe and compare their progress and recognition and opportunities of those around them. These comparisons can trigger envy which is not just a negative emotion but a complex psychological response influenced by self-efficacy, motivation and social comparison processes. These comparisons highlight an individual's insecurities, making envy an important emotional signal rather than a something negative. When employees feel capable of improving themselves, workplace envy becomes a constructive force that encourages learning, effort and healthy competition. However, workplace envy can also shift into a harmful direction when employees feel threatened, insecure or unable to achieve similar success. In these situations, workplace envy may lead to resentment, withdrawal or undermining behaviour which can disrupt teamwork or damage workplace relationships. By understanding these dynamics, workplaces can respond carefully and recognise the important role envy plays in fostering growth. fairness and healthier interpersonal relationships that will effectively create a positive working culture.
{{tip|Take-home messages:
* Not all workplace envy is negative.
* Envy is an important catalyst for change if driven in a positive way.
* Envy can motivate staff in a constructive way.
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* Envy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2011/Envy|title=Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Envy - Wikiversity|website=en.wikiversity.org|language=en|access-date=2026-08-25}}&lt;/ref&gt; (Book Chapter, 2011) {{ic|See Tutorial 2 for how to create an internal link to a book chapter)
* Jealousy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=|title=|website=|language=|access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt; is not the same as envy (Book Chapter, 2013)
* [[Self-Efficacy]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Aggression in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Aggression in the workplace - Wikiversity]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rivalry in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rivalry in the workplace - Wikiversity]]

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Aydın, G., &amp; Bozkurt, S. (2022). Research on the Role of Self-Efficacy in the Effect of Workplace Envy on Intention to Quit. Istanbul Business Research, 51(2), 627-642. https://doi.org/10.26650/ibr.2022.51.1062932

Crusius J., Thierhoff J., Lange J. (2021). Dispositional greed predicts benign and malicious envy. Personality and Individual Differences, 168, 110361. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110361

Dong, Xue T., Yang W. Chung, Joon H. Park, and Jeong K. Yun. 2026. “Workplace Envy and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour: The Mediating Effect of Cynicism and the Moderating Effect of Organizational Support.” Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences / Revue Canadienne des Sciences de l'Administration: e70020. https://doi.org/10.1002/cjas.70020.

Duffy, M. K., Lee, K., &amp; Adair, E. A. (2021). Workplace envy. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 8, 19–44. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012420-055746

Erdil O., Müceldili B. (2014). The effects of envy on job engagement and turnover intention. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 150(1), 447–454. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.09.050

Han, S., Zhan, Y., Zhang, L., &amp; Mu, R. (2022). You Have Received More Help than I Did and I Envy You: A Social Comparison Perspective on Receiving Help in the Team. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8351. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148351

Köksal, K., Tufan, C., Griffiths, M.D. et al. From perceived workplace envy to deviance: a multi-theoretical model of envy-related workplace behaviors and the moderating role of social courage. Curr Psychol 45, 1052 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-026-09607-3

Lange, J., Paulhus, D. L., &amp; Crusius, J. (2018). Elucidating the Dark Side of Envy: Distinctive Links of Benign and Malicious Envy With Dark Personalities. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 44(4), 601-614. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167217746340

Li M., Xu X., Kwan H. K. (2021). The antecedents and consequences of workplace envy: A meta-analytic review. Asia Pacific Journal of Management. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10490-021-09772-y

Li M, Qin Y, Le J (2025), &quot;Mentoring matters: decoding the impact of downward envy on interpersonal conflict, workplace ostracism, and displaced aggression&quot;. Journal of Managerial Psychology, Vol. 40 No. 1 pp. 67–81, doi: https://doi.org/10.1108/JMP-12-2023-0768

Li, Y., &amp; Wang, S. (2023). &quot;Comparisons are Odious&quot;? - Exploring the Dual Effect of Upward Social Comparison on Workplace Coping Behaviors of Temporary Agency Workers. Psychology research and behavior management, 16, 4251–4265. https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S425946

Liu, H., Geng, J., &amp; Yao, P. (2021). Relationship of Leadership and Envy: How to Resolve Workplace Envy with Leadership-A Bibliometric Review Study. Journal of Intelligence, 9(3), 44. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence9030044

Nakai, A. and Numazaki, M. (2026), The Emotional Nature of Malicious and Benign Envy: Separate Measurements for Emotion and Motivation. Jpn Psychol Res. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpr.12568

Polat, Ş, Yeşil, A. &amp; Afşar Doğrusöz, L. (2024) The relationship between self-efficacy, malicious or benign envy in nurses: A cross-sectional study. International Nursing Review, 71, 832–840. https://doi.org/10.1111/inr.12925

Song, Y., &amp; Zhao, Z. (2022). Social Undermining and Interpersonal Rumination among Employees: The Mediating Role of Being the Subject of Envy and the Moderating Role of Social Support. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8419. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148419

Su, X., &amp; Chen, C. (2023). The Influence of Workplace Envy on Employees’ Knowledge-Hiding Behavior Based on a Comparative Analysis between Generation Cohorts. Behavioral Sciences, 13(9), 716. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs13090716

Walter CE, Au-Yong-Oliveira M (2022), &quot;An exploratory study on the barriers to innovative behavior: the spiteful effect of envy&quot;. Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol. 35 No. 6 pp. 936–960, https://doi.org/10.1108/JOCM-02-2022-0034

Wilkes, D. (2023) Workplace Envy: Exploring the Effect of Envy on Team Communication and Organizational Information Sharing. Open Journal of Business and Management, 11, 1757-1786. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojbm.2023.114099

Yang C and Tang R (2021) Validating the “Two Faces” of Envy: The Effect of Self-Control. Front. Psychol. 12:731451. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.731451

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
The following links provide further background and context to support this book chapter:
* [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/NwGMsgB9mNg Envy: The Ugliest Emotion? Find out the Truth!] (YouTube)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1f9IE3CkB4s How to Stop Comparing Yourself to Others] (YouTube)
* https://www.ted.com/talks/worklife_with_adam_grant_become_friends_with_your_rivals (TedTalk)
* [https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-good-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/ https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-goo-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/] (TedTalk)
* [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/3g0lRfiAXzc Why Workplace Envy Is Secretly Power ? - YouTube] (YouTube)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
&lt;references /&gt;{{DEFAULTSORT:https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2026/Envy_in_the_workplace#Role_of_envy_in_the_workplace}}</text>
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__TOC__

=== Overview ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Zonaspace-coworking-collaboration.jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 1'''. Envy can occur in any workplace.]]

;Case study
Jillian and Anna work for the same consulting firm and are at the same level. Jillian recently completed a project that received recognition from senior leaders and she continues to be praised about it. Anna and Jillian get along well, although Anna has started feeling resentful towards Jillian (see Figure 1). 

Anna recently asked Jillian about the project and what tools she used that could possibly assist with her projects. Jillian mentioned she completed a project management course that really changed the way she approaches projects to ensure all milestones are delivered on time and on budget. 

Anna enrols in the same project management course immediately. This is an example of benign envy. By feeling envy towards Jillian, it has motivated Anna to take action to improve herself. With Anna developing her project management skills, this will impact the team and consulting firm in a positive way encouraging extraordinary results. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

[[wikipedia:Envy|Envy]] is a powerful [[emotion]] that drives different behaviours (Yang &amp; Tang, 2021). It can be described as the bitterness or anger you feel when others receive what you deeply or unconsciously desire. In many workplaces, it is human nature for an individual to measure and compare themselves to those that are being recognised or seem more valued than they are. These [[wikipedia:Comparison|comparisons]] can trigger workplace envy, especially when someone feels they are inferior to others. According to Duffy et al (2021), over the last 25 years, there has been growing interest in the [[wikipedia:Phenomenon|phenomenon]] of workplace envy. While every [[wikipedia:Workplace|workplace]] is filled with opportunities for competition and self-comparison, Liu et al (2021), stated it was important to consider the environmental influences and historical timing when looking at workplace envy due to this area of research constantly [[wiktionary:evolving|evolving]].  

Workplace envy is a common emotion that occurs across a variety of workplace situations although experiences can vary in intensity and frequency and can transform into behavioural reactions. In a competitive work environment, it can affect all levels of the organisation although, when left to manifest, it can tarnish collaboration and disrupt performance overall. 

This book chapter describes workplace envy, details the different types of workplace envy, its link to [[wikipedia:Motivation|motivation]], its relationship to [[wikipedia:Self-efficacy|self-efficacy]] and [[wikipedia:Social_comparison_theory|social comparison theory]] and discusses the role it plays in [[wikipedia:Work_behavior|workplace behaviour]]. 

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* What is the role of envy in the workplace?
* What is the difference between malicious envy and benign envy? 
* What causes envy and how is it linked to motivation?
* What is the relationship between envy and self-efficacy?
* What is the relationship between envy and social comparison theory?


{{RoundBoxBottom}}
== Role of envy in the workplace ==

There are many causes of envy in the workplace. It can emerge when an employee notices that a colleague has achieved something they desire, such as recognition, a reward, a promotion or an opportunity. It can also occur in any workplace where employees constantly compare their performance or progress to those around them, these comparisons can easily activate feelings of envy.   

Through guidance, leadership and intervention, envy can be used as a workplace 'tool' to drive [[wikipedia:Positive_psychology|positive]] behaviour (Liu et al, 2021). However, it can also lead to people copying or supporting a boss's [[wikipedia:Negative_affectivity|negative]] behaviour and cause )to be left out or ignored. It also reduces people's willingness to share new ideas or be innovative (Walter et al, 2022).   

'''How leadership can help'''  

When envy is high, innovation drops because employees may hold back their ideas or leave the organisation entirely. It is important for leadership to understand how envy works and learn how to manage negative emotions within their teams. By doing this, they can create a healthy work environment for innovation to grow which will in turn have a positive effect on team culture (Walter et al, 2022).   
== Benign versus malicious envy ==
Workplace envy can be either [https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benign benign] or [[wikipedia:Spite_(sentiment)|malicious.]] Even though they both start with the same feeling of [[wiktionary:inferior#English|inferiority]], they can lead to different reactions (Crusius et al, 2021). Benign envy creates an urge for people to grow while malicious envy leads to negative thoughts or actions that aims to bring a person down (see Table 1).  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Scenario:'''

Jon and Sam have worked together for a long time. They both applied for a promotion within the team recently, Jon was successful and Sam missed out. 

Since then, Sam has started treating Jon unfairly. In meetings, Sam makes negative comments about Jon's ideas. During team lunches, Sam leaves Jon out on purpose. Each day, Sam's behaviour becomes more unfriendly and hurtful.

This is an example of malicious envy. Sam is feeling envious of Jon and is trying to harm and put him down. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}The following table outlines the difference between benign and malicious envy in the workplace.

'''Table 1.'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!
! Benign Envy
! Malicious Envy
|-
| Definition
| Envy that motivates self‑improvement.
| Envy that manifests when someone feels threatened or unable to match another’s achievements.
|-
| Emotional Response
| Encourages growth, motivation and learning.
| Creates feelings of resentment, threat, or inferiority.
|-
| Typical Behaviours
| Working harder, learning new skills, seeking growth or development opportunities.
| Exclusion, gossip, criticism or subtle sabotage.
|-
| Impact on Workplace Culture
| Strengthens workplace culture through healthy competition and personal development.
| Damages trust, teamwork, morale, and can escalate into workplace conflict and create a toxic culture.
|-
| Outcome
| Positive: supports improvement and collaboration.
| Negative: undermines relationships and workplace functioning.
|}

'''Quiz questions.''' Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Benign envy is associated with positive emotions and encourages positive behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Malicious envy is associated with negative emotions and encourages negative behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Relationship between envy and motivation? ==
Workplace envy shapes motivation in positive and negative ways (see Figure 2). Instead of motivating improvement, envy can move towards an unethical or toxic behaviour to close the [[wikipedia:Status_attainment|status]] gap between the envied person and the envier.      

==== Benign envy and motivation ====

==== Malicious envy and motivation ====
Malicious envy can reduce motivation and lead to harmful behaviour. Instead of focusing on self-improvement, the envier will try to undermine the person being envied or boost themselves by cheating or creating dysfunctional patterns that affect motivation and workplace relationships (Lange et al, 2018). 

==== Loss of motivation due to being envied ====
[[File:Happy-smiley-face-and-sad-2048x1536.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Envy can motivate positive or negative behaviour in the workplace.|200x200px]]
People who feel they are being envied in the workplace often experience emotions of anger, guilt or anxiety (Koksalet et al, 2026). These feelings can affect their motivation. Because they sense others are comparing themselves to them, they may appear to hide or lay low around the workplace. This can lead to reduced motivation or effort as they try to avoid negative attention. This drop in motivation is a coping strategy to avoid being targeted in the workplace. 

'''Table 2.''' The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model showing the relationship between envy and motivation:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Motivation to improve
(benign envy) 
| Blind spot: Fear based motivation noticed 
by others but not yourself (applies to malicious envy)
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Fear of failure
(malicious envy) 
| Hidden motivation (benign envy)
|}

== Behaviours caused by self-efficacy? ==
Self-efficacy is the mental switch that determines whether envy will lead to a positive or negative behaviour. It is the belief that someone will be able to handle challenges within the workplace when faced with envy (Aydin &amp; Bozkurt, 2022).

==== High self-efficacy ====
If an employee has high self-efficacy, they will cope better with workplace envy. They compare themselves upwards and are then motivated to be more like the person they are envious of. 

==== Low self-efficacy ====

If an employee has low self-efficacy, they will be negatively affected by workplace envy. Downward comparison becomes a better coping strategy for them, which leads to negative behaviours such as bringing someone down or spreading rumours to make them feel better about themselves.

'''Quiz questions.''' Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{What is a common sign of low self-efficacy?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Avoiding tasks because you expect to fail
- Feeling confident you can handle new challenges

{What is a common sign of high self-efficacy?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Avoiding tasks because they appear too hard
+ Confidence in handling challenges
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Relationship between workplace envy and social comparison theory? ==
Social comparison theory explains why individuals tend to compare their opinions and abilities to others which affects how they feel and behave (Han et al, 2022). Feeling threatened in the workplace makes people judge themselves more harshly as they believe they cannot match their colleague's social status or success.

==== Upward comparison ====
Comparing yourself to someone who appears more skilled, more successful or performing at a higher level. By comparing yourself upward to someone can either motivate you develop yourself or can create feelings of envy, stress or pressure when the gap between one employee and another seems unachievable. 

==== Downward comparison ====
Comparing yourself to someone who seems worse off than you, less skilled or less struggling can boost your confidence in the workplace by providing reassurance. It can also foster a delusion or false sense of security.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Call center (8300442093).jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 3'''. Social Comparison Theory at play in a Call Centre.]]

;Case study
At ReadyCall, everyone's daily call numbers are recorded on a big screen. Ebony is new and she keeps comparing herself to Rick, a senior worker who always has the highest call numbers. Seeing the gap makes Ebony feel stressed and worried she isn't good enough.

Ebony's manager explains that Rick learned his skills over many years and wasn't fast when he first started. After hearing this, Ebony feels better, learns some tips from Rick, and becomes more confident.

This is an example of social comparison theory, where people judge themselves by comparing their performance to others (see Figure 4). 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}


'''Quiz questions.''' Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{What type of social comparison theory is Ebony experiencing?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Upward comparison
- Downward comparison


&lt;/quiz&gt;
;
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}

==Conclusion==
Envy plays a significant role in shaping workplace behaviour because employees constantly observe and compare their progress and recognition and opportunities of those around them. These comparisons can trigger envy which is not just a negative emotion but a complex psychological response influenced by self-efficacy, motivation and social comparison processes. These comparisons highlight an individual's insecurities, making envy an important emotional signal rather than a something negative. When employees feel capable of improving themselves, workplace envy becomes a constructive force that encourages learning, effort and healthy competition. However, workplace envy can also shift into a harmful direction when employees feel threatened, insecure or unable to achieve similar success. In these situations, workplace envy may lead to resentment, withdrawal or undermining behaviour which can disrupt teamwork or damage workplace relationships. By understanding these dynamics, workplaces can respond carefully and recognise the important role envy plays in fostering growth. fairness and healthier interpersonal relationships that will effectively create a positive working culture.
{{tip|Take-home messages:
* Not all workplace envy is negative.
* Envy is an important catalyst for change if driven in a positive way.
* Envy can motivate staff in a constructive way.
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* Envy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2011/Envy|title=Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Envy - Wikiversity|website=en.wikiversity.org|language=en|access-date=2026-08-25}}&lt;/ref&gt; (Book Chapter, 2011) {{ic|See Tutorial 2 for how to create an internal link to a book chapter)
* Jealousy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=|title=|website=|language=|access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt; is not the same as envy (Book Chapter, 2013)
* [[Self-Efficacy]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Aggression in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Aggression in the workplace - Wikiversity]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rivalry in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rivalry in the workplace - Wikiversity]]

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Aydın, G., &amp; Bozkurt, S. (2022). Research on the Role of Self-Efficacy in the Effect of Workplace Envy on Intention to Quit. Istanbul Business Research, 51(2), 627-642. https://doi.org/10.26650/ibr.2022.51.1062932

Crusius J., Thierhoff J., Lange J. (2021). Dispositional greed predicts benign and malicious envy. Personality and Individual Differences, 168, 110361. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110361

Dong, Xue T., Yang W. Chung, Joon H. Park, and Jeong K. Yun. 2026. “Workplace Envy and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour: The Mediating Effect of Cynicism and the Moderating Effect of Organizational Support.” Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences / Revue Canadienne des Sciences de l'Administration: e70020. https://doi.org/10.1002/cjas.70020.

Duffy, M. K., Lee, K., &amp; Adair, E. A. (2021). Workplace envy. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 8, 19–44. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012420-055746

Erdil O., Müceldili B. (2014). The effects of envy on job engagement and turnover intention. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 150(1), 447–454. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.09.050

Han, S., Zhan, Y., Zhang, L., &amp; Mu, R. (2022). You Have Received More Help than I Did and I Envy You: A Social Comparison Perspective on Receiving Help in the Team. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8351. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148351

Köksal, K., Tufan, C., Griffiths, M.D. et al. From perceived workplace envy to deviance: a multi-theoretical model of envy-related workplace behaviors and the moderating role of social courage. Curr Psychol 45, 1052 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-026-09607-3

Lange, J., Paulhus, D. L., &amp; Crusius, J. (2018). Elucidating the Dark Side of Envy: Distinctive Links of Benign and Malicious Envy With Dark Personalities. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 44(4), 601-614. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167217746340

Li M., Xu X., Kwan H. K. (2021). The antecedents and consequences of workplace envy: A meta-analytic review. Asia Pacific Journal of Management. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10490-021-09772-y

Li M, Qin Y, Le J (2025), &quot;Mentoring matters: decoding the impact of downward envy on interpersonal conflict, workplace ostracism, and displaced aggression&quot;. Journal of Managerial Psychology, Vol. 40 No. 1 pp. 67–81, doi: https://doi.org/10.1108/JMP-12-2023-0768

Li, Y., &amp; Wang, S. (2023). &quot;Comparisons are Odious&quot;? - Exploring the Dual Effect of Upward Social Comparison on Workplace Coping Behaviors of Temporary Agency Workers. Psychology research and behavior management, 16, 4251–4265. https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S425946

Liu, H., Geng, J., &amp; Yao, P. (2021). Relationship of Leadership and Envy: How to Resolve Workplace Envy with Leadership-A Bibliometric Review Study. Journal of Intelligence, 9(3), 44. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence9030044

Nakai, A. and Numazaki, M. (2026), The Emotional Nature of Malicious and Benign Envy: Separate Measurements for Emotion and Motivation. Jpn Psychol Res. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpr.12568

Polat, Ş, Yeşil, A. &amp; Afşar Doğrusöz, L. (2024) The relationship between self-efficacy, malicious or benign envy in nurses: A cross-sectional study. International Nursing Review, 71, 832–840. https://doi.org/10.1111/inr.12925

Song, Y., &amp; Zhao, Z. (2022). Social Undermining and Interpersonal Rumination among Employees: The Mediating Role of Being the Subject of Envy and the Moderating Role of Social Support. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8419. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148419

Su, X., &amp; Chen, C. (2023). The Influence of Workplace Envy on Employees’ Knowledge-Hiding Behavior Based on a Comparative Analysis between Generation Cohorts. Behavioral Sciences, 13(9), 716. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs13090716

Walter CE, Au-Yong-Oliveira M (2022), &quot;An exploratory study on the barriers to innovative behavior: the spiteful effect of envy&quot;. Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol. 35 No. 6 pp. 936–960, https://doi.org/10.1108/JOCM-02-2022-0034

Wilkes, D. (2023) Workplace Envy: Exploring the Effect of Envy on Team Communication and Organizational Information Sharing. Open Journal of Business and Management, 11, 1757-1786. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojbm.2023.114099

Yang C and Tang R (2021) Validating the “Two Faces” of Envy: The Effect of Self-Control. Front. Psychol. 12:731451. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.731451

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
The following links provide further background and context to support this book chapter:
* [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/NwGMsgB9mNg Envy: The Ugliest Emotion? Find out the Truth!] (YouTube)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1f9IE3CkB4s How to Stop Comparing Yourself to Others] (YouTube)
* https://www.ted.com/talks/worklife_with_adam_grant_become_friends_with_your_rivals (TedTalk)
* [https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-good-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/ https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-goo-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/] (TedTalk)
* [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/3g0lRfiAXzc Why Workplace Envy Is Secretly Power ? - YouTube] (YouTube)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
&lt;references /&gt;{{DEFAULTSORT:https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2026/Envy_in_the_workplace#Role_of_envy_in_the_workplace}}</text>
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__TOC__

=== Overview ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Zonaspace-coworking-collaboration.jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 1'''. Envy can occur in any workplace.]]

;Case study
Jillian and Anna work for the same consulting firm and are at the same level. Jillian recently completed a project that received recognition from senior leaders and she continues to be praised about it. Anna and Jillian get along well, although Anna has started feeling resentful towards Jillian (see Figure 1). 

Anna recently asked Jillian about the project and what tools she used that could possibly assist with her projects. Jillian mentioned she completed a project management course that really changed the way she approaches projects to ensure all milestones are delivered on time and on budget. 

Anna enrols in the same project management course immediately. This is an example of benign envy. By feeling envy towards Jillian, it has motivated Anna to take action to improve herself. With Anna developing her project management skills, this will impact the team and consulting firm in a positive way encouraging extraordinary results. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

[[wikipedia:Envy|Envy]] is a powerful [[emotion]] that drives different behaviours (Yang &amp; Tang, 2021). It can be described as the bitterness or anger you feel when others receive what you deeply or unconsciously desire. In many workplaces, it is human nature for an individual to measure and compare themselves to those that are being recognised or seem more valued than they are. These [[wikipedia:Comparison|comparisons]] can trigger workplace envy, especially when someone feels they are inferior to others. According to Duffy et al (2021), over the last 25 years, there has been growing interest in the [[wikipedia:Phenomenon|phenomenon]] of workplace envy. While every [[wikipedia:Workplace|workplace]] is filled with opportunities for competition and self-comparison, Liu et al (2021), stated it was important to consider the environmental influences and historical timing when looking at workplace envy due to this area of research constantly [[wiktionary:evolving|evolving]].  

Workplace envy is a common emotion that occurs across a variety of workplace situations although experiences can vary in intensity and frequency and can transform into behavioural reactions. In a competitive work environment, it can affect all levels of the organisation although, when left to manifest, it can tarnish collaboration and disrupt performance overall. 

This book chapter describes workplace envy, details the different types of workplace envy, its link to [[wikipedia:Motivation|motivation]], its relationship to [[wikipedia:Self-efficacy|self-efficacy]] and [[wikipedia:Social_comparison_theory|social comparison theory]] and discusses the role it plays in [[wikipedia:Work_behavior|workplace behaviour]]. 

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* What is the role of envy in the workplace?
* What is the difference between malicious envy and benign envy? 
* What causes envy and how is it linked to motivation?
* What is the relationship between envy and self-efficacy?
* What is the relationship between envy and social comparison theory?


{{RoundBoxBottom}}
== Role of envy in the workplace ==

There are many causes of envy in the workplace. It can emerge when an employee notices that a colleague has achieved something they desire, such as recognition, a reward, a promotion or an opportunity. It can occur in any workplace where employees constantly compare their performance or progress to those around them, these comparisons can easily activate feelings of workplace envy.   

Through guidance, leadership and intervention, envy can be used as a workplace 'tool' to drive [[wikipedia:Positive_psychology|positive]] behaviour (Liu et al, 2021). However, it can also lead to people copying or supporting a boss's [[wikipedia:Negative_affectivity|negative]] behaviour and cause others to be left out or ignored. It also reduces people's willingness to share new ideas or be innovative (Walter et al, 2022).   

'''How leadership can help'''  

When envy is high, innovation drops because employees may hold back their ideas or leave the organisation entirely. It is important for leadership to understand how workplace envy works and learn how to manage negative emotions within their teams. By doing this, they can create a healthy work environment for innovation to grow which will in turn have a positive effect on team culture (Walter et al, 2022).   
== Benign versus malicious envy ==
Workplace envy can be either [https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benign benign] or [[wikipedia:Spite_(sentiment)|malicious.]] Even though they both start with the same feeling of [[wiktionary:inferior#English|inferiority]], they can lead to different reactions (Crusius et al, 2021). Benign envy creates an urge for people to grow while malicious envy leads to negative thoughts or actions that aims to bring a person down (see Table 1).  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Scenario:'''

Jon and Sam have worked together for a long time. They both applied for a promotion within the team recently, Jon was successful and Sam missed out. 

Since then, Sam has started treating Jon unfairly. In meetings, Sam makes negative comments about Jon's ideas. During team lunches, Sam leaves Jon out on purpose. Each day, Sam's behaviour becomes more unfriendly and hurtful.

This is an example of malicious envy. Sam is feeling envious of Jon and is trying to harm and put him down. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}The following table outlines the difference between benign and malicious envy in the workplace.

'''Table 1.'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!
! Benign Envy
! Malicious Envy
|-
| Definition
| Envy that motivates self‑improvement.
| Envy that manifests when someone feels threatened or unable to match another’s achievements.
|-
| Emotional Response
| Encourages growth, motivation and learning.
| Creates feelings of resentment, threat, or inferiority.
|-
| Typical Behaviours
| Working harder, learning new skills, seeking growth or development opportunities.
| Exclusion, gossip, criticism or subtle sabotage.
|-
| Impact on Workplace Culture
| Strengthens workplace culture through healthy competition and personal development.
| Damages trust, teamwork, morale, and can escalate into workplace conflict and create a toxic culture.
|-
| Outcome
| Positive: supports improvement and collaboration.
| Negative: undermines relationships and workplace functioning.
|}

'''Quiz questions.''' Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Benign envy is associated with positive emotions and encourages positive behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Malicious envy is associated with negative emotions and encourages negative behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Relationship between envy and motivation? ==
Workplace envy shapes motivation in positive and negative ways (see Figure 2). Instead of motivating improvement, envy can move towards an unethical or toxic behaviour to close the [[wikipedia:Status_attainment|status]] gap between the envied person and the envier.      

==== Benign envy and motivation ====

==== Malicious envy and motivation ====
Malicious envy can reduce motivation and lead to harmful behaviour. Instead of focusing on self-improvement, the envier will try to undermine the person being envied or boost themselves by cheating or creating dysfunctional patterns that affect motivation and workplace relationships (Lange et al, 2018). 

==== Loss of motivation due to being envied ====
[[File:Happy-smiley-face-and-sad-2048x1536.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Envy can motivate positive or negative behaviour in the workplace.|200x200px]]
People who feel they are being envied in the workplace often experience emotions of anger, guilt or anxiety (Koksalet et al, 2026). These feelings can affect their motivation. Because they sense others are comparing themselves to them, they may appear to hide or lay low around the workplace. This can lead to reduced motivation or effort as they try to avoid negative attention. This drop in motivation is a coping strategy to avoid being targeted in the workplace. 

'''Table 2.''' The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model showing the relationship between envy and motivation:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Motivation to improve
(benign envy) 
| Blind spot: Fear based motivation noticed 
by others but not yourself (applies to malicious envy)
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Fear of failure
(malicious envy) 
| Hidden motivation (benign envy)
|}

== Behaviours caused by self-efficacy? ==
Self-efficacy is the mental switch that determines whether envy will lead to a positive or negative behaviour. It is the belief that someone will be able to handle challenges within the workplace when faced with envy (Aydin &amp; Bozkurt, 2022).

==== High self-efficacy ====
If an employee has high self-efficacy, they will cope better with workplace envy. They compare themselves upwards and are then motivated to be more like the person they are envious of. 

==== Low self-efficacy ====

If an employee has low self-efficacy, they will be negatively affected by workplace envy. Downward comparison becomes a better coping strategy for them, which leads to negative behaviours such as bringing someone down or spreading rumours to make them feel better about themselves.

'''Quiz questions.''' Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{What is a common sign of low self-efficacy?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Avoiding tasks because you expect to fail
- Feeling confident you can handle new challenges

{What is a common sign of high self-efficacy?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Avoiding tasks because they appear too hard
+ Confidence in handling challenges
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Relationship between workplace envy and social comparison theory? ==
Social comparison theory explains why individuals tend to compare their opinions and abilities to others which affects how they feel and behave (Han et al, 2022). Feeling threatened in the workplace makes people judge themselves more harshly as they believe they cannot match their colleague's social status or success.

==== Upward comparison ====
Comparing yourself to someone who appears more skilled, more successful or performing at a higher level. By comparing yourself upward to someone can either motivate you develop yourself or can create feelings of envy, stress or pressure when the gap between one employee and another seems unachievable. 

==== Downward comparison ====
Comparing yourself to someone who seems worse off than you, less skilled or less struggling can boost your confidence in the workplace by providing reassurance. It can also foster a delusion or false sense of security.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Call center (8300442093).jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 3'''. Social Comparison Theory at play in a Call Centre.]]

;Case study
At ReadyCall, everyone's daily call numbers are recorded on a big screen. Ebony is new and she keeps comparing herself to Rick, a senior worker who always has the highest call numbers. Seeing the gap makes Ebony feel stressed and worried she isn't good enough.

Ebony's manager explains that Rick learned his skills over many years and wasn't fast when he first started. After hearing this, Ebony feels better, learns some tips from Rick, and becomes more confident.

This is an example of social comparison theory, where people judge themselves by comparing their performance to others (see Figure 4). 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}


'''Quiz questions.''' Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{What type of social comparison theory is Ebony experiencing?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Upward comparison
- Downward comparison


&lt;/quiz&gt;
;
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}

==Conclusion==
Envy plays a significant role in shaping workplace behaviour because employees constantly observe and compare their progress and recognition and opportunities of those around them. These comparisons can trigger envy which is not just a negative emotion but a complex psychological response influenced by self-efficacy, motivation and social comparison processes. These comparisons highlight an individual's insecurities, making envy an important emotional signal rather than a something negative. When employees feel capable of improving themselves, workplace envy becomes a constructive force that encourages learning, effort and healthy competition. However, workplace envy can also shift into a harmful direction when employees feel threatened, insecure or unable to achieve similar success. In these situations, workplace envy may lead to resentment, withdrawal or undermining behaviour which can disrupt teamwork or damage workplace relationships. By understanding these dynamics, workplaces can respond carefully and recognise the important role envy plays in fostering growth. fairness and healthier interpersonal relationships that will effectively create a positive working culture.
{{tip|Take-home messages:
* Not all workplace envy is negative.
* Envy is an important catalyst for change if driven in a positive way.
* Envy can motivate staff in a constructive way.
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* Envy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2011/Envy|title=Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Envy - Wikiversity|website=en.wikiversity.org|language=en|access-date=2026-08-25}}&lt;/ref&gt; (Book Chapter, 2011) {{ic|See Tutorial 2 for how to create an internal link to a book chapter)
* Jealousy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=|title=|website=|language=|access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt; is not the same as envy (Book Chapter, 2013)
* [[Self-Efficacy]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Aggression in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Aggression in the workplace - Wikiversity]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rivalry in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rivalry in the workplace - Wikiversity]]

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Aydın, G., &amp; Bozkurt, S. (2022). Research on the Role of Self-Efficacy in the Effect of Workplace Envy on Intention to Quit. Istanbul Business Research, 51(2), 627-642. https://doi.org/10.26650/ibr.2022.51.1062932

Crusius J., Thierhoff J., Lange J. (2021). Dispositional greed predicts benign and malicious envy. Personality and Individual Differences, 168, 110361. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110361

Dong, Xue T., Yang W. Chung, Joon H. Park, and Jeong K. Yun. 2026. “Workplace Envy and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour: The Mediating Effect of Cynicism and the Moderating Effect of Organizational Support.” Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences / Revue Canadienne des Sciences de l'Administration: e70020. https://doi.org/10.1002/cjas.70020.

Duffy, M. K., Lee, K., &amp; Adair, E. A. (2021). Workplace envy. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 8, 19–44. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012420-055746

Erdil O., Müceldili B. (2014). The effects of envy on job engagement and turnover intention. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 150(1), 447–454. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.09.050

Han, S., Zhan, Y., Zhang, L., &amp; Mu, R. (2022). You Have Received More Help than I Did and I Envy You: A Social Comparison Perspective on Receiving Help in the Team. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8351. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148351

Köksal, K., Tufan, C., Griffiths, M.D. et al. From perceived workplace envy to deviance: a multi-theoretical model of envy-related workplace behaviors and the moderating role of social courage. Curr Psychol 45, 1052 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-026-09607-3

Lange, J., Paulhus, D. L., &amp; Crusius, J. (2018). Elucidating the Dark Side of Envy: Distinctive Links of Benign and Malicious Envy With Dark Personalities. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 44(4), 601-614. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167217746340

Li M., Xu X., Kwan H. K. (2021). The antecedents and consequences of workplace envy: A meta-analytic review. Asia Pacific Journal of Management. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10490-021-09772-y

Li M, Qin Y, Le J (2025), &quot;Mentoring matters: decoding the impact of downward envy on interpersonal conflict, workplace ostracism, and displaced aggression&quot;. Journal of Managerial Psychology, Vol. 40 No. 1 pp. 67–81, doi: https://doi.org/10.1108/JMP-12-2023-0768

Li, Y., &amp; Wang, S. (2023). &quot;Comparisons are Odious&quot;? - Exploring the Dual Effect of Upward Social Comparison on Workplace Coping Behaviors of Temporary Agency Workers. Psychology research and behavior management, 16, 4251–4265. https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S425946

Liu, H., Geng, J., &amp; Yao, P. (2021). Relationship of Leadership and Envy: How to Resolve Workplace Envy with Leadership-A Bibliometric Review Study. Journal of Intelligence, 9(3), 44. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence9030044

Nakai, A. and Numazaki, M. (2026), The Emotional Nature of Malicious and Benign Envy: Separate Measurements for Emotion and Motivation. Jpn Psychol Res. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpr.12568

Polat, Ş, Yeşil, A. &amp; Afşar Doğrusöz, L. (2024) The relationship between self-efficacy, malicious or benign envy in nurses: A cross-sectional study. International Nursing Review, 71, 832–840. https://doi.org/10.1111/inr.12925

Song, Y., &amp; Zhao, Z. (2022). Social Undermining and Interpersonal Rumination among Employees: The Mediating Role of Being the Subject of Envy and the Moderating Role of Social Support. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8419. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148419

Su, X., &amp; Chen, C. (2023). The Influence of Workplace Envy on Employees’ Knowledge-Hiding Behavior Based on a Comparative Analysis between Generation Cohorts. Behavioral Sciences, 13(9), 716. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs13090716

Walter CE, Au-Yong-Oliveira M (2022), &quot;An exploratory study on the barriers to innovative behavior: the spiteful effect of envy&quot;. Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol. 35 No. 6 pp. 936–960, https://doi.org/10.1108/JOCM-02-2022-0034

Wilkes, D. (2023) Workplace Envy: Exploring the Effect of Envy on Team Communication and Organizational Information Sharing. Open Journal of Business and Management, 11, 1757-1786. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojbm.2023.114099

Yang C and Tang R (2021) Validating the “Two Faces” of Envy: The Effect of Self-Control. Front. Psychol. 12:731451. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.731451

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
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* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
The following links provide further background and context to support this book chapter:
* [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/NwGMsgB9mNg Envy: The Ugliest Emotion? Find out the Truth!] (YouTube)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1f9IE3CkB4s How to Stop Comparing Yourself to Others] (YouTube)
* https://www.ted.com/talks/worklife_with_adam_grant_become_friends_with_your_rivals (TedTalk)
* [https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-good-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/ https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-goo-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/] (TedTalk)
* [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/3g0lRfiAXzc Why Workplace Envy Is Secretly Power ? - YouTube] (YouTube)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
&lt;references /&gt;{{DEFAULTSORT:https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2026/Envy_in_the_workplace#Role_of_envy_in_the_workplace}}</text>
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__TOC__

=== Overview ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Zonaspace-coworking-collaboration.jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 1'''. Envy can occur in any workplace.]]

;Case study
Jillian and Anna work for the same consulting firm and are at the same level. Jillian recently completed a project that received recognition from senior leaders and she continues to be praised about it. Anna and Jillian get along well, although Anna has started feeling resentful towards Jillian (see Figure 1). 

Anna recently asked Jillian about the project and what tools she used that could possibly assist with her projects. Jillian mentioned she completed a project management course that really changed the way she approaches projects to ensure all milestones are delivered on time and on budget. 

Anna enrols in the same project management course immediately. This is an example of benign envy. By feeling envy towards Jillian, it has motivated Anna to take action to improve herself. With Anna developing her project management skills, this will impact the team and consulting firm in a positive way encouraging extraordinary results. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

[[wikipedia:Envy|Envy]] is a powerful [[emotion]] that drives different behaviours (Yang &amp; Tang, 2021). It can be described as the bitterness or anger you feel when others receive what you deeply or unconsciously desire. In many workplaces, it is human nature for an individual to measure and compare themselves to those that are being recognised or seem more valued than they are. These [[wikipedia:Comparison|comparisons]] can trigger workplace envy, especially when someone feels they are inferior to others. According to Duffy et al (2021), over the last 25 years, there has been growing interest in the [[wikipedia:Phenomenon|phenomenon]] of workplace envy. While every [[wikipedia:Workplace|workplace]] is filled with opportunities for competition and self-comparison, Liu et al (2021), stated it was important to consider the environmental influences and historical timing when looking at workplace envy due to this area of research constantly [[wiktionary:evolving|evolving]].  

Workplace envy is a common emotion that occurs across a variety of workplace situations although experiences can vary in intensity and frequency and can transform into behavioural reactions. In a competitive work environment, it can affect all levels of the organisation although, when left to manifest, it can tarnish collaboration and disrupt performance overall. 

This book chapter describes workplace envy, details the different types of workplace envy, its link to [[wikipedia:Motivation|motivation]], its relationship to [[wikipedia:Self-efficacy|self-efficacy]] and [[wikipedia:Social_comparison_theory|social comparison theory]] and discusses the role it plays in [[wikipedia:Work_behavior|workplace behaviour]]. 

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* What is the role of envy in the workplace?
* What is the difference between malicious envy and benign envy? 
* What causes envy and how is it linked to motivation?
* What is the relationship between envy and self-efficacy?
* What is the relationship between envy and social comparison theory?


{{RoundBoxBottom}}
== Role of envy in the workplace ==

There are many causes of envy in the workplace. It can emerge when an employee notices that a colleague has achieved something they desire, such as recognition, a reward, a promotion or an opportunity. It can occur in any workplace where employees constantly compare their performance or progress to those around them, these comparisons can easily activate feelings of workplace envy.   

Through guidance, leadership and intervention, envy can be used as a workplace 'tool' to drive [[wikipedia:Positive_psychology|positive]] behaviour (Liu et al, 2021). However, it can also lead to people copying or supporting a boss's [[wikipedia:Negative_affectivity|negative]] behaviour and cause others to be left out or ignored. It also reduces people's willingness to share new ideas or be innovative (Walter et al, 2022).   

'''How leadership can help'''  

When envy is high in the workplace, innovation drops because employees may hold back their ideas or leave the organisation entirely. It is important for leadership to understand how workplace envy works and learn how to manage negative emotions within their teams. By doing this, they can create a healthy work environment for innovation to grow which will in turn have a positive effect on team culture (Walter et al, 2022).   
== Benign versus malicious envy ==
Workplace envy can be either [https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benign benign] or [[wikipedia:Spite_(sentiment)|malicious.]] Even though they both start with the same feeling of [[wiktionary:inferior#English|inferiority]], they can lead to different reactions (Crusius et al, 2021). Benign envy creates an urge for people to grow while malicious envy leads to negative thoughts or actions that aims to bring a person down (see Table 1).  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Scenario:'''

Jon and Sam have worked together for a long time. They both applied for a promotion within the team recently, Jon was successful and Sam missed out. 

Since then, Sam has started treating Jon unfairly. In meetings, Sam makes negative comments about Jon's ideas. During team lunches, Sam leaves Jon out on purpose. Each day, Sam's behaviour becomes more unfriendly and hurtful.

This is an example of malicious envy. Sam is feeling envious of Jon and is trying to harm and put him down. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}The following table outlines the difference between benign and malicious envy in the workplace.

'''Table 1.'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!
! Benign Envy
! Malicious Envy
|-
| Definition
| Envy that motivates self‑improvement.
| Envy that manifests when someone feels threatened or unable to match another’s achievements.
|-
| Emotional Response
| Encourages growth, motivation and learning.
| Creates feelings of resentment, threat, or inferiority.
|-
| Typical Behaviours
| Working harder, learning new skills, seeking growth or development opportunities.
| Exclusion, gossip, criticism or subtle sabotage.
|-
| Impact on Workplace Culture
| Strengthens workplace culture through healthy competition and personal development.
| Damages trust, teamwork, morale, and can escalate into workplace conflict and create a toxic culture.
|-
| Outcome
| Positive: supports improvement and collaboration.
| Negative: undermines relationships and workplace functioning.
|}

'''Quiz questions.''' Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Benign envy is associated with positive emotions and encourages positive behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Malicious envy is associated with negative emotions and encourages negative behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Relationship between envy and motivation? ==
Workplace envy shapes motivation in positive and negative ways (see Figure 2). Instead of motivating improvement, envy can move towards an unethical or toxic behaviour to close the [[wikipedia:Status_attainment|status]] gap between the envied person and the envier.      

==== Benign envy and motivation ====

==== Malicious envy and motivation ====
Malicious envy can reduce motivation and lead to harmful behaviour. Instead of focusing on self-improvement, the envier will try to undermine the person being envied or boost themselves by cheating or creating dysfunctional patterns that affect motivation and workplace relationships (Lange et al, 2018). 

==== Loss of motivation due to being envied ====
[[File:Happy-smiley-face-and-sad-2048x1536.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Envy can motivate positive or negative behaviour in the workplace.|200x200px]]
People who feel they are being envied in the workplace often experience emotions of anger, guilt or anxiety (Koksalet et al, 2026). These feelings can affect their motivation. Because they sense others are comparing themselves to them, they may appear to hide or lay low around the workplace. This can lead to reduced motivation or effort as they try to avoid negative attention. This drop in motivation is a coping strategy to avoid being targeted in the workplace. 

'''Table 2.''' The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model showing the relationship between envy and motivation:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Motivation to improve
(benign envy) 
| Blind spot: Fear based motivation noticed 
by others but not yourself (applies to malicious envy)
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Fear of failure
(malicious envy) 
| Hidden motivation (benign envy)
|}

== Behaviours caused by self-efficacy? ==
Self-efficacy is the mental switch that determines whether envy will lead to a positive or negative behaviour. It is the belief that someone will be able to handle challenges within the workplace when faced with envy (Aydin &amp; Bozkurt, 2022).

==== High self-efficacy ====
If an employee has high self-efficacy, they will cope better with workplace envy. They compare themselves upwards and are then motivated to be more like the person they are envious of. 

==== Low self-efficacy ====

If an employee has low self-efficacy, they will be negatively affected by workplace envy. Downward comparison becomes a better coping strategy for them, which leads to negative behaviours such as bringing someone down or spreading rumours to make them feel better about themselves.

'''Quiz questions.''' Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{What is a common sign of low self-efficacy?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Avoiding tasks because you expect to fail
- Feeling confident you can handle new challenges

{What is a common sign of high self-efficacy?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Avoiding tasks because they appear too hard
+ Confidence in handling challenges
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Relationship between workplace envy and social comparison theory? ==
Social comparison theory explains why individuals tend to compare their opinions and abilities to others which affects how they feel and behave (Han et al, 2022). Feeling threatened in the workplace makes people judge themselves more harshly as they believe they cannot match their colleague's social status or success.

==== Upward comparison ====
Comparing yourself to someone who appears more skilled, more successful or performing at a higher level. By comparing yourself upward to someone can either motivate you develop yourself or can create feelings of envy, stress or pressure when the gap between one employee and another seems unachievable. 

==== Downward comparison ====
Comparing yourself to someone who seems worse off than you, less skilled or less struggling can boost your confidence in the workplace by providing reassurance. It can also foster a delusion or false sense of security.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Call center (8300442093).jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 3'''. Social Comparison Theory at play in a Call Centre.]]

;Case study
At ReadyCall, everyone's daily call numbers are recorded on a big screen. Ebony is new and she keeps comparing herself to Rick, a senior worker who always has the highest call numbers. Seeing the gap makes Ebony feel stressed and worried she isn't good enough.

Ebony's manager explains that Rick learned his skills over many years and wasn't fast when he first started. After hearing this, Ebony feels better, learns some tips from Rick, and becomes more confident.

This is an example of social comparison theory, where people judge themselves by comparing their performance to others (see Figure 4). 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}


'''Quiz questions.''' Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{What type of social comparison theory is Ebony experiencing?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Upward comparison
- Downward comparison


&lt;/quiz&gt;
;
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}

==Conclusion==
Envy plays a significant role in shaping workplace behaviour because employees constantly observe and compare their progress and recognition and opportunities of those around them. These comparisons can trigger envy which is not just a negative emotion but a complex psychological response influenced by self-efficacy, motivation and social comparison processes. These comparisons highlight an individual's insecurities, making envy an important emotional signal rather than a something negative. When employees feel capable of improving themselves, workplace envy becomes a constructive force that encourages learning, effort and healthy competition. However, workplace envy can also shift into a harmful direction when employees feel threatened, insecure or unable to achieve similar success. In these situations, workplace envy may lead to resentment, withdrawal or undermining behaviour which can disrupt teamwork or damage workplace relationships. By understanding these dynamics, workplaces can respond carefully and recognise the important role envy plays in fostering growth. fairness and healthier interpersonal relationships that will effectively create a positive working culture.
{{tip|Take-home messages:
* Not all workplace envy is negative.
* Envy is an important catalyst for change if driven in a positive way.
* Envy can motivate staff in a constructive way.
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* Envy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2011/Envy|title=Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Envy - Wikiversity|website=en.wikiversity.org|language=en|access-date=2026-08-25}}&lt;/ref&gt; (Book Chapter, 2011) {{ic|See Tutorial 2 for how to create an internal link to a book chapter)
* Jealousy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=|title=|website=|language=|access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt; is not the same as envy (Book Chapter, 2013)
* [[Self-Efficacy]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Aggression in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Aggression in the workplace - Wikiversity]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rivalry in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rivalry in the workplace - Wikiversity]]

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Aydın, G., &amp; Bozkurt, S. (2022). Research on the Role of Self-Efficacy in the Effect of Workplace Envy on Intention to Quit. Istanbul Business Research, 51(2), 627-642. https://doi.org/10.26650/ibr.2022.51.1062932

Crusius J., Thierhoff J., Lange J. (2021). Dispositional greed predicts benign and malicious envy. Personality and Individual Differences, 168, 110361. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110361

Dong, Xue T., Yang W. Chung, Joon H. Park, and Jeong K. Yun. 2026. “Workplace Envy and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour: The Mediating Effect of Cynicism and the Moderating Effect of Organizational Support.” Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences / Revue Canadienne des Sciences de l'Administration: e70020. https://doi.org/10.1002/cjas.70020.

Duffy, M. K., Lee, K., &amp; Adair, E. A. (2021). Workplace envy. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 8, 19–44. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012420-055746

Erdil O., Müceldili B. (2014). The effects of envy on job engagement and turnover intention. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 150(1), 447–454. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.09.050

Han, S., Zhan, Y., Zhang, L., &amp; Mu, R. (2022). You Have Received More Help than I Did and I Envy You: A Social Comparison Perspective on Receiving Help in the Team. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8351. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148351

Köksal, K., Tufan, C., Griffiths, M.D. et al. From perceived workplace envy to deviance: a multi-theoretical model of envy-related workplace behaviors and the moderating role of social courage. Curr Psychol 45, 1052 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-026-09607-3

Lange, J., Paulhus, D. L., &amp; Crusius, J. (2018). Elucidating the Dark Side of Envy: Distinctive Links of Benign and Malicious Envy With Dark Personalities. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 44(4), 601-614. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167217746340

Li M., Xu X., Kwan H. K. (2021). The antecedents and consequences of workplace envy: A meta-analytic review. Asia Pacific Journal of Management. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10490-021-09772-y

Li M, Qin Y, Le J (2025), &quot;Mentoring matters: decoding the impact of downward envy on interpersonal conflict, workplace ostracism, and displaced aggression&quot;. Journal of Managerial Psychology, Vol. 40 No. 1 pp. 67–81, doi: https://doi.org/10.1108/JMP-12-2023-0768

Li, Y., &amp; Wang, S. (2023). &quot;Comparisons are Odious&quot;? - Exploring the Dual Effect of Upward Social Comparison on Workplace Coping Behaviors of Temporary Agency Workers. Psychology research and behavior management, 16, 4251–4265. https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S425946

Liu, H., Geng, J., &amp; Yao, P. (2021). Relationship of Leadership and Envy: How to Resolve Workplace Envy with Leadership-A Bibliometric Review Study. Journal of Intelligence, 9(3), 44. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence9030044

Nakai, A. and Numazaki, M. (2026), The Emotional Nature of Malicious and Benign Envy: Separate Measurements for Emotion and Motivation. Jpn Psychol Res. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpr.12568

Polat, Ş, Yeşil, A. &amp; Afşar Doğrusöz, L. (2024) The relationship between self-efficacy, malicious or benign envy in nurses: A cross-sectional study. International Nursing Review, 71, 832–840. https://doi.org/10.1111/inr.12925

Song, Y., &amp; Zhao, Z. (2022). Social Undermining and Interpersonal Rumination among Employees: The Mediating Role of Being the Subject of Envy and the Moderating Role of Social Support. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8419. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148419

Su, X., &amp; Chen, C. (2023). The Influence of Workplace Envy on Employees’ Knowledge-Hiding Behavior Based on a Comparative Analysis between Generation Cohorts. Behavioral Sciences, 13(9), 716. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs13090716

Walter CE, Au-Yong-Oliveira M (2022), &quot;An exploratory study on the barriers to innovative behavior: the spiteful effect of envy&quot;. Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol. 35 No. 6 pp. 936–960, https://doi.org/10.1108/JOCM-02-2022-0034

Wilkes, D. (2023) Workplace Envy: Exploring the Effect of Envy on Team Communication and Organizational Information Sharing. Open Journal of Business and Management, 11, 1757-1786. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojbm.2023.114099

Yang C and Tang R (2021) Validating the “Two Faces” of Envy: The Effect of Self-Control. Front. Psychol. 12:731451. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.731451

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
The following links provide further background and context to support this book chapter:
* [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/NwGMsgB9mNg Envy: The Ugliest Emotion? Find out the Truth!] (YouTube)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1f9IE3CkB4s How to Stop Comparing Yourself to Others] (YouTube)
* https://www.ted.com/talks/worklife_with_adam_grant_become_friends_with_your_rivals (TedTalk)
* [https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-good-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/ https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-goo-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/] (TedTalk)
* [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/3g0lRfiAXzc Why Workplace Envy Is Secretly Power ? - YouTube] (YouTube)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
&lt;references /&gt;{{DEFAULTSORT:https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2026/Envy_in_the_workplace#Role_of_envy_in_the_workplace}}</text>
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        <id>3106813</id>
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__TOC__

=== Overview ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Zonaspace-coworking-collaboration.jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 1'''. Envy can occur in any workplace.]]

;Case study
Jillian and Anna work for the same consulting firm and are at the same level. Jillian recently completed a project that received recognition from senior leaders and she continues to be praised about it. Anna and Jillian get along well, although Anna has started feeling resentful towards Jillian (see Figure 1). 

Anna recently asked Jillian about the project and what tools she used that could possibly assist with her projects. Jillian mentioned she completed a project management course that really changed the way she approaches projects to ensure all milestones are delivered on time and on budget. 

Anna enrols in the same project management course immediately. This is an example of benign envy. By feeling envy towards Jillian, it has motivated Anna to take action to improve herself. With Anna developing her project management skills, this will impact the team and consulting firm in a positive way encouraging extraordinary results. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

[[wikipedia:Envy|Envy]] is a powerful [[emotion]] that drives different behaviours (Yang &amp; Tang, 2021). It can be described as the bitterness or anger you feel when others receive what you deeply or unconsciously desire. In many workplaces, it is human nature for an individual to measure and compare themselves to those that are being recognised or seem more valued than they are. These [[wikipedia:Comparison|comparisons]] can trigger workplace envy, especially when someone feels they are inferior to others. According to Duffy et al (2021), over the last 25 years, there has been growing interest in the [[wikipedia:Phenomenon|phenomenon]] of workplace envy. While every [[wikipedia:Workplace|workplace]] is filled with opportunities for competition and self-comparison, Liu et al (2021), stated it was important to consider the environmental influences and historical timing when looking at workplace envy due to this area of research constantly [[wiktionary:evolving|evolving]].  

Workplace envy is a common emotion that occurs across a variety of workplace situations although experiences can vary in intensity and frequency and can transform into behavioural reactions. In a competitive work environment, it can affect all levels of the organisation although, when left to manifest, it can tarnish collaboration and disrupt performance overall. 

This book chapter describes workplace envy, details the different types of workplace envy, its link to [[wikipedia:Motivation|motivation]], its relationship to [[wikipedia:Self-efficacy|self-efficacy]] and [[wikipedia:Social_comparison_theory|social comparison theory]] and discusses the role it plays in [[wikipedia:Work_behavior|workplace behaviour]]. 

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* What is the role of envy in the workplace?
* What is the difference between malicious envy and benign envy? 
* What causes envy and how is it linked to motivation?
* What is the relationship between envy and self-efficacy?
* What is the relationship between envy and social comparison theory?


{{RoundBoxBottom}}
== Role of envy in the workplace ==

There are many causes of envy in the workplace. It can emerge when an employee notices that a colleague has achieved something they desire, such as recognition, a reward, a promotion or an opportunity. It can occur in any workplace where employees constantly compare their performance or progress to those around them, these comparisons can easily activate feelings of workplace envy.   

Through guidance, leadership and intervention, envy can be used as a workplace 'tool' to drive [[wikipedia:Positive_psychology|positive]] behaviour (Liu et al, 2021). However, it can also lead to people copying or supporting a boss's [[wikipedia:Negative_affectivity|negative]] behaviour and cause others to be left out or ignored. It also reduces people's willingness to share new ideas or be innovative (Walter et al, 2022).   

'''How leadership can help'''  

When envy is high in the workplace, innovation drops because employees may hold back their ideas or leave the organisation entirely. It is important for leadership to understand how workplace envy works and learn how to manage negative emotions within their teams. By doing this, they can create a healthy work environment for innovation to grow which will in turn have a positive effect on team culture (Walter et al, 2022).   
== Benign versus malicious envy ==
Workplace envy can be either [https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benign benign] or [[wikipedia:Spite_(sentiment)|malicious.]] Even though they both start with the same feeling of [[wiktionary:inferior#English|inferiority]], they can lead to different reactions (Crusius et al, 2021). Benign envy creates an urge for people to grow while malicious envy leads to negative thoughts or actions that aims to bring a person down (see Table 1).  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Scenario:'''

Jon and Sam have worked together for a long time. They both applied for a promotion within the team recently, Jon was successful and Sam missed out. 

Since then, Sam has started treating Jon unfairly. In meetings, Sam makes negative comments about Jon's ideas. During team lunches, Sam leaves Jon out on purpose. Each day, Sam's behaviour becomes more unfriendly and hurtful.

This is an example of malicious envy. Sam is feeling envious of Jon and is trying to harm and put him down. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}The following table outlines the difference between benign and malicious envy in the workplace.

'''Table 1.'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!
! Benign Envy
! Malicious Envy
|-
| Definition
| Envy that motivates self‑improvement.
| Envy that manifests when someone feels threatened or unable to match another’s achievements.
|-
| Emotional Response
| Encourages growth, motivation and learning.
| Creates feelings of resentment, threat, or inferiority.
|-
| Typical Behaviours
| Working harder, learning new skills, seeking growth or development opportunities.
| Exclusion, gossip, criticism or subtle sabotage.
|-
| Impact on Workplace Culture
| Strengthens workplace culture through healthy competition and personal development.
| Damages trust, teamwork, morale, and can escalate into workplace conflict and create a toxic culture.
|-
| Outcome
| Positive: supports improvement and collaboration.
| Negative: undermines relationships and workplace functioning.
|}

'''Quiz questions.''' Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Benign envy is associated with positive emotions and encourages positive behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Malicious envy is associated with negative emotions and encourages negative behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Relationship between envy and motivation? ==
Workplace envy shapes motivation in positive and negative ways (see Figure 2). Instead of motivating improvement, envy can move towards an unethical or toxic behaviour to close the [[wikipedia:Status_attainment|status]] gap between the envied person and the envier.       

==== Benign envy and motivation ====
Benign envy can motivate the envier to improve themselves and move closer to the success they see in others, This motivational push comes from a negative feeling aimed at the self that highlights one's lower standing (Nakai &amp; Numazaki, 2026), This discomfort activates moving-up motivation, encouraging people to set more challenging goals and strive towards the achievements of the envied person. At the same time, the emotional core triggers a distraction-coping motivation where people channel their attention into productive action as a way to manage the uncomfortable feeling. Nakai &amp; Numazaki (2026) reinforces that this self-focused negativity is what transforms benign envy into constructive upward-driving motivation helping people to achieve success.

==== Malicious envy and motivation ====
Malicious envy can reduce motivation and lead to harmful behaviour. Instead of focusing on self-improvement, the envier will try to undermine the person being envied or boost themselves by cheating or creating dysfunctional patterns that affect motivation and workplace relationships (Lange et al, 2018). When someone feels malicious envy, they experience resentment towards the other person and that negativity creates pulling-down motivation which seeks to cause harm or reduce the other person's status (Nakai &amp; Numazaki, 2026). [[File:Happy-smiley-face-and-sad-2048x1536.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Envy can motivate positive or negative behaviour in the workplace.|220x220px]]
==== Loss of motivation due to being envied ====
People who feel they are being envied in the workplace often experience emotions of anger, guilt or anxiety (Koksalet et al, 2026). These feelings can affect their motivation. Because they sense others are comparing themselves to them, they may appear to hide or lay low around the workplace. This can lead to reduced motivation or effort as they try to avoid negative attention. This drop in motivation is a coping strategy to avoid being targeted in the workplace. 

'''Table 2.''' The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model showing the relationship between envy and motivation:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Motivation to improve
(benign envy) 
| Blind spot: Fear based motivation noticed 
by others but not yourself (applies to malicious envy)
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Fear of failure
(malicious envy) 
| Hidden motivation (benign envy)
|}

== Behaviours caused by self-efficacy? ==
Self-efficacy is the mental switch that determines whether envy will lead to a positive or negative behaviour. It is the belief that someone will be able to handle challenges within the workplace when faced with envy (Aydin &amp; Bozkurt, 2022).

==== High self-efficacy ====
If an employee has high self-efficacy, they will cope better with workplace envy. They compare themselves upwards and are then motivated to be more like the person they are envious of. 

==== Low self-efficacy ====

If an employee has low self-efficacy, they will be negatively affected by workplace envy. Downward comparison becomes a better coping strategy for them, which leads to negative behaviours such as bringing someone down or spreading rumours to make them feel better about themselves.

'''Quiz questions.''' Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{What is a common sign of low self-efficacy?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Avoiding tasks because you expect to fail
- Feeling confident you can handle new challenges

{What is a common sign of high self-efficacy?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Avoiding tasks because they appear too hard
+ Confidence in handling challenges
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Relationship between workplace envy and social comparison theory? ==
Social comparison theory explains why individuals tend to compare their opinions and abilities to others which affects how they feel and behave (Han et al, 2022). Feeling threatened in the workplace makes people judge themselves more harshly as they believe they cannot match their colleague's social status or success.

==== Upward comparison ====
Comparing yourself to someone who appears more skilled, more successful or performing at a higher level. By comparing yourself upward to someone can either motivate you develop yourself or can create feelings of envy, stress or pressure when the gap between one employee and another seems unachievable. 

==== Downward comparison ====
Comparing yourself to someone who seems worse off than you, less skilled or less struggling can boost your confidence in the workplace by providing reassurance. It can also foster a delusion or false sense of security.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Call center (8300442093).jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 3'''. Social Comparison Theory at play in a Call Centre.]]

;Case study
At ReadyCall, everyone's daily call numbers are recorded on a big screen. Ebony is new and she keeps comparing herself to Rick, a senior worker who always has the highest call numbers. Seeing the gap makes Ebony feel stressed and worried she isn't good enough.

Ebony's manager explains that Rick learned his skills over many years and wasn't fast when he first started. After hearing this, Ebony feels better, learns some tips from Rick, and becomes more confident.

This is an example of social comparison theory, where people judge themselves by comparing their performance to others (see Figure 4). 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}


'''Quiz questions.''' Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{What type of social comparison theory is Ebony experiencing?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Upward comparison
- Downward comparison


&lt;/quiz&gt;
;
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}

==Conclusion==
Envy plays a significant role in shaping workplace behaviour because employees constantly observe and compare their progress and recognition and opportunities of those around them. These comparisons can trigger envy which is not just a negative emotion but a complex psychological response influenced by self-efficacy, motivation and social comparison processes. These comparisons highlight an individual's insecurities, making envy an important emotional signal rather than a something negative. When employees feel capable of improving themselves, workplace envy becomes a constructive force that encourages learning, effort and healthy competition. However, workplace envy can also shift into a harmful direction when employees feel threatened, insecure or unable to achieve similar success. In these situations, workplace envy may lead to resentment, withdrawal or undermining behaviour which can disrupt teamwork or damage workplace relationships. By understanding these dynamics, workplaces can respond carefully and recognise the important role envy plays in fostering growth. fairness and healthier interpersonal relationships that will effectively create a positive working culture.
{{tip|Take-home messages:
* Not all workplace envy is negative.
* Envy is an important catalyst for change if driven in a positive way.
* Envy can motivate staff in a constructive way.
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* Envy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2011/Envy|title=Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Envy - Wikiversity|website=en.wikiversity.org|language=en|access-date=2026-08-25}}&lt;/ref&gt; (Book Chapter, 2011) {{ic|See Tutorial 2 for how to create an internal link to a book chapter)
* Jealousy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=|title=|website=|language=|access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt; is not the same as envy (Book Chapter, 2013)
* [[Self-Efficacy]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Aggression in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Aggression in the workplace - Wikiversity]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rivalry in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rivalry in the workplace - Wikiversity]]

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Aydın, G., &amp; Bozkurt, S. (2022). Research on the Role of Self-Efficacy in the Effect of Workplace Envy on Intention to Quit. Istanbul Business Research, 51(2), 627-642. https://doi.org/10.26650/ibr.2022.51.1062932

Crusius J., Thierhoff J., Lange J. (2021). Dispositional greed predicts benign and malicious envy. Personality and Individual Differences, 168, 110361. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110361

Dong, Xue T., Yang W. Chung, Joon H. Park, and Jeong K. Yun. 2026. “Workplace Envy and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour: The Mediating Effect of Cynicism and the Moderating Effect of Organizational Support.” Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences / Revue Canadienne des Sciences de l'Administration: e70020. https://doi.org/10.1002/cjas.70020.

Duffy, M. K., Lee, K., &amp; Adair, E. A. (2021). Workplace envy. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 8, 19–44. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012420-055746

Erdil O., Müceldili B. (2014). The effects of envy on job engagement and turnover intention. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 150(1), 447–454. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.09.050

Han, S., Zhan, Y., Zhang, L., &amp; Mu, R. (2022). You Have Received More Help than I Did and I Envy You: A Social Comparison Perspective on Receiving Help in the Team. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8351. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148351

Köksal, K., Tufan, C., Griffiths, M.D. et al. From perceived workplace envy to deviance: a multi-theoretical model of envy-related workplace behaviors and the moderating role of social courage. Curr Psychol 45, 1052 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-026-09607-3

Lange, J., Paulhus, D. L., &amp; Crusius, J. (2018). Elucidating the Dark Side of Envy: Distinctive Links of Benign and Malicious Envy With Dark Personalities. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 44(4), 601-614. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167217746340

Li M., Xu X., Kwan H. K. (2021). The antecedents and consequences of workplace envy: A meta-analytic review. Asia Pacific Journal of Management. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10490-021-09772-y

Li M, Qin Y, Le J (2025), &quot;Mentoring matters: decoding the impact of downward envy on interpersonal conflict, workplace ostracism, and displaced aggression&quot;. Journal of Managerial Psychology, Vol. 40 No. 1 pp. 67–81, doi: https://doi.org/10.1108/JMP-12-2023-0768

Li, Y., &amp; Wang, S. (2023). &quot;Comparisons are Odious&quot;? - Exploring the Dual Effect of Upward Social Comparison on Workplace Coping Behaviors of Temporary Agency Workers. Psychology research and behavior management, 16, 4251–4265. https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S425946

Liu, H., Geng, J., &amp; Yao, P. (2021). Relationship of Leadership and Envy: How to Resolve Workplace Envy with Leadership-A Bibliometric Review Study. Journal of Intelligence, 9(3), 44. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence9030044

Nakai, A. and Numazaki, M. (2026), The Emotional Nature of Malicious and Benign Envy: Separate Measurements for Emotion and Motivation. Jpn Psychol Res. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpr.12568

Polat, Ş, Yeşil, A. &amp; Afşar Doğrusöz, L. (2024) The relationship between self-efficacy, malicious or benign envy in nurses: A cross-sectional study. International Nursing Review, 71, 832–840. https://doi.org/10.1111/inr.12925

Song, Y., &amp; Zhao, Z. (2022). Social Undermining and Interpersonal Rumination among Employees: The Mediating Role of Being the Subject of Envy and the Moderating Role of Social Support. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8419. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148419

Su, X., &amp; Chen, C. (2023). The Influence of Workplace Envy on Employees’ Knowledge-Hiding Behavior Based on a Comparative Analysis between Generation Cohorts. Behavioral Sciences, 13(9), 716. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs13090716

Walter CE, Au-Yong-Oliveira M (2022), &quot;An exploratory study on the barriers to innovative behavior: the spiteful effect of envy&quot;. Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol. 35 No. 6 pp. 936–960, https://doi.org/10.1108/JOCM-02-2022-0034

Wilkes, D. (2023) Workplace Envy: Exploring the Effect of Envy on Team Communication and Organizational Information Sharing. Open Journal of Business and Management, 11, 1757-1786. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojbm.2023.114099

Yang C and Tang R (2021) Validating the “Two Faces” of Envy: The Effect of Self-Control. Front. Psychol. 12:731451. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.731451

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
The following links provide further background and context to support this book chapter:
* [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/NwGMsgB9mNg Envy: The Ugliest Emotion? Find out the Truth!] (YouTube)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1f9IE3CkB4s How to Stop Comparing Yourself to Others] (YouTube)
* https://www.ted.com/talks/worklife_with_adam_grant_become_friends_with_your_rivals (TedTalk)
* [https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-good-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/ https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-goo-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/] (TedTalk)
* [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/3g0lRfiAXzc Why Workplace Envy Is Secretly Power ? - YouTube] (YouTube)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
&lt;references /&gt;{{DEFAULTSORT:https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2026/Envy_in_the_workplace#Role_of_envy_in_the_workplace}}</text>
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__TOC__

=== Overview ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Zonaspace-coworking-collaboration.jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 1'''. Envy can occur in any workplace.]]

;Case study
Jillian and Anna work for the same consulting firm and are at the same level. Jillian recently completed a project that received recognition from senior leaders and she continues to be praised about it. Anna and Jillian get along well, although Anna has started feeling resentful towards Jillian (see Figure 1). 

Anna recently asked Jillian about the project and what tools she used that could possibly assist with her projects. Jillian mentioned she completed a project management course that really changed the way she approaches projects to ensure all milestones are delivered on time and on budget. 

Anna enrols in the same project management course immediately. This is an example of benign envy. By feeling envy towards Jillian, it has motivated Anna to take action to improve herself. With Anna developing her project management skills, this will impact the team and consulting firm in a positive way encouraging extraordinary results. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

[[wikipedia:Envy|Envy]] is a powerful [[emotion]] that drives different behaviours (Yang &amp; Tang, 2021). It can be described as the bitterness or anger you feel when others receive what you deeply or unconsciously desire. In many workplaces, it is human nature for an individual to measure and compare themselves to those that are being recognised or seem more valued than they are. These [[wikipedia:Comparison|comparisons]] can trigger workplace envy, especially when someone feels they are inferior to others. According to Duffy et al (2021), over the last 25 years, there has been growing interest in the [[wikipedia:Phenomenon|phenomenon]] of workplace envy. While every [[wikipedia:Workplace|workplace]] is filled with opportunities for competition and self-comparison, Liu et al (2021), stated it was important to consider the environmental influences and historical timing when looking at workplace envy due to this area of research constantly [[wiktionary:evolving|evolving]].  

Workplace envy is a common emotion that occurs across a variety of workplace situations although experiences can vary in intensity and frequency and can transform into behavioural reactions. In a competitive work environment, it can affect all levels of the organisation although, when left to manifest, it can tarnish collaboration and disrupt performance overall. 

This book chapter describes workplace envy, details the different types of workplace envy, its link to [[wikipedia:Motivation|motivation]], its relationship to [[wikipedia:Self-efficacy|self-efficacy]] and [[wikipedia:Social_comparison_theory|social comparison theory]] and discusses the role it plays in [[wikipedia:Work_behavior|workplace behaviour]]. 

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* What is the role of envy in the workplace?
* What is the difference between malicious envy and benign envy? 
* What causes envy and how is it linked to motivation?
* What is the relationship between envy and self-efficacy?
* What is the relationship between envy and social comparison theory?


{{RoundBoxBottom}}
== Role of envy in the workplace ==

There are many causes of envy in the workplace. It can emerge when an employee notices that a colleague has achieved something they desire, such as recognition, a reward, a promotion or an opportunity. It can occur in any workplace where employees constantly compare their performance or progress to those around them, these comparisons can easily activate feelings of workplace envy.   

Through guidance, leadership and intervention, envy can be used as a workplace 'tool' to drive [[wikipedia:Positive_psychology|positive]] behaviour (Liu et al, 2021). However, it can also lead to people copying or supporting a boss's [[wikipedia:Negative_affectivity|negative]] behaviour and cause others to be left out or ignored. It also reduces people's willingness to share new ideas or be innovative (Walter et al, 2022).   

'''How leadership can help'''  

When envy is high in the workplace, innovation drops because employees may hold back their ideas or leave the organisation entirely. It is important for leadership to understand how workplace envy works and learn how to manage negative emotions within their teams. By doing this, they can create a healthy work environment for innovation to grow which will in turn have a positive effect on team culture (Walter et al, 2022).   
== Benign versus malicious envy ==
Workplace envy can be either [https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benign benign] or [[wikipedia:Spite_(sentiment)|malicious.]] Even though they both start with the same feeling of [[wiktionary:inferior#English|inferiority]], they can lead to different reactions (Crusius et al, 2021). Benign envy creates an urge for people to grow while malicious envy leads to negative thoughts or actions that aims to bring a person down (see Table 1).  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Scenario:'''

Jon and Sam have worked together for a long time. They both applied for a promotion within the team recently, Jon was successful and Sam missed out. 

Since then, Sam has started treating Jon unfairly. In meetings, Sam makes negative comments about Jon's ideas. During team lunches, Sam leaves Jon out on purpose. Each day, Sam's behaviour becomes more unfriendly and hurtful.

This is an example of malicious envy. Sam is feeling envious of Jon and is trying to harm and put him down. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}The following table outlines the difference between benign and malicious envy in the workplace.

'''Table 1.'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!
! Benign Envy
! Malicious Envy
|-
| Definition
| Envy that motivates self‑improvement.
| Envy that manifests when someone feels threatened or unable to match another’s achievements.
|-
| Emotional Response
| Encourages growth, motivation and learning.
| Creates feelings of resentment, threat, or inferiority.
|-
| Typical Behaviours
| Working harder, learning new skills, seeking growth or development opportunities.
| Exclusion, gossip, criticism or subtle sabotage.
|-
| Impact on Workplace Culture
| Strengthens workplace culture through healthy competition and personal development.
| Damages trust, teamwork, morale, and can escalate into workplace conflict and create a toxic culture.
|-
| Outcome
| Positive: supports improvement and collaboration.
| Negative: undermines relationships and workplace functioning.
|}

'''Quiz questions.''' Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Benign envy is associated with positive emotions and encourages positive behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Malicious envy is associated with negative emotions and encourages negative behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Relationship between envy and motivation? ==
Workplace envy shapes motivation in positive and negative ways (see Figure 2). Instead of motivating improvement, envy can move towards an unethical or toxic behaviour to close the [[wikipedia:Status_attainment|status]] gap between the envied person and the envier.       

==== Benign envy and motivation ====
Benign envy can motivate the envier to improve themselves and move closer to the success they see in others, This motivational push comes from a negative feeling aimed at the self that highlights one's lower standing (Nakai &amp; Numazaki, 2026), This discomfort activates moving-up motivation, encouraging people to set more challenging goals and strive towards the achievements of the envied person. At the same time, the emotional core triggers a distraction-coping motivation where people channel their attention into productive action as a way to manage the uncomfortable feeling. Nakai &amp; Numazaki (2026) reinforces that this self-focused negativity is what transforms benign envy into constructive upward-driving motivation helping people to achieve success.

==== Malicious envy and motivation ====
Malicious envy can reduce motivation and lead to harmful behaviour. Instead of focusing on self-improvement, the envier will try to undermine the person being envied or boost themselves by cheating or creating dysfunctional patterns that affect motivation and workplace relationships (Lange et al, 2018). When someone feels malicious envy, they experience resentment towards the other person and that negativity creates pulling-down motivation which seeks to cause harm or reduce the other person's status (Nakai &amp; Numazaki, 2026). This negative emotion towards the envied person is strongly linked to motivation to damage the other person's position as well as behaviours that try to bring the envied person down. [[File:Happy-smiley-face-and-sad-2048x1536.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Envy can motivate positive or negative behaviour in the workplace.|220x220px]]
==== Loss of motivation due to being envied ====
People who feel they are being envied in the workplace often experience emotions of anger, guilt or anxiety (Koksalet et al, 2026). These feelings can affect their motivation. Because they sense others are comparing themselves to them, they may appear to hide or lay low around the workplace. This can lead to reduced motivation or effort as they try to avoid negative attention. This drop in motivation is a coping strategy to avoid being targeted in the workplace. 

'''Table 2.''' The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model showing the relationship between envy and motivation:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Motivation to improve
(benign envy) 
| Blind spot: Fear based motivation noticed 
by others but not yourself (applies to malicious envy)
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Fear of failure
(malicious envy) 
| Hidden motivation (benign envy)
|}

== Behaviours caused by self-efficacy? ==
Self-efficacy is the mental switch that determines whether envy will lead to a positive or negative behaviour. It is the belief that someone will be able to handle challenges within the workplace when faced with envy (Aydin &amp; Bozkurt, 2022).

==== High self-efficacy ====
If an employee has high self-efficacy, they will cope better with workplace envy. They compare themselves upwards and are then motivated to be more like the person they are envious of. 

==== Low self-efficacy ====

If an employee has low self-efficacy, they will be negatively affected by workplace envy. Downward comparison becomes a better coping strategy for them, which leads to negative behaviours such as bringing someone down or spreading rumours to make them feel better about themselves.

'''Quiz questions.''' Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{What is a common sign of low self-efficacy?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Avoiding tasks because you expect to fail
- Feeling confident you can handle new challenges

{What is a common sign of high self-efficacy?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Avoiding tasks because they appear too hard
+ Confidence in handling challenges
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Relationship between workplace envy and social comparison theory? ==
Social comparison theory explains why individuals tend to compare their opinions and abilities to others which affects how they feel and behave (Han et al, 2022). Feeling threatened in the workplace makes people judge themselves more harshly as they believe they cannot match their colleague's social status or success.

==== Upward comparison ====
Comparing yourself to someone who appears more skilled, more successful or performing at a higher level. By comparing yourself upward to someone can either motivate you develop yourself or can create feelings of envy, stress or pressure when the gap between one employee and another seems unachievable. 

==== Downward comparison ====
Comparing yourself to someone who seems worse off than you, less skilled or less struggling can boost your confidence in the workplace by providing reassurance. It can also foster a delusion or false sense of security.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Call center (8300442093).jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''Figure 3'''. Social Comparison Theory at play in a Call Centre.]]

;Case study
At ReadyCall, everyone's daily call numbers are recorded on a big screen. Ebony is new and she keeps comparing herself to Rick, a senior worker who always has the highest call numbers. Seeing the gap makes Ebony feel stressed and worried she isn't good enough.

Ebony's manager explains that Rick learned his skills over many years and wasn't fast when he first started. After hearing this, Ebony feels better, learns some tips from Rick, and becomes more confident.

This is an example of social comparison theory, where people judge themselves by comparing their performance to others (see Figure 4). 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}


'''Quiz questions.''' Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{What type of social comparison theory is Ebony experiencing?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Upward comparison
- Downward comparison


&lt;/quiz&gt;
;
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}

==Conclusion==
Envy plays a significant role in shaping workplace behaviour because employees constantly observe and compare their progress and recognition and opportunities of those around them. These comparisons can trigger envy which is not just a negative emotion but a complex psychological response influenced by self-efficacy, motivation and social comparison processes. These comparisons highlight an individual's insecurities, making envy an important emotional signal rather than a something negative. When employees feel capable of improving themselves, workplace envy becomes a constructive force that encourages learning, effort and healthy competition. However, workplace envy can also shift into a harmful direction when employees feel threatened, insecure or unable to achieve similar success. In these situations, workplace envy may lead to resentment, withdrawal or undermining behaviour which can disrupt teamwork or damage workplace relationships. By understanding these dynamics, workplaces can respond carefully and recognise the important role envy plays in fostering growth. fairness and healthier interpersonal relationships that will effectively create a positive working culture.
{{tip|Take-home messages:
* Not all workplace envy is negative.
* Envy is an important catalyst for change if driven in a positive way.
* Envy can motivate staff in a constructive way.
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* Envy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2011/Envy|title=Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Envy - Wikiversity|website=en.wikiversity.org|language=en|access-date=2026-08-25}}&lt;/ref&gt; (Book Chapter, 2011) {{ic|See Tutorial 2 for how to create an internal link to a book chapter)
* Jealousy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=|title=|website=|language=|access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt; is not the same as envy (Book Chapter, 2013)
* [[Self-Efficacy]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Aggression in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Aggression in the workplace - Wikiversity]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rivalry in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rivalry in the workplace - Wikiversity]]

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Aydın, G., &amp; Bozkurt, S. (2022). Research on the Role of Self-Efficacy in the Effect of Workplace Envy on Intention to Quit. Istanbul Business Research, 51(2), 627-642. https://doi.org/10.26650/ibr.2022.51.1062932

Crusius J., Thierhoff J., Lange J. (2021). Dispositional greed predicts benign and malicious envy. Personality and Individual Differences, 168, 110361. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110361

Dong, Xue T., Yang W. Chung, Joon H. Park, and Jeong K. Yun. 2026. “Workplace Envy and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour: The Mediating Effect of Cynicism and the Moderating Effect of Organizational Support.” Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences / Revue Canadienne des Sciences de l'Administration: e70020. https://doi.org/10.1002/cjas.70020.

Duffy, M. K., Lee, K., &amp; Adair, E. A. (2021). Workplace envy. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 8, 19–44. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012420-055746

Erdil O., Müceldili B. (2014). The effects of envy on job engagement and turnover intention. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 150(1), 447–454. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.09.050

Han, S., Zhan, Y., Zhang, L., &amp; Mu, R. (2022). You Have Received More Help than I Did and I Envy You: A Social Comparison Perspective on Receiving Help in the Team. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8351. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148351

Köksal, K., Tufan, C., Griffiths, M.D. et al. From perceived workplace envy to deviance: a multi-theoretical model of envy-related workplace behaviors and the moderating role of social courage. Curr Psychol 45, 1052 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-026-09607-3

Lange, J., Paulhus, D. L., &amp; Crusius, J. (2018). Elucidating the Dark Side of Envy: Distinctive Links of Benign and Malicious Envy With Dark Personalities. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 44(4), 601-614. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167217746340

Li M., Xu X., Kwan H. K. (2021). The antecedents and consequences of workplace envy: A meta-analytic review. Asia Pacific Journal of Management. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10490-021-09772-y

Li M, Qin Y, Le J (2025), &quot;Mentoring matters: decoding the impact of downward envy on interpersonal conflict, workplace ostracism, and displaced aggression&quot;. Journal of Managerial Psychology, Vol. 40 No. 1 pp. 67–81, doi: https://doi.org/10.1108/JMP-12-2023-0768

Li, Y., &amp; Wang, S. (2023). &quot;Comparisons are Odious&quot;? - Exploring the Dual Effect of Upward Social Comparison on Workplace Coping Behaviors of Temporary Agency Workers. Psychology research and behavior management, 16, 4251–4265. https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S425946

Liu, H., Geng, J., &amp; Yao, P. (2021). Relationship of Leadership and Envy: How to Resolve Workplace Envy with Leadership-A Bibliometric Review Study. Journal of Intelligence, 9(3), 44. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence9030044

Nakai, A. and Numazaki, M. (2026), The Emotional Nature of Malicious and Benign Envy: Separate Measurements for Emotion and Motivation. Jpn Psychol Res. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpr.12568

Polat, Ş, Yeşil, A. &amp; Afşar Doğrusöz, L. (2024) The relationship between self-efficacy, malicious or benign envy in nurses: A cross-sectional study. International Nursing Review, 71, 832–840. https://doi.org/10.1111/inr.12925

Song, Y., &amp; Zhao, Z. (2022). Social Undermining and Interpersonal Rumination among Employees: The Mediating Role of Being the Subject of Envy and the Moderating Role of Social Support. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8419. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148419

Su, X., &amp; Chen, C. (2023). The Influence of Workplace Envy on Employees’ Knowledge-Hiding Behavior Based on a Comparative Analysis between Generation Cohorts. Behavioral Sciences, 13(9), 716. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs13090716

Walter CE, Au-Yong-Oliveira M (2022), &quot;An exploratory study on the barriers to innovative behavior: the spiteful effect of envy&quot;. Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol. 35 No. 6 pp. 936–960, https://doi.org/10.1108/JOCM-02-2022-0034

Wilkes, D. (2023) Workplace Envy: Exploring the Effect of Envy on Team Communication and Organizational Information Sharing. Open Journal of Business and Management, 11, 1757-1786. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojbm.2023.114099

Yang C and Tang R (2021) Validating the “Two Faces” of Envy: The Effect of Self-Control. Front. Psychol. 12:731451. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.731451

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
The following links provide further background and context to support this book chapter:
* [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/NwGMsgB9mNg Envy: The Ugliest Emotion? Find out the Truth!] (YouTube)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1f9IE3CkB4s How to Stop Comparing Yourself to Others] (YouTube)
* https://www.ted.com/talks/worklife_with_adam_grant_become_friends_with_your_rivals (TedTalk)
* [https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-good-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/ https://ideas.ted.com/do-you-secretly-feel-goo-when-others-stumble-5-ways-to-make-peace-with-this-very-human-emotion/] (TedTalk)
* [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/3g0lRfiAXzc Why Workplace Envy Is Secretly Power ? - YouTube] (YouTube)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
&lt;references /&gt;{{DEFAULTSORT:https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2026/Envy_in_the_workplace#Role_of_envy_in_the_workplace}}</text>
      <sha1>cwen94cik8wvuqjdrpo6697udcmy99n</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
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    <title>Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Irritability</title>
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      <text bytes="25845" sha1="nbhrx714giqx2cki4xdh4fne7yylbko" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Irritability:&lt;br&gt;What is irritability, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be managed?}}
&lt;div align=center&gt;Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].&lt;br&gt;[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.&lt;br&gt;Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).&lt;/div&gt;
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}
[[File:Angry man.svg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. A very irritated man]]

; Imagine this ...

You go to work, feeling refreshed after your morning coffee and ready to tackle whatever challenges get thrown your way. Ten minutes after arriving, your boss assigns you a marketing project to work on. Only, there a catch. You have to work on it with your coworker, Tom. The grumpiest person in your workplace. 

Tom always seems to be in a bad mood. It doesn't matter if the sun is shining or if someone brings in afternoon tea for everyone to share. He always has something negative to say. He will criticise someone for making a small typo and yell at another person for accidently jamming the printer. No matter what, he always seems to be a pin drop away from snapping at someone. You may have gone to work in a good mood, but now you're stuck dreading this project. 

Tom might be someone as someone who struggles with irritability. But what is irritability? Why does it happen, and how can we manage it?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

This chapter covers:

* What the concept of irritability{{g}}, the different types of irritability and what makes irritability different than similar concepts such as aggression.
* Social information theory and how the way we process social cues can influence how irritable we feel
* The translational model and some of the neuroscience behind why we might feel irritable. 
* The negative consequences of irritability such as aggression and mental illness.
* How we can manage and reduce irritability through numerous ways such as reducing stress and using emotional regulation skills 

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

{{ic|Use bullet points as shown in Tutorial 2}}

1. What is irritability?

2. What are some of the different explanations as to why we might become irritable?

3. How can experiencing irritability impact us?

4. What can be done to manage and reduce irritability?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== What is Irritability? ==

* When you think of irritability, you might think of someone who always seems to be on edge and annoyed. Or maybe you see it as a state where you cannot help but yell at everyone around you. But what is the actual definition of irritability? The answer: we do not know. Different researchers in the field of irritability have all given different definitions to what irritability is. To try and fix this, some researchers conducted a concept analysis where they looked at what the concept of irritability to finally condense it into a singular definition. They settled on something similar to irritability being a chronic or temporary state of experiencing increased levels of negative emotions, such as annoyance, along with increased difficulty in controlling emotions (Saatchi et al., 2023). 
* Briefly mention the link between irritability and young people, and how a lot of the research is predominantly done on young people. Let readers know that for this reason, a lot of the concepts in this chapter focus on young people. 

=== What Irritability is Not: ===

Irritability can sometimes be confused for anger and aggression. However, while similar, they are different concepts. 

Much of the research defining [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Anger|anger]] appears to be conducted in the late 20th century. Smedslund (1993) defined anger as an emotion experienced when a person perceives someone they care about, which may include their own self, has received unjust treatment. In contrast, irritability is a state where a person may be more likely to experience anger as well as other negative emotions, but it is not anger itself (Saatchi et al., 2023). 

[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Aggression|Aggression]] on the other hand, refers specifically to a behaviour that is performed with the aim of causing harm to someone else (Anderson &amp; Bushman, 2002). Again, while irritability may increase the chance someone will engage in aggression (Saatchi et al., 2023), they are two separate concepts.  

=== Classifying Irritability ===
Irritability can be classified and sorted in different ways. Some ways to do this include categorising it as tonic or phasic, or alternatively, as normative or abnormal. 

==== Tonic vs Phasic Irritability ====
Irritability can last different lengths of time. A study in 2006 found episodic irritability and chronic irritability to be distinguishable concepts in young people (Leibenluft et al., 2006). This suggests some people may experience irritability for temporary periods of time (e.g. a few hours) while other may feel irritable for years on end. 

Today, episodic and chronic irritability have been referred to through different names, being phasic and tonic irritability respectively. Phasic irritability is described as presenting in outbursts that are out of proportion for a person's age (Leibenluft, 2017). Tonic irritability refers to irritability presenting through a persistent angry mood (Leibenluft, 2017). 

==== Normative vs Abnormal Irritability ====
The dimensional approach of irritability views it as a spectrum, where people can experience mild, or normal levels of irritability all the way to abnormal levels of irritability (Alam et al., 2023). Determining the point at where irritability becomes abnormal can be difficult. However, one way to do this is by assessing the level of impairment accompanying the irritability, with one study using impairment to decide cutoff scores for an irritability screener (Alam et al., 2023). Essentially, it is the question of whether irritability has a large enough negative effect on a person's quality of life or not.  

== Why do we get Irritable? ==

* There are different perspectives researchers can take when explaining the reasons why we get irritable. Some will look at the brain and hypothesise about what might be happening on a biological level. Others might turn to the environment and explain irritability as a reaction to an external event. Below are just a couple of the many theories researchers have created to describe what might make us irritable.
* Potentially might include another theory/approach here such as irritability as a trait or frustration theory 

=== Social Information Processing Theory ===

* Social information processing theory refers to how the way you process social cues may impact on how well you handle a social situation (Dodge &amp; Crick, 1990)
'''Table 1.''' 

The five steps for processing social information 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|'''Step 1'''
|Encode what information is important from the present external cues
|-
|'''Step 2'''
|Represent the encoded information in your long-term memory and interpret it
|-
|'''Step 3'''
|Access one or more potential responses from your memory
|-
|'''Step 4'''
|Choose which response to make based on rules or criteria to evaluate them
|-
|'''Step 5'''
|Make the response
|}
''Note. Table created based on information from Dodge &amp; Crick (1990)''
* Certain ways of processing social cues may result in irritability
** One study found an association between irritability and rating ambiguous face stimuli as having an angry emotional expression (Deveney et al., 2019)

=== Translational Model ===
*The Translational Model is a model that combines previous neuroscience research to explain why young people might experience irritability (Brotman et al., 2017). This model specifically focuses on abnormal irritability, In simple words, this means it is '''not''' talking about the teenager who snaps at their parents after only getting four hours of sleep. It is talking about the children and teenagers who experience irritability to the extent where it starts to cause significant problems in their lives.  
*Irritability in youths is a response to one of the following (Brotman et al., 2017): 
**Being interrupted when trying to achieve a goal (see Frustration theory)  
**Being presented with a potential threat 
*There may be some abnormalities in the brain when processing rewards (Brotman et al., 2017). For example, youths with abnormal irritability might experience a stronger frustration response to not getting a rewards compared with youths who do not struggle with irritability.  
*(Note to self: Maybe consider putting in the figure of the model that was in the journal article?) 

== The Bad Side of Irritability ==

* What are the consequences of being irritable? How can it negatively impact us? Maybe you find yourself snapping at people more often, similar to Tom. Or, maybe you hate the feeling of irritability and feeling it results in a bad day. 

=== Aggression ===

* Discuss the frustration-aggression theory or, alternatively, frustration theory (Amsel, 1992) (as frustration theory seems to be talked about more in terms of irritability in the literature. Still need to check if it links to aggression though). Talk about how being interrupted in the pursuit of a goal may result in frustration and therefore potentially aggression
** Also discuss the link between frustration and irritability, to link irritability to aggression
*Discuss research directly relating irritability to aggression, such as the study conducted by (Perhamus et al., 2024) 
*Why aggression is a negative consequence of irritability. Briefly discuss how aggression might negatively impact relationship with others etc. 

=== Mental Disorders ===

* Research seems to talk a lot about the connection between [[wikipedia:Mental_disorder|mental disorders]] and irritability
* Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder might represent the severe end of irritability 
* Talk about the whole chicken and egg debate. What came first, the irritability or the mental disorder? Did being high in trait irritability increase your risk of meeting criteria for a mental disorder? Or, did you only start feeling irritable when you met criteria for the mental disorder?
** Talk about mood disorders potentially here as an example of feeling irritable because of the mental disorder. 

=== Is Irritability Always a Bad Thing? ===

* Maybe talk about potential positives of irritability? However there doesn't seem to be much research on this. Therefore maybe pose this question to the reader. Also include some research on positives of anger. While not the same concept, it may relate.

== How to Manage Irritability ==

* Now that we know what some of the negative impacts of irritability might be, you might want some ways or methods to manage it. Some of these methods are simple things you can easily implement into your daily life, such as making sure you are getting enough sleep. Others might involved a visit to a therapist to help work through some strategies to reduce the amount of irritability you experience. 

=== Take Care of Your Mind and Body ===
[[File:Bed in hotel room 5.jpg|thumb|Sometimes not getting enough sleep may contribute to feeling irritable]]

* Irritability can be associated with not getting enough sleep (Whiting et al., 2023), therefore, if you get enough sleep it will potentially reduce the chance you will feel irritable.
* Irritability can be associated with not eating enough food (Swami et al., 2022), therefore, if you eat enough food it will potentially reduce the chance you will feel irritable.
* Irritability can be associated with stress (Harrison et al., 2025), therefore if you avoid stressful situations it will potentially reduce the chance you will feel irritable.
=== Emotion Regulation: ===

* Discuss Gross's emotion regulation theory and how it potentially can be applied to regulating irritability (Gross, 1998, as cited in Gross, 2015)
* Talk about studies linking irritability and emotion regulation together 
* Discuss the link between irritability and self-regulatory control processes (Urben et al., 2025) 

=== Therapeutic Interventions ===

* For people with severe or pathological irritability, sometimes intervention in the form of therapy can be helpful
* Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) appears to be the main therapy with research behind it to treat irritability
** Exposure techniques may be helpful, with one study find cognitive behavioural therapy to be helpful in reducing irritability for young people by exposing participants to cues that trigger irritability (Naim et al., 2024)
** A focus on emotional regulation skills may also be helpful, with an indirect link between improving emotional regulation skills through CBT and a reduction in irritability found in one study (Derella et al., 2019)

; Quiz
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Tonic irritability refer to having brief periods of time where you have frequent angry outbursts:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False

{Which of the following options according to this book chapter might help you reduce irritability?:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Getting enough sleep
- Watching a sci-fi TV show
- Filling in your tax return &lt;/quiz&gt;

== Conclusion ==

* Irritability is a temporary or chronic state where you have the tendency to experience unpleasant emotions such as anger that are difficult to manage
* There are many different reasons or causes behind why we might feel irritable, such as how we interpret a social situation or physiological processes happening in the brain
* Irritability can at times have a negative impact on our lives, with it being associated with aggression and mental disorders
* There are numerous way to manage irritability, such as taking care of your body, using emotional regulation skills or seek out therapeutic support. 

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[wikipedia:Irritability|Irritability]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Algeria|Anger]] (Book chapter, 2011) {{ic|Check and correct - doesn't go to a book chapter}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:

{{Hanging indent|1=

Alam, T., Kirk, N., Hirsch, E., Briggs‐Gowan, M., Wakschlag, L. S., Roy, A. K., &amp; Wiggins, J. L. (2023). Characterizing the spectrum of irritability in preadolescence: Dimensional and pragmatic applications. ''International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research'', ''32''(S1), e1988. https://doi.org/10.1002/mpr.1988

Amsel, A. (1992). Frustration theory: Many years later. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''112''(3), 396–399. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.112.3.396

Anderson, C. A., &amp; Bushman, B. J. (2002). Human Aggression. ''Annual Review of Psychology'', ''53'', 27–51. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135231

Brotman, M. A., Kircanski, K., Stringaris, A., Pine, D. S., &amp; Leibenluft, E. (2017). Irritability in Youths: A Translational Model. ''American Journal of Psychiatry'', ''174''(6), 520–532. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2016.16070839

Derella, O. J., Johnston, O. G., Loeber, R., &amp; Burke, J. D. (2019). CBT-Enhanced Emotion Regulation as a Mechanism of Improvement for Childhood Irritability. ''Journal of Clinical Child &amp; Adolescent Psychology'', ''48''(sup1), S146–S154. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2016.1270832

Deveney, C. M., Stoddard, J., Evans, R. L., Chavez, G., Harney, M., &amp; Wulff, R. A. (2019). On defining irritability and its relationship to affective traits and social interpretations. ''Personality and Individual Differences'', 144, 61–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2019.02.031

Dodge, K. A., &amp; Crick, N. R. (1990). Social Information-Processing Bases of Aggressive Behavior in Children. ''Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin'', ''16''(1), 8–22. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167290161002

Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion Regulation: Current Status and Future Prospects. ''Psychological Inquiry'', ''26''(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2014.940781

Harrison, T. J., Silver, J., Calentino, A. E., Mackin, D. M., Finsaas, M. C., Carlson, G., Davila, J., Olino, T. M., &amp; Klein, D. N. (2025). Irritability and stress: Prospective, bidirectional relationships in adolescence. ''Journal of Affective Disorders'', ''372'', 598–607. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2024.12.051

Leibenluft, E. (2017). Pediatric Irritability: A Systems Neuroscience Approach. ''Trends in Cognitive Sciences'', ''21''(4), 277–289. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2017.02.002

Leibenluft, E., Cohen, P., Gorrindo, T., Brook, J. S., &amp; Pine, D. S. (2006). Chronic Versus Episodic Irritability in Youth: ACommunity-Based, Longitudinal Study of Clinical and Diagnostic Associations. ''Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology'', ''16''(4), 456–466. https://doi.org/10.1089/cap.2006.16.456

Naim, R., Dombek, K., German, R. E., Haller, S. P., Kircanski, K., &amp; Brotman, M. A. (2024). An Exposure-Based Cognitive–Behavioral Therapy for Youth with Severe Irritability: Feasibility and Preliminary Efficacy. ''Journal of Clinical Child &amp; Adolescent Psychology'', ''53''(2), 260–276. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2023.2264385

Perhamus, G. R., Ostrov, J. M., &amp; Murray-Close, D. (2024). Aggression and Irritability in Middle Childhood: Between- and Within-Person Associations. 'Journal of Clinical Child &amp; Adolescent Psychology', ''53''(2), 184–198. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2023.2272941

Saatchi, B., Olshansky, E. F., &amp; Fortier, M. A. (2023). Irritability: A concept analysis. ''International Journal of Mental Health Nursing'', ''32''(5), 1193–1210. https://doi.org/10.1111/inm.13140

Smedslund, J. (1993). How Shall the Concept of Anger be Defined? ''Theory &amp; Psychology'', ''3''(1), 5–33. https://doi.org/10.1177/0959354393031001

Swami, V., Hochstöger, S., Kargl, E., &amp; Stieger, S. (2022). Hangry in the field: An experience sampling study on the impact of hunger on anger, irritability, and affect. ''PLoS ONE'', ''17''(7), e0269629. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0269629

Urben, S., Ochoa Williams, A., Ben Jemia, C., Rosselet Amoussou, J., Machado Lazaro, S., Giovannini, J., Abi Kheir, M., Kaess, M., Plessen, K. J., &amp; Mürner-Lavanchy, I. (2025). Understanding irritability through the lens of self-regulatory control processes in children and adolescents: a systematic review. 'European Child &amp; Adolescent Psychiatry', '34'(5), 1497–1509. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-024-02591-8

Whiting, C., Bellaert, N., Deveney, C., &amp; Tseng, W.-L. (2023). Associations between sleep quality and irritability: Testing the mediating role of emotion regulation. ''Personality and Individual Differences'', ''213'', 112322. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2023.112322

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://youngmindsnetwork.com.au/coping-with-irritability-when-everything-gets-on-your-nerves/ Coping with irritability: when everything gets on your nerves] (Young Minds Network) 
* [https://open.spotify.com/episode/3ZeTcHbe9iIdJlrTMqAjIS Minding your Mind podcast episode - irritability] (Spotify) 

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}
[[File:Angry man.svg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. A very irritated man]]

; Imagine this ...

Note to author: Should I change Tom to a teenager or child? to align with research predominately being done on young people?

You go to work, feeling refreshed after your morning coffee and ready to tackle whatever challenges get thrown your way. Ten minutes after arriving, your boss assigns you a marketing project to work on. Only, there a catch. You have to work on it with your coworker, Tom. The grumpiest person in your workplace. 

Tom always seems to be in a bad mood. It doesn't matter if the sun is shining or if someone brings in afternoon tea for everyone to share. He always has something negative to say. He will criticise someone for making a small typo and yell at another person for accidently jamming the printer. No matter what, he always seems to be a pin drop away from snapping at someone. You may have gone to work in a good mood, but now you're stuck dreading this project. 

Tom might be someone as someone who struggles with irritability. But what is irritability? Why does it happen, and how can we manage it?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

This chapter covers:

* What the concept of irritability{{g}}, the different types of irritability and what makes irritability different than similar concepts such as aggression.
* Social information theory and how the way we process social cues can influence how irritable we feel
* The translational model and some of the neuroscience behind why we might feel irritable. 
* The negative consequences of irritability such as aggression and mental illness.
* How we can manage and reduce irritability through numerous ways such as reducing stress and using emotional regulation skills 

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

{{ic|Use bullet points as shown in Tutorial 2}}

1. What is irritability?

2. What are some of the different explanations as to why we might become irritable?

3. How can experiencing irritability impact us?

4. What can be done to manage and reduce irritability?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== What is Irritability? ==

* When you think of irritability, you might think of someone who always seems to be on edge and annoyed. Or maybe you see it as a state where you cannot help but yell at everyone around you. But what is the actual definition of irritability? The answer: we do not know. Different researchers in the field of irritability have all given different definitions to what irritability is. To try and fix this, some researchers conducted a concept analysis where they looked at what the concept of irritability to finally condense it into a singular definition. They settled on something similar to irritability being a chronic or temporary state of experiencing increased levels of negative emotions, such as annoyance, along with increased difficulty in controlling emotions (Saatchi et al., 2023). 
* Briefly mention the link between irritability and young people, and how a lot of the research is predominantly done on young people. Let readers know that for this reason, a lot of the concepts in this chapter focus on young people. 

=== What Irritability is Not: ===

Irritability can sometimes be confused for anger and aggression. However, while similar, they are different concepts. 

Much of the research defining [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Anger|anger]] appears to be conducted in the late 20th century. Smedslund (1993) defined anger as an emotion experienced when a person perceives someone they care about, which may include their own self, has received unjust treatment. In contrast, irritability is a state where a person may be more likely to experience anger as well as other negative emotions, but it is not anger itself (Saatchi et al., 2023). 

[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Aggression|Aggression]] on the other hand, refers specifically to a behaviour that is performed with the aim of causing harm to someone else (Anderson &amp; Bushman, 2002). Again, while irritability may increase the chance someone will engage in aggression (Saatchi et al., 2023), they are two separate concepts.  

=== Classifying Irritability ===
Irritability can be classified and sorted in different ways. Some ways to do this include categorising it as tonic or phasic, or alternatively, as normative or abnormal. 

==== Tonic vs Phasic Irritability ====
Irritability can last different lengths of time. A study in 2006 found episodic irritability and chronic irritability to be distinguishable concepts in young people (Leibenluft et al., 2006). This suggests some people may experience irritability for temporary periods of time (e.g. a few hours) while other may feel irritable for years on end. 

Today, episodic and chronic irritability have been referred to through different names, being phasic and tonic irritability respectively. Phasic irritability is described as presenting in outbursts that are out of proportion for a person's age (Leibenluft, 2017). Tonic irritability refers to irritability presenting through a persistent angry mood (Leibenluft, 2017). 

==== Normative vs Abnormal Irritability ====
The dimensional approach of irritability views it as a spectrum, where people can experience mild, or normal levels of irritability all the way to abnormal levels of irritability (Alam et al., 2023). Determining the point at where irritability becomes abnormal can be difficult. However, one way to do this is by assessing the level of impairment accompanying the irritability, with one study using impairment to decide cutoff scores for an irritability screener (Alam et al., 2023). Essentially, it is the question of whether irritability has a large enough negative effect on a person's quality of life or not.  

== Why do we get Irritable? ==

* There are different perspectives researchers can take when explaining the reasons why we get irritable. Some will look at the brain and hypothesise about what might be happening on a biological level. Others might turn to the environment and explain irritability as a reaction to an external event. Below are just a couple of the many theories researchers have created to describe what might make us irritable.
* Potentially might include another theory/approach here such as irritability as a trait or frustration theory 

=== Social Information Processing Theory ===
Social information processing theory refers to how the way a person processes social cues can impact how effective they are at responding to social situations (McFall, 1982; McFall &amp; Dodge, 1982, as cited in Dodge &amp; Crick 1990). Key processes in this theory include how a person may encode or store information from social cues in their memory, as well as how they chose to respond to the social cue in question. There are five steps on how social information is processed, as set out in Table 1 (Dodge et al. 1986, as cited in Dodge &amp; Crick 1990). 

'''Table 1.''' 

The five steps for processing social information 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|'''Step 1'''
|Encode what information is important from the present external cues
|-
|'''Step 2'''
|Represent the encoded information in your long-term memory and interpret it
|-
|'''Step 3'''
|Access one or more potential responses from your memory
|-
|'''Step 4'''
|Choose which response to make based on rules or criteria to evaluate them
|-
|'''Step 5'''
|Make the response
|}

* Applying the social information theory to irritability. 
* Apply processing steps to Tom?
* Certain ways of processing social cues may result in irritability
** One study found an association between irritability and rating ambiguous face stimuli as having an angry emotional expression (Deveney et al., 2019)

=== Translational Model ===
*The Translational Model is a model that combines previous neuroscience research to explain why young people might experience irritability (Brotman et al., 2017). This model specifically focuses on abnormal irritability, In simple words, this means it is '''not''' talking about the teenager who snaps at their parents after only getting four hours of sleep. It is talking about the children and teenagers who experience irritability to the extent where it starts to cause significant problems in their lives.  
*Irritability in youths is a response to one of the following (Brotman et al., 2017): 
**Being interrupted when trying to achieve a goal (see Frustration theory)  
**Being presented with a potential threat 
*There may be some abnormalities in the brain when processing rewards (Brotman et al., 2017). For example, youths with abnormal irritability might experience a stronger frustration response to not getting a rewards compared with youths who do not struggle with irritability.  
*(Note to self: Maybe consider putting in the figure of the model that was in the journal article?) 

== The Bad Side of Irritability ==

* What are the consequences of being irritable? How can it negatively impact us? Maybe you find yourself snapping at people more often, similar to Tom. Or, maybe you hate the feeling of irritability and feeling it results in a bad day. 

=== Aggression ===

* Discuss the frustration-aggression theory or, alternatively, frustration theory (Amsel, 1992) (as frustration theory seems to be talked about more in terms of irritability in the literature. Still need to check if it links to aggression though). Talk about how being interrupted in the pursuit of a goal may result in frustration and therefore potentially aggression
** Also discuss the link between frustration and irritability, to link irritability to aggression
*Discuss research directly relating irritability to aggression, such as the study conducted by (Perhamus et al., 2024) 
*Why aggression is a negative consequence of irritability. Briefly discuss how aggression might negatively impact relationship with others etc. 

=== Mental Disorders ===

* Research seems to talk a lot about the connection between [[wikipedia:Mental_disorder|mental disorders]] and irritability
* Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder might represent the severe end of irritability 
* Talk about the whole chicken and egg debate. What came first, the irritability or the mental disorder? Did being high in trait irritability increase your risk of meeting criteria for a mental disorder? Or, did you only start feeling irritable when you met criteria for the mental disorder?
** Talk about mood disorders potentially here as an example of feeling irritable because of the mental disorder. 

=== Is Irritability Always a Bad Thing? ===

* Maybe talk about potential positives of irritability? However there doesn't seem to be much research on this. Therefore maybe pose this question to the reader. Also include some research on positives of anger. While not the same concept, it may relate.

== How to Manage Irritability ==

* Now that we know what some of the negative impacts of irritability might be, you might want some ways or methods to manage it. Some of these methods are simple things you can easily implement into your daily life, such as making sure you are getting enough sleep. Others might involved a visit to a therapist to help work through some strategies to reduce the amount of irritability you experience. 

=== Take Care of Your Mind and Body ===
[[File:Bed in hotel room 5.jpg|thumb|Sometimes not getting enough sleep may contribute to feeling irritable]]

* Irritability can be associated with not getting enough sleep (Whiting et al., 2023), therefore, if you get enough sleep it will potentially reduce the chance you will feel irritable.
* Irritability can be associated with not eating enough food (Swami et al., 2022), therefore, if you eat enough food it will potentially reduce the chance you will feel irritable.
* Irritability can be associated with stress (Harrison et al., 2025), therefore if you avoid stressful situations it will potentially reduce the chance you will feel irritable.
=== Emotion Regulation: ===

* Discuss Gross's emotion regulation theory and how it potentially can be applied to regulating irritability (Gross, 1998, as cited in Gross, 2015)
* Talk about studies linking irritability and emotion regulation together 
* Discuss the link between irritability and self-regulatory control processes (Urben et al., 2025) 

=== Therapeutic Interventions ===

* For people with severe or pathological irritability, sometimes intervention in the form of therapy can be helpful
* Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) appears to be the main therapy with research behind it to treat irritability
** Exposure techniques may be helpful, with one study find cognitive behavioural therapy to be helpful in reducing irritability for young people by exposing participants to cues that trigger irritability (Naim et al., 2024)
** A focus on emotional regulation skills may also be helpful, with an indirect link between improving emotional regulation skills through CBT and a reduction in irritability found in one study (Derella et al., 2019)

; Quiz
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Tonic irritability refer to having brief periods of time where you have frequent angry outbursts:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False

{Which of the following options according to this book chapter might help you reduce irritability?:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Getting enough sleep
- Watching a sci-fi TV show
- Filling in your tax return &lt;/quiz&gt;

== Conclusion ==

* Irritability is a temporary or chronic state where you have the tendency to experience unpleasant emotions such as anger that are difficult to manage
* There are many different reasons or causes behind why we might feel irritable, such as how we interpret a social situation or physiological processes happening in the brain
* Irritability can at times have a negative impact on our lives, with it being associated with aggression and mental disorders
* There are numerous way to manage irritability, such as taking care of your body, using emotional regulation skills or seek out therapeutic support. 

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[wikipedia:Irritability|Irritability]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Algeria|Anger]] (Book chapter, 2011) {{ic|Check and correct - doesn't go to a book chapter}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:

{{Hanging indent|1=

Alam, T., Kirk, N., Hirsch, E., Briggs‐Gowan, M., Wakschlag, L. S., Roy, A. K., &amp; Wiggins, J. L. (2023). Characterizing the spectrum of irritability in preadolescence: Dimensional and pragmatic applications. ''International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research'', ''32''(S1), e1988. https://doi.org/10.1002/mpr.1988

Amsel, A. (1992). Frustration theory: Many years later. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''112''(3), 396–399. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.112.3.396

Anderson, C. A., &amp; Bushman, B. J. (2002). Human Aggression. ''Annual Review of Psychology'', ''53'', 27–51. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135231

Brotman, M. A., Kircanski, K., Stringaris, A., Pine, D. S., &amp; Leibenluft, E. (2017). Irritability in Youths: A Translational Model. ''American Journal of Psychiatry'', ''174''(6), 520–532. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2016.16070839

Derella, O. J., Johnston, O. G., Loeber, R., &amp; Burke, J. D. (2019). CBT-Enhanced Emotion Regulation as a Mechanism of Improvement for Childhood Irritability. ''Journal of Clinical Child &amp; Adolescent Psychology'', ''48''(sup1), S146–S154. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2016.1270832

Deveney, C. M., Stoddard, J., Evans, R. L., Chavez, G., Harney, M., &amp; Wulff, R. A. (2019). On defining irritability and its relationship to affective traits and social interpretations. ''Personality and Individual Differences'', 144, 61–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2019.02.031

Dodge, K. A., &amp; Crick, N. R. (1990). Social Information-Processing Bases of Aggressive Behavior in Children. ''Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin'', ''16''(1), 8–22. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167290161002

Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion Regulation: Current Status and Future Prospects. ''Psychological Inquiry'', ''26''(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2014.940781

Harrison, T. J., Silver, J., Calentino, A. E., Mackin, D. M., Finsaas, M. C., Carlson, G., Davila, J., Olino, T. M., &amp; Klein, D. N. (2025). Irritability and stress: Prospective, bidirectional relationships in adolescence. ''Journal of Affective Disorders'', ''372'', 598–607. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2024.12.051

Leibenluft, E. (2017). Pediatric Irritability: A Systems Neuroscience Approach. ''Trends in Cognitive Sciences'', ''21''(4), 277–289. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2017.02.002

Leibenluft, E., Cohen, P., Gorrindo, T., Brook, J. S., &amp; Pine, D. S. (2006). Chronic Versus Episodic Irritability in Youth: ACommunity-Based, Longitudinal Study of Clinical and Diagnostic Associations. ''Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology'', ''16''(4), 456–466. https://doi.org/10.1089/cap.2006.16.456

Naim, R., Dombek, K., German, R. E., Haller, S. P., Kircanski, K., &amp; Brotman, M. A. (2024). An Exposure-Based Cognitive–Behavioral Therapy for Youth with Severe Irritability: Feasibility and Preliminary Efficacy. ''Journal of Clinical Child &amp; Adolescent Psychology'', ''53''(2), 260–276. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2023.2264385

Perhamus, G. R., Ostrov, J. M., &amp; Murray-Close, D. (2024). Aggression and Irritability in Middle Childhood: Between- and Within-Person Associations. 'Journal of Clinical Child &amp; Adolescent Psychology', ''53''(2), 184–198. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2023.2272941

Saatchi, B., Olshansky, E. F., &amp; Fortier, M. A. (2023). Irritability: A concept analysis. ''International Journal of Mental Health Nursing'', ''32''(5), 1193–1210. https://doi.org/10.1111/inm.13140

Smedslund, J. (1993). How Shall the Concept of Anger be Defined? ''Theory &amp; Psychology'', ''3''(1), 5–33. https://doi.org/10.1177/0959354393031001

Swami, V., Hochstöger, S., Kargl, E., &amp; Stieger, S. (2022). Hangry in the field: An experience sampling study on the impact of hunger on anger, irritability, and affect. ''PLoS ONE'', ''17''(7), e0269629. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0269629

Urben, S., Ochoa Williams, A., Ben Jemia, C., Rosselet Amoussou, J., Machado Lazaro, S., Giovannini, J., Abi Kheir, M., Kaess, M., Plessen, K. J., &amp; Mürner-Lavanchy, I. (2025). Understanding irritability through the lens of self-regulatory control processes in children and adolescents: a systematic review. 'European Child &amp; Adolescent Psychiatry', '34'(5), 1497–1509. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-024-02591-8

Whiting, C., Bellaert, N., Deveney, C., &amp; Tseng, W.-L. (2023). Associations between sleep quality and irritability: Testing the mediating role of emotion regulation. ''Personality and Individual Differences'', ''213'', 112322. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2023.112322

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://youngmindsnetwork.com.au/coping-with-irritability-when-everything-gets-on-your-nerves/ Coping with irritability: when everything gets on your nerves] (Young Minds Network) 
* [https://open.spotify.com/episode/3ZeTcHbe9iIdJlrTMqAjIS Minding your Mind podcast episode - irritability] (Spotify) 

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}
[[File:Angry man.svg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. A very irritated man]]

; Imagine this ...

Note to author: Should I change Tom to a teenager or child? to align with research predominately being done on young people?

You go to work, feeling refreshed after your morning coffee and ready to tackle whatever challenges get thrown your way. Ten minutes after arriving, your boss assigns you a marketing project to work on. Only, there a catch. You have to work on it with your coworker, Tom. The grumpiest person in your workplace. 

Tom always seems to be in a bad mood. It doesn't matter if the sun is shining or if someone brings in afternoon tea for everyone to share. He always has something negative to say. He will criticise someone for making a small typo and yell at another person for accidently jamming the printer. No matter what, he always seems to be a pin drop away from snapping at someone. You may have gone to work in a good mood, but now you're stuck dreading this project. 

Tom might be someone as someone who struggles with irritability. But what is irritability? Why does it happen, and how can we manage it?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

This chapter covers:

* What the concept of irritability{{g}}, the different types of irritability and what makes irritability different than similar concepts such as aggression.
* Social information theory and how the way we process social cues can influence how irritable we feel
* The translational model and some of the neuroscience behind why we might feel irritable. 
* The negative consequences of irritability such as aggression and mental illness.
* How we can manage and reduce irritability through numerous ways such as reducing stress and using emotional regulation skills 

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

{{ic|Use bullet points as shown in Tutorial 2}}

1. What is irritability?

2. What are some of the different explanations as to why we might become irritable?

3. How can experiencing irritability impact us?

4. What can be done to manage and reduce irritability?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== What is Irritability? ==

* When you think of irritability, you might think of someone who always seems to be on edge and annoyed. Or maybe you see it as a state where you cannot help but yell at everyone around you. But what is the actual definition of irritability? The answer: we do not know. Different researchers in the field of irritability have all given different definitions to what irritability is. To try and fix this, some researchers conducted a concept analysis where they looked at what the concept of irritability to finally condense it into a singular definition. They settled on something similar to irritability being a chronic or temporary state of experiencing increased levels of negative emotions, such as annoyance, along with increased difficulty in controlling emotions (Saatchi et al., 2023). 
* Briefly mention the link between irritability and young people, and how a lot of the research is predominantly done on young people. Let readers know that for this reason, a lot of the concepts in this chapter focus on young people. 

=== What Irritability is Not: ===

Irritability can sometimes be confused for anger and aggression. However, while similar, they are different concepts. 

Much of the research defining [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Anger|anger]] appears to be conducted in the late 20th century. Smedslund (1993) defined anger as an emotion experienced when a person perceives someone they care about, which may include their own self, has received unjust treatment. In contrast, irritability is a state where a person may be more likely to experience anger as well as other negative emotions, but it is not anger itself (Saatchi et al., 2023). 

[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Aggression|Aggression]] on the other hand, refers specifically to a behaviour that is performed with the aim of causing harm to someone else (Anderson &amp; Bushman, 2002). Again, while irritability may increase the chance someone will engage in aggression (Saatchi et al., 2023), they are two separate concepts.  

=== Classifying Irritability ===
Irritability can be classified and sorted in different ways. Some ways to do this include categorising it as tonic or phasic, or alternatively, as normative or abnormal. 

==== Tonic vs Phasic Irritability ====
Irritability can last different lengths of time. A study in 2006 found episodic irritability and chronic irritability to be distinguishable concepts in young people (Leibenluft et al., 2006). This suggests some people may experience irritability for temporary periods of time (e.g. a few hours) while other may feel irritable for years on end. 

Today, episodic and chronic irritability have been referred to through different names, being phasic and tonic irritability respectively. Phasic irritability is described as presenting in outbursts that are out of proportion for a person's age (Leibenluft, 2017). Tonic irritability refers to irritability presenting through a persistent angry mood (Leibenluft, 2017). 

==== Normative vs Abnormal Irritability ====
The dimensional approach of irritability views it as a spectrum, where people can experience mild, or normal levels of irritability all the way to abnormal levels of irritability (Alam et al., 2023). Determining the point at where irritability becomes abnormal can be difficult. However, one way to do this is by assessing the level of impairment accompanying the irritability, with one study using impairment to decide cutoff scores for an irritability screener (Alam et al., 2023). Essentially, it is the question of whether irritability has a large enough negative effect on a person's quality of life or not.  

== Why do we get Irritable? ==

* There are different perspectives researchers can take when explaining the reasons why we get irritable. Some will look at the brain and hypothesise about what might be happening on a biological level. Others might turn to the environment and explain irritability as a reaction to an external event. Below are just a couple of the many theories researchers have created to describe what might make us irritable.
* Potentially might include another theory/approach here such as irritability as a trait or frustration theory 

=== Social Information Processing Theory ===
Social information processing theory refers to how the way a person processes social cues can impact how effective they are at responding to social situations (McFall, 1982; McFall &amp; Dodge, 1982, as cited in Dodge &amp; Crick 1990). Key processes in this theory include how a person may encode or store information from social cues in their memory, as well as how they chose to respond to the social cue in question. There are five steps on how social information is processed, as set out in Table 1 (Dodge et al. 1986, as cited in Dodge &amp; Crick 1990). 

'''Table 1.''' 

The five steps for processing social information 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|'''Step 1'''
|Encode what information is important from the present external cues
|-
|'''Step 2'''
|Represent the encoded information in your long-term memory and interpret it
|-
|'''Step 3'''
|Access one or more potential responses from your memory
|-
|'''Step 4'''
|Choose which response to make based on rules or criteria to evaluate them
|-
|'''Step 5'''
|Make the response
|}

* This theory can be applied to irritability. The way a person processes social cues in the environment may cause them to become irritable. For example, if a person leaves the house for the day, they may notice people briefly glance at them. If this is processed and interpreted as regular, normal glances, a person may choose to respond by ignoring the looks and carrying about with their day. However, if the person interprets the glances as others judging them, they may experience irritability throughout the day and potentially respond to others through angry responses.  
*
* Numerous studies have investigated how the processing of social cues may influence irritability. One study by Deveney et al., (2019) provided participants multiple scenarios describing characters going through social situations. Participants then had to answer questions on character's behaviour and thinking. The study then found that the higher trait irritability participants reported having, the more likely they were to interpret the social situation as threatening. (put description of what this might mean. E.g. this supports that the way we interpret things may increase irritability, however, it may be the other way round. 
*
* Apply processing steps to Tom?
* Certain ways of processing social cues may result in irritability
** One study found an association between irritability and rating ambiguous face stimuli as having an angry emotional expression (Deveney et al., 2019)

=== Translational Model ===
*The Translational Model is a model that combines previous neuroscience research to explain why young people might experience irritability (Brotman et al., 2017). This model specifically focuses on abnormal irritability, In simple words, this means it is '''not''' talking about the teenager who snaps at their parents after only getting four hours of sleep. It is talking about the children and teenagers who experience irritability to the extent where it starts to cause significant problems in their lives.  
*Irritability in youths is a response to one of the following (Brotman et al., 2017): 
**Being interrupted when trying to achieve a goal (see Frustration theory)  
**Being presented with a potential threat 
*There may be some abnormalities in the brain when processing rewards (Brotman et al., 2017). For example, youths with abnormal irritability might experience a stronger frustration response to not getting a rewards compared with youths who do not struggle with irritability.  
*(Note to self: Maybe consider putting in the figure of the model that was in the journal article?) 

== The Bad Side of Irritability ==

* What are the consequences of being irritable? How can it negatively impact us? Maybe you find yourself snapping at people more often, similar to Tom. Or, maybe you hate the feeling of irritability and feeling it results in a bad day. 

=== Aggression ===

* Discuss the frustration-aggression theory or, alternatively, frustration theory (Amsel, 1992) (as frustration theory seems to be talked about more in terms of irritability in the literature. Still need to check if it links to aggression though). Talk about how being interrupted in the pursuit of a goal may result in frustration and therefore potentially aggression
** Also discuss the link between frustration and irritability, to link irritability to aggression
*Discuss research directly relating irritability to aggression, such as the study conducted by (Perhamus et al., 2024) 
*Why aggression is a negative consequence of irritability. Briefly discuss how aggression might negatively impact relationship with others etc. 

=== Mental Disorders ===

* Research seems to talk a lot about the connection between [[wikipedia:Mental_disorder|mental disorders]] and irritability
* Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder might represent the severe end of irritability 
* Talk about the whole chicken and egg debate. What came first, the irritability or the mental disorder? Did being high in trait irritability increase your risk of meeting criteria for a mental disorder? Or, did you only start feeling irritable when you met criteria for the mental disorder?
** Talk about mood disorders potentially here as an example of feeling irritable because of the mental disorder. 

=== Is Irritability Always a Bad Thing? ===

* Maybe talk about potential positives of irritability? However there doesn't seem to be much research on this. Therefore maybe pose this question to the reader. Also include some research on positives of anger. While not the same concept, it may relate.

== How to Manage Irritability ==

* Now that we know what some of the negative impacts of irritability might be, you might want some ways or methods to manage it. Some of these methods are simple things you can easily implement into your daily life, such as making sure you are getting enough sleep. Others might involved a visit to a therapist to help work through some strategies to reduce the amount of irritability you experience. 

=== Take Care of Your Mind and Body ===
[[File:Bed in hotel room 5.jpg|thumb|Sometimes not getting enough sleep may contribute to feeling irritable]]

* Irritability can be associated with not getting enough sleep (Whiting et al., 2023), therefore, if you get enough sleep it will potentially reduce the chance you will feel irritable.
* Irritability can be associated with not eating enough food (Swami et al., 2022), therefore, if you eat enough food it will potentially reduce the chance you will feel irritable.
* Irritability can be associated with stress (Harrison et al., 2025), therefore if you avoid stressful situations it will potentially reduce the chance you will feel irritable.
=== Emotion Regulation: ===

* Discuss Gross's emotion regulation theory and how it potentially can be applied to regulating irritability (Gross, 1998, as cited in Gross, 2015)
* Talk about studies linking irritability and emotion regulation together 
* Discuss the link between irritability and self-regulatory control processes (Urben et al., 2025) 

=== Therapeutic Interventions ===

* For people with severe or pathological irritability, sometimes intervention in the form of therapy can be helpful
* Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) appears to be the main therapy with research behind it to treat irritability
** Exposure techniques may be helpful, with one study find cognitive behavioural therapy to be helpful in reducing irritability for young people by exposing participants to cues that trigger irritability (Naim et al., 2024)
** A focus on emotional regulation skills may also be helpful, with an indirect link between improving emotional regulation skills through CBT and a reduction in irritability found in one study (Derella et al., 2019)

; Quiz
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Tonic irritability refer to having brief periods of time where you have frequent angry outbursts:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False

{Which of the following options according to this book chapter might help you reduce irritability?:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Getting enough sleep
- Watching a sci-fi TV show
- Filling in your tax return &lt;/quiz&gt;

== Conclusion ==

* Irritability is a temporary or chronic state where you have the tendency to experience unpleasant emotions such as anger that are difficult to manage
* There are many different reasons or causes behind why we might feel irritable, such as how we interpret a social situation or physiological processes happening in the brain
* Irritability can at times have a negative impact on our lives, with it being associated with aggression and mental disorders
* There are numerous way to manage irritability, such as taking care of your body, using emotional regulation skills or seek out therapeutic support. 

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[wikipedia:Irritability|Irritability]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Algeria|Anger]] (Book chapter, 2011) {{ic|Check and correct - doesn't go to a book chapter}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:

{{Hanging indent|1=

Alam, T., Kirk, N., Hirsch, E., Briggs‐Gowan, M., Wakschlag, L. S., Roy, A. K., &amp; Wiggins, J. L. (2023). Characterizing the spectrum of irritability in preadolescence: Dimensional and pragmatic applications. ''International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research'', ''32''(S1), e1988. https://doi.org/10.1002/mpr.1988

Amsel, A. (1992). Frustration theory: Many years later. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''112''(3), 396–399. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.112.3.396

Anderson, C. A., &amp; Bushman, B. J. (2002). Human Aggression. ''Annual Review of Psychology'', ''53'', 27–51. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135231

Brotman, M. A., Kircanski, K., Stringaris, A., Pine, D. S., &amp; Leibenluft, E. (2017). Irritability in Youths: A Translational Model. ''American Journal of Psychiatry'', ''174''(6), 520–532. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2016.16070839

Derella, O. J., Johnston, O. G., Loeber, R., &amp; Burke, J. D. (2019). CBT-Enhanced Emotion Regulation as a Mechanism of Improvement for Childhood Irritability. ''Journal of Clinical Child &amp; Adolescent Psychology'', ''48''(sup1), S146–S154. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2016.1270832

Deveney, C. M., Stoddard, J., Evans, R. L., Chavez, G., Harney, M., &amp; Wulff, R. A. (2019). On defining irritability and its relationship to affective traits and social interpretations. ''Personality and Individual Differences'', 144, 61–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2019.02.031

Dodge, K. A., &amp; Crick, N. R. (1990). Social Information-Processing Bases of Aggressive Behavior in Children. ''Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin'', ''16''(1), 8–22. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167290161002

Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion Regulation: Current Status and Future Prospects. ''Psychological Inquiry'', ''26''(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2014.940781

Harrison, T. J., Silver, J., Calentino, A. E., Mackin, D. M., Finsaas, M. C., Carlson, G., Davila, J., Olino, T. M., &amp; Klein, D. N. (2025). Irritability and stress: Prospective, bidirectional relationships in adolescence. ''Journal of Affective Disorders'', ''372'', 598–607. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2024.12.051

Leibenluft, E. (2017). Pediatric Irritability: A Systems Neuroscience Approach. ''Trends in Cognitive Sciences'', ''21''(4), 277–289. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2017.02.002

Leibenluft, E., Cohen, P., Gorrindo, T., Brook, J. S., &amp; Pine, D. S. (2006). Chronic Versus Episodic Irritability in Youth: ACommunity-Based, Longitudinal Study of Clinical and Diagnostic Associations. ''Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology'', ''16''(4), 456–466. https://doi.org/10.1089/cap.2006.16.456

Naim, R., Dombek, K., German, R. E., Haller, S. P., Kircanski, K., &amp; Brotman, M. A. (2024). An Exposure-Based Cognitive–Behavioral Therapy for Youth with Severe Irritability: Feasibility and Preliminary Efficacy. ''Journal of Clinical Child &amp; Adolescent Psychology'', ''53''(2), 260–276. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2023.2264385

Perhamus, G. R., Ostrov, J. M., &amp; Murray-Close, D. (2024). Aggression and Irritability in Middle Childhood: Between- and Within-Person Associations. 'Journal of Clinical Child &amp; Adolescent Psychology', ''53''(2), 184–198. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2023.2272941

Saatchi, B., Olshansky, E. F., &amp; Fortier, M. A. (2023). Irritability: A concept analysis. ''International Journal of Mental Health Nursing'', ''32''(5), 1193–1210. https://doi.org/10.1111/inm.13140

Smedslund, J. (1993). How Shall the Concept of Anger be Defined? ''Theory &amp; Psychology'', ''3''(1), 5–33. https://doi.org/10.1177/0959354393031001

Swami, V., Hochstöger, S., Kargl, E., &amp; Stieger, S. (2022). Hangry in the field: An experience sampling study on the impact of hunger on anger, irritability, and affect. ''PLoS ONE'', ''17''(7), e0269629. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0269629

Urben, S., Ochoa Williams, A., Ben Jemia, C., Rosselet Amoussou, J., Machado Lazaro, S., Giovannini, J., Abi Kheir, M., Kaess, M., Plessen, K. J., &amp; Mürner-Lavanchy, I. (2025). Understanding irritability through the lens of self-regulatory control processes in children and adolescents: a systematic review. 'European Child &amp; Adolescent Psychiatry', '34'(5), 1497–1509. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-024-02591-8

Whiting, C., Bellaert, N., Deveney, C., &amp; Tseng, W.-L. (2023). Associations between sleep quality and irritability: Testing the mediating role of emotion regulation. ''Personality and Individual Differences'', ''213'', 112322. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2023.112322

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://youngmindsnetwork.com.au/coping-with-irritability-when-everything-gets-on-your-nerves/ Coping with irritability: when everything gets on your nerves] (Young Minds Network) 
* [https://open.spotify.com/episode/3ZeTcHbe9iIdJlrTMqAjIS Minding your Mind podcast episode - irritability] (Spotify) 

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}
[[File:Angry man.svg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. A very irritated man]]

; Imagine this ...

Note to author: Should I change Tom to a teenager or child? to align with research predominately being done on young people?

You go to work, feeling refreshed after your morning coffee and ready to tackle whatever challenges get thrown your way. Ten minutes after arriving, your boss assigns you a marketing project to work on. Only, there a catch. You have to work on it with your coworker, Tom. The grumpiest person in your workplace. 

Tom always seems to be in a bad mood. It doesn't matter if the sun is shining or if someone brings in afternoon tea for everyone to share. He always has something negative to say. He will criticise someone for making a small typo and yell at another person for accidently jamming the printer. No matter what, he always seems to be a pin drop away from snapping at someone. You may have gone to work in a good mood, but now you're stuck dreading this project. 

Tom might be someone as someone who struggles with irritability. But what is irritability? Why does it happen, and how can we manage it?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

This chapter covers:

* What the concept of irritability{{g}}, the different types of irritability and what makes irritability different than similar concepts such as aggression.
* Social information theory and how the way we process social cues can influence how irritable we feel
* The translational model and some of the neuroscience behind why we might feel irritable. 
* The negative consequences of irritability such as aggression and mental illness.
* How we can manage and reduce irritability through numerous ways such as reducing stress and using emotional regulation skills 

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

{{ic|Use bullet points as shown in Tutorial 2}}

1. What is irritability?

2. What are some of the different explanations as to why we might become irritable?

3. How can experiencing irritability impact us?

4. What can be done to manage and reduce irritability?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== What is Irritability? ==

* When you think of irritability, you might think of someone who always seems to be on edge and annoyed. Or maybe you see it as a state where you cannot help but yell at everyone around you. But what is the actual definition of irritability? The answer: we do not know. Different researchers in the field of irritability have all given different definitions to what irritability is. To try and fix this, some researchers conducted a concept analysis where they looked at what the concept of irritability to finally condense it into a singular definition. They settled on something similar to irritability being a chronic or temporary state of experiencing increased levels of negative emotions, such as annoyance, along with increased difficulty in controlling emotions (Saatchi et al., 2023). 
* Briefly mention the link between irritability and young people, and how a lot of the research is predominantly done on young people. Let readers know that for this reason, a lot of the concepts in this chapter focus on young people. 

=== What Irritability is Not: ===

Irritability can sometimes be confused for anger and aggression. However, while similar, they are different concepts. 

Much of the research defining [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Anger|anger]] appears to be conducted in the late 20th century. Smedslund (1993) defined anger as an emotion experienced when a person perceives someone they care about, which may include their own self, has received unjust treatment. In contrast, irritability is a state where a person may be more likely to experience anger as well as other negative emotions, but it is not anger itself (Saatchi et al., 2023). 

[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Aggression|Aggression]] on the other hand, refers specifically to a behaviour that is performed with the aim of causing harm to someone else (Anderson &amp; Bushman, 2002). Again, while irritability may increase the chance someone will engage in aggression (Saatchi et al., 2023), they are two separate concepts.  

=== Classifying Irritability ===
Irritability can be classified and sorted in different ways. Some ways to do this include categorising it as tonic or phasic, or alternatively, as normative or abnormal. 

==== Tonic vs Phasic Irritability ====
Irritability can last different lengths of time. A study in 2006 found episodic irritability and chronic irritability to be distinguishable concepts in young people (Leibenluft et al., 2006). This suggests some people may experience irritability for temporary periods of time (e.g. a few hours) while other may feel irritable for years on end. 

Today, episodic and chronic irritability have been referred to through different names, being phasic and tonic irritability respectively. Phasic irritability is described as presenting in outbursts that are out of proportion for a person's age (Leibenluft, 2017). Tonic irritability refers to irritability presenting through a persistent angry mood (Leibenluft, 2017). 

==== Normative vs Abnormal Irritability ====
The dimensional approach of irritability views it as a spectrum, where people can experience mild, or normal levels of irritability all the way to abnormal levels of irritability (Alam et al., 2023). Determining the point at where irritability becomes abnormal can be difficult. However, one way to do this is by assessing the level of impairment accompanying the irritability, with one study using impairment to decide cutoff scores for an irritability screener (Alam et al., 2023). Essentially, it is the question of whether irritability has a large enough negative effect on a person's quality of life or not.  

== Why do we get Irritable? ==

* There are different perspectives researchers can take when explaining the reasons why we get irritable. Some will look at the brain and hypothesise about what might be happening on a biological level. Others might turn to the environment and explain irritability as a reaction to an external event. Below are just a couple of the many theories researchers have created to describe what might make us irritable.
* Potentially might include another theory/approach here such as irritability as a trait or frustration theory 

=== Social Information Processing Theory ===
Social information processing theory refers to how the way a person processes social cues can impact how effective they are at responding to social situations (McFall, 1982; McFall &amp; Dodge, 1982, as cited in Dodge &amp; Crick 1990). Key processes in this theory include how a person may encode or store information from social cues in their memory, as well as how they chose to respond to the social cue in question. There are five steps on how social information is processed, as set out in Table 1 (Dodge et al. 1986, as cited in Dodge &amp; Crick 1990). 

'''Table 1.''' 

The five steps for processing social information 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|'''Step 1'''
|Encode what information is important from the present external cues
|-
|'''Step 2'''
|Represent the encoded information in your long-term memory and interpret it
|-
|'''Step 3'''
|Access one or more potential responses from your memory
|-
|'''Step 4'''
|Choose which response to make based on rules or criteria to evaluate them
|-
|'''Step 5'''
|Make the response
|}
This theory can be applied to irritability. The way a person processes social cues in the environment may cause them to become irritable. For example, if a person leaves the house for the day, they may notice people briefly glance at them. If this is processed and interpreted as regular, normal glances, a person may choose to respond by ignoring the looks and carrying about with their day. However, if the person interprets the glances as others judging them, they may experience irritability throughout the day and potentially respond to others through angry responses.

Numerous studies have investigated how the processing of social cues may influence irritability. One study by Deveney et al. (2019) provided participants multiple scenarios describing characters going through social situations. Participants then had to answer questions on character's behaviour and thinking. The study then found that the more threatening participants interpreted a social situation as, the more likely they were to have higher trait irritability. These results support the social information processing theory, as it is possible that the tendency to process social situations as threatening may increase a person's irritability. 

Another study examined whether the level of irritability children had would impact whether or not their attention was biased towards angry facial expressions (Salum et al., 2017). It was reported that children who were often irritable had higher attention bias towards angry faces compared to children who were not irritable. These results suggest that at step 1 in the social information processing theory (see Table 1), people high in irritability might attend more on threatening cues compared to those low in irritability, which might contribute to those high levels of irritability. 

However, it is also important to consider that the studies by Deveney et al. (2019) and Salum et al. (2017) cannot confirm that the way people process social situations causes irritability. This is because it might go the other way around, where being irritable is what causes people to process social situations differently. So while social situation processing does appear to play a role in irritability, it is somewhat unclear what that role exactly is.

* Potentially apply this theory to Tom? 

=== Translational Model ===
*The Translational Model is a model that combines previous neuroscience research to explain why young people might experience irritability (Brotman et al., 2017). This model specifically focuses on abnormal irritability, In simple words, this means it is '''not''' talking about the teenager who snaps at their parents after only getting four hours of sleep. It is talking about the children and teenagers who experience irritability to the extent where it starts to cause significant problems in their lives.  
*Irritability in youths is a response to one of the following (Brotman et al., 2017): 
**Being interrupted when trying to achieve a goal (see Frustration theory)  
**Being presented with a potential threat 
*There may be some abnormalities in the brain when processing rewards (Brotman et al., 2017). For example, youths with abnormal irritability might experience a stronger frustration response to not getting a rewards compared with youths who do not struggle with irritability.  
*(Note to self: Maybe consider putting in the figure of the model that was in the journal article?) 

== The Bad Side of Irritability ==

* What are the consequences of being irritable? How can it negatively impact us? Maybe you find yourself snapping at people more often, similar to Tom. Or, maybe you hate the feeling of irritability and feeling it results in a bad day. 

=== Aggression ===

* Discuss the frustration-aggression theory or, alternatively, frustration theory (Amsel, 1992) (as frustration theory seems to be talked about more in terms of irritability in the literature. Still need to check if it links to aggression though). Talk about how being interrupted in the pursuit of a goal may result in frustration and therefore potentially aggression
** Also discuss the link between frustration and irritability, to link irritability to aggression
*Discuss research directly relating irritability to aggression, such as the study conducted by (Perhamus et al., 2024) 
*Why aggression is a negative consequence of irritability. Briefly discuss how aggression might negatively impact relationship with others etc. 

=== Mental Disorders ===

* Research seems to talk a lot about the connection between [[wikipedia:Mental_disorder|mental disorders]] and irritability
* Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder might represent the severe end of irritability 
* Talk about the whole chicken and egg debate. What came first, the irritability or the mental disorder? Did being high in trait irritability increase your risk of meeting criteria for a mental disorder? Or, did you only start feeling irritable when you met criteria for the mental disorder?
** Talk about mood disorders potentially here as an example of feeling irritable because of the mental disorder. 

=== Is Irritability Always a Bad Thing? ===

* Maybe talk about potential positives of irritability? However there doesn't seem to be much research on this. Therefore maybe pose this question to the reader. Also include some research on positives of anger. While not the same concept, it may relate.

== How to Manage Irritability ==

* Now that we know what some of the negative impacts of irritability might be, you might want some ways or methods to manage it. Some of these methods are simple things you can easily implement into your daily life, such as making sure you are getting enough sleep. Others might involved a visit to a therapist to help work through some strategies to reduce the amount of irritability you experience. 

=== Take Care of Your Mind and Body ===
[[File:Bed in hotel room 5.jpg|thumb|Sometimes not getting enough sleep may contribute to feeling irritable]]

* Irritability can be associated with not getting enough sleep (Whiting et al., 2023), therefore, if you get enough sleep it will potentially reduce the chance you will feel irritable.
* Irritability can be associated with not eating enough food (Swami et al., 2022), therefore, if you eat enough food it will potentially reduce the chance you will feel irritable.
* Irritability can be associated with stress (Harrison et al., 2025), therefore if you avoid stressful situations it will potentially reduce the chance you will feel irritable.
=== Emotion Regulation: ===

* Discuss Gross's emotion regulation theory and how it potentially can be applied to regulating irritability (Gross, 1998, as cited in Gross, 2015)
* Talk about studies linking irritability and emotion regulation together 
* Discuss the link between irritability and self-regulatory control processes (Urben et al., 2025) 

=== Therapeutic Interventions ===

* For people with severe or pathological irritability, sometimes intervention in the form of therapy can be helpful
* Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) appears to be the main therapy with research behind it to treat irritability
** Exposure techniques may be helpful, with one study find cognitive behavioural therapy to be helpful in reducing irritability for young people by exposing participants to cues that trigger irritability (Naim et al., 2024)
** A focus on emotional regulation skills may also be helpful, with an indirect link between improving emotional regulation skills through CBT and a reduction in irritability found in one study (Derella et al., 2019)

; Quiz
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Tonic irritability refer to having brief periods of time where you have frequent angry outbursts:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False

{Which of the following options according to this book chapter might help you reduce irritability?:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Getting enough sleep
- Watching a sci-fi TV show
- Filling in your tax return &lt;/quiz&gt;

== Conclusion ==

* Irritability is a temporary or chronic state where you have the tendency to experience unpleasant emotions such as anger that are difficult to manage
* There are many different reasons or causes behind why we might feel irritable, such as how we interpret a social situation or physiological processes happening in the brain
* Irritability can at times have a negative impact on our lives, with it being associated with aggression and mental disorders
* There are numerous way to manage irritability, such as taking care of your body, using emotional regulation skills or seek out therapeutic support. 

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[wikipedia:Irritability|Irritability]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Algeria|Anger]] (Book chapter, 2011) {{ic|Check and correct - doesn't go to a book chapter}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:

{{Hanging indent|1=

Alam, T., Kirk, N., Hirsch, E., Briggs‐Gowan, M., Wakschlag, L. S., Roy, A. K., &amp; Wiggins, J. L. (2023). Characterizing the spectrum of irritability in preadolescence: Dimensional and pragmatic applications. ''International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research'', ''32''(S1), e1988. https://doi.org/10.1002/mpr.1988

Amsel, A. (1992). Frustration theory: Many years later. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''112''(3), 396–399. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.112.3.396

Anderson, C. A., &amp; Bushman, B. J. (2002). Human Aggression. ''Annual Review of Psychology'', ''53'', 27–51. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135231

Brotman, M. A., Kircanski, K., Stringaris, A., Pine, D. S., &amp; Leibenluft, E. (2017). Irritability in Youths: A Translational Model. ''American Journal of Psychiatry'', ''174''(6), 520–532. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2016.16070839

Derella, O. J., Johnston, O. G., Loeber, R., &amp; Burke, J. D. (2019). CBT-Enhanced Emotion Regulation as a Mechanism of Improvement for Childhood Irritability. ''Journal of Clinical Child &amp; Adolescent Psychology'', ''48''(sup1), S146–S154. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2016.1270832

Deveney, C. M., Roule A. L., Wulff R. A. (2019). Trait irritability and social cue identification and interpretation in young adult females. ''Personality and Individual Differences'', 156, Article 109751. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2019.109751

Dodge, K. A., &amp; Crick, N. R. (1990). Social Information-Processing Bases of Aggressive Behavior in Children. ''Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin'', ''16''(1), 8–22. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167290161002

Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion Regulation: Current Status and Future Prospects. ''Psychological Inquiry'', ''26''(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2014.940781

Harrison, T. J., Silver, J., Calentino, A. E., Mackin, D. M., Finsaas, M. C., Carlson, G., Davila, J., Olino, T. M., &amp; Klein, D. N. (2025). Irritability and stress: Prospective, bidirectional relationships in adolescence. ''Journal of Affective Disorders'', ''372'', 598–607. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2024.12.051

Leibenluft, E. (2017). Pediatric Irritability: A Systems Neuroscience Approach. ''Trends in Cognitive Sciences'', ''21''(4), 277–289. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2017.02.002

Leibenluft, E., Cohen, P., Gorrindo, T., Brook, J. S., &amp; Pine, D. S. (2006). Chronic Versus Episodic Irritability in Youth: ACommunity-Based, Longitudinal Study of Clinical and Diagnostic Associations. ''Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology'', ''16''(4), 456–466. https://doi.org/10.1089/cap.2006.16.456

Naim, R., Dombek, K., German, R. E., Haller, S. P., Kircanski, K., &amp; Brotman, M. A. (2024). An Exposure-Based Cognitive–Behavioral Therapy for Youth with Severe Irritability: Feasibility and Preliminary Efficacy. ''Journal of Clinical Child &amp; Adolescent Psychology'', ''53''(2), 260–276. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2023.2264385

Perhamus, G. R., Ostrov, J. M., &amp; Murray-Close, D. (2024). Aggression and Irritability in Middle Childhood: Between- and Within-Person Associations. 'Journal of Clinical Child &amp; Adolescent Psychology', ''53''(2), 184–198. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2023.2272941

Saatchi, B., Olshansky, E. F., &amp; Fortier, M. A. (2023). Irritability: A concept analysis. ''International Journal of Mental Health Nursing'', ''32''(5), 1193–1210. https://doi.org/10.1111/inm.13140

Smedslund, J. (1993). How Shall the Concept of Anger be Defined? ''Theory &amp; Psychology'', ''3''(1), 5–33. https://doi.org/10.1177/0959354393031001

Swami, V., Hochstöger, S., Kargl, E., &amp; Stieger, S. (2022). Hangry in the field: An experience sampling study on the impact of hunger on anger, irritability, and affect. ''PLoS ONE'', ''17''(7), e0269629. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0269629

Urben, S., Ochoa Williams, A., Ben Jemia, C., Rosselet Amoussou, J., Machado Lazaro, S., Giovannini, J., Abi Kheir, M., Kaess, M., Plessen, K. J., &amp; Mürner-Lavanchy, I. (2025). Understanding irritability through the lens of self-regulatory control processes in children and adolescents: a systematic review. 'European Child &amp; Adolescent Psychiatry', '34'(5), 1497–1509. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-024-02591-8

Whiting, C., Bellaert, N., Deveney, C., &amp; Tseng, W.-L. (2023). Associations between sleep quality and irritability: Testing the mediating role of emotion regulation. ''Personality and Individual Differences'', ''213'', 112322. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2023.112322

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://youngmindsnetwork.com.au/coping-with-irritability-when-everything-gets-on-your-nerves/ Coping with irritability: when everything gets on your nerves] (Young Minds Network) 
* [https://open.spotify.com/episode/3ZeTcHbe9iIdJlrTMqAjIS Minding your Mind podcast episode - irritability] (Spotify) 

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

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&lt;div align=center&gt;Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].&lt;br&gt;[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.&lt;br&gt;Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).&lt;/div&gt;
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}
[[File:Angry man.svg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. A very irritated man]]

; Imagine this ...

Note to author: Should I change Tom to a teenager or child? to align with research predominately being done on young people?

You go to work, feeling refreshed after your morning coffee and ready to tackle whatever challenges get thrown your way. Ten minutes after arriving, your boss assigns you a marketing project to work on. Only, there a catch. You have to work on it with your coworker, Tom. The grumpiest person in your workplace. 

Tom always seems to be in a bad mood. It doesn't matter if the sun is shining or if someone brings in afternoon tea for everyone to share. He always has something negative to say. He will criticise someone for making a small typo and yell at another person for accidently jamming the printer. No matter what, he always seems to be a pin drop away from snapping at someone. You may have gone to work in a good mood, but now you're stuck dreading this project. 

Tom might be someone as someone who struggles with irritability. But what is irritability? Why does it happen, and how can we manage it?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

This chapter covers:

* What the concept of irritability{{g}}, the different types of irritability and what makes irritability different than similar concepts such as aggression.
* Social information theory and how the way we process social cues can influence how irritable we feel
* The translational model and some of the neuroscience behind why we might feel irritable. 
* The negative consequences of irritability such as aggression and mental illness.
* How we can manage and reduce irritability through numerous ways such as reducing stress and using emotional regulation skills 

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

{{ic|Use bullet points as shown in Tutorial 2}}

1. What is irritability?

2. What are some of the different explanations as to why we might become irritable?

3. How can experiencing irritability impact us?

4. What can be done to manage and reduce irritability?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== What is Irritability? ==

* When you think of irritability, you might think of someone who always seems to be on edge and annoyed. Or maybe you see it as a state where you cannot help but yell at everyone around you. But what is the actual definition of irritability? The answer: we do not know. Different researchers in the field of irritability have all given different definitions to what irritability is. To try and fix this, some researchers conducted a concept analysis where they looked at what the concept of irritability to finally condense it into a singular definition. They settled on something similar to irritability being a chronic or temporary state of experiencing increased levels of negative emotions, such as annoyance, along with increased difficulty in controlling emotions (Saatchi et al., 2023). 
* Briefly mention the link between irritability and young people, and how a lot of the research is predominantly done on young people. Let readers know that for this reason, a lot of the concepts in this chapter focus on young people. 

=== What Irritability is Not: ===

Irritability can sometimes be confused for anger and aggression. However, while similar, they are different concepts. 

Much of the research defining [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Anger|anger]] appears to be conducted in the late 20th century. Smedslund (1993) defined anger as an emotion experienced when a person perceives someone they care about, which may include their own self, has received unjust treatment. In contrast, irritability is a state where a person may be more likely to experience anger as well as other negative emotions, but it is not anger itself (Saatchi et al., 2023). 

[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Aggression|Aggression]] on the other hand, refers specifically to a behaviour that is performed with the aim of causing harm to someone else (Anderson &amp; Bushman, 2002). Again, while irritability may increase the chance someone will engage in aggression (Saatchi et al., 2023), they are two separate concepts.  

=== Classifying Irritability ===
Irritability can be classified and sorted in different ways. Some ways to do this include categorising it as tonic or phasic, or alternatively, as normative or abnormal. 

==== Tonic vs Phasic Irritability ====
Irritability can last different lengths of time. A study in 2006 found episodic irritability and chronic irritability to be distinguishable concepts in young people (Leibenluft et al., 2006). This suggests some people may experience irritability for temporary periods of time (e.g. a few hours) while other may feel irritable for years on end. 

Today, episodic and chronic irritability have been referred to through different names, being phasic and tonic irritability respectively. Phasic irritability is described as presenting in outbursts that are out of proportion for a person's age (Leibenluft, 2017). Tonic irritability refers to irritability presenting through a persistent angry mood (Leibenluft, 2017). 

==== Normative vs Abnormal Irritability ====
The dimensional approach of irritability views it as a spectrum, where people can experience mild, or normal levels of irritability all the way to abnormal levels of irritability (Alam et al., 2023). Determining the point at where irritability becomes abnormal can be difficult. However, one way to do this is by assessing the level of impairment accompanying the irritability, with one study using impairment to decide cutoff scores for an irritability screener (Alam et al., 2023). Essentially, it is the question of whether irritability has a large enough negative effect on a person's quality of life or not.  

== Why do we get Irritable? ==

* There are different perspectives researchers can take when explaining the reasons why we get irritable. Some will look at the brain and hypothesise about what might be happening on a biological level. Others might turn to the environment and explain irritability as a reaction to an external event. Below are just a couple of the many theories researchers have created to describe what might make us irritable.
* Potentially might include another theory/approach here such as irritability as a trait or frustration theory 

=== Social Information Processing Theory ===
Social information processing theory refers to how the way a person processes social cues can impact how effective they are at responding to social situations (McFall, 1982; McFall &amp; Dodge, 1982, as cited in Dodge &amp; Crick 1990). Key processes in this theory include how a person may encode or store information from social cues in their memory, as well as how they chose to respond to the social cue in question. There are five steps on how social information is processed, as set out in Table 1 (Dodge et al. 1986, as cited in Dodge &amp; Crick 1990). 

'''Table 1.''' 

The five steps for processing social information 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|'''Step 1'''
|Encode what information is important from the present external cues
|-
|'''Step 2'''
|Represent the encoded information in your long-term memory and interpret it
|-
|'''Step 3'''
|Access one or more potential responses from your memory
|-
|'''Step 4'''
|Choose which response to make based on rules or criteria to evaluate them
|-
|'''Step 5'''
|Make the response
|}
This theory can be applied to irritability. The way a person processes social cues in the environment may cause them to become irritable. For example, if a person leaves the house for the day, they may notice people briefly glance at them. If this is processed and interpreted as regular, normal glances, a person may choose to respond by ignoring the looks and carrying about with their day. However, if the person interprets the glances as others judging them, they may experience irritability throughout the day and potentially respond to others through angry responses.

Numerous studies have investigated how the processing of social cues may influence irritability. One study by Deveney et al. (2019) provided participants multiple scenarios describing characters going through social situations. Participants then had to answer questions on character's behaviour and thinking. The study then found that the more threatening participants interpreted a social situation as, the more likely they were to have higher trait irritability. These results support the social information processing theory, as it is possible that the tendency to process social situations as threatening may increase a person's irritability. 

Another study examined whether the level of irritability children had would impact whether or not their attention was biased towards angry facial expressions (Salum et al., 2017). It was reported that children who were often irritable had higher attention bias towards angry faces compared to children who were not irritable. These results suggest that at step 1 in the social information processing theory (see Table 1), people high in irritability might attend more on threatening cues compared to those low in irritability, which might contribute to those high levels of irritability. 

However, it is also important to consider that the studies by Deveney et al. (2019) and Salum et al. (2017) cannot confirm that the way people process social situations causes irritability. This is because it might go the other way around, where being irritable is what causes people to process social situations differently. So while social situation processing does appear to play a role in irritability, it is somewhat unclear what that role exactly is.

* Potentially apply this theory to Tom? 

=== Translational Model ===
*The Translational Model is a model that combines previous neuroscience research to explain why young people might experience irritability (Brotman et al., 2017). This model specifically focuses on abnormal irritability, In simple words, this means it is '''not''' talking about the teenager who snaps at their parents after only getting four hours of sleep. It is talking about the children and teenagers who experience irritability to the extent where it starts to cause significant problems in their lives.  
*Irritability in youths is a response to one of the following (Brotman et al., 2017): 
**Being interrupted when trying to achieve a goal (see Frustration theory)  
**Being presented with a potential threat 
*There may be some abnormalities in the brain when processing rewards (Brotman et al., 2017). For example, youths with abnormal irritability might experience a stronger frustration response to not getting a rewards compared with youths who do not struggle with irritability.  
*(Note to self: Maybe consider putting in the figure of the model that was in the journal article?) 

== The Bad Side of Irritability ==

* What are the consequences of being irritable? How can it negatively impact us? Maybe you find yourself snapping at people more often, similar to Tom. Or, maybe you hate the feeling of irritability and feeling it results in a bad day. 

=== Aggression ===

* Discuss the frustration-aggression theory or, alternatively, frustration theory (Amsel, 1992) (as frustration theory seems to be talked about more in terms of irritability in the literature. Still need to check if it links to aggression though). Talk about how being interrupted in the pursuit of a goal may result in frustration and therefore potentially aggression
** Also discuss the link between frustration and irritability, to link irritability to aggression
*Discuss research directly relating irritability to aggression, such as the study conducted by (Perhamus et al., 2024) 
*Why aggression is a negative consequence of irritability. Briefly discuss how aggression might negatively impact relationship with others etc. 

=== Mental Disorders ===

* Research seems to talk a lot about the connection between [[wikipedia:Mental_disorder|mental disorders]] and irritability
* Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder might represent the severe end of irritability 
* Talk about the whole chicken and egg debate. What came first, the irritability or the mental disorder? Did being high in trait irritability increase your risk of meeting criteria for a mental disorder? Or, did you only start feeling irritable when you met criteria for the mental disorder?
** Talk about mood disorders potentially here as an example of feeling irritable because of the mental disorder. 

=== Is Irritability Always a Bad Thing? ===

* Maybe talk about potential positives of irritability? However there doesn't seem to be much research on this. Therefore maybe pose this question to the reader. Also include some research on positives of anger. While not the same concept, it may relate.

== How to Manage Irritability ==

* Now that we know what some of the negative impacts of irritability might be, you might want some ways or methods to manage it. Some of these methods are simple things you can easily implement into your daily life, such as making sure you are getting enough sleep. Others might involved a visit to a therapist to help work through some strategies to reduce the amount of irritability you experience. 

=== Take Care of Your Mind and Body ===
[[File:Bed in hotel room 5.jpg|thumb|Sometimes not getting enough sleep may contribute to feeling irritable]]

* Irritability can be associated with not getting enough sleep (Whiting et al., 2023), therefore, if you get enough sleep it will potentially reduce the chance you will feel irritable.
* Irritability can be associated with not eating enough food (Swami et al., 2022), therefore, if you eat enough food it will potentially reduce the chance you will feel irritable.
* Irritability can be associated with stress (Harrison et al., 2025), therefore if you avoid stressful situations it will potentially reduce the chance you will feel irritable.
=== Emotion Regulation: ===

* Discuss Gross's emotion regulation theory and how it potentially can be applied to regulating irritability (Gross, 1998, as cited in Gross, 2015)
* Talk about studies linking irritability and emotion regulation together 
* Discuss the link between irritability and self-regulatory control processes (Urben et al., 2025) 

=== Therapeutic Interventions ===

* For people with severe or pathological irritability, sometimes intervention in the form of therapy can be helpful
* Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) appears to be the main therapy with research behind it to treat irritability
** Exposure techniques may be helpful, with one study find cognitive behavioural therapy to be helpful in reducing irritability for young people by exposing participants to cues that trigger irritability (Naim et al., 2024)
** A focus on emotional regulation skills may also be helpful, with an indirect link between improving emotional regulation skills through CBT and a reduction in irritability found in one study (Derella et al., 2019)

; Quiz
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Tonic irritability refer to having brief periods of time where you have frequent angry outbursts:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False

{Which of the following options according to this book chapter might help you reduce irritability?:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Getting enough sleep
- Watching a sci-fi TV show
- Filling in your tax return &lt;/quiz&gt;

== Conclusion ==

* Irritability is a temporary or chronic state where you have the tendency to experience unpleasant emotions such as anger that are difficult to manage
* There are many different reasons or causes behind why we might feel irritable, such as how we interpret a social situation or physiological processes happening in the brain
* Irritability can at times have a negative impact on our lives, with it being associated with aggression and mental disorders
* There are numerous way to manage irritability, such as taking care of your body, using emotional regulation skills or seek out therapeutic support. 

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[wikipedia:Irritability|Irritability]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Algeria|Anger]] (Book chapter, 2011) {{ic|Check and correct - doesn't go to a book chapter}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:

{{Hanging indent|1=

Alam, T., Kirk, N., Hirsch, E., Briggs‐Gowan, M., Wakschlag, L. S., Roy, A. K., &amp; Wiggins, J. L. (2023). Characterizing the spectrum of irritability in preadolescence: Dimensional and pragmatic applications. ''International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research'', ''32''(S1), e1988. https://doi.org/10.1002/mpr.1988

Amsel, A. (1992). Frustration theory: Many years later. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''112''(3), 396–399. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.112.3.396

Anderson, C. A., &amp; Bushman, B. J. (2002). Human Aggression. ''Annual Review of Psychology'', ''53'', 27–51. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135231

Brotman, M. A., Kircanski, K., Stringaris, A., Pine, D. S., &amp; Leibenluft, E. (2017). Irritability in Youths: A Translational Model. ''American Journal of Psychiatry'', ''174''(6), 520–532. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2016.16070839

Derella, O. J., Johnston, O. G., Loeber, R., &amp; Burke, J. D. (2019). CBT-Enhanced Emotion Regulation as a Mechanism of Improvement for Childhood Irritability. ''Journal of Clinical Child &amp; Adolescent Psychology'', ''48''(sup1), S146–S154. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2016.1270832

Deveney, C. M., Roule A. L., Wulff R. A. (2019). Trait irritability and social cue identification and interpretation in young adult females. ''Personality and Individual Differences'', 156, Article 109751. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2019.109751

Dodge, K. A., &amp; Crick, N. R. (1990). Social Information-Processing Bases of Aggressive Behavior in Children. ''Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin'', ''16''(1), 8–22. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167290161002

Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion Regulation: Current Status and Future Prospects. ''Psychological Inquiry'', ''26''(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2014.940781

Harrison, T. J., Silver, J., Calentino, A. E., Mackin, D. M., Finsaas, M. C., Carlson, G., Davila, J., Olino, T. M., &amp; Klein, D. N. (2025). Irritability and stress: Prospective, bidirectional relationships in adolescence. ''Journal of Affective Disorders'', ''372'', 598–607. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2024.12.051

Leibenluft, E. (2017). Pediatric Irritability: A Systems Neuroscience Approach. ''Trends in Cognitive Sciences'', ''21''(4), 277–289. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2017.02.002

Leibenluft, E., Cohen, P., Gorrindo, T., Brook, J. S., &amp; Pine, D. S. (2006). Chronic Versus Episodic Irritability in Youth: ACommunity-Based, Longitudinal Study of Clinical and Diagnostic Associations. ''Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology'', ''16''(4), 456–466. https://doi.org/10.1089/cap.2006.16.456

Naim, R., Dombek, K., German, R. E., Haller, S. P., Kircanski, K., &amp; Brotman, M. A. (2024). An Exposure-Based Cognitive–Behavioral Therapy for Youth with Severe Irritability: Feasibility and Preliminary Efficacy. ''Journal of Clinical Child &amp; Adolescent Psychology'', ''53''(2), 260–276. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2023.2264385

Perhamus, G. R., Ostrov, J. M., &amp; Murray-Close, D. (2024). Aggression and Irritability in Middle Childhood: Between- and Within-Person Associations. 'Journal of Clinical Child &amp; Adolescent Psychology', ''53''(2), 184–198. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2023.2272941

Saatchi, B., Olshansky, E. F., &amp; Fortier, M. A. (2023). Irritability: A concept analysis. ''International Journal of Mental Health Nursing'', ''32''(5), 1193–1210. https://doi.org/10.1111/inm.13140

Salum, G. A., Mogg, K., Bradley, B. P., Stringaris, A., Gadelha, A., Pan, P. M., Rohde, L. A., Polanczyk, G. V., Manfro, G. G., Pine, D. S., &amp; Leibenluft, E. (2017). Association between irritability and bias in attention orienting to threat in children and adolescents. ''Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry'', ''58''(5), 595–602. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12659

Smedslund, J. (1993). How Shall the Concept of Anger be Defined? ''Theory &amp; Psychology'', ''3''(1), 5–33. https://doi.org/10.1177/0959354393031001

Swami, V., Hochstöger, S., Kargl, E., &amp; Stieger, S. (2022). Hangry in the field: An experience sampling study on the impact of hunger on anger, irritability, and affect. ''PLoS ONE'', ''17''(7), e0269629. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0269629

Urben, S., Ochoa Williams, A., Ben Jemia, C., Rosselet Amoussou, J., Machado Lazaro, S., Giovannini, J., Abi Kheir, M., Kaess, M., Plessen, K. J., &amp; Mürner-Lavanchy, I. (2025). Understanding irritability through the lens of self-regulatory control processes in children and adolescents: a systematic review. 'European Child &amp; Adolescent Psychiatry', '34'(5), 1497–1509. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-024-02591-8

Whiting, C., Bellaert, N., Deveney, C., &amp; Tseng, W.-L. (2023). Associations between sleep quality and irritability: Testing the mediating role of emotion regulation. ''Personality and Individual Differences'', ''213'', 112322. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2023.112322

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://youngmindsnetwork.com.au/coping-with-irritability-when-everything-gets-on-your-nerves/ Coping with irritability: when everything gets on your nerves] (Young Minds Network) 
* [https://open.spotify.com/episode/3ZeTcHbe9iIdJlrTMqAjIS Minding your Mind podcast episode - irritability] (Spotify) 

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

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&lt;div align=center&gt;Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].&lt;br&gt;[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.&lt;br&gt;Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).&lt;/div&gt;
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}
[[File:Angry man.svg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. A very irritated man]]

; Imagine this ...

Note to author: Should I change Tom to a teenager or child? to align with research predominately being done on young people?

You go to work, feeling refreshed after your morning coffee and ready to tackle whatever challenges get thrown your way. Ten minutes after arriving, your boss assigns you a marketing project to work on. Only, there a catch. You have to work on it with your coworker, Tom. The grumpiest person in your workplace. 

Tom always seems to be in a bad mood. It doesn't matter if the sun is shining or if someone brings in afternoon tea for everyone to share. He always has something negative to say. He will criticise someone for making a small typo and yell at another person for accidently jamming the printer. No matter what, he always seems to be a pin drop away from snapping at someone. You may have gone to work in a good mood, but now you're stuck dreading this project. 

Tom might be someone as someone who struggles with irritability. But what is irritability? Why does it happen, and how can we manage it?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

This chapter covers:

* What the concept of irritability{{g}}, the different types of irritability and what makes irritability different than similar concepts such as aggression.
* Social information theory and how the way we process social cues can influence how irritable we feel
* The translational model and some of the neuroscience behind why we might feel irritable. 
* The negative consequences of irritability such as aggression and mental illness.
* How we can manage and reduce irritability through numerous ways such as reducing stress and using emotional regulation skills 

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

{{ic|Use bullet points as shown in Tutorial 2}}

1. What is irritability?

2. What are some of the different explanations as to why we might become irritable?

3. How can experiencing irritability impact us?

4. What can be done to manage and reduce irritability?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== What is Irritability? ==

* When you think of irritability, you might think of someone who always seems to be on edge and annoyed. Or maybe you see it as a state where you cannot help but yell at everyone around you. But what is the actual definition of irritability? The answer: we do not know. Different researchers in the field of irritability have all given different definitions to what irritability is. To try and fix this, some researchers conducted a concept analysis where they looked at what the concept of irritability to finally condense it into a singular definition. They settled on something similar to irritability being a chronic or temporary state of experiencing increased levels of negative emotions, such as annoyance, along with increased difficulty in controlling emotions (Saatchi et al., 2023). 
* Briefly mention the link between irritability and young people, and how a lot of the research is predominantly done on young people. Let readers know that for this reason, a lot of the concepts in this chapter focus on young people. 

=== What Irritability is Not: ===

Irritability can sometimes be confused for anger and aggression. However, while similar, they are different concepts. 

Much of the research defining [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Anger|anger]] appears to be conducted in the late 20th century. Smedslund (1993) defined anger as an emotion experienced when a person perceives someone they care about, which may include their own self, has received unjust treatment. In contrast, irritability is a state where a person may be more likely to experience anger as well as other negative emotions, but it is not anger itself (Saatchi et al., 2023). 

[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Aggression|Aggression]] on the other hand, refers specifically to a behaviour that is performed with the aim of causing harm to someone else (Anderson &amp; Bushman, 2002). Again, while irritability may increase the chance someone will engage in aggression (Saatchi et al., 2023), they are two separate concepts.  

=== Classifying Irritability ===
Irritability can be classified and sorted in different ways. Some ways to do this include categorising it as tonic or phasic, or alternatively, as normative or abnormal. 

==== Tonic vs Phasic Irritability ====
Irritability can last different lengths of time. A study in 2006 found episodic irritability and chronic irritability to be distinguishable concepts in young people (Leibenluft et al., 2006). This suggests some people may experience irritability for temporary periods of time (e.g. a few hours) while other may feel irritable for years on end. 

Today, episodic and chronic irritability have been referred to through different names, being phasic and tonic irritability respectively. Phasic irritability is described as presenting in outbursts that are out of proportion for a person's age (Leibenluft, 2017). Tonic irritability refers to irritability presenting through a persistent angry mood (Leibenluft, 2017). 

==== Normative vs Abnormal Irritability ====
The dimensional approach of irritability views it as a spectrum, where people can experience mild, or normal levels of irritability all the way to abnormal levels of irritability (Alam et al., 2023). Determining the point at where irritability becomes abnormal can be difficult. However, one way to do this is by assessing the level of impairment accompanying the irritability, with one study using impairment to decide cutoff scores for an irritability screener (Alam et al., 2023). Essentially, it is the question of whether irritability has a large enough negative effect on a person's quality of life or not.  

== Why do we get Irritable? ==

* There are different perspectives researchers can take when explaining the reasons why we get irritable. Some will look at the brain and hypothesise about what might be happening on a biological level. Others might turn to the environment and explain irritability as a reaction to an external event. Below are just a couple of the many theories researchers have created to describe what might make us irritable.
* Potentially might include another theory/approach here such as irritability as a trait or frustration theory 

=== Social Information Processing Theory ===
Social information processing theory refers to how the way a person processes social cues can impact how effective they are at responding to social situations (McFall, 1982; McFall &amp; Dodge, 1982, as cited in Dodge &amp; Crick 1990). Key processes in this theory include how a person may encode or store information from social cues in their memory, as well as how they chose to respond to the social cue in question. There are five steps on how social information is processed, as set out in Table 1 (Dodge et al. 1986, as cited in Dodge &amp; Crick 1990). 

'''Table 1.''' 

The five steps for processing social information 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|'''Step 1'''
|Encode what information is important from the present external cues
|-
|'''Step 2'''
|Represent the encoded information in your long-term memory and interpret it
|-
|'''Step 3'''
|Access one or more potential responses from your memory
|-
|'''Step 4'''
|Choose which response to make based on rules or criteria to evaluate them
|-
|'''Step 5'''
|Make the response
|}
This theory can be applied to irritability. The way a person processes social cues in the environment may cause them to become irritable. For example, if a person leaves the house for the day, they may notice people briefly glance at them. If this is processed and interpreted as regular, normal glances, a person may choose to respond by ignoring the looks and carrying about with their day. However, if the person interprets the glances as others judging them, they may experience irritability throughout the day and potentially respond to others through angry responses.

Numerous studies have investigated how the processing of social cues may influence irritability. One study by Deveney et al. (2019) provided participants multiple scenarios describing characters going through social situations. Participants then had to answer questions on character's behaviour and thinking. The study then found that the more threatening participants interpreted a social situation as, the more likely they were to have higher trait irritability. These results support the social information processing theory, as it is possible that the tendency to process social situations as threatening may increase a person's irritability. 

Another study examined whether the level of irritability children had would impact whether or not their attention was biased towards angry facial expressions (Salum et al., 2017). It was reported that children who were often irritable had higher attention bias towards angry faces compared to children who were not irritable. These results suggest that at step 1 in the social information processing theory (see Table 1), people high in irritability might attend more on threatening cues compared to those low in irritability, which might contribute to those high levels of irritability. 

However, it is also important to consider that the studies by Deveney et al. (2019) and Salum et al. (2017) cannot confirm that the way people process social situations causes irritability. This is because it might go the other way around, where being irritable is what causes people to process social situations differently. So while social situation processing does appear to play a role in irritability, it is somewhat unclear what that role exactly is.

* Potentially apply this theory to Tom? 

=== Translational Model ===
The Translational Model, suggested by Brotman et al. (2017), is a model that combines previous neuroscience research to explain why young people might experience abnormal irritability. It focuses on the processes happening in the brain and how dysfunction in these processes may result in irritability. According to the model, pathological irritability is due to an abnormal response to one or both of the following:
*Frustrative non-reward
*Potential threats 

==== Frustrative non-reward: ====
Frustrative non-reward refers to the response a person or animal might have to a situation where an expected reward was either not received or delayed (Amsel, 1958). 

==== Potential threats ====
*This model specifically focuses on abnormal irritability, In simple words, this means it is '''not''' talking about the teenager who snaps at their parents after only getting four hours of sleep. It is talking about the children and teenagers who experience irritability to the extent where it starts to cause significant problems in their lives.
*Irritability in youths is a response to one of the following (Brotman et al., 2017): 
**Being interrupted when trying to achieve a goal (see Frustration theory)
**Being presented with a potential threat
*There may be some abnormalities in the brain when processing rewards (Brotman et al., 2017). For example, youths with abnormal irritability might experience a stronger frustration response to not getting a rewards compared with youths who do not struggle with irritability.
*(Note to self: Maybe consider putting in the figure of the model that was in the journal article?)

== The Bad Side of Irritability ==

* What are the consequences of being irritable? How can it negatively impact us? Maybe you find yourself snapping at people more often, similar to Tom. Or, maybe you hate the feeling of irritability and feeling it results in a bad day. 

=== Aggression ===

* Discuss the frustration-aggression theory or, alternatively, frustration theory (Amsel, 1992) (as frustration theory seems to be talked about more in terms of irritability in the literature. Still need to check if it links to aggression though). Talk about how being interrupted in the pursuit of a goal may result in frustration and therefore potentially aggression
** Also discuss the link between frustration and irritability, to link irritability to aggression
*Discuss research directly relating irritability to aggression, such as the study conducted by (Perhamus et al., 2024) 
*Why aggression is a negative consequence of irritability. Briefly discuss how aggression might negatively impact relationship with others etc. 

=== Mental Disorders ===

* Research seems to talk a lot about the connection between [[wikipedia:Mental_disorder|mental disorders]] and irritability
* Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder might represent the severe end of irritability 
* Talk about the whole chicken and egg debate. What came first, the irritability or the mental disorder? Did being high in trait irritability increase your risk of meeting criteria for a mental disorder? Or, did you only start feeling irritable when you met criteria for the mental disorder?
** Talk about mood disorders potentially here as an example of feeling irritable because of the mental disorder. 

=== Is Irritability Always a Bad Thing? ===

* Maybe talk about potential positives of irritability? However there doesn't seem to be much research on this. Therefore maybe pose this question to the reader. Also include some research on positives of anger. While not the same concept, it may relate.

== How to Manage Irritability ==

* Now that we know what some of the negative impacts of irritability might be, you might want some ways or methods to manage it. Some of these methods are simple things you can easily implement into your daily life, such as making sure you are getting enough sleep. Others might involved a visit to a therapist to help work through some strategies to reduce the amount of irritability you experience. 

=== Take Care of Your Mind and Body ===
[[File:Bed in hotel room 5.jpg|thumb|Sometimes not getting enough sleep may contribute to feeling irritable]]

* Irritability can be associated with not getting enough sleep (Whiting et al., 2023), therefore, if you get enough sleep it will potentially reduce the chance you will feel irritable.
* Irritability can be associated with not eating enough food (Swami et al., 2022), therefore, if you eat enough food it will potentially reduce the chance you will feel irritable.
* Irritability can be associated with stress (Harrison et al., 2025), therefore if you avoid stressful situations it will potentially reduce the chance you will feel irritable.
=== Emotion Regulation: ===

* Discuss Gross's emotion regulation theory and how it potentially can be applied to regulating irritability (Gross, 1998, as cited in Gross, 2015)
* Talk about studies linking irritability and emotion regulation together 
* Discuss the link between irritability and self-regulatory control processes (Urben et al., 2025) 

=== Therapeutic Interventions ===

* For people with severe or pathological irritability, sometimes intervention in the form of therapy can be helpful
* Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) appears to be the main therapy with research behind it to treat irritability
** Exposure techniques may be helpful, with one study find cognitive behavioural therapy to be helpful in reducing irritability for young people by exposing participants to cues that trigger irritability (Naim et al., 2024)
** A focus on emotional regulation skills may also be helpful, with an indirect link between improving emotional regulation skills through CBT and a reduction in irritability found in one study (Derella et al., 2019)

; Quiz
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Tonic irritability refer to having brief periods of time where you have frequent angry outbursts:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False

{Which of the following options according to this book chapter might help you reduce irritability?:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Getting enough sleep
- Watching a sci-fi TV show
- Filling in your tax return &lt;/quiz&gt;

== Conclusion ==

* Irritability is a temporary or chronic state where you have the tendency to experience unpleasant emotions such as anger that are difficult to manage
* There are many different reasons or causes behind why we might feel irritable, such as how we interpret a social situation or physiological processes happening in the brain
* Irritability can at times have a negative impact on our lives, with it being associated with aggression and mental disorders
* There are numerous way to manage irritability, such as taking care of your body, using emotional regulation skills or seek out therapeutic support. 

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[wikipedia:Irritability|Irritability]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Algeria|Anger]] (Book chapter, 2011) {{ic|Check and correct - doesn't go to a book chapter}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:

{{Hanging indent|1=

Alam, T., Kirk, N., Hirsch, E., Briggs‐Gowan, M., Wakschlag, L. S., Roy, A. K., &amp; Wiggins, J. L. (2023). Characterizing the spectrum of irritability in preadolescence: Dimensional and pragmatic applications. ''International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research'', ''32''(S1), e1988. https://doi.org/10.1002/mpr.1988

Amsel, A. (1958). The role of frustrative nonreward in noncontinuous reward situations. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''55''(2), 102–119. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0043125

Amsel, A. (1992). Frustration theory: Many years later. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''112''(3), 396–399. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.112.3.396

Anderson, C. A., &amp; Bushman, B. J. (2002). Human Aggression. ''Annual Review of Psychology'', ''53'', 27–51. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135231

Brotman, M. A., Kircanski, K., Stringaris, A., Pine, D. S., &amp; Leibenluft, E. (2017). Irritability in Youths: A Translational Model. ''American Journal of Psychiatry'', ''174''(6), 520–532. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2016.16070839

Derella, O. J., Johnston, O. G., Loeber, R., &amp; Burke, J. D. (2019). CBT-Enhanced Emotion Regulation as a Mechanism of Improvement for Childhood Irritability. ''Journal of Clinical Child &amp; Adolescent Psychology'', ''48''(sup1), S146–S154. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2016.1270832

Deveney, C. M., Roule A. L., Wulff R. A. (2019). Trait irritability and social cue identification and interpretation in young adult females. ''Personality and Individual Differences'', 156, Article 109751. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2019.109751

Dodge, K. A., &amp; Crick, N. R. (1990). Social Information-Processing Bases of Aggressive Behavior in Children. ''Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin'', ''16''(1), 8–22. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167290161002

Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion Regulation: Current Status and Future Prospects. ''Psychological Inquiry'', ''26''(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2014.940781

Harrison, T. J., Silver, J., Calentino, A. E., Mackin, D. M., Finsaas, M. C., Carlson, G., Davila, J., Olino, T. M., &amp; Klein, D. N. (2025). Irritability and stress: Prospective, bidirectional relationships in adolescence. ''Journal of Affective Disorders'', ''372'', 598–607. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2024.12.051

Leibenluft, E. (2017). Pediatric Irritability: A Systems Neuroscience Approach. ''Trends in Cognitive Sciences'', ''21''(4), 277–289. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2017.02.002

Leibenluft, E., Cohen, P., Gorrindo, T., Brook, J. S., &amp; Pine, D. S. (2006). Chronic Versus Episodic Irritability in Youth: ACommunity-Based, Longitudinal Study of Clinical and Diagnostic Associations. ''Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology'', ''16''(4), 456–466. https://doi.org/10.1089/cap.2006.16.456

Naim, R., Dombek, K., German, R. E., Haller, S. P., Kircanski, K., &amp; Brotman, M. A. (2024). An Exposure-Based Cognitive–Behavioral Therapy for Youth with Severe Irritability: Feasibility and Preliminary Efficacy. ''Journal of Clinical Child &amp; Adolescent Psychology'', ''53''(2), 260–276. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2023.2264385

Perhamus, G. R., Ostrov, J. M., &amp; Murray-Close, D. (2024). Aggression and Irritability in Middle Childhood: Between- and Within-Person Associations. 'Journal of Clinical Child &amp; Adolescent Psychology', ''53''(2), 184–198. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2023.2272941

Saatchi, B., Olshansky, E. F., &amp; Fortier, M. A. (2023). Irritability: A concept analysis. ''International Journal of Mental Health Nursing'', ''32''(5), 1193–1210. https://doi.org/10.1111/inm.13140

Salum, G. A., Mogg, K., Bradley, B. P., Stringaris, A., Gadelha, A., Pan, P. M., Rohde, L. A., Polanczyk, G. V., Manfro, G. G., Pine, D. S., &amp; Leibenluft, E. (2017). Association between irritability and bias in attention orienting to threat in children and adolescents. ''Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry'', ''58''(5), 595–602. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12659

Smedslund, J. (1993). How Shall the Concept of Anger be Defined? ''Theory &amp; Psychology'', ''3''(1), 5–33. https://doi.org/10.1177/0959354393031001

Swami, V., Hochstöger, S., Kargl, E., &amp; Stieger, S. (2022). Hangry in the field: An experience sampling study on the impact of hunger on anger, irritability, and affect. ''PLoS ONE'', ''17''(7), e0269629. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0269629

Urben, S., Ochoa Williams, A., Ben Jemia, C., Rosselet Amoussou, J., Machado Lazaro, S., Giovannini, J., Abi Kheir, M., Kaess, M., Plessen, K. J., &amp; Mürner-Lavanchy, I. (2025). Understanding irritability through the lens of self-regulatory control processes in children and adolescents: a systematic review. 'European Child &amp; Adolescent Psychiatry', '34'(5), 1497–1509. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-024-02591-8

Whiting, C., Bellaert, N., Deveney, C., &amp; Tseng, W.-L. (2023). Associations between sleep quality and irritability: Testing the mediating role of emotion regulation. ''Personality and Individual Differences'', ''213'', 112322. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2023.112322

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://youngmindsnetwork.com.au/coping-with-irritability-when-everything-gets-on-your-nerves/ Coping with irritability: when everything gets on your nerves] (Young Minds Network) 
* [https://open.spotify.com/episode/3ZeTcHbe9iIdJlrTMqAjIS Minding your Mind podcast episode - irritability] (Spotify) 

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

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&lt;div align=center&gt;Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].&lt;br&gt;[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.&lt;br&gt;Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).&lt;/div&gt;
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}
[[File:Angry man.svg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. A very irritated man]]

; Imagine this ...

Note to author: Should I change Tom to a teenager or child? to align with research predominately being done on young people?

You go to work, feeling refreshed after your morning coffee and ready to tackle whatever challenges get thrown your way. Ten minutes after arriving, your boss assigns you a marketing project to work on. Only, there a catch. You have to work on it with your coworker, Tom. The grumpiest person in your workplace. 

Tom always seems to be in a bad mood. It doesn't matter if the sun is shining or if someone brings in afternoon tea for everyone to share. He always has something negative to say. He will criticise someone for making a small typo and yell at another person for accidently jamming the printer. No matter what, he always seems to be a pin drop away from snapping at someone. You may have gone to work in a good mood, but now you're stuck dreading this project. 

Tom might be someone as someone who struggles with irritability. But what is irritability? Why does it happen, and how can we manage it?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

This chapter covers:

* What the concept of irritability{{g}}, the different types of irritability and what makes irritability different than similar concepts such as aggression.
* Social information theory and how the way we process social cues can influence how irritable we feel
* The translational model and some of the neuroscience behind why we might feel irritable. 
* The negative consequences of irritability such as aggression and mental illness.
* How we can manage and reduce irritability through numerous ways such as reducing stress and using emotional regulation skills 

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

{{ic|Use bullet points as shown in Tutorial 2}}

1. What is irritability?

2. What are some of the different explanations as to why we might become irritable?

3. How can experiencing irritability impact us?

4. What can be done to manage and reduce irritability?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== What is Irritability? ==

* When you think of irritability, you might think of someone who always seems to be on edge and annoyed. Or maybe you see it as a state where you cannot help but yell at everyone around you. But what is the actual definition of irritability? The answer: we do not know. Different researchers in the field of irritability have all given different definitions to what irritability is. To try and fix this, some researchers conducted a concept analysis where they looked at what the concept of irritability to finally condense it into a singular definition. They settled on something similar to irritability being a chronic or temporary state of experiencing increased levels of negative emotions, such as annoyance, along with increased difficulty in controlling emotions (Saatchi et al., 2023). 
* Briefly mention the link between irritability and young people, and how a lot of the research is predominantly done on young people. Let readers know that for this reason, a lot of the concepts in this chapter focus on young people. 

=== What Irritability is Not: ===

Irritability can sometimes be confused for anger and aggression. However, while similar, they are different concepts. 

Much of the research defining [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Anger|anger]] appears to be conducted in the late 20th century. Smedslund (1993) defined anger as an emotion experienced when a person perceives someone they care about, which may include their own self, has received unjust treatment. In contrast, irritability is a state where a person may be more likely to experience anger as well as other negative emotions, but it is not anger itself (Saatchi et al., 2023). 

[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Aggression|Aggression]] on the other hand, refers specifically to a behaviour that is performed with the aim of causing harm to someone else (Anderson &amp; Bushman, 2002). Again, while irritability may increase the chance someone will engage in aggression (Saatchi et al., 2023), they are two separate concepts.  

=== Classifying Irritability ===
Irritability can be classified and sorted in different ways. Some ways to do this include categorising it as tonic or phasic, or alternatively, as normative or abnormal. 

==== Tonic vs Phasic Irritability ====
Irritability can last different lengths of time. A study in 2006 found episodic irritability and chronic irritability to be distinguishable concepts in young people (Leibenluft et al., 2006). This suggests some people may experience irritability for temporary periods of time (e.g. a few hours) while other may feel irritable for years on end. 

Today, episodic and chronic irritability have been referred to through different names, being phasic and tonic irritability respectively. Phasic irritability is described as presenting in outbursts that are out of proportion for a person's age (Leibenluft, 2017). Tonic irritability refers to irritability presenting through a persistent angry mood (Leibenluft, 2017). 

==== Normative vs Abnormal Irritability ====
The dimensional approach of irritability views it as a spectrum, where people can experience mild, or normal levels of irritability all the way to abnormal levels of irritability (Alam et al., 2023). Determining the point at where irritability becomes abnormal can be difficult. However, one way to do this is by assessing the level of impairment accompanying the irritability, with one study using impairment to decide cutoff scores for an irritability screener (Alam et al., 2023). Essentially, it is the question of whether irritability has a large enough negative effect on a person's quality of life or not.  

== Why do we get Irritable? ==

* There are different perspectives researchers can take when explaining the reasons why we get irritable. Some will look at the brain and hypothesise about what might be happening on a biological level. Others might turn to the environment and explain irritability as a reaction to an external event. Below are just a couple of the many theories researchers have created to describe what might make us irritable.
* Potentially might include another theory/approach here such as irritability as a trait or frustration theory 

=== Social Information Processing Theory ===
Social information processing theory refers to how the way a person processes social cues can impact how effective they are at responding to social situations (McFall, 1982; McFall &amp; Dodge, 1982, as cited in Dodge &amp; Crick 1990). Key processes in this theory include how a person may encode or store information from social cues in their memory, as well as how they chose to respond to the social cue in question. There are five steps on how social information is processed, as set out in Table 1 (Dodge et al. 1986, as cited in Dodge &amp; Crick 1990). 

'''Table 1.''' 

The five steps for processing social information 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|'''Step 1'''
|Encode what information is important from the present external cues
|-
|'''Step 2'''
|Represent the encoded information in your long-term memory and interpret it
|-
|'''Step 3'''
|Access one or more potential responses from your memory
|-
|'''Step 4'''
|Choose which response to make based on rules or criteria to evaluate them
|-
|'''Step 5'''
|Make the response
|}
This theory can be applied to irritability. The way a person processes social cues in the environment may cause them to become irritable. For example, if a person leaves the house for the day, they may notice people briefly glance at them. If this is processed and interpreted as regular, normal glances, a person may choose to respond by ignoring the looks and carrying about with their day. However, if the person interprets the glances as others judging them, they may experience irritability throughout the day and potentially respond to others through angry responses.

Numerous studies have investigated how the processing of social cues may influence irritability. One study by Deveney et al. (2019) provided participants multiple scenarios describing characters going through social situations. Participants then had to answer questions on character's behaviour and thinking. The study then found that the more threatening participants interpreted a social situation as, the more likely they were to have higher trait irritability. These results support the social information processing theory, as it is possible that the tendency to process social situations as threatening may increase a person's irritability. 

Another study examined whether the level of irritability children had would impact whether or not their attention was biased towards angry facial expressions (Salum et al., 2017). It was reported that children who were often irritable had higher attention bias towards angry faces compared to children who were not irritable. These results suggest that at step 1 in the social information processing theory (see Table 1), people high in irritability might attend more on threatening cues compared to those low in irritability, which might contribute to those high levels of irritability. 

However, it is also important to consider that the studies by Deveney et al. (2019) and Salum et al. (2017) cannot confirm that the way people process social situations causes irritability. This is because it might go the other way around, where being irritable is what causes people to process social situations differently. So while social situation processing does appear to play a role in irritability, it is somewhat unclear what that role exactly is.

* Potentially apply this theory to Tom? 

=== Translational Model ===
The Translational Model, as described by Brotman et al. (2017), is a model that combines previous neuroscience research to explain why young people might experience abnormal irritability. It focuses on the processes happening in the brain and how dysfunction in these processes may result in irritability. According to the model, pathological irritability is due to an abnormal response to one or both of the following:
*Frustrative non-reward
*Potential threats 

==== Frustrative non-reward: ====
Frustrative non-reward refers to the response a person or animal might have to a situation where an expected reward was either not received or delayed (Amsel, 1958). According to Brotman et al. (2017), abnormal responses to frustrative non-reward may occur due to abnormal processing of rewards. Highly irritable young people may struggle to learn about when rewards are likely to occur and adjust their expectations when situations no longer provide rewards that used to be given. They may then experience higher levels of irritability as they keep getting frustrated due to failing to learn a situation has stopped providing the reward.  

Irritable young people may also experience stronger responses to receiving and not receiving a reward. This could result in events where the expected reward is not received being experienced as more frustrating compared to young people lower in irritability, leading to abnormal irritability. Frustration may also be experienced in a cycle, where in irritable young people, frustration may influence how they respond to rewards, increasing the likelihood of experiencing frustration in the future. Finally, irritable young people may have learned to experience frustration in certain situations, and therefore, be conditioned to experience it again when faced with the situation once again.  

(Note to self. Create image put four ways of abnormal processing of rewards to put here) 

==== Potential threats ====
*1. Attention to threat
*2. Hostile attribution bias
*3. Difficulties processing facial emotions 
*

== The Bad Side of Irritability ==

* What are the consequences of being irritable? How can it negatively impact us? Maybe you find yourself snapping at people more often, similar to Tom. Or, maybe you hate the feeling of irritability and feeling it results in a bad day. 

=== Aggression ===

* Discuss the frustration-aggression theory or, alternatively, frustration theory (Amsel, 1992) (as frustration theory seems to be talked about more in terms of irritability in the literature. Still need to check if it links to aggression though). Talk about how being interrupted in the pursuit of a goal may result in frustration and therefore potentially aggression
** Also discuss the link between frustration and irritability, to link irritability to aggression
*Discuss research directly relating irritability to aggression, such as the study conducted by (Perhamus et al., 2024) 
*Why aggression is a negative consequence of irritability. Briefly discuss how aggression might negatively impact relationship with others etc. 

=== Mental Disorders ===

* Research seems to talk a lot about the connection between [[wikipedia:Mental_disorder|mental disorders]] and irritability
* Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder might represent the severe end of irritability 
* Talk about the whole chicken and egg debate. What came first, the irritability or the mental disorder? Did being high in trait irritability increase your risk of meeting criteria for a mental disorder? Or, did you only start feeling irritable when you met criteria for the mental disorder?
** Talk about mood disorders potentially here as an example of feeling irritable because of the mental disorder. 

=== Is Irritability Always a Bad Thing? ===

* Maybe talk about potential positives of irritability? However there doesn't seem to be much research on this. Therefore maybe pose this question to the reader. Also include some research on positives of anger. While not the same concept, it may relate.

== How to Manage Irritability ==

* Now that we know what some of the negative impacts of irritability might be, you might want some ways or methods to manage it. Some of these methods are simple things you can easily implement into your daily life, such as making sure you are getting enough sleep. Others might involved a visit to a therapist to help work through some strategies to reduce the amount of irritability you experience. 

=== Take Care of Your Mind and Body ===
[[File:Bed in hotel room 5.jpg|thumb|Sometimes not getting enough sleep may contribute to feeling irritable]]

* Irritability can be associated with not getting enough sleep (Whiting et al., 2023), therefore, if you get enough sleep it will potentially reduce the chance you will feel irritable.
* Irritability can be associated with not eating enough food (Swami et al., 2022), therefore, if you eat enough food it will potentially reduce the chance you will feel irritable.
* Irritability can be associated with stress (Harrison et al., 2025), therefore if you avoid stressful situations it will potentially reduce the chance you will feel irritable.
=== Emotion Regulation: ===

* Discuss Gross's emotion regulation theory and how it potentially can be applied to regulating irritability (Gross, 1998, as cited in Gross, 2015)
* Talk about studies linking irritability and emotion regulation together 
* Discuss the link between irritability and self-regulatory control processes (Urben et al., 2025) 

=== Therapeutic Interventions ===

* For people with severe or pathological irritability, sometimes intervention in the form of therapy can be helpful
* Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) appears to be the main therapy with research behind it to treat irritability
** Exposure techniques may be helpful, with one study find cognitive behavioural therapy to be helpful in reducing irritability for young people by exposing participants to cues that trigger irritability (Naim et al., 2024)
** A focus on emotional regulation skills may also be helpful, with an indirect link between improving emotional regulation skills through CBT and a reduction in irritability found in one study (Derella et al., 2019)

; Quiz
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Tonic irritability refer to having brief periods of time where you have frequent angry outbursts:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False

{Which of the following options according to this book chapter might help you reduce irritability?:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Getting enough sleep
- Watching a sci-fi TV show
- Filling in your tax return &lt;/quiz&gt;

== Conclusion ==

* Irritability is a temporary or chronic state where you have the tendency to experience unpleasant emotions such as anger that are difficult to manage
* There are many different reasons or causes behind why we might feel irritable, such as how we interpret a social situation or physiological processes happening in the brain
* Irritability can at times have a negative impact on our lives, with it being associated with aggression and mental disorders
* There are numerous way to manage irritability, such as taking care of your body, using emotional regulation skills or seek out therapeutic support. 

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[wikipedia:Irritability|Irritability]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Algeria|Anger]] (Book chapter, 2011) {{ic|Check and correct - doesn't go to a book chapter}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:

{{Hanging indent|1=

Alam, T., Kirk, N., Hirsch, E., Briggs‐Gowan, M., Wakschlag, L. S., Roy, A. K., &amp; Wiggins, J. L. (2023). Characterizing the spectrum of irritability in preadolescence: Dimensional and pragmatic applications. ''International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research'', ''32''(S1), e1988. https://doi.org/10.1002/mpr.1988

Amsel, A. (1958). The role of frustrative nonreward in noncontinuous reward situations. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''55''(2), 102–119. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0043125

Amsel, A. (1992). Frustration theory: Many years later. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''112''(3), 396–399. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.112.3.396

Anderson, C. A., &amp; Bushman, B. J. (2002). Human Aggression. ''Annual Review of Psychology'', ''53'', 27–51. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135231

Brotman, M. A., Kircanski, K., Stringaris, A., Pine, D. S., &amp; Leibenluft, E. (2017). Irritability in Youths: A Translational Model. ''American Journal of Psychiatry'', ''174''(6), 520–532. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2016.16070839

Derella, O. J., Johnston, O. G., Loeber, R., &amp; Burke, J. D. (2019). CBT-Enhanced Emotion Regulation as a Mechanism of Improvement for Childhood Irritability. ''Journal of Clinical Child &amp; Adolescent Psychology'', ''48''(sup1), S146–S154. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2016.1270832

Deveney, C. M., Roule A. L., Wulff R. A. (2019). Trait irritability and social cue identification and interpretation in young adult females. ''Personality and Individual Differences'', 156, Article 109751. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2019.109751

Dodge, K. A., &amp; Crick, N. R. (1990). Social Information-Processing Bases of Aggressive Behavior in Children. ''Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin'', ''16''(1), 8–22. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167290161002

Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion Regulation: Current Status and Future Prospects. ''Psychological Inquiry'', ''26''(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2014.940781

Harrison, T. J., Silver, J., Calentino, A. E., Mackin, D. M., Finsaas, M. C., Carlson, G., Davila, J., Olino, T. M., &amp; Klein, D. N. (2025). Irritability and stress: Prospective, bidirectional relationships in adolescence. ''Journal of Affective Disorders'', ''372'', 598–607. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2024.12.051

Leibenluft, E. (2017). Pediatric Irritability: A Systems Neuroscience Approach. ''Trends in Cognitive Sciences'', ''21''(4), 277–289. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2017.02.002

Leibenluft, E., Cohen, P., Gorrindo, T., Brook, J. S., &amp; Pine, D. S. (2006). Chronic Versus Episodic Irritability in Youth: ACommunity-Based, Longitudinal Study of Clinical and Diagnostic Associations. ''Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology'', ''16''(4), 456–466. https://doi.org/10.1089/cap.2006.16.456

Naim, R., Dombek, K., German, R. E., Haller, S. P., Kircanski, K., &amp; Brotman, M. A. (2024). An Exposure-Based Cognitive–Behavioral Therapy for Youth with Severe Irritability: Feasibility and Preliminary Efficacy. ''Journal of Clinical Child &amp; Adolescent Psychology'', ''53''(2), 260–276. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2023.2264385

Perhamus, G. R., Ostrov, J. M., &amp; Murray-Close, D. (2024). Aggression and Irritability in Middle Childhood: Between- and Within-Person Associations. 'Journal of Clinical Child &amp; Adolescent Psychology', ''53''(2), 184–198. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2023.2272941

Saatchi, B., Olshansky, E. F., &amp; Fortier, M. A. (2023). Irritability: A concept analysis. ''International Journal of Mental Health Nursing'', ''32''(5), 1193–1210. https://doi.org/10.1111/inm.13140

Salum, G. A., Mogg, K., Bradley, B. P., Stringaris, A., Gadelha, A., Pan, P. M., Rohde, L. A., Polanczyk, G. V., Manfro, G. G., Pine, D. S., &amp; Leibenluft, E. (2017). Association between irritability and bias in attention orienting to threat in children and adolescents. ''Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry'', ''58''(5), 595–602. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12659

Smedslund, J. (1993). How Shall the Concept of Anger be Defined? ''Theory &amp; Psychology'', ''3''(1), 5–33. https://doi.org/10.1177/0959354393031001

Swami, V., Hochstöger, S., Kargl, E., &amp; Stieger, S. (2022). Hangry in the field: An experience sampling study on the impact of hunger on anger, irritability, and affect. ''PLoS ONE'', ''17''(7), e0269629. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0269629

Urben, S., Ochoa Williams, A., Ben Jemia, C., Rosselet Amoussou, J., Machado Lazaro, S., Giovannini, J., Abi Kheir, M., Kaess, M., Plessen, K. J., &amp; Mürner-Lavanchy, I. (2025). Understanding irritability through the lens of self-regulatory control processes in children and adolescents: a systematic review. 'European Child &amp; Adolescent Psychiatry', '34'(5), 1497–1509. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-024-02591-8

Whiting, C., Bellaert, N., Deveney, C., &amp; Tseng, W.-L. (2023). Associations between sleep quality and irritability: Testing the mediating role of emotion regulation. ''Personality and Individual Differences'', ''213'', 112322. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2023.112322

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://youngmindsnetwork.com.au/coping-with-irritability-when-everything-gets-on-your-nerves/ Coping with irritability: when everything gets on your nerves] (Young Minds Network) 
* [https://open.spotify.com/episode/3ZeTcHbe9iIdJlrTMqAjIS Minding your Mind podcast episode - irritability] (Spotify) 

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

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__TOC__

== Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:ChatGPT Image of couple watching romantic media together.png|thumb|140x140px|'''Figure 1.''' A couple watching a romantic comedy, illustrating exposure to romantic entertainment. ]]


'''Scenario'''

After a long day, Adam and Eve settle onto the couch to watch a romantic comedy called [[wikipedia:Pretty_Woman|Pretty Woman]]. Throughout the film, they are captivated by the unlikely romance, admire the grand gestures of affection and enjoy the story's happy ending. As the credits roll, Eve jokingly says that &quot;Romantic movies make relationships looks so effortless. I wish real life worked like that&quot;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Although the comment is playful, it raises an important question: How does romantic entertainment influence beliefs and expectations about love and romantic relationships ?    

As romantic films, television programs, music and media have become increasingly accessible, researchers have questioned whether repeated exposure shapes people's beliefs about how love should develop and how relationships should function.

Since the 1930s, romantic films have consistently been among the most popular genres. Between 1995 and 2010, romantic comedy genre was the sixth highest grossing category of films, generating over $10 billion. The popularity of these films has led some academics to theorise on why such films had a large appeal. Academic Galician (2004) argued that people seek romantic content in the media in order to see relationships work despite all obstacles. Individuals seek out content learn about dating and romance (Hefner &amp; Wilson, 2013).

Reality TV has also flourished in recent decades and is produced to suit almost all demographics. Many people tune in because they perceive contestants and their reactions to be authentic or even relatable. Reality dating and dating competition shows such as The Bachelor and Love Island, isolate their participants and encourage the formation of romantic and platonic relationships in absence of familiar people or surroundings (Beaty, 2021).

Romantic entertainment is a common source of information about love and relationships, yet the messages it promotes may not always reflect the reality of a relationship. Understanding how these portrayals influence beliefs and expectations can help individuals engage with romantic media more critically. This chapter explores how romantic entertainment influences beliefs and expectations about love and romantic relationships.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* What are romantic beliefs and relationship expectations and why are they important?
* What romantic ideals and relationship messages are commonly portrayed in romantic entertainment?
* How do psychological processes such as romantic script, parasocial attachment and social comparison shape audience beliefs / perception about love and relationships?
* What are the potential benefits and drawbacks of using romantic entertainment as a source of relation ship knowledge?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Romantic beliefs and relationship expectations ==

==== What is love? ====
[[wikipedia:Love|Love]] is a fundamental aspect of the human experience, one of the most crucial components of intimate relationships. According to Sternberg's triangular theory of love, romantic love consists of three core components: intimacy, desire and decision/ commitment, the intensity of the points varies as a function of relationship duration (''Sorokowski'' ''et al., 2021)''. Romantic love is a nearly universal phenomenon that contributes to human evolution and happiness. Love in romantic relationships is commonly defined as passionate and erotic love, distinguished from love in other types of relationships (parental and friendship) ''(Chen, Xia &amp; Dunne, 2024)'''.'''''

==== Romantic relationships ====
Romantic relationships are a key contributor to overall wellbeing. Forming and maintaining intimate partnerships is an important component of our health and happiness. However there are many factors that affect the likelihood and maintaining a healthy relationship, personality, mental health, beliefs held about relationships.  

==== Romantic ideals / romanticism ====
Romantic ideals refer to a broad set of beliefs about the power of love and what constitutes a successful romantic relationship (''Bell, 1975, as cited in Sprecher &amp; Metts, 1989; Knox &amp; Sporakowski, 1968, as cited in Sprecher &amp; Metts, 1989''). The romantic ideal, originally proposed by Lantz (1968), reflects culturally endorsed beliefs within Western societies about how romantic relationships should form, develop, function, and be maintained. These beliefs represent shared cultural understandings of romance rather than expectations directed towards a specific partner. According to Sprecher and Metts (''1989''), romantic love is characterised by beliefs such as love at first sight, the existence of a single true love, the notion that love can overcome all obstacles, the idealisation of romantic partners, and the belief that individuals should follow their hearts when choosing a partner. The psychological mechanisms underlying this influence are discussed later in the chapter.

More broadly, research commonly identifies four central themes associated with romantic ideals: the belief that love can overcome any obstacle (&quot;love finds a way&quot;), the existence of a soulmate (&quot;one and only&quot;), the idealisation of a romantic partner, and the belief in love at first sight (''Hefner &amp; Wilson, 2013'').
* '''Love finds a way''' 
* '''One and only''' 
* '''Idealisation''' 
* '''Love at first sight'''

Romantic ideals reflect endorsement of a broader romantic ideology rather than feelings towards a specific individual. These beliefs represent  shared assumptions about how love and relationships should develop and function, which individuals may hold before entering a romantic relationship (Sprecher &amp; Metts, 1989). 

== Romantic ideals portrayed in entertainment ==
Romantic ideals are shaped by personal experiences and broader cultural influences; however these beliefs do not develop in isolation. Entertainment  play a significant role in shaping and reinforcing romantic ideals by exposing audiences to idealised portrayals of love, intimacy, and relationship development. Across a range of media formats, romantic entertainment commonly presents idealised depictions of love and relationship development, promoting messages that may differ from the realities of everyday romantic relationships. 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Table 1. Common romantic ideals portrayed in romantic entertainment media
!Romantic ideal
!Description
|-
|Soul mate / one and only
|Belief that there is one perfect partner destined for each person
|-
|Love at first sight
|Belief that genuine love can occur immediately upon meeting
|-
|Idealisation of partner
|Expectation that romantic partners are nearly flawless
|-
|Love conquers all
|Belief that love can overcome obstacles and challenges
|}
The influence of romantic entertainment extends beyond romantic comedies. Disney Princess films frequently incorporate romantic narratives that reinforce many of the same beliefs found in romantic comedy films, including soulmate ideals, idealisation of partners, and the expectation that true love leads to a happy ending (Hefner &amp; Kretz, 2021).

Beyond serving as a source of relationship knowledge, romantic entertainment may also attract audiences through emotional investment in fictional relationships. van Monsjou and Mar (2019) suggest that engagement with fictional romances provides opportunities for individuals to explore romantic experiences, develop understandings of intimacy, and reflect on relationship possibilities without directly experiencing them. Consequently, fictional relationships may serve both entertainment and psychological functions by allowing audiences to engage with romantic themes and relationship dynamics.

Romantic films / rom coms

* soulmates
* grand gestures
* destiny
* love conquers all
* attractive partners
* conflict resolved quickly
* overcoming obstacles
* happily-ever-after ending

=== Reality dating television ===
* accelerated relationship development
* attraction and compatibility
* dating as entertainment

=== Popular music ===
* love songs reinforce cultural ideas about passion, intimacy and commitment 
These findings suggest that media consumption may influence how individuals interpret and apply romantic messages to their own relationships.

== Psychological mechanisms of media influence ==
=== Cultivation theory ===

=== Social cognitive theory ===

Suggests that human behaviour is determined by environmental influences and internal dispositions. Individuals are more likely to imitate models who are similar to themselves.&lt;quiz display=&quot;bold&quot;&gt;
{A woman regularly watches romantic television shows in which husbands are consistently affectionate, attentive and express love through grand gestures. Over time, she becomes dissatisfied with her own husband's lower level of affection. According to Social Exchange Theory, what best explains her dissatisfaction?:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- She has developed a parasocial relationship with the fictional husband
+ She is comparing her relationship to the idealised rewards and expectations portrayed in the media
- She is experiencing attachment insecurity caused by watching romantic television
&lt;/quiz&gt;

=== Romantic scripts and schemas ===
'''Social exchange theory (SET)'''

Social exchange theory provides insight into how media-shaped expectations may affect relationship satisfaction. The theory proposes that individuals evaluate romantic relationships by comparing perceived rewards, such as affection, companionship, and emotional support, against perceived costs, including conflict, compromise, and lost alternatives. Romantic entertainment often emphasises the rewards of relationships while minimising their costs, potentially encouraging unrealistic expectations. As a result, individuals may evaluate their own relationships against idealised media standards and experience dissatisfaction when reality fails to meet those expectations (Banjo, 2002.

== Benefits and drawbacks of romantic entertainment ==
Although it may seem intuitive that holding such romanticised and idealistic beliefs would lead to worse relational outcomes, research actually contradicts this conclusion. The evidence suggests that embracing romanticism can have both positive and negative consequences. A positive effect is that these beliefs may facilitate to the development of romantic relationships because romanticism can act as a rose-coloured filter through which people view early relationship experiences (Lippmann et al., 2014).

=== Potential benefits ===

=== Potential drawbacks ===

==== Social Exchange Theory and relationship expectations ====
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
*
* What is love
*
*
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links Even Disney princess animated genre could be an important source of influence on young viewers perception of reality more specifically their beliefs regarding romantic relationships. Nearly all Disney princess movies feature a romantic component (Hefner &amp; Kretz, 2021). Following the same beliefs as romantic comedy films.

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

=== To what extent should people use romantic entertainment as a guide for real-life relationships? ===
This is essentially your concluding discussion{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:

* [[wikipedia:Soulmate|Soulmate]] (Wikipedia)

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Love|Love]] (Book chapter, 2011)

* [[wikipedia:Parasocial_interaction|Parasocial interaction]] (Wikipedia)


{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Banjo, O. O. (2002). The effects of media consumption on the perception of romantic relationships. Penn State McNair Journal, 9(1), 9-33.

Beaty, L. S. (2021). It’s Love Island, Not Friend Island”: Authenticity and Surveillance in Reality TV, a Literature Review and Content Analysis “. WWU Honors College Senior Projects 456.

Chen, Y., Xia, M., &amp; Dunne, S. (2024). Romantic Love is Not Only “Romantic”: A Grounded Theory Study on Love in Romantic Relationships. The Journal of Psychology, 158(1), 64–83. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.2024.2305442

Hefner, V., &amp; Kretz, V. E. (2021). Does the Glass Slipper Fit?: Disney Princess Films and Relationship Beliefs and Attitudes. Journal of Media Psychology, 33(3), 125–133. https://doi.org/10.1027/1864-1105/a000290

Hefner, V., &amp; Wilson, B. J. (2013). From Love at First Sight to Soul Mate: The Influence of Romantic Ideals in Popular Films on Young People’s Beliefs about Relationships. Communication Monographs, 80(2), 150–175. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1080/03637751.2013.776697

Lippman, J. R., Ward, L. M., &amp; Seabrook, R. C. (2014). Isn’t It Romantic? Differential Associations Between Romantic Screen Media Genres and Romantic Beliefs. Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 3(3), 128–140. https://doi.org/10.1037/ppm0000034

Knee, C. R. (1998). Implicit Theories of Relationships: Assessment and Prediction of Romantic Relationship Initiation, Coping, and Longevity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(2), 360–370. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.74.2.360

Sorokowski, P., Sorokowska, A., Groyecka, A., Aavik, T., Akello, G., Alm,C., Amjad, N., Anjum, A., Asao, K., Atama, C. S., Atamtürk Duyar, D., Ayebare, R., Batres, C., Bendixen, M., Bensafia, A., Bizumic, B., Boussena, M., Buss, D. M., Butovskaya, M., … Sternberg, R. J. (2021). Universality of the Triangular Theory of Love: Adaptation and Psychometric Properties of the Triangular Love Scale in 25 Countries. The Journal of Sex Research, 58(1), 106–115. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2020.1787318

Sprecher, S., &amp; Metts, S. (1999). Romantic Beliefs: Their Influence on Relationships and Patterns of Change Over Time. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 16(6), 834-851. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407599166009

Van Monsjou, E., &amp; Mar, R. A. (2019). Interest and Investment in Fictional Romances. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, 13(4), 431–449. https://doi.org/10.1037/aca0000191

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://olemiss.edu/news/2024/07/romantic-movies-perception/index.html Romance media could alter perceptions of relationships] (University of Mississippi)
* [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/finding-love-the-scientific-take/202411/rom-coms-can-a-movie-genre-impact-our-perceptions-of Rom-coms : Can a movie genre impact our perceptions of love?] (Psychology Today)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

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__TOC__

== Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Entertainment_Media_Romantic_Beliefs_Illustration.png|thumb|140x140px|'''Figure 1.''' A couple watching a romantic comedy, illustrating exposure to romantic entertainment. ]]


'''Scenario'''

After a long day, Adam and Eve settle onto the couch to watch a romantic comedy called [[wikipedia:Pretty_Woman|Pretty Woman]]. Throughout the film, they are captivated by the unlikely romance, admire the grand gestures of affection and enjoy the story's happy ending. As the credits roll, Eve jokingly says that &quot;Romantic movies make relationships looks so effortless. I wish real life worked like that&quot;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}    

Although the comment is playful, it raises an important question: How does romantic entertainment influence beliefs and expectations about love and romantic relationships ?    

As romantic films, television programs, music and media have become increasingly accessible, researchers have questioned whether repeated exposure shapes people's beliefs about how love should develop and how relationships should function.

Since the 1930s, romantic films have consistently been among the most popular genres. Between 1995 and 2010, romantic comedy genre was the sixth highest grossing category of films, generating over $10 billion. The popularity of these films has led some academics to theorise on why such films had a large appeal. Academic Galician (2004) argued that people seek romantic content in the media in order to see relationships work despite all obstacles. Individuals seek out content learn about dating and romance (Hefner &amp; Wilson, 2013).

Reality TV has also flourished in recent decades and is produced to suit almost all demographics. Many people tune in because they perceive contestants and their reactions to be authentic or even relatable. Reality dating and dating competition shows such as The Bachelor and Love Island, isolate their participants and encourage the formation of romantic and platonic relationships in absence of familiar people or surroundings (Beaty, 2021).

Romantic entertainment is a common source of information about love and relationships, yet the messages it promotes may not always reflect the reality of a relationship. Understanding how these portrayals influence beliefs and expectations can help individuals engage with romantic media more critically. This chapter explores how romantic entertainment influences beliefs and expectations about love and romantic relationships.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* What are romantic beliefs and relationship expectations and why are they important?
* What romantic ideals and relationship messages are commonly portrayed in romantic entertainment?
* How do psychological processes such as romantic script, parasocial attachment and social comparison shape audience beliefs / perception about love and relationships?
* What are the potential benefits and drawbacks of using romantic entertainment as a source of relation ship knowledge?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Romantic beliefs and relationship expectations ==

==== What is love? ====
[[wikipedia:Love|Love]] is a fundamental aspect of the human experience, one of the most crucial components of intimate relationships. According to Sternberg's triangular theory of love, romantic love consists of three core components: intimacy, desire and decision/ commitment, the intensity of the points varies as a function of relationship duration (''Sorokowski'' ''et al., 2021)''. Romantic love is a nearly universal phenomenon that contributes to human evolution and happiness. Love in romantic relationships is commonly defined as passionate and erotic love, distinguished from love in other types of relationships (parental and friendship) ''(Chen, Xia &amp; Dunne, 2024)'''.'''''

==== Romantic relationships ====
Romantic relationships are a key contributor to overall wellbeing. Forming and maintaining intimate partnerships is an important component of our health and happiness. However there are many factors that affect the likelihood and maintaining a healthy relationship, personality, mental health, beliefs held about relationships.  

==== Romantic ideals / romanticism ====
Romantic ideals refer to a broad set of beliefs about the power of love and what constitutes a successful romantic relationship (''Bell, 1975, as cited in Sprecher &amp; Metts, 1989; Knox &amp; Sporakowski, 1968, as cited in Sprecher &amp; Metts, 1989''). The romantic ideal, originally proposed by Lantz (1968), reflects culturally endorsed beliefs within Western societies about how romantic relationships should form, develop, function, and be maintained. These beliefs represent shared cultural understandings of romance rather than expectations directed towards a specific partner. According to Sprecher and Metts (''1989''), romantic love is characterised by beliefs such as love at first sight, the existence of a single true love, the notion that love can overcome all obstacles, the idealisation of romantic partners, and the belief that individuals should follow their hearts when choosing a partner. The psychological mechanisms underlying this influence are discussed later in the chapter.

More broadly, research commonly identifies four central themes associated with romantic ideals: the belief that love can overcome any obstacle (&quot;love finds a way&quot;), the existence of a soulmate (&quot;one and only&quot;), the idealisation of a romantic partner, and the belief in love at first sight (''Hefner &amp; Wilson, 2013'').
* '''Love finds a way''' 
* '''One and only''' 
* '''Idealisation''' 
* '''Love at first sight'''

Romantic ideals reflect endorsement of a broader romantic ideology rather than feelings towards a specific individual. These beliefs represent  shared assumptions about how love and relationships should develop and function, which individuals may hold before entering a romantic relationship (Sprecher &amp; Metts, 1989). 

== Romantic ideals portrayed in entertainment ==
Romantic ideals are shaped by personal experiences and broader cultural influences; however these beliefs do not develop in isolation. Entertainment  play a significant role in shaping and reinforcing romantic ideals by exposing audiences to idealised portrayals of love, intimacy, and relationship development. Across a range of media formats, romantic entertainment commonly presents idealised depictions of love and relationship development, promoting messages that may differ from the realities of everyday romantic relationships. 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Table 1. Common romantic ideals portrayed in romantic entertainment media
!Romantic ideal
!Description
|-
|Soul mate / one and only
|Belief that there is one perfect partner destined for each person
|-
|Love at first sight
|Belief that genuine love can occur immediately upon meeting
|-
|Idealisation of partner
|Expectation that romantic partners are nearly flawless
|-
|Love conquers all
|Belief that love can overcome obstacles and challenges
|}
The influence of romantic entertainment extends beyond romantic comedies. Disney Princess films frequently incorporate romantic narratives that reinforce many of the same beliefs found in romantic comedy films, including soulmate ideals, idealisation of partners, and the expectation that true love leads to a happy ending (Hefner &amp; Kretz, 2021).

Beyond serving as a source of relationship knowledge, romantic entertainment may also attract audiences through emotional investment in fictional relationships. van Monsjou and Mar (2019) suggest that engagement with fictional romances provides opportunities for individuals to explore romantic experiences, develop understandings of intimacy, and reflect on relationship possibilities without directly experiencing them. Consequently, fictional relationships may serve both entertainment and psychological functions by allowing audiences to engage with romantic themes and relationship dynamics.

Romantic films / rom coms

* soulmates
* grand gestures
* destiny
* love conquers all
* attractive partners
* conflict resolved quickly
* overcoming obstacles
* happily-ever-after ending

=== Reality dating television ===
* accelerated relationship development
* attraction and compatibility
* dating as entertainment

=== Popular music ===
* love songs reinforce cultural ideas about passion, intimacy and commitment 
These findings suggest that media consumption may influence how individuals interpret and apply romantic messages to their own relationships.

== Psychological mechanisms of media influence ==
=== Cultivation theory ===

=== Social cognitive theory ===

Suggests that human behaviour is determined by environmental influences and internal dispositions. Individuals are more likely to imitate models who are similar to themselves.&lt;quiz display=&quot;bold&quot;&gt;
{A woman regularly watches romantic television shows in which husbands are consistently affectionate, attentive and express love through grand gestures. Over time, she becomes dissatisfied with her own husband's lower level of affection. According to Social Exchange Theory, what best explains her dissatisfaction?:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- She has developed a parasocial relationship with the fictional husband
+ She is comparing her relationship to the idealised rewards and expectations portrayed in the media
- She is experiencing attachment insecurity caused by watching romantic television
&lt;/quiz&gt;

=== Romantic scripts and schemas ===
'''Social exchange theory (SET)'''

Social exchange theory provides insight into how media-shaped expectations may affect relationship satisfaction. The theory proposes that individuals evaluate romantic relationships by comparing perceived rewards, such as affection, companionship, and emotional support, against perceived costs, including conflict, compromise, and lost alternatives. Romantic entertainment often emphasises the rewards of relationships while minimising their costs, potentially encouraging unrealistic expectations. As a result, individuals may evaluate their own relationships against idealised media standards and experience dissatisfaction when reality fails to meet those expectations (Banjo, 2002.

== Benefits and drawbacks of romantic entertainment ==
Although it may seem intuitive that holding such romanticised and idealistic beliefs would lead to worse relational outcomes, research actually contradicts this conclusion. The evidence suggests that embracing romanticism can have both positive and negative consequences. A positive effect is that these beliefs may facilitate to the development of romantic relationships because romanticism can act as a rose-coloured filter through which people view early relationship experiences (Lippmann et al., 2014).

=== Potential benefits ===

=== Potential drawbacks ===

==== Social Exchange Theory and relationship expectations ====
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
*
* What is love
*
*
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links Even Disney princess animated genre could be an important source of influence on young viewers perception of reality more specifically their beliefs regarding romantic relationships. Nearly all Disney princess movies feature a romantic component (Hefner &amp; Kretz, 2021). Following the same beliefs as romantic comedy films.

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

=== To what extent should people use romantic entertainment as a guide for real-life relationships? ===
This is essentially your concluding discussion{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:

* [[wikipedia:Soulmate|Soulmate]] (Wikipedia)

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Love|Love]] (Book chapter, 2011)

* [[wikipedia:Parasocial_interaction|Parasocial interaction]] (Wikipedia)


{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Banjo, O. O. (2002). The effects of media consumption on the perception of romantic relationships. Penn State McNair Journal, 9(1), 9-33.

Beaty, L. S. (2021). It’s Love Island, Not Friend Island”: Authenticity and Surveillance in Reality TV, a Literature Review and Content Analysis “. WWU Honors College Senior Projects 456.

Chen, Y., Xia, M., &amp; Dunne, S. (2024). Romantic Love is Not Only “Romantic”: A Grounded Theory Study on Love in Romantic Relationships. The Journal of Psychology, 158(1), 64–83. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.2024.2305442

Hefner, V., &amp; Kretz, V. E. (2021). Does the Glass Slipper Fit?: Disney Princess Films and Relationship Beliefs and Attitudes. Journal of Media Psychology, 33(3), 125–133. https://doi.org/10.1027/1864-1105/a000290

Hefner, V., &amp; Wilson, B. J. (2013). From Love at First Sight to Soul Mate: The Influence of Romantic Ideals in Popular Films on Young People’s Beliefs about Relationships. Communication Monographs, 80(2), 150–175. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1080/03637751.2013.776697

Lippman, J. R., Ward, L. M., &amp; Seabrook, R. C. (2014). Isn’t It Romantic? Differential Associations Between Romantic Screen Media Genres and Romantic Beliefs. Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 3(3), 128–140. https://doi.org/10.1037/ppm0000034

Knee, C. R. (1998). Implicit Theories of Relationships: Assessment and Prediction of Romantic Relationship Initiation, Coping, and Longevity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(2), 360–370. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.74.2.360

Sorokowski, P., Sorokowska, A., Groyecka, A., Aavik, T., Akello, G., Alm,C., Amjad, N., Anjum, A., Asao, K., Atama, C. S., Atamtürk Duyar, D., Ayebare, R., Batres, C., Bendixen, M., Bensafia, A., Bizumic, B., Boussena, M., Buss, D. M., Butovskaya, M., … Sternberg, R. J. (2021). Universality of the Triangular Theory of Love: Adaptation and Psychometric Properties of the Triangular Love Scale in 25 Countries. The Journal of Sex Research, 58(1), 106–115. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2020.1787318

Sprecher, S., &amp; Metts, S. (1999). Romantic Beliefs: Their Influence on Relationships and Patterns of Change Over Time. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 16(6), 834-851. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407599166009

Van Monsjou, E., &amp; Mar, R. A. (2019). Interest and Investment in Fictional Romances. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, 13(4), 431–449. https://doi.org/10.1037/aca0000191

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://olemiss.edu/news/2024/07/romantic-movies-perception/index.html Romance media could alter perceptions of relationships] (University of Mississippi)
* [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/finding-love-the-scientific-take/202411/rom-coms-can-a-movie-genre-impact-our-perceptions-of Rom-coms : Can a movie genre impact our perceptions of love?] (Psychology Today)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

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[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Love]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Media]]
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__TOC__

== Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Romantic_Beliefs_Illustration.png|thumb|140x140px|'''Figure 1.''' A couple watching a romantic comedy, illustrating exposure to romantic entertainment. ]]


'''Scenario'''

After a long day, Adam and Eve settle onto the couch to watch a romantic comedy called [[wikipedia:Pretty_Woman|Pretty Woman]]. Throughout the film, they are captivated by the unlikely romance, admire the grand gestures of affection and enjoy the story's happy ending. As the credits roll, Eve jokingly says that &quot;Romantic movies make relationships looks so effortless. I wish real life worked like that&quot;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}    

Although the comment is playful, it raises an important question: How does romantic entertainment influence beliefs and expectations about love and romantic relationships ?    

As romantic films, television programs, music and media have become increasingly accessible, researchers have questioned whether repeated exposure shapes people's beliefs about how love should develop and how relationships should function.

Since the 1930s, romantic films have consistently been among the most popular genres. Between 1995 and 2010, romantic comedy genre was the sixth highest grossing category of films, generating over $10 billion. The popularity of these films has led some academics to theorise on why such films had a large appeal. Academic Galician (2004) argued that people seek romantic content in the media in order to see relationships work despite all obstacles. Individuals seek out content learn about dating and romance (Hefner &amp; Wilson, 2013).

Reality TV has also flourished in recent decades and is produced to suit almost all demographics. Many people tune in because they perceive contestants and their reactions to be authentic or even relatable. Reality dating and dating competition shows such as The Bachelor and Love Island, isolate their participants and encourage the formation of romantic and platonic relationships in absence of familiar people or surroundings (Beaty, 2021).

Romantic entertainment is a common source of information about love and relationships, yet the messages it promotes may not always reflect the reality of a relationship. Understanding how these portrayals influence beliefs and expectations can help individuals engage with romantic media more critically. This chapter explores how romantic entertainment influences beliefs and expectations about love and romantic relationships.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* What are romantic beliefs and relationship expectations and why are they important?
* What romantic ideals and relationship messages are commonly portrayed in romantic entertainment?
* How do psychological processes such as romantic script, parasocial attachment and social comparison shape audience beliefs / perception about love and relationships?
* What are the potential benefits and drawbacks of using romantic entertainment as a source of relation ship knowledge?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Romantic beliefs and relationship expectations ==

==== What is love? ====
[[wikipedia:Love|Love]] is a fundamental aspect of the human experience, one of the most crucial components of intimate relationships. According to Sternberg's triangular theory of love, romantic love consists of three core components: intimacy, desire and decision/ commitment, the intensity of the points varies as a function of relationship duration (''Sorokowski'' ''et al., 2021)''. Romantic love is a nearly universal phenomenon that contributes to human evolution and happiness. Love in romantic relationships is commonly defined as passionate and erotic love, distinguished from love in other types of relationships (parental and friendship) ''(Chen, Xia &amp; Dunne, 2024)'''.'''''

==== Romantic relationships ====
Romantic relationships are a key contributor to overall wellbeing. Forming and maintaining intimate partnerships is an important component of our health and happiness. However there are many factors that affect the likelihood and maintaining a healthy relationship, personality, mental health, beliefs held about relationships.  

==== Romantic ideals / romanticism ====
Romantic ideals refer to a broad set of beliefs about the power of love and what constitutes a successful romantic relationship (''Bell, 1975, as cited in Sprecher &amp; Metts, 1989; Knox &amp; Sporakowski, 1968, as cited in Sprecher &amp; Metts, 1989''). The romantic ideal, originally proposed by Lantz (1968), reflects culturally endorsed beliefs within Western societies about how romantic relationships should form, develop, function, and be maintained. These beliefs represent shared cultural understandings of romance rather than expectations directed towards a specific partner. According to Sprecher and Metts (''1989''), romantic love is characterised by beliefs such as love at first sight, the existence of a single true love, the notion that love can overcome all obstacles, the idealisation of romantic partners, and the belief that individuals should follow their hearts when choosing a partner. The psychological mechanisms underlying this influence are discussed later in the chapter.

More broadly, research commonly identifies four central themes associated with romantic ideals: the belief that love can overcome any obstacle (&quot;love finds a way&quot;), the existence of a soulmate (&quot;one and only&quot;), the idealisation of a romantic partner, and the belief in love at first sight (''Hefner &amp; Wilson, 2013'').
* '''Love finds a way''' 
* '''One and only''' 
* '''Idealisation''' 
* '''Love at first sight'''

Romantic ideals reflect endorsement of a broader romantic ideology rather than feelings towards a specific individual. These beliefs represent  shared assumptions about how love and relationships should develop and function, which individuals may hold before entering a romantic relationship (Sprecher &amp; Metts, 1989). 

== Romantic ideals portrayed in entertainment ==
Romantic ideals are shaped by personal experiences and broader cultural influences; however these beliefs do not develop in isolation. Entertainment  play a significant role in shaping and reinforcing romantic ideals by exposing audiences to idealised portrayals of love, intimacy, and relationship development. Across a range of media formats, romantic entertainment commonly presents idealised depictions of love and relationship development, promoting messages that may differ from the realities of everyday romantic relationships. 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Table 1. Common romantic ideals portrayed in romantic entertainment media
!Romantic ideal
!Description
|-
|Soul mate / one and only
|Belief that there is one perfect partner destined for each person
|-
|Love at first sight
|Belief that genuine love can occur immediately upon meeting
|-
|Idealisation of partner
|Expectation that romantic partners are nearly flawless
|-
|Love conquers all
|Belief that love can overcome obstacles and challenges
|}
The influence of romantic entertainment extends beyond romantic comedies. Disney Princess films frequently incorporate romantic narratives that reinforce many of the same beliefs found in romantic comedy films, including soulmate ideals, idealisation of partners, and the expectation that true love leads to a happy ending (Hefner &amp; Kretz, 2021).

Beyond serving as a source of relationship knowledge, romantic entertainment may also attract audiences through emotional investment in fictional relationships. van Monsjou and Mar (2019) suggest that engagement with fictional romances provides opportunities for individuals to explore romantic experiences, develop understandings of intimacy, and reflect on relationship possibilities without directly experiencing them. Consequently, fictional relationships may serve both entertainment and psychological functions by allowing audiences to engage with romantic themes and relationship dynamics.

Romantic films / rom coms

* soulmates
* grand gestures
* destiny
* love conquers all
* attractive partners
* conflict resolved quickly
* overcoming obstacles
* happily-ever-after ending

=== Reality dating television ===
* accelerated relationship development
* attraction and compatibility
* dating as entertainment

=== Popular music ===
* love songs reinforce cultural ideas about passion, intimacy and commitment 
These findings suggest that media consumption may influence how individuals interpret and apply romantic messages to their own relationships.

== Psychological mechanisms of media influence ==
=== Cultivation theory ===

=== Social cognitive theory ===

Suggests that human behaviour is determined by environmental influences and internal dispositions. Individuals are more likely to imitate models who are similar to themselves.&lt;quiz display=&quot;bold&quot;&gt;
{A woman regularly watches romantic television shows in which husbands are consistently affectionate, attentive and express love through grand gestures. Over time, she becomes dissatisfied with her own husband's lower level of affection. According to Social Exchange Theory, what best explains her dissatisfaction?:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- She has developed a parasocial relationship with the fictional husband
+ She is comparing her relationship to the idealised rewards and expectations portrayed in the media
- She is experiencing attachment insecurity caused by watching romantic television
&lt;/quiz&gt;

=== Romantic scripts and schemas ===
'''Social exchange theory (SET)'''

Social exchange theory provides insight into how media-shaped expectations may affect relationship satisfaction. The theory proposes that individuals evaluate romantic relationships by comparing perceived rewards, such as affection, companionship, and emotional support, against perceived costs, including conflict, compromise, and lost alternatives. Romantic entertainment often emphasises the rewards of relationships while minimising their costs, potentially encouraging unrealistic expectations. As a result, individuals may evaluate their own relationships against idealised media standards and experience dissatisfaction when reality fails to meet those expectations (Banjo, 2002.

== Benefits and drawbacks of romantic entertainment ==
Although it may seem intuitive that holding such romanticised and idealistic beliefs would lead to worse relational outcomes, research actually contradicts this conclusion. The evidence suggests that embracing romanticism can have both positive and negative consequences. A positive effect is that these beliefs may facilitate to the development of romantic relationships because romanticism can act as a rose-coloured filter through which people view early relationship experiences (Lippmann et al., 2014).

=== Potential benefits ===

=== Potential drawbacks ===

==== Social Exchange Theory and relationship expectations ====
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
*
* What is love
*
*
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links Even Disney princess animated genre could be an important source of influence on young viewers perception of reality more specifically their beliefs regarding romantic relationships. Nearly all Disney princess movies feature a romantic component (Hefner &amp; Kretz, 2021). Following the same beliefs as romantic comedy films.

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

=== To what extent should people use romantic entertainment as a guide for real-life relationships? ===
This is essentially your concluding discussion{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:

* [[wikipedia:Soulmate|Soulmate]] (Wikipedia)

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Love|Love]] (Book chapter, 2011)

* [[wikipedia:Parasocial_interaction|Parasocial interaction]] (Wikipedia)


{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Banjo, O. O. (2002). The effects of media consumption on the perception of romantic relationships. Penn State McNair Journal, 9(1), 9-33.

Beaty, L. S. (2021). It’s Love Island, Not Friend Island”: Authenticity and Surveillance in Reality TV, a Literature Review and Content Analysis “. WWU Honors College Senior Projects 456.

Chen, Y., Xia, M., &amp; Dunne, S. (2024). Romantic Love is Not Only “Romantic”: A Grounded Theory Study on Love in Romantic Relationships. The Journal of Psychology, 158(1), 64–83. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.2024.2305442

Hefner, V., &amp; Kretz, V. E. (2021). Does the Glass Slipper Fit?: Disney Princess Films and Relationship Beliefs and Attitudes. Journal of Media Psychology, 33(3), 125–133. https://doi.org/10.1027/1864-1105/a000290

Hefner, V., &amp; Wilson, B. J. (2013). From Love at First Sight to Soul Mate: The Influence of Romantic Ideals in Popular Films on Young People’s Beliefs about Relationships. Communication Monographs, 80(2), 150–175. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1080/03637751.2013.776697

Lippman, J. R., Ward, L. M., &amp; Seabrook, R. C. (2014). Isn’t It Romantic? Differential Associations Between Romantic Screen Media Genres and Romantic Beliefs. Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 3(3), 128–140. https://doi.org/10.1037/ppm0000034

Knee, C. R. (1998). Implicit Theories of Relationships: Assessment and Prediction of Romantic Relationship Initiation, Coping, and Longevity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(2), 360–370. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.74.2.360

Sorokowski, P., Sorokowska, A., Groyecka, A., Aavik, T., Akello, G., Alm,C., Amjad, N., Anjum, A., Asao, K., Atama, C. S., Atamtürk Duyar, D., Ayebare, R., Batres, C., Bendixen, M., Bensafia, A., Bizumic, B., Boussena, M., Buss, D. M., Butovskaya, M., … Sternberg, R. J. (2021). Universality of the Triangular Theory of Love: Adaptation and Psychometric Properties of the Triangular Love Scale in 25 Countries. The Journal of Sex Research, 58(1), 106–115. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2020.1787318

Sprecher, S., &amp; Metts, S. (1999). Romantic Beliefs: Their Influence on Relationships and Patterns of Change Over Time. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 16(6), 834-851. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407599166009

Van Monsjou, E., &amp; Mar, R. A. (2019). Interest and Investment in Fictional Romances. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, 13(4), 431–449. https://doi.org/10.1037/aca0000191

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://olemiss.edu/news/2024/07/romantic-movies-perception/index.html Romance media could alter perceptions of relationships] (University of Mississippi)
* [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/finding-love-the-scientific-take/202411/rom-coms-can-a-movie-genre-impact-our-perceptions-of Rom-coms : Can a movie genre impact our perceptions of love?] (Psychology Today)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

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[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Love]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Media]]
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__TOC__

== Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:ChatGPT Image of couple watching romantic media together.png|thumb|140x140px|'''Figure 1.''' A couple watching a romantic comedy, illustrating exposure to romantic entertainment. ]]


'''Scenario'''

After a long day, Adam and Eve settle onto the couch to watch a romantic comedy called [[wikipedia:Pretty_Woman|Pretty Woman]]. Throughout the film, they are captivated by the unlikely romance, admire the grand gestures of affection and enjoy the story's happy ending. As the credits roll, Eve jokingly says that &quot;Romantic movies make relationships looks so effortless. I wish real life worked like that&quot;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Although the comment is playful, it raises an important question: How does romantic entertainment influence beliefs and expectations about love and romantic relationships ?    

As romantic films, television programs, music and media have become increasingly accessible, researchers have questioned whether repeated exposure shapes people's beliefs about how love should develop and how relationships should function.

Since the 1930s, romantic films have consistently been among the most popular genres. Between 1995 and 2010, romantic comedy genre was the sixth highest grossing category of films, generating over $10 billion. The popularity of these films has led some academics to theorise on why such films had a large appeal. Academic Galician (2004) argued that people seek romantic content in the media in order to see relationships work despite all obstacles. Individuals seek out content learn about dating and romance (Hefner &amp; Wilson, 2013).

Reality TV has also flourished in recent decades and is produced to suit almost all demographics. Many people tune in because they perceive contestants and their reactions to be authentic or even relatable. Reality dating and dating competition shows such as The Bachelor and Love Island, isolate their participants and encourage the formation of romantic and platonic relationships in absence of familiar people or surroundings (Beaty, 2021).

Romantic entertainment is a common source of information about love and relationships, yet the messages it promotes may not always reflect the reality of a relationship. Understanding how these portrayals influence beliefs and expectations can help individuals engage with romantic media more critically. This chapter explores how romantic entertainment influences beliefs and expectations about love and romantic relationships.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* What are romantic beliefs and relationship expectations and why are they important?
* What romantic ideals and relationship messages are commonly portrayed in romantic entertainment?
* How do psychological processes such as romantic script, parasocial attachment and social comparison shape audience beliefs / perception about love and relationships?
* What are the potential benefits and drawbacks of using romantic entertainment as a source of relation ship knowledge?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Romantic beliefs and relationship expectations ==

==== What is love? ====
[[wikipedia:Love|Love]] is a fundamental aspect of the human experience, one of the most crucial components of intimate relationships. According to Sternberg's triangular theory of love, romantic love consists of three core components: intimacy, desire and decision/ commitment, the intensity of the points varies as a function of relationship duration (''Sorokowski'' ''et al., 2021)''. Romantic love is a nearly universal phenomenon that contributes to human evolution and happiness. Love in romantic relationships is commonly defined as passionate and erotic love, distinguished from love in other types of relationships (parental and friendship) ''(Chen, Xia &amp; Dunne, 2024)'''.'''''

==== Romantic relationships ====
Romantic relationships are a key contributor to overall wellbeing. Forming and maintaining intimate partnerships is an important component of our health and happiness. However there are many factors that affect the likelihood and maintaining a healthy relationship, personality, mental health, beliefs held about relationships.  

==== Romantic ideals / romanticism ====
Romantic ideals refer to a broad set of beliefs about the power of love and what constitutes a successful romantic relationship (''Bell, 1975, as cited in Sprecher &amp; Metts, 1989; Knox &amp; Sporakowski, 1968, as cited in Sprecher &amp; Metts, 1989''). The romantic ideal, originally proposed by Lantz (1968), reflects culturally endorsed beliefs within Western societies about how romantic relationships should form, develop, function, and be maintained. These beliefs represent shared cultural understandings of romance rather than expectations directed towards a specific partner. According to Sprecher and Metts (''1989''), romantic love is characterised by beliefs such as love at first sight, the existence of a single true love, the notion that love can overcome all obstacles, the idealisation of romantic partners, and the belief that individuals should follow their hearts when choosing a partner. The psychological mechanisms underlying this influence are discussed later in the chapter.

More broadly, research commonly identifies four central themes associated with romantic ideals: the belief that love can overcome any obstacle (&quot;love finds a way&quot;), the existence of a soulmate (&quot;one and only&quot;), the idealisation of a romantic partner, and the belief in love at first sight (''Hefner &amp; Wilson, 2013'').
* '''Love finds a way''' 
* '''One and only''' 
* '''Idealisation''' 
* '''Love at first sight'''

Romantic ideals reflect endorsement of a broader romantic ideology rather than feelings towards a specific individual. These beliefs represent  shared assumptions about how love and relationships should develop and function, which individuals may hold before entering a romantic relationship (Sprecher &amp; Metts, 1989). 

== Romantic ideals portrayed in entertainment ==
Romantic ideals are shaped by personal experiences and broader cultural influences; however these beliefs do not develop in isolation. Entertainment  play a significant role in shaping and reinforcing romantic ideals by exposing audiences to idealised portrayals of love, intimacy, and relationship development. Across a range of media formats, romantic entertainment commonly presents idealised depictions of love and relationship development, promoting messages that may differ from the realities of everyday romantic relationships. 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Table 1. Common romantic ideals portrayed in romantic entertainment media
!Romantic ideal
!Description
|-
|Soul mate / one and only
|Belief that there is one perfect partner destined for each person
|-
|Love at first sight
|Belief that genuine love can occur immediately upon meeting
|-
|Idealisation of partner
|Expectation that romantic partners are nearly flawless
|-
|Love conquers all
|Belief that love can overcome obstacles and challenges
|}
The influence of romantic entertainment extends beyond romantic comedies. Disney Princess films frequently incorporate romantic narratives that reinforce many of the same beliefs found in romantic comedy films, including soulmate ideals, idealisation of partners, and the expectation that true love leads to a happy ending (Hefner &amp; Kretz, 2021).

Beyond serving as a source of relationship knowledge, romantic entertainment may also attract audiences through emotional investment in fictional relationships. van Monsjou and Mar (2019) suggest that engagement with fictional romances provides opportunities for individuals to explore romantic experiences, develop understandings of intimacy, and reflect on relationship possibilities without directly experiencing them. Consequently, fictional relationships may serve both entertainment and psychological functions by allowing audiences to engage with romantic themes and relationship dynamics.

Romantic films / rom coms

* soulmates
* grand gestures
* destiny
* love conquers all
* attractive partners
* conflict resolved quickly
* overcoming obstacles
* happily-ever-after ending

=== Reality dating television ===
* accelerated relationship development
* attraction and compatibility
* dating as entertainment

=== Popular music ===
* love songs reinforce cultural ideas about passion, intimacy and commitment 
These findings suggest that media consumption may influence how individuals interpret and apply romantic messages to their own relationships.

== Psychological mechanisms of media influence ==
=== Cultivation theory ===

=== Social cognitive theory ===

Suggests that human behaviour is determined by environmental influences and internal dispositions. Individuals are more likely to imitate models who are similar to themselves.&lt;quiz display=&quot;bold&quot;&gt;
{A woman regularly watches romantic television shows in which husbands are consistently affectionate, attentive and express love through grand gestures. Over time, she becomes dissatisfied with her own husband's lower level of affection. According to Social Exchange Theory, what best explains her dissatisfaction?:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- She has developed a parasocial relationship with the fictional husband
+ She is comparing her relationship to the idealised rewards and expectations portrayed in the media
- She is experiencing attachment insecurity caused by watching romantic television
&lt;/quiz&gt;

=== Romantic scripts and schemas ===
'''Social exchange theory (SET)'''

Social exchange theory provides insight into how media-shaped expectations may affect relationship satisfaction. The theory proposes that individuals evaluate romantic relationships by comparing perceived rewards, such as affection, companionship, and emotional support, against perceived costs, including conflict, compromise, and lost alternatives. Romantic entertainment often emphasises the rewards of relationships while minimising their costs, potentially encouraging unrealistic expectations. As a result, individuals may evaluate their own relationships against idealised media standards and experience dissatisfaction when reality fails to meet those expectations (Banjo, 2002.

== Benefits and drawbacks of romantic entertainment ==
Although it may seem intuitive that holding such romanticised and idealistic beliefs would lead to worse relational outcomes, research actually contradicts this conclusion. The evidence suggests that embracing romanticism can have both positive and negative consequences. A positive effect is that these beliefs may facilitate to the development of romantic relationships because romanticism can act as a rose-coloured filter through which people view early relationship experiences (Lippmann et al., 2014).

=== Potential benefits ===

=== Potential drawbacks ===

==== Social Exchange Theory and relationship expectations ====
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
*
* What is love
*
*
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links Even Disney princess animated genre could be an important source of influence on young viewers perception of reality more specifically their beliefs regarding romantic relationships. Nearly all Disney princess movies feature a romantic component (Hefner &amp; Kretz, 2021). Following the same beliefs as romantic comedy films.

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

=== To what extent should people use romantic entertainment as a guide for real-life relationships? ===
This is essentially your concluding discussion{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:

* [[wikipedia:Soulmate|Soulmate]] (Wikipedia)

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Love|Love]] (Book chapter, 2011)

* [[wikipedia:Parasocial_interaction|Parasocial interaction]] (Wikipedia)


{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Banjo, O. O. (2002). The effects of media consumption on the perception of romantic relationships. Penn State McNair Journal, 9(1), 9-33.

Beaty, L. S. (2021). It’s Love Island, Not Friend Island”: Authenticity and Surveillance in Reality TV, a Literature Review and Content Analysis “. WWU Honors College Senior Projects 456.

Chen, Y., Xia, M., &amp; Dunne, S. (2024). Romantic Love is Not Only “Romantic”: A Grounded Theory Study on Love in Romantic Relationships. The Journal of Psychology, 158(1), 64–83. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.2024.2305442

Hefner, V., &amp; Kretz, V. E. (2021). Does the Glass Slipper Fit?: Disney Princess Films and Relationship Beliefs and Attitudes. Journal of Media Psychology, 33(3), 125–133. https://doi.org/10.1027/1864-1105/a000290

Hefner, V., &amp; Wilson, B. J. (2013). From Love at First Sight to Soul Mate: The Influence of Romantic Ideals in Popular Films on Young People’s Beliefs about Relationships. Communication Monographs, 80(2), 150–175. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1080/03637751.2013.776697

Lippman, J. R., Ward, L. M., &amp; Seabrook, R. C. (2014). Isn’t It Romantic? Differential Associations Between Romantic Screen Media Genres and Romantic Beliefs. Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 3(3), 128–140. https://doi.org/10.1037/ppm0000034

Knee, C. R. (1998). Implicit Theories of Relationships: Assessment and Prediction of Romantic Relationship Initiation, Coping, and Longevity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(2), 360–370. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.74.2.360

Sorokowski, P., Sorokowska, A., Groyecka, A., Aavik, T., Akello, G., Alm,C., Amjad, N., Anjum, A., Asao, K., Atama, C. S., Atamtürk Duyar, D., Ayebare, R., Batres, C., Bendixen, M., Bensafia, A., Bizumic, B., Boussena, M., Buss, D. M., Butovskaya, M., … Sternberg, R. J. (2021). Universality of the Triangular Theory of Love: Adaptation and Psychometric Properties of the Triangular Love Scale in 25 Countries. The Journal of Sex Research, 58(1), 106–115. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2020.1787318

Sprecher, S., &amp; Metts, S. (1999). Romantic Beliefs: Their Influence on Relationships and Patterns of Change Over Time. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 16(6), 834-851. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407599166009

Van Monsjou, E., &amp; Mar, R. A. (2019). Interest and Investment in Fictional Romances. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, 13(4), 431–449. https://doi.org/10.1037/aca0000191

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://olemiss.edu/news/2024/07/romantic-movies-perception/index.html Romance media could alter perceptions of relationships] (University of Mississippi)
* [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/finding-love-the-scientific-take/202411/rom-coms-can-a-movie-genre-impact-our-perceptions-of Rom-coms : Can a movie genre impact our perceptions of love?] (Psychology Today)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Love]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Media]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Relationships]]</text>
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__TOC__

== Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:ChatGPT Image of couple watching romantic media together.png|thumb|140x140px|'''Figure 1.''' A couple watching a romantic comedy, illustrating exposure to romantic entertainment. ]]


'''Scenario'''

After a long day, Adam and Eve settle onto the couch to watch a romantic comedy called [[wikipedia:Pretty_Woman|Pretty Woman]]. Throughout the film, they are captivated by the unlikely romance, admire the grand gestures of affection and enjoy the story's happy ending. As the credits roll, Eve jokingly says that &quot;Romantic movies make relationships looks so effortless. I wish real life worked like that&quot;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Although the comment is playful, it raises an important question: How does romantic entertainment influence beliefs and expectations about love and romantic relationships ?    

As romantic films, television programs, music and media have become increasingly accessible, researchers have questioned whether repeated exposure shapes people's beliefs about how love should develop and how relationships should function.

Since the 1930s, romantic films have consistently been among the most popular genres. Between 1995 and 2010, romantic comedy genre was the sixth highest grossing category of films, generating over $10 billion. The popularity of these films has led some academics to theorise on why such films had a large appeal. Academic Galician (2004) argued that people seek romantic content in the media in order to see relationships work despite all obstacles. Individuals seek out content learn about dating and romance (Hefner &amp; Wilson, 2013).

Reality TV has also flourished in recent decades and is produced to suit almost all demographics. Many people tune in because they perceive contestants and their reactions to be authentic or even relatable. Reality dating and dating competition shows such as The Bachelor and Love Island, isolate their participants and encourage the formation of romantic and platonic relationships in absence of familiar people or surroundings (Beaty, 2021).

Romantic entertainment is a common source of information about love and relationships, yet the messages it promotes may not always reflect the reality of a relationship. Understanding how these portrayals influence beliefs and expectations can help individuals engage with romantic media more critically. This chapter explores how romantic entertainment influences beliefs and expectations about love and romantic relationships.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* What are romantic beliefs and relationship expectations and why are they important?
* What romantic ideals and relationship messages are commonly portrayed in romantic entertainment?
* How do psychological processes such as romantic script, parasocial attachment and social comparison shape audience beliefs / perception about love and relationships?
* What are the potential benefits and drawbacks of using romantic entertainment as a source of relation ship knowledge?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Romantic beliefs and relationship expectations ==

==== What is love? ====
[[wikipedia:Love|Love]] is a fundamental aspect of the human experience, one of the most crucial components of intimate relationships. According to Sternberg's triangular theory of love, romantic love consists of three core components: intimacy, desire and decision/ commitment, the intensity of the points varies as a function of relationship duration (''Sorokowski'' ''et al., 2021)''. Romantic love is a nearly universal phenomenon that contributes to human evolution and happiness. Love in romantic relationships is commonly defined as passionate and erotic love, distinguished from love in other types of relationships (parental and friendship) ''(Chen, Xia &amp; Dunne, 2024)'''.'''''

==== Romantic relationships ====
Romantic relationships are a key contributor to overall wellbeing. Forming and maintaining intimate partnerships is an important component of our health and happiness. However there are many factors that affect the likelihood and maintaining a healthy relationship, personality, mental health, beliefs held about relationships.  

==== Romantic ideals / romanticism ====
Romantic ideals refer to a broad set of beliefs about the power of love and what constitutes a successful romantic relationship (''Bell, 1975, as cited in Sprecher &amp; Metts, 1989; Knox &amp; Sporakowski, 1968, as cited in Sprecher &amp; Metts, 1989''). The romantic ideal, originally proposed by Lantz (1968), reflects culturally endorsed beliefs within Western societies about how romantic relationships should form, develop, function, and be maintained. These beliefs represent shared cultural understandings of romance rather than expectations directed towards a specific partner. According to Sprecher and Metts (''1989''), romantic love is characterised by beliefs such as love at first sight, the existence of a single true love, the notion that love can overcome all obstacles, the idealisation of romantic partners, and the belief that individuals should follow their hearts when choosing a partner. The psychological mechanisms underlying this influence are discussed later in the chapter.

More broadly, research commonly identifies four central themes associated with romantic ideals: the belief that love can overcome any obstacle (&quot;love finds a way&quot;), the existence of a soulmate (&quot;one and only&quot;), the idealisation of a romantic partner, and the belief in love at first sight (''Hefner &amp; Wilson, 2013'').
* '''Love finds a way''' 
* '''One and only''' 
* '''Idealisation''' 
* '''Love at first sight'''

Romantic ideals reflect endorsement of a broader romantic ideology rather than feelings towards a specific individual. These beliefs represent  shared assumptions about how love and relationships should develop and function, which individuals may hold before entering a romantic relationship (Sprecher &amp; Metts, 1989). 

== Romantic ideals portrayed in entertainment ==
Romantic ideals are shaped by personal experiences and broader cultural influences; however these beliefs do not develop in isolation. Entertainment  play a significant role in shaping and reinforcing romantic ideals by exposing audiences to idealised portrayals of love, intimacy, and relationship development. Across a range of media formats, romantic entertainment commonly presents idealised depictions of love and relationship development, promoting messages that may differ from the realities of everyday romantic relationships. 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Table 1. Common romantic ideals portrayed in romantic entertainment media
!Romantic ideal
!Description
|-
|Soul mate / one and only
|Belief that there is one perfect partner destined for each person
|-
|Love at first sight
|Belief that genuine love can occur immediately upon meeting
|-
|Idealisation of partner
|Expectation that romantic partners are nearly flawless
|-
|Love conquers all
|Belief that love can overcome obstacles and challenges
|}
The influence of romantic entertainment extends beyond romantic comedies. Disney Princess films frequently incorporate romantic narratives that reinforce many of the same beliefs found in romantic comedy films, including soulmate ideals, idealisation of partners, and the expectation that true love leads to a happy ending (Hefner &amp; Kretz, 2021).

Beyond serving as a source of relationship knowledge, romantic entertainment may also attract audiences through emotional investment in fictional relationships. van Monsjou and Mar (2019) suggest that engagement with fictional romances provides opportunities for individuals to explore romantic experiences, develop understandings of intimacy, and reflect on relationship possibilities without directly experiencing them. Consequently, fictional relationships may serve both entertainment and psychological functions by allowing audiences to engage with romantic themes and relationship dynamics.

Romantic films / rom coms

* soulmates
* grand gestures
* destiny
* love conquers all
* attractive partners
* conflict resolved quickly
* overcoming obstacles
* happily-ever-after ending

=== Reality dating television ===
* accelerated relationship development
* attraction and compatibility
* dating as entertainment

=== Popular music ===
* love songs reinforce cultural ideas about passion, intimacy and commitment 
These findings suggest that media consumption may influence how individuals interpret and apply romantic messages to their own relationships.

== Psychological mechanisms of media influence ==
=== Cultivation theory ===

=== Social cognitive theory ===

Suggests that human behaviour is determined by environmental influences and internal dispositions. Individuals are more likely to imitate models who are similar to themselves.&lt;quiz display=&quot;bold&quot;&gt;
{A woman regularly watches romantic television shows in which husbands are consistently affectionate, attentive and express love through grand gestures. Over time, she becomes dissatisfied with her own husband's lower level of affection. According to Social Exchange Theory, what best explains her dissatisfaction?:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- She has developed a parasocial relationship with the fictional husband
+ She is comparing her relationship to the idealised rewards and expectations portrayed in the media
- She is experiencing attachment insecurity caused by watching romantic television
&lt;/quiz&gt;

=== Romantic scripts and schemas ===
'''Social exchange theory (SET)'''

Social exchange theory provides insight into how media-shaped expectations may affect relationship satisfaction. The theory proposes that individuals evaluate romantic relationships by comparing perceived rewards, such as affection, companionship, and emotional support, against perceived costs, including conflict, compromise, and lost alternatives. Romantic entertainment often emphasises the rewards of relationships while minimising their costs, potentially encouraging unrealistic expectations. As a result, individuals may evaluate their own relationships against idealised media standards and experience dissatisfaction when reality fails to meet those expectations (Banjo, 2002.

== Benefits and drawbacks of romantic entertainment ==
Although it may seem intuitive that holding such romanticised and idealistic beliefs would lead to worse relational outcomes, research actually contradicts this conclusion. The evidence suggests that embracing romanticism can have both positive and negative consequences. A positive effect is that these beliefs may facilitate to the development of romantic relationships because romanticism can act as a rose-coloured filter through which people view early relationship experiences (Lippmann et al., 2014).

=== Potential benefits ===

=== Potential drawbacks ===

==== Social Exchange Theory and relationship expectations ====
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
*
* What is love
*
*
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links Even Disney princess animated genre could be an important source of influence on young viewers perception of reality more specifically their beliefs regarding romantic relationships. Nearly all Disney princess movies feature a romantic component (Hefner &amp; Kretz, 2021). Following the same beliefs as romantic comedy films.

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

=== To what extent should people use romantic entertainment as a guide for real-life relationships? ===
This is essentially your concluding discussion{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:

* [[wikipedia:Soulmate|Soulmate]] (Wikipedia)

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Love|Love]] (Book chapter, 2011)

* [[wikipedia:Parasocial_interaction|Parasocial interaction]] (Wikipedia)


{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Banjo, O. O. (2002). The effects of media consumption on the perception of romantic relationships. Penn State McNair Journal, 9(1), 9-33.

Beaty, L. S. (2021). It’s Love Island, Not Friend Island”: Authenticity and Surveillance in Reality TV, a Literature Review and Content Analysis “. WWU Honors College Senior Projects 456.

Chen, Y., Xia, M., &amp; Dunne, S. (2024). Romantic Love is Not Only “Romantic”: A Grounded Theory Study on Love in Romantic Relationships. The Journal of Psychology, 158(1), 64–83. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.2024.2305442

Hefner, V., &amp; Kretz, V. E. (2021). Does the Glass Slipper Fit?: Disney Princess Films and Relationship Beliefs and Attitudes. Journal of Media Psychology, 33(3), 125–133. https://doi.org/10.1027/1864-1105/a000290

Hefner, V., &amp; Wilson, B. J. (2013). From Love at First Sight to Soul Mate: The Influence of Romantic Ideals in Popular Films on Young People’s Beliefs about Relationships. Communication Monographs, 80(2), 150–175. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1080/03637751.2013.776697

Lippman, J. R., Ward, L. M., &amp; Seabrook, R. C. (2014). Isn’t It Romantic? Differential Associations Between Romantic Screen Media Genres and Romantic Beliefs. Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 3(3), 128–140. https://doi.org/10.1037/ppm0000034

Knee, C. R. (1998). Implicit Theories of Relationships: Assessment and Prediction of Romantic Relationship Initiation, Coping, and Longevity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(2), 360–370. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.74.2.360

Sorokowski, P., Sorokowska, A., Groyecka, A., Aavik, T., Akello, G., Alm,C., Amjad, N., Anjum, A., Asao, K., Atama, C. S., Atamtürk Duyar, D., Ayebare, R., Batres, C., Bendixen, M., Bensafia, A., Bizumic, B., Boussena, M., Buss, D. M., Butovskaya, M., … Sternberg, R. J. (2021). Universality of the Triangular Theory of Love: Adaptation and Psychometric Properties of the Triangular Love Scale in 25 Countries. The Journal of Sex Research, 58(1), 106–115. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2020.1787318

Sprecher, S., &amp; Metts, S. (1999). Romantic Beliefs: Their Influence on Relationships and Patterns of Change Over Time. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 16(6), 834-851. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407599166009

Van Monsjou, E., &amp; Mar, R. A. (2019). Interest and Investment in Fictional Romances. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, 13(4), 431–449. https://doi.org/10.1037/aca0000191

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
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* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://olemiss.edu/news/2024/07/romantic-movies-perception/index.html Romance media could alter perceptions of relationships] (University of Mississippi)
* [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/finding-love-the-scientific-take/202411/rom-coms-can-a-movie-genre-impact-our-perceptions-of Rom-coms : Can a movie genre impact our perceptions of love?] (Psychology Today)
* [https://theconversation.com/what-love-island-can-tell-us-about-the-history-of-love-119751 What Love Island can tell us about the history of love] (The conversation)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

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__TOC__

== Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:ChatGPT Image of couple watching romantic media together.png|thumb|140x140px|'''Figure 1.''' A couple watching a romantic comedy, illustrating exposure to romantic entertainment. ]]


'''Scenario'''

After a long day, Adam and Eve settle onto the couch to watch a romantic comedy called [[wikipedia:Pretty_Woman|Pretty Woman]]. Throughout the film, they are captivated by the unlikely romance, admire the grand gestures of affection and enjoy the story's happy ending. As the credits roll, Eve jokingly says that &quot;Romantic movies make relationships looks so effortless. I wish real life worked like that&quot;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Although the comment is playful, it raises an important question: How does romantic entertainment influence beliefs and expectations about love and romantic relationships ?    

As romantic films, television programs, music and media have become increasingly accessible, researchers have questioned whether repeated exposure shapes people's beliefs about how love should develop and how relationships should function.

Since the 1930s, romantic films have consistently been among the most popular genres. Between 1995 and 2010, romantic comedy genre was the sixth highest grossing category of films, generating over $10 billion. The popularity of these films has led some academics to theorise on why such films had a large appeal. Academic Galician (2004) argued that people seek romantic content in the media in order to see relationships work despite all obstacles. Individuals seek out content learn about dating and romance (Hefner &amp; Wilson, 2013).

Reality TV has also flourished in recent decades and is produced to suit almost all demographics. Many people tune in because they perceive contestants and their reactions to be authentic or even relatable. Reality dating and dating competition shows such as The Bachelor and Love Island, isolate their participants and encourage the formation of romantic and platonic relationships in absence of familiar people or surroundings (Beaty, 2021).

Romantic entertainment is a common source of information about love and relationships, yet the messages it promotes may not always reflect the reality of a relationship. Understanding how these portrayals influence beliefs and expectations can help individuals engage with romantic media more critically. This chapter explores how romantic entertainment influences beliefs and expectations about love and romantic relationships.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* What are romantic beliefs and relationship expectations and why are they important?
* What romantic ideals and relationship messages are commonly portrayed in romantic entertainment?
* How do psychological processes such as romantic script, parasocial attachment and social comparison shape audience beliefs / perception about love and relationships?
* What are the potential benefits and drawbacks of using romantic entertainment as a source of relation ship knowledge?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Romantic beliefs and relationship expectations ==

==== What is love? ====
[[wikipedia:Love|Love]] is a fundamental aspect of the human experience, one of the most crucial components of intimate relationships. According to Sternberg's triangular theory of love, romantic love consists of three core components: intimacy, desire and decision/ commitment, the intensity of the points varies as a function of relationship duration (''Sorokowski'' ''et al., 2021)''. Romantic love is a nearly universal phenomenon that contributes to human evolution and happiness. Love in romantic relationships is commonly defined as passionate and erotic love, distinguished from love in other types of relationships (parental and friendship) ''(Chen, Xia &amp; Dunne, 2024)'''.'''''

==== Romantic relationships ====
Romantic relationships are a key contributor to overall wellbeing. Forming and maintaining intimate partnerships is an important component of our health and happiness. However there are many factors that affect the likelihood and maintaining a healthy relationship, personality, mental health, beliefs held about relationships.  

==== Romantic ideals / romanticism ====
Romantic ideals refer to a broad set of beliefs about the power of love and what constitutes a successful romantic relationship (''Bell, 1975, as cited in Sprecher &amp; Metts, 1989; Knox &amp; Sporakowski, 1968, as cited in Sprecher &amp; Metts, 1989''). The romantic ideal, originally proposed by Lantz (1968), reflects culturally endorsed beliefs within Western societies about how romantic relationships should form, develop, function, and be maintained. These beliefs represent shared cultural understandings of romance rather than expectations directed towards a specific partner. According to Sprecher and Metts (''1989''), romantic love is characterised by beliefs such as love at first sight, the existence of a single true love, the notion that love can overcome all obstacles, the idealisation of romantic partners, and the belief that individuals should follow their hearts when choosing a partner. The psychological mechanisms underlying this influence are discussed later in the chapter.

More broadly, research commonly identifies four central themes associated with romantic ideals: the belief that love can overcome any obstacle (&quot;love finds a way&quot;), the existence of a soulmate (&quot;one and only&quot;), the idealisation of a romantic partner, and the belief in love at first sight (''Hefner &amp; Wilson, 2013'').
* '''Love finds a way''' 
* '''One and only''' 
* '''Idealisation''' 
* '''Love at first sight'''

Romantic ideals reflect endorsement of a broader romantic ideology rather than feelings towards a specific individual. These beliefs represent  shared assumptions about how love and relationships should develop and function, which individuals may hold before entering a romantic relationship (Sprecher &amp; Metts, 1989). 

== Romantic ideals portrayed in entertainment ==
Romantic ideals are shaped by personal experiences and broader cultural influences; however these beliefs do not develop in isolation. Entertainment  play a significant role in shaping and reinforcing romantic ideals by exposing audiences to idealised portrayals of love, intimacy, and relationship development. Across a range of media formats, romantic entertainment commonly presents idealised depictions of love and relationship development, promoting messages that may differ from the realities of everyday romantic relationships. 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Table 1. Common romantic ideals portrayed in romantic entertainment media
!Romantic ideal
!Description
|-
|Soul mate / one and only
|Belief that there is one perfect partner destined for each person
|-
|Love at first sight
|Belief that genuine love can occur immediately upon meeting
|-
|Idealisation of partner
|Expectation that romantic partners are nearly flawless
|-
|Love conquers all
|Belief that love can overcome obstacles and challenges
|}
The influence of romantic entertainment extends beyond romantic comedies. Disney Princess films frequently incorporate romantic narratives that reinforce many of the same beliefs found in romantic comedy films, including soulmate ideals, idealisation of partners, and the expectation that true love leads to a happy ending (Hefner &amp; Kretz, 2021).

Beyond serving as a source of relationship knowledge, romantic entertainment may also attract audiences through emotional investment in fictional relationships. van Monsjou and Mar (2019) suggest that engagement with fictional romances provides opportunities for individuals to explore romantic experiences, develop understandings of intimacy, and reflect on relationship possibilities without directly experiencing them. Consequently, fictional relationships may serve both entertainment and psychological functions by allowing audiences to engage with romantic themes and relationship dynamics.

Romantic films / rom coms

* soulmates
* grand gestures
* destiny
* love conquers all
* attractive partners
* conflict resolved quickly
* overcoming obstacles
* happily-ever-after ending

=== Reality dating television ===
* accelerated relationship development
* attraction and compatibility
* dating as entertainment

=== Popular music ===
* love songs reinforce cultural ideas about passion, intimacy and commitment 
These findings suggest that media consumption may influence how individuals interpret and apply romantic messages to their own relationships.

== Psychological mechanisms of media influence ==
=== Cultivation theory ===

=== Social cognitive theory ===

Suggests that human behaviour is determined by environmental influences and internal dispositions. Individuals are more likely to imitate models who are similar to themselves.&lt;quiz display=&quot;bold&quot;&gt;
{A woman regularly watches romantic television shows in which husbands are consistently affectionate, attentive and express love through grand gestures. Over time, she becomes dissatisfied with her own husband's lower level of affection. According to Social Exchange Theory, what best explains her dissatisfaction?:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- She has developed a parasocial relationship with the fictional husband
+ She is comparing her relationship to the idealised rewards and expectations portrayed in the media
- She is experiencing attachment insecurity caused by watching romantic television
&lt;/quiz&gt;

=== Romantic scripts and schemas ===
'''Social exchange theory (SET)'''

Social exchange theory provides insight into how media-shaped expectations may affect relationship satisfaction. The theory proposes that individuals evaluate romantic relationships by comparing perceived rewards, such as affection, companionship, and emotional support, against perceived costs, including conflict, compromise, and lost alternatives. Romantic entertainment often emphasises the rewards of relationships while minimising their costs, potentially encouraging unrealistic expectations. As a result, individuals may evaluate their own relationships against idealised media standards and experience dissatisfaction when reality fails to meet those expectations (Banjo, 2002.

== Benefits and drawbacks of romantic entertainment ==
Although it may seem intuitive that holding such romanticised and idealistic beliefs would lead to worse relational outcomes, research actually contradicts this conclusion. The evidence suggests that embracing romanticism can have both positive and negative consequences. A positive effect is that these beliefs may facilitate to the development of romantic relationships because romanticism can act as a rose-coloured filter through which people view early relationship experiences (Lippmann et al., 2014).

=== Potential benefits ===

=== Potential drawbacks ===

==== Social Exchange Theory and relationship expectations ====
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
*
* What is love
*
*
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links Even Disney princess animated genre could be an important source of influence on young viewers perception of reality more specifically their beliefs regarding romantic relationships. Nearly all Disney princess movies feature a romantic component (Hefner &amp; Kretz, 2021). Following the same beliefs as romantic comedy films.

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

=== To what extent should people use romantic entertainment as a guide for real-life relationships? ===
This is essentially your concluding discussion{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:

* [[wikipedia:Soulmate|Soulmate]] (Wikipedia)

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Love|Love]] (Book chapter, 2011)

* [[wikipedia:Parasocial_interaction|Parasocial interaction]] (Wikipedia)


{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Banjo, O. O. (2002). The effects of media consumption on the perception of romantic relationships. Penn State McNair Journal, 9(1), 9-33.

Beaty, L. S. (2021). It’s Love Island, Not Friend Island”: Authenticity and Surveillance in Reality TV, a Literature Review and Content Analysis “. WWU Honors College Senior Projects 456.

Boateng, J. (2023). The Perception of Intimacy: Are Dating Reality TV Shows Affecting Relationships? Canadian Journal of Family and Youth / Le Journal Canadien de Famille et de La Jeunesse, 15(2), 33–43. https://doi.org/10.29173/cjfy29870

Chen, Y., Xia, M., &amp; Dunne, S. (2024). Romantic Love is Not Only “Romantic”: A Grounded Theory Study on Love in Romantic Relationships. The Journal of Psychology, 158(1), 64–83. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.2024.2305442

Driesmans, K., Vandenbosch, L., &amp; Eggermont, S. (2016). True love lasts forever: the influence of a popular teenage movie on Belgian girls’ romantic beliefs. Journal of Children and Media, 10(3), 304–320. https://doi.org/10.1080/17482798.2016.1157501
Hefner, V., &amp; Kretz, V. E. (2021). Does the Glass Slipper Fit?: Disney Princess Films and Relationship Beliefs and Attitudes. Journal of Media Psychology, 33(3), 125–133. https://doi.org/10.1027/1864-1105/a000290

Hefner, V., &amp; Wilson, B. J. (2013). From Love at First Sight to Soul Mate: The Influence of Romantic Ideals in Popular Films on Young People’s Beliefs about Relationships. Communication Monographs, 80(2), 150–175. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1080/03637751.2013.776697

Johnson, K. R., &amp; Holmes, B. M. (2009). Contradictory Messages: A Content Analysis of Hollywood-Produced Romantic Comedy Feature Films. Communication Quarterly, 57(3), 352–373. https://doi.org/10.1080/01463370903113632

Lippman, J. R., Ward, L. M., &amp; Seabrook, R. C. (2014). Isn’t It Romantic? Differential Associations Between Romantic Screen Media Genres and Romantic Beliefs. Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 3(3), 128–140. https://doi.org/10.1037/ppm0000034

Knee, C. R. (1998). Implicit Theories of Relationships: Assessment and Prediction of Romantic Relationship Initiation, Coping, and Longevity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(2), 360–370. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.74.2.360

Sorokowski, P., Sorokowska, A., Groyecka, A., Aavik, T., Akello, G., Alm,C., Amjad, N., Anjum, A., Asao, K., Atama, C. S., Atamtürk Duyar, D., Ayebare, R., Batres, C., Bendixen, M., Bensafia, A., Bizumic, B., Boussena, M., Buss, D. M., Butovskaya, M., … Sternberg, R. J. (2021). Universality of the Triangular Theory of Love: Adaptation and Psychometric Properties of the Triangular Love Scale in 25 Countries. The Journal of Sex Research, 58(1), 106–115. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2020.1787318

Sprecher, S., &amp; Metts, S. (1999). Romantic Beliefs: Their Influence on Relationships and Patterns of Change Over Time. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 16(6), 834-851. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407599166009

Van Monsjou, E., &amp; Mar, R. A. (2019). Interest and Investment in Fictional Romances. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, 13(4), 431–449. https://doi.org/10.1037/aca0000191

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://olemiss.edu/news/2024/07/romantic-movies-perception/index.html Romance media could alter perceptions of relationships] (University of Mississippi)
* [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/finding-love-the-scientific-take/202411/rom-coms-can-a-movie-genre-impact-our-perceptions-of Rom-coms : Can a movie genre impact our perceptions of love?] (Psychology Today)
* [https://theconversation.com/what-love-island-can-tell-us-about-the-history-of-love-119751 What Love Island can tell us about the history of love] (The conversation)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

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[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Love]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Media]]
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__TOC__

== Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:ChatGPT Image of couple watching romantic media together.png|thumb|140x140px|'''Figure 1.''' A couple watching a romantic comedy, illustrating exposure to romantic entertainment. ]]


'''Scenario'''

After a long day, Adam and Eve settle onto the couch to watch a romantic comedy called [[wikipedia:Pretty_Woman|Pretty Woman]]. Throughout the film, they are captivated by the unlikely romance, admire the grand gestures of affection and enjoy the story's happy ending. As the credits roll, Eve jokingly says that &quot;Romantic movies make relationships looks so effortless. I wish real life worked like that&quot;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Although the comment is playful, it raises an important question: How does romantic entertainment influence beliefs and expectations about love and romantic relationships ?    

As romantic films, television programs, music and media have become increasingly accessible, researchers have questioned whether repeated exposure shapes people's beliefs about how love should develop and how relationships should function.

Since the 1930s, romantic films have consistently been among the most popular genres. Between 1995 and 2010, romantic comedy genre was the sixth highest grossing category of films, generating over $10 billion. The popularity of these films has led some academics to theorise on why such films had a large appeal. Academic Galician (2004) argued that people seek romantic content in the media in order to see relationships work despite all obstacles. Individuals seek out content learn about dating and romance (Hefner &amp; Wilson, 2013).

Reality TV has also flourished in recent decades and is produced to suit almost all demographics. Many people tune in because they perceive contestants and their reactions to be authentic or even relatable. Reality dating and dating competition shows such as The Bachelor and Love Island, isolate their participants and encourage the formation of romantic and platonic relationships in absence of familiar people or surroundings (Beaty, 2021).

Romantic entertainment is a common source of information about love and relationships, yet the messages it promotes may not always reflect the reality of a relationship. Understanding how these portrayals influence beliefs and expectations can help individuals engage with romantic media more critically. This chapter explores how romantic entertainment influences beliefs and expectations about love and romantic relationships.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* What are romantic beliefs and relationship expectations and why are they important?
* What romantic ideals and relationship messages are commonly portrayed in romantic entertainment?
* How do psychological processes such as romantic script, parasocial attachment and social comparison shape audience beliefs / perception about love and relationships?
* What are the potential benefits and drawbacks of using romantic entertainment as a source of relation ship knowledge?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Romantic beliefs and relationship expectations ==

==== What is love? ====
[[wikipedia:Love|Love]] is a fundamental aspect of the human experience, one of the most crucial components of intimate relationships. According to Sternberg's triangular theory of love, romantic love consists of three core components: intimacy, desire and decision/ commitment, the intensity of the points varies as a function of relationship duration (''Sorokowski'' ''et al., 2021)''. Romantic love is a nearly universal phenomenon that contributes to human evolution and happiness. Love in romantic relationships is commonly defined as passionate and erotic love, distinguished from love in other types of relationships (parental and friendship) ''(Chen, Xia &amp; Dunne, 2024)'''.'''''

==== Romantic relationships ====
Romantic relationships are a key contributor to overall wellbeing. Forming and maintaining intimate partnerships is an important component of our health and happiness. However there are many factors that affect the likelihood and maintaining a healthy relationship, personality, mental health, beliefs held about relationships.  

==== Romantic ideals / romanticism ====
Romantic ideals refer to a broad set of beliefs about the power of love and what constitutes a successful romantic relationship (''Bell, 1975, as cited in Sprecher &amp; Metts, 1989; Knox &amp; Sporakowski, 1968, as cited in Sprecher &amp; Metts, 1989''). The romantic ideal, originally proposed by Lantz (1968), reflects culturally endorsed beliefs within Western societies about how romantic relationships should form, develop, function, and be maintained. These beliefs represent shared cultural understandings of romance rather than expectations directed towards a specific partner. According to Sprecher and Metts (''1989''), romantic love is characterised by beliefs such as love at first sight, the existence of a single true love, the notion that love can overcome all obstacles, the idealisation of romantic partners, and the belief that individuals should follow their hearts when choosing a partner. The psychological mechanisms underlying this influence are discussed later in the chapter.

More broadly, research commonly identifies four central themes associated with romantic ideals: the belief that love can overcome any obstacle (&quot;love finds a way&quot;), the existence of a soulmate (&quot;one and only&quot;), the idealisation of a romantic partner, and the belief in love at first sight (''Hefner &amp; Wilson, 2013'').
* '''Love finds a way''' 
* '''One and only''' 
* '''Idealisation''' 
* '''Love at first sight'''

Romantic ideals reflect endorsement of a broader romantic ideology rather than feelings towards a specific individual. These beliefs represent  shared assumptions about how love and relationships should develop and function, which individuals may hold before entering a romantic relationship (Sprecher &amp; Metts, 1989). 

== Romantic ideals portrayed in entertainment ==
Romantic ideals are shaped by personal experiences and broader cultural influences; however these beliefs do not develop in isolation. Entertainment  play a significant role in shaping and reinforcing romantic ideals by exposing audiences to idealised portrayals of love, intimacy, and relationship development. Across a range of media formats, romantic entertainment commonly presents idealised depictions of love and relationship development, promoting messages that may differ from the realities of everyday romantic relationships. 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Table 1. Common romantic ideals portrayed in romantic entertainment media
!Romantic ideal
!Description
|-
|Soul mate / one and only
|Belief that there is one perfect partner destined for each person
|-
|Love at first sight
|Belief that genuine love can occur immediately upon meeting
|-
|Idealisation of partner
|Expectation that romantic partners are nearly flawless
|-
|Love conquers all
|Belief that love can overcome obstacles and challenges
|}
The influence of romantic entertainment extends beyond romantic comedies. Disney Princess films frequently incorporate romantic narratives that reinforce many of the same beliefs found in romantic comedy films, including soulmate ideals, idealisation of partners, and the expectation that true love leads to a happy ending (Hefner &amp; Kretz, 2021).

Beyond serving as a source of relationship knowledge, romantic entertainment may also attract audiences through emotional investment in fictional relationships. van Monsjou and Mar (2019) suggest that engagement with fictional romances provides opportunities for individuals to explore romantic experiences, develop understandings of intimacy, and reflect on relationship possibilities without directly experiencing them. Consequently, fictional relationships may serve both entertainment and psychological functions by allowing audiences to engage with romantic themes and relationship dynamics.

Romantic films / rom coms

* soulmates
* grand gestures
* destiny
* love conquers all
* attractive partners
* conflict resolved quickly
* overcoming obstacles
* happily-ever-after ending

=== Reality dating television ===
* accelerated relationship development
* attraction and compatibility
* dating as entertainment

=== Popular music ===
* love songs reinforce cultural ideas about passion, intimacy and commitment 
These findings suggest that media consumption may influence how individuals interpret and apply romantic messages to their own relationships.

== Psychological mechanisms of media influence ==
=== Cultivation theory ===

=== Social cognitive theory ===

Suggests that human behaviour is determined by environmental influences and internal dispositions. Individuals are more likely to imitate models who are similar to themselves.&lt;quiz display=&quot;bold&quot;&gt;
{A woman regularly watches romantic television shows in which husbands are consistently affectionate, attentive and express love through grand gestures. Over time, she becomes dissatisfied with her own husband's lower level of affection. According to Social Exchange Theory, what best explains her dissatisfaction?:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- She has developed a parasocial relationship with the fictional husband
+ She is comparing her relationship to the idealised rewards and expectations portrayed in the media
- She is experiencing attachment insecurity caused by watching romantic television
&lt;/quiz&gt;

=== Romantic scripts and schemas ===
'''Social exchange theory (SET)'''

Social exchange theory provides insight into how media-shaped expectations may affect relationship satisfaction. The theory proposes that individuals evaluate romantic relationships by comparing perceived rewards, such as affection, companionship, and emotional support, against perceived costs, including conflict, compromise, and lost alternatives. Romantic entertainment often emphasises the rewards of relationships while minimising their costs, potentially encouraging unrealistic expectations. As a result, individuals may evaluate their own relationships against idealised media standards and experience dissatisfaction when reality fails to meet those expectations (Banjo, 2002.

== Benefits and drawbacks of romantic entertainment ==
Although it may seem intuitive that holding such romanticised and idealistic beliefs would lead to worse relational outcomes, research actually contradicts this conclusion. The evidence suggests that embracing romanticism can have both positive and negative consequences. A positive effect is that these beliefs may facilitate to the development of romantic relationships because romanticism can act as a rose-coloured filter through which people view early relationship experiences (Lippmann et al., 2014).

=== Potential benefits ===

=== Potential drawbacks ===

==== Social Exchange Theory and relationship expectations ====
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
*
* What is love
*
*
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links Even Disney princess animated genre could be an important source of influence on young viewers perception of reality more specifically their beliefs regarding romantic relationships. Nearly all Disney princess movies feature a romantic component (Hefner &amp; Kretz, 2021). Following the same beliefs as romantic comedy films.

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
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* Include key citations

==Figures==
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* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

=== To what extent should people use romantic entertainment as a guide for real-life relationships? ===
This is essentially your concluding discussion{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:

* [[wikipedia:Soulmate|Soulmate]] (Wikipedia)

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Love|Love]] (Book chapter, 2011)

* [[wikipedia:Parasocial_interaction|Parasocial interaction]] (Wikipedia)


{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Banjo, O. O. (2002). The effects of media consumption on the perception of romantic relationships. Penn State McNair Journal, 9(1), 9-33.

Bamford, J. S., Vigl, J., Hämäläinen, M., &amp; Saarikallio, S. H. (2024). Love songs and serenades: a theoretical review of music and romantic relationships. Frontiers in Psychology, 15, 1302548. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1302548

Beaty, L. S. (2021). It’s Love Island, Not Friend Island”: Authenticity and Surveillance in Reality TV, a Literature Review and Content Analysis “. WWU Honors College Senior Projects 456.

Boateng, J. (2023). The Perception of Intimacy: Are Dating Reality TV Shows Affecting Relationships? Canadian Journal of Family and Youth / Le Journal Canadien de Famille et de La Jeunesse, 15(2), 33–43. https://doi.org/10.29173/cjfy29870

Chen, Y., Xia, M., &amp; Dunne, S. (2024). Romantic Love is Not Only “Romantic”: A Grounded Theory Study on Love in Romantic Relationships. The Journal of Psychology, 158(1), 64–83. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.2024.2305442

Driesmans, K., Vandenbosch, L., &amp; Eggermont, S. (2016). True love lasts forever: the influence of a popular teenage movie on Belgian girls’ romantic beliefs. Journal of Children and Media, 10(3), 304–320. https://doi.org/10.1080/17482798.2016.1157501
Hefner, V., &amp; Kretz, V. E. (2021). Does the Glass Slipper Fit?: Disney Princess Films and Relationship Beliefs and Attitudes. Journal of Media Psychology, 33(3), 125–133. https://doi.org/10.1027/1864-1105/a000290

Hefner, V., &amp; Wilson, B. J. (2013). From Love at First Sight to Soul Mate: The Influence of Romantic Ideals in Popular Films on Young People’s Beliefs about Relationships. Communication Monographs, 80(2), 150–175. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1080/03637751.2013.776697

Johnson, K. R., &amp; Holmes, B. M. (2009). Contradictory Messages: A Content Analysis of Hollywood-Produced Romantic Comedy Feature Films. Communication Quarterly, 57(3), 352–373. https://doi.org/10.1080/01463370903113632

Lippman, J. R., Ward, L. M., &amp; Seabrook, R. C. (2014). Isn’t It Romantic? Differential Associations Between Romantic Screen Media Genres and Romantic Beliefs. Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 3(3), 128–140. https://doi.org/10.1037/ppm0000034

Knee, C. R. (1998). Implicit Theories of Relationships: Assessment and Prediction of Romantic Relationship Initiation, Coping, and Longevity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(2), 360–370. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.74.2.360

Sorokowski, P., Sorokowska, A., Groyecka, A., Aavik, T., Akello, G., Alm,C., Amjad, N., Anjum, A., Asao, K., Atama, C. S., Atamtürk Duyar, D., Ayebare, R., Batres, C., Bendixen, M., Bensafia, A., Bizumic, B., Boussena, M., Buss, D. M., Butovskaya, M., … Sternberg, R. J. (2021). Universality of the Triangular Theory of Love: Adaptation and Psychometric Properties of the Triangular Love Scale in 25 Countries. The Journal of Sex Research, 58(1), 106–115. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2020.1787318

Sprecher, S., &amp; Metts, S. (1999). Romantic Beliefs: Their Influence on Relationships and Patterns of Change Over Time. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 16(6), 834-851. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407599166009

Van Monsjou, E., &amp; Mar, R. A. (2019). Interest and Investment in Fictional Romances. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, 13(4), 431–449. https://doi.org/10.1037/aca0000191

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
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** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://olemiss.edu/news/2024/07/romantic-movies-perception/index.html Romance media could alter perceptions of relationships] (University of Mississippi)
* [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/finding-love-the-scientific-take/202411/rom-coms-can-a-movie-genre-impact-our-perceptions-of Rom-coms : Can a movie genre impact our perceptions of love?] (Psychology Today)
* [https://theconversation.com/what-love-island-can-tell-us-about-the-history-of-love-119751 What Love Island can tell us about the history of love] (The conversation)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

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__TOC__
== Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}
[[File:“Sex workers rights are human rights” - Europride 2019.jpg|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. Prostitution in Sao Paulo, Brazil]]

'''What would you do if you found yourself in this scenario?'''

Feeling lost and left with little money of your own, but you have to make ends meet. What will you do when you have to pay your rent? What if you have a child? Would you turn to sex work to make ends meet? 

If you did... would that make your rights to a safe and trustworthy work environment just disappear? Sex work itself is illegal. Having been driven to such means to make ends meet, you must register as self-employed to pay taxes, buy a house, or even just be considered an employee. [https://doi.org/10.1080/14427591.2020.1830841.  (Huglstad et al., 2020)].

Sex workers rights activists proclaim that sex work is work, that they are not victims in need of help, and that they are entitled to any basic human right (see Figure 1). That in itself poses another scenario: What drives people into sex work? Is it finance and convenience? Or is it pleasure and fun?

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
[[Sex education|Sex]] work or [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/10.1086/324390.pdf?casa_token=lfbXJZ0pqcQAAAAA:Y2KROCBvBcyTR_OkV9GU9nGAnh5lp0VKsrro0wiLqGF_MeXybi6-z3pvrxj97OM6GMvGv6r_Zbmt_s9RvHKDiUw3JzDhAPWvsSz3uzNI4nXa_mNdM5o prostitution] is a broad topic which includes many elements of sexual activities. In 2005, Harcourt defined &quot;prostitution, [as] the provision of sexual services for money or its equivalent,&quot; ([https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1744977/pdf/v081p00201.pdf Harcourt, 2005]). To understand sex work as a concept it is important to first understand why people may turn to sex work for an income to begin with. This topic has been discussed at nauseum however often in a negative and clouded light. As stated in The Journal of Sex Research in 2013, it wasn't until the 1990's that literature that looked into this topic stopped looking at prostitutes as &quot;predominantly... ‘‘evil characters’’ or ‘‘sick personalities.’’&quot; ([https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00224499.2012.696285?casa_token=wgasXeCYwFAAAAAA:0Iuwx4QzcbYP0ZAj6GISEX5oDHr4t-phuo4VUxmwfMIVjTrLXaTBhIoYpXtC9r0WaeYaxII3ObSZ Vanwesenbeeck, 2013]) and carrying a lense of &quot;&quot;simmering abhorrence, incomprehension, and fascination&quot; (Vanwesenbeeck, 2013) towards these individuals. Some of the main concepts that will be unpacked below are what motivates people to go into sex work, answers are commonly, &quot;financial, sexual, recreational motives, and coercion (i.e., [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/30048506.pdf?casa_token=pqlPp6XrnF0AAAAA:SFSvr6r_WKbLtO638dPPYk35oZFz9anPcub1Be7iUjk9AMX7a4h73yPLMJ6efSSxWVK7Az4Upc3UgohFYtht3QViGNIyTXPWCkBaY5lhRS_RGNFzUoA trafficking])&quot; (Vanwesenbeeck, 2013), these experiences can often lead to negative workplace satisfaction. External influences like the adult entertainment industry and whorephobia can also heavily influence an individual's workplace satisfaction when working in the prostitution industry. To learn the in depth relationship between motivation to join sex work and the quality of said workplace satisfaction continue reading below! 

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}
'''Focus questions'''
* What are the main driving forces causing people to turn to sex work?
* What is the condition of work place satisfaction for sex workers?
* How does whorephobia and others' actions towards sex workers effect their work place?
* Do those who turn to sex work for pleasure have different experiences to those who do so for money alone?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Driving forces pushing people towards sex work ==
There are many driving forces that can influence someone's motivation to enter any kind of work force. Unfortunatly financial motives are often what pushes people to turn to the sex trade. Although there is evidence that some do find pleasure and positive experiences through sex work. So, those who turn to sex work for pleasure have different experiences to those who do so for money alone?

=== Intrinsic motivation ===
It would be irresponsible to look at motivation without first adressing key theories that may explain why a person would perform any behaviour. By looking at [[Intrinsic motivation|intrinsic motivational]] forces that may influence someone into the sex trade it can give a fuller explination of their actions. What internal need are they fulfilling by performing these actions? 

Intrinsic motivation falls under the &quot;definition of [an] action as rewarding in itself&quot; (Fishbach &amp; Woolley, 2021), not nesseserily the outcome/ final goal. Although economic needs are a common factor of joining the sex trade — and is considered an extrinsically motivating factor — there is &quot;research confirming that individuals sometimes enter this occupation for reasons of personal fulfillment&quot;([https://pdf.sciencedirectassets.com/271730/1-s2.0-S0925753520X00063/1-s2.0-S0925753520301922/main.pdf?X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEBEaCXVzLWVhc3QtMSJHMEUCIDrCbvs%2F7w0X0S3yCXuLyXMAVemZDC49LGi7ggPpj1wjAiEA6QCj0FxUNyErmwrB1VC%2BreVNTnWp6Ks7KsE3E7x391YqvAUI2v%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2FARAFGgwwNTkwMDM1NDY4NjUiDBNmdKhbptxvmOh4WSqQBXwnDyLbNEknRXvNDbinpDHQJUc%2FGchy79eEQNCK1aSExCTctRYZQfwSEb%2Blh%2BiqbpjqVmEmUyRYf9MjZRPISeI7qTxt6LEBsCMnLF85bPAwYdGBfemRX8rc2OUulZ8aFuPFw9ziwJVX0xGOlL5Rd1U%2FQufCATv6aU7%2FSuTu8Q89bqP6QVUlA4xPEcFnI0goxABkBfBZbPck5FgRkP65OLSbAQp%2FTwaKssf1N6S4QrpAPOLv3QqrtkKp%2BVAMRhaO9PgKBdkfLjm80Y%2FiXp4uxBeV0BPtLbJ61mFI8bUMWZu5W5sqYj%2B5UL5hcCmxXUgwRFyyoA8gE5sed%2BFUeNfW2JLXEE5Q%2BNNF55gtEwlVuknu%2Bu2wArB0x3VI3rsqxqG5xR4%2Bog7yLIJGThjLd%2BHycAsCqk103w7YpMEIYoHkSkipbn0dCSgA5ug33kze8NIuJGVOC9KI5Sql2O0g%2BXm1KkgAbUPlicrcBkhAHsm9vVLDTlqD3A2tztVsuByRGY0pYATYVpazB3ko56XjIRXCGtS0csSYOzNwf3mp5H1fSXlb%2Ftrc10dBfF%2FKu5rFoq2%2FEgSXeYfm1DKiJVUzd%2Bxx53KtVsjK87FTifPGFRQP4I%2BJ483CjmXgkOanXoyr5MGNMMpEtVjp7%2F%2FW0wSJ383dYolbBYuHMBwlfKjAAHks1xMD8VXgIG%2F6xqVG5jrxBzRSHDBeIJ8vkm6IiNvwI%2FWzkUt2wsEncVyoGFXUCwqND6hPtOkPqEgG7gLE1p17r7GSYBppEUhY4B8jyjQV%2FJ%2BWpHdTtBQnuyziu3o9rzjidaLTGmC5oxy9xnpkiQboG7dckbBDn6Rt6qKGrlXfbsVt9dZgJZds7A5TZZCUxhX%2BEL4KMPbCjdYGOrEBjBdYKKt7s3fLZAAb%2BiGijeb%2F2xjDDXXLUCBygZL%2FcKAqstp0xG22ToNSpMyp5dpak9949g%2FQkiLxNJAxuvhKSUMDRB9GWxHspz8wjagXVBuuYkLPx3pkL5ul2Zzg3usF6OVvQR%2BFA8YlnaycMT44jQbz%2FAfU3SDfSJls72IGy3l4Mh%2BjsaohXm8yVtiLd%2BLj3bqX08ml35Lp3%2BGdZe3%2BZotYzxQjGzbK7i3WdrNHOWKR&amp;X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&amp;X-Amz-Date=20261005T090336Z&amp;X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&amp;X-Amz-Expires=300&amp;X-Amz-Credential=ASIAQ3PHCVTY2P7Y2UF6%2F20261005%2Fus-east-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&amp;X-Amz-Signature=94bcb1072eb8f4f5725e7945b8a9ce58dfa3e490385104eaec2eb25f622762f8&amp;hash=212a8d38d7e3c70d0609d9375b9ee0e51905cc164ffcd1ac8b4b7e37ea99e04a&amp;host=68042c943591013ac2b2430a89b270f6af2c76d8dfd086a07176afe7c76c2c61&amp;pii=S0925753520301922&amp;tid=spdf-a8772b34-02ec-4ab0-b162-7ce50de56625&amp;sid=000ad11f535f4044542b07711eb49dbf8ff1gxrqa&amp;type=client&amp;tsoh=d3d3LnNjaWVuY2VkaXJlY3QuY29t&amp;rh=d3d3LnNjaWVuY2VkaXJlY3QuY29t&amp;ua=1b13065557075052530452&amp;rr=a45b410e1b13f6f7&amp;cc=au Arnold et al., 2020]) which more closly alligns into intrinsic motives. 

=== Extrinsic motivation ===
Influences that effect people on an external level, or [[Extrinsic motivation|extrinsic motivations]], are influences that effect people outwardly, forces that are harder for an individual to control. A common driving factor for joining sex work, as stated above, is earning money — an outward influence. A paper published in 2021 by [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.586235/full Ernst, et al]. shows evidence to support the link between monetary needs and sex work by looking at the topic from the lense of a student in debt. 

=== Maslow's hierarchy of needs ===
[[File:Maslow's hierarchy of needs.svg|thumb|290x290px|'''Figure 1'''. Maslow's Heirarchy of Needs]]
Having covered the basics of what forces both internal and external drive people into the sex work industry, the lense of [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's heirarchy of needs]] can now be applied. A. H. Malsow drew from both intrinsic and extrinsic influences when making the heirarchy of needs. However Maslow defines a difference in the prevelence of a need and states that some needs will draw motivation for action then others, fr exsmple &quot;A person who is lacking food, safety, love, and esteem would most probably hunger for food more strongly than for anything else&quot; (Malsow, 1987). A possible reason for those who become sex workers through external motives – needing food, water or shelter – may find themselves in more compromising positions then those who enter through intrinsic fulfilment. This is because of there place on Malsow's model, extrinsicly motivated people may be trying to go from physiological to saftey. Where as, intrinsic may be seeking love/belonging possibly leading to more positive work satisfaction then others.  &lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Knowing factors that motivate people to go into sex work, if you found yourself in their shoes would you do it too?:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Yes
+ No
+ I'm not sure
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== How does the sex work industry differ when looking at male sex workers ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Percentages showing [https://www.annualreviews.org/docserver/fulltext/psych/65/1/annurev-psych-010213-115057.pdf?expires=1790841225&amp;id=id&amp;accname=au&amp;checksum=112378A7023548A83B7DDDA7288D0EA0 gender differences] in paying for vs working in sex
!
!Participate in sex work
!Pay for sex work
|-
|Men
|20%
|12%
|-
|Women
|80%
|1%
|}
In past years the sex trade has been veiwed as a primerily female dominated career, though men and women to take part in the transaction of sexual favours. In 2006 a study in the netherlands concluded that &quot;3% of both men and women in the adult population (19 to 69 years of age) reported ever having received money for sex&quot; ([https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/19317610903425571?casa_token=sDZAxkVnpLsAAAAA:8IjuI8blrONnsvny4LV0C2Vk4C2ltfOlOt2_Kkf-G1EfBgrGwdhCLxG7959b6OAMuelLbyed8bd3 Bakker &amp; Vanwesenbeeck, 2006]). Although both sexes take part, how does the gender divide split worker satisfaction? It is important to mention that the research of [[transgender]] individuals in the sex trade is highly limited and needs to be more heavily researched. 

=== The difference in male sex workers ===
Male sex workers often get overlooked in media as well as acedemically, an &quot;analysis of 166 social science academic articles on sex work found that a majority did not mention male sex workers&quot; ([http://cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/3EE28F1EAC9594C89B21F8E47C42D106/S0887536724000564a.pdf/is-sex-work-inherently-gendered.pdf McKeever, 2025]). Not only does gender tell a part in this story but so does sexuality. The stigma of male sex workers was rampent during the [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/24987949.pdf?refreqid=fastly-default%3Af21bffe92b59f3868c81a7143b186da7&amp;ab_segments=&amp;initiator=&amp;acceptTC=1 aids] crisis when male sex workers were seen as problamatic to spreading the disease. Older papers of male sex workers characterizes them as more faminine and rooted in homosexuality, in the 20th century they are &quot;characterized as young, heterosexual, and innocent victims of older, predatory perverts&quot; ([https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00224499.2012.760189?casa_token=MwObuzJvcRUAAAAA:y2bj4pT8W0FJZBr3AYul37bEqXRu_jKD8-CBJDOU1N3Z_Y4WuAixv5SF9F0RPZVeCSrD3Ew5fSl9 Minichiello et al., 2013]).  

The experience of male sex workers is vastly influenced by external influences (ie. gender, sexuality, clientel) however when compared to women in how they are veiwed &quot;female but not male sex work [is] degrading, causing deep feelings of shame and remorse&quot; ([https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s12147-008-9051-y.pdf Dennis, 2008]). Those influences also dictate the quality of male prostitutes workplace experiences and satisfation. Minichiello et al. (2013), in a paper focusing on the changes in the male sex work industry states that the &quot;intrinsic nature of sex work is not oppressive, and that there are different kinds of worker and client experiences and varying degrees of victimization, exploitation, agency, and choice&quot;.&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{There are more women in the sex trade then there are men:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False

{Men also experience negative stereotypes when participating in the sex trade: 
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- False
+ True
&lt;/quiz&gt;
== Whorephobia and how it influences work place satisfaction ==
[https://www.jrc-concordia.ca/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/Journal-of-Religion-and-Culture-Vol-27-no-1.pdf#page=13 Whorephobia]  is ever present in the line of sex work, unfavorable opinions of sex workers has influenced others' behaviour towards them as well as their treatment in their workplace. Arnold et al. in 2020 said in their paper that &quot;on a continuum from amotivation through extrinsic to intrinsic motivation. We consider this as an individual difference variable that changes the relationship between perceived physical danger and desire to leave the sex work occupation&quot;. This study provides evidence that sex workers may change their line of work based on their perceved physical danger – tieing back into the earlier topic of Maslow's heirarchy of needs. 

A prostitues' workplace satisfsction heavily relies of their clientels; oppinions, behaviour, beliefs, and actions. These external factors can be influenced by whorephobia. This negative stigma has been seen throughout time and was seen in The Holy [[Bible]] when refrencing [[wikipedia:Mary_Magdalene|Mary Magdalene]] and her sexual transactions. Despite her depiction as a prostitue has been renounced by the Roman [[wikipedia:Catholic_Church|Catholic Church]], the foundation of sin was already engrained in many Catholic's mind. How does this widley held belief and stigma towards prostitutes/ sex workers effect their workplace satisfaction and saftey?

A factor that historically has negativley influenced prostitutes workplace saftey is the neglagence of police officers towards sex workers. 

- how does the prevelence of this violence motivate sex workers to continue in their chosen carer path?

- how does effect workplace satisfaction?

=== The adult entertainment industry ===
==Conclusion==
Through this chapter we have spoken about the different motivations that drives people into sex work and how that can influence work place experiences. We have done this by assesing how age and gender can influence motivations as well as what circumstances can effect those drives. 

- summerise the different motivations that lead to sex work, considering gender and age. 

- summerise how socioeconomic factors influence sex worker experiences, including prejudices. 
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
* [[Bible]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Extrinsic motivation|Extrincis motivation]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Intrinsic motivation]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Sex education]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Sex worker motivation|Sex work motivation]] (Book chapter, 2015)
* [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.586235/full Students in the Sex Industry: Motivations, Feelings, Risks, and Judgments] (Fronteirs in Psychology)
* [[Transgender]] (Wikiversity)

==References ==
{{Hanging indent|1=Arnold, K. A., Turner, N., Barling, J., &amp; Iverson, R. D. (2020). Feeling safe while doing sex work: Motivation for entering sex work moderates the relationship between perceptions of physical danger and desire to leave sex work. Safety science, 129, 104795.[https://pdf.sciencedirectassets.com/271730/1-s2.0-S0925753520X00063/1-s2.0-S0925753520301922/main.pdf?X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEDgaCXVzLWVhc3QtMSJIMEYCIQDLwNUlkBLTVH2W9sUG%2FL8xBiniafqj2YjDThRYfM8j7gIhAPpb6usou%2FCfun2GlN94HXvsSkZFNyb27ndcS5LYkmOqKrIFCAEQBRoMMDU5MDAzNTQ2ODY1IgwVqu3mdLMxIbQQT4EqjwVyEzAMhHQLz8i1mRyce46T7kq8nFGMPfsWbvGbIjwD5sTztgejH2H6uoazHE3ceLn%2BHJAMU2gcjulIYqlqCSyvPuWe%2BScfjOHfBfQZnctFdUl2oWqaahIi9YzAVcTWeftoZk%2FylcCfLerGklhqD7HwVv2vZdBzsx94xmqQ1V1uUbIbAIkJ30NfSj00z1cSaUL1q96wM120kL%2By3Fd%2FYRnMyLzgn343yVJM%2BYWksKgOiezOVEa%2BhmIbNUYzcpb%2Fkcah8UWIgZWXjdLp2fZTJB2yCYbj091PqbNLxbKvPvqaCnGI%2BSTaCPpupfKIdR02m2jepxiZI8%2FZrLGy71f0vYzU%2Be120AQZZCPdjTZZAOP9xB%2Bvfpp48EyclSYmN0rSn2bZcMSiqosJl%2Bz6BiiW3J9SmbZXGNWeECGltEiG%2FP%2FRiZ0uB94c2nIGVzBsfJ4fe7UAD3mlWR9UBCT5FirlPE3Dzap%2BH1xnOe%2BGN481xmH1YSoL3FACDW8J5HUez%2BURv5vTzFDq4nON4cFWhMdgPNfu8v%2BjU35utqWccWAfsows5CFE%2FdiNDUQa7EI1XwF00wtRp2k06DjOWBl%2FggL2duXPWFHHaJnOEovHXAGzQUl%2FzBocvEbkU%2BstJU3AjUwCqbrDZRVZay0dd7OLQ6NCZTFxvZrhEoOwYukzgYt02XtXs23oNKc8QK8jPBsjSx8K1Xj9V9tPB5eBTptias5DuJnme5GPMo0H0rehhAFIbH1iz5aLEJ2WFAs2YMajNB9b8K9hsdcsufqw3IWvDgGjJl491SPFYv4AkHpfF%2B2OEEmH9hDMp3rnzv686gQ5u2%2FmSKrDsChJ2JSpJUuTnHdHBZrk%2Fwzx%2BpsfpZ4zLVgKx0K6MJOGtdQGOrAB7mHiroFpJKweD4wGdVv4twWKj65wn3ZS715WCDMXnol3ZjKerxKwtTiAS8MYNXREK5yRc6R%2BCtHqgkfO1QIL6y35fyD0iOWFO6ZYrI1IePcEupQe4Ao%2B8i5%2Bz9PydRXrVVCjz1A9o6ZcLX9dN59jVDboJOpZsOpXxuErU9LEKNKGTqVoHfJq%2FpKSdZkltmLsDvSAgBZORP2gpikUUQyl6A0CxzJ3SGD1ZrqXN39XlWY%3D&amp;X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&amp;X-Amz-Date=20260825T084050Z&amp;X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&amp;X-Amz-Expires=300&amp;X-Amz-Credential=ASIAQ3PHCVTYZDNOMNKH%2F20260825%2Fus-east-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&amp;X-Amz-Signature=222054776072dd684a9220ca5e137f808570de2f4b46a74fc1fac36b8741d31e&amp;hash=9077aea1050680fe483f80515f312051569ddf0b7a50ba90c1511bc6ef136d06&amp;host=68042c943591013ac2b2430a89b270f6af2c76d8dfd086a07176afe7c76c2c61&amp;pii=S0925753520301922&amp;tid=spdf-2823bc10-4a39-4f2b-8a32-7409653a6f56&amp;sid=6bbf6c2f3a5ff545d91b09f2929365875304gxrqa&amp;type=client&amp;tsoh=d3d3LnNjaWVuY2VkaXJlY3QuY29t&amp;rh=d3d3LnNjaWVuY2VkaXJlY3QuY29t&amp;ua=1b130057565d500d535050&amp;rr=a3094b5109a37504&amp;cc=au]

Dennis, J. P. (2008). Women are Victims, Men Make Choices: The Invisibility of Men and Boys in the Global Sex Trade. Gender Issues, 25(1), 11–25. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12147-008-9051-y
‌

Ernst, F., Romanczuk-Seiferth, N., Köhler, S., Amelung, T., &amp; Betzler, F. (2021). Students in the sex industry: Motivations, feelings, risks, and judgments. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 586235.

Fishbach, A., &amp; Woolley, K. (2021). Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior The Structure of Intrinsic Motivation. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012420-
‌

Footer, K. H. A., White, R. H., Park, J. N., Decker, M. R., Lutnick, A., &amp; Sherman, S. G. (2020). Entry to Sex Trade and Long-Term Vulnerabilities of Female Sex Workers Who Enter the Sex Trade Before the Age of Eighteen. Journal of Urban Health, 97(3), 406–417. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7305278/

Harcourt, C. (2005). The many faces of sex work. Sexually Transmitted Infections, 81(3), 201–206. https://doi.org/10.1136/sti.2004.012468
‌

Huglstad, M., Halvorsen, I. L. I., Jonsson, H., &amp; Nielsen, K. T. (2020). “Some of us actually choose to do this”: The meanings of sex work from the perspective of female sex workers in Denmark. Journal of Occupational Science, 29(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/14427591.2020.1830841.

Vanwesenbeeck, I., Bakker, F., &amp; Gesell, S. (2010). Sexual Health in the Netherlands: Main Results of a Population Survey Among Dutch Adults. International Journal of Sexual Health, 22(2), 55–71. https://doi.org/10.1080/19317610903425571
‌

Vanwesenbeeck, I. (2013). Prostitution push and pull: Male and female perspectives. Journal of Sex Research, 50(1), 11-16.

Maslow, A., &amp; Lewis, K. J. (1987). Maslow's hierarchy of needs. Salenger Incorporated, 14(17), 987-990. https://www.justiceacademy.am/assets/uploads/Maslow.pdf

McNamara, R. (2016). The trouble with whorephobia. Journal of Religion and Culture, 27(1), 13-34.

McKeever, N. (2025). Is Sex Work Inherently Gendered? Hypatia, 40(3), 633–652. doi:10.1017/hyp.2024.56

‌Redwood, R. (2018). Myths and Realities of Male Sex Work. Red light labour: Sex work regulation, agency, and resistance, 167-180.[https://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&amp;lr=&amp;id=8GJoDwAAQBAJ&amp;oi=fnd&amp;pg=PA167&amp;dq=Myths+and+Realities+of+Male+Sex+Work&amp;ots=mQOUglmuLU&amp;sig=XHi0ybe124LABeHMulfVUMeYsxw#v=onepage&amp;q=Myths%20and%20Realities%20of%20Male%20Sex%20Work&amp;f=false]

Sex worker - Wikipedia. (2023). Wikipedia.Org. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sex_worker}}

==External links==
[https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/10.1086/324390.pdf?casa_token=lfbXJZ0pqcQAAAAA:Y2KROCBvBcyTR_OkV9GU9nGAnh5lp0VKsrro0wiLqGF_MeXybi6-z3pvrxj97OM6GMvGv6r_Zbmt_s9RvHKDiUw3JzDhAPWvsSz3uzNI4nXa_mNdM5o A Theory of Prostitution] (The University of Chicago Press)

[https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/24987949.pdf?refreqid=fastly-default%3Af21bffe92b59f3868c81a7143b186da7&amp;ab_segments=&amp;initiator=&amp;acceptTC=1 AIDS in 1988] (JSTOR)

[[wikipedia:Catholic_Church|Catholic Church]] (Wikipedia)

[https://www.annualreviews.org/docserver/fulltext/psych/65/1/annurev-psych-010213-115057.pdf?expires=1790841225&amp;id=id&amp;accname=au&amp;checksum=112378A7023548A83B7DDDA7288D0EA0 Gender Similarities and Differences] (The Annual Review of Psychology)

[https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/30048506.pdf?refreqid=fastly-default%3Abdd06e603789b9df6429bacfd93907fe&amp;ab_segments=&amp;initiator=&amp;acceptTC=1 Human Trafficking] (JSTOR)‌

[http://cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/3EE28F1EAC9594C89B21F8E47C42D106/S0887536724000564a.pdf/is-sex-work-inherently-gendered.pdf Is Sex Work Inherently Gendered?] (Cambridge University Press)

[[wikipedia:Mary_Magdalene|Mary Magdalene]] (Wikipedia)

[https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00224499.2012.760189?casa_token=MwObuzJvcRUAAAAA:y2bj4pT8W0FJZBr3AYul37bEqXRu_jKD8-CBJDOU1N3Z_Y4WuAixv5SF9F0RPZVeCSrD3Ew5fSl9 New Pleasures and Old Dangers: Reinventing Male Sex Work] (Journal of Sex Research)

[https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/19317610903425571?casa_token=sDZAxkVnpLsAAAAA:8IjuI8blrONnsvny4LV0C2Vk4C2ltfOlOt2_Kkf-G1EfBgrGwdhCLxG7959b6OAMuelLbyed8bd3 Sexual Health in the Netherlands: Main Results of a Population Survey Among Dutch Adults] (International Journal of Sexual Health)

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Sex]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Work motivation]]</text>
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      <text bytes="24852" sha1="bk6pu95i2kpq2ny502x37kn9r40252d" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Sex work motivation:&lt;br&gt;What motivates sex work and how does this impact worker experiences?}}
__TOC__
== Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}
[[File:“Sex workers rights are human rights” - Europride 2019.jpg|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. Prostitution in Sao Paulo, Brazil]]

'''What would you do if you found yourself in this scenario?'''

Feeling lost and left with little money of your own, but you have to make ends meet. What will you do when you have to pay your rent? What if you have a child? Would you turn to sex work to make ends meet? 

If you did... would that make your rights to a safe and trustworthy work environment just disappear? Sex work itself is illegal. Having been driven to such means to make ends meet, you must register as self-employed to pay taxes, buy a house, or even just be considered an employee. [https://doi.org/10.1080/14427591.2020.1830841.  (Huglstad et al., 2020)].

Sex workers rights activists proclaim that sex work is work, that they are not victims in need of help, and that they are entitled to any basic human right (see Figure 1). That in itself poses another scenario: What drives people into sex work? Is it finance and convenience? Or is it pleasure and fun?

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
[[Sex education|Sex]] work or [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/10.1086/324390.pdf?casa_token=lfbXJZ0pqcQAAAAA:Y2KROCBvBcyTR_OkV9GU9nGAnh5lp0VKsrro0wiLqGF_MeXybi6-z3pvrxj97OM6GMvGv6r_Zbmt_s9RvHKDiUw3JzDhAPWvsSz3uzNI4nXa_mNdM5o prostitution] is a broad topic which includes many elements of sexual activities. In 2005, Harcourt defined &quot;prostitution, [as] the provision of sexual services for money or its equivalent,&quot; ([https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1744977/pdf/v081p00201.pdf Harcourt, 2005]). To understand sex work as a concept it is important to first understand why people may turn to sex work for an income to begin with. This topic has been discussed at nauseum however often in a negative and clouded light. As stated in The Journal of Sex Research in 2013, it wasn't until the 1990's that literature that looked into this topic stopped looking at prostitutes as &quot;predominantly... ‘‘evil characters’’ or ‘‘sick personalities.’’&quot; ([https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00224499.2012.696285?casa_token=wgasXeCYwFAAAAAA:0Iuwx4QzcbYP0ZAj6GISEX5oDHr4t-phuo4VUxmwfMIVjTrLXaTBhIoYpXtC9r0WaeYaxII3ObSZ Vanwesenbeeck, 2013]) and carrying a lense of &quot;&quot;simmering abhorrence, incomprehension, and fascination&quot; (Vanwesenbeeck, 2013) towards these individuals. Some of the main concepts that will be unpacked below are what motivates people to go into sex work, answers are commonly, &quot;financial, sexual, recreational motives, and coercion (i.e., [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/30048506.pdf?casa_token=pqlPp6XrnF0AAAAA:SFSvr6r_WKbLtO638dPPYk35oZFz9anPcub1Be7iUjk9AMX7a4h73yPLMJ6efSSxWVK7Az4Upc3UgohFYtht3QViGNIyTXPWCkBaY5lhRS_RGNFzUoA trafficking])&quot; (Vanwesenbeeck, 2013), these experiences can often lead to negative workplace satisfaction. External influences like the adult entertainment industry and whorephobia can also heavily influence an individual's workplace satisfaction when working in the prostitution industry. To learn the in depth relationship between motivation to join sex work and the quality of said workplace satisfaction continue reading below! 

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}
'''Focus questions'''
* What are the main driving forces causing people to turn to sex work?
* What is the condition of work place satisfaction for sex workers?
* How does whorephobia and others' actions towards sex workers effect their work place?
* Do those who turn to sex work for pleasure have different experiences to those who do so for money alone?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Driving forces pushing people towards sex work ==
There are many driving forces that can influence someone's motivation to enter any kind of work force. Unfortunatly financial motives are often what pushes people to turn to the sex trade. Although there is evidence that some do find pleasure and positive experiences through sex work. So, those who turn to sex work for pleasure have different experiences to those who do so for money alone?

=== Intrinsic motivation ===
It would be irresponsible to look at motivation without first adressing key theories that may explain why a person would perform any behaviour. By looking at [[Intrinsic motivation|intrinsic motivational]] forces that may influence someone into the sex trade it can give a fuller explination of their actions. What internal need are they fulfilling by performing these actions? 

Intrinsic motivation falls under the &quot;definition of [an] action as rewarding in itself&quot; (Fishbach &amp; Woolley, 2021), not nesseserily the outcome/ final goal. Although economic needs are a common factor of joining the sex trade — and is considered an extrinsically motivating factor — there is &quot;research confirming that individuals sometimes enter this occupation for reasons of personal fulfillment&quot;([https://pdf.sciencedirectassets.com/271730/1-s2.0-S0925753520X00063/1-s2.0-S0925753520301922/main.pdf?X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEBEaCXVzLWVhc3QtMSJHMEUCIDrCbvs%2F7w0X0S3yCXuLyXMAVemZDC49LGi7ggPpj1wjAiEA6QCj0FxUNyErmwrB1VC%2BreVNTnWp6Ks7KsE3E7x391YqvAUI2v%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2FARAFGgwwNTkwMDM1NDY4NjUiDBNmdKhbptxvmOh4WSqQBXwnDyLbNEknRXvNDbinpDHQJUc%2FGchy79eEQNCK1aSExCTctRYZQfwSEb%2Blh%2BiqbpjqVmEmUyRYf9MjZRPISeI7qTxt6LEBsCMnLF85bPAwYdGBfemRX8rc2OUulZ8aFuPFw9ziwJVX0xGOlL5Rd1U%2FQufCATv6aU7%2FSuTu8Q89bqP6QVUlA4xPEcFnI0goxABkBfBZbPck5FgRkP65OLSbAQp%2FTwaKssf1N6S4QrpAPOLv3QqrtkKp%2BVAMRhaO9PgKBdkfLjm80Y%2FiXp4uxBeV0BPtLbJ61mFI8bUMWZu5W5sqYj%2B5UL5hcCmxXUgwRFyyoA8gE5sed%2BFUeNfW2JLXEE5Q%2BNNF55gtEwlVuknu%2Bu2wArB0x3VI3rsqxqG5xR4%2Bog7yLIJGThjLd%2BHycAsCqk103w7YpMEIYoHkSkipbn0dCSgA5ug33kze8NIuJGVOC9KI5Sql2O0g%2BXm1KkgAbUPlicrcBkhAHsm9vVLDTlqD3A2tztVsuByRGY0pYATYVpazB3ko56XjIRXCGtS0csSYOzNwf3mp5H1fSXlb%2Ftrc10dBfF%2FKu5rFoq2%2FEgSXeYfm1DKiJVUzd%2Bxx53KtVsjK87FTifPGFRQP4I%2BJ483CjmXgkOanXoyr5MGNMMpEtVjp7%2F%2FW0wSJ383dYolbBYuHMBwlfKjAAHks1xMD8VXgIG%2F6xqVG5jrxBzRSHDBeIJ8vkm6IiNvwI%2FWzkUt2wsEncVyoGFXUCwqND6hPtOkPqEgG7gLE1p17r7GSYBppEUhY4B8jyjQV%2FJ%2BWpHdTtBQnuyziu3o9rzjidaLTGmC5oxy9xnpkiQboG7dckbBDn6Rt6qKGrlXfbsVt9dZgJZds7A5TZZCUxhX%2BEL4KMPbCjdYGOrEBjBdYKKt7s3fLZAAb%2BiGijeb%2F2xjDDXXLUCBygZL%2FcKAqstp0xG22ToNSpMyp5dpak9949g%2FQkiLxNJAxuvhKSUMDRB9GWxHspz8wjagXVBuuYkLPx3pkL5ul2Zzg3usF6OVvQR%2BFA8YlnaycMT44jQbz%2FAfU3SDfSJls72IGy3l4Mh%2BjsaohXm8yVtiLd%2BLj3bqX08ml35Lp3%2BGdZe3%2BZotYzxQjGzbK7i3WdrNHOWKR&amp;X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&amp;X-Amz-Date=20261005T090336Z&amp;X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&amp;X-Amz-Expires=300&amp;X-Amz-Credential=ASIAQ3PHCVTY2P7Y2UF6%2F20261005%2Fus-east-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&amp;X-Amz-Signature=94bcb1072eb8f4f5725e7945b8a9ce58dfa3e490385104eaec2eb25f622762f8&amp;hash=212a8d38d7e3c70d0609d9375b9ee0e51905cc164ffcd1ac8b4b7e37ea99e04a&amp;host=68042c943591013ac2b2430a89b270f6af2c76d8dfd086a07176afe7c76c2c61&amp;pii=S0925753520301922&amp;tid=spdf-a8772b34-02ec-4ab0-b162-7ce50de56625&amp;sid=000ad11f535f4044542b07711eb49dbf8ff1gxrqa&amp;type=client&amp;tsoh=d3d3LnNjaWVuY2VkaXJlY3QuY29t&amp;rh=d3d3LnNjaWVuY2VkaXJlY3QuY29t&amp;ua=1b13065557075052530452&amp;rr=a45b410e1b13f6f7&amp;cc=au Arnold et al., 2020]) which more closly alligns into intrinsic motives. 

=== Extrinsic motivation ===
Influences that effect people on an external level, or [[Extrinsic motivation|extrinsic motivations]], are influences that effect people outwardly, forces that are harder for an individual to control. A common driving factor for joining sex work, as stated above, is earning money — an outward influence. A paper published in 2021 by [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.586235/full Ernst, et al]. shows evidence to support the link between monetary needs and sex work by looking at the topic from the lense of a student in debt. 

=== Maslow's hierarchy of needs ===
[[File:Maslow's hierarchy of needs.svg|thumb|290x290px|'''Figure 2'''. Maslow's Heirarchy of Needs]]
Having covered the basics of what forces both internal and external drive people into the sex work industry, the lense of [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's heirarchy of needs]] – refer to Figure. 2 for reference photo – can now be applied. A. H. Malsow drew from both intrinsic and extrinsic influences when making the heirarchy of needs. However Maslow defines a difference in the prevelence of a need and states that some needs will draw motivation for action then others, fr exsmple &quot;A person who is lacking food, safety, love, and esteem would most probably hunger for food more strongly than for anything else&quot; (Malsow, 1987). A possible reason for those who become sex workers through external motives – needing food, water or shelter – may find themselves in more compromising positions then those who enter through intrinsic fulfilment. A study collected data over a 3 year period and focused on data collected from over 100 prostitues in Denvour Colarado, this study stated &quot;most of whom struggle with homelessness, addiction, and compromised mental and physical health&quot; ([https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s13178-014-0163-8.pdf Dewey &amp; St. Germain, 2014]). Because of there place on Malsow's model, extrinsicly motivated people may be trying to go from physiological to saftey. Where as, intrinsic may be seeking love/belonging possibly leading to more positive work satisfaction then others.  

== How does the sex work industry differ when looking at male sex workers ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Percentages showing [https://www.annualreviews.org/docserver/fulltext/psych/65/1/annurev-psych-010213-115057.pdf?expires=1790841225&amp;id=id&amp;accname=au&amp;checksum=112378A7023548A83B7DDDA7288D0EA0 gender differences] in paying for vs working in sex
!
!Participate in sex work
!Pay for sex work
|-
|Men
|20%
|12%
|-
|Women
|80%
|1%
|}
In past years the sex trade has been veiwed as a primerily female dominated career, though men and women to take part in the transaction of sexual favours. In 2006 a study in the netherlands concluded that &quot;3% of both men and women in the adult population (19 to 69 years of age) reported ever having received money for sex&quot; ([https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/19317610903425571?casa_token=sDZAxkVnpLsAAAAA:8IjuI8blrONnsvny4LV0C2Vk4C2ltfOlOt2_Kkf-G1EfBgrGwdhCLxG7959b6OAMuelLbyed8bd3 Bakker &amp; Vanwesenbeeck, 2006]). Although both sexes take part, how does the gender divide split worker satisfaction? It is important to mention that the research of [[transgender]] individuals in the sex trade is highly limited and needs to be more heavily researched. 

=== The difference in male sex workers ===
Male sex workers often get overlooked in media as well as acedemically, an &quot;analysis of 166 social science academic articles on sex work found that a majority did not mention male sex workers&quot; ([http://cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/3EE28F1EAC9594C89B21F8E47C42D106/S0887536724000564a.pdf/is-sex-work-inherently-gendered.pdf McKeever, 2025]). Not only does gender tell a part in this story but so does sexuality. The stigma of male sex workers was rampent during the [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/24987949.pdf?refreqid=fastly-default%3Af21bffe92b59f3868c81a7143b186da7&amp;ab_segments=&amp;initiator=&amp;acceptTC=1 aids] crisis when male sex workers were seen as problamatic to spreading the disease. Older papers of male sex workers characterizes them as more faminine and rooted in homosexuality, in the 20th century they are &quot;characterized as young, heterosexual, and innocent victims of older, predatory perverts&quot; ([https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00224499.2012.760189?casa_token=MwObuzJvcRUAAAAA:y2bj4pT8W0FJZBr3AYul37bEqXRu_jKD8-CBJDOU1N3Z_Y4WuAixv5SF9F0RPZVeCSrD3Ew5fSl9 Minichiello et al., 2013]).  

The experience of male sex workers is vastly influenced by external influences (ie. gender, sexuality, clientel) however when compared to women in how they are veiwed &quot;female but not male sex work [is] degrading, causing deep feelings of shame and remorse&quot; ([https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s12147-008-9051-y.pdf Dennis, 2008]). Those influences also dictate the quality of male prostitutes workplace experiences and satisfation. Minichiello et al. (2013), in a paper focusing on the changes in the male sex work industry states that the &quot;intrinsic nature of sex work is not oppressive, and that there are different kinds of worker and client experiences and varying degrees of victimization, exploitation, agency, and choice&quot;.&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{There are more women in the sex trade then there are men:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False

{Men also experience negative stereotypes when participating in the sex trade: 
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- False
+ True
&lt;/quiz&gt;
== Whorephobia and how it influences work place satisfaction ==
[https://www.jrc-concordia.ca/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/Journal-of-Religion-and-Culture-Vol-27-no-1.pdf#page=13 Whorephobia]  is ever present in the line of sex work, unfavorable opinions of sex workers has influenced others' behaviour towards them as well as their treatment in their workplace. Arnold et al. in 2020 said in their paper that &quot;on a continuum from amotivation through extrinsic to intrinsic motivation. We consider this as an individual difference variable that changes the relationship between perceived physical danger and desire to leave the sex work occupation&quot;. This study provides evidence that sex workers may change their line of work based on their perceved physical danger – tieing back into the earlier topic of Maslow's heirarchy of needs. 

A prostitues' workplace satisfsction heavily relies of their clientels; oppinions, behaviour, beliefs, and actions. These external factors can be influenced by whorephobia. This negative stigma has been seen throughout time and was seen in The Holy [[Bible]] when refrencing [[wikipedia:Mary_Magdalene|Mary Magdalene]] and her sexual transactions. Despite her depiction as a prostitue has been renounced by the Roman [[wikipedia:Catholic_Church|Catholic Church]], the foundation of sin was already engrained in many Catholic's mind. How does this widley held belief and stigma towards prostitutes/ sex workers effect their workplace satisfaction and saftey?

=== Police force practices past and present ===
A factor that historically has negativley influenced prostitutes' workplaces' saftey is the neglagence of police officers towards sex workers. In Denver Colarado &quot;policing practices, and the legislation that informs them, criminalize women for engaging in the street-based sex work and drug use activities that make up the majority of their everyday lives&quot; (Dewey &amp; St. Germain, 2014). This unfortunate criminalisation of prostitues has lead to individuals who participate in sex work to take riskier actions to ensure their way of life. This criminalisation of prostitution leads to a volitile and unsafe workplace, leading to unsatisfactory workplace satisfaction. 

In the past, the neglegence of police officers in taking concerns into the welbeing of sex workers has directly lead to serial killings to occur. In the case of [[wikipedia:Robert_Pickton|Robert Pickton]], many prostitues who worked along [[wikipedia:Downtown_Eastside|Vancouvers Downtown Eastside]] – a location infamous for its prostitution activity with &quot;estimated... numbers rangng in the thousands, with their drug addiction regularly posited as an explanation for their cheap tricks&quot; ([[doi:10.29173/invoke48990|Dusome, 2020]]) – had reported that their friends/ colleuges were going missing when leaving with Pickton. If the police had take action towards Picktons' behaviuor many lives would hae been spared. Unfortunatly this is just one example of the past indifference police officers have had towards people who participate in the sex trade.  

== Sex trafficing's influence to prostitution ==
[https://www.cdc.gov/sexual-violence/about/about-sex-trafficking.html Sex trafficing] is a societal issue that is still present today and has destroyed lives. 

==Conclusion==
Through this chapter we have spoken about the different motivations that drives people into sex work and how that can influence work place experiences. We have done this by assesing how age and gender can influence motivations as well as what circumstances can effect those drives. 

- summerise the different motivations that lead to sex work, considering gender and age. 

- summerise how socioeconomic factors influence sex worker experiences, including prejudices. 
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
* [[Bible]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Extrinsic motivation|Extrincis motivation]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Intrinsic motivation]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Sex education]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Sex worker motivation|Sex work motivation]] (Book chapter, 2015)
* [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.586235/full Students in the Sex Industry: Motivations, Feelings, Risks, and Judgments] (Fronteirs in Psychology)
* [[Transgender]] (Wikiversity)

==References ==
{{Hanging indent|1=Arnold, K. A., Turner, N., Barling, J., &amp; Iverson, R. D. (2020). Feeling safe while doing sex work: Motivation for entering sex work moderates the relationship between perceptions of physical danger and desire to leave sex work. Safety science, 129, 104795.[https://pdf.sciencedirectassets.com/271730/1-s2.0-S0925753520X00063/1-s2.0-S0925753520301922/main.pdf?X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEDgaCXVzLWVhc3QtMSJIMEYCIQDLwNUlkBLTVH2W9sUG%2FL8xBiniafqj2YjDThRYfM8j7gIhAPpb6usou%2FCfun2GlN94HXvsSkZFNyb27ndcS5LYkmOqKrIFCAEQBRoMMDU5MDAzNTQ2ODY1IgwVqu3mdLMxIbQQT4EqjwVyEzAMhHQLz8i1mRyce46T7kq8nFGMPfsWbvGbIjwD5sTztgejH2H6uoazHE3ceLn%2BHJAMU2gcjulIYqlqCSyvPuWe%2BScfjOHfBfQZnctFdUl2oWqaahIi9YzAVcTWeftoZk%2FylcCfLerGklhqD7HwVv2vZdBzsx94xmqQ1V1uUbIbAIkJ30NfSj00z1cSaUL1q96wM120kL%2By3Fd%2FYRnMyLzgn343yVJM%2BYWksKgOiezOVEa%2BhmIbNUYzcpb%2Fkcah8UWIgZWXjdLp2fZTJB2yCYbj091PqbNLxbKvPvqaCnGI%2BSTaCPpupfKIdR02m2jepxiZI8%2FZrLGy71f0vYzU%2Be120AQZZCPdjTZZAOP9xB%2Bvfpp48EyclSYmN0rSn2bZcMSiqosJl%2Bz6BiiW3J9SmbZXGNWeECGltEiG%2FP%2FRiZ0uB94c2nIGVzBsfJ4fe7UAD3mlWR9UBCT5FirlPE3Dzap%2BH1xnOe%2BGN481xmH1YSoL3FACDW8J5HUez%2BURv5vTzFDq4nON4cFWhMdgPNfu8v%2BjU35utqWccWAfsows5CFE%2FdiNDUQa7EI1XwF00wtRp2k06DjOWBl%2FggL2duXPWFHHaJnOEovHXAGzQUl%2FzBocvEbkU%2BstJU3AjUwCqbrDZRVZay0dd7OLQ6NCZTFxvZrhEoOwYukzgYt02XtXs23oNKc8QK8jPBsjSx8K1Xj9V9tPB5eBTptias5DuJnme5GPMo0H0rehhAFIbH1iz5aLEJ2WFAs2YMajNB9b8K9hsdcsufqw3IWvDgGjJl491SPFYv4AkHpfF%2B2OEEmH9hDMp3rnzv686gQ5u2%2FmSKrDsChJ2JSpJUuTnHdHBZrk%2Fwzx%2BpsfpZ4zLVgKx0K6MJOGtdQGOrAB7mHiroFpJKweD4wGdVv4twWKj65wn3ZS715WCDMXnol3ZjKerxKwtTiAS8MYNXREK5yRc6R%2BCtHqgkfO1QIL6y35fyD0iOWFO6ZYrI1IePcEupQe4Ao%2B8i5%2Bz9PydRXrVVCjz1A9o6ZcLX9dN59jVDboJOpZsOpXxuErU9LEKNKGTqVoHfJq%2FpKSdZkltmLsDvSAgBZORP2gpikUUQyl6A0CxzJ3SGD1ZrqXN39XlWY%3D&amp;X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&amp;X-Amz-Date=20260825T084050Z&amp;X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&amp;X-Amz-Expires=300&amp;X-Amz-Credential=ASIAQ3PHCVTYZDNOMNKH%2F20260825%2Fus-east-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&amp;X-Amz-Signature=222054776072dd684a9220ca5e137f808570de2f4b46a74fc1fac36b8741d31e&amp;hash=9077aea1050680fe483f80515f312051569ddf0b7a50ba90c1511bc6ef136d06&amp;host=68042c943591013ac2b2430a89b270f6af2c76d8dfd086a07176afe7c76c2c61&amp;pii=S0925753520301922&amp;tid=spdf-2823bc10-4a39-4f2b-8a32-7409653a6f56&amp;sid=6bbf6c2f3a5ff545d91b09f2929365875304gxrqa&amp;type=client&amp;tsoh=d3d3LnNjaWVuY2VkaXJlY3QuY29t&amp;rh=d3d3LnNjaWVuY2VkaXJlY3QuY29t&amp;ua=1b130057565d500d535050&amp;rr=a3094b5109a37504&amp;cc=au]

Dennis, J. P. (2008). Women are Victims, Men Make Choices: The Invisibility of Men and Boys in the Global Sex Trade. Gender Issues, 25(1), 11–25. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12147-008-9051-y
‌

Dewey, S., &amp; St. Germain, T. (2014). “It Depends on the Cop:” Street-Based Sex Workers’ Perspectives on Police Patrol Officers. Sexuality Research and Social Policy, 11(3), 256–270. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13178-014-0163-8
‌

Dusome, J. (2020). Lost and Forgotten: Missing and Murdered Sex Workers on Vancouver's Downtown Eastside. INVOKE, 6.

Ernst, F., Romanczuk-Seiferth, N., Köhler, S., Amelung, T., &amp; Betzler, F. (2021). Students in the sex industry: Motivations, feelings, risks, and judgments. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 586235.

Fishbach, A., &amp; Woolley, K. (2021). Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior The Structure of Intrinsic Motivation. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012420-
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Footer, K. H. A., White, R. H., Park, J. N., Decker, M. R., Lutnick, A., &amp; Sherman, S. G. (2020). Entry to Sex Trade and Long-Term Vulnerabilities of Female Sex Workers Who Enter the Sex Trade Before the Age of Eighteen. Journal of Urban Health, 97(3), 406–417. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7305278/

Harcourt, C. (2005). The many faces of sex work. Sexually Transmitted Infections, 81(3), 201–206. https://doi.org/10.1136/sti.2004.012468
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Huglstad, M., Halvorsen, I. L. I., Jonsson, H., &amp; Nielsen, K. T. (2020). “Some of us actually choose to do this”: The meanings of sex work from the perspective of female sex workers in Denmark. Journal of Occupational Science, 29(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/14427591.2020.1830841.

Vanwesenbeeck, I., Bakker, F., &amp; Gesell, S. (2010). Sexual Health in the Netherlands: Main Results of a Population Survey Among Dutch Adults. International Journal of Sexual Health, 22(2), 55–71. https://doi.org/10.1080/19317610903425571
‌

Vanwesenbeeck, I. (2013). Prostitution push and pull: Male and female perspectives. Journal of Sex Research, 50(1), 11-16.

Maslow, A., &amp; Lewis, K. J. (1987). Maslow's hierarchy of needs. Salenger Incorporated, 14(17), 987-990. https://www.justiceacademy.am/assets/uploads/Maslow.pdf

McNamara, R. (2016). The trouble with whorephobia. Journal of Religion and Culture, 27(1), 13-34.

McKeever, N. (2025). Is Sex Work Inherently Gendered? Hypatia, 40(3), 633–652. doi:10.1017/hyp.2024.56

‌Redwood, R. (2018). Myths and Realities of Male Sex Work. Red light labour: Sex work regulation, agency, and resistance, 167-180.[https://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&amp;lr=&amp;id=8GJoDwAAQBAJ&amp;oi=fnd&amp;pg=PA167&amp;dq=Myths+and+Realities+of+Male+Sex+Work&amp;ots=mQOUglmuLU&amp;sig=XHi0ybe124LABeHMulfVUMeYsxw#v=onepage&amp;q=Myths%20and%20Realities%20of%20Male%20Sex%20Work&amp;f=false]

Sex worker - Wikipedia. (2023). Wikipedia.Org. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sex_worker}}

==External links==
[https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/10.1086/324390.pdf?casa_token=lfbXJZ0pqcQAAAAA:Y2KROCBvBcyTR_OkV9GU9nGAnh5lp0VKsrro0wiLqGF_MeXybi6-z3pvrxj97OM6GMvGv6r_Zbmt_s9RvHKDiUw3JzDhAPWvsSz3uzNI4nXa_mNdM5o A Theory of Prostitution] (The University of Chicago Press)

[https://www.cdc.gov/sexual-violence/about/about-sex-trafficking.html About Sex Trafficing] (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)

[https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/24987949.pdf?refreqid=fastly-default%3Af21bffe92b59f3868c81a7143b186da7&amp;ab_segments=&amp;initiator=&amp;acceptTC=1 AIDS in 1988] (JSTOR)

[[wikipedia:Catholic_Church|Catholic Church]] (Wikipedia)

[[wikipedia:Downtown_Eastside|Downtown Eastside]] (Wikipedia)

[https://www.annualreviews.org/docserver/fulltext/psych/65/1/annurev-psych-010213-115057.pdf?expires=1790841225&amp;id=id&amp;accname=au&amp;checksum=112378A7023548A83B7DDDA7288D0EA0 Gender Similarities and Differences] (The Annual Review of Psychology)

[https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/30048506.pdf?refreqid=fastly-default%3Abdd06e603789b9df6429bacfd93907fe&amp;ab_segments=&amp;initiator=&amp;acceptTC=1 Human Trafficking] (JSTOR)‌

[http://cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/3EE28F1EAC9594C89B21F8E47C42D106/S0887536724000564a.pdf/is-sex-work-inherently-gendered.pdf Is Sex Work Inherently Gendered?] (Cambridge University Press)

[[wikipedia:Mary_Magdalene|Mary Magdalene]] (Wikipedia)

[https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00224499.2012.760189?casa_token=MwObuzJvcRUAAAAA:y2bj4pT8W0FJZBr3AYul37bEqXRu_jKD8-CBJDOU1N3Z_Y4WuAixv5SF9F0RPZVeCSrD3Ew5fSl9 New Pleasures and Old Dangers: Reinventing Male Sex Work] (Journal of Sex Research)

[[wikipedia:Robert_Pickton|Robert Pickton]] (Wikipedia)

[https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/19317610903425571?casa_token=sDZAxkVnpLsAAAAA:8IjuI8blrONnsvny4LV0C2Vk4C2ltfOlOt2_Kkf-G1EfBgrGwdhCLxG7959b6OAMuelLbyed8bd3 Sexual Health in the Netherlands: Main Results of a Population Survey Among Dutch Adults] (International Journal of Sexual Health)

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      <text bytes="25869" sha1="flnq1y9f8c8fnuaz3d756i1qspr15fg" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Sex work motivation:&lt;br&gt;What motivates sex work and how does this impact worker experiences?}}
__TOC__
== Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}
[[File:“Sex workers rights are human rights” - Europride 2019.jpg|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. Prostitution in Sao Paulo, Brazil]]

'''What would you do if you found yourself in this scenario?'''

Feeling lost and left with little money of your own, but you have to make ends meet. What will you do when you have to pay your rent? What if you have a child? Would you turn to sex work to make ends meet? 

If you did... would that make your rights to a safe and trustworthy work environment just disappear? Sex work itself is illegal. Having been driven to such means to make ends meet, you must register as self-employed to pay taxes, buy a house, or even just be considered an employee. [https://doi.org/10.1080/14427591.2020.1830841.  (Huglstad et al., 2020)].

Sex workers rights activists proclaim that sex work is work, that they are not victims in need of help, and that they are entitled to any basic human right (see Figure 1). That in itself poses another scenario: What drives people into sex work? Is it finance and convenience? Or is it pleasure and fun?

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
[[Sex education|Sex]] work or [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/10.1086/324390.pdf?casa_token=lfbXJZ0pqcQAAAAA:Y2KROCBvBcyTR_OkV9GU9nGAnh5lp0VKsrro0wiLqGF_MeXybi6-z3pvrxj97OM6GMvGv6r_Zbmt_s9RvHKDiUw3JzDhAPWvsSz3uzNI4nXa_mNdM5o prostitution] is a broad topic which includes many elements of sexual activities. In 2005, Harcourt defined &quot;prostitution, [as] the provision of sexual services for money or its equivalent,&quot; ([https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1744977/pdf/v081p00201.pdf Harcourt, 2005]). To understand sex work as a concept it is important to first understand why people may turn to sex work for an income to begin with. This topic has been discussed at nauseum however often in a negative and clouded light. As stated in The Journal of Sex Research in 2013, it wasn't until the 1990's that literature that looked into this topic stopped looking at prostitutes as &quot;predominantly... ‘‘evil characters’’ or ‘‘sick personalities.’’&quot; ([https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00224499.2012.696285?casa_token=wgasXeCYwFAAAAAA:0Iuwx4QzcbYP0ZAj6GISEX5oDHr4t-phuo4VUxmwfMIVjTrLXaTBhIoYpXtC9r0WaeYaxII3ObSZ Vanwesenbeeck, 2013]) and carrying a lense of &quot;&quot;simmering abhorrence, incomprehension, and fascination&quot; (Vanwesenbeeck, 2013) towards these individuals. Some of the main concepts that will be unpacked below are what motivates people to go into sex work, answers are commonly, &quot;financial, sexual, recreational motives, and coercion (i.e., [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/30048506.pdf?casa_token=pqlPp6XrnF0AAAAA:SFSvr6r_WKbLtO638dPPYk35oZFz9anPcub1Be7iUjk9AMX7a4h73yPLMJ6efSSxWVK7Az4Upc3UgohFYtht3QViGNIyTXPWCkBaY5lhRS_RGNFzUoA trafficking])&quot; (Vanwesenbeeck, 2013), these experiences can often lead to negative workplace satisfaction. External influences like the adult entertainment industry and whorephobia can also heavily influence an individual's workplace satisfaction when working in the prostitution industry. To learn the in depth relationship between motivation to join sex work and the quality of said workplace satisfaction continue reading below! 

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}
'''Focus questions'''
* What are the main driving forces causing people to turn to sex work?
* What is the condition of work place satisfaction for sex workers?
* How does whorephobia and others' actions towards sex workers effect their work place?
* Do those who turn to sex work for pleasure have different experiences to those who do so for money alone?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Driving forces pushing people towards sex work ==
There are many driving forces that can influence someone's motivation to enter any kind of work force. Unfortunatly financial motives are often what pushes people to turn to the sex trade. Although there is evidence that some do find pleasure and positive experiences through sex work. So, those who turn to sex work for pleasure have different experiences to those who do so for money alone?

=== Intrinsic motivation ===
It would be irresponsible to look at motivation without first adressing key theories that may explain why a person would perform any behaviour. By looking at [[Intrinsic motivation|intrinsic motivational]] forces that may influence someone into the sex trade it can give a fuller explination of their actions. What internal need are they fulfilling by performing these actions? 

Intrinsic motivation falls under the &quot;definition of [an] action as rewarding in itself&quot; (Fishbach &amp; Woolley, 2021), not nesseserily the outcome/ final goal. Although economic needs are a common factor of joining the sex trade — and is considered an extrinsically motivating factor — there is &quot;research confirming that individuals sometimes enter this occupation for reasons of personal fulfillment&quot;([https://pdf.sciencedirectassets.com/271730/1-s2.0-S0925753520X00063/1-s2.0-S0925753520301922/main.pdf?X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEBEaCXVzLWVhc3QtMSJHMEUCIDrCbvs%2F7w0X0S3yCXuLyXMAVemZDC49LGi7ggPpj1wjAiEA6QCj0FxUNyErmwrB1VC%2BreVNTnWp6Ks7KsE3E7x391YqvAUI2v%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2FARAFGgwwNTkwMDM1NDY4NjUiDBNmdKhbptxvmOh4WSqQBXwnDyLbNEknRXvNDbinpDHQJUc%2FGchy79eEQNCK1aSExCTctRYZQfwSEb%2Blh%2BiqbpjqVmEmUyRYf9MjZRPISeI7qTxt6LEBsCMnLF85bPAwYdGBfemRX8rc2OUulZ8aFuPFw9ziwJVX0xGOlL5Rd1U%2FQufCATv6aU7%2FSuTu8Q89bqP6QVUlA4xPEcFnI0goxABkBfBZbPck5FgRkP65OLSbAQp%2FTwaKssf1N6S4QrpAPOLv3QqrtkKp%2BVAMRhaO9PgKBdkfLjm80Y%2FiXp4uxBeV0BPtLbJ61mFI8bUMWZu5W5sqYj%2B5UL5hcCmxXUgwRFyyoA8gE5sed%2BFUeNfW2JLXEE5Q%2BNNF55gtEwlVuknu%2Bu2wArB0x3VI3rsqxqG5xR4%2Bog7yLIJGThjLd%2BHycAsCqk103w7YpMEIYoHkSkipbn0dCSgA5ug33kze8NIuJGVOC9KI5Sql2O0g%2BXm1KkgAbUPlicrcBkhAHsm9vVLDTlqD3A2tztVsuByRGY0pYATYVpazB3ko56XjIRXCGtS0csSYOzNwf3mp5H1fSXlb%2Ftrc10dBfF%2FKu5rFoq2%2FEgSXeYfm1DKiJVUzd%2Bxx53KtVsjK87FTifPGFRQP4I%2BJ483CjmXgkOanXoyr5MGNMMpEtVjp7%2F%2FW0wSJ383dYolbBYuHMBwlfKjAAHks1xMD8VXgIG%2F6xqVG5jrxBzRSHDBeIJ8vkm6IiNvwI%2FWzkUt2wsEncVyoGFXUCwqND6hPtOkPqEgG7gLE1p17r7GSYBppEUhY4B8jyjQV%2FJ%2BWpHdTtBQnuyziu3o9rzjidaLTGmC5oxy9xnpkiQboG7dckbBDn6Rt6qKGrlXfbsVt9dZgJZds7A5TZZCUxhX%2BEL4KMPbCjdYGOrEBjBdYKKt7s3fLZAAb%2BiGijeb%2F2xjDDXXLUCBygZL%2FcKAqstp0xG22ToNSpMyp5dpak9949g%2FQkiLxNJAxuvhKSUMDRB9GWxHspz8wjagXVBuuYkLPx3pkL5ul2Zzg3usF6OVvQR%2BFA8YlnaycMT44jQbz%2FAfU3SDfSJls72IGy3l4Mh%2BjsaohXm8yVtiLd%2BLj3bqX08ml35Lp3%2BGdZe3%2BZotYzxQjGzbK7i3WdrNHOWKR&amp;X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&amp;X-Amz-Date=20261005T090336Z&amp;X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&amp;X-Amz-Expires=300&amp;X-Amz-Credential=ASIAQ3PHCVTY2P7Y2UF6%2F20261005%2Fus-east-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&amp;X-Amz-Signature=94bcb1072eb8f4f5725e7945b8a9ce58dfa3e490385104eaec2eb25f622762f8&amp;hash=212a8d38d7e3c70d0609d9375b9ee0e51905cc164ffcd1ac8b4b7e37ea99e04a&amp;host=68042c943591013ac2b2430a89b270f6af2c76d8dfd086a07176afe7c76c2c61&amp;pii=S0925753520301922&amp;tid=spdf-a8772b34-02ec-4ab0-b162-7ce50de56625&amp;sid=000ad11f535f4044542b07711eb49dbf8ff1gxrqa&amp;type=client&amp;tsoh=d3d3LnNjaWVuY2VkaXJlY3QuY29t&amp;rh=d3d3LnNjaWVuY2VkaXJlY3QuY29t&amp;ua=1b13065557075052530452&amp;rr=a45b410e1b13f6f7&amp;cc=au Arnold et al., 2020]) which more closly alligns into intrinsic motives. 

=== Extrinsic motivation ===
Influences that effect people on an external level, or [[Extrinsic motivation|extrinsic motivations]], are influences that effect people outwardly, forces that are harder for an individual to control. A common driving factor for joining sex work, as stated above, is earning money — an outward influence. A paper published in 2021 by [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.586235/full Ernst, et al]. shows evidence to support the link between monetary needs and sex work by looking at the topic from the lense of a student in debt. 

=== Maslow's hierarchy of needs ===
[[File:Maslow's hierarchy of needs.svg|thumb|290x290px|'''Figure 2'''. Maslow's Heirarchy of Needs]]
Having covered the basics of what forces both internal and external drive people into the sex work industry, the lense of [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's heirarchy of needs]] – refer to Figure. 2 for reference photo – can now be applied. A. H. Malsow drew from both intrinsic and extrinsic influences when making the heirarchy of needs. However Maslow defines a difference in the prevelence of a need and states that some needs will draw motivation for action then others, fr exsmple &quot;A person who is lacking food, safety, love, and esteem would most probably hunger for food more strongly than for anything else&quot; (Malsow, 1987). A possible reason for those who become sex workers through external motives – needing food, water or shelter – may find themselves in more compromising positions then those who enter through intrinsic fulfilment. A study collected data over a 3 year period and focused on data collected from over 100 prostitues in Denvour Colarado, this study stated &quot;most of whom struggle with homelessness, addiction, and compromised mental and physical health&quot; ([https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s13178-014-0163-8.pdf Dewey &amp; St. Germain, 2014]). Because of there place on Malsow's model, extrinsicly motivated people may be trying to go from physiological to saftey. Where as, intrinsic may be seeking love/belonging possibly leading to more positive work satisfaction then others.  

== How does the sex work industry differ when looking at male sex workers ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Percentages showing [https://www.annualreviews.org/docserver/fulltext/psych/65/1/annurev-psych-010213-115057.pdf?expires=1790841225&amp;id=id&amp;accname=au&amp;checksum=112378A7023548A83B7DDDA7288D0EA0 gender differences] in paying for vs working in sex
!
!Participate in sex work
!Pay for sex work
|-
|Men
|20%
|12%
|-
|Women
|80%
|1%
|}
In past years the sex trade has been veiwed as a primerily female dominated career, though men and women to take part in the transaction of sexual favours. In 2006 a study in the netherlands concluded that &quot;3% of both men and women in the adult population (19 to 69 years of age) reported ever having received money for sex&quot; ([https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/19317610903425571?casa_token=sDZAxkVnpLsAAAAA:8IjuI8blrONnsvny4LV0C2Vk4C2ltfOlOt2_Kkf-G1EfBgrGwdhCLxG7959b6OAMuelLbyed8bd3 Bakker &amp; Vanwesenbeeck, 2006]). Although both sexes take part, how does the gender divide split worker satisfaction? It is important to mention that the research of [[transgender]] individuals in the sex trade is highly limited and needs to be more heavily researched. 

=== The difference in male sex workers ===
Male sex workers often get overlooked in media as well as acedemically, an &quot;analysis of 166 social science academic articles on sex work found that a majority did not mention male sex workers&quot; ([http://cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/3EE28F1EAC9594C89B21F8E47C42D106/S0887536724000564a.pdf/is-sex-work-inherently-gendered.pdf McKeever, 2025]). Not only does gender tell a part in this story but so does sexuality. The stigma of male sex workers was rampent during the [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/24987949.pdf?refreqid=fastly-default%3Af21bffe92b59f3868c81a7143b186da7&amp;ab_segments=&amp;initiator=&amp;acceptTC=1 aids] crisis when male sex workers were seen as problamatic to spreading the disease. Older papers of male sex workers characterizes them as more faminine and rooted in homosexuality, in the 20th century they are &quot;characterized as young, heterosexual, and innocent victims of older, predatory perverts&quot; ([https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00224499.2012.760189?casa_token=MwObuzJvcRUAAAAA:y2bj4pT8W0FJZBr3AYul37bEqXRu_jKD8-CBJDOU1N3Z_Y4WuAixv5SF9F0RPZVeCSrD3Ew5fSl9 Minichiello et al., 2013]).  

The experience of male sex workers is vastly influenced by external influences (ie. gender, sexuality, clientel) however when compared to women in how they are veiwed &quot;female but not male sex work [is] degrading, causing deep feelings of shame and remorse&quot; ([https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s12147-008-9051-y.pdf Dennis, 2008]). Those influences also dictate the quality of male prostitutes workplace experiences and satisfation. Minichiello et al. (2013), in a paper focusing on the changes in the male sex work industry states that the &quot;intrinsic nature of sex work is not oppressive, and that there are different kinds of worker and client experiences and varying degrees of victimization, exploitation, agency, and choice&quot;.&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{There are more women in the sex trade then there are men:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False

{Men also experience negative stereotypes when participating in the sex trade: 
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- False
+ True
&lt;/quiz&gt;
== Whorephobia and how it influences work place satisfaction ==
[https://www.jrc-concordia.ca/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/Journal-of-Religion-and-Culture-Vol-27-no-1.pdf#page=13 Whorephobia]  is ever present in the line of sex work, unfavorable opinions of sex workers has influenced others' behaviour towards them as well as their treatment in their workplace. Arnold et al. in 2020 said in their paper that &quot;on a continuum from amotivation through extrinsic to intrinsic motivation. We consider this as an individual difference variable that changes the relationship between perceived physical danger and desire to leave the sex work occupation&quot;. This study provides evidence that sex workers may change their line of work based on their perceved physical danger – tieing back into the earlier topic of Maslow's heirarchy of needs. 

A prostitues' workplace satisfsction heavily relies of their clientels; oppinions, behaviour, beliefs, and actions. These external factors can be influenced by whorephobia. This negative stigma has been seen throughout time and was seen in The Holy [[Bible]] when refrencing [[wikipedia:Mary_Magdalene|Mary Magdalene]] and her sexual transactions. Despite her depiction as a prostitue has been renounced by the Roman [[wikipedia:Catholic_Church|Catholic Church]], the foundation of sin was already engrained in many Catholic's mind. How does this widley held belief and stigma towards prostitutes/ sex workers effect their workplace satisfaction and saftey?

=== Police force practices past and present ===
A factor that historically has negativley influenced prostitutes' workplaces' saftey is the neglagence of police officers towards sex workers. In Denver Colarado &quot;policing practices, and the legislation that informs them, criminalize women for engaging in the street-based sex work and drug use activities that make up the majority of their everyday lives&quot; (Dewey &amp; St. Germain, 2014). This unfortunate criminalisation of prostitues has lead to individuals who participate in sex work to take riskier actions to ensure their way of life. This criminalisation of prostitution leads to a volitile and unsafe workplace, leading to unsatisfactory workplace satisfaction. 

In the past, the neglegence of police officers in taking concerns into the welbeing of sex workers has directly lead to serial killings to occur. In the case of [[wikipedia:Robert_Pickton|Robert Pickton]], many prostitues who worked along [[wikipedia:Downtown_Eastside|Vancouvers Downtown Eastside]] – a location infamous for its prostitution activity with &quot;estimated... numbers rangng in the thousands, with their drug addiction regularly posited as an explanation for their cheap tricks&quot; ([[doi:10.29173/invoke48990|Dusome, 2020]]) – had reported that their friends/ colleuges were going missing when leaving with Pickton. If the police had take action towards Picktons' behaviuor many lives would hae been spared. Unfortunatly this is just one example of the past indifference police officers have had towards people who participate in the sex trade.  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}'''Real world example of police neglegence in the Robert Pickton case'''

'Sarah de Vries is among the women in the second set of murder charges against Pickton. A 1995 entry in her diary revealed the prostitute was aware of the dangers she faced working the streets of Downtown Eastside.

&quot;Am I next?&quot; she wrote. &quot;Is he watching me now? Is he stalking me like a predator and his prey? Waiting, waiting for some perfect spot, time or my stupid mistake.&quot;...

It was not the first time Pickton has appeared before a judge. He was charged with attempted murder and unlawful confinement in 1997 in the case of sex worker Wendy Lynn Eistetter. She claimed she had been handcuffed and attacked at the farm, but Pickton countered he acted in self-defense and for reasons that remain unclear, the charges were dropped.'
(CBS, 2007){{RoundBoxBottom}}
== Sex trafficing's influence to prostitution ==
[https://www.cdc.gov/sexual-violence/about/about-sex-trafficking.html Sex trafficing] is a societal issue that is still present today and has destroyed lives.  

==Conclusion==
Through this chapter we have spoken about the different motivations that drives people into sex work and how that can influence work place experiences. We have done this by assesing how age and gender can influence motivations as well as what circumstances can effect those drives. 

- summerise the different motivations that lead to sex work, considering gender and age. 

- summerise how socioeconomic factors influence sex worker experiences, including prejudices. 
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
* [[Bible]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Extrinsic motivation|Extrincis motivation]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Intrinsic motivation]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Sex education]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Sex worker motivation|Sex work motivation]] (Book chapter, 2015)
* [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.586235/full Students in the Sex Industry: Motivations, Feelings, Risks, and Judgments] (Fronteirs in Psychology)
* [[Transgender]] (Wikiversity)

==References ==
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‌

Huglstad, M., Halvorsen, I. L. I., Jonsson, H., &amp; Nielsen, K. T. (2020). “Some of us actually choose to do this”: The meanings of sex work from the perspective of female sex workers in Denmark. Journal of Occupational Science, 29(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/14427591.2020.1830841.

Vanwesenbeeck, I., Bakker, F., &amp; Gesell, S. (2010). Sexual Health in the Netherlands: Main Results of a Population Survey Among Dutch Adults. International Journal of Sexual Health, 22(2), 55–71. https://doi.org/10.1080/19317610903425571
‌

Vanwesenbeeck, I. (2013). Prostitution push and pull: Male and female perspectives. Journal of Sex Research, 50(1), 11-16.

Maslow, A., &amp; Lewis, K. J. (1987). Maslow's hierarchy of needs. Salenger Incorporated, 14(17), 987-990. https://www.justiceacademy.am/assets/uploads/Maslow.pdf

McNamara, R. (2016). The trouble with whorephobia. Journal of Religion and Culture, 27(1), 13-34.

McKeever, N. (2025). Is Sex Work Inherently Gendered? Hypatia, 40(3), 633–652. doi:10.1017/hyp.2024.56

‌Redwood, R. (2018). Myths and Realities of Male Sex Work. Red light labour: Sex work regulation, agency, and resistance, 167-180.[https://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&amp;lr=&amp;id=8GJoDwAAQBAJ&amp;oi=fnd&amp;pg=PA167&amp;dq=Myths+and+Realities+of+Male+Sex+Work&amp;ots=mQOUglmuLU&amp;sig=XHi0ybe124LABeHMulfVUMeYsxw#v=onepage&amp;q=Myths%20and%20Realities%20of%20Male%20Sex%20Work&amp;f=false]

Sex worker - Wikipedia. (2023). Wikipedia.Org. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sex_worker}}

==External links==
[https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/10.1086/324390.pdf?casa_token=lfbXJZ0pqcQAAAAA:Y2KROCBvBcyTR_OkV9GU9nGAnh5lp0VKsrro0wiLqGF_MeXybi6-z3pvrxj97OM6GMvGv6r_Zbmt_s9RvHKDiUw3JzDhAPWvsSz3uzNI4nXa_mNdM5o A Theory of Prostitution] (The University of Chicago Press)

[https://www.cdc.gov/sexual-violence/about/about-sex-trafficking.html About Sex Trafficing] (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)

[https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/24987949.pdf?refreqid=fastly-default%3Af21bffe92b59f3868c81a7143b186da7&amp;ab_segments=&amp;initiator=&amp;acceptTC=1 AIDS in 1988] (JSTOR)

[[wikipedia:Catholic_Church|Catholic Church]] (Wikipedia)

[[wikipedia:Downtown_Eastside|Downtown Eastside]] (Wikipedia)

[https://www.annualreviews.org/docserver/fulltext/psych/65/1/annurev-psych-010213-115057.pdf?expires=1790841225&amp;id=id&amp;accname=au&amp;checksum=112378A7023548A83B7DDDA7288D0EA0 Gender Similarities and Differences] (The Annual Review of Psychology)

[https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/30048506.pdf?refreqid=fastly-default%3Abdd06e603789b9df6429bacfd93907fe&amp;ab_segments=&amp;initiator=&amp;acceptTC=1 Human Trafficking] (JSTOR)‌

[http://cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/3EE28F1EAC9594C89B21F8E47C42D106/S0887536724000564a.pdf/is-sex-work-inherently-gendered.pdf Is Sex Work Inherently Gendered?] (Cambridge University Press)

[[wikipedia:Mary_Magdalene|Mary Magdalene]] (Wikipedia)

[https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00224499.2012.760189?casa_token=MwObuzJvcRUAAAAA:y2bj4pT8W0FJZBr3AYul37bEqXRu_jKD8-CBJDOU1N3Z_Y4WuAixv5SF9F0RPZVeCSrD3Ew5fSl9 New Pleasures and Old Dangers: Reinventing Male Sex Work] (Journal of Sex Research)

[[wikipedia:Robert_Pickton|Robert Pickton]] (Wikipedia)

[https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/19317610903425571?casa_token=sDZAxkVnpLsAAAAA:8IjuI8blrONnsvny4LV0C2Vk4C2ltfOlOt2_Kkf-G1EfBgrGwdhCLxG7959b6OAMuelLbyed8bd3 Sexual Health in the Netherlands: Main Results of a Population Survey Among Dutch Adults] (International Journal of Sexual Health)

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      <text bytes="24817" sha1="jk2z79qw64nq1vnnjls28l86y43l8ge" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Possible selves and goal pursuit:&lt;br&gt;How do possible selves influence motivation and goal-directed behaviour?}}
__TOC__
==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Ueber-die-sammlung-19-jahrhundert-caspar-david-friedrich-wanderer-ueber-dem-nebelmeer.jpg|thumb|right|150px|'''Figure 1'''. The wanderer looks across a sea of fog toward the looming mountains, symbolising the current self and possible self.]]

; Scenario

A university student has started their final year of their bachelor's degree, and the academic standards are higher than previous years. One may imagine their future as exciting: graduating, beginning a meaningful career, becoming financially independent, and becoming the capable and competent person they hope to be. Alternatively, they may imagine their future as unsettling: losing motivation, failing to make use of their opportunities, and becoming someone they once hoped to avoid.

Neither future exists, however, these imagined versions of the self can influence what the student does today – whether they attend lectures and tutorials, persist through difficult assignments and exams, or give up when progress feels slow.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A brief, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topic''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

[https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1037/1089-2680.11.4.348 Possible selves] {{ic|Use either APA style or wiki style, but don't embed external links}} are conceptions of who we may become in the future and involve, to some degree, imagining ourselves as agents within those future situations (Erikson, 2007). They can include versions of ourselves that we hope to become, as well as those we fear becoming. Markus and Nurius (1986) proposed that these future self-representations are motivationally important because they can provide incentives for behaviour and give personal meaning and direction to our goals.

In the opening scenario, the university student can imagine both a desired future of graduating and beginning a meaningful career, and an unwanted future characterised by lost opportunities and lack of direction. Yet imagining either future does not guarantee that the student will study, persist through setbacks, or take advantage of opportunities in the present. This illustrates a central problem in understanding possible selves: how does an imagined future identity become motivation and, ultimately, goal-directed behaviour?

Literature during the 21st century suggests that possible selves are better understood as components of self-regulation through which motivation and behaviour are influenced (Hoyle &amp; Sherrill, 2006; Frazier, Schwartz &amp; Metcalfe, 2021). Research therefore focuses on the conditions under which possible selves provide effective guidance for goal pursuit, including whether they are meaningful, attainable, and connected to realistic behavioural strategies. Examining these processes help to explain why imagined future identities can motivate present goal-directed behaviour in some circumstances, yet remain ineffective in others (Haskins &amp; vanDellen, 2019).

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

*What are possible selves, and why can they have motivational significance?
*How do possible selves interact with self-regulatory processes involved in goal pursuit?
*Under what conditions do possible selves facilitate - or fail to facilitate - goal-directed behaviour?
* How can possible selves be used to strengthen motivation and translate future aspirations into present action?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Headings==
[[File:Teens sharing a song.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. Adolescents enjoying spending time together.]]
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

== Possible selves ==
*what is the psychological construct that is doing the influencing?
*Establishing what they are and why they have motivational significance 
*Introduce Markus and Nurius (1986) Possible Selves theory. Specifically, explaining how possibles selves are future-oriented representations of the self
*Markus and Nurius argue that possible selves connect cognition and motivation because they embody hopes, fears, goals and threats and can provide incentives for behaviour.
*Possible selves: theory research and applications: Researchers have found that future possible selves also affect one's current identity (Markius &amp; Nurius, 1986). Possible selves are hypothetical images about one's future, including ideal selves that we would like to become, such as XXX. Theorists believe that possible selves are important because they help people to evaluate their current selves and because they serve to motivate people who behave in ways that will help them attain or avoid their hoped-for or feared possible selves. 
Insert examples. Research has shown that people imagine themselves in the future a great deal of the time and that people are more likely to endorse positive possible selves than negative ones.

=== 1.1 Definition and theoretical origins ===
*Introduce markus and nurius (1986) and explain why possible selves were proposed as an extension of existing understanding of self knowledge
*Markus and nurius as fundamental literature, in which possible selves give self-relevant form to hopes, fears, goals and threats and provide a conceptual link between cognition and motivation
*Establish key propositions that will run throughout the chapter: possible selves may give motivation direction, but processing an imagined future identity does not necessarily produce goal-directed action. More recent literature challenges the idea that possible selves directly cause behaviour 10.1111/j.1467-6494.2006.00424.x

=== 1.2 forms and content of possible selves (could be combined into 1.1) ===
*Explain hoped-for possible selves as desirable future identities that people would like to approach i.e., becoming better a pickle ball, becoming thinner, or workplace success
*Explain feared possible selves as undesirable future identities people wish to avoid i.e., becoming unhealthy
*Maybe discuss expected possible selves
*Content of possible selves is shaped by people's experiences and sociocultural circumstances rather than being a manifestation of the isolated self. Cross and Markus found systemic differences in hoped for and feared possible selves across adulthood https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232436255_Possible_Selves_across_the_Life_Span 

=== 1.3 motivational properties of possible selves === 
*Explain how markus and nurius proposal that possible selves can function as incentives for future behavior, giving self-relevant meaning and direction to motives
*Introduce evidence that making possible selves salient can affect subsequent motivation or performance. Find recent research study that investigates the effect of self-relevant future imagery on performance
*Explain how characteristics such as the specificity, accessibility, perceived likelihood and elaboration of the possible self may influence how motivational it becomes. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0022103103000295 

== Goal pursuit and self-regulation ==
*Establish why a motivating future identity is not enough by itself. Something must translate the representation into behaviour
*People must initiate, regulate, and sustain behaviour
*Introduce self-regulation as the set of processes through which people organise

=== 2.1 from goals to goal-directed behaviour ===
*Define goal pursuit and distinguish a desired endpoint from the behaviours required to move toward that endpoint.
*Establish the distinction between motivation/intention and action: wanting an outcome does not ensure the behaviours necessary to achieve it. Research on implementation intentions is useful background evidence that specifying how and when to act can help translate goal intentions into action. 10.1037/0003-066X.54.7.493 
*Explain that successful goal pursuit involves processes such as planning, effort, behavioural initiation, persistence and responding to obstacles.
*Connect this immediately back to possible selves: imagining “becoming a psychologist,” for example, only becomes behaviourally consequential if it becomes connected to actions such as studying, seeking experience and completing required training.

=== 2.2 self-regulation in goal pursuit ===
*Define self-regulation, a social-cognitive process at the intersection of metacognition, motivation, and behaviour, encompasses how people conceptualize, strive for, and accomplish their goals. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11409-020-09255-3 
*Introduce hoyle and sherrills (2006) argument: Possible selves as a component in self-regulatory processes through which motivation and behaviour are influenced. Not simply to be understood as directly causing motivation and behaviour; instead, they can form part of the self-regulatory processes through which motivation and behavior are influenced. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2006.00424.x
*Explain that a future identity can provide a reference point or direction, while self-regulation provides mechanisms such as planning, behavioural strategies, monitoring and adjustment.
*Finish with the question that launches Section 3: what determines whether a possible self actually becomes an effective component of self-regulation?

== Possible selves in motivated goal pursuit ==
*Center of the chapter
*Investigating the relationship between possible selves in motivated goal pursuit
*Integrate the constructs established in sections 1 and 2 rather than introducing another independent theory
*How self-representations can affect present motivation, decisions and behaviour
*Look at evidence showing that the motivational effects of possible selves are conditional: their content alone is less important than whether they can become effective self-regulatory resources. https://www-sciencedirect-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/science/article/pii/S0092656603000576 

=== 3.1 modelling the relationships ===
*compare Makrus and Nurius and Hoyle and Sherrill self-regulatory interpretation, showing the development from possible selves as incentives toward a more process oriented explanation https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2006.00424.x
*Introduce the MAPS framework 10.1007/s11409-020-09255-3 (use image)
*Possible selves may provide direction and motivational meaning, while self-regulation provides mechanisms through which that imagined future can influence present behaviour
*Answer the question: how?

=== 3.2 when possible selves facilitate goal pursuit ===
*Possible selves are more effective when linked to plausible strategies. Possible selves were associated with better outcomes when they could function as self-regulators rather than merely a positive image 10.1037/0022-3514.91.1.188
*Visualising future selves. Indeed, visualizing a future general success or specific failure led to better performance on an attention task (Study 1) and higher academic motivation (Study 2) than imagining a future general failure or specific success. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0276236619864275 
*Attainability and agency https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33424511/ 
*Context https://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2014.965733
*Identity-based motivation: implication for intervention &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000010374775&lt;/nowiki&gt;  conditions that shape whether possible selves facilitate goal pursuit. identities are dynamically constructed in context and that people are more likely to act in ways that feel congruent with an identity that is currently salient. explicitly connects possible identities with self-regulation and intervention
*from future self to current action: an identity-based motivation perspective: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15298868.2017.1375003
*Identity-based motivation and the motivational consequences of difficulty  &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.70028&lt;/nowiki&gt; how interpretations of difficulty affect  persistence or disengagement from possible selves

=== 3.3  when possible selves fail to motivate (may be able to combine with 3.2) ===
*Oyserman roadmap study to explain possible self may not generate behaviour
*“Seeing the destination but not the path”
*Key concept: the motivational value of a possible self lies not merely in imagining the destination, but in whether that future representation can organise effective action in the present

== Harnessing possible selves for goal pursuit ==
*Building capacity for goal pursuit, how understanding these mechanisms allows possible selves to be deliberately used to improve motivation and behaviour

=== 4.1 possible-self interventions === 
*Discuss actual psychological interventions https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16834488/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20733212/ 10.1016/j.lmot.2019.101599 
*Oyserman's school to jobs intervention to demonstrate that possible selves can be deliberately manipulated and linked with strategies, with measurable effects of academic behaviour and outcomes
*Critically compare interventions, mini literature review maybe
*This section answers the question: can people deliberately construct more motivationally effective possible selves? (use this a focus question)

=== 4.2 possible selves to present action ===
*This section uses practical recommendations derived explicitly from the evidence: envision, connect, strategies, act, monitor.
*Could use a learning feature
*“Commitment to an intertemporal relationship with an ideal possible self has similar effects on its continuation as commitment to an interpersonal relationship” in section: functions of commitment to an ideal possible self https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12499
*from future self to current action: an identity-based motivation perspective: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15298868.2017.1375003

== Extra sources ==
*Possible selves, self regulation and actual social goal progress (2014)
*Best possible self intervention and academic motivation/commitment (2020)
*Identity-based motivation (2015) 

== Conclusion == 
*Possible selves can motivate goal pursuit by giving people personally meaningful future identities to approach or avoid.
*Their influence on behaviour is conditional: possible selves are most effective when they feel attainable and are connected to concrete strategies and self-regulatory processes.
*Psychological interventions may therefore improve goal pursuit by helping people translate imagined future identities into realistic pathways and present action.

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations
==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[w:Possible selves|Possible selves]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

Cross, S., &amp; Markus, H. (2010). Possible selves across the life span. Human Development, 34(4), 230–255. https://doi.org/10.1159/000277058

de Place, A.-L., &amp; Brunot, S. (2019). Motivational and behavioral impact of possible selves: When specificity matters. Imagination, Cognition and Personality, 39(4), 329–247. https://doi.org/10.1177/0276236619864275

Frazier, L. D., Schwartz, B. L., &amp; Metcalfe, J. (2021). The MAPS model of self-regulation: Integrating metacognition, agency, and possible selves. Metacognition and Learning, 16(2). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11409-020-09255-3

Gollwitzer, P. M. (1999). Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans. American Psychologist, 54(7), 493–503. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.54.7.493

Haskins, L. B., &amp; vanDellen, M. R. (2019). Self‐regulation as relating to one’s ideal possible self. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 13(10). https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12499

Hoyle, R. H., &amp; Sherrill, M. R. (2006). Future orientation in the self-system: Possible selves, self-regulation, and behavior. Journal of Personality, 74(6), 1673–1696. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2006.00424.x

Murru, E. C., &amp; Martin Ginis, K. A. (2010). Imagining the possibilities: The effects of a possible selves intervention on self-regulatory efficacy and exercise behavior. Journal of Sport &amp; Exercise Psychology, 32(4), 537–554. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.32.4.537

Norman, C. C., &amp; Aron, A. (2003). Aspects of possible self that predict motivation to achieve or avoid it. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 39(5), 500–507. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-1031(03)00029-5

Oyserman, D., Bybee, D., &amp; Terry, K. (2006). Possible selves and academic outcomes: How and when possible selves impel action. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91(1), 188–204. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.91.1.188

Oyserman, D., Bybee, D., Terry, K., &amp; Hart-Johnson, T. (2004). Possible selves as roadmaps. Journal of Research in Personality, 38(2), 130–149. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0092-6566(03)00057-6

Oyserman, D., Destin, M., &amp; Novin, S. (2014). The context-sensitive future self: Possible selves motivate in context, not otherwise. Self and Identity, 14(2), 173–188. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2014.965733}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://www.hiddenbrain.org/podcast/you-2-0-your-future-is-now/ You 2.0: your future is now] (Hidden Brain)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XNbaR54Gpj4&amp;t=177s The psychology of you future self | Dan Gilbert] (Youtube)
* [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/philosophy-and-therapy/202401/the-philosophy-of-possible-selves Why to start considering your possible selves] (Psychology Today)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

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      <comment>focus question 2</comment>
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      <text bytes="39787" sha1="ja0dx7xefyj44hsfy9fsswuwqj8273i" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Self-determination theory and military veteran reintegration:&lt;br&gt;How do autonomy, competence, and relatedness shape psychological adjustment after military service?}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}

;Scenario

[[File:Military-to-civilian reintegration.png|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. Transition from military service to civilian life]]

What happens when the thing that gave your life structure suddenly vanishes? 

For many military veterans, leaving the service gains them freedom, but freedom can also bring uncertainty. 

After 15 years of military service including posting and deployments, a veteran returns home expecting civilian life to feel like freedom (see Figure 1) . Instead, freedom feels disorientating. For over a decade, their days were shaped by established routines, explicit expectations, clear responsibilities, a sense of belonging and being part of a team. Roles were understood. Decisions had purposes. Belonging was built into day-to-day life. The team was your support. Then, almost, overnight, the rules had changed. There are no longer orders telling them what needs to be done, no team waiting or relying on them, and no familiar structure defining what it means to be successful. Decisions that were once straightforward, now require navigating through uncertainty and often with little guidance or support. The confidence they had developed through military service may not cleanly translate into civilian life, whilst the relationships that brought connection and belonging may suddenly be hundreds or thousands of kilometres away. Disconnection is real. What was supposed to be liberation has now become a profound psychological adjustment. Self-determination theory provides an understanding of why. 

If military life has shaped how a veteran experiences autonomy, relatedness and competence {{ic|APA style uses serial commas}} , what happens when the life that once supported or constrained these needs is removed? 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}Military-to-civilian [wikilink military and civilian] transition is a major period of adjustment that brings an increased likelihood of psychosocial risk. This transition involves simultaneous changes to daily structure, social relationships, occupational roles, their identity, and sources of purpose. These changes can challenge veteran's wellbeing, motivation, and psychological adjustment as they adapt to a new environment. '''These transitions can have long-term implications to their wellbeing with 78% of Australian defence members experienced a difficult transition and 50% were still struggling after 10 years (Romanik, et al. 2024).'''  

Self-determination theory (SDT) provides a framework for understanding psychological adjustment by suggesting that autonomy, competence, and relatedness are basic psychological needs that are fundamental for wellbeing, quality of life, and psychological flourishing. Autonomy involves experiencing a sense of volition and choice, competence refers to feeling satisfactory and capable in their skills and relatedness refers to feeling connected to and valued by others (Ryan &amp; Deci, 2022). Satisfaction of these needs support more autonomous motivation and positive psychological outcomes, whereas, frustration can undermine both wellbeing and motivation.   

This chapter applies SDT to military-to-civilian reintegration, it explores how military experiences and their transition to civilian life can either support or frustrate veterans' autonomy, competence, and relatedness. It'll examine how changes in these psychological needs  may shape or influence veterans' emotional wellbeing, psychological adjustment, and motivation. Finally this chapter will consider how SDT-informed interventions can both support need satisfaction and facilitate a successful reintegration.  
 

* '''SDT as the theoretical framework [introducing main theory that will be discussed throughout chapter]''':
* SDT is a useful framework and provides a key blueprint for understanding the motivational basis of personality and social behaviour, along with the relation of basic psychological needs for wellbeing, psychological flourishing and positive quality of life (Deci, Ryan 2022).
* SDT proposes that autonomy, competence, and relatedness are basic psychological needs that contribute to individuals' wellbeing and adaptive functioning. Satisfaction of these needs will contribute to positive wellbeing, whereas, frustration can contribute to negative psychological outcomes (Ryan, et al. 2022).
* This chapter will therefore utilise SDT to examine how changes associated with military to civilian reintegration may influence these three psychological needs.
* '''Reintegration and psychological adjustment [what do these three needs affect]:''' Following discharge (or voluntary leaving) veterans may need to reconstruct these psychological needs within unfamiliar civilian environments.
* Employment difficulties may then challenge competence, whilst their loss of military relationships and identity may undermine their belonging and relatedness. Greater freedom may support their autonomy, but can also create uncertainty without their consistent military structure (Carra, et al. 2022).
* This book chapter will therefore examine how these changes may shape veterans' psychological adjustment during reintegration and consider how understanding veterans' psychological needs can inform approaches/implementations to supporting successful transitions.

Author note: depending on how book chapter flows along with word count, the following 'sections' may be included in the overview and structured accordingly. 

* '''Military service and psychological needs (Carra et al. 2022):''' transitions can have a significant adverse effect on veterans' wellbeing. The transitions usually involve simultaneous changes across multiple aspects of their life, this includes, their identity, finances, occupation, residences, routines, relationships and social support. These changes may accumulate to an increase in vulnerability to psychological distress and mental health difficulties. Research has highlighted the importance of providing suitable transition support to effectively assist veterans in navigating these changes and adapting comfortably in civilian life.  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}

;Focus questions

{{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}}

1. How does Self Determination Theory {{ic|Use APA style for capitalisation of theories (lower case)}} explain psychological adjustment during military-to-civilian transition? 

2. How does satisfaction or frustration of autonomy, competence, and relatedness shape veterans' motivation and emotional wellbeing? 

3. How military experiences and reintegration shape autonomy, competence, and relatedness? 

4. How can Self Determination Theory informed interventions support psychological need satisfaction and successful reintegration?   
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== How does Self Determination Theory explain psychological adjustment during military-to-civilian transition? ==

{{ic|The first two bullet points could make for an effective Overview}}

Self-determination theory is an organismic and dialectical framework of human motivation and personality that was developed by Edward Deci and Richard Ryan. SDT offers an understanding for how motivation and psychological wellbeing are shaped by the interaction between individuals and their environments. Instead of viewing motivation as solely an individual characteristic, SDT suggests that social context can create conditions that either support healthy psychological development, or contribute to difficulties in psychological functioning. A key principle of SDT is that people require satisfaction of three basic psychological needs; autonomy, competence, and relatedness, to function effectively.  

=== What is Self Determination Theory (SDT)? ===
SDT proposes that people have an inherent tendency towards development and growth, but social environments either support or interfere with this process. This theory considers both the individual and environment when explaining psychological functioning and motivation (Deci, &amp; Ryan 2022).  

Autonomy is a core psychological need to experience oneself as the author of their own life, this includes having a sense of choice and self-direction in one's own actions. People can experience autonomy when their behaviour reflects their own interests, values, and choices rather than feeling influenced, coerced or controlled by external pressures. However, autonomy doesn't mean to be completely independent from others, instead, it involves experiencing one's behaviour as being personally endorsed and chosen.   

Competence is the need to feel both effective and capable in one's interaction with the environment. It involves feeling a sense of confidence in one's ability to manage tasks, achieve desired outcomes, and overcome different challenges. However, it's important to note that competence is not defined by an objective level of skill or an ability that someone possesses, instead, it's how capable and effective they perceive themselves as. Therefore, environments that create experiences of failure, criticism or an inability to manage demands might undermine this need.  

Relatedness is the feeling of being connected to and cared for by others, as well as having the opportunity to care for others. Individuals can experience feeling accepted, understood, valued, and developing a sense of belonging within a broader community. Relatedness is not just being surrounded by other people, but instead feeling a genuine connection and feeling that one has a meaningful place within a social group. When one experiences rejection, loneliness, or a loss of meaningful connections it can frustrate this need.     

Need satisfaction and need frustration are two ways to explain how environments can influence these psychological needs. Need satisfaction refers to when autonomy, competence and relatedness is supported, which promotes overall positive psychological wellbeing and growth. In contrast, need frustration can occur when these needs are actively undermined or blocked, which can contribute to distress, maladaptive behaviours, and ill-being. See table 1 below for a comparison of these needs. (Olafasen, et al. 2021)  
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Table 1. Need Satisfaction vs Need Frustration (Olafasen, et al. 2021)
!
!Autonomy
!Competence
!Relatedness
|-
|Need satisfaction
|experiencing choice, self-direction, freedom in ones' actions
|experiencing mastery, capability and effectiveness in skills. 
|feeling a warm, secure and mutual care with others. 
|-
|Need frustration
|feeling controlled, pressured or compelled to act in an unwanted way
|feeling incompetent, facing frequent failure and doubting abilities.  
|experiencing loneliness, alienation, and social exclusion. 
|}
SDT also distinguishes between two forms of motivation, ranging from autonomous to controlled motivation. It also explains how these motivations relate to engagement, vitality, performance, and psychological health (Loverre, et al. 2024). Autonomous motivation includes intrinsic motivation and fully internalised extrinsic motivation, whereas, controlled motivation involves internal pressures or external demands. Therefore SDT does not only explain whether someone is motivated but also why they are motivated (Rybakovaite, et al. 2021).    

SDT provides a framework to understand the psychological adjustment that occurs during the military-to-civilian transition. The changes in roles, relationships, routines, and responsibilities can impact their autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Whilst a new environment might support some psychological needs, it may frustrate others. For example, increased freedom after service might provide greater autonomy, whereas, changes in roles and routines may challenge their feelings of competence. Similarly, changes in social connections may impact relatedness.     

Therefore, SDT suggests that psychological adjustment is influenced and effected by how well veterans' new environments support their psychological needs, rather than just focuses on the transition alone. The relationship between need satisfaction, frustration, wellbeing, and motivation is explored in the following sections.     

- move into focus question 3. The military environment is often characterised by routines, clearly defined roles, hierarchy, rules, expectations, collective goals and a sense of purpose, thus, creating a highly structured social environment. The military environment may support competence, autonomy and belonging through structured roles, occupation, training responsibilities, teamwork, unit cohesion and shared military identity. However, it's important to note that the hierarchy, externally imposed responsibilities and rules may create tensions with autonomy and might influence the extent to which motivation is either autonomous or controlled. 

*Veterans may experience feelings of cultural dislocation, emotional distress and identity disorientation which can be linked to the loss of structured military roles and routines. They may also experience social alienation when attempting to rebuild relationships, re-establish belongings, and adapt to unfamiliar social norms beyond the military sphere. The current known challenges that ADF members experience are cumulative effects of trauma and stress, moral injury to beliefs and expectations, stigma, and impaired help seeking (Kerr, et al 2022) along with the loss of relationships.
* For those that may have left involuntarily often tend to experience difficulties in translating military skills into employment, and have a perceived lack of competence (Kerr, et al 2022). These challenges and difficulties may influence veterans' motivation and psychological wellbeing.

* Therefore, military experiences may simultaneously constrain and support psychological needs rather than being universally positive or negative.

== How does satisfaction or frustration of autonomy, competence and relatedness shape veterans' motivation and emotional wellbeing? ==
Psychological need satisfaction provides a mechanism through social environments which can influence wellbeing, motivation, and psychological adjustment. SDT's value for understanding military-to-civilian transition is in it's ability to explain why similar transitions might produce different psychological experiences. Instead of assuming that leaving the military is inherently positive or negative, SDT  proposes that adjustment mainly depends on whether veterans experience their new environments as either supportive or frustrating of their psychological needs. 
=== Autonomy and the experience of choice ===
Autonomy is not always reduced by structure or externally defined expectations, instead, it can actually be supported when individuals  understand and agree with the purpose behind an activity and personally endorse their own actions. However, it's important to note that autonomy does not necessarily require complete freedom or independence from external expectations. Grimell (2024) highlights the significance of this distinction as it links autonomy satisfaction with positive outcomes such as greater life satisfaction, wellbeing and vitality.      

In contrast, autonomy frustration occurs when individuals experience their volition as being undermined by micromanagement, excessive control, or restrictive expectations. This is particularly relevant in military contexts as structured roles and expectations do not always undermine autonomy. Military members may still experience a sense of choice when they understand the purpose of an activity and endorse the reasons for their actions. When structure is experienced as controlling rather than meaningful, it could contribute to autonomy frustration, increased likelihood of mental health issues, controlled motivation, and higher discharge rates. Therefore, findings illustrate that the effect of the military structure depends on whether the individual experiences it as meaningful and supportive rather than controlling. ''include another study.''      

This distinction is also highly relevant throughout the military-to-civilian transition. During the transition veterans move from clearly defined roles and routines and have greater responsibility for their own employment, future goals and relationships. Whilst they may have greater choice, it does not automatically equal greater autonomy. Veterans may experience external pressure, uncertainty, or difficulty recognising meaningful alternatives post discharge. While veterans may have greater choices that create opportunities, choice alone does not guarantee autonomy. However, adjustment might not be solely dependent on the amount of freedom available but rather whether veterans can make decisions that are personally meaningful and consistent with their values.       

=== Competence and the sense of capability ===
While competence involves feeling capable and effective, opportunities that provide individuals the ability to develop skills, experience achievement and receive feedback allow for competency to be strengthened. In the military setting, their training and roles can provide individuals the opportunity to demonstrate and build competence. However, competence may be frustrated when individuals feel unable to succeed or feel ineffective in a new environment. 

This can create difficulties and challenges during the military-to-civilian transition when veterans enter unfamiliar environments, workplaces, or struggle to translate their military skills to civilian employment. Tillberg, et al. 2026 identified that a major challenge that veterans face when reintragating into society is translating their military skills into civilian employment as a significant challenge to veterans' perceived competence. Successful employment may provide opportunities to show their exisiting abilities and develop new skills which may have psychological influence structure beyond financial security and contribute to purpose, competence, and structure.  

=== Relatedness and the need to belong ===
Relatedness involves feeling values and connected to by others, and when changing social environments these experiences can change considerably. 
* Relatedness satisfaction involves mutual care, belonging and connections, whilst frustration can bring rejection, loneliness, alienation or exclusion. 
* Military service is known for providing strong sources of relatedness through unit cohesion, teamwork, shared military identity and experiences. Leaving the military has been found to disrupt established social networks and require veterans to develop new sources of connection within civilian communities (Barnett, et al. 2021).
* Maintaining military connections may support some veterans in the transition, however, developing civilian social identities may be important for long-term adjustment. 

=== Motivation and wellbeing ===

* The satisfaction of autonomy, competence and relatedness are essential for optimal functioning and wellbeing. The satisfaction of these needs provide positive organisational outcomes with a more positive attitude and less turnover intentions, stronger psychological understanding, and more positive health and overall well-being. Satisfaction of these needs also create a higher likelihood of intrinsic motivation (Linden, et al. 2026).
* Autonomous motivation includes intrinsic motivation and positive internalised forms of extrinsic motivation, controlled motivation comprises of internal contingencies or external pressure. This distinction may be significant to veterans establishing new employment, social, educational and personal goals following discharge (Linden, et al. 2026).
* ''Author note: maybe incorporate the 'why' behind their behaviour and how that is either positive or detrimental to motivation'' 

=== Interacting needs ===

* Importantly, these three needs should not be considered completely independent as SDT conceptualises them as interrelated that collective contribute to optimal function and positive psychological wellbeing (Mobbs, et al. 2018).
* Frustration in one area may also coincide with difficulties/challenges in another. 
* ''Author note: focus on research/studies examining the combinations and interactions between satisfaction/frustration rather than just an isolated predictor.'' 

== How does military experiences and reintegration shape autonomy, competence and relatedness? ==

* The psychological impact of military service can be shaped by the environment in which personnel operate, including the way that structure, occupational roles, leadership and social relationships are experienced (Barnett, et al. 2022).
* The military service shouldn't be viewed as uniformly supportive or restrictive, it's important to factor which environmental conditions frustrate or facilitate psychological needs. 
* Reintegration changes these conditions irrespective of whether they were positive or negative environments, thus, requiring veterans to navigate new experiences, expectations, relationships and roles whilst renegotiating sources of autonomy, belonging and competence, see figure 2.[[File:Military to civilian transition.png|thumb|Figure 2: Environmental changes experienced during military-to-civilian reintegration]]
* SDT therefore can be used to examine the conditions to which military experiences either support or undermine psychological need satisfaction, rather than assuming that military service is inherently beneficial or harmful. 

=== Structure, hierarchy, and autonomy ===

* Military organisations rely heavily on rules, hierarchy, orders and clear responsibilities, shaping a high level of structure that is not often seen in civilian environments.
* Structure is not inherently autonomy-thwarting as dependent as, structure can provide guidance, predictability, autonomy and clear expectations, especially, when personnel understand and endorse the purpose behind their responsibilities (Barnett, et al. 2021).
* Leadership plays an integral role in satisfying autonomy (Knevelsrud, et al. 2023). In particular, autonomy-supportive leadership style is where leaders empower employees to make choices, share rationales, take perspectives and minimise unnecessary pressure. An autonomy-supportive leadership brings benefits of an higher engagement, positive wellbeing and enhanced performance (Knevelsrud, et al. 2023). 
* However, highly controlling environments may impede autonomy when their behaviour is experienced as pressured or coerced. This might be done through actions of micromanagement and excessive pressure, these may contribute to controlled motivation and poor psychological outcomes (Barnett, et al. 2021).
* This creates an important distinction between control and structure, and that leadership style and individual interpretation. 
* Following either voluntary or involuntary discharge, veterans may experience substantially greater choice over relationships, future goals and employment, however, greater freedom does not necessarily equate to greater autonomy when personnel experience pressure, uncertainty or lack of meaningful alternatives. 

&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{'''When can military structure support autonomy?'''

|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ When personnel understand and value their purpose
- When all choices are removed
- When personnel experience coercion and external pressure
- When responsibilities are increased

{'''Which psychological need may be most affected when a veteran loses their military unit after discharge?'''
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Competence
+ Relatedness
- Belonging
- Autonomy
&lt;/quiz&gt;

=== Training, occupational roles, and competence ===

* Military training can provide repeated opportunities and clearly defined occupation roles that enable feedback, skill development and achievement which supports competence. 
* Veterans may leave the service with diverse interpersonal and technical skills with a primary focus on leadership, management, communication, adaptability and teamwork. However, even though these skills can be transferable skills, it doesn't necessarily mean that veterans will experience or have their competence recognised within civilian employment and environments (Tillberg, et al. 2026).
* A recurring challenge that veterans experience, is translating military-specific experience into skills that civilians will understand, this makes it challenging for veterans to confidently communicate the relevance of the capabilities. Difficulty translating skills can contribute to unsuitable employment, unemployment, despite veterans possessing valuable capabilities (Tillberg, et al. 2026).
* This further highlights the important distinction between actual competence and perceived competence. Veterans may be highly capable whilst simultaneously experiencing uncertainty about their effectiveness in civilian environments.
* Research from Becker, et al. 2022 involved 31 Aus Defence Force Members who had transitioned into civilian employment had identified challenges with career integration and adaptation, which further highlights the significance of organisational practices in helping veterans navigate employment and supporting longer-term retention.
* From an SDT perspective, civilian employment may restore or strengthen competence through meaningful work and recognition, but could frustrate competence when their skills are overlooked or poorly aligned to available roles.
* Successful vocational reintegration involves more that just securing employment, it about creating opportunities for veterans to recognise, demonstrate and develop their capabilities within their new occupational environment.

=== Relatedness: from military cohesion to civilian belonging ===
* Military service provides strong opportunities for relatedness through teamwork, unit cohesion, camaraderie, shared identity and goals. Consequently, belonging can become deeply embedded within the military environment which makes the loss of these social connections during the transition incredibly significant for their psychological adjustment (Barnett, et al. 2021).
* SDT has demonstrated that shared experience and collective goals can shape a strong sense of social support and belonging.
* Discharge can disrupt these established networks, which requires veterans to reconstruct social connection within civilian communities. 
* The relationship between belonging and military identity is incredibly complex, research from Flake and Kite 2021, used data from 358 Australian Defence Members and identified that identity change during the transition process can involve themes of loss, poor wellbeing, social isolation along with psychosocial transition challenges. This is in conjunction with sometimes an unwillingness to relinquish a dominant military identity can contribute to social disconnectedness which is seen through withdrawal or antisocial behaviour and while reinforcing a divide between military and civilian life. Subsequently, a disconnectedness from both the military and civilian environments increases the likelihood of a decreased effort to re-connect psychosocially which would support personal growth. Although, some aspects of military identity were associated with stronger connectedness and belonging (Barnett, et al. 2021).
* A positive, protective trait that was found in research is that veterans with personal agency, pushing beyond existing boundaries and a willingness to evolve were identified as themes/traits that are associated with an effective transition (Barnett, et al. 2021).
* This continues to reinforce the idea that successful reintegration may involve a veteran's source of belonging rather that just replacing their military community with a civilian one.
* ''Key Point: the challenge is not just simply losing relationships, but losing an environment that embedded belonging into everyday life.'' 

=== Identity and purpose ===

* The military structure is not inherently need-thwarting or need-supportive, the psychological impact depends on how rules, expectations and authority are experienced and communicated. 
* Structure can provide clear expectations and guidance, whereas, controlling practices may pressure individuals to behave in certain ways which consequently may undermine their sense of autonomy. 
* Military service is an important source of status, identity, purpose and social connection, especially, when an individual's role is clearly defined.
* Leaving the military may involve loss of more than just employment and may experience uncertainty about their identity when their previous role is no longer a part of their everyday life. Research has revealed that loss of military identity, status and purpose as recurring aspects and challenges during the transition.
* Veterans can go through identity renegotiation as they determine what aspects of military identity are meaningful and whether they would be useful in civilian settings.
* Therefore, this complexity is important when considering the transition that military personnel experience as they leave an environment that was simultaneously structured and psychologically supportive but also restrictive in other ways.  
* ''Key highlight is whether military structure supports internalisation and psychological need satisfaction or becomes experienced as need thwarting and controlling.'' &lt;br /&gt;

== How can Self Determination Theory informed interventions support psychological need satisfaction and successful integration? ==

* Understanding how psychological challenges of military-to-civilian transition provides a key basis for considering how transition support can promote rather than undermine psychological need satisfaction. 
* An SDT-informed approach reorients the focus from simply helping veterans cope with change to instead, creating social environments that support autonomy, competence and relatedness. 
* Therefore, existing transition support should be considered in terms of whether it provides opportunities for mastery, choice and meaningful social connection. 

=== Creating supportive transition environments ===

* Reintegration support should address psychological as well as practical aspects of transition
* SDT has suggested that environments can support adjustment when they support autonomy, competence and relatedness. 
* Transition planning has been found to support autonomy through meaningful choice, veteran-led goals, and collaborative decision-making. 
* Support should provide structure and guidance without becoming unnecessarily controlling, however, it's important to note that providing choices does not automatically satisfy autonomy. 

=== Supporting competence and connection ===

* Vocational support can help veterans be able to translate military skills into civilian employment and also develop confidence in unfamiliar occupational environments and civilian environments. 
* Career counselling, feedback, recognition and retraining can strengthen perceived competence. 
* Services such as peer support, mentoring, family and community involvement can provide opportunities to develop and restore relatedness and belonging. 
* Effective support should enable veterans to develop new connections whilst allowing them to maintain meaningful military relationships, however, interventions should support multiple psychological needs simultaneously rather than separately. 

=== Implications and limitations ===

* SDT can provide a framework for evaluating whether reintegration services create conditions that support rather than frustrate needs. 
* Psychological need satisfaction cannot explain reintegration of broader factors such as housing, finances and access to services. 
* Therefore, a important research gap is still evidence testing SDT-informed veteran interventions. More longitudinal studies and Australian-specific research should be conducted to determine whether supporting autonomy, competence and relatedness produces a sustained improve in wellbeing and reintegration. 

;Embedded links (keeping for reference)
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

==Conclusion==
* Military-to-civilian reintegration is a highly complex psychological adjustment that involves changes to identity, daily structure, competence, purpose, relationships and roles. 
* SDT provides a useful framework to understand how these changes influence autonomy, competence and relatedness, along with the impact upon different types of motivation (autonomous and controlled motivation). 
* The key finding is that military experiences are not necessarily need-supportive or need-thwarting. Instead, dependent on how leadership, structure, responsibilities and relationships are experienced and understood. 
* Briefly discuss that identity and purpose are interlinked with the three psychological needs (autonomy, competence and relatedness). 
* SDT can inform practical interventions by creating transition environments that support identity, choice, competence, connection and meaningful goals. 
* Important take home message: success reintegration is not solely based on getting veterans into civilian life, instead, it should support veterans in developing self-directed, meaningful and socially connected lives beyond the military service.   

==See also==
* [[Social connection and emotion regulation|Social Connection]] (Book chapter, 2026))
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Barnett, A., Savic, M., Lubman, D. (2021). Transitioning to civilian life: The importance of social group engagement and identity among Australian Defence Force veterans. ''Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 56''(8). https://doi.org/10.1177/00048674211046894

Becker, K., Bish, A., Abell, D., McCormack, M., Smidt, M. (2022). Supporting Australian veteran transition: career construction through a person-environment fit perspective. ''The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 36''(5), 799-823. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2022.2077127

Carra, K., Curtin, M., Fortune, T., Gordon, B. (2022). Service and demographic factors, health, trauma exposure, and participation are associated with adjustment for former Australian Defence Force members. ''Military Psychology, 35''(5), 480-492. https://doi.org/10.1080/08995605.2022.2120312

Flack, M., Kite, L. (2021). Transition from military service to civilian: identity, social connectedness, and veteran wellbeing. ''PLoS ONE, 16''(12). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0261634

Grimell, J. (2024). You can take a person out of the military, but you can't take the military out of the person: findings from a ten-year identity study on transition from military to civilian life. ''Frontiers in Sociology, 9.'' https://doi.org/10.3389/fsoc.2024.1406710   

Kerr, N., Lane, S., Plotnikoff, R., Ashby, S. (2023). The &quot;Transition&quot; to civilian life from the perspective of former serving Australian Defence Force members. ''Journal of Veteran Studies, 9''(1), 129-142. https://10.21061/jvs.v9i1.407 {{ic|fix link}}

Knevelsrud, H.C., Sorlie, H., Valaker, S. (2023). Mission command: A self determination theory perspective. ''Military Psychology, 36''(6), 672-688. https://doi.org/10.1080/08995605.2023.2252718 

Linden, A., Borjesson, M. (2026). Motivation in physically demanding military roles: a qualitative study using self-determination theory. ''Military Psychology,'' 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1080/08995605.2026.2671587 

Loverre, M., Chirico, A., Cinque, L., Palombi, T., Alivernini, F., Lucidi, F., Alessandri, G., Livi, S. (2024). A systematic review of self-determination theory's application in military and police organisations. ''Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, 40''(5), 685-707. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11896-024-09718-2

Mobbs, M., Bonanno, G. (2018). Beyond war and PTSD: The crucial role of transition stress in the lives of military veterans. ''Clinical Psychology Review, 59,'' 137-144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2017.11.007

Olafsen, A., Halvari, H., Frolound, C. (2021). The basic psychological need satisfaction and need frustration at work scale: A validation study. ''Organisational Psychology, 12.'' https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.697306

Romaniuk, M., Saunders-Dow, E., Brown, K., Batterham, P. (2024). Feasibility, acceptability, and initial outcomes of a psychological adjustment and reintegration program for transitioned military veterans. ''BMC Psychology, 12''(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-024-02097-7

Ryan, R., Deci, E. (2022). Self determination theory. ''Encyclopedia of quality of life and well-being research.'' https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-69909-7_2630-2

Rybakovaite. J., Poskus, M., Blue, S. (2021). Forced or free choice: Hardiness, need satisfaction, and engagement among military conscripts. ''Current Psychology, 42''(1), 7909-7919. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-02123-6  

Tillberg, L., Truusa, T.T, Tillberg, P. (2026). The skillful veteran: Transforming overseas experience into competence, from the military to civilian working life domain. ''Vocations and Learning, 19''(5). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12186-026-09385-w

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APA style example:
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Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

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==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
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[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self-determination theory]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Veterans]]</text>
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      <text bytes="40797" sha1="2cg40jv4fw1aofx1cys1h11zs6mh78t" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Self-determination theory and military veteran reintegration:&lt;br&gt;How do autonomy, competence, and relatedness shape psychological adjustment after military service?}}
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==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}

;Scenario

[[File:Military-to-civilian reintegration.png|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. Transition from military service to civilian life]]

What happens when the thing that gave your life structure suddenly vanishes? 

For many military veterans, leaving the service gains them freedom, but freedom can also bring uncertainty. 

After 15 years of military service including posting and deployments, a veteran returns home expecting civilian life to feel like freedom (see Figure 1) . Instead, freedom feels disorientating. For over a decade, their days were shaped by established routines, explicit expectations, clear responsibilities, a sense of belonging and being part of a team. Roles were understood. Decisions had purposes. Belonging was built into day-to-day life. The team was your support. Then, almost, overnight, the rules had changed. There are no longer orders telling them what needs to be done, no team waiting or relying on them, and no familiar structure defining what it means to be successful. Decisions that were once straightforward, now require navigating through uncertainty and often with little guidance or support. The confidence they had developed through military service may not cleanly translate into civilian life, whilst the relationships that brought connection and belonging may suddenly be hundreds or thousands of kilometres away. Disconnection is real. What was supposed to be liberation has now become a profound psychological adjustment. Self-determination theory provides an understanding of why. 

If military life has shaped how a veteran experiences autonomy, relatedness and competence {{ic|APA style uses serial commas}} , what happens when the life that once supported or constrained these needs is removed? 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}Military-to-civilian [wikilink military and civilian] transition is a major period of adjustment that brings an increased likelihood of psychosocial risk. This transition involves simultaneous changes to daily structure, social relationships, occupational roles, their identity, and sources of purpose. These changes can challenge veteran's wellbeing, motivation, and psychological adjustment as they adapt to a new environment. '''These transitions can have long-term implications to their wellbeing with 78% of Australian defence members experienced a difficult transition and 50% were still struggling after 10 years (Romanik, et al. 2024).'''  

Self-determination theory (SDT) provides a framework for understanding psychological adjustment by suggesting that autonomy, competence, and relatedness are basic psychological needs that are fundamental for wellbeing, quality of life, and psychological flourishing. Autonomy involves experiencing a sense of volition and choice, competence refers to feeling satisfactory and capable in their skills and relatedness refers to feeling connected to and valued by others (Ryan &amp; Deci, 2022). Satisfaction of these needs support more autonomous motivation and positive psychological outcomes, whereas, frustration can undermine both wellbeing and motivation.   

This chapter applies SDT to military-to-civilian reintegration, it explores how military experiences and their transition to civilian life can either support or frustrate veterans' autonomy, competence, and relatedness. It'll examine how changes in these psychological needs  may shape or influence veterans' emotional wellbeing, psychological adjustment, and motivation. Finally this chapter will consider how SDT-informed interventions can both support need satisfaction and facilitate a successful reintegration.  
 

* '''SDT as the theoretical framework [introducing main theory that will be discussed throughout chapter]''':
* SDT is a useful framework and provides a key blueprint for understanding the motivational basis of personality and social behaviour, along with the relation of basic psychological needs for wellbeing, psychological flourishing and positive quality of life (Deci, Ryan 2022).
* SDT proposes that autonomy, competence, and relatedness are basic psychological needs that contribute to individuals' wellbeing and adaptive functioning. Satisfaction of these needs will contribute to positive wellbeing, whereas, frustration can contribute to negative psychological outcomes (Ryan, et al. 2022).
* This chapter will therefore utilise SDT to examine how changes associated with military to civilian reintegration may influence these three psychological needs.
* '''Reintegration and psychological adjustment [what do these three needs affect]:''' Following discharge (or voluntary leaving) veterans may need to reconstruct these psychological needs within unfamiliar civilian environments.
* Employment difficulties may then challenge competence, whilst their loss of military relationships and identity may undermine their belonging and relatedness. Greater freedom may support their autonomy, but can also create uncertainty without their consistent military structure (Carra, et al. 2022).
* This book chapter will therefore examine how these changes may shape veterans' psychological adjustment during reintegration and consider how understanding veterans' psychological needs can inform approaches/implementations to supporting successful transitions.

Author note: depending on how book chapter flows along with word count, the following 'sections' may be included in the overview and structured accordingly. 

* '''Military service and psychological needs (Carra et al. 2022):''' transitions can have a significant adverse effect on veterans' wellbeing. The transitions usually involve simultaneous changes across multiple aspects of their life, this includes, their identity, finances, occupation, residences, routines, relationships and social support. These changes may accumulate to an increase in vulnerability to psychological distress and mental health difficulties. Research has highlighted the importance of providing suitable transition support to effectively assist veterans in navigating these changes and adapting comfortably in civilian life.  

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;Focus questions

{{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}}

1. How does Self Determination Theory {{ic|Use APA style for capitalisation of theories (lower case)}} explain psychological adjustment during military-to-civilian transition? 

2. How does satisfaction or frustration of autonomy, competence, and relatedness shape veterans' motivation and emotional wellbeing? 

3. How military experiences and reintegration shape autonomy, competence, and relatedness? 

4. How can Self Determination Theory informed interventions support psychological need satisfaction and successful reintegration?   
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== How does Self Determination Theory explain psychological adjustment during military-to-civilian transition? ==

{{ic|The first two bullet points could make for an effective Overview}}

Self-determination theory is an organismic and dialectical framework of human motivation and personality that was developed by Edward Deci and Richard Ryan. SDT offers an understanding for how motivation and psychological wellbeing are shaped by the interaction between individuals and their environments. Instead of viewing motivation as solely an individual characteristic, SDT suggests that social context can create conditions that either support healthy psychological development, or contribute to difficulties in psychological functioning. A key principle of SDT is that people require satisfaction of three basic psychological needs; autonomy, competence, and relatedness, to function effectively.  

=== What is Self Determination Theory (SDT)? ===
SDT proposes that people have an inherent tendency towards development and growth, but social environments either support or interfere with this process. This theory considers both the individual and environment when explaining psychological functioning and motivation (Deci, &amp; Ryan 2022).  

Autonomy is a core psychological need to experience oneself as the author of their own life, this includes having a sense of choice and self-direction in one's own actions. People can experience autonomy when their behaviour reflects their own interests, values, and choices rather than feeling influenced, coerced or controlled by external pressures. However, autonomy doesn't mean to be completely independent from others, instead, it involves experiencing one's behaviour as being personally endorsed and chosen.   

Competence is the need to feel both effective and capable in one's interaction with the environment. It involves feeling a sense of confidence in one's ability to manage tasks, achieve desired outcomes, and overcome different challenges. However, it's important to note that competence is not defined by an objective level of skill or an ability that someone possesses, instead, it's how capable and effective they perceive themselves as. Therefore, environments that create experiences of failure, criticism or an inability to manage demands might undermine this need.  

Relatedness is the feeling of being connected to and cared for by others, as well as having the opportunity to care for others. Individuals can experience feeling accepted, understood, valued, and developing a sense of belonging within a broader community. Relatedness is not just being surrounded by other people, but instead feeling a genuine connection and feeling that one has a meaningful place within a social group. When one experiences rejection, loneliness, or a loss of meaningful connections it can frustrate this need.     

Need satisfaction and need frustration are two ways to explain how environments can influence these psychological needs. Need satisfaction refers to when autonomy, competence and relatedness is supported, which promotes overall positive psychological wellbeing and growth. In contrast, need frustration can occur when these needs are actively undermined or blocked, which can contribute to distress, maladaptive behaviours, and ill-being. See table 1 below for a comparison of these needs. (Olafasen, et al. 2021)  
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Table 1. Need Satisfaction vs Need Frustration (Olafasen, et al. 2021)
!
!Autonomy
!Competence
!Relatedness
|-
|Need satisfaction
|experiencing choice, self-direction, freedom in ones' actions
|experiencing mastery, capability and effectiveness in skills. 
|feeling a warm, secure and mutual care with others. 
|-
|Need frustration
|feeling controlled, pressured or compelled to act in an unwanted way
|feeling incompetent, facing frequent failure and doubting abilities.  
|experiencing loneliness, alienation, and social exclusion. 
|}
SDT also distinguishes between two forms of motivation, ranging from autonomous to controlled motivation. It also explains how these motivations relate to engagement, vitality, performance, and psychological health (Loverre, et al. 2024). Autonomous motivation includes intrinsic motivation and fully internalised extrinsic motivation, whereas, controlled motivation involves internal pressures or external demands. Therefore SDT does not only explain whether someone is motivated but also why they are motivated (Rybakovaite, et al. 2021).    

SDT provides a framework to understand the psychological adjustment that occurs during the military-to-civilian transition. The changes in roles, relationships, routines, and responsibilities can impact their autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Whilst a new environment might support some psychological needs, it may frustrate others. For example, increased freedom after service might provide greater autonomy, whereas, changes in roles and routines may challenge their feelings of competence. Similarly, changes in social connections may impact relatedness.     

Therefore, SDT suggests that psychological adjustment is influenced and effected by how well veterans' new environments support their psychological needs, rather than just focuses on the transition alone. The relationship between need satisfaction, frustration, wellbeing, and motivation is explored in the following sections.     

- move into focus question 3. The military environment is often characterised by routines, clearly defined roles, hierarchy, rules, expectations, collective goals and a sense of purpose, thus, creating a highly structured social environment. The military environment may support competence, autonomy and belonging through structured roles, occupation, training responsibilities, teamwork, unit cohesion and shared military identity. However, it's important to note that the hierarchy, externally imposed responsibilities and rules may create tensions with autonomy and might influence the extent to which motivation is either autonomous or controlled. 

*Veterans may experience feelings of cultural dislocation, emotional distress and identity disorientation which can be linked to the loss of structured military roles and routines. They may also experience social alienation when attempting to rebuild relationships, re-establish belongings, and adapt to unfamiliar social norms beyond the military sphere. The current known challenges that ADF members experience are cumulative effects of trauma and stress, moral injury to beliefs and expectations, stigma, and impaired help seeking (Kerr, et al 2022) along with the loss of relationships.
* For those that may have left involuntarily often tend to experience difficulties in translating military skills into employment, and have a perceived lack of competence (Kerr, et al 2022). These challenges and difficulties may influence veterans' motivation and psychological wellbeing.

* Therefore, military experiences may simultaneously constrain and support psychological needs rather than being universally positive or negative.

== How does satisfaction or frustration of autonomy, competence and relatedness shape veterans' motivation and emotional wellbeing? ==
Psychological need satisfaction provides a mechanism through social environments which can influence wellbeing, motivation, and psychological adjustment. SDT's value for understanding military-to-civilian transition is in it's ability to explain why similar transitions might produce different psychological experiences. Instead of assuming that leaving the military is inherently positive or negative, SDT  proposes that adjustment mainly depends on whether veterans experience their new environments as either supportive or frustrating of their psychological needs. 
=== Autonomy and the experience of choice ===
Autonomy is not always reduced by structure or externally defined expectations, instead, it can actually be supported when individuals  understand and agree with the purpose behind an activity and personally endorse their own actions. However, it's important to note that autonomy does not necessarily require complete freedom or independence from external expectations. Grimell (2024) highlights the significance of this distinction as it links autonomy satisfaction with positive outcomes such as greater life satisfaction, wellbeing and vitality.      

In contrast, autonomy frustration occurs when individuals experience their volition as being undermined by micromanagement, excessive control, or restrictive expectations. This is particularly relevant in military contexts as structured roles and expectations do not always undermine autonomy. Military members may still experience a sense of choice when they understand the purpose of an activity and endorse the reasons for their actions. When structure is experienced as controlling rather than meaningful, it could contribute to autonomy frustration, increased likelihood of mental health issues, controlled motivation, and higher discharge rates. Therefore, findings illustrate that the effect of the military structure depends on whether the individual experiences it as meaningful and supportive rather than controlling. ''include another study.''      

This distinction is also highly relevant throughout the military-to-civilian transition. During the transition veterans move from clearly defined roles and routines and have greater responsibility for their own employment, future goals and relationships. Whilst they may have greater choice, it does not automatically equal greater autonomy. Veterans may experience external pressure, uncertainty, or difficulty recognising meaningful alternatives post discharge. While veterans may have greater choices that create opportunities, choice alone does not guarantee autonomy. However, adjustment might not be solely dependent on the amount of freedom available but rather whether veterans can make decisions that are personally meaningful and consistent with their values.       

=== Competence and the sense of capability ===
While competence involves feeling capable and effective, opportunities that provide individuals the ability to develop skills, experience achievement and receive feedback allow for competency to be strengthened. In the military setting, their training and roles can provide individuals the opportunity to demonstrate and build competence. However, competence may be frustrated when individuals feel unable to succeed or feel ineffective in a new environment. 

This can create difficulties and challenges during the military-to-civilian transition when veterans enter unfamiliar environments, workplaces, or struggle to translate their military skills to civilian employment. Tillberg, et al. 2026 identified that a major challenge that veterans face when reintergrating into society is translating their military skills into civilian employment as a significant challenge to veterans' perceived competence. Successful employment may provide opportunities to show their exisiting abilities and develop new skills which may have psychological influence structure beyond financial security and contribute to purpose, competence, and structure.  

=== Relatedness and the need to belong ===
Relatedness involves feeling values and connected to by others, and when changing social environments these experiences can change considerably. Military service can provide strong sources of connection through teamwork, unit cohesion, shared military identity, and common experiences. Leaving the military may result in a disrupted established social network and may require veterans to develop new sources of connections within civilian communities (Barnett, et al. 2021). Frustration of relatedness and isolation can develop feelings of rejection, loneliness and experiences of alienation and exclusion.  

While maintaining military peer connections it may provide veterans with continuity during transition, yet, developing meaningful civilian relationships may support long-term adjustment. Changes in veterans' social connections could influence their sense of belonging and emotional wellbeing either positively or negatively as they establish their post-service lives.  

=== Motivation and wellbeing ===
The satisfaction of autonomy, competence and relatedness are essential for optimal functioning and wellbeing. The satisfaction of these needs provide positive organisational outcomes with a more positive attitude and less turnover intentions, stronger psychological understanding, and more positive health and overall well-being. Satisfaction of these needs also create a higher likelihood of intrinsic motivation (Linden, et al. 2026). Whereas, frustration of these needs can contribute to less adaptive motivational outcomes. Therefore, SDT considers not only whether individuals are motivation but why they engaged in a behaviour. Autonomous motivation occurs when behaviour may be personally aligned and meaningful with one's values. Controlled motivation comprises of internal contingencies or external pressure, whereas, amotivation involves lack of intention or a perceived lack of purpose. 

This is important as veterans are required to navigate new responsibilities and goals following military service. For example, a veteran pursuing employment because it is personally meaningful and consistent with their own values could align with more autonomous motivation, whereas, someone pursuing employment for external pressure reflects more controlled motivation. 
* Autonomous motivation includes intrinsic motivation and positive internalised forms of extrinsic motivation, controlled motivation comprises of internal contingencies or external pressure. This distinction may be significant to veterans establishing new employment, social, educational and personal goals following discharge (Linden, et al. 2026).
* ''Author note: maybe incorporate the 'why' behind their behaviour and how that is either positive or detrimental to motivation'' 

=== Interacting needs ===

* Importantly, these three needs should not be considered completely independent as SDT conceptualises them as interrelated that collective contribute to optimal function and positive psychological wellbeing (Mobbs, et al. 2018).
* Frustration in one area may also coincide with difficulties/challenges in another. 
* ''Author note: focus on research/studies examining the combinations and interactions between satisfaction/frustration rather than just an isolated predictor.'' 

== How does military experiences and reintegration shape autonomy, competence and relatedness? ==

* The psychological impact of military service can be shaped by the environment in which personnel operate, including the way that structure, occupational roles, leadership and social relationships are experienced (Barnett, et al. 2022).
* The military service shouldn't be viewed as uniformly supportive or restrictive, it's important to factor which environmental conditions frustrate or facilitate psychological needs. 
* Reintegration changes these conditions irrespective of whether they were positive or negative environments, thus, requiring veterans to navigate new experiences, expectations, relationships and roles whilst renegotiating sources of autonomy, belonging and competence, see figure 2.[[File:Military to civilian transition.png|thumb|Figure 2: Environmental changes experienced during military-to-civilian reintegration]]
* SDT therefore can be used to examine the conditions to which military experiences either support or undermine psychological need satisfaction, rather than assuming that military service is inherently beneficial or harmful. 

=== Structure, hierarchy, and autonomy ===

* Military organisations rely heavily on rules, hierarchy, orders and clear responsibilities, shaping a high level of structure that is not often seen in civilian environments.
* Structure is not inherently autonomy-thwarting as dependent as, structure can provide guidance, predictability, autonomy and clear expectations, especially, when personnel understand and endorse the purpose behind their responsibilities (Barnett, et al. 2021).
* Leadership plays an integral role in satisfying autonomy (Knevelsrud, et al. 2023). In particular, autonomy-supportive leadership style is where leaders empower employees to make choices, share rationales, take perspectives and minimise unnecessary pressure. An autonomy-supportive leadership brings benefits of an higher engagement, positive wellbeing and enhanced performance (Knevelsrud, et al. 2023). 
* However, highly controlling environments may impede autonomy when their behaviour is experienced as pressured or coerced. This might be done through actions of micromanagement and excessive pressure, these may contribute to controlled motivation and poor psychological outcomes (Barnett, et al. 2021).
* This creates an important distinction between control and structure, and that leadership style and individual interpretation. 
* Following either voluntary or involuntary discharge, veterans may experience substantially greater choice over relationships, future goals and employment, however, greater freedom does not necessarily equate to greater autonomy when personnel experience pressure, uncertainty or lack of meaningful alternatives. 

&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{'''When can military structure support autonomy?'''

|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ When personnel understand and value their purpose
- When all choices are removed
- When personnel experience coercion and external pressure
- When responsibilities are increased

{'''Which psychological need may be most affected when a veteran loses their military unit after discharge?'''
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Competence
+ Relatedness
- Belonging
- Autonomy
&lt;/quiz&gt;

=== Training, occupational roles, and competence ===

* Military training can provide repeated opportunities and clearly defined occupation roles that enable feedback, skill development and achievement which supports competence. 
* Veterans may leave the service with diverse interpersonal and technical skills with a primary focus on leadership, management, communication, adaptability and teamwork. However, even though these skills can be transferable skills, it doesn't necessarily mean that veterans will experience or have their competence recognised within civilian employment and environments (Tillberg, et al. 2026).
* A recurring challenge that veterans experience, is translating military-specific experience into skills that civilians will understand, this makes it challenging for veterans to confidently communicate the relevance of the capabilities. Difficulty translating skills can contribute to unsuitable employment, unemployment, despite veterans possessing valuable capabilities (Tillberg, et al. 2026).
* This further highlights the important distinction between actual competence and perceived competence. Veterans may be highly capable whilst simultaneously experiencing uncertainty about their effectiveness in civilian environments.
* Research from Becker, et al. 2022 involved 31 Aus Defence Force Members who had transitioned into civilian employment had identified challenges with career integration and adaptation, which further highlights the significance of organisational practices in helping veterans navigate employment and supporting longer-term retention.
* From an SDT perspective, civilian employment may restore or strengthen competence through meaningful work and recognition, but could frustrate competence when their skills are overlooked or poorly aligned to available roles.
* Successful vocational reintegration involves more that just securing employment, it about creating opportunities for veterans to recognise, demonstrate and develop their capabilities within their new occupational environment.

=== Relatedness: from military cohesion to civilian belonging ===
* Military service provides strong opportunities for relatedness through teamwork, unit cohesion, camaraderie, shared identity and goals. Consequently, belonging can become deeply embedded within the military environment which makes the loss of these social connections during the transition incredibly significant for their psychological adjustment (Barnett, et al. 2021).
* SDT has demonstrated that shared experience and collective goals can shape a strong sense of social support and belonging.
* Discharge can disrupt these established networks, which requires veterans to reconstruct social connection within civilian communities. 
* The relationship between belonging and military identity is incredibly complex, research from Flake and Kite 2021, used data from 358 Australian Defence Members and identified that identity change during the transition process can involve themes of loss, poor wellbeing, social isolation along with psychosocial transition challenges. This is in conjunction with sometimes an unwillingness to relinquish a dominant military identity can contribute to social disconnectedness which is seen through withdrawal or antisocial behaviour and while reinforcing a divide between military and civilian life. Subsequently, a disconnectedness from both the military and civilian environments increases the likelihood of a decreased effort to re-connect psychosocially which would support personal growth. Although, some aspects of military identity were associated with stronger connectedness and belonging (Barnett, et al. 2021).
* A positive, protective trait that was found in research is that veterans with personal agency, pushing beyond existing boundaries and a willingness to evolve were identified as themes/traits that are associated with an effective transition (Barnett, et al. 2021).
* This continues to reinforce the idea that successful reintegration may involve a veteran's source of belonging rather that just replacing their military community with a civilian one.
* ''Key Point: the challenge is not just simply losing relationships, but losing an environment that embedded belonging into everyday life.'' 

=== Identity and purpose ===

* The military structure is not inherently need-thwarting or need-supportive, the psychological impact depends on how rules, expectations and authority are experienced and communicated. 
* Structure can provide clear expectations and guidance, whereas, controlling practices may pressure individuals to behave in certain ways which consequently may undermine their sense of autonomy. 
* Military service is an important source of status, identity, purpose and social connection, especially, when an individual's role is clearly defined.
* Leaving the military may involve loss of more than just employment and may experience uncertainty about their identity when their previous role is no longer a part of their everyday life. Research has revealed that loss of military identity, status and purpose as recurring aspects and challenges during the transition.
* Veterans can go through identity renegotiation as they determine what aspects of military identity are meaningful and whether they would be useful in civilian settings.
* Therefore, this complexity is important when considering the transition that military personnel experience as they leave an environment that was simultaneously structured and psychologically supportive but also restrictive in other ways.  
* ''Key highlight is whether military structure supports internalisation and psychological need satisfaction or becomes experienced as need thwarting and controlling.'' &lt;br /&gt;

== How can Self Determination Theory informed interventions support psychological need satisfaction and successful integration? ==

* Understanding how psychological challenges of military-to-civilian transition provides a key basis for considering how transition support can promote rather than undermine psychological need satisfaction. 
* An SDT-informed approach reorients the focus from simply helping veterans cope with change to instead, creating social environments that support autonomy, competence and relatedness. 
* Therefore, existing transition support should be considered in terms of whether it provides opportunities for mastery, choice and meaningful social connection. 

=== Creating supportive transition environments ===

* Reintegration support should address psychological as well as practical aspects of transition
* SDT has suggested that environments can support adjustment when they support autonomy, competence and relatedness. 
* Transition planning has been found to support autonomy through meaningful choice, veteran-led goals, and collaborative decision-making. 
* Support should provide structure and guidance without becoming unnecessarily controlling, however, it's important to note that providing choices does not automatically satisfy autonomy. 

=== Supporting competence and connection ===

* Vocational support can help veterans be able to translate military skills into civilian employment and also develop confidence in unfamiliar occupational environments and civilian environments. 
* Career counselling, feedback, recognition and retraining can strengthen perceived competence. 
* Services such as peer support, mentoring, family and community involvement can provide opportunities to develop and restore relatedness and belonging. 
* Effective support should enable veterans to develop new connections whilst allowing them to maintain meaningful military relationships, however, interventions should support multiple psychological needs simultaneously rather than separately. 

=== Implications and limitations ===

* SDT can provide a framework for evaluating whether reintegration services create conditions that support rather than frustrate needs. 
* Psychological need satisfaction cannot explain reintegration of broader factors such as housing, finances and access to services. 
* Therefore, a important research gap is still evidence testing SDT-informed veteran interventions. More longitudinal studies and Australian-specific research should be conducted to determine whether supporting autonomy, competence and relatedness produces a sustained improve in wellbeing and reintegration. 

;Embedded links (keeping for reference)
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** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
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==Conclusion==
* Military-to-civilian reintegration is a highly complex psychological adjustment that involves changes to identity, daily structure, competence, purpose, relationships and roles. 
* SDT provides a useful framework to understand how these changes influence autonomy, competence and relatedness, along with the impact upon different types of motivation (autonomous and controlled motivation). 
* The key finding is that military experiences are not necessarily need-supportive or need-thwarting. Instead, dependent on how leadership, structure, responsibilities and relationships are experienced and understood. 
* Briefly discuss that identity and purpose are interlinked with the three psychological needs (autonomy, competence and relatedness). 
* SDT can inform practical interventions by creating transition environments that support identity, choice, competence, connection and meaningful goals. 
* Important take home message: success reintegration is not solely based on getting veterans into civilian life, instead, it should support veterans in developing self-directed, meaningful and socially connected lives beyond the military service.   

==See also==
* [[Social connection and emotion regulation|Social Connection]] (Book chapter, 2026))
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

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* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
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==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Barnett, A., Savic, M., Lubman, D. (2021). Transitioning to civilian life: The importance of social group engagement and identity among Australian Defence Force veterans. ''Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 56''(8). https://doi.org/10.1177/00048674211046894

Becker, K., Bish, A., Abell, D., McCormack, M., Smidt, M. (2022). Supporting Australian veteran transition: career construction through a person-environment fit perspective. ''The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 36''(5), 799-823. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2022.2077127

Carra, K., Curtin, M., Fortune, T., Gordon, B. (2022). Service and demographic factors, health, trauma exposure, and participation are associated with adjustment for former Australian Defence Force members. ''Military Psychology, 35''(5), 480-492. https://doi.org/10.1080/08995605.2022.2120312

Flack, M., Kite, L. (2021). Transition from military service to civilian: identity, social connectedness, and veteran wellbeing. ''PLoS ONE, 16''(12). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0261634

Grimell, J. (2024). You can take a person out of the military, but you can't take the military out of the person: findings from a ten-year identity study on transition from military to civilian life. ''Frontiers in Sociology, 9.'' https://doi.org/10.3389/fsoc.2024.1406710   

Kerr, N., Lane, S., Plotnikoff, R., Ashby, S. (2023). The &quot;Transition&quot; to civilian life from the perspective of former serving Australian Defence Force members. ''Journal of Veteran Studies, 9''(1), 129-142. https://10.21061/jvs.v9i1.407 {{ic|fix link}}

Knevelsrud, H.C., Sorlie, H., Valaker, S. (2023). Mission command: A self determination theory perspective. ''Military Psychology, 36''(6), 672-688. https://doi.org/10.1080/08995605.2023.2252718 

Linden, A., Borjesson, M. (2026). Motivation in physically demanding military roles: a qualitative study using self-determination theory. ''Military Psychology,'' 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1080/08995605.2026.2671587 

Loverre, M., Chirico, A., Cinque, L., Palombi, T., Alivernini, F., Lucidi, F., Alessandri, G., Livi, S. (2024). A systematic review of self-determination theory's application in military and police organisations. ''Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, 40''(5), 685-707. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11896-024-09718-2

Mobbs, M., Bonanno, G. (2018). Beyond war and PTSD: The crucial role of transition stress in the lives of military veterans. ''Clinical Psychology Review, 59,'' 137-144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2017.11.007

Olafsen, A., Halvari, H., Frolound, C. (2021). The basic psychological need satisfaction and need frustration at work scale: A validation study. ''Organisational Psychology, 12.'' https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.697306

Romaniuk, M., Saunders-Dow, E., Brown, K., Batterham, P. (2024). Feasibility, acceptability, and initial outcomes of a psychological adjustment and reintegration program for transitioned military veterans. ''BMC Psychology, 12''(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-024-02097-7

Ryan, R., Deci, E. (2022). Self determination theory. ''Encyclopedia of quality of life and well-being research.'' https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-69909-7_2630-2

Rybakovaite. J., Poskus, M., Blue, S. (2021). Forced or free choice: Hardiness, need satisfaction, and engagement among military conscripts. ''Current Psychology, 42''(1), 7909-7919. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-02123-6  

Tillberg, L., Truusa, T.T, Tillberg, P. (2026). The skillful veteran: Transforming overseas experience into competence, from the military to civilian working life domain. ''Vocations and Learning, 19''(5). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12186-026-09385-w

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Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

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      <text bytes="40652" sha1="ibtc5ibf2ukt9n3ovwizb8dmrn4bh18" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Self-determination theory and military veteran reintegration:&lt;br&gt;How do autonomy, competence, and relatedness shape psychological adjustment after military service?}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}

;Scenario

[[File:Military-to-civilian reintegration.png|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. Transition from military service to civilian life]]

What happens when the thing that gave your life structure suddenly vanishes? 

For many military veterans, leaving the service gains them freedom, but freedom can also bring uncertainty. 

After 15 years of military service including posting and deployments, a veteran returns home expecting civilian life to feel like freedom (see Figure 1) . Instead, freedom feels disorientating. For over a decade, their days were shaped by established routines, explicit expectations, clear responsibilities, a sense of belonging and being part of a team. Roles were understood. Decisions had purposes. Belonging was built into day-to-day life. The team was your support. Then, almost, overnight, the rules had changed. There are no longer orders telling them what needs to be done, no team waiting or relying on them, and no familiar structure defining what it means to be successful. Decisions that were once straightforward, now require navigating through uncertainty and often with little guidance or support. The confidence they had developed through military service may not cleanly translate into civilian life, whilst the relationships that brought connection and belonging may suddenly be hundreds or thousands of kilometres away. Disconnection is real. What was supposed to be liberation has now become a profound psychological adjustment. Self-determination theory provides an understanding of why. 

If military life has shaped how a veteran experiences autonomy, relatedness and competence {{ic|APA style uses serial commas}} , what happens when the life that once supported or constrained these needs is removed? 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}Military-to-civilian [wikilink military and civilian] transition is a major period of adjustment that brings an increased likelihood of psychosocial risk. This transition involves simultaneous changes to daily structure, social relationships, occupational roles, their identity, and sources of purpose. These changes can challenge veteran's wellbeing, motivation, and psychological adjustment as they adapt to a new environment. '''These transitions can have long-term implications to their wellbeing with 78% of Australian defence members experienced a difficult transition and 50% were still struggling after 10 years (Romanik, et al. 2024).'''  

Self-determination theory (SDT) provides a framework for understanding psychological adjustment by suggesting that autonomy, competence, and relatedness are basic psychological needs that are fundamental for wellbeing, quality of life, and psychological flourishing. Autonomy involves experiencing a sense of volition and choice, competence refers to feeling satisfactory and capable in their skills and relatedness refers to feeling connected to and valued by others (Ryan &amp; Deci, 2022). Satisfaction of these needs support more autonomous motivation and positive psychological outcomes, whereas, frustration can undermine both wellbeing and motivation.   

This chapter applies SDT to military-to-civilian reintegration, it explores how military experiences and their transition to civilian life can either support or frustrate veterans' autonomy, competence, and relatedness. It'll examine how changes in these psychological needs  may shape or influence veterans' emotional wellbeing, psychological adjustment, and motivation. Finally this chapter will consider how SDT-informed interventions can both support need satisfaction and facilitate a successful reintegration.  
 

* '''SDT as the theoretical framework [introducing main theory that will be discussed throughout chapter]''':
* SDT is a useful framework and provides a key blueprint for understanding the motivational basis of personality and social behaviour, along with the relation of basic psychological needs for wellbeing, psychological flourishing and positive quality of life (Deci, Ryan 2022).
* SDT proposes that autonomy, competence, and relatedness are basic psychological needs that contribute to individuals' wellbeing and adaptive functioning. Satisfaction of these needs will contribute to positive wellbeing, whereas, frustration can contribute to negative psychological outcomes (Ryan, et al. 2022).
* This chapter will therefore utilise SDT to examine how changes associated with military to civilian reintegration may influence these three psychological needs.
* '''Reintegration and psychological adjustment [what do these three needs affect]:''' Following discharge (or voluntary leaving) veterans may need to reconstruct these psychological needs within unfamiliar civilian environments.
* Employment difficulties may then challenge competence, whilst their loss of military relationships and identity may undermine their belonging and relatedness. Greater freedom may support their autonomy, but can also create uncertainty without their consistent military structure (Carra, et al. 2022).
* This book chapter will therefore examine how these changes may shape veterans' psychological adjustment during reintegration and consider how understanding veterans' psychological needs can inform approaches/implementations to supporting successful transitions.

Author note: depending on how book chapter flows along with word count, the following 'sections' may be included in the overview and structured accordingly. 

* '''Military service and psychological needs (Carra et al. 2022):''' transitions can have a significant adverse effect on veterans' wellbeing. The transitions usually involve simultaneous changes across multiple aspects of their life, this includes, their identity, finances, occupation, residences, routines, relationships and social support. These changes may accumulate to an increase in vulnerability to psychological distress and mental health difficulties. Research has highlighted the importance of providing suitable transition support to effectively assist veterans in navigating these changes and adapting comfortably in civilian life.  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}

;Focus questions

{{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}}

1. How does Self Determination Theory {{ic|Use APA style for capitalisation of theories (lower case)}} explain psychological adjustment during military-to-civilian transition? 

2. How does satisfaction or frustration of autonomy, competence, and relatedness shape veterans' motivation and emotional wellbeing? 

3. How military experiences and reintegration shape autonomy, competence, and relatedness? 

4. How can Self Determination Theory informed interventions support psychological need satisfaction and successful reintegration?   
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== How does Self Determination Theory explain psychological adjustment during military-to-civilian transition? ==

{{ic|The first two bullet points could make for an effective Overview}}

Self-determination theory is an organismic and dialectical framework of human motivation and personality that was developed by Edward Deci and Richard Ryan. SDT offers an understanding for how motivation and psychological wellbeing are shaped by the interaction between individuals and their environments. Instead of viewing motivation as solely an individual characteristic, SDT suggests that social context can create conditions that either support healthy psychological development, or contribute to difficulties in psychological functioning. A key principle of SDT is that people require satisfaction of three basic psychological needs; autonomy, competence, and relatedness, to function effectively.  

=== What is Self Determination Theory (SDT)? ===
SDT proposes that people have an inherent tendency towards development and growth, but social environments either support or interfere with this process. This theory considers both the individual and environment when explaining psychological functioning and motivation (Deci, &amp; Ryan 2022).  

Autonomy is a core psychological need to experience oneself as the author of their own life, this includes having a sense of choice and self-direction in one's own actions. People can experience autonomy when their behaviour reflects their own interests, values, and choices rather than feeling influenced, coerced or controlled by external pressures. However, autonomy doesn't mean to be completely independent from others, instead, it involves experiencing one's behaviour as being personally endorsed and chosen.   

Competence is the need to feel both effective and capable in one's interaction with the environment. It involves feeling a sense of confidence in one's ability to manage tasks, achieve desired outcomes, and overcome different challenges. However, it's important to note that competence is not defined by an objective level of skill or an ability that someone possesses, instead, it's how capable and effective they perceive themselves as. Therefore, environments that create experiences of failure, criticism or an inability to manage demands might undermine this need.  

Relatedness is the feeling of being connected to and cared for by others, as well as having the opportunity to care for others. Individuals can experience feeling accepted, understood, valued, and developing a sense of belonging within a broader community. Relatedness is not just being surrounded by other people, but instead feeling a genuine connection and feeling that one has a meaningful place within a social group. When one experiences rejection, loneliness, or a loss of meaningful connections it can frustrate this need.     

Need satisfaction and need frustration are two ways to explain how environments can influence these psychological needs. Need satisfaction refers to when autonomy, competence and relatedness is supported, which promotes overall positive psychological wellbeing and growth. In contrast, need frustration can occur when these needs are actively undermined or blocked, which can contribute to distress, maladaptive behaviours, and ill-being. See table 1 below for a comparison of these needs. (Olafasen, et al. 2021)  
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Table 1. Need Satisfaction vs Need Frustration (Olafasen, et al. 2021)
!
!Autonomy
!Competence
!Relatedness
|-
|Need satisfaction
|experiencing choice, self-direction, freedom in ones' actions
|experiencing mastery, capability and effectiveness in skills. 
|feeling a warm, secure and mutual care with others. 
|-
|Need frustration
|feeling controlled, pressured or compelled to act in an unwanted way
|feeling incompetent, facing frequent failure and doubting abilities.  
|experiencing loneliness, alienation, and social exclusion. 
|}
SDT also distinguishes between two forms of motivation, ranging from autonomous to controlled motivation. It also explains how these motivations relate to engagement, vitality, performance, and psychological health (Loverre, et al. 2024). Autonomous motivation includes intrinsic motivation and fully internalised extrinsic motivation, whereas, controlled motivation involves internal pressures or external demands. Therefore SDT does not only explain whether someone is motivated but also why they are motivated (Rybakovaite, et al. 2021).    

SDT provides a framework to understand the psychological adjustment that occurs during the military-to-civilian transition. The changes in roles, relationships, routines, and responsibilities can impact their autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Whilst a new environment might support some psychological needs, it may frustrate others. For example, increased freedom after service might provide greater autonomy, whereas, changes in roles and routines may challenge their feelings of competence. Similarly, changes in social connections may impact relatedness.     

Therefore, SDT suggests that psychological adjustment is influenced and effected by how well veterans' new environments support their psychological needs, rather than just focuses on the transition alone. The relationship between need satisfaction, frustration, wellbeing, and motivation is explored in the following sections.     

- move into focus question 3. The military environment is often characterised by routines, clearly defined roles, hierarchy, rules, expectations, collective goals and a sense of purpose, thus, creating a highly structured social environment. The military environment may support competence, autonomy and belonging through structured roles, occupation, training responsibilities, teamwork, unit cohesion and shared military identity. However, it's important to note that the hierarchy, externally imposed responsibilities and rules may create tensions with autonomy and might influence the extent to which motivation is either autonomous or controlled. 

*Veterans may experience feelings of cultural dislocation, emotional distress and identity disorientation which can be linked to the loss of structured military roles and routines. They may also experience social alienation when attempting to rebuild relationships, re-establish belongings, and adapt to unfamiliar social norms beyond the military sphere. The current known challenges that ADF members experience are cumulative effects of trauma and stress, moral injury to beliefs and expectations, stigma, and impaired help seeking (Kerr, et al 2022) along with the loss of relationships.
* For those that may have left involuntarily often tend to experience difficulties in translating military skills into employment, and have a perceived lack of competence (Kerr, et al 2022). These challenges and difficulties may influence veterans' motivation and psychological wellbeing.

* Therefore, military experiences may simultaneously constrain and support psychological needs rather than being universally positive or negative.

== How does satisfaction or frustration of autonomy, competence and relatedness shape veterans' motivation and emotional wellbeing? ==
Psychological need satisfaction provides a mechanism through social environments which can influence wellbeing, motivation, and psychological adjustment. SDT's value for understanding military-to-civilian transition is in it's ability to explain why similar transitions might produce different psychological experiences. Instead of assuming that leaving the military is inherently positive or negative, SDT  proposes that adjustment mainly depends on whether veterans experience their new environments as either supportive or frustrating of their psychological needs. 
=== Autonomy and the experience of choice ===
Autonomy is not always reduced by structure or externally defined expectations, instead, it can actually be supported when individuals  understand and agree with the purpose behind an activity and personally endorse their own actions. However, it's important to note that autonomy does not necessarily require complete freedom or independence from external expectations. Grimell (2024) highlights the significance of this distinction as it links autonomy satisfaction with positive outcomes such as greater life satisfaction, wellbeing and vitality.      

In contrast, autonomy frustration occurs when individuals experience their volition as being undermined by micromanagement, excessive control, or restrictive expectations. This is particularly relevant in military contexts as structured roles and expectations do not always undermine autonomy. Military members may still experience a sense of choice when they understand the purpose of an activity and endorse the reasons for their actions. When structure is experienced as controlling rather than meaningful, it could contribute to autonomy frustration, increased likelihood of mental health issues, controlled motivation, and higher discharge rates. Therefore, findings illustrate that the effect of the military structure depends on whether the individual experiences it as meaningful and supportive rather than controlling. ''include another study.''      

This distinction is also highly relevant throughout the military-to-civilian transition. During the transition veterans move from clearly defined roles and routines and have greater responsibility for their own employment, future goals and relationships. Whilst they may have greater choice, it does not automatically equal greater autonomy. Veterans may experience external pressure, uncertainty, or difficulty recognising meaningful alternatives post discharge. While veterans may have greater choices that create opportunities, choice alone does not guarantee autonomy. However, adjustment might not be solely dependent on the amount of freedom available but rather whether veterans can make decisions that are personally meaningful and consistent with their values.       

=== Competence and the sense of capability ===
While competence involves feeling capable and effective, opportunities that provide individuals the ability to develop skills, experience achievement and receive feedback allow for competency to be strengthened. In the military setting, their training and roles can provide individuals the opportunity to demonstrate and build competence. However, competence may be frustrated when individuals feel unable to succeed or feel ineffective in a new environment. 

This can create difficulties and challenges during the military-to-civilian transition when veterans enter unfamiliar environments, workplaces, or struggle to translate their military skills to civilian employment. Tillberg, et al. 2026 identified that a major challenge that veterans face when reintergrating into society is translating their military skills into civilian employment as a significant challenge to veterans' perceived competence. Successful employment may provide opportunities to show their exisiting abilities and develop new skills which may have psychological influence structure beyond financial security and contribute to purpose, competence, and structure.  

=== Relatedness and the need to belong ===
Relatedness involves feeling values and connected to by others, and when changing social environments these experiences can change considerably. Military service can provide strong sources of connection through teamwork, unit cohesion, shared military identity, and common experiences. Leaving the military may result in a disrupted established social network and may require veterans to develop new sources of connections within civilian communities (Barnett, et al. 2021). Frustration of relatedness and isolation can develop feelings of rejection, loneliness and experiences of alienation and exclusion.  

While maintaining military peer connections it may provide veterans with continuity during transition, yet, developing meaningful civilian relationships may support long-term adjustment. Changes in veterans' social connections could influence their sense of belonging and emotional wellbeing either positively or negatively as they establish their post-service lives.  

=== Motivation and wellbeing ===
The satisfaction of autonomy, competence and relatedness are essential for optimal functioning and wellbeing. The satisfaction of these needs provide positive organisational outcomes with a more positive attitude and less turnover intentions, stronger psychological understanding, and more positive health and overall well-being. Satisfaction of these needs also create a higher likelihood of intrinsic motivation (Linden, et al. 2026). Whereas, frustration of these needs can contribute to less adaptive motivational outcomes. Therefore, SDT considers not only whether individuals are motivation but why they engaged in a behaviour. Autonomous motivation occurs when behaviour may be personally aligned and meaningful with one's values. Controlled motivation comprises of internal contingencies or external pressure, whereas, amotivation involves lack of intention or a perceived lack of purpose. 

This is important as veterans are required to navigate new responsibilities and goals following military service. For example, a veteran pursuing employment because it is personally meaningful and consistent with their own values could align with more autonomous motivation, whereas, someone pursuing employment for external pressure reflects more controlled motivation. Amotivation could occur when veterans struggle to identify a purpose for their action or believe that their efforts will not produce meaningful actions. Therefore, it's important to understand the reasons underlying veterans' behaviour as it can provide insight into their motivation and psychological adjustment. (Linden, et al. 2026) 
=== Interacting needs ===

*
* Importantly, these three needs should not be considered completely independent as SDT conceptualises them as interrelated that collective contribute to optimal function and positive psychological wellbeing (Mobbs, et al. 2018).
* Frustration in one area may also coincide with difficulties/challenges in another. 
* ''Author note: focus on research/studies examining the combinations and interactions between satisfaction/frustration rather than just an isolated predictor.'' 

== How does military experiences and reintegration shape autonomy, competence and relatedness? ==

* The psychological impact of military service can be shaped by the environment in which personnel operate, including the way that structure, occupational roles, leadership and social relationships are experienced (Barnett, et al. 2022).
* The military service shouldn't be viewed as uniformly supportive or restrictive, it's important to factor which environmental conditions frustrate or facilitate psychological needs. 
* Reintegration changes these conditions irrespective of whether they were positive or negative environments, thus, requiring veterans to navigate new experiences, expectations, relationships and roles whilst renegotiating sources of autonomy, belonging and competence, see figure 2.[[File:Military to civilian transition.png|thumb|Figure 2: Environmental changes experienced during military-to-civilian reintegration]]
* SDT therefore can be used to examine the conditions to which military experiences either support or undermine psychological need satisfaction, rather than assuming that military service is inherently beneficial or harmful. 

=== Structure, hierarchy, and autonomy ===

* Military organisations rely heavily on rules, hierarchy, orders and clear responsibilities, shaping a high level of structure that is not often seen in civilian environments.
* Structure is not inherently autonomy-thwarting as dependent as, structure can provide guidance, predictability, autonomy and clear expectations, especially, when personnel understand and endorse the purpose behind their responsibilities (Barnett, et al. 2021).
* Leadership plays an integral role in satisfying autonomy (Knevelsrud, et al. 2023). In particular, autonomy-supportive leadership style is where leaders empower employees to make choices, share rationales, take perspectives and minimise unnecessary pressure. An autonomy-supportive leadership brings benefits of an higher engagement, positive wellbeing and enhanced performance (Knevelsrud, et al. 2023). 
* However, highly controlling environments may impede autonomy when their behaviour is experienced as pressured or coerced. This might be done through actions of micromanagement and excessive pressure, these may contribute to controlled motivation and poor psychological outcomes (Barnett, et al. 2021).
* This creates an important distinction between control and structure, and that leadership style and individual interpretation. 
* Following either voluntary or involuntary discharge, veterans may experience substantially greater choice over relationships, future goals and employment, however, greater freedom does not necessarily equate to greater autonomy when personnel experience pressure, uncertainty or lack of meaningful alternatives. 

&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{'''When can military structure support autonomy?'''

|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ When personnel understand and value their purpose
- When all choices are removed
- When personnel experience coercion and external pressure
- When responsibilities are increased

{'''Which psychological need may be most affected when a veteran loses their military unit after discharge?'''
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Competence
+ Relatedness
- Belonging
- Autonomy
&lt;/quiz&gt;

=== Training, occupational roles, and competence ===

* Military training can provide repeated opportunities and clearly defined occupation roles that enable feedback, skill development and achievement which supports competence. 
* Veterans may leave the service with diverse interpersonal and technical skills with a primary focus on leadership, management, communication, adaptability and teamwork. However, even though these skills can be transferable skills, it doesn't necessarily mean that veterans will experience or have their competence recognised within civilian employment and environments (Tillberg, et al. 2026).
* A recurring challenge that veterans experience, is translating military-specific experience into skills that civilians will understand, this makes it challenging for veterans to confidently communicate the relevance of the capabilities. Difficulty translating skills can contribute to unsuitable employment, unemployment, despite veterans possessing valuable capabilities (Tillberg, et al. 2026).
* This further highlights the important distinction between actual competence and perceived competence. Veterans may be highly capable whilst simultaneously experiencing uncertainty about their effectiveness in civilian environments.
* Research from Becker, et al. 2022 involved 31 Aus Defence Force Members who had transitioned into civilian employment had identified challenges with career integration and adaptation, which further highlights the significance of organisational practices in helping veterans navigate employment and supporting longer-term retention.
* From an SDT perspective, civilian employment may restore or strengthen competence through meaningful work and recognition, but could frustrate competence when their skills are overlooked or poorly aligned to available roles.
* Successful vocational reintegration involves more that just securing employment, it about creating opportunities for veterans to recognise, demonstrate and develop their capabilities within their new occupational environment.

=== Relatedness: from military cohesion to civilian belonging ===
* Military service provides strong opportunities for relatedness through teamwork, unit cohesion, camaraderie, shared identity and goals. Consequently, belonging can become deeply embedded within the military environment which makes the loss of these social connections during the transition incredibly significant for their psychological adjustment (Barnett, et al. 2021).
* SDT has demonstrated that shared experience and collective goals can shape a strong sense of social support and belonging.
* Discharge can disrupt these established networks, which requires veterans to reconstruct social connection within civilian communities. 
* The relationship between belonging and military identity is incredibly complex, research from Flake and Kite 2021, used data from 358 Australian Defence Members and identified that identity change during the transition process can involve themes of loss, poor wellbeing, social isolation along with psychosocial transition challenges. This is in conjunction with sometimes an unwillingness to relinquish a dominant military identity can contribute to social disconnectedness which is seen through withdrawal or antisocial behaviour and while reinforcing a divide between military and civilian life. Subsequently, a disconnectedness from both the military and civilian environments increases the likelihood of a decreased effort to re-connect psychosocially which would support personal growth. Although, some aspects of military identity were associated with stronger connectedness and belonging (Barnett, et al. 2021).
* A positive, protective trait that was found in research is that veterans with personal agency, pushing beyond existing boundaries and a willingness to evolve were identified as themes/traits that are associated with an effective transition (Barnett, et al. 2021).
* This continues to reinforce the idea that successful reintegration may involve a veteran's source of belonging rather that just replacing their military community with a civilian one.
* ''Key Point: the challenge is not just simply losing relationships, but losing an environment that embedded belonging into everyday life.'' 

=== Identity and purpose ===

* The military structure is not inherently need-thwarting or need-supportive, the psychological impact depends on how rules, expectations and authority are experienced and communicated. 
* Structure can provide clear expectations and guidance, whereas, controlling practices may pressure individuals to behave in certain ways which consequently may undermine their sense of autonomy. 
* Military service is an important source of status, identity, purpose and social connection, especially, when an individual's role is clearly defined.
* Leaving the military may involve loss of more than just employment and may experience uncertainty about their identity when their previous role is no longer a part of their everyday life. Research has revealed that loss of military identity, status and purpose as recurring aspects and challenges during the transition.
* Veterans can go through identity renegotiation as they determine what aspects of military identity are meaningful and whether they would be useful in civilian settings.
* Therefore, this complexity is important when considering the transition that military personnel experience as they leave an environment that was simultaneously structured and psychologically supportive but also restrictive in other ways.  
* ''Key highlight is whether military structure supports internalisation and psychological need satisfaction or becomes experienced as need thwarting and controlling.'' &lt;br /&gt;

== How can Self Determination Theory informed interventions support psychological need satisfaction and successful integration? ==

* Understanding how psychological challenges of military-to-civilian transition provides a key basis for considering how transition support can promote rather than undermine psychological need satisfaction. 
* An SDT-informed approach reorients the focus from simply helping veterans cope with change to instead, creating social environments that support autonomy, competence and relatedness. 
* Therefore, existing transition support should be considered in terms of whether it provides opportunities for mastery, choice and meaningful social connection. 

=== Creating supportive transition environments ===

* Reintegration support should address psychological as well as practical aspects of transition
* SDT has suggested that environments can support adjustment when they support autonomy, competence and relatedness. 
* Transition planning has been found to support autonomy through meaningful choice, veteran-led goals, and collaborative decision-making. 
* Support should provide structure and guidance without becoming unnecessarily controlling, however, it's important to note that providing choices does not automatically satisfy autonomy. 

=== Supporting competence and connection ===

* Vocational support can help veterans be able to translate military skills into civilian employment and also develop confidence in unfamiliar occupational environments and civilian environments. 
* Career counselling, feedback, recognition and retraining can strengthen perceived competence. 
* Services such as peer support, mentoring, family and community involvement can provide opportunities to develop and restore relatedness and belonging. 
* Effective support should enable veterans to develop new connections whilst allowing them to maintain meaningful military relationships, however, interventions should support multiple psychological needs simultaneously rather than separately. 

=== Implications and limitations ===

* SDT can provide a framework for evaluating whether reintegration services create conditions that support rather than frustrate needs. 
* Psychological need satisfaction cannot explain reintegration of broader factors such as housing, finances and access to services. 
* Therefore, a important research gap is still evidence testing SDT-informed veteran interventions. More longitudinal studies and Australian-specific research should be conducted to determine whether supporting autonomy, competence and relatedness produces a sustained improve in wellbeing and reintegration. 

;Embedded links (keeping for reference)
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

==Conclusion==
* Military-to-civilian reintegration is a highly complex psychological adjustment that involves changes to identity, daily structure, competence, purpose, relationships and roles. 
* SDT provides a useful framework to understand how these changes influence autonomy, competence and relatedness, along with the impact upon different types of motivation (autonomous and controlled motivation). 
* The key finding is that military experiences are not necessarily need-supportive or need-thwarting. Instead, dependent on how leadership, structure, responsibilities and relationships are experienced and understood. 
* Briefly discuss that identity and purpose are interlinked with the three psychological needs (autonomy, competence and relatedness). 
* SDT can inform practical interventions by creating transition environments that support identity, choice, competence, connection and meaningful goals. 
* Important take home message: success reintegration is not solely based on getting veterans into civilian life, instead, it should support veterans in developing self-directed, meaningful and socially connected lives beyond the military service.   

==See also==
* [[Social connection and emotion regulation|Social Connection]] (Book chapter, 2026))
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

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* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Barnett, A., Savic, M., Lubman, D. (2021). Transitioning to civilian life: The importance of social group engagement and identity among Australian Defence Force veterans. ''Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 56''(8). https://doi.org/10.1177/00048674211046894

Becker, K., Bish, A., Abell, D., McCormack, M., Smidt, M. (2022). Supporting Australian veteran transition: career construction through a person-environment fit perspective. ''The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 36''(5), 799-823. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2022.2077127

Carra, K., Curtin, M., Fortune, T., Gordon, B. (2022). Service and demographic factors, health, trauma exposure, and participation are associated with adjustment for former Australian Defence Force members. ''Military Psychology, 35''(5), 480-492. https://doi.org/10.1080/08995605.2022.2120312

Flack, M., Kite, L. (2021). Transition from military service to civilian: identity, social connectedness, and veteran wellbeing. ''PLoS ONE, 16''(12). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0261634

Grimell, J. (2024). You can take a person out of the military, but you can't take the military out of the person: findings from a ten-year identity study on transition from military to civilian life. ''Frontiers in Sociology, 9.'' https://doi.org/10.3389/fsoc.2024.1406710   

Kerr, N., Lane, S., Plotnikoff, R., Ashby, S. (2023). The &quot;Transition&quot; to civilian life from the perspective of former serving Australian Defence Force members. ''Journal of Veteran Studies, 9''(1), 129-142. https://10.21061/jvs.v9i1.407 {{ic|fix link}}

Knevelsrud, H.C., Sorlie, H., Valaker, S. (2023). Mission command: A self determination theory perspective. ''Military Psychology, 36''(6), 672-688. https://doi.org/10.1080/08995605.2023.2252718 

Linden, A., Borjesson, M. (2026). Motivation in physically demanding military roles: a qualitative study using self-determination theory. ''Military Psychology,'' 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1080/08995605.2026.2671587 

Loverre, M., Chirico, A., Cinque, L., Palombi, T., Alivernini, F., Lucidi, F., Alessandri, G., Livi, S. (2024). A systematic review of self-determination theory's application in military and police organisations. ''Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, 40''(5), 685-707. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11896-024-09718-2

Mobbs, M., Bonanno, G. (2018). Beyond war and PTSD: The crucial role of transition stress in the lives of military veterans. ''Clinical Psychology Review, 59,'' 137-144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2017.11.007

Olafsen, A., Halvari, H., Frolound, C. (2021). The basic psychological need satisfaction and need frustration at work scale: A validation study. ''Organisational Psychology, 12.'' https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.697306

Romaniuk, M., Saunders-Dow, E., Brown, K., Batterham, P. (2024). Feasibility, acceptability, and initial outcomes of a psychological adjustment and reintegration program for transitioned military veterans. ''BMC Psychology, 12''(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-024-02097-7

Ryan, R., Deci, E. (2022). Self determination theory. ''Encyclopedia of quality of life and well-being research.'' https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-69909-7_2630-2

Rybakovaite. J., Poskus, M., Blue, S. (2021). Forced or free choice: Hardiness, need satisfaction, and engagement among military conscripts. ''Current Psychology, 42''(1), 7909-7919. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-02123-6  

Tillberg, L., Truusa, T.T, Tillberg, P. (2026). The skillful veteran: Transforming overseas experience into competence, from the military to civilian working life domain. ''Vocations and Learning, 19''(5). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12186-026-09385-w

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Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

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[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self-determination theory]]
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      <text bytes="40860" sha1="8t42unz41psmlc0gfnt8brc7svjufy0" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Self-determination theory and military veteran reintegration:&lt;br&gt;How do autonomy, competence, and relatedness shape psychological adjustment after military service?}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}

;Scenario

[[File:Military-to-civilian reintegration.png|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. Transition from military service to civilian life]]

What happens when the thing that gave your life structure suddenly vanishes? 

For many military veterans, leaving the service gains them freedom, but freedom can also bring uncertainty. 

After 15 years of military service including posting and deployments, a veteran returns home expecting civilian life to feel like freedom (see Figure 1) . Instead, freedom feels disorientating. For over a decade, their days were shaped by established routines, explicit expectations, clear responsibilities, a sense of belonging and being part of a team. Roles were understood. Decisions had purposes. Belonging was built into day-to-day life. The team was your support. Then, almost, overnight, the rules had changed. There are no longer orders telling them what needs to be done, no team waiting or relying on them, and no familiar structure defining what it means to be successful. Decisions that were once straightforward, now require navigating through uncertainty and often with little guidance or support. The confidence they had developed through military service may not cleanly translate into civilian life, whilst the relationships that brought connection and belonging may suddenly be hundreds or thousands of kilometres away. Disconnection is real. What was supposed to be liberation has now become a profound psychological adjustment. Self-determination theory provides an understanding of why. 

If military life has shaped how a veteran experiences autonomy, relatedness and competence {{ic|APA style uses serial commas}} , what happens when the life that once supported or constrained these needs is removed? 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}Military-to-civilian [wikilink military and civilian] transition is a major period of adjustment that brings an increased likelihood of psychosocial risk. This transition involves simultaneous changes to daily structure, social relationships, occupational roles, their identity, and sources of purpose. These changes can challenge veteran's wellbeing, motivation, and psychological adjustment as they adapt to a new environment. '''These transitions can have long-term implications to their wellbeing with 78% of Australian defence members experienced a difficult transition and 50% were still struggling after 10 years (Romanik, et al. 2024).'''  

Self-determination theory (SDT) provides a framework for understanding psychological adjustment by suggesting that autonomy, competence, and relatedness are basic psychological needs that are fundamental for wellbeing, quality of life, and psychological flourishing. Autonomy involves experiencing a sense of volition and choice, competence refers to feeling satisfactory and capable in their skills and relatedness refers to feeling connected to and valued by others (Ryan &amp; Deci, 2022). Satisfaction of these needs support more autonomous motivation and positive psychological outcomes, whereas, frustration can undermine both wellbeing and motivation.   

This chapter applies SDT to military-to-civilian reintegration, it explores how military experiences and their transition to civilian life can either support or frustrate veterans' autonomy, competence, and relatedness. It'll examine how changes in these psychological needs  may shape or influence veterans' emotional wellbeing, psychological adjustment, and motivation. Finally this chapter will consider how SDT-informed interventions can both support need satisfaction and facilitate a successful reintegration.  
 

* '''SDT as the theoretical framework [introducing main theory that will be discussed throughout chapter]''':
* SDT is a useful framework and provides a key blueprint for understanding the motivational basis of personality and social behaviour, along with the relation of basic psychological needs for wellbeing, psychological flourishing and positive quality of life (Deci, Ryan 2022).
* SDT proposes that autonomy, competence, and relatedness are basic psychological needs that contribute to individuals' wellbeing and adaptive functioning. Satisfaction of these needs will contribute to positive wellbeing, whereas, frustration can contribute to negative psychological outcomes (Ryan, et al. 2022).
* This chapter will therefore utilise SDT to examine how changes associated with military to civilian reintegration may influence these three psychological needs.
* '''Reintegration and psychological adjustment [what do these three needs affect]:''' Following discharge (or voluntary leaving) veterans may need to reconstruct these psychological needs within unfamiliar civilian environments.
* Employment difficulties may then challenge competence, whilst their loss of military relationships and identity may undermine their belonging and relatedness. Greater freedom may support their autonomy, but can also create uncertainty without their consistent military structure (Carra, et al. 2022).
* This book chapter will therefore examine how these changes may shape veterans' psychological adjustment during reintegration and consider how understanding veterans' psychological needs can inform approaches/implementations to supporting successful transitions.

Author note: depending on how book chapter flows along with word count, the following 'sections' may be included in the overview and structured accordingly. 

* '''Military service and psychological needs (Carra et al. 2022):''' transitions can have a significant adverse effect on veterans' wellbeing. The transitions usually involve simultaneous changes across multiple aspects of their life, this includes, their identity, finances, occupation, residences, routines, relationships and social support. These changes may accumulate to an increase in vulnerability to psychological distress and mental health difficulties. Research has highlighted the importance of providing suitable transition support to effectively assist veterans in navigating these changes and adapting comfortably in civilian life.  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}

;Focus questions

{{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}}

1. How does Self Determination Theory {{ic|Use APA style for capitalisation of theories (lower case)}} explain psychological adjustment during military-to-civilian transition? 

2. How does satisfaction or frustration of autonomy, competence, and relatedness shape veterans' motivation and emotional wellbeing? 

3. How military experiences and reintegration shape autonomy, competence, and relatedness? 

4. How can Self Determination Theory informed interventions support psychological need satisfaction and successful reintegration?   
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== How does Self Determination Theory explain psychological adjustment during military-to-civilian transition? ==

{{ic|The first two bullet points could make for an effective Overview}}

Self-determination theory is an organismic and dialectical framework of human motivation and personality that was developed by Edward Deci and Richard Ryan. SDT offers an understanding for how motivation and psychological wellbeing are shaped by the interaction between individuals and their environments. Instead of viewing motivation as solely an individual characteristic, SDT suggests that social context can create conditions that either support healthy psychological development, or contribute to difficulties in psychological functioning. A key principle of SDT is that people require satisfaction of three basic psychological needs; autonomy, competence, and relatedness, to function effectively.  

=== What is Self Determination Theory (SDT)? ===
SDT proposes that people have an inherent tendency towards development and growth, but social environments either support or interfere with this process. This theory considers both the individual and environment when explaining psychological functioning and motivation (Deci, &amp; Ryan 2022).  

Autonomy is a core psychological need to experience oneself as the author of their own life, this includes having a sense of choice and self-direction in one's own actions. People can experience autonomy when their behaviour reflects their own interests, values, and choices rather than feeling influenced, coerced or controlled by external pressures. However, autonomy doesn't mean to be completely independent from others, instead, it involves experiencing one's behaviour as being personally endorsed and chosen.   

Competence is the need to feel both effective and capable in one's interaction with the environment. It involves feeling a sense of confidence in one's ability to manage tasks, achieve desired outcomes, and overcome different challenges. However, it's important to note that competence is not defined by an objective level of skill or an ability that someone possesses, instead, it's how capable and effective they perceive themselves as. Therefore, environments that create experiences of failure, criticism or an inability to manage demands might undermine this need.  

Relatedness is the feeling of being connected to and cared for by others, as well as having the opportunity to care for others. Individuals can experience feeling accepted, understood, valued, and developing a sense of belonging within a broader community. Relatedness is not just being surrounded by other people, but instead feeling a genuine connection and feeling that one has a meaningful place within a social group. When one experiences rejection, loneliness, or a loss of meaningful connections it can frustrate this need.     

Need satisfaction and need frustration are two ways to explain how environments can influence these psychological needs. Need satisfaction refers to when autonomy, competence and relatedness is supported, which promotes overall positive psychological wellbeing and growth. In contrast, need frustration can occur when these needs are actively undermined or blocked, which can contribute to distress, maladaptive behaviours, and ill-being. See table 1 below for a comparison of these needs. (Olafasen, et al. 2021)  
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Table 1. Need Satisfaction vs Need Frustration (Olafasen, et al. 2021)
!
!Autonomy
!Competence
!Relatedness
|-
|Need satisfaction
|experiencing choice, self-direction, freedom in ones' actions
|experiencing mastery, capability and effectiveness in skills. 
|feeling a warm, secure and mutual care with others. 
|-
|Need frustration
|feeling controlled, pressured or compelled to act in an unwanted way
|feeling incompetent, facing frequent failure and doubting abilities.  
|experiencing loneliness, alienation, and social exclusion. 
|}
SDT also distinguishes between two forms of motivation, ranging from autonomous to controlled motivation. It also explains how these motivations relate to engagement, vitality, performance, and psychological health (Loverre, et al. 2024). Autonomous motivation includes intrinsic motivation and fully internalised extrinsic motivation, whereas, controlled motivation involves internal pressures or external demands. Therefore SDT does not only explain whether someone is motivated but also why they are motivated (Rybakovaite, et al. 2021).    

SDT provides a framework to understand the psychological adjustment that occurs during the military-to-civilian transition. The changes in roles, relationships, routines, and responsibilities can impact their autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Whilst a new environment might support some psychological needs, it may frustrate others. For example, increased freedom after service might provide greater autonomy, whereas, changes in roles and routines may challenge their feelings of competence. Similarly, changes in social connections may impact relatedness.     

Therefore, SDT suggests that psychological adjustment is influenced and effected by how well veterans' new environments support their psychological needs, rather than just focuses on the transition alone. The relationship between need satisfaction, frustration, wellbeing, and motivation is explored in the following sections.     

- move into focus question 3. The military environment is often characterised by routines, clearly defined roles, hierarchy, rules, expectations, collective goals and a sense of purpose, thus, creating a highly structured social environment. The military environment may support competence, autonomy and belonging through structured roles, occupation, training responsibilities, teamwork, unit cohesion and shared military identity. However, it's important to note that the hierarchy, externally imposed responsibilities and rules may create tensions with autonomy and might influence the extent to which motivation is either autonomous or controlled. 

*Veterans may experience feelings of cultural dislocation, emotional distress and identity disorientation which can be linked to the loss of structured military roles and routines. They may also experience social alienation when attempting to rebuild relationships, re-establish belongings, and adapt to unfamiliar social norms beyond the military sphere. The current known challenges that ADF members experience are cumulative effects of trauma and stress, moral injury to beliefs and expectations, stigma, and impaired help seeking (Kerr, et al 2022) along with the loss of relationships.
* For those that may have left involuntarily often tend to experience difficulties in translating military skills into employment, and have a perceived lack of competence (Kerr, et al 2022). These challenges and difficulties may influence veterans' motivation and psychological wellbeing.

* Therefore, military experiences may simultaneously constrain and support psychological needs rather than being universally positive or negative.

== How does satisfaction or frustration of autonomy, competence and relatedness shape veterans' motivation and emotional wellbeing? ==
Psychological need satisfaction provides a mechanism through social environments which can influence wellbeing, motivation, and psychological adjustment. SDT's value for understanding military-to-civilian transition is in it's ability to explain why similar transitions might produce different psychological experiences. Instead of assuming that leaving the military is inherently positive or negative, SDT  proposes that adjustment mainly depends on whether veterans experience their new environments as either supportive or frustrating of their psychological needs. 
=== Autonomy and the experience of choice ===
Autonomy is not always reduced by structure or externally defined expectations, instead, it can actually be supported when individuals  understand and agree with the purpose behind an activity and personally endorse their own actions. However, it's important to note that autonomy does not necessarily require complete freedom or independence from external expectations. Grimell (2024) highlights the significance of this distinction as it links autonomy satisfaction with positive outcomes such as greater life satisfaction, wellbeing and vitality.      

In contrast, autonomy frustration occurs when individuals experience their volition as being undermined by micromanagement, excessive control, or restrictive expectations. This is particularly relevant in military contexts as structured roles and expectations do not always undermine autonomy. Military members may still experience a sense of choice when they understand the purpose of an activity and endorse the reasons for their actions. When structure is experienced as controlling rather than meaningful, it could contribute to autonomy frustration, increased likelihood of mental health issues, controlled motivation, and higher discharge rates. Therefore, findings illustrate that the effect of the military structure depends on whether the individual experiences it as meaningful and supportive rather than controlling. ''include another study.''      

This distinction is also highly relevant throughout the military-to-civilian transition. During the transition veterans move from clearly defined roles and routines and have greater responsibility for their own employment, future goals and relationships. Whilst they may have greater choice, it does not automatically equal greater autonomy. Veterans may experience external pressure, uncertainty, or difficulty recognising meaningful alternatives post discharge. While veterans may have greater choices that create opportunities, choice alone does not guarantee autonomy. However, adjustment might not be solely dependent on the amount of freedom available but rather whether veterans can make decisions that are personally meaningful and consistent with their values.       

=== Competence and the sense of capability ===
While competence involves feeling capable and effective, opportunities that provide individuals the ability to develop skills, experience achievement and receive feedback allow for competency to be strengthened. In the military setting, their training and roles can provide individuals the opportunity to demonstrate and build competence. However, competence may be frustrated when individuals feel unable to succeed or feel ineffective in a new environment. 

This can create difficulties and challenges during the military-to-civilian transition when veterans enter unfamiliar environments, workplaces, or struggle to translate their military skills to civilian employment. Tillberg, et al. 2026 identified that a major challenge that veterans face when reintergrating into society is translating their military skills into civilian employment as a significant challenge to veterans' perceived competence. Successful employment may provide opportunities to show their exisiting abilities and develop new skills which may have psychological influence structure beyond financial security and contribute to purpose, competence, and structure.  

=== Relatedness and the need to belong ===
Relatedness involves feeling values and connected to by others, and when changing social environments these experiences can change considerably. Military service can provide strong sources of connection through teamwork, unit cohesion, shared military identity, and common experiences. Leaving the military may result in a disrupted established social network and may require veterans to develop new sources of connections within civilian communities (Barnett, et al. 2021). Frustration of relatedness and isolation can develop feelings of rejection, loneliness and experiences of alienation and exclusion.  

While maintaining military peer connections it may provide veterans with continuity during transition, yet, developing meaningful civilian relationships may support long-term adjustment. Changes in veterans' social connections could influence their sense of belonging and emotional wellbeing either positively or negatively as they establish their post-service lives.  

=== Motivation and wellbeing ===
The satisfaction of autonomy, competence and relatedness are essential for optimal functioning and wellbeing. The satisfaction of these needs provide positive organisational outcomes with a more positive attitude and less turnover intentions, stronger psychological understanding, and more positive health and overall well-being. Satisfaction of these needs also create a higher likelihood of intrinsic motivation (Linden, et al. 2026). Whereas, frustration of these needs can contribute to less adaptive motivational outcomes. Therefore, SDT considers not only whether individuals are motivation but why they engaged in a behaviour. Autonomous motivation occurs when behaviour may be personally aligned and meaningful with one's values. Controlled motivation comprises of internal contingencies or external pressure, whereas, amotivation involves lack of intention or a perceived lack of purpose. 

This is important as veterans are required to navigate new responsibilities and goals following military service. For example, a veteran pursuing employment because it is personally meaningful and consistent with their own values could align with more autonomous motivation, whereas, someone pursuing employment for external pressure reflects more controlled motivation. Amotivation could occur when veterans struggle to identify a purpose for their action or believe that their efforts will not produce meaningful actions. Therefore, it's important to understand the reasons underlying veterans' behaviour as it can provide insight into their motivation and psychological adjustment. (Linden, et al. 2026) 
=== Interacting needs ===
Autonomy, competence, and relatedness should not be considered completely independent, SDT conceptualises them as interrelated and collectively can contribute to optimal function and positive psychological wellbeing (Mobbs, et al. 2018).  Satisfaction and frustration of these needs may occur concurrently across different life contexts, importantly frustration in one area may also coincide with difficulties and challenges in another. Thi

* Frustration in one area may also coincide with difficulties/challenges in another.
* ''Author note: focus on research/studies examining the combinations and interactions between satisfaction/frustration rather than just an isolated predictor.'' 

== How does military experiences and reintegration shape autonomy, competence and relatedness? ==

* The psychological impact of military service can be shaped by the environment in which personnel operate, including the way that structure, occupational roles, leadership and social relationships are experienced (Barnett, et al. 2022).
* The military service shouldn't be viewed as uniformly supportive or restrictive, it's important to factor which environmental conditions frustrate or facilitate psychological needs. 
* Reintegration changes these conditions irrespective of whether they were positive or negative environments, thus, requiring veterans to navigate new experiences, expectations, relationships and roles whilst renegotiating sources of autonomy, belonging and competence, see figure 2.[[File:Military to civilian transition.png|thumb|Figure 2: Environmental changes experienced during military-to-civilian reintegration]]
* SDT therefore can be used to examine the conditions to which military experiences either support or undermine psychological need satisfaction, rather than assuming that military service is inherently beneficial or harmful. 

=== Structure, hierarchy, and autonomy ===

* Military organisations rely heavily on rules, hierarchy, orders and clear responsibilities, shaping a high level of structure that is not often seen in civilian environments.
* Structure is not inherently autonomy-thwarting as dependent as, structure can provide guidance, predictability, autonomy and clear expectations, especially, when personnel understand and endorse the purpose behind their responsibilities (Barnett, et al. 2021).
* Leadership plays an integral role in satisfying autonomy (Knevelsrud, et al. 2023). In particular, autonomy-supportive leadership style is where leaders empower employees to make choices, share rationales, take perspectives and minimise unnecessary pressure. An autonomy-supportive leadership brings benefits of an higher engagement, positive wellbeing and enhanced performance (Knevelsrud, et al. 2023). 
* However, highly controlling environments may impede autonomy when their behaviour is experienced as pressured or coerced. This might be done through actions of micromanagement and excessive pressure, these may contribute to controlled motivation and poor psychological outcomes (Barnett, et al. 2021).
* This creates an important distinction between control and structure, and that leadership style and individual interpretation. 
* Following either voluntary or involuntary discharge, veterans may experience substantially greater choice over relationships, future goals and employment, however, greater freedom does not necessarily equate to greater autonomy when personnel experience pressure, uncertainty or lack of meaningful alternatives. 

&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{'''When can military structure support autonomy?'''

|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ When personnel understand and value their purpose
- When all choices are removed
- When personnel experience coercion and external pressure
- When responsibilities are increased

{'''Which psychological need may be most affected when a veteran loses their military unit after discharge?'''
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Competence
+ Relatedness
- Belonging
- Autonomy
&lt;/quiz&gt;

=== Training, occupational roles, and competence ===

* Military training can provide repeated opportunities and clearly defined occupation roles that enable feedback, skill development and achievement which supports competence. 
* Veterans may leave the service with diverse interpersonal and technical skills with a primary focus on leadership, management, communication, adaptability and teamwork. However, even though these skills can be transferable skills, it doesn't necessarily mean that veterans will experience or have their competence recognised within civilian employment and environments (Tillberg, et al. 2026).
* A recurring challenge that veterans experience, is translating military-specific experience into skills that civilians will understand, this makes it challenging for veterans to confidently communicate the relevance of the capabilities. Difficulty translating skills can contribute to unsuitable employment, unemployment, despite veterans possessing valuable capabilities (Tillberg, et al. 2026).
* This further highlights the important distinction between actual competence and perceived competence. Veterans may be highly capable whilst simultaneously experiencing uncertainty about their effectiveness in civilian environments.
* Research from Becker, et al. 2022 involved 31 Aus Defence Force Members who had transitioned into civilian employment had identified challenges with career integration and adaptation, which further highlights the significance of organisational practices in helping veterans navigate employment and supporting longer-term retention.
* From an SDT perspective, civilian employment may restore or strengthen competence through meaningful work and recognition, but could frustrate competence when their skills are overlooked or poorly aligned to available roles.
* Successful vocational reintegration involves more that just securing employment, it about creating opportunities for veterans to recognise, demonstrate and develop their capabilities within their new occupational environment.

=== Relatedness: from military cohesion to civilian belonging ===
* Military service provides strong opportunities for relatedness through teamwork, unit cohesion, camaraderie, shared identity and goals. Consequently, belonging can become deeply embedded within the military environment which makes the loss of these social connections during the transition incredibly significant for their psychological adjustment (Barnett, et al. 2021).
* SDT has demonstrated that shared experience and collective goals can shape a strong sense of social support and belonging.
* Discharge can disrupt these established networks, which requires veterans to reconstruct social connection within civilian communities. 
* The relationship between belonging and military identity is incredibly complex, research from Flake and Kite 2021, used data from 358 Australian Defence Members and identified that identity change during the transition process can involve themes of loss, poor wellbeing, social isolation along with psychosocial transition challenges. This is in conjunction with sometimes an unwillingness to relinquish a dominant military identity can contribute to social disconnectedness which is seen through withdrawal or antisocial behaviour and while reinforcing a divide between military and civilian life. Subsequently, a disconnectedness from both the military and civilian environments increases the likelihood of a decreased effort to re-connect psychosocially which would support personal growth. Although, some aspects of military identity were associated with stronger connectedness and belonging (Barnett, et al. 2021).
* A positive, protective trait that was found in research is that veterans with personal agency, pushing beyond existing boundaries and a willingness to evolve were identified as themes/traits that are associated with an effective transition (Barnett, et al. 2021).
* This continues to reinforce the idea that successful reintegration may involve a veteran's source of belonging rather that just replacing their military community with a civilian one.
* ''Key Point: the challenge is not just simply losing relationships, but losing an environment that embedded belonging into everyday life.'' 

=== Identity and purpose ===

* The military structure is not inherently need-thwarting or need-supportive, the psychological impact depends on how rules, expectations and authority are experienced and communicated. 
* Structure can provide clear expectations and guidance, whereas, controlling practices may pressure individuals to behave in certain ways which consequently may undermine their sense of autonomy. 
* Military service is an important source of status, identity, purpose and social connection, especially, when an individual's role is clearly defined.
* Leaving the military may involve loss of more than just employment and may experience uncertainty about their identity when their previous role is no longer a part of their everyday life. Research has revealed that loss of military identity, status and purpose as recurring aspects and challenges during the transition.
* Veterans can go through identity renegotiation as they determine what aspects of military identity are meaningful and whether they would be useful in civilian settings.
* Therefore, this complexity is important when considering the transition that military personnel experience as they leave an environment that was simultaneously structured and psychologically supportive but also restrictive in other ways.  
* ''Key highlight is whether military structure supports internalisation and psychological need satisfaction or becomes experienced as need thwarting and controlling.'' &lt;br /&gt;

== How can Self Determination Theory informed interventions support psychological need satisfaction and successful integration? ==

* Understanding how psychological challenges of military-to-civilian transition provides a key basis for considering how transition support can promote rather than undermine psychological need satisfaction. 
* An SDT-informed approach reorients the focus from simply helping veterans cope with change to instead, creating social environments that support autonomy, competence and relatedness. 
* Therefore, existing transition support should be considered in terms of whether it provides opportunities for mastery, choice and meaningful social connection. 

=== Creating supportive transition environments ===

* Reintegration support should address psychological as well as practical aspects of transition
* SDT has suggested that environments can support adjustment when they support autonomy, competence and relatedness. 
* Transition planning has been found to support autonomy through meaningful choice, veteran-led goals, and collaborative decision-making. 
* Support should provide structure and guidance without becoming unnecessarily controlling, however, it's important to note that providing choices does not automatically satisfy autonomy. 

=== Supporting competence and connection ===

* Vocational support can help veterans be able to translate military skills into civilian employment and also develop confidence in unfamiliar occupational environments and civilian environments. 
* Career counselling, feedback, recognition and retraining can strengthen perceived competence. 
* Services such as peer support, mentoring, family and community involvement can provide opportunities to develop and restore relatedness and belonging. 
* Effective support should enable veterans to develop new connections whilst allowing them to maintain meaningful military relationships, however, interventions should support multiple psychological needs simultaneously rather than separately. 

=== Implications and limitations ===

* SDT can provide a framework for evaluating whether reintegration services create conditions that support rather than frustrate needs. 
* Psychological need satisfaction cannot explain reintegration of broader factors such as housing, finances and access to services. 
* Therefore, a important research gap is still evidence testing SDT-informed veteran interventions. More longitudinal studies and Australian-specific research should be conducted to determine whether supporting autonomy, competence and relatedness produces a sustained improve in wellbeing and reintegration. 

;Embedded links (keeping for reference)
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

==Conclusion==
* Military-to-civilian reintegration is a highly complex psychological adjustment that involves changes to identity, daily structure, competence, purpose, relationships and roles. 
* SDT provides a useful framework to understand how these changes influence autonomy, competence and relatedness, along with the impact upon different types of motivation (autonomous and controlled motivation). 
* The key finding is that military experiences are not necessarily need-supportive or need-thwarting. Instead, dependent on how leadership, structure, responsibilities and relationships are experienced and understood. 
* Briefly discuss that identity and purpose are interlinked with the three psychological needs (autonomy, competence and relatedness). 
* SDT can inform practical interventions by creating transition environments that support identity, choice, competence, connection and meaningful goals. 
* Important take home message: success reintegration is not solely based on getting veterans into civilian life, instead, it should support veterans in developing self-directed, meaningful and socially connected lives beyond the military service.   

==See also==
* [[Social connection and emotion regulation|Social Connection]] (Book chapter, 2026))
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Barnett, A., Savic, M., Lubman, D. (2021). Transitioning to civilian life: The importance of social group engagement and identity among Australian Defence Force veterans. ''Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 56''(8). https://doi.org/10.1177/00048674211046894

Becker, K., Bish, A., Abell, D., McCormack, M., Smidt, M. (2022). Supporting Australian veteran transition: career construction through a person-environment fit perspective. ''The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 36''(5), 799-823. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2022.2077127

Carra, K., Curtin, M., Fortune, T., Gordon, B. (2022). Service and demographic factors, health, trauma exposure, and participation are associated with adjustment for former Australian Defence Force members. ''Military Psychology, 35''(5), 480-492. https://doi.org/10.1080/08995605.2022.2120312

Flack, M., Kite, L. (2021). Transition from military service to civilian: identity, social connectedness, and veteran wellbeing. ''PLoS ONE, 16''(12). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0261634

Grimell, J. (2024). You can take a person out of the military, but you can't take the military out of the person: findings from a ten-year identity study on transition from military to civilian life. ''Frontiers in Sociology, 9.'' https://doi.org/10.3389/fsoc.2024.1406710   

Kerr, N., Lane, S., Plotnikoff, R., Ashby, S. (2023). The &quot;Transition&quot; to civilian life from the perspective of former serving Australian Defence Force members. ''Journal of Veteran Studies, 9''(1), 129-142. https://10.21061/jvs.v9i1.407 {{ic|fix link}}

Knevelsrud, H.C., Sorlie, H., Valaker, S. (2023). Mission command: A self determination theory perspective. ''Military Psychology, 36''(6), 672-688. https://doi.org/10.1080/08995605.2023.2252718 

Linden, A., Borjesson, M. (2026). Motivation in physically demanding military roles: a qualitative study using self-determination theory. ''Military Psychology,'' 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1080/08995605.2026.2671587 

Loverre, M., Chirico, A., Cinque, L., Palombi, T., Alivernini, F., Lucidi, F., Alessandri, G., Livi, S. (2024). A systematic review of self-determination theory's application in military and police organisations. ''Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, 40''(5), 685-707. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11896-024-09718-2

Mobbs, M., Bonanno, G. (2018). Beyond war and PTSD: The crucial role of transition stress in the lives of military veterans. ''Clinical Psychology Review, 59,'' 137-144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2017.11.007

Olafsen, A., Halvari, H., Frolound, C. (2021). The basic psychological need satisfaction and need frustration at work scale: A validation study. ''Organisational Psychology, 12.'' https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.697306

Romaniuk, M., Saunders-Dow, E., Brown, K., Batterham, P. (2024). Feasibility, acceptability, and initial outcomes of a psychological adjustment and reintegration program for transitioned military veterans. ''BMC Psychology, 12''(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-024-02097-7

Ryan, R., Deci, E. (2022). Self determination theory. ''Encyclopedia of quality of life and well-being research.'' https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-69909-7_2630-2

Rybakovaite. J., Poskus, M., Blue, S. (2021). Forced or free choice: Hardiness, need satisfaction, and engagement among military conscripts. ''Current Psychology, 42''(1), 7909-7919. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-02123-6  

Tillberg, L., Truusa, T.T, Tillberg, P. (2026). The skillful veteran: Transforming overseas experience into competence, from the military to civilian working life domain. ''Vocations and Learning, 19''(5). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12186-026-09385-w

}}


APA style example:
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Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

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[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self-determination theory]]
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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}

;Scenario

[[File:Military-to-civilian reintegration.png|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. Transition from military service to civilian life]]

What happens when the thing that gave your life structure suddenly vanishes? 

For many military veterans, leaving the service gains them freedom, but freedom can also bring uncertainty. 

After 15 years of military service including posting and deployments, a veteran returns home expecting civilian life to feel like freedom (see Figure 1) . Instead, freedom feels disorientating. For over a decade, their days were shaped by established routines, explicit expectations, clear responsibilities, a sense of belonging and being part of a team. Roles were understood. Decisions had purposes. Belonging was built into day-to-day life. The team was your support. Then, almost, overnight, the rules had changed. There are no longer orders telling them what needs to be done, no team waiting or relying on them, and no familiar structure defining what it means to be successful. Decisions that were once straightforward, now require navigating through uncertainty and often with little guidance or support. The confidence they had developed through military service may not cleanly translate into civilian life, whilst the relationships that brought connection and belonging may suddenly be hundreds or thousands of kilometres away. Disconnection is real. What was supposed to be liberation has now become a profound psychological adjustment. Self-determination theory provides an understanding of why. 

If military life has shaped how a veteran experiences autonomy, relatedness and competence {{ic|APA style uses serial commas}} , what happens when the life that once supported or constrained these needs is removed? 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}Military-to-civilian [wikilink military and civilian] transition is a major period of adjustment that brings an increased likelihood of psychosocial risk. This transition involves simultaneous changes to daily structure, social relationships, occupational roles, their identity, and sources of purpose. These changes can challenge veteran's wellbeing, motivation, and psychological adjustment as they adapt to a new environment. '''These transitions can have long-term implications to their wellbeing with 78% of Australian defence members experienced a difficult transition and 50% were still struggling after 10 years (Romanik, et al. 2024).'''  

Self-determination theory (SDT) provides a framework for understanding psychological adjustment by suggesting that autonomy, competence, and relatedness are basic psychological needs that are fundamental for wellbeing, quality of life, and psychological flourishing. Autonomy involves experiencing a sense of volition and choice, competence refers to feeling satisfactory and capable in their skills and relatedness refers to feeling connected to and valued by others (Ryan &amp; Deci, 2022). Satisfaction of these needs support more autonomous motivation and positive psychological outcomes, whereas, frustration can undermine both wellbeing and motivation.   

This chapter applies SDT to military-to-civilian reintegration, it explores how military experiences and their transition to civilian life can either support or frustrate veterans' autonomy, competence, and relatedness. It'll examine how changes in these psychological needs  may shape or influence veterans' emotional wellbeing, psychological adjustment, and motivation. Finally this chapter will consider how SDT-informed interventions can both support need satisfaction and facilitate a successful reintegration.  
 

* '''SDT as the theoretical framework [introducing main theory that will be discussed throughout chapter]''':
* SDT is a useful framework and provides a key blueprint for understanding the motivational basis of personality and social behaviour, along with the relation of basic psychological needs for wellbeing, psychological flourishing and positive quality of life (Deci, Ryan 2022).
* SDT proposes that autonomy, competence, and relatedness are basic psychological needs that contribute to individuals' wellbeing and adaptive functioning. Satisfaction of these needs will contribute to positive wellbeing, whereas, frustration can contribute to negative psychological outcomes (Ryan, et al. 2022).
* This chapter will therefore utilise SDT to examine how changes associated with military to civilian reintegration may influence these three psychological needs.
* '''Reintegration and psychological adjustment [what do these three needs affect]:''' Following discharge (or voluntary leaving) veterans may need to reconstruct these psychological needs within unfamiliar civilian environments.
* Employment difficulties may then challenge competence, whilst their loss of military relationships and identity may undermine their belonging and relatedness. Greater freedom may support their autonomy, but can also create uncertainty without their consistent military structure (Carra, et al. 2022).
* This book chapter will therefore examine how these changes may shape veterans' psychological adjustment during reintegration and consider how understanding veterans' psychological needs can inform approaches/implementations to supporting successful transitions.

Author note: depending on how book chapter flows along with word count, the following 'sections' may be included in the overview and structured accordingly. 

* '''Military service and psychological needs (Carra et al. 2022):''' transitions can have a significant adverse effect on veterans' wellbeing. The transitions usually involve simultaneous changes across multiple aspects of their life, this includes, their identity, finances, occupation, residences, routines, relationships and social support. These changes may accumulate to an increase in vulnerability to psychological distress and mental health difficulties. Research has highlighted the importance of providing suitable transition support to effectively assist veterans in navigating these changes and adapting comfortably in civilian life.  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}

;Focus questions

{{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}}

1. How does Self Determination Theory {{ic|Use APA style for capitalisation of theories (lower case)}} explain psychological adjustment during military-to-civilian transition? 

2. How does satisfaction or frustration of autonomy, competence, and relatedness shape veterans' motivation and emotional wellbeing? 

3. How military experiences and reintegration shape autonomy, competence, and relatedness? 

4. How can Self Determination Theory informed interventions support psychological need satisfaction and successful reintegration?   
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== How does Self Determination Theory explain psychological adjustment during military-to-civilian transition? ==

Self-determination theory is an organismic and dialectical framework of human motivation and personality that was developed by Edward Deci and Richard Ryan. SDT offers an understanding for how motivation and psychological wellbeing are shaped by the interaction between individuals and their environments. Instead of viewing motivation as solely an individual characteristic, SDT suggests that social context can create conditions that either support healthy psychological development, or contribute to difficulties in psychological functioning. A key principle of SDT is that people require satisfaction of three basic psychological needs; autonomy, competence, and relatedness, to function effectively.  

=== What is Self Determination Theory (SDT)? ===
SDT proposes that people have an inherent tendency towards development and growth, but social environments either support or interfere with this process. This theory considers both the individual and environment when explaining psychological functioning and motivation (Deci, &amp; Ryan 2022).  

Autonomy is a core psychological need to experience oneself as the author of their own life, this includes having a sense of choice and self-direction in one's own actions. People can experience autonomy when their behaviour reflects their own interests, values, and choices rather than feeling influenced, coerced or controlled by external pressures. However, autonomy doesn't mean to be completely independent from others, instead, it involves experiencing one's behaviour as being personally endorsed and chosen.   

Competence is the need to feel both effective and capable in one's interaction with the environment. It involves feeling a sense of confidence in one's ability to manage tasks, achieve desired outcomes, and overcome different challenges. However, it's important to note that competence is not defined by an objective level of skill or an ability that someone possesses, instead, it's how capable and effective they perceive themselves as. Therefore, environments that create experiences of failure, criticism or an inability to manage demands might undermine this need.  

Relatedness is the feeling of being connected to and cared for by others, as well as having the opportunity to care for others. Individuals can experience feeling accepted, understood, valued, and developing a sense of belonging within a broader community. Relatedness is not just being surrounded by other people, but instead feeling a genuine connection and feeling that one has a meaningful place within a social group. When one experiences rejection, loneliness, or a loss of meaningful connections it can frustrate this need.     

Need satisfaction and need frustration are two ways to explain how environments can influence these psychological needs. Need satisfaction refers to when autonomy, competence and relatedness is supported, which promotes overall positive psychological wellbeing and growth. In contrast, need frustration can occur when these needs are actively undermined or blocked, which can contribute to distress, maladaptive behaviours, and ill-being. See table 1 below for a comparison of these needs. (Olafasen, et al. 2021)  
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Table 1. Need Satisfaction vs Need Frustration (Olafasen, et al. 2021)
!
!Autonomy
!Competence
!Relatedness
|-
|Need satisfaction
|experiencing choice, self-direction, freedom in ones' actions
|experiencing mastery, capability and effectiveness in skills. 
|feeling a warm, secure and mutual care with others. 
|-
|Need frustration
|feeling controlled, pressured or compelled to act in an unwanted way
|feeling incompetent, facing frequent failure and doubting abilities.  
|experiencing loneliness, alienation, and social exclusion. 
|}
SDT also distinguishes between two forms of motivation, ranging from autonomous to controlled motivation. It also explains how these motivations relate to engagement, vitality, performance, and psychological health (Loverre, et al. 2024). Autonomous motivation includes intrinsic motivation and fully internalised extrinsic motivation, whereas, controlled motivation involves internal pressures or external demands. Therefore SDT does not only explain whether someone is motivated but also why they are motivated (Rybakovaite, et al. 2021).    

SDT provides a framework to understand the psychological adjustment that occurs during the military-to-civilian transition. The changes in roles, relationships, routines, and responsibilities can impact their autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Whilst a new environment might support some psychological needs, it may frustrate others. For example, increased freedom after service might provide greater autonomy, whereas, changes in roles and routines may challenge their feelings of competence. Similarly, changes in social connections may impact relatedness.     

Therefore, SDT suggests that psychological adjustment is influenced and effected by how well veterans' new environments support their psychological needs, rather than just focuses on the transition alone. The relationship between need satisfaction, frustration, wellbeing, and motivation is explored in the following sections.     

- move into focus question 3. The military environment is often characterised by routines, clearly defined roles, hierarchy, rules, expectations, collective goals and a sense of purpose, thus, creating a highly structured social environment. The military environment may support competence, autonomy and belonging through structured roles, occupation, training responsibilities, teamwork, unit cohesion and shared military identity. However, it's important to note that the hierarchy, externally imposed responsibilities and rules may create tensions with autonomy and might influence the extent to which motivation is either autonomous or controlled. 

*Veterans may experience feelings of cultural dislocation, emotional distress and identity disorientation which can be linked to the loss of structured military roles and routines. They may also experience social alienation when attempting to rebuild relationships, re-establish belongings, and adapt to unfamiliar social norms beyond the military sphere. The current known challenges that ADF members experience are cumulative effects of trauma and stress, moral injury to beliefs and expectations, stigma, and impaired help seeking (Kerr, et al 2022) along with the loss of relationships.
* For those that may have left involuntarily often tend to experience difficulties in translating military skills into employment, and have a perceived lack of competence (Kerr, et al 2022). These challenges and difficulties may influence veterans' motivation and psychological wellbeing.

* Therefore, military experiences may simultaneously constrain and support psychological needs rather than being universally positive or negative.

== How does satisfaction or frustration of autonomy, competence and relatedness shape veterans' motivation and emotional wellbeing? ==
Psychological need satisfaction provides a mechanism through social environments which can influence wellbeing, motivation, and psychological adjustment. SDT's value for understanding military-to-civilian transition is in it's ability to explain why similar transitions might produce different psychological experiences. Instead of assuming that leaving the military is inherently positive or negative, SDT  proposes that adjustment mainly depends on whether veterans experience their new environments as either supportive or frustrating of their psychological needs. 
=== Autonomy and the experience of choice ===
Autonomy is not always reduced by structure or externally defined expectations, instead, it can actually be supported when individuals  understand and agree with the purpose behind an activity and personally endorse their own actions. However, it's important to note that autonomy does not necessarily require complete freedom or independence from external expectations. Grimell (2024) highlights the significance of this distinction as it links autonomy satisfaction with positive outcomes such as greater life satisfaction, wellbeing and vitality.      

In contrast, autonomy frustration occurs when individuals experience their volition as being undermined by micromanagement, excessive control, or restrictive expectations. This is particularly relevant in military contexts as structured roles and expectations do not always undermine autonomy. Military members may still experience a sense of choice when they understand the purpose of an activity and endorse the reasons for their actions. When structure is experienced as controlling rather than meaningful, it could contribute to autonomy frustration, increased likelihood of mental health issues, controlled motivation, and higher discharge rates. Therefore, findings illustrate that the effect of the military structure depends on whether the individual experiences it as meaningful and supportive rather than controlling. ''include another study.''      

This distinction is also highly relevant throughout the military-to-civilian transition. During the transition veterans move from clearly defined roles and routines and have greater responsibility for their own employment, future goals and relationships. Whilst they may have greater choice, it does not automatically equal greater autonomy. Veterans may experience external pressure, uncertainty, or difficulty recognising meaningful alternatives post discharge. While veterans may have greater choices that create opportunities, choice alone does not guarantee autonomy. However, adjustment might not be solely dependent on the amount of freedom available but rather whether veterans can make decisions that are personally meaningful and consistent with their values.       

=== Competence and the sense of capability ===
While competence involves feeling capable and effective, opportunities that provide individuals the ability to develop skills, experience achievement and receive feedback allow for competency to be strengthened. In the military setting, their training and roles can provide individuals the opportunity to demonstrate and build competence. However, competence may be frustrated when individuals feel unable to succeed or feel ineffective in a new environment. 

This can create difficulties and challenges during the military-to-civilian transition when veterans enter unfamiliar environments, workplaces, or struggle to translate their military skills to civilian employment. Tillberg, et al. 2026 identified that a major challenge that veterans face when reintergrating into society is translating their military skills into civilian employment as a significant challenge to veterans' perceived competence. Successful employment may provide opportunities to show their exisiting abilities and develop new skills which may have psychological influence structure beyond financial security and contribute to purpose, competence, and structure.  

=== Relatedness and the need to belong ===
Relatedness involves feeling values and connected to by others, and when changing social environments these experiences can change considerably. Military service can provide strong sources of connection through teamwork, unit cohesion, shared military identity, and common experiences. Leaving the military may result in a disrupted established social network and may require veterans to develop new sources of connections within civilian communities (Barnett, et al. 2021). Frustration of relatedness and isolation can develop feelings of rejection, loneliness and experiences of alienation and exclusion.  

While maintaining military peer connections it may provide veterans with continuity during transition, yet, developing meaningful civilian relationships may support long-term adjustment. Changes in veterans' social connections could influence their sense of belonging and emotional wellbeing either positively or negatively as they establish their post-service lives.  

=== Motivation and wellbeing ===
The satisfaction of autonomy, competence and relatedness are essential for optimal functioning and wellbeing. The satisfaction of these needs provide positive organisational outcomes with a more positive attitude and less turnover intentions, stronger psychological understanding, and more positive health and overall well-being. Satisfaction of these needs also create a higher likelihood of intrinsic motivation (Linden, et al. 2026). Whereas, frustration of these needs can contribute to less adaptive motivational outcomes. Therefore, SDT considers not only whether individuals are motivation but why they engaged in a behaviour. Autonomous motivation occurs when behaviour may be personally aligned and meaningful with one's values. Controlled motivation comprises of internal contingencies or external pressure, whereas, amotivation involves lack of intention or a perceived lack of purpose. 

This is important as veterans are required to navigate new responsibilities and goals following military service. For example, a veteran pursuing employment because it is personally meaningful and consistent with their own values could align with more autonomous motivation, whereas, someone pursuing employment for external pressure reflects more controlled motivation. Amotivation could occur when veterans struggle to identify a purpose for their action or believe that their efforts will not produce meaningful actions. Therefore, it's important to understand the reasons underlying veterans' behaviour as it can provide insight into their motivation and psychological adjustment. (Linden, et al. 2026) 
=== Interacting needs ===
Autonomy, competence, and relatedness should not be considered completely independent, SDT conceptualises them as interrelated and collectively can contribute to optimal function and positive psychological wellbeing (Mobbs, et al. 2018).  Satisfaction and frustration of these needs may occur concurrently across different life contexts, importantly frustration in one area may also coincide with difficulties and challenges in another. This is applicable for veterans, as they may experience significant changes across social, family, and occupational domains. Raabe et al. (2024) observed that veterans' transition can involve challenges across all three psychological needs. This includes changes in choice and control thats relevant to autonomy, relationships within the military which is connected to relatedness and challenges translating military skills into civilian employment which impacts competence. Similarly, Lanning et al. (2024) found improvements in autonomy, competence, and relatedness amongst military service members and veterans after a 5-week therapeutic programme. They reported an increase in satisfaction and a decrease in frustration, alongside reduced integration difficulties. Together, these findings suggest that examining psychological needs together may provide a comprehensive understanding of veterans' adjustment rather than considering each need independently. For example, difficulty securing significant and meaningful civilian employment might challenge competency whilst simultaneously challenging opportunities for social connection and autonomy. Similarly, supportive post-service environments may provide opportunities to satisfy competence, autonomy, and relatedness, this could facilitate a more successful reintegration. 

== How does military experiences and reintegration shape autonomy, competence and relatedness? ==
Military services creates a highly structured occupational and social environment through clearly defined roles, hierarchy, shared identity and collective goals. These features can strengthen and support psychological needs through occupational responsibilities, training, unit cohesion, and teamwork, however, it may create potential tensions with autonomy when structure is experienced as controlling. Reintegration changes these conditions irrespective of whether they were positive or negative environments of new roles, expectations, relationships, and responsibilities. Therefore SDT provides a framework for examining how elements of both military and civilian life can undermine or support autonomy, competence, and relatedness rather than assuming it's inherently beneficial or harmful 
* The psychological impact of military service can be shaped by the environment in which personnel operate, including the way that structure, occupational roles, leadership and social relationships are experienced (Barnett, et al. 2022).
* The military service shouldn't be viewed as uniformly supportive or restrictive, it's important to factor which environmental conditions frustrate or facilitate psychological needs.
* Reintegration changes these conditions irrespective of whether they were positive or negative environments, thus, requiring veterans to navigate new experiences, expectations, relationships and roles whilst renegotiating sources of autonomy, belonging and competence, see figure 2.

=== Structure, hierarchy, and autonomy ===
Military organisations rely heavily on rules, hierarchy, orders and clear responsibilities, shaping a high level of structure that is not often seen in civilian environments. However, structure is not inherently incompatible with autonomy. Structure can provide guidance, predictability, autonomy, and clear expectations, especially, when personnel understand and endorse the purpose behind their responsibilities and actions (Barnett, et al. 2021). Therefore, leadership plays an integral role in determining whether military structure is either experienced as supportive or controlling. Autonomy-supportive leadership involves providing meaningful rationales, offering appropriate choices, minimise unnecessary pressure and acknowledge individuals' perspectives. These leadership practices can support higher engagement, positive wellbeing, enhanced performance and lower discharge rates (Knevelsrud, et al. 2023).  

* Leadership plays an integral role in satisfying autonomy (Knevelsrud, et al. 2023). In particular, autonomy-supportive leadership style is where leaders empower employees to make choices, share rationales, take perspectives and minimise unnecessary pressure. An autonomy-supportive leadership brings benefits of an higher engagement, positive wellbeing and enhanced performance (Knevelsrud, et al. 2023).
* However, highly controlling environments may impede autonomy when their behaviour is experienced as pressured or coerced. This might be done through actions of micromanagement and excessive pressure, these may contribute to controlled motivation and poor psychological outcomes (Barnett, et al. 2021).
* This creates an important distinction between control and structure, and that leadership style and individual interpretation.
* Following either voluntary or involuntary discharge, veterans may experience substantially greater choice over relationships, future goals and employment, however, greater freedom does not necessarily equate to greater autonomy when personnel experience pressure, uncertainty or lack of meaningful alternatives.

&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{'''When can military structure support autonomy?'''

|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ When personnel understand and value their purpose
- When all choices are removed
- When personnel experience coercion and external pressure
- When responsibilities are increased

{'''Which psychological need may be most affected when a veteran loses their military unit after discharge?'''
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Competence
+ Relatedness
- Belonging
- Autonomy
&lt;/quiz&gt;

=== Training, occupational roles, and competence ===

* Military training can provide repeated opportunities and clearly defined occupation roles that enable feedback, skill development and achievement which supports competence. 
* Veterans may leave the service with diverse interpersonal and technical skills with a primary focus on leadership, management, communication, adaptability and teamwork. However, even though these skills can be transferable skills, it doesn't necessarily mean that veterans will experience or have their competence recognised within civilian employment and environments (Tillberg, et al. 2026).
* A recurring challenge that veterans experience, is translating military-specific experience into skills that civilians will understand, this makes it challenging for veterans to confidently communicate the relevance of the capabilities. Difficulty translating skills can contribute to unsuitable employment, unemployment, despite veterans possessing valuable capabilities (Tillberg, et al. 2026).
* This further highlights the important distinction between actual competence and perceived competence. Veterans may be highly capable whilst simultaneously experiencing uncertainty about their effectiveness in civilian environments.
* Research from Becker, et al. 2022 involved 31 Aus Defence Force Members who had transitioned into civilian employment had identified challenges with career integration and adaptation, which further highlights the significance of organisational practices in helping veterans navigate employment and supporting longer-term retention.
* From an SDT perspective, civilian employment may restore or strengthen competence through meaningful work and recognition, but could frustrate competence when their skills are overlooked or poorly aligned to available roles.
* Successful vocational reintegration involves more that just securing employment, it about creating opportunities for veterans to recognise, demonstrate and develop their capabilities within their new occupational environment.

=== Relatedness: from military cohesion to civilian belonging ===
* Military service provides strong opportunities for relatedness through teamwork, unit cohesion, camaraderie, shared identity and goals. Consequently, belonging can become deeply embedded within the military environment which makes the loss of these social connections during the transition incredibly significant for their psychological adjustment (Barnett, et al. 2021).
* SDT has demonstrated that shared experience and collective goals can shape a strong sense of social support and belonging.
* Discharge can disrupt these established networks, which requires veterans to reconstruct social connection within civilian communities. 
* The relationship between belonging and military identity is incredibly complex, research from Flake and Kite 2021, used data from 358 Australian Defence Members and identified that identity change during the transition process can involve themes of loss, poor wellbeing, social isolation along with psychosocial transition challenges. This is in conjunction with sometimes an unwillingness to relinquish a dominant military identity can contribute to social disconnectedness which is seen through withdrawal or antisocial behaviour and while reinforcing a divide between military and civilian life. Subsequently, a disconnectedness from both the military and civilian environments increases the likelihood of a decreased effort to re-connect psychosocially which would support personal growth. Although, some aspects of military identity were associated with stronger connectedness and belonging (Barnett, et al. 2021).
* A positive, protective trait that was found in research is that veterans with personal agency, pushing beyond existing boundaries and a willingness to evolve were identified as themes/traits that are associated with an effective transition (Barnett, et al. 2021).
* This continues to reinforce the idea that successful reintegration may involve a veteran's source of belonging rather that just replacing their military community with a civilian one.
* ''Key Point: the challenge is not just simply losing relationships, but losing an environment that embedded belonging into everyday life.'' 

=== Identity and purpose ===

* The military structure is not inherently need-thwarting or need-supportive, the psychological impact depends on how rules, expectations and authority are experienced and communicated. 
* Structure can provide clear expectations and guidance, whereas, controlling practices may pressure individuals to behave in certain ways which consequently may undermine their sense of autonomy. 
* Military service is an important source of status, identity, purpose and social connection, especially, when an individual's role is clearly defined.
* Leaving the military may involve loss of more than just employment and may experience uncertainty about their identity when their previous role is no longer a part of their everyday life. Research has revealed that loss of military identity, status and purpose as recurring aspects and challenges during the transition.
* Veterans can go through identity renegotiation as they determine what aspects of military identity are meaningful and whether they would be useful in civilian settings.
* Therefore, this complexity is important when considering the transition that military personnel experience as they leave an environment that was simultaneously structured and psychologically supportive but also restrictive in other ways.  
* ''Key highlight is whether military structure supports internalisation and psychological need satisfaction or becomes experienced as need thwarting and controlling.'' &lt;br /&gt;

== How can Self Determination Theory informed interventions support psychological need satisfaction and successful integration? ==

* Understanding how psychological challenges of military-to-civilian transition provides a key basis for considering how transition support can promote rather than undermine psychological need satisfaction. 
* An SDT-informed approach reorients the focus from simply helping veterans cope with change to instead, creating social environments that support autonomy, competence and relatedness. 
* Therefore, existing transition support should be considered in terms of whether it provides opportunities for mastery, choice and meaningful social connection. 

=== Creating supportive transition environments ===

* Reintegration support should address psychological as well as practical aspects of transition
* SDT has suggested that environments can support adjustment when they support autonomy, competence and relatedness. 
* Transition planning has been found to support autonomy through meaningful choice, veteran-led goals, and collaborative decision-making. 
* Support should provide structure and guidance without becoming unnecessarily controlling, however, it's important to note that providing choices does not automatically satisfy autonomy. 

=== Supporting competence and connection ===

* Vocational support can help veterans be able to translate military skills into civilian employment and also develop confidence in unfamiliar occupational environments and civilian environments. 
* Career counselling, feedback, recognition and retraining can strengthen perceived competence. 
* Services such as peer support, mentoring, family and community involvement can provide opportunities to develop and restore relatedness and belonging. 
* Effective support should enable veterans to develop new connections whilst allowing them to maintain meaningful military relationships, however, interventions should support multiple psychological needs simultaneously rather than separately. 

=== Implications and limitations ===

* SDT can provide a framework for evaluating whether reintegration services create conditions that support rather than frustrate needs. 
* Psychological need satisfaction cannot explain reintegration of broader factors such as housing, finances and access to services. 
* Therefore, a important research gap is still evidence testing SDT-informed veteran interventions. More longitudinal studies and Australian-specific research should be conducted to determine whether supporting autonomy, competence and relatedness produces a sustained improve in wellbeing and reintegration. 

;Embedded links (keeping for reference)
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

==Conclusion==
* Military-to-civilian reintegration is a highly complex psychological adjustment that involves changes to identity, daily structure, competence, purpose, relationships and roles. 
* SDT provides a useful framework to understand how these changes influence autonomy, competence and relatedness, along with the impact upon different types of motivation (autonomous and controlled motivation). 
* The key finding is that military experiences are not necessarily need-supportive or need-thwarting. Instead, dependent on how leadership, structure, responsibilities and relationships are experienced and understood. 
* Briefly discuss that identity and purpose are interlinked with the three psychological needs (autonomy, competence and relatedness). 
* SDT can inform practical interventions by creating transition environments that support identity, choice, competence, connection and meaningful goals. 
* Important take home message: success reintegration is not solely based on getting veterans into civilian life, instead, it should support veterans in developing self-directed, meaningful and socially connected lives beyond the military service.   

==See also==
* [[Social connection and emotion regulation|Social Connection]] (Book chapter, 2026))
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Barnett, A., Savic, M., Lubman, D. (2021). Transitioning to civilian life: The importance of social group engagement and identity among Australian Defence Force veterans. ''Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 56''(8). https://doi.org/10.1177/00048674211046894

Becker, K., Bish, A., Abell, D., McCormack, M., Smidt, M. (2022). Supporting Australian veteran transition: career construction through a person-environment fit perspective. ''The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 36''(5), 799-823. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2022.2077127

Carra, K., Curtin, M., Fortune, T., Gordon, B. (2022). Service and demographic factors, health, trauma exposure, and participation are associated with adjustment for former Australian Defence Force members. ''Military Psychology, 35''(5), 480-492. https://doi.org/10.1080/08995605.2022.2120312

Flack, M., Kite, L. (2021). Transition from military service to civilian: identity, social connectedness, and veteran wellbeing. ''PLoS ONE, 16''(12). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0261634

Grimell, J. (2024). You can take a person out of the military, but you can't take the military out of the person: findings from a ten-year identity study on transition from military to civilian life. ''Frontiers in Sociology, 9.'' https://doi.org/10.3389/fsoc.2024.1406710   

Kerr, N., Lane, S., Plotnikoff, R., Ashby, S. (2023). The &quot;Transition&quot; to civilian life from the perspective of former serving Australian Defence Force members. ''Journal of Veteran Studies, 9''(1), 129-142. https://10.21061/jvs.v9i1.407 {{ic|fix link}}

Knevelsrud, H.C., Sorlie, H., Valaker, S. (2023). Mission command: A self determination theory perspective. ''Military Psychology, 36''(6), 672-688. https://doi.org/10.1080/08995605.2023.2252718 

Linden, A., Borjesson, M. (2026). Motivation in physically demanding military roles: a qualitative study using self-determination theory. ''Military Psychology,'' 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1080/08995605.2026.2671587 

Loverre, M., Chirico, A., Cinque, L., Palombi, T., Alivernini, F., Lucidi, F., Alessandri, G., Livi, S. (2024). A systematic review of self-determination theory's application in military and police organisations. ''Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, 40''(5), 685-707. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11896-024-09718-2

Mobbs, M., Bonanno, G. (2018). Beyond war and PTSD: The crucial role of transition stress in the lives of military veterans. ''Clinical Psychology Review, 59,'' 137-144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2017.11.007

Olafsen, A., Halvari, H., Frolound, C. (2021). The basic psychological need satisfaction and need frustration at work scale: A validation study. ''Organisational Psychology, 12.'' https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.697306

Romaniuk, M., Saunders-Dow, E., Brown, K., Batterham, P. (2024). Feasibility, acceptability, and initial outcomes of a psychological adjustment and reintegration program for transitioned military veterans. ''BMC Psychology, 12''(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-024-02097-7

Ryan, R., Deci, E. (2022). Self determination theory. ''Encyclopedia of quality of life and well-being research.'' https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-69909-7_2630-2

Rybakovaite. J., Poskus, M., Blue, S. (2021). Forced or free choice: Hardiness, need satisfaction, and engagement among military conscripts. ''Current Psychology, 42''(1), 7909-7919. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-02123-6  

Tillberg, L., Truusa, T.T, Tillberg, P. (2026). The skillful veteran: Transforming overseas experience into competence, from the military to civilian working life domain. ''Vocations and Learning, 19''(5). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12186-026-09385-w

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APA style example:
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Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
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==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
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__TOC__
==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}

[[File:People and stands at the Museum Reserve, Orientation Week MS-5342 012 002.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. People and stands at the Museum Reserve, Orientation Week]]


Harry and Caitlin have both recently moved to a new neighbourhood and are adjusting to their new community. 

Harry makes an effort to meet people by attending local social events. He enjoys feeling included, but when plans are made without him or a message goes unanswered, he wonders whether people actually like him. After spending time with his new neighbours, he replays conversations and worries about whether he said or did something wrong.

Caitlin also enjoys meeting her neighbours and likes being included in group activities. She chats easily with people at events but often turns down invitations to spend more time together. When conversations turn more personal or neighbours begin trying to get to know her better, she changes the subject, leaves early, and may decide to avoid the next event. Although she enjoys being part of the neighbourhood, she finds keeping some distance more comfortable. 

Harry and Caitlin both appear to value connection and belonging, yet their need for relatedness seems to be experienced and expressed in very different ways
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

* Explain relatedness as a basic psychological need within self-determinantion theory and briefly explain its importance for psychological functioning, belonging, motivation, and wellbeing
** e.g. feeling connected, accepted, and that we belong is associated with better ... '''(source)'''
* Briefly introduce attachment theory (remebering to keep it shallow as we delve deeper into definiton and explanations in the section) and how people may differ in how the need for relatedness is experienced and expressed
* central issue of the chapter;

* outline the aim of the chapter: to draw on psychological theory and research to examine how secure, anxious, avoidant and fearful-avoidant attachment styles may influence relatedness motivation, and the reverse (whether experiences of relatedness may also contribute to changes in attachment over time). '''''probably not necessary but sounds interesting to look into'''''

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}}

'''Focus questions'''
* How do different attachment styles influence the way the need for relatedness is experienced and expressed?
* How might experiences of relatedness satisfaction or frustration shape attachment over time?

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Self-determination theory and relatedness==
* [[wikipedia:Self-determination_theory|Self-determination theory]] (SDT) is an approach to human motivation that seeks to explain what motivates people to act and the conditions that support or undermine motivation and psychological wellbeing.
* SDT assumes that individuals have an inherent tendency towards psychological growth, mastery, and connection with others, that the desire for growth drives behaviour (Ryan &amp; Deci, 2002)
* SDT proposes that for healthy psychological growth and wellbeing, individuals must satisfy  three [[wikipedia:Self-determination_theory#:~:text=%5B18%5D-,Basic%20psychological%20needs,-edit|basic psychological needs]]; autonomy, competence, and relatedness.
* Within SDT, the three basic psychological needs help shape the quality of a person’s motivation. When these needs are supported, people are more likely to experience intrinsic motivation and more autonomous forms of motivation (Deci &amp; Ryan, 2000; Ryan &amp; Deci, 2020)
* Need satisfaction occurs when the environment provides experiences that allow a psychological need to be fulfilled. Need satisfaction is considered psychologically nourishing and supports motivation, psychological growth, effective functioning, and wellbeing (Chen et al., 2015; Vansteenkiste &amp; Ryan, 2013)
* Need frustration occurs when a psychological need is actively obstructed or undermined. (Chen et al., 2015; Vansteenkiste &amp; Ryan, 2013)

===Relatedness===

* Refers to the need to feel connected to others, including both the need to care for others and to feel cared for, valued, and significant to others (Van den Broeck et al., 2016)
* Relatedness satisfaction involves experiencing genuine connection and closeness to others, and a sense of belonging, whereas relatedness frustration involves experiences of rejection, exclusion, disconnection, or loneliness (Chen et al., 2015)

==Attachment theory and styles==
* [[wikipedia:Attachment_theory|Attachment theory]] ''(Issues with wikipage, still include?)'' was first developed by British psychoanalyst John Bowlby, who sought to understand the anxiety and distress infants experience when separated from their primary caregivers
* Bowlby observed that infants use attachment behaviours (e.g. crying, clinging, following) to prevent separation from, or re-establish proximity to, their caregivers (Bowlby, 1958). He proposed that these behaviours form part of an attachment behavioural system, an innate psychobiological mechanism that motivates individuals to seek and maintain closeness to a primary caregiver or attachment figure for safety and protection as infants who were able to maintain proximity to an attachment figure (someone who provides support, protection, and care) would be more likely to survive to reproductive age (Bowlby, 1982)
* Although Bowlby considered the attachment system to be universal, he recognised that infants could differ in how attachment was experienced and expressed. He theorised that early attachment experiences with caregivers contribute to internal working models (mental representations of expectations of whether attachment figures are available and responsive, and whether the self is worthy of care and support). These models are thought to guide how infants respond to situations that activate their attachment system (i.e. distress, separation) (Bretherton &amp; Munholland, 2008; Collins &amp; Allard, 2004; Sherman et al., 2015)
* Mary Ainsworth extended Bowlby's work by examining how individual differences in attachment were expressed in infant's behaviour. She developed the [[wikipedia:Strange_situation|Strange Situation procedure]], which involved observing infants during brief separations from and reunions with their caregivers, focusing primarily on exploration, separation and reunion responses, and reactions to a stranger (Ainsworth et al., 1978). 
* The procedure identified three organised attachment patterns—'''secure, anxious-ambivalent/resistant, and avoidant'''—with '''disorganised-disoriented attachment''' later identified by Main and Solomon (1986) to describe infant behaviours that did not fit comfortably within Ainsworth’s original classifications.

===Secure attachment===
Securely attached infants use their caregiver as a secure base, exploring their environment independently while seeking proximity and comfort from caregiver when needed (Vaughn &amp; Waters, 1990).
* Developmental Factors/Caregiver response (Benoit, 2004)
** associated with caregiving that is usually available and responds appropriately (generally sensitive, responsive, and consistent) when the infant signals distress or a need for support
** Internal Working Model (Sherman et al., 2015)
*** Repeated experiences of having needs responded to positively may lead the infant to expect that the caregiver will be available and responsive when support is required.
*** The infant can therefore express distress and seek proximity without needing to excessively intensify or suppress attachment behaviour.

===Anxious-ambivalent attachment===

* Typical behaviour (Benoit, 2004)
** May remain highly attentive to the caregiver rather than exploring freely.
** Can become easily distressed by separation or uncertainty about the caregiver's availability, seeking frequent proximity, attention, or reassurance.
** Can have difficulty settling even when comfort is offered.
** May appear clingy while also showing frustration, anger, or resistance toward the caregiver.
* Developmental Factors/Caregiver response (Benoit, 2004)
** Associated with caregiving that may be inconsistent or unpredictable.
** The caregiver may sometimes respond to distress but may be unavailable or less responsive at other times.
** Internal working model (Sherman et al., 2015)
*** Availability of caregiver is experienced as uncertain or unpredictable.
*** Expectation that support cannot be consistently available develops, causing infant to become particularly attentive to the caregiver’s availability and intensify attachment signals in an attempt to obtain a response '''(maximising or hyperactivating attachment strategy)''' ''(cant find interwiki source, is external okay?)''

===Anxious-avoidant attachment===

* Typical behaviour (Benoit, 2004)
** May appear unusually independent and spend more time focused on objects, activities, or exploration than on the caregiver
** May show relatively little outward distress when hurt, upset, or separated despite still experiencing physiological or emotional distress
** Is less likely to openly seek comfort or reassurance from the caregiver, may turn away, ignore, or minimise contact even when distressed
** Tends to suppress or minimise visible attachment signals
* Developmental Factors/Caregiver response (Benoit, 2004)
** Associated with caregiving that may be relatively unresponsive, rejecting, or uncomfortable with expressions of distress and bids for comfort.
*** Internal working model (Sherman et al., 2015)
**** infant may have developed an expectation that attempts to obtain comfort or support are unlikely to be met with a responsive reaction.
**** As a result, attachment signals may be minimised or suppressed ('''deactivating or minimising attachment strategy)'''. ''(cant find interwiki source, is external okay?)''

===Disorganised-disoriented attachment===

* Disorganised-disoriented attachment was introduced later by Main and Solomon (1986).
* The classification emerged from observations of infant behaviours that did not fit comfortably within Ainsworth’s original secure, resistant, and avoidant classifications.
* Typical behaviour (Granqvist et al., 2017)
** Behaviour toward the caregiver may be inconsistent or difficult to predict, can show unusual combinations of proximity-seeking and withdrawal.
** May have difficulty developing a consistent strategy for obtaining comfort when distressed.
** Behaviour can become particularly confused or disorganised during situations involving fear, stress, or uncertainty
* Developmental Factors/Caregiver response (Benoit, 2004)
** Has been associated with caregiving that is frightening, frightened, highly disrupted, or unpredictable.
** It is also found at higher rates in some contexts involving significant adversity (Zeanah et al., 1997)
*** Internal working model (Sherman et al., 2015)
**** more difficult to explain through one coherent internal working model because the infant does not appear to have a consistent strategy for obtaining safety.
**** One proposed explanation is that the caregiver may simultaneously represent a potential source of safety and a source of fear or uncertainty, creating conflict between approaching the caregiver for protection and moving away from them.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}

&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Disorganised-disoriented attachment is characterised by a breakdown or lack of a coherent strategy for responding to attachment-related distress.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ TRUE.
|| Yes. Disorganised-disoriented attachment involves a disruption or lack of a consistent organised strategy when the attachment system is activated.
- FALSE.
|| Not quite. Unlike secure, anxious-ambivalent, and avoidant attachment, disorganised-disoriented attachment is characterised by contradictory or disoriented behaviour rather than a consistent organised strategy.

{How do internal working models help explain differences between infant attachment patterns?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- They determine how strongly an infant is biologically attached to their caregiver.
|| Internal working models do not determine whether an infant '''has''' an attachment to their caregiver. Instead, they shape expectations about whether caregivers will be available and responsive, which can influence how the infant seeks comfort and responds when the attachment system is activated.
+ They shape expectations about whether caregivers will be available and responsive when support is needed.
|| Yes. Internal working models develop through attachment experiences and shape expectations about whether attachment figures will be available and responsive.
- They determine how much distress every infant experiences during separation.
|| Internal working models can influence how infants respond when distressed, but they do not simply determine how much separation distress an infant experiences.
&lt;/quiz&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Adult attachment theory===
* Attachment theory was later extended beyond infancy to explain how attachment may continue into adulthood

* Hazan and Shaver (1987) were among the first researchers to apply Bowlby and Ainsworth’s attachment framework to adults.
** They proposed that the same attachment behavioural system underlying infant attachment could continue to operate in adulthood, and that internal working models developed through earlier attachment experiences may continue to shape attachment-related expectations and behaviour.
** Their early adult attachment model adapted Ainsworth’s three infant attachment classifications (secure, avoidant, and anxious/ambivalent) for use in adulthood.
** Bartholomew (1990), and Bartholomew and Horowitz (1991) later refined adult attachment by proposing that attachment in adulthood could be understood through two underlying dimensions:
*** Model of self: Reflects a person's sense of self-worth and whether they feel worthy of love and support. (Bartholomew, 1990)
*** Model of others: Reflects whether a person expects others to be available, trustworthy, and supportive (Bartholomew, 1990)

* Combining positive and negative models of the self and others produced four adult attachment styles, Secure, Anxious-preoccupied, Dismissive-avoidant, Fearful-avoidant. '''To expand on each one in final book chapter'''

* Adult attachment styles are thought to reflect the continuation and development of infant internal working models, although attachment is not considered completely fixed and may change across time and experience (Bartholomew, 1990; Bartholomew &amp; Horowitz, 1991)
* Adult attachment is therefore generally conceptualised as differences in the way individuals regulate attachment-related needs and respond when the attachment system is activated, rather than as four separate personality types (Bartholomew, 1990; Bartholomew &amp; Horowitz, 1991)

==Attachment styles and the need for relatedness==

* Self-determination theory proposes that relatedness is a universal psychological need, suggesting that all individuals have a need to feel connected, valued, and that they belong.
* However, attachment styles may influence how this need is experienced, expressed, pursued, or satisfied.
* An important focus of this section will therefore be whether attachment styles actually influence the strength of the need for relatedness itself, or whether they primarily affect the way individuals respond to and regulate that need.
* The section will also consider whether differences in attachment style are associated with relatedness need satisfaction or frustration, rather than simply differences in how much relatedness people need.
* Finally, the chapter will examine whether the relationship may work in both directions, with repeated experiences of relatedness satisfaction or frustration potentially contributing to changes in attachment over time.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}}
Information to be added for book chapter: Research evidence examining attachment anxiety/avoidance, relatedness motivation, basic psychological need satisfaction/frustration, and possible reciprocal effects between attachment and relatedness.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
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==See also==
* [[wikipedia:Attachment_in_adults|Attachment in adults]] (Wikipedia)
* [[wikipedia:Self-determination_theory|Self-determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Ainsworth, M. D. S., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., &amp; Wall, S. (1978). ''Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the strange situation''. Lawrence Erlbaum. 

Bartholomew, K. (1990). Avoidance of Intimacy: An Attachment Perspective. ''Journal of Social and Personal Relationships'', 7(2), 147-178. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407590072001 

Bartholomew, K., &amp; Horowitz, L. (1991). Attachment Styles Among Young Adults: A Test of a Four-Category Model. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology'', 61, 226-244. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.61.2.226 

Benoit, D. (2004). Infant-parent attachment: Definition, types, antecedents, measurement and outcome. ''Paediatrics &amp; Child Health'', 9(8), 541-545. https://doi.org/10.1093/pch/9.8.541 

Bowlby, J. (1958). The nature of the child's tie to his mother. ''Int J Psychoanal'', 39(5), 350-373. 

Bowlby, J. (1982). Attachment and loss: Retrospect and prospect. American ''Journal of Orthopsychiatry'', 52(4), 664-678. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-0025.1982.tb01456.x 

Bretherton, I., &amp; Munholland, K. A. (2008). Internal working models in attachment relationships: Elaborating a central construct in attachment theory. In ''Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications'', 2nd ed. (pp. 102-127). The Guilford Press. 

Chen, B., Vansteenkiste, M., Beyers, W., Boone, L., Deci, E. L., Van der Kaap-Deeder, J., Duriez, B., Lens, W., Matos, L., Mouratidis, A., Ryan, R. M., Sheldon, K. M., Soenens, B., Van Petegem, S., &amp; Verstuyf, J. (2015). Basic psychological need satisfaction, need frustration, and need strength across four cultures. ''Motivation and Emotion'', 39(2), 216-236. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-014-9450-1 

Collins, N. L., &amp; Allard, L. M. (2003). Cognitive Representations of Attachment: The Content and Function of Working Models. In Garth J. O. Fletcher &amp; M. S. Clark (Eds.), ''Blackwell Handbook of Social Psychology: Interpersonal Processes'' (pp. 60-85). Blackwell Publishing. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470998557.ch3 

Deci, E. L., &amp; Ryan, R. M. (2000). The &quot;What&quot; and &quot;Why&quot; of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior. ''Psychological Inquiry'', 11(4), 227-268. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01 

Duschinsky, R. (2018). Disorganization, fear and attachment: working towards clarification. ''Infant Ment Health J'', 39(1), 17-29. https://doi.org/10.1002/imhj.21689 

Granqvist, P., Sroufe, L. A., Dozier, M., Hesse, E., Steele, M., van Ijzendoorn, M., Solomon, J., Schuengel, C., Fearon, P., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M., Steele, H., Cassidy, J., Carlson, E., Madigan, S., Jacobvitz, D., Foster, S., Behrens, K., Rifkin-Graboi, A., Gribneau, N.,…Duschinsky, R. (2017). Disorganized attachment in infancy: a review of the phenomenon and its implications for clinicians and policy-makers. ''Attachment &amp; Human Development'', 19(6), 534-558. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616734.2017.1354040 

Hazan, C., &amp; Shaver, P. (1987). Romantic love conceptualized as an attachment process. ''J Pers Soc Psychol'', 52(3), 511-524. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-351

Main, M., &amp; Solomon, J. (1986). Discovery of An Insecure Disorganized Disoriented Attachment Pattern. In T. B. Brazelton &amp; M. W. Yogman (Eds.), ''Affective development in infancy'' (pp. 95-124). Ablex Publishing. 

Perasso, G. (2023). Strange Situation Procedure (SSP). In T. K. Shackelford (Ed.), ''Encyclopedia of Sexual Psychology and Behavior''. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-08956-5_128-1 

Ryan, R. M., &amp; Deci, E. L. (2002). Overview of self-determination theory: An organismic-dialectical perspective. In ''Handbook of self-determination research''. (pp. 3-33). University of Rochester Press. 

Ryan, R. M., &amp; Deci, E. L. (2020). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation from a self-determination theory perspective: Definitions, theory, practices, and future directions. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', 61, 101860. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101860 

Sherman, L. J., Rice, K., &amp; Cassidy, J. (2015). Infant capacities related to building internal working models of attachment figures: A theoretical and empirical review. ''Developmental Review'', 37, 109-141. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2015.06.001 

Sroufe, L. A. (1988). The role of infant-caregiver attachment in development. In ''Clinical implications of attachment''. (pp. 18-38). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. 

Van den Broeck, A., Ferris, D. L., Chang, C.-H., &amp; Rosen, C. C. (2016). A Review of Self-Determination Theory’s Basic Psychological Needs at Work. ''Journal of Management'', 42(5), 1195-1229. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206316632058 

Vansteenkiste, M., &amp; Ryan, R. (2013). On Psychological Growth and Vulnerability: Basic Psychological Need Satisfaction and Need Frustration as a Unifying Principle. ''Journal of Psychotherapy Integration'', 23, 263-280. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032359 

Vaughn, B. E., &amp; Waters, E. (1990). Attachment Behavior at Home and in the Laboratory: Q-Sort Observations and Strange Situation Classifications of One-Year-Olds. ''Child Development'', 61(6), 1965-1973. https://doi.org/10.2307/1130850 

Zeanah, C. H., Berlin, L. J., &amp; Boris, N. W. (2011). Practitioner review: clinical applications of attachment theory and research for infants and young children. ''J Child Psychol Psychiatry'', 52(8), 819-833. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2011.02399.x 

Zeanah, C. H., Boris, N. W., &amp; Larrieu, J. A. (1997). Infant Development and Developmental Risk: A Review of the Past 10 Years. ''Journal of the American Academy of Child &amp; Adolescent Psychiatry'', 36(2), 165-178. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-199702000-00007 

}}

==External links==
* [https://www.attachmentproject.com/attachment-theory/john-bowlby/ Bowlby and attachment theory: insights and legacy] (attachmentproject.com)
* [https://www.simplypsychology.org/self-determination-theory.html Self-determination theory of motivation] (simplypsychology.org)

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      <text bytes="14310" sha1="21adw2tgk5ai3umepul9lbdkig2vf2e" xml:space="preserve">== About Me ==
[[File:Stretch-Beyond Company Logo.png|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' Stretch Beyond: Strategic insight and psychological resilience for leaders navigating change and complexity.]]
I am a military veteran, working to complete a Bachelor of Science in Psychology as part of a lifelong approach to learning. After a military career working with people around the world on a spectrum of operations, I wanted to better understand the human dimension and the science behind what makes us all tick. Along the way, I want to give back to the community where I can. I have an interest in veterans' PTSD, advocacy and international affairs.
== Book Chapter ==
I am writing a book chapter titled [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment|Immersive Therapy for PTSD: How does it work and what are the effects?]] 

This chapter is an individual student contribution as part of a larger [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra] class effort in 2026 to write a book [[Motivation and emotion/Book]]. 

The 2026 book extends a Wikiversity book series started in 2010, with over 1,800 online book chapters on how psychological science can improve human lives. The book editor and University psychology unit convener is [[User:Jtneill|Dr. James Neill]][[File:PTSD.png|thumb|250x250px|'''Figure 2.''' PTSD can have a deep and lasting impact on our emotions.|left]]
==== Chapters I am working on: ====

====== [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment|Immersive Therapy for PTSD: How does it work and what are the effects?]] ======

====== [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment/Non-invasive brain stimulation techniques|High-frequency rTMS and 3MDR in the treatment of PTSD: An integrated physiological and clinical review]] ======
{{clear}}


== Social Contributions ==

#'''18 Aug 26:''' Grammar and content editing improvements on 2025 chapter, Defence mechanisms and emotion regulation. Edits at https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FDefence_mechanisms_and_emotion_regulation&amp;diff=2822629&amp;oldid=2763661
# '''18 Aug 26:''' Grammar and content editing improvements on 2025 chapter, Neurodivergence and trauma. Edits at https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FNeurodivergence_and_trauma&amp;diff=2822636&amp;oldid=2812805
# '''19 Aug 26:''' Grammar and content editing improvements on 2025 chapter, Incentive theory of motivation. Edits at&lt;nowiki/&gt;https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FIncentive_theory_of_motivation&amp;diff=2822844&amp;oldid=2814898
# '''19 Aug 26:''' UC Canvas Discussion: Introduced the book chapter intent to the class and welcomed anyone with sim&lt;nowiki/&gt;ilar topics or interests to contribute. I offered the same. https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/456450
# '''20 Aug 26:''' Comment: Supported another Wiki user by providing some peer-reviewed ideas on starter references f&lt;nowiki/&gt;or a Chapter page. [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Perfectionism and procrastination#Reference material]]
# '''20 Aug 26:''' Comment: Supported another Wiki user by providing some peer-reviewed ideas on starter references f&lt;nowiki/&gt;or a Chapter page.[[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Irritability#Reference material]]
# '''22 Aug 26:''' Grammar and content editing improvements on 2025 chapter, Mental health in astronauts. Edits at [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FMental_health_in_astronauts&amp;diff=2824159&amp;oldid=2804667 ht]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FMental_health_in_astronauts&amp;diff=2824159&amp;oldid=2804667 tps://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FMental_health_in_astronauts&amp;diff=2824159&amp;oldid=2804667]
# '''25 Aug 26:''' Comment: Supported another Wiki user by providing some peer-reviewed ideas on starter references f&lt;nowiki/&gt;or a Chapter page.[[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Feedback literacy#Reference]]
# '''25 Aug 26''': UC Canvas Discussion: Responded to student topic query.[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/457190 https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/201]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/457190 43/discussion_topics/457190]
# '''26 Aug 26:''' Comment: Supported another Wiki user by providing some external link ideas for a Chapter page.[[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Dark empathy#Reference|Talk]]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Dark empathy#Reference|:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Dark empathy#Reference]]
# '''26 Aug 26:''' UC Canvas Discussion: Responded to student topic query with data from a Random Game of Dice scenar&lt;nowiki/&gt;io.https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/457412
# '''27 Aug 26:''' Wiki thanks and editing conversation: [[User talk:Jtneill#Punctuation change in book title]]
# '''28 Aug 26:''' UC Canvas Discussion: Responded to student topic query&lt;nowiki/&gt; https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/457809
# '''4 Sep 26:''' Comment: Included creation of graphics for Wiki page.[[c:File:Avoidance_and_Processing_Cycles.png|ht]]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[[c:File:Avoidance_and_Processing_Cycles.png|tps://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Avoidance_and_Processing_Cycles.png]]
# '''4 Sep 26:''' Comment: Assisted other Wiki user by adding a quiz temp&lt;nowiki/&gt;late to their chapter page https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FBuilding_therapeutic_alliance&amp;diff=2831108&amp;oldid=2830050
# '''8 Sep 26:''' Comment: Assisted other Wiki user by adding a quiz temp&lt;nowiki/&gt;late to their chapter page https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FSelf-concept_and_motivation&amp;diff=2832141&amp;oldid=2831622
# '''9 Sep 26:''' Comment: Assisted another Wiki user by adding a quiz te&lt;nowiki/&gt;mplate to their chapter page&lt;nowiki/&gt;https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FOutdoor_play_and_children%27s_emotional_well-being&amp;diff=2832147&amp;oldid=2828722
# '''9 Sep 26:''' UC Canvas Discussion: Responded to student topic query &lt;nowiki/&gt;https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/457888
# '''11 Sep 26:''' UC Canvas Discussion: Chapter word count question - in&lt;nowiki/&gt;cludes great response advice from other contributors on tools and techniques https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/461216
# '''14 Sep:''' Comment: Assisted another Wiki user by adding some advice&lt;nowiki/&gt; on prediction error references [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Fear extinction#Prediction Error and Extinction]]
# '''15 Sep 26:''' Correspondence: Email exchange between chapter author &lt;nowiki/&gt;and Professor Vermetten, who is credited with creating the 3MDR therapy and referenced in the chapter.  &quot;I have looked at the Wikiversity page and think you are on the right path. You have brought together the concepts of immersion, embodiment, motivation, and trauma-focused treatment in a thoughtful and relevant way.&quot;
# '''16 Sep 26:''' Grammar and content editing improvements on 2025 chapt&lt;nowiki/&gt;er due to links with PTSD and prediction error ,https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FNeuroscience_of_unexpected_positive_outcomes&amp;diff=2833368&amp;oldid=2762078
# '''16 Sep 26:''' UC Canvas Discussion: Responded to student request for&lt;nowiki/&gt; chapter feedback on impulsivity and sensation seeking https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/461607
# '''16 Sep 26:''' UC Canvas Discussion: Responded to student request for&lt;nowiki/&gt; chapter feedback on brain implants for chronic pain&lt;nowiki/&gt;https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/457902
# '''17 Sep 26:''' UC Canvas Discussion: Chapter referencing question abo&lt;nowiki/&gt;ut integration of non-academic journal sources neede&lt;nowiki/&gt;d to source financial market analysis relating to immersive PTSD forecasts. https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/462166
# '''21 Sep 26:''' Comment: Assisted another Wiki user by making formatti&lt;nowiki/&gt;ng changes in chapter heading styles to create page &lt;nowiki/&gt;menu. https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FHypothalamus_and_homeostatic_motivation&amp;diff=2834144&amp;oldid=2833547
# '''21 Sep 26:''' UC Canvas discussion: Chapter feedback provided on UC &lt;nowiki/&gt;Canvas at the request of the author.[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/457901 https://uclearn.]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/457901 canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/457901]
# '''21 Sep 26:''' UC Canvas discussion: Assisted user with search for li&lt;nowiki/&gt;terature. Provided a number of contemporary meta-ana&lt;nowiki/&gt;lyses and systetemic reviews from the library that may help their research. https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/459237
# '''23 Sep 26:''' UC Canvas discussion: From combat to cognition - a lay&lt;nowiki/&gt;person's insights into motivation [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/456345 https://uclearn.ca]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/456345 nberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/456345]
# '''24 Sep 26:''' UC Canvas discussion: What do you really want to learn&lt;nowiki/&gt; about - Body language and non-verbal communication[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455261 h]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455261 ttps://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455261]
# '''25 Sep 26:''' Added sub-page content to consolidate additional readi&lt;nowiki/&gt;ng, learning and research that I have done between P&lt;nowiki/&gt;TSD treatment and physiological psychology involving non-invasive brain stimulation: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment/Non-invasive brain stimulation techniques]]
# '''27 Sep 26:''' Wiki editing of another chapter: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FSelf-concept_and_motivation&amp;diff=2834628&amp;oldid=2834606 https://en.wikiversit]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FSelf-concept_and_motivation&amp;diff=2834628&amp;oldid=2834606 y.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBoo]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FSelf-concept_and_motivation&amp;diff=2834628&amp;oldid=2834606 k%2F2026%2FSelf-concept_and_motivation&amp;diff=2834628&amp;oldid=2834606]
# '''27 Sep 26:''' UC Canvas discussion: Chapter feedback provided on UC &lt;nowiki/&gt;Canvas at the request of the author [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/463438 https://uclearn.]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/463438 canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/463438]
# '''28 Sep 26:''' Wiki discussion page - thanked another user for their &lt;nowiki/&gt;excellent, constructive feedback.[[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment|Talk:Motivation and]]&lt;nowiki/&gt; [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment|emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment]]
# '''30 Sep 26:''' Wiki grammar improvements to 2025 book chapter. [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FAmygdala_and_fear_motivation&amp;diff=2835083&amp;oldid=2755846 https:]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FAmygdala_and_fear_motivation&amp;diff=2835083&amp;oldid=2755846 //en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_an]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FAmygdala_and_fear_motivation&amp;diff=2835083&amp;oldid=2755846 d_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FAmygdala_and_fear_motivation&amp;diff=2835083&amp;oldid=2755846]
# '''2 Oct 26:''' Wiki improvements to 2025 book chapter.[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FEmotional_intelligence_and_emotional_wellbeing&amp;diff=2835427&amp;oldid=2835270 https://en.wikiv]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FEmotional_intelligence_and_emotional_wellbeing&amp;diff=2835427&amp;oldid=2835270 ersity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FEmotional_intelligence_and_emotional_wellbeing&amp;diff=2835427&amp;oldid=2835270 2FBook%2F2026%2FEmotional_intelligence_and_emotional_wellbeing&amp;diff=2835427&amp;oldid=2835270]
# '''2 Oct 26:''' UC Canvas discussion - Initiated chapter referencing hi&lt;nowiki/&gt;nts for Wiki editing [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/464585 https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/464585 /][https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/464585 courses/20143/discussion_topics/464585]
# '''4 Oct 26:''' Wiki improvements to 2025 book chapter. [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FDefensive_avoidance_and_goal_pursuit&amp;diff=2835775&amp;oldid=2771141 https://en.wiki]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FDefensive_avoidance_and_goal_pursuit&amp;diff=2835775&amp;oldid=2771141 versity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FDefensive_avoidance_and_goal_pursuit&amp;diff=2835775&amp;oldid=2771141 %2FBook%2F2025%2FDefensive_avoidance_and_goal_pursuit&amp;diff=2835775&amp;oldid=2771141]
# '''5 Oct 26:''' UC Canvass discussion - assistance to chapter author se&lt;nowiki/&gt;eking advice. [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/464746 https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/course]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/464746 s/20143/discussion_topics/464746]</text>
      <sha1>21adw2tgk5ai3umepul9lbdkig2vf2e</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2835924</id>
      <parentid>2835918</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-10-05T09:38:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>StretchBeyond</username>
        <id>3105744</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Immersive Therapy for PTSD: How does it work and what are the effects? */</comment>
      <origin>2835924</origin>
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      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="14311" sha1="g4v1ai8cwxcnddqymt08cmsfyz64ref" xml:space="preserve">== About Me ==
[[File:Stretch-Beyond Company Logo.png|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' Stretch Beyond: Strategic insight and psychological resilience for leaders navigating change and complexity.]]
I am a military veteran, working to complete a Bachelor of Science in Psychology as part of a lifelong approach to learning. After a military career working with people around the world on a spectrum of operations, I wanted to better understand the human dimension and the science behind what makes us all tick. Along the way, I want to give back to the community where I can. I have an interest in veterans' PTSD, advocacy and international affairs.
== Book Chapter ==
I am writing a book chapter titled [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment|Immersive therapy for PTSD: How does it work and what are the effects?]] 

This chapter is an individual student contribution as part of a larger [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra] class effort in 2026 to write a book [[Motivation and emotion/Book]]. 

The 2026 book extends a Wikiversity book series started in 2010, with over 1,800 online book chapters on how psychological science can improve human lives. The book editor and University psychology unit convener is [[User:Jtneill|Dr. James Neill]][[File:PTSD.png|thumb|250x250px|'''Figure 2.''' PTSD can have a deep and lasting impact on our emotions.|left]]
==== Chapters I am working on: ====

====== [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment|Immersive therapy for PTSD: How does it work and what are the effects?]] ======

====== [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment/Non-invasive brain stimulation techniques|High-frequency rTMS and 3MDR in the treatment of PTSD: An integrated physiological and clinical review]]. ======
{{clear}}


== Social Contributions ==

#'''18 Aug 26:''' Grammar and content editing improvements on 2025 chapter, Defence mechanisms and emotion regulation. Edits at https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FDefence_mechanisms_and_emotion_regulation&amp;diff=2822629&amp;oldid=2763661
# '''18 Aug 26:''' Grammar and content editing improvements on 2025 chapter, Neurodivergence and trauma. Edits at https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FNeurodivergence_and_trauma&amp;diff=2822636&amp;oldid=2812805
# '''19 Aug 26:''' Grammar and content editing improvements on 2025 chapter, Incentive theory of motivation. Edits at&lt;nowiki/&gt;https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FIncentive_theory_of_motivation&amp;diff=2822844&amp;oldid=2814898
# '''19 Aug 26:''' UC Canvas Discussion: Introduced the book chapter intent to the class and welcomed anyone with sim&lt;nowiki/&gt;ilar topics or interests to contribute. I offered the same. https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/456450
# '''20 Aug 26:''' Comment: Supported another Wiki user by providing some peer-reviewed ideas on starter references f&lt;nowiki/&gt;or a Chapter page. [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Perfectionism and procrastination#Reference material]]
# '''20 Aug 26:''' Comment: Supported another Wiki user by providing some peer-reviewed ideas on starter references f&lt;nowiki/&gt;or a Chapter page.[[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Irritability#Reference material]]
# '''22 Aug 26:''' Grammar and content editing improvements on 2025 chapter, Mental health in astronauts. Edits at [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FMental_health_in_astronauts&amp;diff=2824159&amp;oldid=2804667 ht]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FMental_health_in_astronauts&amp;diff=2824159&amp;oldid=2804667 tps://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FMental_health_in_astronauts&amp;diff=2824159&amp;oldid=2804667]
# '''25 Aug 26:''' Comment: Supported another Wiki user by providing some peer-reviewed ideas on starter references f&lt;nowiki/&gt;or a Chapter page.[[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Feedback literacy#Reference]]
# '''25 Aug 26''': UC Canvas Discussion: Responded to student topic query.[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/457190 https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/201]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/457190 43/discussion_topics/457190]
# '''26 Aug 26:''' Comment: Supported another Wiki user by providing some external link ideas for a Chapter page.[[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Dark empathy#Reference|Talk]]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Dark empathy#Reference|:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Dark empathy#Reference]]
# '''26 Aug 26:''' UC Canvas Discussion: Responded to student topic query with data from a Random Game of Dice scenar&lt;nowiki/&gt;io.https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/457412
# '''27 Aug 26:''' Wiki thanks and editing conversation: [[User talk:Jtneill#Punctuation change in book title]]
# '''28 Aug 26:''' UC Canvas Discussion: Responded to student topic query&lt;nowiki/&gt; https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/457809
# '''4 Sep 26:''' Comment: Included creation of graphics for Wiki page.[[c:File:Avoidance_and_Processing_Cycles.png|ht]]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[[c:File:Avoidance_and_Processing_Cycles.png|tps://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Avoidance_and_Processing_Cycles.png]]
# '''4 Sep 26:''' Comment: Assisted other Wiki user by adding a quiz temp&lt;nowiki/&gt;late to their chapter page https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FBuilding_therapeutic_alliance&amp;diff=2831108&amp;oldid=2830050
# '''8 Sep 26:''' Comment: Assisted other Wiki user by adding a quiz temp&lt;nowiki/&gt;late to their chapter page https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FSelf-concept_and_motivation&amp;diff=2832141&amp;oldid=2831622
# '''9 Sep 26:''' Comment: Assisted another Wiki user by adding a quiz te&lt;nowiki/&gt;mplate to their chapter page&lt;nowiki/&gt;https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FOutdoor_play_and_children%27s_emotional_well-being&amp;diff=2832147&amp;oldid=2828722
# '''9 Sep 26:''' UC Canvas Discussion: Responded to student topic query &lt;nowiki/&gt;https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/457888
# '''11 Sep 26:''' UC Canvas Discussion: Chapter word count question - in&lt;nowiki/&gt;cludes great response advice from other contributors on tools and techniques https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/461216
# '''14 Sep:''' Comment: Assisted another Wiki user by adding some advice&lt;nowiki/&gt; on prediction error references [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Fear extinction#Prediction Error and Extinction]]
# '''15 Sep 26:''' Correspondence: Email exchange between chapter author &lt;nowiki/&gt;and Professor Vermetten, who is credited with creating the 3MDR therapy and referenced in the chapter.  &quot;I have looked at the Wikiversity page and think you are on the right path. You have brought together the concepts of immersion, embodiment, motivation, and trauma-focused treatment in a thoughtful and relevant way.&quot;
# '''16 Sep 26:''' Grammar and content editing improvements on 2025 chapt&lt;nowiki/&gt;er due to links with PTSD and prediction error ,https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FNeuroscience_of_unexpected_positive_outcomes&amp;diff=2833368&amp;oldid=2762078
# '''16 Sep 26:''' UC Canvas Discussion: Responded to student request for&lt;nowiki/&gt; chapter feedback on impulsivity and sensation seeking https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/461607
# '''16 Sep 26:''' UC Canvas Discussion: Responded to student request for&lt;nowiki/&gt; chapter feedback on brain implants for chronic pain&lt;nowiki/&gt;https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/457902
# '''17 Sep 26:''' UC Canvas Discussion: Chapter referencing question abo&lt;nowiki/&gt;ut integration of non-academic journal sources neede&lt;nowiki/&gt;d to source financial market analysis relating to immersive PTSD forecasts. https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/462166
# '''21 Sep 26:''' Comment: Assisted another Wiki user by making formatti&lt;nowiki/&gt;ng changes in chapter heading styles to create page &lt;nowiki/&gt;menu. https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FHypothalamus_and_homeostatic_motivation&amp;diff=2834144&amp;oldid=2833547
# '''21 Sep 26:''' UC Canvas discussion: Chapter feedback provided on UC &lt;nowiki/&gt;Canvas at the request of the author.[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/457901 https://uclearn.]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/457901 canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/457901]
# '''21 Sep 26:''' UC Canvas discussion: Assisted user with search for li&lt;nowiki/&gt;terature. Provided a number of contemporary meta-ana&lt;nowiki/&gt;lyses and systetemic reviews from the library that may help their research. https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/459237
# '''23 Sep 26:''' UC Canvas discussion: From combat to cognition - a lay&lt;nowiki/&gt;person's insights into motivation [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/456345 https://uclearn.ca]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/456345 nberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/456345]
# '''24 Sep 26:''' UC Canvas discussion: What do you really want to learn&lt;nowiki/&gt; about - Body language and non-verbal communication[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455261 h]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455261 ttps://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455261]
# '''25 Sep 26:''' Added sub-page content to consolidate additional readi&lt;nowiki/&gt;ng, learning and research that I have done between P&lt;nowiki/&gt;TSD treatment and physiological psychology involving non-invasive brain stimulation: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment/Non-invasive brain stimulation techniques]]
# '''27 Sep 26:''' Wiki editing of another chapter: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FSelf-concept_and_motivation&amp;diff=2834628&amp;oldid=2834606 https://en.wikiversit]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FSelf-concept_and_motivation&amp;diff=2834628&amp;oldid=2834606 y.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBoo]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FSelf-concept_and_motivation&amp;diff=2834628&amp;oldid=2834606 k%2F2026%2FSelf-concept_and_motivation&amp;diff=2834628&amp;oldid=2834606]
# '''27 Sep 26:''' UC Canvas discussion: Chapter feedback provided on UC &lt;nowiki/&gt;Canvas at the request of the author [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/463438 https://uclearn.]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/463438 canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/463438]
# '''28 Sep 26:''' Wiki discussion page - thanked another user for their &lt;nowiki/&gt;excellent, constructive feedback.[[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment|Talk:Motivation and]]&lt;nowiki/&gt; [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment|emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment]]
# '''30 Sep 26:''' Wiki grammar improvements to 2025 book chapter. [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FAmygdala_and_fear_motivation&amp;diff=2835083&amp;oldid=2755846 https:]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FAmygdala_and_fear_motivation&amp;diff=2835083&amp;oldid=2755846 //en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_an]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FAmygdala_and_fear_motivation&amp;diff=2835083&amp;oldid=2755846 d_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FAmygdala_and_fear_motivation&amp;diff=2835083&amp;oldid=2755846]
# '''2 Oct 26:''' Wiki improvements to 2025 book chapter.[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FEmotional_intelligence_and_emotional_wellbeing&amp;diff=2835427&amp;oldid=2835270 https://en.wikiv]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FEmotional_intelligence_and_emotional_wellbeing&amp;diff=2835427&amp;oldid=2835270 ersity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FEmotional_intelligence_and_emotional_wellbeing&amp;diff=2835427&amp;oldid=2835270 2FBook%2F2026%2FEmotional_intelligence_and_emotional_wellbeing&amp;diff=2835427&amp;oldid=2835270]
# '''2 Oct 26:''' UC Canvas discussion - Initiated chapter referencing hi&lt;nowiki/&gt;nts for Wiki editing [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/464585 https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/464585 /][https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/464585 courses/20143/discussion_topics/464585]
# '''4 Oct 26:''' Wiki improvements to 2025 book chapter. [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FDefensive_avoidance_and_goal_pursuit&amp;diff=2835775&amp;oldid=2771141 https://en.wiki]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FDefensive_avoidance_and_goal_pursuit&amp;diff=2835775&amp;oldid=2771141 versity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FDefensive_avoidance_and_goal_pursuit&amp;diff=2835775&amp;oldid=2771141 %2FBook%2F2025%2FDefensive_avoidance_and_goal_pursuit&amp;diff=2835775&amp;oldid=2771141]
# '''5 Oct 26:''' UC Canvass discussion - assistance to chapter author se&lt;nowiki/&gt;eking advice. [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/464746 https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/course]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/464746 s/20143/discussion_topics/464746]</text>
      <sha1>g4v1ai8cwxcnddqymt08cmsfyz64ref</sha1>
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    <revision>
      <id>2835928</id>
      <parentid>2835924</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-10-05T09:47:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>StretchBeyond</username>
        <id>3105744</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Social Contributions */</comment>
      <origin>2835928</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="14530" sha1="rlqura3fgahmgzamqctox2mhxpzje1u" xml:space="preserve">== About Me ==
[[File:Stretch-Beyond Company Logo.png|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' Stretch Beyond: Strategic insight and psychological resilience for leaders navigating change and complexity.]]
I am a military veteran, working to complete a Bachelor of Science in Psychology as part of a lifelong approach to learning. After a military career working with people around the world on a spectrum of operations, I wanted to better understand the human dimension and the science behind what makes us all tick. Along the way, I want to give back to the community where I can. I have an interest in veterans' PTSD, advocacy and international affairs.
== Book Chapter ==
I am writing a book chapter titled [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment|Immersive therapy for PTSD: How does it work and what are the effects?]] 

This chapter is an individual student contribution as part of a larger [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra] class effort in 2026 to write a book [[Motivation and emotion/Book]]. 

The 2026 book extends a Wikiversity book series started in 2010, with over 1,800 online book chapters on how psychological science can improve human lives. The book editor and University psychology unit convener is [[User:Jtneill|Dr. James Neill]][[File:PTSD.png|thumb|250x250px|'''Figure 2.''' PTSD can have a deep and lasting impact on our emotions.|left]]
==== Chapters I am working on: ====

====== [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment|Immersive therapy for PTSD: How does it work and what are the effects?]] ======

====== [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment/Non-invasive brain stimulation techniques|High-frequency rTMS and 3MDR in the treatment of PTSD: An integrated physiological and clinical review]]. ======
{{clear}}


== Social Contributions ==
The following social contributions include direct edits to 2026 book chapters and those from preceding years, peer feedback on chapter talk pages, and initiating and responding to a variety of UC Learning discussions.  
#'''18 Aug 26:''' Grammar and content editing improvements on 2025 chapter, Defence mechanisms and emotion regulation. Edits at https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FDefence_mechanisms_and_emotion_regulation&amp;diff=2822629&amp;oldid=2763661
# '''18 Aug 26:''' Grammar and content editing improvements on 2025 chapter, Neurodivergence and trauma. Edits at https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FNeurodivergence_and_trauma&amp;diff=2822636&amp;oldid=2812805
# '''19 Aug 26:''' Grammar and content editing improvements on 2025 chapter, Incentive theory of motivation. Edits at&lt;nowiki/&gt;https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FIncentive_theory_of_motivation&amp;diff=2822844&amp;oldid=2814898
# '''19 Aug 26:''' UC Canvas Discussion: Introduced the book chapter intent to the class and welcomed anyone with sim&lt;nowiki/&gt;ilar topics or interests to contribute. I offered the same. https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/456450
# '''20 Aug 26:''' Comment: Supported another Wiki user by providing some peer-reviewed ideas on starter references f&lt;nowiki/&gt;or a Chapter page. [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Perfectionism and procrastination#Reference material]]
# '''20 Aug 26:''' Comment: Supported another Wiki user by providing some peer-reviewed ideas on starter references f&lt;nowiki/&gt;or a Chapter page.[[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Irritability#Reference material]]
# '''22 Aug 26:''' Grammar and content editing improvements on 2025 chapter, Mental health in astronauts. Edits at [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FMental_health_in_astronauts&amp;diff=2824159&amp;oldid=2804667 ht]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FMental_health_in_astronauts&amp;diff=2824159&amp;oldid=2804667 tps://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FMental_health_in_astronauts&amp;diff=2824159&amp;oldid=2804667]
# '''25 Aug 26:''' Comment: Supported another Wiki user by providing some peer-reviewed ideas on starter references f&lt;nowiki/&gt;or a Chapter page.[[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Feedback literacy#Reference]]
# '''25 Aug 26''': UC Canvas Discussion: Responded to student topic query.[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/457190 https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/201]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/457190 43/discussion_topics/457190]
# '''26 Aug 26:''' Comment: Supported another Wiki user by providing some external link ideas for a Chapter page.[[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Dark empathy#Reference|Talk]]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Dark empathy#Reference|:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Dark empathy#Reference]]
# '''26 Aug 26:''' UC Canvas Discussion: Responded to student topic query with data from a Random Game of Dice scenar&lt;nowiki/&gt;io.https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/457412
# '''27 Aug 26:''' Wiki thanks and editing conversation: [[User talk:Jtneill#Punctuation change in book title]]
# '''28 Aug 26:''' UC Canvas Discussion: Responded to student topic query&lt;nowiki/&gt; https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/457809
# '''4 Sep 26:''' Comment: Included creation of graphics for Wiki page.[[c:File:Avoidance_and_Processing_Cycles.png|ht]]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[[c:File:Avoidance_and_Processing_Cycles.png|tps://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Avoidance_and_Processing_Cycles.png]]
# '''4 Sep 26:''' Comment: Assisted other Wiki user by adding a quiz temp&lt;nowiki/&gt;late to their chapter page https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FBuilding_therapeutic_alliance&amp;diff=2831108&amp;oldid=2830050
# '''8 Sep 26:''' Comment: Assisted other Wiki user by adding a quiz temp&lt;nowiki/&gt;late to their chapter page https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FSelf-concept_and_motivation&amp;diff=2832141&amp;oldid=2831622
# '''9 Sep 26:''' Comment: Assisted another Wiki user by adding a quiz te&lt;nowiki/&gt;mplate to their chapter page&lt;nowiki/&gt;https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FOutdoor_play_and_children%27s_emotional_well-being&amp;diff=2832147&amp;oldid=2828722
# '''9 Sep 26:''' UC Canvas Discussion: Responded to student topic query &lt;nowiki/&gt;https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/457888
# '''11 Sep 26:''' UC Canvas Discussion: Chapter word count question - in&lt;nowiki/&gt;cludes great response advice from other contributors on tools and techniques https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/461216
# '''14 Sep:''' Comment: Assisted another Wiki user by adding some advice&lt;nowiki/&gt; on prediction error references [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Fear extinction#Prediction Error and Extinction]]
# '''15 Sep 26:''' Correspondence: Email exchange between chapter author &lt;nowiki/&gt;and Professor Vermetten, who is credited with creating the 3MDR therapy and referenced in the chapter.  &quot;I have looked at the Wikiversity page and think you are on the right path. You have brought together the concepts of immersion, embodiment, motivation, and trauma-focused treatment in a thoughtful and relevant way.&quot;
# '''16 Sep 26:''' Grammar and content editing improvements on 2025 chapt&lt;nowiki/&gt;er due to links with PTSD and prediction error ,https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FNeuroscience_of_unexpected_positive_outcomes&amp;diff=2833368&amp;oldid=2762078
# '''16 Sep 26:''' UC Canvas Discussion: Responded to student request for&lt;nowiki/&gt; chapter feedback on impulsivity and sensation seeking https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/461607
# '''16 Sep 26:''' UC Canvas Discussion: Responded to student request for&lt;nowiki/&gt; chapter feedback on brain implants for chronic pain&lt;nowiki/&gt;https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/457902
# '''17 Sep 26:''' UC Canvas Discussion: Chapter referencing question abo&lt;nowiki/&gt;ut integration of non-academic journal sources neede&lt;nowiki/&gt;d to source financial market analysis relating to immersive PTSD forecasts. https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/462166
# '''21 Sep 26:''' Comment: Assisted another Wiki user by making formatti&lt;nowiki/&gt;ng changes in chapter heading styles to create page &lt;nowiki/&gt;menu. https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FHypothalamus_and_homeostatic_motivation&amp;diff=2834144&amp;oldid=2833547
# '''21 Sep 26:''' UC Canvas discussion: Chapter feedback provided on UC &lt;nowiki/&gt;Canvas at the request of the author.[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/457901 https://uclearn.]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/457901 canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/457901]
# '''21 Sep 26:''' UC Canvas discussion: Assisted user with search for li&lt;nowiki/&gt;terature. Provided a number of contemporary meta-ana&lt;nowiki/&gt;lyses and systetemic reviews from the library that may help their research. https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/459237
# '''23 Sep 26:''' UC Canvas discussion: From combat to cognition - a lay&lt;nowiki/&gt;person's insights into motivation [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/456345 https://uclearn.ca]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/456345 nberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/456345]
# '''24 Sep 26:''' UC Canvas discussion: What do you really want to learn&lt;nowiki/&gt; about - Body language and non-verbal communication[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455261 h]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455261 ttps://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455261]
# '''25 Sep 26:''' Added sub-page content to consolidate additional readi&lt;nowiki/&gt;ng, learning and research that I have done between P&lt;nowiki/&gt;TSD treatment and physiological psychology involving non-invasive brain stimulation: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment/Non-invasive brain stimulation techniques]]
# '''27 Sep 26:''' Wiki editing of another chapter: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FSelf-concept_and_motivation&amp;diff=2834628&amp;oldid=2834606 https://en.wikiversit]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FSelf-concept_and_motivation&amp;diff=2834628&amp;oldid=2834606 y.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBoo]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FSelf-concept_and_motivation&amp;diff=2834628&amp;oldid=2834606 k%2F2026%2FSelf-concept_and_motivation&amp;diff=2834628&amp;oldid=2834606]
# '''27 Sep 26:''' UC Canvas discussion: Chapter feedback provided on UC &lt;nowiki/&gt;Canvas at the request of the author [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/463438 https://uclearn.]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/463438 canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/463438]
# '''28 Sep 26:''' Wiki discussion page - thanked another user for their &lt;nowiki/&gt;excellent, constructive feedback.[[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment|Talk:Motivation and]]&lt;nowiki/&gt; [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment|emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment]]
# '''30 Sep 26:''' Wiki grammar improvements to 2025 book chapter. [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FAmygdala_and_fear_motivation&amp;diff=2835083&amp;oldid=2755846 https:]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FAmygdala_and_fear_motivation&amp;diff=2835083&amp;oldid=2755846 //en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_an]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FAmygdala_and_fear_motivation&amp;diff=2835083&amp;oldid=2755846 d_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FAmygdala_and_fear_motivation&amp;diff=2835083&amp;oldid=2755846]
# '''2 Oct 26:''' Wiki improvements to 2025 book chapter.[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FEmotional_intelligence_and_emotional_wellbeing&amp;diff=2835427&amp;oldid=2835270 https://en.wikiv]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FEmotional_intelligence_and_emotional_wellbeing&amp;diff=2835427&amp;oldid=2835270 ersity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FEmotional_intelligence_and_emotional_wellbeing&amp;diff=2835427&amp;oldid=2835270 2FBook%2F2026%2FEmotional_intelligence_and_emotional_wellbeing&amp;diff=2835427&amp;oldid=2835270]
# '''2 Oct 26:''' UC Canvas discussion - Initiated chapter referencing hi&lt;nowiki/&gt;nts for Wiki editing [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/464585 https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/464585 /][https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/464585 courses/20143/discussion_topics/464585]
# '''4 Oct 26:''' Wiki improvements to 2025 book chapter. [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FDefensive_avoidance_and_goal_pursuit&amp;diff=2835775&amp;oldid=2771141 https://en.wiki]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FDefensive_avoidance_and_goal_pursuit&amp;diff=2835775&amp;oldid=2771141 versity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FDefensive_avoidance_and_goal_pursuit&amp;diff=2835775&amp;oldid=2771141 %2FBook%2F2025%2FDefensive_avoidance_and_goal_pursuit&amp;diff=2835775&amp;oldid=2771141]
# '''5 Oct 26:''' UC Canvass discussion - assistance to chapter author se&lt;nowiki/&gt;eking advice. [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/464746 https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/course]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/464746 s/20143/discussion_topics/464746]</text>
      <sha1>rlqura3fgahmgzamqctox2mhxpzje1u</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being</title>
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      <id>2835792</id>
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      <timestamp>2026-10-04T12:00:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mymunu</username>
        <id>3106327</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
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      <text bytes="56502" sha1="qy9h4h0prm0toqy3uxehfzcezsadz3d" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being:&lt;br&gt;How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?}}
__TOC__

== Overview ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;

|'''Case study: Part 1'''[[File:School children happily playing in playground.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. Children engaged in outdoor play, where social interactions, choice and control on the situation can create different emotional experiences.]]Imagine that...

A child arrives at playground and joins a group of children who are already playing. The children are making their own game and deciding the rules as they play. At first, the child enjoys choosing where and what to play. During the game, another child changes the rules of the game and argument breaks out. The child becomes frustrated and walks away from the activity. After watching for a short time, the child returns, suggests a new idea to continue the game and re-joins the group. 

How might experiences like this during outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? Emotional regulation provides one psychological framework for understanding how children may respond to situations like this during play (see figure 1).
|}

Outdoor play can involve more than physical movement. It can occur across playgrounds, gardens, streets and natural spaces. Outdoor play includes exploration, social interaction, choice, challenge, and engagement with the surrounding environment (Dodd et al., 2026; Pereira et al., 2024). As shown in the case study part 1, outdoor play can involve emotional situations such as [[Aggression|frustration]], disagreement, uncertainty or excitement. Gross's (2015) emotional regulation provides a [[psychological]] explanation for how children may recognise and respond to these emotional situations. Outdoor play experiences are also shaped by the environment where play takes place. Different physical and social environments can provide different opportunities for play, which means the same outdoor space may not provide the same opportunities for every child (Morgenthaler et al., 2024).This chapter examines how [[Emotional regulation|emotional,]] [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive]], social and environmental processes may help explain the relationship between outdoor play and children's [https://w.wiki/AHG6 emotional well-being.] 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|

;[[File:Bulb Idea Flat Icon GIF Animation.gif|alt=Focus questions|left|99x99px|thumb]]


'''Focus questions'''

* '''What are outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?'''
* '''How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?'''
* '''How do social and environmental conditions shape  children's outdoor play experiences?'''
* '''What does recent research show about outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?'''
* '''How can families, communities and schools support outdoor  play opportunities that may benefit children's emotional well-being?'''
|}

== '''Understanding outdoor play and children's emotional well-being''' ==
[[File:Water-outdoor-people-girl-play-boy-938233.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. ''Outdoor play can provide opportunities to explore, make choices, interact with others and respond to changing situations through activities such as water play.''|214x214px]]

Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being are not measured as single and consistent concepts across recent research. Outdoor play may be examined as voluntary and intrinsically motivated activity, self directed play, parent reported outdoor play, or device-measured outdoor play (Binno et al., 2025; Davenport et al., 2025; Dodd et al., 2026). It should also be distinguished from outdoor moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) because these measures do not represent the same behaviour (Davenport et al., 2025). Children's emotional well-being is also examined through different outcomes, which include [https://w.wiki/7YC8 emotional dysregulation], social-emotional competence, positive and negative affect, and internalising or externalising symptoms (Dodd et al., 2026; Ferguson et al., 2025; Lee et al., 2025; Poulos et al., 2026). These differences need to be considered when findings across the studies are compared. 

=== Outdoor play ===
Outdoor play is voluntary and and intrinsically motivated activity that occurs in outdoor environments such as gardens, playgrounds, parks and natural spaces (Dodd et al., 2026). Free play can be also self-directed, allowing children to interact freely with the environment and have [https://w.wiki/4NyU autonomy] to make choices about their activities (Biino et al., 2025). Outdoor play should not be treated as the same as outdoor physical activity. The recent research outdoor play and outdoor moderate- to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) were examined as separate measures (Davenport et al., 2025). This distinction is important because outdoor play intensity of physical activity do not represent the same behaviour.  

=== Children's emotional well-being ===
Children's emotional well-being is not represented by a single common outcome across recent outdoor play research. Emotional dysregulation has been examined in relation to the amount and timing of outdoor play (Lee et al., 2025), while social-emotional competence includes social emotional difficulties and [[Prosocial behavior/Keywords/Definitions|prosocial behaviour]] (Ferguson et al., 2025). Other studies have examined positive and negative affect following recess (Poulos et al., 2026) and trajectories of internalising and externalising symptoms across childhood (Dodd et al., 2026). These outcomes represent different aspects and timeframes of emotional functioning, so they should not be treated as equivalent when findings are compared.

'''Table 1''' 

''Emotional outcomes examined in recent research on outdoor play and children's emotional well-being''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Study
!Outcome examined
!What the outcome represents                                                                                                  
|-
|Lee et al. (2025)   
|Emotional dysregulation
|Difficulties in emotional regulation; examined in relation to the amount of timing of outdoor play
|-
|Ferguson et al.          (2025)
|Social-emotional competence 
|Social-emotional difficulties and prosocial behaviour
|-
|Poulos et al. (2026)
|Positive and negative affect
|Children's affect following recess across different settings 
|-
|Dodd et al. (2026)
|Internalising and externalising symptoms
|Internalising: emotional symptoms and peer problems
Externalising: conduct problems and hyperactivity- inattention 
|}
Note. Outcome descriptions are based on the measures and constructs reported in the above cited studies. See Table 1. 

As shown in Table 1, the studies do not measure the same aspect or time frame of children's emotional functioning. Affect immediately following recess should not be treated as equivalent to emotional dysregulation measured over time or trajectories of internalising and externalising symptoms across childhood. This difference need to be considered when findings across studies are compared. 

'''Case study: part 2'''
 
''What is being measured?''

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |[[File:Children marbles.jpg|thumb|221x221px|'''Figure 3'''. ''Children's immediate emotional responses during outdoor play is different from long-term emotional functioning.'']]The child in the Case study: Part 1 becomes frustrated when the rules of the game change. This immediate emotional response is different from a longer-term pattern of emotional dysregulation or internalising symptoms. Research on outdoor play measures these outcomes across different time frames and contexts. When findings are compared, it is important to consider which aspect of emotional well-being is measured.

{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;

{A child's positive or negative affect immediately after recess represents the same emotional outcome as longer-term internalising or externalising symptoms.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}

- True
+ False

&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}

|}

== '''How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?''' ==
Outdoor play may be related to children's emotional well-being through emotional, cognitive, and social processes (Dodd et al., 2026). Possible pathways discussed in the recent research include cognitive, social and emotional skills, social interaction, physical activity, connection with the nature and adventurous play (Dodd et al., 2026). However, these pathways have not all been directly tested as mechanisms, and many of the outdoor play research remain observational (Dodd et al., 2026; de Lannoy et al., 2023). Psychological theory can help to explain how and why outdoor play experiences may influence children's emotional well-being. Although the evidence does not yet show that psychological processes cause the relationship between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being.

Emotion involves more than subjective feelings. Scherer (2005) described emotion as coordinated changes across cognitive appraisal, physiological responses, action tendencies, expression and subjective feelings. Therefore, physiological responses are one component of an emotional response rather than a separate explanation for the effects of outdoor play. Scherer (2005) did not examine outdoor play, so this framework does not provide evidence that outdoor play changes children's physiological responses or emotional well-being.

=== '''Emotion regulation''' ===
Emotion regulation provides a psychological framework for understanding how children may manage emotional situations during outdoor play. Gross (2015) described emotion regulation as a process involving identification, selection and implementation. Identification concerns deciding whether to regulate an emotion, selection concerns selecting regulation strategy and implementation concerns applying chosen response into practice. Gross (2015) also described situation selection, situation modification, attentional deployment cognitive change and response modulation. During outdoor play, children may experience frustration, conflict, disagreement, uncertainty or changes to their activity. Gross's framework can be applied to these situations to consider how the children recognise an emotional response, choose strategies to manage and act on chosen strategies. However, Gross (2015) did not examine outdoor play, so applying the framework does not show that outdoor play improves children's emotion regulation.

Broader research on  children's play has also examined emotional functioning. Veraksa et al. (2025) systematically reviewed 33 studies on non-therapeutic play among children aged 3 to 7 and identified evidence involving emotional regulation, emotional intelligence, and negative emotional symptoms. The review included outdoor play alongside several other forms of play, so its findings should not be interpreted as evidence that outdoor play alone improves emotion regulation. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Case study: Part 3'''[[File:14Y Ncdc july 5th-802.jpg|thumb|202x202px|'''Figure 4'''. ''Children can respond differently to emotional situations that occur during outdoor play.'']]When the rules of game change, the child becomes frustrated and decides to step away. After a short time the child returns and suggests a different way to continue the game (see Figure 4). Suggesting a change to the game can be considered an example of situation modification. This shows how Gross's emotion regulation framework can be applied to an emotional situation during outdoor play.

{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;

{What does Gross (2015) emotion regulation framework show when it is applied to the outdoor-play scenario?.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
-A. Outdoor play causes better emotion regulation.
+B. Situation modification can help explain how the child responds to the situation.
-C. Children regulate emotions better outdoors than indoors.
-D. Stepping away from play always improves emotional well-being.


&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}

|}
=== '''Working memory and cognitive process''' ===
Working memory can be one cognitive process involved in the association between outdoor play and emotional dysregulation. Lee et al. (2025) examined 325 preschool children and tested working memory as a statistical mediator. Outdoor play was examined across three periods of the day; wake up to noon, noon to 6 pm, and 6 pm to bedtime. The findings differed according to the timing of outdoor play. More outdoor play between noon and 6 pm was associated with lower emotional dysregulation. In contrast, more outdoor play before noon and after 6 pm was associated with higher emotional dysregulation. Afternoon outdoor play was also associated with better working memory, and better working memory was associated with lower emotional dysregulation.

When working memory was included in the analysis, the association between afternoon outdoor play and emotional dysregulation was no longer statistically significant. Lee et al. (2025) reported this as full mediation. This suggests that working memory may be involved in the association between afternoon outdoor play and lower emotional dysregulation. However, the study was observational, so the mediation analysis does not show that outdoor play caused better working memory or lower emotional dysregulation.

Johnstone et al. (2022) reviewed 36 studies of nature-based [[early childhood education]]. The review found very low certainty evidence for some social, emotional, and cognitive outcomes, including [[self-regulation]], while findings for attention were inconsistent. Although, the review examined nature-based early childhood education rather than outdoor play. Therefore, it does not show that working memory explains the association between outdoor play and children's [https://w.wiki/AHG6 emotional well-being].

'''Table 2'''

''Psychological processes considered in the relationship between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!Process
!Contribution
!Evidence considered in this chapter
!Limitations 
|-
|Emotion components 
|Emotion involves cognitive appraisal, physiological responses, action tendencies, expression and subjective feelings (Scherer, 2005)
|This provides a broader psychological understanding of emotional responses
|Scherer (2005) did not examine outdoor play, so it does not show that outdoor play changes children's physiological responses or emotional well-being.
|-
|Emotion regulation
|Gross's (2015) framework can be applied to emotional situations during outdoor play, including frustration, disagreement and changes to an activity. 
|The framework helps explain how children may recognise an emotional response, choose a strategy and act on that strategy.
|Gross (2015) did not examine outdoor play, so applying the framework does not show that outdoor play improves emotion regulation.
|-
|Working memory
|Lee et al. (2025) examined working memory as a statistical mediator between outdoor play and emotional dysregulation.
|Afternoon outdoor play was associated with better working memory, and better working memory was associated with lower emotional dysregulation.
|The study was observational, so the mediation analysis does not show that outdoor play caused better working memory or lower emotional dysregulation. 
|-
|Play and emotional functioning
|Veraksa et al. (2025) reviewed 33 studies of non-therapeutic play involving emotional regulation, emotional intelligence and negative emotional symptoms.
|The review provides broader evidence linking play with emotional functioning.
|The review included several forms of play, so it should not be interpreted as evidence that outdoor play alone improves emotion regulation. 
|-
|Nature-based early childhood education
|Johnstone et al. (2022) reviewed 36 studies and reported very low certainty evidence for some social, emotional and cognitive outcomes, including self-regulation.
|The review provides broader evidence about cognitive and emotional outcomes in nature-based education.
|Nature-based early childhood education is not the same as outdoor play and does not show that working memory explains the association between outdoor play and emotional well-being.
|}
Note. The sources discussed above provide different types of evidence. Some provide psychological frameworks, while other provide direct outdoor-play research and broader evidence about outdoor play and children's emotional well-being. 

== '''How do social and environmental conditions influence on children's outdoor play experiences?''' ==
[[File:2026-10-03 214531-relationship between child and environment.png|thumb|284x284px|'''Figure 5.''' Children's opportunities for outdoor play can be different according to personal, interacting and environmental factors and the relationship between the child and the environment.

Note. Original conceptual summary is based on Beekhuizen et al. (2025) and Gibson (1979).]]
Outdoor play opportunities depend on social and physical environments. Children may have access to same outdoor space but may not have same opportunities for play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified personal, interacting and environmental factors that could support or restrict inclusive outdoor play. These difference can be considered through [https://w.wiki/VYfL affordance theory], which examines the opportunities for action through the relationship between an individual and the environment (Gibson, 1979). See Figure 5. 


=== Affordance theory and outdoor play environments ===
[https://w.wiki/VYfL Affordance theory] was developed by Gibson (1979) to explain the opportunities for action that an environment  provides in relation to the person using it. In outdoor play, the opportunities provided by a space can depend on its physical features and how a child is able to use those features. Morgenthaler et al. (2024) applied affordance theory to children's outdoor play and examined outdoor play transactions through environmental taxonomy of outdoor play space features. Their review identified 14 categories of spaces and 284 play opportunities linked to different environmental features. Morgenthaler et al. (2024) showed that different spaces and objects can afford  different forms of play, which means two children using the same outdoor play space may not experience the same play opportunities. Therefore, the theory provides a way of understanding differences between children and their use of an outdoor environment. However this study examined the opportunities for play rather than children's well-being.

Pereira et al. (2024) also examined features of outdoor play spaces in a systematic review of 51 articles representing 45 primary studies. The review examined features such as fixed structures, natural elements, floor markings, loose equipment and available play areas. Some positive effects were reported, but there was substantial heterogeneity between studies. The studies differed in the environmental features examined, outcomes measures, and study methods, which made difficult to draw a clear conclusions about the effect of individual play space features (Pereira et al., 2024).Therefore, the review does not show that one particular environmental feature improves children's [https://w.wiki/AHG6 emotional well-being]. 

'''Table 3'''

''Examples of environmental features and possible affordances'' 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Environmental feature                             
!Possible affordance for play                                                        
|-
|Fixed structures (e.g. climbing frame)
|Can provide opportunity in different forms of physical activity. For example, climbing, physical play, risk-taking
|-
|Natural elements (e.g. tree, rocks, sand)
|Environmental features can provide opportunities for exploratory play, imaginative play, sensory experiences
|-
|Floor markings (e.g. painted games)
|Can support structured activities like rule based play, footy, tennis, etc.
|-
|Loose equipment (e.g. balls, tyre, boxes) 
|Movable environmental features that can be used during constructive play, imaginative play, creative problem solving play
|-
|Open play area
|Running, group play,  or flexible use
|}
Note. This table is an original synthesis based on environmental features described by Pereira et al. (2024) and  affordance framework applied by Morgenthaler et al. (2024).  Environmental features can afford more than one type of play and the opportunities may vary between children. 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Case study: Part 4 Same space, different opportunities'''
Kim and Leo are both at the same school playground during recess. The playground has a climbing structure, a sand pit area and open natural space. 

* Kim quickly joins a group of children using a climbing frame. The climbing frame structure provides opportunities for physical play and social interactions.
* Leo uses a sand pit with other child. He plays with loose materials and creates a sand castle and other different structures. The environment gives him an opportunity for imaginative play and social play.

These examples show how the same outdoor space can afford different forms of play for different children, depending on their interests, skills and social context. 
{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;

{Which statement best applies affordance theory to the example?.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
-A. The playground causes children to be more physically active.
+B. The same playground can provide different opportunities for play depending on the child and how they use the environment.
-C. Climbing structures always lead to better emotional well-being.
-D. Open spaces are only useful for social play.


&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}

|}
=== '''Social relationship and inclusion''' ===
Social relationships can shape whether children are able to join and continue outdoor play (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified making contact and growing up together as interacting factors in inclusive outdoor play. Familiarity with other children could make it easier to approach, communicate and play together, while joining unfamiliar children or existing game could be difficult.  

[https://w.wiki/WDsJ Affective social competence (ASC)] provides a psychological framework for understanding these social interactions (Halberstadt et al., 2001). The ASC model involves experiencing, sending and receiving affect, together with awareness, identification, working within the social context and regulation. These processes may be relevant when a child tries to enter a peer group, recognise other children's emotions and manage their own response during play.

Gal-Szabo et al. (2018) used the ASC model as theoretical foundation when examining children's emotional knowledge and social behaviour during preschool free play. The study found that situational understanding of the emotions was negatively related to uninvolved behaviour and was marginally positively related to more social play. However, the study examined preschool free play rather than specific outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) also found that children with disabilities experienced more barriers related to making contact, adapting play and physical play environment. These findings suggest that participation in outdoor play depends on both social interaction and children's ability to respond within the play situation, but they do not establish that social play causes better emotional well-being (Beekhuizen et al., 2025; Gal-Szabo et al., 2018).

=== '''Autonomy, parents and time''' ===
[https://w.wiki/4NyU Autonomy] can shape how children experience outdoor play (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified autonomy as a personal factor in inclusive outdoor play. Some children valued having independence over what they do and who they play with. Some children with disabilities wanted opportunities to play outside independently without direct parental involvement. Autonomy during play may also have an emotional function. Veraksa et al. (2025), in a systematic review of non-therapeutic play, identified autonomy as one feature through which play may support emotional regulation and coping. However, the review examined several forms of play and does not show that autonomy during outdoor play specially improves children's emotional well-being.

Parental support can also make outdoor play possible. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) found that parental involvement could support children's participation when a child needed help to access or participate in outdoor play. Time constraints also affected opportunities for outdoor play. Some children had less time to play outdoors because of parents' work schedule, after school arrangements or longer travel distance between home and school (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). These constraints could limit opportunities for outdoor play even when children wanted greater independence.

=== '''Outdoor environments and accessibility''' ===
Outdoor play environments can support or restrict children's participation (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified both physical and social features of outdoor environments as relevant to inclusive play. Children discussed safety, including traffic near playgrounds and disputes with other children. Accessibility was particularly important for children with disabilities because opportunities for inclusive outdoor play could be affected by play environments and physical abilities. Pereira et al. (2024) also showed that heterogeneity between studies limited clear conclusions about the effects of individual outdoor play space features.. 

Gibson et al. (2017) systematically reviewed five studies of loose-parts play (LPP) interventions with primary school aged children. The review found limited quantitative evidence to determine whether loose-parts interventions affected children's cognitive, social or emotional development. Together, these findings show that features of outdoor environments can support or restrict opportunities for play. However, current evidence does not establish that a particular environmental feature that improves children's emotional well-being (Beekhuizen et al., 2025; Gibson et al., 2017; Pereira et al., 2024). 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Case study: Part 5 Same play space, different experiences'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|Kim and Leo use the same school playground. Kim already knows many children and easily joins a group activity. Leo uses a mobility device and finds that some areas of the playground are difficult to access. Leo also does not know many children who are already playing. He prefers to play independently when possible. 
|}

The two children have access to the same playground space, but their opportunities to participate are different. There experiences are shaped by more than the physical space alone. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) also identified making contact, familiarity, autonomy and accessibility as factors that could support or restrict inclusive outdoor play.
Physical accessibility may affect whether a child can use part of playground, while familiarity with other children may affect whether the child can enter social play. Parental support may also help participation in some situations, while the child may still value greater independence
{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;

{Why might two children have different outdoor-play experiences even they use the same playground?.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+A. Physical, social and personal factors can affect how children are able to participate.
-B. Outdoor spaces provide the same opportunities for every child.
-C. Accessibility is the only factor that affects outdoor play..
-D. Children who know other children always have better emotional well-being.


&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}

|}
== '''What does recent research show about outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?''' ==
Recent research does not show a consistent association between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being. The findings are mixed across different emotional outcomes measured, the timing and context of outdoor play, children's behaviours, and the methods used to measure outdoor play. These differences are significant when interpreting whether outdoor play is associated with better emotional well-being.  

The recent studies shows this variation. More frequent outdoor play has been associated with better social-emotional competence (Ferguson et al., 2025) while association with emotional dysregulation differed according to the timing and context of outdoor play (Lee et al., 2025). Positive affect was also higher after outdoor play and and gymnasium recess than after classroom recess, but no significant differences in negative affect between settings (Poulos et al.,2026).   

Longer-term evidence also examines a different aspect of emotional functioning. More frequent outdoor play during the preschool years was associated with a greater likelihood of following a low and stable trajectory of internalising and externalising symptoms through childhood (Dodd et al., 2026). However, the studies differ in children's ages, research designs, measures of outdoor play and emotional outcomes. Therefore, the evidence should not be interpreted as showing one consistent effect across all children or forms of emotional well-being.

=== '''Consistency of recent research findings''' ===
Recent findings are not consistent across all emotional and developmental outcomes. Ferguson et al. (2025) found that more frequent outdoor play was associated with better social-emotional competence, including lower difficulties and greater [[Prosocial Behaviour|prosocial behaviour]]. In contrast, Davenport et al. (2025) found that most associations between outdoor play and the physical, [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive]] and social-emotional developmental indicators examined were not statistically significant. These differences show that positive association with outdoor play are not found across all developmental outcomes.

Findings can also differ according to the emotional outcome being measured. Poulos et al. (2026) found higher positive affect after outdoor and gymnasium recess than after classroom recess, but no significant differences in negative affect between the three recess settings.  Lee et al. (2025) found that  more afternoon outdoor play was associated with lower emotional dysregulation, while more outdoor play earlier and later in the day was associated with higher emotional dysregulation. These findings suggest that the association can differ according to both the emotional outcome and the timing of outdoor play.

The time period being examined also differs between studies. Dodd et al. (2026) found that more frequent outdoor play during the preschool years was associated with lower odds of belonging to less favourable internalising and externalising symptom trajectory across childhood. This is different from Poulos et al. (2026), who examined children's emotional states immediately after the recess. Therefore, recent research includes both immediate emotional outcomes and longer-term patterns of emotional functioning. 

Associations may vary across children and play contexts. Ferguson et al. (2025) reported differences according to ethnicity and whether outdoor play occurred on school days or weekends. Together, these findings suggest that the association between outdoor play and emotional well-being is not same across outcome.The studies differ in children's age, research designs, measures of outdoor play, and emotional outcomes. Thus, findings should not be treated as evidence of one single effect.

=== '''Strengths and limitations of current research''' ===
The strength of the evidence also differs according to research design. Dodd et al. (2026) used longitudinal data from 4,151 children and measured outdoor play during the preschool years at approximately 2, 3 and 4 years old, while internalising and externalising symptoms trajectories were measured later through to age 8. This strengthens the evidence about temporal ordering because outdoor play was measured before the later emotional outcomes. However, longitudinal evidence does not establish cause and effect, and the study relied on parent-reported measures.

Causal interpretation is also limited in other studies. Lee et al. (2025) used observational data and considered the possibility of reverse causation when interpreting associations between the timing of outdoor play and emotional dysregulation. This means the findings cannot establish whether outdoor play influenced emotional dysregulation or whether children's emotional functioning influenced when they played outdoors.

Measurement of outdoor play is another important consideration. Davenport et al. (2025) used both parent-reported and device-measured outdoor play and examined whether associations were independent of outdoor moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA). This is important because outdoor play and outdoor physical activity are related but should not be treated as interchangeable measures. However, the sample was relatively small (N=107) and most tested associations with developmental outcomes were not statistically significant.

Limitations are also present across the wider outdoor-play literature. De Lannoy et al. (2023) identified 275 Canadian outdoor-play publications and found that cross-sectional designs were the most common. Mental and emotional development had also received less research attention than physical health and development. This suggests that the evidence base for emotional well-being is less developed than some other areas of outdoor-play research.

T'''able 4'''

'''''Comparison of recent research'''''

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Study               
!Research method             
!Research strength                      
!Limitation                                                
|-
|  &lt;small&gt;Lee et al. (2025)&lt;/small&gt;                                     
|Observational; 6 month follow-up
|Examined the timing of outdoor play and tested working memory as a statistical mediator of the association with emotional dysregulation.     
|Observational mediation cannot establish causation; the study also considered possible reverse causation when interpreting timing-related findings.
|-
|Ferguson et al. (2025)
|Cross sectional; multi ethnic urban cohort (N=2,568)
|Large sample allowed associations to be examined across population groups and school-day/weekend outdoor play.
|Cross-sectional design cannot establish temporal direction; associations also differed across some groups and play contexts.
|-
|Davenport et al. (2025)
|Observational; preschool sample (N=107)
|Used both parent-reported and device-measured outdoor play and distinguished outdoor play from outdoor moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA)
|Small sample and most tested associations with developmental outcomes were not statistically significant.
|-
|Dodd et al. (2026)
|Longitudinal cohort (N = 4,151)
|Outdoor play was measured in the preschool years before later internalising and externalising symptom trajectories.
|Outdoor play and symptoms relied on parent reported measures, and the observational design does not establish causations.
|-
|Poulos et al. (2026)
|Recess comparison study (N=317)
|Compared children's positive and negative affect following outdoor, gymnasium and classroom recess
|Examined immediate affect during an extreme-heat context; higher positive affect was also found after gymnasium recess, so the result was not specific to outdoor recess.
|}
As shown in Table 4, the recent evidence has different methodological strengths and limitations. Longitudinal designs provide stronger evidence about temporal ordering than cross-sectional design studies, while device-based measures can address some limitations of parent report. However, much of the evidence remains observational, and differences in emotional outcomes, measures of outdoor play and play contexts limit the direct comparison between studies. 

Future research could benefit from more consistent measures of outdoor play, stronger longitudinal and experimental designs and greater attention to emotional outcomes across different children and play contexts. 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;

{Why should the recent findings not be interpreted as showing single consistent effect of outdoor play on children's emotional well-being?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
-A. Because all the studies used different countries.
+B. Because studies differed in emotional outcomes, measures of outdoor play, timing, context and research design.
-C. Because longitudinal studies are always more reliable and accurate.
-D. Because outdoor play only affects positive outcomes.


&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}

|}
== '''How do families, communities and schools support outdoor play opportunities?''' ==
[[File:Coalition Builds New Playground in One Day for Chicora-Cherokee Community (11054532905).jpg|thumb|325x325px|Figure 6. Families, communities and school can shape children's opportunities for play.]]
Outdoor play opportunities are shaped by children's social and physical environments. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified parents, outdoor play environments, communities and time constraints as environmental factors in inclusive outdoor play. The study also identified autonomy, growing up together, making contact and adapting ways of playing as factors that affected participation. The 2025 Position Statement on Active Outdoor Play recommends increasing opportunities for active outdoor play where people live, learn, work and play (Lee et al., 2025). It also recommends collaboration across sectors and settings to support equitable access. Together, these findings provide a broader context for considering the roles of families, communities and schools. These influences can operate across family, community and school settings (see Figure 5).

=== '''Families''' ===
Parents can influence whether children have opportunities to play outdoors. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified parents as an environmental factor in inclusive outdoor play. Children with disabilities described parents as important in encouraging participation. For some children, parents also helped to explain their disability to other children (Beekhuizen et al., 2025).  

Broader research also identifies parental factors in children's outdoor play. A systematic review of 21 peer reviewed studies involving children aged 0 to 12 years found that the importance placed on outdoor play was associated with how much time children spent playing outdoors  (Boxberger and Reimers, 2019). Evidence for parental encouragement and support was less consistent across children (Boxberger and Reimers, 2019). This suggests that family influence is not limited to direct encouragement. Parents' attitude towards outdoor play may shape children's opportunities to play outdoors. However, the review identified some associations but does not show that parental attitude caused greater outdoor play. 

Parental support  can also involve allowing children to have some independence during outdoor play. Support can make participation possible, but it does not always require direct parental involvement (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). This is particularly relevant when children want more control over how and where they play. Research on independent mobility also shows that children and parents may differ in how much independence they prefer (Han et al., 2022). The study identified different patterns in children's and parents' preferences for independent mobility. These findings show that parental support and autonomy do not always involve the same level of parental involvement. Some children may need support to access or join outdoor play while also wanting greater independence. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) also recommended providing children and parents with knowledge about disabilities and possible adaptations that could support participation. 

Time constraints can also limit family-level opportunities for outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) reported that some children had less time to play outdoors because of parents' work schedules, after-school arrangements and longer travel between home and school. This means that opportunities for outdoor play can be restricted even when children want to play and parents are supportive.

=== '''Communities''' ===
Community conditions can affect whether children have safe and inclusive opportunities for outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) described physical and social safety as important for inclusive outdoor play. Some playground structures also made participation difficult for children with disabilities. A systematic review of 25 studies found that both physical and social neighbourhood factors were associated with children's outdoor play (Visser &amp; van Aalst, 2022). Social factors included perceived safety, social cohesion and the presence of other children. However, the studies did not identify one neighbourhood feature that consistently explained children's outdoor play across all settings.

The social environment may also affect whether children can join others. Children with disabilities described smaller communities, including villages and schools, as places where children and parents could become more familiar with disability. Greater familiarity was associated with greater acceptance and stronger connections with other children (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Observational research also shows that physical access alone does not explain inclusive outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2026) observed 63 children with and without disabilities during six inclusive outdoor-play sessions and found children with disabilities had lower playfulness scores than children without disabilities. Unfamiliarity could also restrict social inclusion because children preferred to play with peers they already knew. This means providing the same outdoor space does not necessarily provide the same opportunity to participate.

The 2025 Position Statement on Active Outdoor Play recommends collaboration across sectors and settings to support equitable access to active outdoor play (Lee et al., 2025). The reviewed findings  show why both physical and social conditions matter. Children need places that can be accessed, but familiarity, safety and opportunities to join others can also affect participation. However, the evidence does not show that one community feature alone will increase outdoor play or improve emotional well-being.

=== '''Schools''' ===
Schools can provide opportunities for children with and without disabilities to become more familiar with one another. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified growing up together and making contact as interacting factors in inclusive outdoor play. Children described familiarity with other children as making contact easier. School circumstances can also affect the time available for outdoor play. Some children attending special primary education described long travel times between school and home as reducing their opportunities to play outdoors. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified these experiences as part of time constraints.

The physical school environment can also be changed to support outdoor activity and socio-emotional outcomes. Bikomeye et al. (2021) systematically reviewed six experimental studies of schoolyard greening. The interventions involved adding greenery and natural elements to schoolyards. Across the included studies, the review reported generally positive findings for physical activity and socio-emotional health. However, the review included only six studies. Schoolyard greening is also a specific intervention and should not be treated as evidence that all forms of outdoor play improve children's emotional well-being. 

Recess provides another school setting in which children's emotional experiences have been examined directly. Poulos et al. (2026) studied 317 Year 4 and 5 children during extreme heat. Positive affect was higher after outdoor and gymnasium recess than after classroom recess. There were no significant differences in negative affect between the three settings. Poulos et al. (2026) also identified implications for school health, policy and equity. The study discussed heat-adaptive infrastructure as one way to support access to recess environments during extreme heat. However, the findings do not show that outdoor recess is always better than indoor recess because positive affect was also higher after gymnasium recess. 

{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Quiz}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;

{Which statement best reflects how families, communities and school can support children's outdoor play opportunities?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}

+ Support can involve accessible environments, safety, familiarity, appropriate parental support and opportunities for children to participate with some independence.
- Providing the same outdoor space gives every child the same opportunity to participate.
-Schoolyard greening alone is enough to improve children's emotional well-being.
-Outdoor recess always produces better emotional outcomes than indoor recess.

&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}
== '''Conclusion''' ==
Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being are not represented by single, consistent concepts across recent research. Outdoor play should be distinguished from outdoor physical activity, while emotional well-being has been examined through emotional dysregulation, social-emotional competence, positive and negative affect, and internalising and externalising symptoms. These differences are important because findings across studies do not represent the same emotional outcomes or time frames. 

Outdoor play may be related to children's emotional well-being through several psychological processes, but the strength of evidence differs across them. Gross's (2015) emotion regulation framework helps explain how children may respond to emotional situations during play, while working memory provides more direct evidence of a possible cognitive process in the association between afternoon outdoor play and lower emotional dysregulation (Lee et al., 2025). However, these findings do not establish that outdoor play causes better emotion regulation or emotional well-being. Recent research also does not show one consistent effect across all children, outcomes or play contexts. Some studies report associations with better social-emotional competence, lower-risk symptom trajectories or higher positive affect, while other findings are mixed or non-significant (Davenport et al., 2025; Dodd et al., 2026; Ferguson et al., 2025). Differences in research design, measurement, timing and context therefore need to be considered when interpreting the evidence. 

Children's opportunities for outdoor play are also shaped by their social and physical environments. Accessibility, familiarity, autonomy, parental support, safety and opportunities to join other children can influence whether the same outdoor space provides the same opportunity to participate. Families, communities and schools can therefore support outdoor play by considering both access to outdoor spaces and the conditions that allow children to participate in ways that suit their needs and circumstances. Overall, current research suggests that outdoor play is associated with some aspects of children's emotional well-being, but the relationship is more complex than simply spending more time outdoors. The relation between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being varies depending on how outdoor play is measured, timing, context and children's opportunities to participate.

==See also==
* [[wikipedia:Affordance|Affordance]] (Wikipedia)
* [[wikipedia:Autonomy|Autonomy]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Cognitive psychology]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Emotion regulation in children|Emotion regulation in children]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Emotional regulation]] (Wikipedia)

* [[wikipedia:Emotional dysregulation|Emotional dysregulation]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Imaginative play and emotion regulation|Imaginative play and emotion regulation]] (Wikiversity)
* [[wikipedia:Working memory|Working memory]] (Wikipedia)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Beekhuizen, R. Q., Bloemen, M. A. T., Bolster, E. A. M., Visser, K., Lugt, R., Bassa, M., Henry, N. L., Kotte, E. M. W., Hartingsveldt, M., &amp; Gorter, J. W. (2026). Can You See Us Play? Observing Inclusive Outdoor Play Behaviour Among Children With and Without Disabilities: A Mixed Methods Study. Child : Care, Health &amp; Development, 52(1), e70198-n/a. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70198

Beekhuizen, R. Q., Bolster, E. A. M., Gorter, J. W., Henry, N. L., Visser, K., Wittink, H., Kotte, E. M. W., Sol, M. E., &amp; Bloemen, M. A. T. (2025). Play Together? Unveiling Facilitators and Barriers to Inclusive Outdoor Play for Dutch Children With and Without Disabilities: A Qualitative Study. Child: Care, Health &amp; Development, 51(6), Article e70154. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70154

Biino, V., Pesce, C., &amp; Martins, C. (2025). Motor Skill Development at Preschool Age in Girls and Boys: The Role of Outdoor Free Play. Children, 12(5), Article 594. https://doi.org/10.3390/children12050594

Bikomeye, J., Balza, J., &amp; Beyer, K. (2021). The Impact of Schoolyard Greening on Children’s Physical Activity and Socioemotional Health: A Systematic Review of Experimental Studies. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(2), 535. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18020535

Boxberger, K., &amp; Reimers, A. K. (2019). Parental correlates of outdoor play in boys and girls aged 0 to 12: A systematic review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(2, Art. 190), 19-16:2, Art. 190&lt;19. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16020190

Davenport, C., Kuzik, N., Larouche, R., &amp; Carson, V. (2025). The Associations Between Parental-Reported and Device-Based Measured Outdoor Play and Health Indicators of Physical, Cognitive, and Social–Emotional Development in Preschool-Aged Children. Pediatric Exercise Science, 37(2), 102–111. https://doi.org/10.1123/pes.2023-0119

de Lannoy, L., Barbeau, K., Seguin, N., &amp; Tremblay, M. S. (2023). Scoping review of children’s and youth’s outdoor play publications in Canada. Chronic Diseases in Canada, 43(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.24095/hpcdp.43.1.01

Dodd, H. F., Cordwell, K., Hesketh, K., Johnstone, A., de la Torre-Luque, A., &amp; McCrorie, P. (2026). Early outdoor play predicts trajectories of child mental health in a population-based cohort. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.70175

Ferguson, M., Teyhan, A., Lovell, R., Dodd, H., Wheeler, B., &amp; McEachan, R. (2025). The association between park visits, outdoor play and child social-emotional competency in a multi-ethnic, urban cohort. Wellbeing, Space and Society, 9, Article 100293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wss.2025.100293

Gal‐Szabo, D. E., Spinrad, T. L., Eisenberg, N., &amp; Sulik, M. J. (2019). The relations of children’s emotion knowledge to their observed social play and reticent/uninvolved behavior in preschool: Moderation by effortful control. Social Development (Oxford, England), 28(1), 57–73. https://doi.org/10.1111/sode.12321

Gibson, J. J. (1979). The ecological approach to visual perception / James J. Gibson. Houghton Mifflin.

Gibson, J.L., Cornell, M. &amp; Gill, T. A Systematic Review of Research into the Impact of Loose Parts Play on Children’s Cognitive, Social and Emotional Development. School Mental Health 9, 295–309 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-017-9220-9

Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion Regulation: Current Status and Future Prospects. Psychological Inquiry, 26(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2014.940781

Halberstadt, A. G., Denham, S. A., &amp; Dunsmore, J. C. (2001). Affective Social Competence. Social Development (Oxford, England), 10(1), 79–119. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9507.00150

Han, C. S., Brussoni, M. J., &amp; Mâsse, L. C. (2022). Parental Autonomy Support in the Context of Parent–Child Negotiation for Children’s Independent Mobility: ‘I Always Feel Safer With My Parents’ to ‘Boom! Bust Down Those Walls! The Journal of Early Adolescence, 42(6), Article 02724316211064513. https://doi.org/10.1177/02724316211064513

Johnstone, A., Martin, A., Cordovil, R., Fjørtoft, I., Iivonen, S., Jidovtseff, B., Lopes, F., Reilly, J. J., Thomson, H., Wells, V., &amp; McCrorie, P. (2022). Nature-Based Early Childhood Education and Children’s Social, Emotional and Cognitive Development: A Mixed-Methods Systematic Review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(10), 5967. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19105967

Lee, E.-Y., de Lannoy, L., Kim, Y.-B., Rathod, A., James, M. E., Lopes, O., Nasrallah, B., Thankarajah, A., Adjei-Boadi, D., de Barros, M. I. A., Duncan, S., Miller, R. M., Mygind, L., Vanderloo, L. M., Wang, P.-Y., &amp; Tremblay, M. S. (2025). 2025 Position statement on active outdoor play. The International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 22(1), Article 117. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-025-01813-9

Lee, J. J., Flouri, E., &amp; Jackson, Y. (2025). The Role of Timing and Amount of Outdoor Play in Emotional Dysregulation in Preschool Children. Child: Care, Health &amp; Development, 51(1), Article e70020. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70020

Morgenthaler, T., Lynch, H., Loebach, J., Pentland, D., &amp; Schulze, C. (2024). Using the Theory of Affordances to Understand Environment–Play Transactions: Environmental Taxonomy of Outdoor Play Space Features—A Scoping Review. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 78(4), Article 7804185120. https://doi.org/10.5014/ajot.2024.050606

Pereira, J. V., Vila-Nova, F., Veiga, G., Lopes, F., &amp; Cordovil, R. (2024). Associations between outdoor play features and children’s behavior and health: A systematic review. Health &amp; Place, 87, Article 103235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2024.103235

Poulos, A., Hassan, U. A., Wilson, K., Price, P. M., Vanos, J., &amp; Quilla, J. (2026). Differences in Schoolchildren’s Emotional State After Indoor Versus Outdoor Recess in Extreme‐Heat Weather. The Journal of School Health, 96(4), Article e70135. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.70135

Scherer, K. R. (2005). What are emotions? And how can they be measured? Social Science Information, 44(4), 695–729. https://doi.org/10.1177/0539018405058216

Veraksa, A. N., Plotnikova, V. A., Sukhikh, V. L., Kornienko, D. S., &amp; Rudnova, N. A. (2025). Non-therapeutic play to overcome negative emotional symptoms and improve emotional intelligence in children aged 3–7: a systematic review. Frontiers in Psychology, 16, 1475387. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1475387

Visser, K., &amp; Aalst, I. (2022). Neighbourhood Factors in Children’s Outdoor Play: A Systematic Literature Review. Tijdschrift Voor Economische En Sociale Geografie, 113(1), 80–95. https://doi.org/10.1111/tesg.12505

}}

==External links==
* [https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-play [https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-pla]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-play y]] (Encyclopedia in Early Childhood Development)
* [[https://www.outdoorplaycanada.ca/2026/06/02/sprout-able-resources-videos-and-tip-sheets-to-support-children-with-disabilities-in-outdoor-play/ https://www.outdoorplaycanada.ca/2026/06/02/sp]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[https://www.outdoorplaycanada.ca/2026/06/02/sprout-able-resources-videos-and-tip-sheets-to-support-children-with-disabilities-in-outdoor-play/ rout-able-resources-videos-and-tip-sheets-to-support-children-with-disabilities-in-outdoor-play/]/ SPROUT-able Resources: Videos and Tip Sheets to Support Children with Disabilities in Outdoor Play] (Outdoor Play Canada)

* https://www.who.int/news/item/24-04-2019-to-grow-up-healthy-children-need-to-sit-less-and-play-more&lt;nowiki/&gt; To grow up healthy, children need to sit less and play more] (World Health Organisation)

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__TOC__

== Overview ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;

|'''Case study: Part 1'''[[File:School children happily playing in playground.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. Children engaged in outdoor play, where social interactions, choice and control on the situation can create different emotional experiences.]]Imagine that...

A child arrives at playground and joins a group of children who are already playing. The children are making their own game and deciding the rules as they play. At first, the child enjoys choosing where and what to play. During the game, another child changes the rules and an argument breaks out. The child becomes frustrated and walks away from the activity. After watching for a short time, the child returns, suggests a new idea to continue the game and re-joins the group. 

How might experiences like this during outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? Emotional regulation provides one psychological framework for understanding how children may respond to situations like this during play (see figure 1).
|}

Outdoor play can involve more than physical movement. It can occur across playgrounds, gardens, streets and natural spaces. Outdoor play includes exploration, social interaction, choice, challenge, and engagement with the surrounding environment (Dodd et al., 2026; Pereira et al., 2024). These experiences can involve frustration, disagreement, uncertainty or excitement. This chapter examines how [[Emotional regulation|emotional,]] [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive]], social and environmental processes may help explain the relationship between outdoor play and children's [https://w.wiki/AHG6 emotional well-being.] 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|

;[[File:Bulb Idea Flat Icon GIF Animation.gif|alt=Focus questions|left|99x99px|thumb]]


'''Focus questions'''

* '''What are outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?'''
* '''How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?'''
* '''How do social and environmental conditions shape  children's outdoor play experiences?'''
* '''What does recent research show about outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?'''
* '''How can families, communities and schools support outdoor  play opportunities that may benefit children's emotional well-being?'''
|}

== '''Understanding outdoor play and children's emotional well-being''' ==
[[File:Water-outdoor-people-girl-play-boy-938233.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. ''Outdoor play can provide opportunities to explore, make choices, interact with others and respond to changing situations through activities such as water play.''|214x214px]]

Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being are not measured as single and consistent concepts across recent research. Outdoor play may be examined as voluntary and intrinsically motivated activity, self directed play, parent reported outdoor play, or device-measured outdoor play (Binno et al., 2025; Davenport et al., 2025; Dodd et al., 2026). It should also be distinguished from outdoor moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) because these measures do not represent the same behaviour (Davenport et al., 2025). Children's emotional well-being is also examined through different outcomes, including [https://w.wiki/7YC8 emotional dysregulation], social-emotional competence, positive and negative affect, and internalising or externalising symptoms (Dodd et al., 2026; Ferguson et al., 2025; Lee et al., 2025; Poulos et al., 2026).  

=== Outdoor play ===
Outdoor play is voluntary and intrinsically motivated activity that occurs in outdoor environments such as gardens, playgrounds, parks and natural spaces (Dodd et al., 2026). Free play can be also self-directed, allowing children to interact freely with the environment and make choices about their activities (Biino et al., 2025). Outdoor play should not be treated as the same as outdoor physical activity. The recent research outdoor play and outdoor moderate- to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) were examined as separate measures (Davenport et al., 2025). This distinction is important because outdoor play intensity of physical activity do not represent the same behaviour.  

=== Children's emotional well-being ===
Children's emotional well-being is not represented by a single common outcome across recent outdoor play research. Emotional dysregulation has been examined in relation to the amount and timing of outdoor play (Lee et al., 2025), while social-emotional competence includes social emotional difficulties and [[Prosocial behavior/Keywords/Definitions|prosocial behaviour]] (Ferguson et al., 2025). Other studies have examined positive and negative affect following recess (Poulos et al., 2026) and trajectories of internalising and externalising symptoms across childhood (Dodd et al., 2026). These outcomes represent different aspects and timeframes of emotional functioning, so they should not be treated as equivalent when findings are compared.

'''Table 1''' 

''Emotional outcomes examined in recent research on outdoor play and children's emotional well-being''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Study
!Outcome examined
!What the outcome represents                                                                                                  
|-
|Lee et al. (2025)   
|Emotional dysregulation
|Difficulties in emotional regulation; examined in relation to the amount of timing of outdoor play
|-
|Ferguson et al.          (2025)
|Social-emotional competence 
|Social-emotional difficulties and prosocial behaviour
|-
|Poulos et al. (2026)
|Positive and negative affect
|Children's affect following recess across different settings 
|-
|Dodd et al. (2026)
|Internalising and externalising symptoms
|Internalising: emotional symptoms and peer problems
Externalising: conduct problems and hyperactivity- inattention 
|}
Note. Outcome descriptions are based on the measures and constructs reported in the above cited studies. See Table 1. 

As shown in Table 1, the studies do not measure the same aspect or time frame of children's emotional functioning. Affect immediately following recess should not be treated as equivalent to emotional dysregulation measured over time or trajectories of internalising and externalising symptoms across childhood. This difference need to be considered when findings across studies are compared. 

'''Case study: part 2'''
 
''What is being measured?''

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |[[File:Children marbles.jpg|thumb|221x221px|'''Figure 3'''. ''Children's immediate emotional responses during outdoor play is different from long-term emotional functioning.'']]The child in the Case study: Part 1 becomes frustrated when the rules of the game change. This immediate emotional response is different from a longer-term pattern of emotional dysregulation or internalising symptoms. Research on outdoor play measures these outcomes across different time frames and contexts. When findings are compared, it is important to consider which aspect of emotional well-being is measured.

{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;

{A child's positive or negative affect immediately after recess represents the same emotional outcome as longer-term internalising or externalising symptoms.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}

- True
+ False

&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}

|}

== '''How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?''' ==
Outdoor play may be related to children's emotional well-being through emotional, cognitive, and social processes (Dodd et al., 2026). Possible pathways discussed in the recent research include cognitive, social and emotional skills, social interaction, physical activity, connection with the nature and adventurous play (Dodd et al., 2026). However, these pathways have not all been directly tested as mechanisms, and many of the outdoor play research remain observational (Dodd et al., 2026; de Lannoy et al., 2023). Psychological theory can help to explain how and why outdoor play experiences may influence children's emotional well-being. Although the evidence does not yet show that psychological processes cause the relationship between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being.

Emotion involves more than subjective feelings. Scherer (2005) described emotion as coordinated changes across cognitive appraisal, physiological responses, action tendencies, expression and subjective feelings. Therefore, physiological responses are one component of an emotional response rather than a separate explanation for the effects of outdoor play. Scherer (2005) did not examine outdoor play, so this framework does not provide evidence that outdoor play changes children's physiological responses or emotional well-being.

=== '''Emotion regulation''' ===
Emotion regulation provides a psychological framework for understanding how children may manage emotional situations during outdoor play. Gross (2015) described emotion regulation as a process involving identification, selection and implementation. Identification concerns deciding whether to regulate an emotion, selection concerns selecting regulation strategy and implementation concerns applying chosen response into practice. Gross (2015) also described situation selection, situation modification, attentional deployment cognitive change and response modulation. During outdoor play, children may experience frustration, conflict, disagreement, uncertainty or changes to their activity. Gross's framework can be applied to these situations to consider how the children recognise an emotional response, choose strategies to manage and act on chosen strategies. However, Gross (2015) did not examine outdoor play, so applying the framework does not show that outdoor play improves children's emotion regulation.

Broader research on  children's play has also examined emotional functioning. Veraksa et al. (2025) systematically reviewed 33 studies on non-therapeutic play among children aged 3 to 7 and identified evidence involving emotional regulation, emotional intelligence, and negative emotional symptoms. The review included outdoor play alongside several other forms of play, so its findings should not be interpreted as evidence that outdoor play alone improves emotion regulation. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Case study: Part 3'''[[File:14Y Ncdc july 5th-802.jpg|thumb|202x202px|'''Figure 4'''. ''Children can respond differently to emotional situations that occur during outdoor play.'']]When the rules of game change, the child becomes frustrated and decides to step away. After a short time the child returns and suggests a different way to continue the game (see Figure 4). Suggesting a change to the game can be considered an example of situation modification. This shows how Gross's emotion regulation framework can be applied to an emotional situation during outdoor play.

{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;

{What does Gross (2015) emotion regulation framework show when it is applied to the outdoor-play scenario?.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
-A. Outdoor play causes better emotion regulation.
+B. Situation modification can help explain how the child responds to the situation.
-C. Children regulate emotions better outdoors than indoors.
-D. Stepping away from play always improves emotional well-being.


&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}

|}
=== '''Working memory and cognitive process''' ===
Working memory can be one cognitive process involved in the association between outdoor play and emotional dysregulation. Lee et al. (2025) examined 325 preschool children and tested working memory as a statistical mediator. More outdoor play between noon and 6 pm was associated with lower emotional dysregulation. In contrast, more outdoor play before noon and after 6 pm was associated with higher emotional dysregulation. Afternoon outdoor play was also associated with better working memory, and better working memory was associated with lower emotional dysregulation.

When working memory was included in the analysis, the association between afternoon outdoor play and emotional dysregulation was no longer statistically significant. Lee et al. (2025) reported this as full mediation. This suggests that working memory may be involved in the association between afternoon outdoor play and lower emotional dysregulation. However, the study was observational, so the mediation analysis does not show that outdoor play caused better working memory or lower emotional dysregulation.

Johnstone et al. (2022) reviewed 36 studies of nature-based [[early childhood education]]. The review found very low certainty evidence for some social, emotional, and cognitive outcomes, including [[self-regulation]], while findings for attention were inconsistent. Although, the review examined nature-based early childhood education rather than outdoor play. Therefore, it does not show that working memory explains the association between outdoor play and children's [https://w.wiki/AHG6 emotional well-being].

'''Table 2'''

''Psychological processes considered in the relationship between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!Process
!Contribution
!Evidence considered in this chapter
!Limitations 
|-
|Emotion components 
|Emotion involves cognitive appraisal, physiological responses, action tendencies, expression and subjective feelings (Scherer, 2005)
|This provides a broader psychological understanding of emotional responses
|Scherer (2005) did not examine outdoor play, so it does not show that outdoor play changes children's physiological responses or emotional well-being.
|-
|Emotion regulation
|Gross's (2015) framework can be applied to emotional situations during outdoor play, including frustration, disagreement and changes to an activity. 
|The framework helps explain how children may recognise an emotional response, choose a strategy and act on that strategy.
|Gross (2015) did not examine outdoor play, so applying the framework does not show that outdoor play improves emotion regulation.
|-
|Working memory
|Lee et al. (2025) examined working memory as a statistical mediator between outdoor play and emotional dysregulation.
|Afternoon outdoor play was associated with better working memory, and better working memory was associated with lower emotional dysregulation.
|The study was observational, so the mediation analysis does not show that outdoor play caused better working memory or lower emotional dysregulation. 
|-
|Play and emotional functioning
|Veraksa et al. (2025) reviewed 33 studies of non-therapeutic play involving emotional regulation, emotional intelligence and negative emotional symptoms.
|The review provides broader evidence linking play with emotional functioning.
|The review included several forms of play, so it should not be interpreted as evidence that outdoor play alone improves emotion regulation. 
|-
|Nature-based early childhood education
|Johnstone et al. (2022) reviewed 36 studies and reported very low certainty evidence for some social, emotional and cognitive outcomes, including self-regulation.
|The review provides broader evidence about cognitive and emotional outcomes in nature-based education.
|Nature-based early childhood education is not the same as outdoor play and does not show that working memory explains the association between outdoor play and emotional well-being.
|}
Note. The sources provide different types of evidence, including psychological frameworks, direct outdoor-play research and broader evidence about outdoor play and children's emotional well-being. 

== '''How do social and environmental conditions shape on children's outdoor play experiences?''' ==
[[File:2026-10-03 214531-relationship between child and environment.png|thumb|284x284px|'''Figure 5.''' Children's opportunities for outdoor play can be different according to personal, interacting and environmental factors and the relationship between the child and the environment.

Note. Original conceptual summary is based on Beekhuizen et al. (2025) and Gibson (1979).]]
Outdoor play opportunities depend on social and physical environments. Children may have access to same outdoor space but may not have same opportunities for play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified personal, interacting and environmental factors that could support or restrict inclusive outdoor play. These differences can be considered through [https://w.wiki/VYfL affordance theory], which examines the opportunities for action through the relationship between an individual and the environment (Gibson, 1979). See Figure 5. 


=== Affordance theory and outdoor play environments ===
[https://w.wiki/VYfL Affordance theory] was developed by Gibson (1979) to explain the opportunities for action that an environment  provides in relation to the person using it. In outdoor play, the opportunities provided by a space can depend on its physical features and how a child is able to use those features. Morgenthaler et al. (2024) applied affordance theory to children's outdoor play and examined outdoor play transactions through environmental taxonomy of outdoor play space features. Their review identified 14 categories of spaces and 284 play opportunities linked to different environmental features. Morgenthaler et al. (2024) showed that different spaces and objects can afford  different forms of play, which means two children using the same outdoor play space may not experience the same play opportunities. Therefore, the theory provides a way of understanding differences between children and their use of an outdoor environment. However this study examined the opportunities for play rather than children's well-being.

Pereira et al. (2024) also examined features of outdoor play spaces in a systematic review of 51 articles representing 45 primary studies. The review examined features such as fixed structures, natural elements, floor markings, loose equipment and available play areas. Some positive effects were reported, but there was substantial heterogeneity between studies. The studies differed in the environmental features examined, outcomes measures, and study methods, which made difficult to draw a clear conclusions about the effect of individual play space features (Pereira et al., 2024).Therefore, the review does not show that one particular environmental feature improves children's [https://w.wiki/AHG6 emotional well-being]. 

'''Table 3'''

''Examples of environmental features and possible affordances'' 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Environmental feature                             
!Possible affordance for play                                                        
|-
|Fixed structures (e.g. climbing frame)
|Can provide opportunity in different forms of physical activity. For example, climbing, physical play, risk-taking
|-
|Natural elements (e.g. tree, rocks, sand)
|Environmental features can provide opportunities for exploratory play, imaginative play, sensory experiences
|-
|Floor markings (e.g. painted games)
|Can support structured activities like rule based play, footy, tennis, etc.
|-
|Loose equipment (e.g. balls, tyre, boxes) 
|Movable environmental features that can be used during constructive play, imaginative play, creative problem solving play
|-
|Open play area
|Running, group play,  or flexible use
|}
Note. This table is an original synthesis based on environmental features described by Pereira et al. (2024) and  affordance framework applied by Morgenthaler et al. (2024).  Environmental features can afford more than one type of play and the opportunities may vary between children. 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Case study: Part 4 Same space, different opportunities'''
Kim and Leo are both at the same school playground during recess. The playground has a climbing structure, a sand pit area and open natural space. 

* Kim quickly joins a group of children using a climbing frame. The climbing frame structure provides opportunities for physical play and social interactions.
* Leo uses a sand pit with other child. He plays with loose materials and creates a sand castle and other different structures. The environment gives him an opportunity for imaginative play and social play.

These examples show how the same outdoor space can afford different forms of play for different children, depending on their interests, skills and social context. 
{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;

{Which statement best applies affordance theory to the example?.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
-A. The playground causes children to be more physically active.
+B. The same playground can provide different opportunities for play depending on the child and how they use the environment.
-C. Climbing structures always lead to better emotional well-being.
-D. Open spaces are only useful for social play.


&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}

|}
=== '''Social relationship and inclusion''' ===
Social relationships can shape whether children are able to join and continue outdoor play (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified making contact and growing up together as interacting factors in inclusive outdoor play. Familiarity with other children could make it easier to approach, communicate and play together, while joining unfamiliar children or existing game could be difficult.  

[https://w.wiki/WDsJ Affective social competence (ASC)] provides a psychological framework for understanding these social interactions (Halberstadt et al., 2001). The ASC model involves experiencing, sending and receiving affect, together with awareness, identification, working within the social context and regulation. These processes may be relevant when a child tries to enter a peer group, recognise other children's emotions and manage their own response during play.

Gal-Szabo et al. (2019) used the ASC model as theoretical foundation when examining children's emotional knowledge and social behaviour during preschool free play. The study found that situational understanding of the emotions was negatively related to uninvolved behaviour and was marginally positively related to more social play. However, the study examined preschool free play rather than specific outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) also found that children with disabilities experienced more barriers related to making contact, adapting play and physical play environment. These findings suggest that participation in outdoor play depends on both social interaction and children's ability to respond within the play situation, but they do not establish that social play causes better emotional well-being (Beekhuizen et al., 2025; Gal-Szabo et al., 2018).

=== '''Autonomy, parents and time''' ===
[https://w.wiki/4NyU Autonomy] can shape how children experience outdoor play (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified autonomy as a personal factor in inclusive outdoor play. Some children valued having independence over what they do and who they play with. Some children with disabilities wanted opportunities to play outside independently without direct parental involvement. Autonomy during play may also have an emotional function. Veraksa et al. (2025), in a systematic review of non-therapeutic play, identified autonomy as one feature through which play may support emotional regulation and coping. However, the review examined several forms of play and does not show that autonomy during outdoor play specially improves children's emotional well-being.

Parental support can also make outdoor play possible. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) found that parental involvement could support children's participation when a child needed help to access or participate in outdoor play. Time constraints also affected opportunities for outdoor play. Some children had less time to play outdoors because of parents' work schedule, after school arrangements or longer travel distance between home and school (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). These constraints could limit opportunities for outdoor play even when children wanted greater independence.

=== '''Outdoor environments and accessibility''' ===
Outdoor play environments can support or restrict children's participation (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified both physical and social features of outdoor environments as relevant to inclusive play. Children discussed safety, including traffic near playgrounds and disputes with other children. Accessibility was particularly important for children with disabilities because opportunities for inclusive outdoor play could be affected by play environments and physical abilities. Pereira et al. (2024) also showed that heterogeneity between studies limited clear conclusions about the effects of individual outdoor play space features.. 

Gibson et al. (2017) systematically reviewed five studies of loose-parts play (LPP) interventions with primary school aged children. The review found limited quantitative evidence to determine whether loose-parts interventions affected children's cognitive, social or emotional development. Together, these findings show that features of outdoor environments can support or restrict opportunities for play. However, current evidence does not establish that a particular environmental feature that improves children's emotional well-being (Beekhuizen et al., 2025; Gibson et al., 2017; Pereira et al., 2024). 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Case study: Part 5 Same play space, different experiences'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|Kim and Leo use the same school playground. Kim already knows many children and easily joins a group activity. Leo uses a mobility device and finds that some areas of the playground are difficult to access. Leo also does not know many children who are already playing. He prefers to play independently when possible. 
|}

The two children have access to the same playground space, but their opportunities to participate are different. There experiences are shaped by more than the physical space alone. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) also identified making contact, familiarity, autonomy and accessibility as factors that could support or restrict inclusive outdoor play.
Physical accessibility may affect whether a child can use part of playground, while familiarity with other children may affect whether the child can enter social play. Parental support may also help participation in some situations, while the child may still value greater independence
{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;

{Why might two children have different outdoor-play experiences even they use the same playground?.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+A. Physical, social and personal factors can affect how children are able to participate.
-B. Outdoor spaces provide the same opportunities for every child.
-C. Accessibility is the only factor that affects outdoor play..
-D. Children who know other children always have better emotional well-being.


&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}

|}
== '''What does recent research show about outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?''' ==
Recent research does not show a consistent association between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being. The findings are mixed across different emotional outcomes measured, the timing and context of outdoor play, children's behaviours, and the methods used to measure outdoor play. These differences are significant when interpreting whether outdoor play is associated with better emotional well-being.  

The recent studies shows this variation. More frequent outdoor play has been associated with better social-emotional competence (Ferguson et al., 2025) while association with emotional dysregulation differed according to the timing and context of outdoor play (Lee et al., 2025). Positive affect was also higher after outdoor play and and gymnasium recess than after classroom recess, but no significant differences in negative affect between settings (Poulos et al.,2026).   

Longer-term evidence also examines a different aspect of emotional functioning. More frequent outdoor play during the preschool years was associated with a greater likelihood of following a low and stable trajectory of internalising and externalising symptoms through childhood (Dodd et al., 2026). However, the studies differ in children's ages, research designs, measures of outdoor play and emotional outcomes. Therefore, the evidence should not be interpreted as showing one consistent effect across all children or forms of emotional well-being.

=== '''Consistency of recent research findings''' ===
Recent findings are not consistent across all emotional and developmental outcomes. Ferguson et al. (2025) found that more frequent outdoor play was associated with better social-emotional competence, including lower difficulties and greater [[Prosocial Behaviour|prosocial behaviour]]. In contrast, Davenport et al. (2025) found that most associations between outdoor play and the physical, [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive]] and social-emotional developmental indicators examined were not statistically significant. These differences show that positive association with outdoor play are not found across all developmental outcomes.

Findings can also differ according to the emotional outcome being measured. Poulos et al. (2026) found higher positive affect after outdoor and gymnasium recess than after classroom recess, but no significant differences in negative affect between the three recess settings.  Lee et al. (2025) found that  more afternoon outdoor play was associated with lower emotional dysregulation, while more outdoor play earlier and later in the day was associated with higher emotional dysregulation. These findings suggest that the association can differ according to both the emotional outcome and the timing of outdoor play.

The time period being examined also differs between studies. Dodd et al. (2026) found that more frequent outdoor play during the preschool years was associated with lower odds of belonging to less favourable internalising and externalising symptom trajectory across childhood. This is different from Poulos et al. (2026), who examined children's emotional states immediately after the recess. Therefore, recent research includes both immediate emotional outcomes and longer-term patterns of emotional functioning. 

Associations may vary across children and play contexts. Ferguson et al. (2025) reported differences according to ethnicity and whether outdoor play occurred on school days or weekends. Together, these findings suggest that the association between outdoor play and emotional well-being is not same across outcome.The studies differ in children's age, research designs, measures of outdoor play, and emotional outcomes. Thus, findings should not be treated as evidence of one single effect.

=== '''Strengths and limitations of current research''' ===
The strength of the evidence also differs according to research design. Dodd et al. (2026) used longitudinal data from 4,151 children and measured outdoor play during the preschool years at approximately 2, 3 and 4 years old, while internalising and externalising symptoms trajectories were measured later through to age 8. This strengthens the evidence about temporal ordering because outdoor play was measured before the later emotional outcomes. However, longitudinal evidence does not establish cause and effect, and the study relied on parent-reported measures.

Causal interpretation is also limited in other studies. Lee et al. (2025) used observational data and considered the possibility of reverse causation when interpreting associations between the timing of outdoor play and emotional dysregulation. This means the findings cannot establish whether outdoor play influenced emotional dysregulation or whether children's emotional functioning influenced when they played outdoors.

Measurement of outdoor play is another important consideration. Davenport et al. (2025) used both parent-reported and device-measured outdoor play and examined whether associations were independent of outdoor moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA). This is important because outdoor play and outdoor physical activity are related but should not be treated as interchangeable measures. However, the sample was relatively small (N=107) and most tested associations with developmental outcomes were not statistically significant.

Limitations are also present across the wider outdoor-play literature. De Lannoy et al. (2023) identified 275 Canadian outdoor-play publications and found that cross-sectional designs were the most common. Mental and emotional development had also received less research attention than physical health and development. This suggests that the evidence base for emotional well-being is less developed than some other areas of outdoor-play research.

T'''able 4'''

'''''Comparison of recent research'''''

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Study               
!Research method             
!Research strength                      
!Limitation                                                
|-
|  &lt;small&gt;Lee et al. (2025)&lt;/small&gt;                                     
|Observational; 6 month follow-up
|Examined the timing of outdoor play and tested working memory as a statistical mediator of the association with emotional dysregulation.     
|Observational mediation cannot establish causation; the study also considered possible reverse causation when interpreting timing-related findings.
|-
|Ferguson et al. (2025)
|Cross sectional; multi ethnic urban cohort (N=2,568)
|Large sample allowed associations to be examined across population groups and school-day/weekend outdoor play.
|Cross-sectional design cannot establish temporal direction; associations also differed across some groups and play contexts.
|-
|Davenport et al. (2025)
|Observational; preschool sample (N=107)
|Used both parent-reported and device-measured outdoor play and distinguished outdoor play from outdoor moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA)
|Small sample and most tested associations with developmental outcomes were not statistically significant.
|-
|Dodd et al. (2026)
|Longitudinal cohort (N = 4,151)
|Outdoor play was measured in the preschool years before later internalising and externalising symptom trajectories.
|Outdoor play and symptoms relied on parent reported measures, and the observational design does not establish causations.
|-
|Poulos et al. (2026)
|Recess comparison study (N=317)
|Compared children's positive and negative affect following outdoor, gymnasium and classroom recess
|Examined immediate affect during an extreme-heat context; higher positive affect was also found after gymnasium recess, so the result was not specific to outdoor recess.
|}
As shown in Table 4, the recent evidence has different methodological strengths and limitations. Longitudinal designs provide stronger evidence about temporal ordering than cross-sectional design studies, while device-based measures can address some limitations of parent report. However, much of the evidence remains observational, and differences in emotional outcomes, measures of outdoor play and play contexts limit the direct comparison between studies. 

Future research could benefit from more consistent measures of outdoor play, stronger longitudinal and experimental designs and greater attention to emotional outcomes across different children and play contexts. 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;

{Why should the recent findings not be interpreted as showing single consistent effect of outdoor play on children's emotional well-being?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
-A. Because all the studies used different countries.
+B. Because studies differed in emotional outcomes, measures of outdoor play, timing, context and research design.
-C. Because longitudinal studies are always more reliable and accurate.
-D. Because outdoor play only affects positive outcomes.


&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}

|}
== '''How do families, communities and schools support outdoor play opportunities?''' ==
[[File:Coalition Builds New Playground in One Day for Chicora-Cherokee Community (11054532905).jpg|thumb|325x325px|Figure 6. Families, communities and school can shape children's opportunities for play.]]
Outdoor play opportunities are shaped by children's social and physical environments. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified parents, outdoor play environments, communities and time constraints as environmental factors in inclusive outdoor play. The study also identified autonomy, growing up together, making contact and adapting ways of playing as factors that affected participation. The 2025 Position Statement on Active Outdoor Play recommends increasing opportunities for active outdoor play where people live, learn, work and play (Lee et al., 2025). It also recommends collaboration across sectors and settings to support equitable access. Together, these findings provide a broader context for considering the roles of families, communities and schools. These influences can operate across family, community and school settings (see Figure 5).

=== '''Families''' ===
Parents can influence whether children have opportunities to play outdoors. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified parents as an environmental factor in inclusive outdoor play. Children with disabilities described parents as important in encouraging participation. For some children, parents also helped to explain their disability to other children (Beekhuizen et al., 2025).  

Broader research also identifies parental factors in children's outdoor play. A systematic review of 21 peer reviewed studies involving children aged 0 to 12 years found that the importance placed on outdoor play was associated with how much time children spent playing outdoors  (Boxberger and Reimers, 2019). Evidence for parental encouragement and support was less consistent across children (Boxberger and Reimers, 2019). This suggests that family influence is not limited to direct encouragement. Parents' attitude towards outdoor play may shape children's opportunities to play outdoors. However, the review identified some associations but does not show that parental attitude caused greater outdoor play. 

Parental support  can also involve allowing children to have some independence during outdoor play. Support can make participation possible, but it does not always require direct parental involvement (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). This is particularly relevant when children want more control over how and where they play. Research on independent mobility also shows that children and parents may differ in how much independence they prefer (Han et al., 2022). The study identified different patterns in children's and parents' preferences for independent mobility. These findings show that parental support and autonomy do not always involve the same level of parental involvement. Some children may need support to access or join outdoor play while also wanting greater independence. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) also recommended providing children and parents with knowledge about disabilities and possible adaptations that could support participation. 

Time constraints can also limit family-level opportunities for outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) reported that some children had less time to play outdoors because of parents' work schedules, after-school arrangements and longer travel between home and school. This means that opportunities for outdoor play can be restricted even when children want to play and parents are supportive.

=== '''Communities''' ===
Community conditions can affect whether children have safe and inclusive opportunities for outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) described physical and social safety as important for inclusive outdoor play. Some playground structures also made participation difficult for children with disabilities. A systematic review of 25 studies found that both physical and social neighbourhood factors were associated with children's outdoor play (Visser &amp; van Aalst, 2022). Social factors included perceived safety, social cohesion and the presence of other children. However, the studies did not identify one neighbourhood feature that consistently explained children's outdoor play across all settings.

The social environment may also affect whether children can join others. Children with disabilities described smaller communities, including villages and schools, as places where children and parents could become more familiar with disability. Greater familiarity was associated with greater acceptance and stronger connections with other children (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Observational research also shows that physical access alone does not explain inclusive outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2026) observed 63 children with and without disabilities during six inclusive outdoor-play sessions and found children with disabilities had lower playfulness scores than children without disabilities. Unfamiliarity could also restrict social inclusion because children preferred to play with peers they already knew. This means providing the same outdoor space does not necessarily provide the same opportunity to participate.

The 2025 Position Statement on Active Outdoor Play recommends collaboration across sectors and settings to support equitable access to active outdoor play (Lee et al., 2025). The reviewed findings  show why both physical and social conditions matter. Children need places that can be accessed, but familiarity, safety and opportunities to join others can also affect participation. However, the evidence does not show that one community feature alone will increase outdoor play or improve emotional well-being.

=== '''Schools''' ===
Schools can provide opportunities for children with and without disabilities to become more familiar with one another. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified growing up together and making contact as interacting factors in inclusive outdoor play. Children described familiarity with other children as making contact easier. School circumstances can also affect the time available for outdoor play. Some children attending special primary education described long travel times between school and home as reducing their opportunities to play outdoors. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified these experiences as part of time constraints.

The physical school environment can also be changed to support outdoor activity and socio-emotional outcomes. Bikomeye et al. (2021) systematically reviewed six experimental studies of schoolyard greening. The interventions involved adding greenery and natural elements to schoolyards. Across the included studies, the review reported generally positive findings for physical activity and socio-emotional health. However, the review included only six studies. Schoolyard greening is also a specific intervention and should not be treated as evidence that all forms of outdoor play improve children's emotional well-being. 

Recess provides another school setting in which children's emotional experiences have been examined directly. Poulos et al. (2026) studied 317 Year 4 and 5 children during extreme heat. Positive affect was higher after outdoor and gymnasium recess than after classroom recess. There were no significant differences in negative affect between the three settings. Poulos et al. (2026) also identified implications for school health, policy and equity. The study discussed heat-adaptive infrastructure as one way to support access to recess environments during extreme heat. However, the findings do not show that outdoor recess is always better than indoor recess because positive affect was also higher after gymnasium recess. 

{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Quiz}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;

{Which statement best reflects how families, communities and school can support children's outdoor play opportunities?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}

+ Support can involve accessible environments, safety, familiarity, appropriate parental support and opportunities for children to participate with some independence.
- Providing the same outdoor space gives every child the same opportunity to participate.
-Schoolyard greening alone is enough to improve children's emotional well-being.
-Outdoor recess always produces better emotional outcomes than indoor recess.

&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}
== '''Conclusion''' ==
Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being are not represented by single, consistent concepts across recent research. Outdoor play should be distinguished from outdoor physical activity, while emotional well-being has been examined through emotional dysregulation, social-emotional competence, positive and negative affect, and internalising and externalising symptoms. These differences are important because findings across studies do not represent the same emotional outcomes or time frames. 

Outdoor play may be related to children's emotional well-being through several psychological processes, but the strength of evidence differs across them. Gross's (2015) emotion regulation framework helps explain how children may respond to emotional situations during play, while working memory provides more direct evidence of a possible cognitive process in the association between afternoon outdoor play and lower emotional dysregulation (Lee et al., 2025). However, these findings do not establish that outdoor play causes better emotion regulation or emotional well-being. Recent research also does not show one consistent effect across all children, outcomes or play contexts. Some studies report associations with better social-emotional competence, lower-risk symptom trajectories or higher positive affect, while other findings are mixed or non-significant (Davenport et al., 2025; Dodd et al., 2026; Ferguson et al., 2025). Differences in research design, measurement, timing and context therefore need to be considered when interpreting the evidence. 

Children's opportunities for outdoor play are also shaped by their social and physical environments. Accessibility, familiarity, autonomy, parental support, safety and opportunities to join other children can influence whether the same outdoor space provides the same opportunity to participate. Families, communities and schools can therefore support outdoor play by considering both access to outdoor spaces and the conditions that allow children to participate in ways that suit their needs and circumstances. Overall, current research suggests that outdoor play is associated with some aspects of children's emotional well-being, but the relationship is more complex than simply spending more time outdoors. The relation between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being varies depending on how outdoor play is measured, timing, context and children's opportunities to participate.

==See also==
* [[wikipedia:Affordance|Affordance]] (Wikipedia)
* [[wikipedia:Autonomy|Autonomy]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Cognitive psychology]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Emotion regulation in children|Emotion regulation in children]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Emotional regulation]] (Wikipedia)

* [[wikipedia:Emotional dysregulation|Emotional dysregulation]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Imaginative play and emotion regulation|Imaginative play and emotion regulation]] (Wikiversity)
* [[wikipedia:Working memory|Working memory]] (Wikipedia)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Beekhuizen, R. Q., Bloemen, M. A. T., Bolster, E. A. M., Visser, K., Lugt, R., Bassa, M., Henry, N. L., Kotte, E. M. W., Hartingsveldt, M., &amp; Gorter, J. W. (2026). Can You See Us Play? Observing Inclusive Outdoor Play Behaviour Among Children With and Without Disabilities: A Mixed Methods Study. Child : Care, Health &amp; Development, 52(1), e70198-n/a. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70198

Beekhuizen, R. Q., Bolster, E. A. M., Gorter, J. W., Henry, N. L., Visser, K., Wittink, H., Kotte, E. M. W., Sol, M. E., &amp; Bloemen, M. A. T. (2025). Play Together? Unveiling Facilitators and Barriers to Inclusive Outdoor Play for Dutch Children With and Without Disabilities: A Qualitative Study. Child: Care, Health &amp; Development, 51(6), Article e70154. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70154

Biino, V., Pesce, C., &amp; Martins, C. (2025). Motor Skill Development at Preschool Age in Girls and Boys: The Role of Outdoor Free Play. Children, 12(5), Article 594. https://doi.org/10.3390/children12050594

Bikomeye, J., Balza, J., &amp; Beyer, K. (2021). The Impact of Schoolyard Greening on Children’s Physical Activity and Socioemotional Health: A Systematic Review of Experimental Studies. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(2), 535. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18020535

Boxberger, K., &amp; Reimers, A. K. (2019). Parental correlates of outdoor play in boys and girls aged 0 to 12: A systematic review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(2, Art. 190), 19-16:2, Art. 190&lt;19. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16020190

Davenport, C., Kuzik, N., Larouche, R., &amp; Carson, V. (2025). The Associations Between Parental-Reported and Device-Based Measured Outdoor Play and Health Indicators of Physical, Cognitive, and Social–Emotional Development in Preschool-Aged Children. Pediatric Exercise Science, 37(2), 102–111. https://doi.org/10.1123/pes.2023-0119

de Lannoy, L., Barbeau, K., Seguin, N., &amp; Tremblay, M. S. (2023). Scoping review of children’s and youth’s outdoor play publications in Canada. Chronic Diseases in Canada, 43(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.24095/hpcdp.43.1.01

Dodd, H. F., Cordwell, K., Hesketh, K., Johnstone, A., de la Torre-Luque, A., &amp; McCrorie, P. (2026). Early outdoor play predicts trajectories of child mental health in a population-based cohort. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.70175

Ferguson, M., Teyhan, A., Lovell, R., Dodd, H., Wheeler, B., &amp; McEachan, R. (2025). The association between park visits, outdoor play and child social-emotional competency in a multi-ethnic, urban cohort. Wellbeing, Space and Society, 9, Article 100293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wss.2025.100293

Gal‐Szabo, D. E., Spinrad, T. L., Eisenberg, N., &amp; Sulik, M. J. (2019). The relations of children’s emotion knowledge to their observed social play and reticent/uninvolved behavior in preschool: Moderation by effortful control. Social Development (Oxford, England), 28(1), 57–73. https://doi.org/10.1111/sode.12321

Gibson, J. J. (1979). The ecological approach to visual perception / James J. Gibson. Houghton Mifflin.

Gibson, J.L., Cornell, M. &amp; Gill, T. A Systematic Review of Research into the Impact of Loose Parts Play on Children’s Cognitive, Social and Emotional Development. School Mental Health 9, 295–309 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-017-9220-9

Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion Regulation: Current Status and Future Prospects. Psychological Inquiry, 26(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2014.940781

Halberstadt, A. G., Denham, S. A., &amp; Dunsmore, J. C. (2001). Affective Social Competence. Social Development (Oxford, England), 10(1), 79–119. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9507.00150

Han, C. S., Brussoni, M. J., &amp; Mâsse, L. C. (2022). Parental Autonomy Support in the Context of Parent–Child Negotiation for Children’s Independent Mobility: ‘I Always Feel Safer With My Parents’ to ‘Boom! Bust Down Those Walls! The Journal of Early Adolescence, 42(6), Article 02724316211064513. https://doi.org/10.1177/02724316211064513

Johnstone, A., Martin, A., Cordovil, R., Fjørtoft, I., Iivonen, S., Jidovtseff, B., Lopes, F., Reilly, J. J., Thomson, H., Wells, V., &amp; McCrorie, P. (2022). Nature-Based Early Childhood Education and Children’s Social, Emotional and Cognitive Development: A Mixed-Methods Systematic Review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(10), 5967. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19105967

Lee, E.-Y., de Lannoy, L., Kim, Y.-B., Rathod, A., James, M. E., Lopes, O., Nasrallah, B., Thankarajah, A., Adjei-Boadi, D., de Barros, M. I. A., Duncan, S., Miller, R. M., Mygind, L., Vanderloo, L. M., Wang, P.-Y., &amp; Tremblay, M. S. (2025). 2025 Position statement on active outdoor play. The International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 22(1), Article 117. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-025-01813-9

Lee, J. J., Flouri, E., &amp; Jackson, Y. (2025). The Role of Timing and Amount of Outdoor Play in Emotional Dysregulation in Preschool Children. Child: Care, Health &amp; Development, 51(1), Article e70020. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70020

Morgenthaler, T., Lynch, H., Loebach, J., Pentland, D., &amp; Schulze, C. (2024). Using the Theory of Affordances to Understand Environment–Play Transactions: Environmental Taxonomy of Outdoor Play Space Features—A Scoping Review. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 78(4), Article 7804185120. https://doi.org/10.5014/ajot.2024.050606

Pereira, J. V., Vila-Nova, F., Veiga, G., Lopes, F., &amp; Cordovil, R. (2024). Associations between outdoor play features and children’s behavior and health: A systematic review. Health &amp; Place, 87, Article 103235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2024.103235

Poulos, A., Hassan, U. A., Wilson, K., Price, P. M., Vanos, J., &amp; Quilla, J. (2026). Differences in Schoolchildren’s Emotional State After Indoor Versus Outdoor Recess in Extreme‐Heat Weather. The Journal of School Health, 96(4), Article e70135. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.70135

Scherer, K. R. (2005). What are emotions? And how can they be measured? Social Science Information, 44(4), 695–729. https://doi.org/10.1177/0539018405058216

Veraksa, A. N., Plotnikova, V. A., Sukhikh, V. L., Kornienko, D. S., &amp; Rudnova, N. A. (2025). Non-therapeutic play to overcome negative emotional symptoms and improve emotional intelligence in children aged 3–7: a systematic review. Frontiers in Psychology, 16, 1475387. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1475387

Visser, K., &amp; Aalst, I. (2022). Neighbourhood Factors in Children’s Outdoor Play: A Systematic Literature Review. Tijdschrift Voor Economische En Sociale Geografie, 113(1), 80–95. https://doi.org/10.1111/tesg.12505

}}

==External links==
* [https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-play [https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-pla]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-play y]] (Encyclopedia in Early Childhood Development)
* [[https://www.outdoorplaycanada.ca/2026/06/02/sprout-able-resources-videos-and-tip-sheets-to-support-children-with-disabilities-in-outdoor-play/ https://www.outdoorplaycanada.ca/2026/06/02/sp]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[https://www.outdoorplaycanada.ca/2026/06/02/sprout-able-resources-videos-and-tip-sheets-to-support-children-with-disabilities-in-outdoor-play/ rout-able-resources-videos-and-tip-sheets-to-support-children-with-disabilities-in-outdoor-play/]/ SPROUT-able Resources: Videos and Tip Sheets to Support Children with Disabilities in Outdoor Play] (Outdoor Play Canada)

* https://www.who.int/news/item/24-04-2019-to-grow-up-healthy-children-need-to-sit-less-and-play-more&lt;nowiki/&gt; To grow up healthy, children need to sit less and play more] (World Health Organisation)

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__TOC__

== Overview ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;

|'''Case study: Part 1'''[[File:School children happily playing in playground.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. Children engaged in outdoor play, where social interactions, choice and control on the situation can create different emotional experiences.]]Imagine that...

A child arrives at playground and joins a group of children who are already playing. The children are making their own game and deciding the rules as they play. At first, the child enjoys choosing where and what to play. During the game, another child changes the rules and an argument breaks out. The child becomes frustrated and walks away from the activity. After watching for a short time, the child returns, suggests a new idea to continue the game and re-joins the group. 

How might experiences like this during outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? Emotional regulation provides one psychological framework for understanding how children may respond to situations like this during play (see figure 1).
|}

Outdoor play can involve more than physical movement. It can occur across playgrounds, gardens, streets and natural spaces. Outdoor play includes exploration, social interaction, choice, challenge, and engagement with the surrounding environment (Dodd et al., 2026; Pereira et al., 2024). These experiences can involve frustration, disagreement, uncertainty or excitement. This chapter examines how [[Emotional regulation|emotional,]] [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive]], social and environmental processes may help explain the relationship between outdoor play and children's [https://w.wiki/AHG6 emotional well-being.] 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|

;[[File:Bulb Idea Flat Icon GIF Animation.gif|alt=Focus questions|left|99x99px|thumb]]


'''Focus questions'''

* '''What are outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?'''
* '''How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?'''
* '''How do social and environmental conditions shape  children's outdoor play experiences?'''
* '''What does recent research show about outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?'''
* '''How can families, communities and schools support outdoor  play opportunities that may benefit children's emotional well-being?'''
|}

== '''Understanding outdoor play and children's emotional well-being''' ==
[[File:Water-outdoor-people-girl-play-boy-938233.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. ''Outdoor play can provide opportunities to explore, make choices, interact with others and respond to changing situations through activities such as water play.''|214x214px]]

Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being are not measured as single and consistent concepts across recent research. Outdoor play may be examined as voluntary and intrinsically motivated activity, self directed play, parent reported outdoor play, or device-measured outdoor play (Binno et al., 2025; Davenport et al., 2025; Dodd et al., 2026). It should also be distinguished from outdoor moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) because these measures do not represent the same behaviour (Davenport et al., 2025). Children's emotional well-being is also examined through different outcomes, including [https://w.wiki/7YC8 emotional dysregulation], social-emotional competence, positive and negative affect, and internalising or externalising symptoms (Dodd et al., 2026; Ferguson et al., 2025; Lee et al., 2025; Poulos et al., 2026).  

=== Outdoor play ===
Outdoor play is voluntary and intrinsically motivated activity that occurs in outdoor environments such as gardens, playgrounds, parks and natural spaces (Dodd et al., 2026). Free play can be also self-directed, allowing children to interact freely with the environment and make choices about their activities (Biino et al., 2025). Outdoor play should not be treated as the same as outdoor physical activity. The recent research outdoor play and outdoor moderate- to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) were examined as separate measures (Davenport et al., 2025). This distinction is important because outdoor play intensity of physical activity do not represent the same behaviour.  

=== Children's emotional well-being ===
Children's emotional well-being is not represented by a single common outcome across recent outdoor play research. Emotional dysregulation has been examined in relation to the amount and timing of outdoor play (Lee et al., 2025), while social-emotional competence includes social emotional difficulties and [[Prosocial behavior/Keywords/Definitions|prosocial behaviour]] (Ferguson et al., 2025). Other studies have examined positive and negative affect following recess (Poulos et al., 2026) and trajectories of internalising and externalising symptoms across childhood (Dodd et al., 2026). These outcomes represent different aspects and timeframes of emotional functioning, so they should not be treated as equivalent when findings are compared.

'''Table 1''' 

''Emotional outcomes examined in recent research on outdoor play and children's emotional well-being''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Study
!Outcome examined
!What the outcome represents                                                                                                  
|-
|Lee et al. (2025)   
|Emotional dysregulation
|Difficulties in emotional regulation; examined in relation to the amount of timing of outdoor play
|-
|Ferguson et al.          (2025)
|Social-emotional competence 
|Social-emotional difficulties and prosocial behaviour
|-
|Poulos et al. (2026)
|Positive and negative affect
|Children's affect following recess across different settings 
|-
|Dodd et al. (2026)
|Internalising and externalising symptoms
|Internalising: emotional symptoms and peer problems
Externalising: conduct problems and hyperactivity- inattention 
|}
Note. Outcome descriptions are based on the measures and constructs reported in the above cited studies. See Table 1. 

As shown in Table 1, the studies do not measure the same aspect or time frame of children's emotional functioning. Affect immediately following recess should not be treated as equivalent to emotional dysregulation measured over time or trajectories of internalising and externalising symptoms across childhood. This difference need to be considered when findings across studies are compared. 

'''Case study: part 2'''
 
''What is being measured?''

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |[[File:Children marbles.jpg|thumb|221x221px|'''Figure 3'''. ''Children's immediate emotional responses during outdoor play is different from long-term emotional functioning.'']]The child in the Case study: Part 1 becomes frustrated when the rules of the game change. This immediate emotional response is different from a longer-term pattern of emotional dysregulation or internalising symptoms. Research on outdoor play measures these outcomes across different time frames and contexts. When findings are compared, it is important to consider which aspect of emotional well-being is measured.

{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;

{A child's positive or negative affect immediately after recess represents the same emotional outcome as longer-term internalising or externalising symptoms.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}

- True
+ False

&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}

|}

== '''How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?''' ==
Outdoor play may be related to children's emotional well-being through emotional, cognitive, and social processes (Dodd et al., 2026). Possible pathways discussed in the recent research include cognitive, social and emotional skills, social interaction, physical activity, connection with the nature and adventurous play (Dodd et al., 2026). However, these pathways have not all been directly tested as mechanisms, and many of the outdoor play research remain observational (Dodd et al., 2026; de Lannoy et al., 2023). Psychological theory can help to explain how and why outdoor play experiences may influence children's emotional well-being. Although the evidence does not yet show that psychological processes cause the relationship between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being.

Emotion involves more than subjective feelings. Scherer (2005) described emotion as coordinated changes across cognitive appraisal, physiological responses, action tendencies, expression and subjective feelings. Therefore, physiological responses are one component of an emotional response rather than a separate explanation for the effects of outdoor play. Scherer (2005) did not examine outdoor play, so this framework does not provide evidence that outdoor play changes children's physiological responses or emotional well-being.

=== '''Emotion regulation''' ===
Emotion regulation provides a psychological framework for understanding how children may manage emotional situations during outdoor play. Gross (2015) described emotion regulation as a process involving identification, selection and implementation. Identification concerns deciding whether to regulate an emotion, selection concerns selecting regulation strategy and implementation concerns applying chosen response into practice. Gross (2015) also described situation selection, situation modification, attentional deployment cognitive change and response modulation. During outdoor play, children may experience frustration, conflict, disagreement, uncertainty or changes to their activity. Gross's framework can be applied to these situations to consider how the children recognise an emotional response, choose strategies to manage and act on chosen strategies. However, Gross (2015) did not examine outdoor play, so applying the framework does not show that outdoor play improves children's emotion regulation.

Broader research on  children's play has also examined emotional functioning. Veraksa et al. (2025) systematically reviewed 33 studies on non-therapeutic play among children aged 3 to 7 and identified evidence involving emotional regulation, emotional intelligence, and negative emotional symptoms. The review included outdoor play alongside several other forms of play, so its findings should not be interpreted as evidence that outdoor play alone improves emotion regulation. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Case study: Part 3'''[[File:14Y Ncdc july 5th-802.jpg|thumb|202x202px|'''Figure 4'''. ''Children can respond differently to emotional situations that occur during outdoor play.'']]When the rules of game change, the child becomes frustrated and decides to step away. After a short time the child returns and suggests a different way to continue the game (see Figure 4). Suggesting a change to the game can be considered an example of situation modification. This shows how Gross's emotion regulation framework can be applied to an emotional situation during outdoor play.

{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;

{What does Gross (2015) emotion regulation framework show when it is applied to the outdoor-play scenario?.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
-A. Outdoor play causes better emotion regulation.
+B. Situation modification can help explain how the child responds to the situation.
-C. Children regulate emotions better outdoors than indoors.
-D. Stepping away from play always improves emotional well-being.


&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}

|}
=== '''Working memory and cognitive process''' ===
Working memory can be one cognitive process involved in the association between outdoor play and emotional dysregulation. Lee et al. (2025) examined 325 preschool children and tested working memory as a statistical mediator. More outdoor play between noon and 6 pm was associated with lower emotional dysregulation. In contrast, more outdoor play before noon and after 6 pm was associated with higher emotional dysregulation. Afternoon outdoor play was also associated with better working memory, and better working memory was associated with lower emotional dysregulation.

When working memory was included in the analysis, the association between afternoon outdoor play and emotional dysregulation was no longer statistically significant. Lee et al. (2025) reported this as full mediation. This suggests that working memory may be involved in the association between afternoon outdoor play and lower emotional dysregulation. However, the study was observational, so the mediation analysis does not show that outdoor play caused better working memory or lower emotional dysregulation.

Johnstone et al. (2022) reviewed 36 studies of nature-based [[early childhood education]]. The review found very low certainty evidence for some social, emotional, and cognitive outcomes, including [[self-regulation]], while findings for attention were inconsistent. Although, the review examined nature-based early childhood education rather than outdoor play. Therefore, it does not show that working memory explains the association between outdoor play and children's [https://w.wiki/AHG6 emotional well-being].

'''Table 2'''

''Psychological processes considered in the relationship between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!Process
!Contribution
!Evidence and limitations 
|-
|Emotion components 
|Emotion involves cognitive appraisal, physiological responses, action tendencies, expression and subjective feelings (Scherer, 2005)
|Provides psychological framework, but Scherer did not examine outdoor play.
|-
|Emotion regulation
|Gross's (2015) framework can be applied to emotional situations during outdoor play, including frustration, disagreement and changes to an activity. 
|Helps explain responses, but does not show that outdoor play improves emotion regulation.
|-
|Working memory
|Lee et al. (2025) examined working memory as a statistical mediator between outdoor play and emotional dysregulation.
|Provides direct observational evidence of possible cognitive process but does not establish causation. 
|-
|Broader play/nature evidence
|Veraksa et al. (2025) and Johnstone et al. (2022) examined related play and nature based contexts.
|Relevant to interpretation, but not specific evidence that outdoor play causes better emotional well-being. 
|}
Note. The sources provide different types of evidence, including psychological frameworks, direct outdoor-play research and broader evidence about outdoor play and children's emotional well-being. 

== '''How do social and environmental conditions shape on children's outdoor play experiences?''' ==
[[File:2026-10-03 214531-relationship between child and environment.png|thumb|284x284px|'''Figure 5.''' Children's opportunities for outdoor play can be different according to personal, interacting and environmental factors and the relationship between the child and the environment.

Note. Original conceptual summary is based on Beekhuizen et al. (2025) and Gibson (1979).]]
Outdoor play opportunities depend on social and physical environments. Children may have access to same outdoor space but may not have same opportunities for play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified personal, interacting and environmental factors that could support or restrict inclusive outdoor play. These differences can be considered through [https://w.wiki/VYfL affordance theory], which examines the opportunities for action through the relationship between an individual and the environment (Gibson, 1979). See Figure 5. 


=== Affordance theory and outdoor play environments ===
[https://w.wiki/VYfL Affordance theory] was developed by Gibson (1979) to explain the opportunities for action that an environment  provides in relation to the person using it. In outdoor play, the opportunities provided by a space can depend on its physical features and how a child is able to use those features. Morgenthaler et al. (2024) applied affordance theory to children's outdoor play and examined outdoor play transactions through environmental taxonomy of outdoor play space features. Their review identified 14 categories of spaces and 284 play opportunities linked to different environmental features. Morgenthaler et al. (2024) showed that different spaces and objects can afford  different forms of play, which means two children using the same outdoor play space may not experience the same play opportunities. Therefore, the theory provides a way of understanding differences between children and their use of an outdoor environment. However this study examined the opportunities for play rather than children's well-being.

Pereira et al. (2024) also examined features of outdoor play spaces in a systematic review of 51 articles representing 45 primary studies. The review examined features such as fixed structures, natural elements, floor markings, loose equipment and available play areas. Some positive effects were reported, but there was substantial heterogeneity between studies. The studies differed in the environmental features examined, outcomes measures, and study methods, which made difficult to draw a clear conclusions about the effect of individual play space features (Pereira et al., 2024).Therefore, the review does not show that one particular environmental feature improves children's [https://w.wiki/AHG6 emotional well-being]. 

'''Table 3'''

''Examples of environmental features and possible affordances'' 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Environmental feature                             
!Possible affordance for play                                                        
|-
|Fixed structures (e.g. climbing frame)
|Can provide opportunity in different forms of physical activity. For example, climbing, physical play, risk-taking
|-
|Natural elements (e.g. tree, rocks, sand)
|Environmental features can provide opportunities for exploratory play, imaginative play, sensory experiences
|-
|Floor markings (e.g. painted games)
|Can support structured activities like rule based play, footy, tennis, etc.
|-
|Loose equipment (e.g. balls, tyre, boxes) 
|Movable environmental features that can be used during constructive play, imaginative play, creative problem solving play
|-
|Open play area
|Running, group play,  or flexible use
|}
Note. This table is an original synthesis based on environmental features described by Pereira et al. (2024) and  affordance framework applied by Morgenthaler et al. (2024).  Environmental features can afford more than one type of play and the opportunities may vary between children. 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Case study: Part 4 Same space, different opportunities'''
Kim and Leo are both at the same school playground during recess. The playground has a climbing structure, a sand pit area and open natural space. 

* Kim quickly joins a group of children using a climbing frame. The climbing frame structure provides opportunities for physical play and social interactions.
* Leo uses a sand pit with other child. He plays with loose materials and creates a sand castle and other different structures. The environment gives him an opportunity for imaginative play and social play.

These examples show how the same outdoor space can afford different forms of play for different children, depending on their interests, skills and social context. 
{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;

{Which statement best applies affordance theory to the example?.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
-A. The playground causes children to be more physically active.
+B. The same playground can provide different opportunities for play depending on the child and how they use the environment.
-C. Climbing structures always lead to better emotional well-being.
-D. Open spaces are only useful for social play.


&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}

|}
=== '''Social relationship and inclusion''' ===
Social relationships can shape whether children are able to join and continue outdoor play (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified making contact and growing up together as interacting factors in inclusive outdoor play. Familiarity with other children could make it easier to approach, communicate and play together, while joining unfamiliar children or existing game could be difficult.  

[https://w.wiki/WDsJ Affective social competence (ASC)] provides a psychological framework for understanding these social interactions (Halberstadt et al., 2001). The ASC model involves experiencing, sending and receiving affect, together with awareness, identification, working within the social context and regulation. These processes may be relevant when a child tries to enter a peer group, recognise other children's emotions and manage their own response during play.

Gal-Szabo et al. (2019) used the ASC model as theoretical foundation when examining children's emotional knowledge and social behaviour during preschool free play. The study found that situational understanding of the emotions was negatively related to uninvolved behaviour and was marginally positively related to more social play. However, the study examined preschool free play rather than specific outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) also found that children with disabilities experienced more barriers related to making contact, adapting play and physical play environment. These findings suggest that participation in outdoor play depends on both social interaction and children's ability to respond within the play situation, but they do not establish that social play causes better emotional well-being (Beekhuizen et al., 2025; Gal-Szabo et al., 2018).

=== '''Autonomy, parents and time''' ===
[https://w.wiki/4NyU Autonomy] can shape how children experience outdoor play (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified autonomy as a personal factor in inclusive outdoor play. Some children valued having independence over what they do and who they play with. Some children with disabilities wanted opportunities to play outside independently without direct parental involvement. Autonomy during play may also have an emotional function. Veraksa et al. (2025), in a systematic review of non-therapeutic play, identified autonomy as one feature through which play may support emotional regulation and coping. However, the review examined several forms of play and does not show that autonomy during outdoor play specially improves children's emotional well-being.

Parental support can also make outdoor play possible. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) found that parental involvement could support children's participation when a child needed help to access or participate in outdoor play. Time constraints also affected opportunities for outdoor play. Some children had less time to play outdoors because of parents' work schedule, after school arrangements or longer travel distance between home and school (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). These constraints could limit opportunities for outdoor play even when children wanted greater independence.

=== '''Outdoor environments and accessibility''' ===
Outdoor play environments can support or restrict children's participation (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified both physical and social features of outdoor environments as relevant to inclusive play. Children discussed safety, including traffic near playgrounds and disputes with other children. Accessibility was particularly important for children with disabilities because opportunities for inclusive outdoor play could be affected by play environments and physical abilities. Pereira et al. (2024) also showed that heterogeneity between studies limited clear conclusions about the effects of individual outdoor play space features.. 

Gibson et al. (2017) systematically reviewed five studies of loose-parts play (LPP) interventions with primary school aged children. The review found limited quantitative evidence to determine whether loose-parts interventions affected children's cognitive, social or emotional development. Together, these findings show that features of outdoor environments can support or restrict opportunities for play. However, current evidence does not establish that a particular environmental feature that improves children's emotional well-being (Beekhuizen et al., 2025; Gibson et al., 2017; Pereira et al., 2024). 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Case study: Part 5 Same play space, different experiences'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|Kim and Leo use the same school playground. Kim already knows many children and easily joins a group activity. Leo uses a mobility device and finds that some areas of the playground are difficult to access. Leo also does not know many children who are already playing. He prefers to play independently when possible. 
|}

The two children have access to the same playground space, but their opportunities to participate are different. There experiences are shaped by more than the physical space alone. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) also identified making contact, familiarity, autonomy and accessibility as factors that could support or restrict inclusive outdoor play.
Physical accessibility may affect whether a child can use part of playground, while familiarity with other children may affect whether the child can enter social play. Parental support may also help participation in some situations, while the child may still value greater independence
{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;

{Why might two children have different outdoor-play experiences even they use the same playground?.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+A. Physical, social and personal factors can affect how children are able to participate.
-B. Outdoor spaces provide the same opportunities for every child.
-C. Accessibility is the only factor that affects outdoor play..
-D. Children who know other children always have better emotional well-being.


&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}

|}
== '''What does recent research show about outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?''' ==
Recent research does not show a consistent association between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being. The findings are mixed across different emotional outcomes measured, the timing and context of outdoor play, children's behaviours, and the methods used to measure outdoor play. These differences are significant when interpreting whether outdoor play is associated with better emotional well-being.  

The recent studies shows this variation. More frequent outdoor play has been associated with better social-emotional competence (Ferguson et al., 2025) while association with emotional dysregulation differed according to the timing and context of outdoor play (Lee et al., 2025). Positive affect was also higher after outdoor play and and gymnasium recess than after classroom recess, but no significant differences in negative affect between settings (Poulos et al.,2026).   

Longer-term evidence also examines a different aspect of emotional functioning. More frequent outdoor play during the preschool years was associated with a greater likelihood of following a low and stable trajectory of internalising and externalising symptoms through childhood (Dodd et al., 2026). However, the studies differ in children's ages, research designs, measures of outdoor play and emotional outcomes. Therefore, the evidence should not be interpreted as showing one consistent effect across all children or forms of emotional well-being.

=== '''Consistency of recent research findings''' ===
Recent findings are not consistent across all emotional and developmental outcomes. Ferguson et al. (2025) found that more frequent outdoor play was associated with better social-emotional competence, including lower difficulties and greater [[Prosocial Behaviour|prosocial behaviour]]. In contrast, Davenport et al. (2025) found that most associations between outdoor play and the physical, [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive]] and social-emotional developmental indicators examined were not statistically significant. These differences show that positive association with outdoor play are not found across all developmental outcomes.

Findings can also differ according to the emotional outcome being measured. Poulos et al. (2026) found higher positive affect after outdoor and gymnasium recess than after classroom recess, but no significant differences in negative affect between the three recess settings.  Lee et al. (2025) found that  more afternoon outdoor play was associated with lower emotional dysregulation, while more outdoor play earlier and later in the day was associated with higher emotional dysregulation. These findings suggest that the association can differ according to both the emotional outcome and the timing of outdoor play.

The time period being examined also differs between studies. Dodd et al. (2026) found that more frequent outdoor play during the preschool years was associated with lower odds of belonging to less favourable internalising and externalising symptom trajectory across childhood. This is different from Poulos et al. (2026), who examined children's emotional states immediately after the recess. Therefore, recent research includes both immediate emotional outcomes and longer-term patterns of emotional functioning. 

Associations may vary across children and play contexts. Ferguson et al. (2025) reported differences according to ethnicity and whether outdoor play occurred on school days or weekends. Together, these findings suggest that the association between outdoor play and emotional well-being is not same across outcome.The studies differ in children's age, research designs, measures of outdoor play, and emotional outcomes. Thus, findings should not be treated as evidence of one single effect.

=== '''Strengths and limitations of current research''' ===
The strength of the evidence also differs according to research design. Dodd et al. (2026) used longitudinal data from 4,151 children and measured outdoor play during the preschool years at approximately 2, 3 and 4 years old, while internalising and externalising symptoms trajectories were measured later through to age 8. This strengthens the evidence about temporal ordering because outdoor play was measured before the later emotional outcomes. However, longitudinal evidence does not establish cause and effect, and the study relied on parent-reported measures.

Causal interpretation is also limited in other studies. Lee et al. (2025) used observational data and considered the possibility of reverse causation when interpreting associations between the timing of outdoor play and emotional dysregulation. This means the findings cannot establish whether outdoor play influenced emotional dysregulation or whether children's emotional functioning influenced when they played outdoors.

Measurement of outdoor play is another important consideration. Davenport et al. (2025) used both parent-reported and device-measured outdoor play and examined whether associations were independent of outdoor moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA). This is important because outdoor play and outdoor physical activity are related but should not be treated as interchangeable measures. However, the sample was relatively small (N=107) and most tested associations with developmental outcomes were not statistically significant.

Limitations are also present across the wider outdoor-play literature. De Lannoy et al. (2023) identified 275 Canadian outdoor-play publications and found that cross-sectional designs were the most common. Mental and emotional development had also received less research attention than physical health and development. This suggests that the evidence base for emotional well-being is less developed than some other areas of outdoor-play research.

T'''able 4'''

'''''Comparison of recent research'''''

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Study               
!Research method             
!Research strength                      
!Limitation                                                
|-
|  &lt;small&gt;Lee et al. (2025)&lt;/small&gt;                                     
|Observational; 6 month follow-up
|Examined the timing of outdoor play and tested working memory as a statistical mediator of the association with emotional dysregulation.     
|Observational mediation cannot establish causation; the study also considered possible reverse causation when interpreting timing-related findings.
|-
|Ferguson et al. (2025)
|Cross sectional; multi ethnic urban cohort (N=2,568)
|Large sample allowed associations to be examined across population groups and school-day/weekend outdoor play.
|Cross-sectional design cannot establish temporal direction; associations also differed across some groups and play contexts.
|-
|Davenport et al. (2025)
|Observational; preschool sample (N=107)
|Used both parent-reported and device-measured outdoor play and distinguished outdoor play from outdoor moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA)
|Small sample and most tested associations with developmental outcomes were not statistically significant.
|-
|Dodd et al. (2026)
|Longitudinal cohort (N = 4,151)
|Outdoor play was measured in the preschool years before later internalising and externalising symptom trajectories.
|Outdoor play and symptoms relied on parent reported measures, and the observational design does not establish causations.
|-
|Poulos et al. (2026)
|Recess comparison study (N=317)
|Compared children's positive and negative affect following outdoor, gymnasium and classroom recess
|Examined immediate affect during an extreme-heat context; higher positive affect was also found after gymnasium recess, so the result was not specific to outdoor recess.
|}
As shown in Table 4, the recent evidence has different methodological strengths and limitations. Longitudinal designs provide stronger evidence about temporal ordering than cross-sectional design studies, while device-based measures can address some limitations of parent report. However, much of the evidence remains observational, and differences in emotional outcomes, measures of outdoor play and play contexts limit the direct comparison between studies. 

Future research could benefit from more consistent measures of outdoor play, stronger longitudinal and experimental designs and greater attention to emotional outcomes across different children and play contexts. 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;

{Why should the recent findings not be interpreted as showing single consistent effect of outdoor play on children's emotional well-being?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
-A. Because all the studies used different countries.
+B. Because studies differed in emotional outcomes, measures of outdoor play, timing, context and research design.
-C. Because longitudinal studies are always more reliable and accurate.
-D. Because outdoor play only affects positive outcomes.


&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}

|}
== '''How do families, communities and schools support outdoor play opportunities?''' ==
[[File:Coalition Builds New Playground in One Day for Chicora-Cherokee Community (11054532905).jpg|thumb|325x325px|Figure 6. Families, communities and school can shape children's opportunities for play.]]
Outdoor play opportunities are shaped by children's social and physical environments. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified parents, outdoor play environments, communities and time constraints as environmental factors in inclusive outdoor play. The study also identified autonomy, growing up together, making contact and adapting ways of playing as factors that affected participation. The 2025 Position Statement on Active Outdoor Play recommends increasing opportunities for active outdoor play where people live, learn, work and play (Lee et al., 2025). It also recommends collaboration across sectors and settings to support equitable access. Together, these findings provide a broader context for considering the roles of families, communities and schools. These influences can operate across family, community and school settings (see Figure 5).

=== '''Families''' ===
Parents can influence whether children have opportunities to play outdoors. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified parents as an environmental factor in inclusive outdoor play. Children with disabilities described parents as important in encouraging participation. For some children, parents also helped to explain their disability to other children (Beekhuizen et al., 2025).  

Broader research also identifies parental factors in children's outdoor play. A systematic review of 21 peer reviewed studies involving children aged 0 to 12 years found that the importance placed on outdoor play was associated with how much time children spent playing outdoors  (Boxberger and Reimers, 2019). Evidence for parental encouragement and support was less consistent across children (Boxberger and Reimers, 2019). This suggests that family influence is not limited to direct encouragement. Parents' attitude towards outdoor play may shape children's opportunities to play outdoors. However, the review identified some associations but does not show that parental attitude caused greater outdoor play. 

Parental support  can also involve allowing children to have some independence during outdoor play. Support can make participation possible, but it does not always require direct parental involvement (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). This is particularly relevant when children want more control over how and where they play. Research on independent mobility also shows that children and parents may differ in how much independence they prefer (Han et al., 2022). The study identified different patterns in children's and parents' preferences for independent mobility. These findings show that parental support and autonomy do not always involve the same level of parental involvement. Some children may need support to access or join outdoor play while also wanting greater independence. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) also recommended providing children and parents with knowledge about disabilities and possible adaptations that could support participation. 

Time constraints can also limit family-level opportunities for outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) reported that some children had less time to play outdoors because of parents' work schedules, after-school arrangements and longer travel between home and school. This means that opportunities for outdoor play can be restricted even when children want to play and parents are supportive.

=== '''Communities''' ===
Community conditions can affect whether children have safe and inclusive opportunities for outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) described physical and social safety as important for inclusive outdoor play. Some playground structures also made participation difficult for children with disabilities. A systematic review of 25 studies found that both physical and social neighbourhood factors were associated with children's outdoor play (Visser &amp; van Aalst, 2022). Social factors included perceived safety, social cohesion and the presence of other children. However, the studies did not identify one neighbourhood feature that consistently explained children's outdoor play across all settings.

The social environment may also affect whether children can join others. Children with disabilities described smaller communities, including villages and schools, as places where children and parents could become more familiar with disability. Greater familiarity was associated with greater acceptance and stronger connections with other children (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Observational research also shows that physical access alone does not explain inclusive outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2026) observed 63 children with and without disabilities during six inclusive outdoor-play sessions and found children with disabilities had lower playfulness scores than children without disabilities. Unfamiliarity could also restrict social inclusion because children preferred to play with peers they already knew. This means providing the same outdoor space does not necessarily provide the same opportunity to participate.

The 2025 Position Statement on Active Outdoor Play recommends collaboration across sectors and settings to support equitable access to active outdoor play (Lee et al., 2025). The reviewed findings  show why both physical and social conditions matter. Children need places that can be accessed, but familiarity, safety and opportunities to join others can also affect participation. However, the evidence does not show that one community feature alone will increase outdoor play or improve emotional well-being.

=== '''Schools''' ===
Schools can provide opportunities for children with and without disabilities to become more familiar with one another. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified growing up together and making contact as interacting factors in inclusive outdoor play. Children described familiarity with other children as making contact easier. School circumstances can also affect the time available for outdoor play. Some children attending special primary education described long travel times between school and home as reducing their opportunities to play outdoors. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified these experiences as part of time constraints.

The physical school environment can also be changed to support outdoor activity and socio-emotional outcomes. Bikomeye et al. (2021) systematically reviewed six experimental studies of schoolyard greening. The interventions involved adding greenery and natural elements to schoolyards. Across the included studies, the review reported generally positive findings for physical activity and socio-emotional health. However, the review included only six studies. Schoolyard greening is also a specific intervention and should not be treated as evidence that all forms of outdoor play improve children's emotional well-being. 

Recess provides another school setting in which children's emotional experiences have been examined directly. Poulos et al. (2026) studied 317 Year 4 and 5 children during extreme heat. Positive affect was higher after outdoor and gymnasium recess than after classroom recess. There were no significant differences in negative affect between the three settings. Poulos et al. (2026) also identified implications for school health, policy and equity. The study discussed heat-adaptive infrastructure as one way to support access to recess environments during extreme heat. However, the findings do not show that outdoor recess is always better than indoor recess because positive affect was also higher after gymnasium recess. 

{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Quiz}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;

{Which statement best reflects how families, communities and school can support children's outdoor play opportunities?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}

+ Support can involve accessible environments, safety, familiarity, appropriate parental support and opportunities for children to participate with some independence.
- Providing the same outdoor space gives every child the same opportunity to participate.
-Schoolyard greening alone is enough to improve children's emotional well-being.
-Outdoor recess always produces better emotional outcomes than indoor recess.

&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}
== '''Conclusion''' ==
Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being are not represented by single, consistent concepts across recent research. Outdoor play should be distinguished from outdoor physical activity, while emotional well-being has been examined through emotional dysregulation, social-emotional competence, positive and negative affect, and internalising and externalising symptoms. These differences are important because findings across studies do not represent the same emotional outcomes or time frames. 

Outdoor play may be related to children's emotional well-being through several psychological processes, but the strength of evidence differs across them. Gross's (2015) emotion regulation framework helps explain how children may respond to emotional situations during play, while working memory provides more direct evidence of a possible cognitive process in the association between afternoon outdoor play and lower emotional dysregulation (Lee et al., 2025). However, these findings do not establish that outdoor play causes better emotion regulation or emotional well-being. Recent research also does not show one consistent effect across all children, outcomes or play contexts. Some studies report associations with better social-emotional competence, lower-risk symptom trajectories or higher positive affect, while other findings are mixed or non-significant (Davenport et al., 2025; Dodd et al., 2026; Ferguson et al., 2025). Differences in research design, measurement, timing and context therefore need to be considered when interpreting the evidence. 

Children's opportunities for outdoor play are also shaped by their social and physical environments. Accessibility, familiarity, autonomy, parental support, safety and opportunities to join other children can influence whether the same outdoor space provides the same opportunity to participate. Families, communities and schools can therefore support outdoor play by considering both access to outdoor spaces and the conditions that allow children to participate in ways that suit their needs and circumstances. Overall, current research suggests that outdoor play is associated with some aspects of children's emotional well-being, but the relationship is more complex than simply spending more time outdoors. The relation between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being varies depending on how outdoor play is measured, timing, context and children's opportunities to participate.

==See also==
* [[wikipedia:Affordance|Affordance]] (Wikipedia)
* [[wikipedia:Autonomy|Autonomy]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Cognitive psychology]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Emotion regulation in children|Emotion regulation in children]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Emotional regulation]] (Wikipedia)

* [[wikipedia:Emotional dysregulation|Emotional dysregulation]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Imaginative play and emotion regulation|Imaginative play and emotion regulation]] (Wikiversity)
* [[wikipedia:Working memory|Working memory]] (Wikipedia)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Beekhuizen, R. Q., Bloemen, M. A. T., Bolster, E. A. M., Visser, K., Lugt, R., Bassa, M., Henry, N. L., Kotte, E. M. W., Hartingsveldt, M., &amp; Gorter, J. W. (2026). Can You See Us Play? Observing Inclusive Outdoor Play Behaviour Among Children With and Without Disabilities: A Mixed Methods Study. Child : Care, Health &amp; Development, 52(1), e70198-n/a. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70198

Beekhuizen, R. Q., Bolster, E. A. M., Gorter, J. W., Henry, N. L., Visser, K., Wittink, H., Kotte, E. M. W., Sol, M. E., &amp; Bloemen, M. A. T. (2025). Play Together? Unveiling Facilitators and Barriers to Inclusive Outdoor Play for Dutch Children With and Without Disabilities: A Qualitative Study. Child: Care, Health &amp; Development, 51(6), Article e70154. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70154

Biino, V., Pesce, C., &amp; Martins, C. (2025). Motor Skill Development at Preschool Age in Girls and Boys: The Role of Outdoor Free Play. Children, 12(5), Article 594. https://doi.org/10.3390/children12050594

Bikomeye, J., Balza, J., &amp; Beyer, K. (2021). The Impact of Schoolyard Greening on Children’s Physical Activity and Socioemotional Health: A Systematic Review of Experimental Studies. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(2), 535. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18020535

Boxberger, K., &amp; Reimers, A. K. (2019). Parental correlates of outdoor play in boys and girls aged 0 to 12: A systematic review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(2, Art. 190), 19-16:2, Art. 190&lt;19. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16020190

Davenport, C., Kuzik, N., Larouche, R., &amp; Carson, V. (2025). The Associations Between Parental-Reported and Device-Based Measured Outdoor Play and Health Indicators of Physical, Cognitive, and Social–Emotional Development in Preschool-Aged Children. Pediatric Exercise Science, 37(2), 102–111. https://doi.org/10.1123/pes.2023-0119

de Lannoy, L., Barbeau, K., Seguin, N., &amp; Tremblay, M. S. (2023). Scoping review of children’s and youth’s outdoor play publications in Canada. Chronic Diseases in Canada, 43(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.24095/hpcdp.43.1.01

Dodd, H. F., Cordwell, K., Hesketh, K., Johnstone, A., de la Torre-Luque, A., &amp; McCrorie, P. (2026). Early outdoor play predicts trajectories of child mental health in a population-based cohort. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.70175

Ferguson, M., Teyhan, A., Lovell, R., Dodd, H., Wheeler, B., &amp; McEachan, R. (2025). The association between park visits, outdoor play and child social-emotional competency in a multi-ethnic, urban cohort. Wellbeing, Space and Society, 9, Article 100293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wss.2025.100293

Gal‐Szabo, D. E., Spinrad, T. L., Eisenberg, N., &amp; Sulik, M. J. (2019). The relations of children’s emotion knowledge to their observed social play and reticent/uninvolved behavior in preschool: Moderation by effortful control. Social Development (Oxford, England), 28(1), 57–73. https://doi.org/10.1111/sode.12321

Gibson, J. J. (1979). The ecological approach to visual perception / James J. Gibson. Houghton Mifflin.

Gibson, J.L., Cornell, M. &amp; Gill, T. A Systematic Review of Research into the Impact of Loose Parts Play on Children’s Cognitive, Social and Emotional Development. School Mental Health 9, 295–309 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-017-9220-9

Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion Regulation: Current Status and Future Prospects. Psychological Inquiry, 26(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2014.940781

Halberstadt, A. G., Denham, S. A., &amp; Dunsmore, J. C. (2001). Affective Social Competence. Social Development (Oxford, England), 10(1), 79–119. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9507.00150

Han, C. S., Brussoni, M. J., &amp; Mâsse, L. C. (2022). Parental Autonomy Support in the Context of Parent–Child Negotiation for Children’s Independent Mobility: ‘I Always Feel Safer With My Parents’ to ‘Boom! Bust Down Those Walls! The Journal of Early Adolescence, 42(6), Article 02724316211064513. https://doi.org/10.1177/02724316211064513

Johnstone, A., Martin, A., Cordovil, R., Fjørtoft, I., Iivonen, S., Jidovtseff, B., Lopes, F., Reilly, J. J., Thomson, H., Wells, V., &amp; McCrorie, P. (2022). Nature-Based Early Childhood Education and Children’s Social, Emotional and Cognitive Development: A Mixed-Methods Systematic Review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(10), 5967. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19105967

Lee, E.-Y., de Lannoy, L., Kim, Y.-B., Rathod, A., James, M. E., Lopes, O., Nasrallah, B., Thankarajah, A., Adjei-Boadi, D., de Barros, M. I. A., Duncan, S., Miller, R. M., Mygind, L., Vanderloo, L. M., Wang, P.-Y., &amp; Tremblay, M. S. (2025). 2025 Position statement on active outdoor play. The International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 22(1), Article 117. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-025-01813-9

Lee, J. J., Flouri, E., &amp; Jackson, Y. (2025). The Role of Timing and Amount of Outdoor Play in Emotional Dysregulation in Preschool Children. Child: Care, Health &amp; Development, 51(1), Article e70020. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70020

Morgenthaler, T., Lynch, H., Loebach, J., Pentland, D., &amp; Schulze, C. (2024). Using the Theory of Affordances to Understand Environment–Play Transactions: Environmental Taxonomy of Outdoor Play Space Features—A Scoping Review. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 78(4), Article 7804185120. https://doi.org/10.5014/ajot.2024.050606

Pereira, J. V., Vila-Nova, F., Veiga, G., Lopes, F., &amp; Cordovil, R. (2024). Associations between outdoor play features and children’s behavior and health: A systematic review. Health &amp; Place, 87, Article 103235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2024.103235

Poulos, A., Hassan, U. A., Wilson, K., Price, P. M., Vanos, J., &amp; Quilla, J. (2026). Differences in Schoolchildren’s Emotional State After Indoor Versus Outdoor Recess in Extreme‐Heat Weather. The Journal of School Health, 96(4), Article e70135. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.70135

Scherer, K. R. (2005). What are emotions? And how can they be measured? Social Science Information, 44(4), 695–729. https://doi.org/10.1177/0539018405058216

Veraksa, A. N., Plotnikova, V. A., Sukhikh, V. L., Kornienko, D. S., &amp; Rudnova, N. A. (2025). Non-therapeutic play to overcome negative emotional symptoms and improve emotional intelligence in children aged 3–7: a systematic review. Frontiers in Psychology, 16, 1475387. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1475387

Visser, K., &amp; Aalst, I. (2022). Neighbourhood Factors in Children’s Outdoor Play: A Systematic Literature Review. Tijdschrift Voor Economische En Sociale Geografie, 113(1), 80–95. https://doi.org/10.1111/tesg.12505

}}

==External links==
* [https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-play [https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-pla]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-play y]] (Encyclopedia in Early Childhood Development)
* [[https://www.outdoorplaycanada.ca/2026/06/02/sprout-able-resources-videos-and-tip-sheets-to-support-children-with-disabilities-in-outdoor-play/ https://www.outdoorplaycanada.ca/2026/06/02/sp]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[https://www.outdoorplaycanada.ca/2026/06/02/sprout-able-resources-videos-and-tip-sheets-to-support-children-with-disabilities-in-outdoor-play/ rout-able-resources-videos-and-tip-sheets-to-support-children-with-disabilities-in-outdoor-play/]/ SPROUT-able Resources: Videos and Tip Sheets to Support Children with Disabilities in Outdoor Play] (Outdoor Play Canada)

* https://www.who.int/news/item/24-04-2019-to-grow-up-healthy-children-need-to-sit-less-and-play-more&lt;nowiki/&gt; To grow up healthy, children need to sit less and play more] (World Health Organisation)

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__TOC__

== Overview ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;

|'''Case study: Part 1'''[[File:School children happily playing in playground.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. Children engaged in outdoor play, where social interactions, choice and control on the situation can create different emotional experiences.]]Imagine that...

A child arrives at playground and joins a group of children who are already playing. The children are making their own game and deciding the rules as they play. At first, the child enjoys choosing where and what to play. During the game, another child changes the rules and an argument breaks out. The child becomes frustrated and walks away from the activity. After watching for a short time, the child returns, suggests a new idea to continue the game and re-joins the group. 

How might experiences like this during outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? Emotional regulation provides one psychological framework for understanding how children may respond to situations like this during play (see figure 1).
|}

Outdoor play can involve more than physical movement. It can occur across playgrounds, gardens, streets and natural spaces. Outdoor play includes exploration, social interaction, choice, challenge, and engagement with the surrounding environment (Dodd et al., 2026; Pereira et al., 2024). These experiences can involve frustration, disagreement, uncertainty or excitement. This chapter examines how [[Emotional regulation|emotional,]] [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive]], social and environmental processes may help explain the relationship between outdoor play and children's [https://w.wiki/AHG6 emotional well-being.] 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|

;[[File:Bulb Idea Flat Icon GIF Animation.gif|alt=Focus questions|left|99x99px|thumb]]


'''Focus questions'''

* '''What are outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?'''
* '''How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?'''
* '''How do social and environmental conditions shape  children's outdoor play experiences?'''
* '''What does recent research show about outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?'''
* '''How can families, communities and schools support outdoor  play opportunities that may benefit children's emotional well-being?'''
|}

== '''Understanding outdoor play and children's emotional well-being''' ==
[[File:Water-outdoor-people-girl-play-boy-938233.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. ''Outdoor play can provide opportunities to explore, make choices, interact with others and respond to changing situations through activities such as water play.''|214x214px]]

Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being are not measured as single and consistent concepts across recent research. Outdoor play may be examined as voluntary and intrinsically motivated activity, self directed play, parent reported outdoor play, or device-measured outdoor play (Binno et al., 2025; Davenport et al., 2025; Dodd et al., 2026). It should also be distinguished from outdoor moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) because these measures do not represent the same behaviour (Davenport et al., 2025). Children's emotional well-being is also examined through different outcomes, including [https://w.wiki/7YC8 emotional dysregulation], social-emotional competence, positive and negative affect, and internalising or externalising symptoms (Dodd et al., 2026; Ferguson et al., 2025; Lee et al., 2025; Poulos et al., 2026).  

=== Outdoor play ===
Outdoor play is voluntary and intrinsically motivated activity that occurs in outdoor environments such as gardens, playgrounds, parks and natural spaces (Dodd et al., 2026). Free play can be also self-directed, allowing children to interact freely with the environment and make choices about their activities (Biino et al., 2025). Outdoor play should not be treated as the same as outdoor physical activity. The recent research outdoor play and outdoor moderate- to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) were examined as separate measures (Davenport et al., 2025). This distinction is important because outdoor play intensity of physical activity do not represent the same behaviour.  

=== Children's emotional well-being ===
Children's emotional well-being is not represented by a single common outcome across recent outdoor play research. Emotional dysregulation has been examined in relation to the amount and timing of outdoor play (Lee et al., 2025), while social-emotional competence includes social emotional difficulties and [[Prosocial behavior/Keywords/Definitions|prosocial behaviour]] (Ferguson et al., 2025). Other studies have examined positive and negative affect following recess (Poulos et al., 2026) and trajectories of internalising and externalising symptoms across childhood (Dodd et al., 2026). These outcomes represent different aspects and timeframes of emotional functioning, so they should not be treated as equivalent when findings are compared.

'''Table 1''' 

''Emotional outcomes examined in recent research on outdoor play and children's emotional well-being''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Study
!Outcome examined
!What the outcome represents                                                                                                  
|-
|Lee et al. (2025)   
|Emotional dysregulation
|Difficulties in emotional regulation; examined in relation to the amount of timing of outdoor play
|-
|Ferguson et al.          (2025)
|Social-emotional competence 
|Social-emotional difficulties and prosocial behaviour
|-
|Poulos et al. (2026)
|Positive and negative affect
|Children's affect following recess across different settings 
|-
|Dodd et al. (2026)
|Internalising and externalising symptoms
|Internalising: emotional symptoms and peer problems
Externalising: conduct problems and hyperactivity- inattention 
|}
Note. Outcome descriptions are based on the measures and constructs reported in the above cited studies. See Table 1. 

As shown in Table 1, the studies do not measure the same aspect or time frame of children's emotional functioning. Affect immediately following recess should not be treated as equivalent to emotional dysregulation measured over time or trajectories of internalising and externalising symptoms across childhood. This difference need to be considered when findings across studies are compared. 

'''Case study: part 2'''
 
''What is being measured?''

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |[[File:Children marbles.jpg|thumb|221x221px|'''Figure 3'''. ''Children's immediate emotional responses during outdoor play is different from long-term emotional functioning.'']]The child in the Case study: Part 1 becomes frustrated when the rules of the game change. This immediate emotional response is different from a longer-term pattern of emotional dysregulation or internalising symptoms. Research on outdoor play measures these outcomes across different time frames and contexts. When findings are compared, it is important to consider which aspect of emotional well-being is measured.

{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;

{A child's positive or negative affect immediately after recess represents the same emotional outcome as longer-term internalising or externalising symptoms.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}

- True
+ False

&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}

|}

== '''How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?''' ==
Outdoor play may be related to children's emotional well-being through emotional, cognitive, and social processes (Dodd et al., 2026). Possible pathways discussed in the recent research include cognitive, social and emotional skills, social interaction, physical activity, connection with nature and adventurous play (Dodd et al., 2026). However, these pathways have not all been directly tested as mechanisms, and much outdoor play research remains observational (Dodd et al., 2026; de Lannoy et al., 2023). Psychological theory can help to explain how and why outdoor play experiences may influence children's emotional well-being. However, theory alone does not show that psychological processes cause better emotional well-being.

Emotion involves more than subjective feelings. Scherer (2005) described emotion as coordinated changes across cognitive appraisal, physiological responses, action tendencies, expression and subjective feelings. Therefore, physiological response is one component of an emotional response rather than a separate explanation for the effects of outdoor play. Scherer (2005) did not examine outdoor play, so this framework does not provide evidence that outdoor play changes children's physiological responses or emotional well-being.

=== '''Emotion regulation''' ===
Emotion regulation provides a psychological framework for understanding how children may manage emotional situations during outdoor play. Gross (2015) described emotion regulation as a process involving identification, selection and implementation. Gross (2015) also described situation selection, situation modification, attentional deployment cognitive change and response modulation. During outdoor play, children may experience frustration, conflict, disagreement, uncertainty or changes to their activity. Gross's framework can be applied to consider how the children recognise an emotional response, choose strategies to manage and act on chosen strategies. However, Gross (2015) did not examine outdoor play, so applying the framework does not show that outdoor play improves children's emotion regulation.

Broader research on  children's play has also examined emotional functioning. Veraksa et al. (2025) systematically reviewed 33 studies on non-therapeutic play among children aged 3 to 7 and identified evidence involving emotional regulation, emotional intelligence, and negative emotional symptoms. The review included outdoor play alongside several other forms of play, so its findings should not be interpreted as evidence that outdoor play alone improves emotion regulation. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Case study: Part 3'''[[File:14Y Ncdc july 5th-802.jpg|thumb|202x202px|'''Figure 4'''. ''Children can respond differently to emotional situations that occur during outdoor play.'']]When the rules of game change, the child becomes frustrated and decides to step away. After a short time the child returns and suggests a different way to continue the game (see Figure 4). Suggesting a change to the game can be considered an example of situation modification. This shows how Gross's emotion regulation framework can be applied to an emotional situation during outdoor play.

{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;

{What does Gross (2015) emotion regulation framework show when it is applied to the outdoor-play scenario?.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
-A. Outdoor play causes better emotion regulation.
+B. Situation modification can help explain how the child responds to the situation.
-C. Children regulate emotions better outdoors than indoors.
-D. Stepping away from play always improves emotional well-being.


&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}

|}
=== '''Working memory and cognitive process''' ===
Working memory can be one cognitive process involved in the association between outdoor play and emotional dysregulation. Lee et al. (2025) examined 325 preschool children and tested working memory as a statistical mediator. More outdoor play between noon and 6 pm was associated with lower emotional dysregulation. In contrast, more outdoor play before noon and after 6 pm was associated with higher emotional dysregulation. Afternoon outdoor play was also associated with better working memory, and better working memory was associated with lower emotional dysregulation.

When working memory was included in the analysis, the association between afternoon outdoor play and emotional dysregulation was no longer statistically significant. Lee et al. (2025) reported this as full mediation. This suggests that working memory may be involved in the association between afternoon outdoor play and lower emotional dysregulation. However, the study was observational, so the mediation analysis does not show that outdoor play caused better working memory or lower emotional dysregulation.

Johnstone et al. (2022) reviewed 36 studies of nature-based [[early childhood education]]. The review found very low certainty evidence for some social, emotional, and cognitive outcomes, including [[self-regulation]], while findings for attention were inconsistent. Although, the review examined nature-based early childhood education rather than outdoor play. Therefore, it does not show that working memory explains the association between outdoor play and children's [https://w.wiki/AHG6 emotional well-being].

'''Table 2'''

''Psychological processes considered in the relationship between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!Process
!Contribution
!Evidence and limitations 
|-
|Emotion components 
|Emotion involves cognitive appraisal, physiological responses, action tendencies, expression and subjective feelings (Scherer, 2005)
|Provides psychological framework, but Scherer did not examine outdoor play.
|-
|Emotion regulation
|Gross's (2015) framework can be applied to emotional situations during outdoor play, including frustration, disagreement and changes to an activity. 
|Helps explain responses, but does not show that outdoor play improves emotion regulation.
|-
|Working memory
|Lee et al. (2025) examined working memory as a statistical mediator between outdoor play and emotional dysregulation.
|Provides direct observational evidence of possible cognitive process but does not establish causation. 
|-
|Broader play/nature evidence
|Veraksa et al. (2025) and Johnstone et al. (2022) examined related play and nature based contexts.
|Relevant to interpretation, but not specific evidence that outdoor play causes better emotional well-being. 
|}
Note. The sources provide different types of evidence, including psychological frameworks, direct outdoor-play research and broader evidence about outdoor play and children's emotional well-being. 

== '''How do social and environmental conditions shape on children's outdoor play experiences?''' ==
[[File:2026-10-03 214531-relationship between child and environment.png|thumb|284x284px|'''Figure 5.''' Children's opportunities for outdoor play can be different according to personal, interacting and environmental factors and the relationship between the child and the environment.

Note. Original conceptual summary is based on Beekhuizen et al. (2025) and Gibson (1979).]]
Outdoor play opportunities depend on social and physical environments. Children may have access to same outdoor space but may not have same opportunities for play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified personal, interacting and environmental factors that could support or restrict inclusive outdoor play. These differences can be considered through [https://w.wiki/VYfL affordance theory], which examines the opportunities for action through the relationship between an individual and the environment (Gibson, 1979). See Figure 5. 


=== Affordance theory and outdoor play environments ===
[https://w.wiki/VYfL Affordance theory] was developed by Gibson (1979) to explain the opportunities for action that an environment  provides in relation to the person using it. In outdoor play, the opportunities provided by a space can depend on its physical features and how a child is able to use those features. Morgenthaler et al. (2024) applied affordance theory to children's outdoor play and examined outdoor play transactions through environmental taxonomy of outdoor play space features. Their review identified 14 categories of spaces and 284 play occupations linked to different environmental features. Morgenthaler et al. (2024) showed that different spaces and objects can afford  different forms of play, which helps explain why same space may provide different opportunities. However this study examined the opportunities for play rather than children's well-being.

Pereira et al. (2024) also examined features of outdoor play spaces in a systematic review of 51 articles representing 45 primary studies. The review examined features such as fixed structures, natural elements, floor markings, loose equipment and available play areas. Some positive effects were reported, but there was substantial heterogeneity between studies. The studies differed in the environmental features examined, outcomes measures, and study methods, which made difficult to draw a clear conclusions about the effect of individual play space features (Pereira et al., 2024).Therefore, the review does not show that one particular environmental feature improves children's [https://w.wiki/AHG6 emotional well-being]. 

'''Table 3'''

''Examples of environmental features and possible affordances'' 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Environmental feature                             
!Possible affordance for play                                                        
|-
|Fixed structures (e.g. climbing frame)
|Can provide opportunity in different forms of physical activity. For example, climbing, physical play, risk-taking
|-
|Natural elements (e.g. tree, rocks, sand)
|Environmental features can provide opportunities for exploratory play, imaginative play, sensory experiences
|-
|Floor markings (e.g. painted games)
|Can support structured activities like rule based play, footy, tennis, etc.
|-
|Loose equipment (e.g. balls, tyre, boxes) 
|Movable environmental features that can be used during constructive play, imaginative play, creative problem solving play
|-
|Open play area
|Running, group play,  or flexible use
|}
Note. This table is an original synthesis based on environmental features described by Pereira et al. (2024) and  affordance framework applied by Morgenthaler et al. (2024).  Environmental features can afford more than one type of play and the opportunities may vary between children. 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Case study: Part 4 Same space, different opportunities'''
Kim and Leo are both at the same school playground during recess. The playground has a climbing structure, a sand pit area and open natural space. 

* Kim quickly joins a group of children using a climbing frame. The climbing frame structure provides opportunities for physical play and social interactions.
* Leo uses a sand pit with other child. He plays with loose materials and creates a sand castle and other different structures. The environment gives him an opportunity for imaginative play and social play.

These examples show how the same outdoor space can afford different forms of play for different children, depending on their interests, skills and social context. 
{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;

{Which statement best applies affordance theory to the example?.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
-A. The playground causes children to be more physically active.
+B. The same playground can provide different opportunities for play depending on the child and how they use the environment.
-C. Climbing structures always lead to better emotional well-being.
-D. Open spaces are only useful for social play.


&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}

|}
=== '''Social relationship and inclusion''' ===
Social relationships can shape whether children are able to join and continue outdoor play (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified making contact and growing up together as interacting factors in inclusive outdoor play. Familiarity with other children could make it easier to approach, communicate and play together, while joining unfamiliar children or existing game could be difficult.  

[https://w.wiki/WDsJ Affective social competence (ASC)] provides a psychological framework for understanding these social interactions (Halberstadt et al., 2001). The ASC model involves experiencing, sending and receiving affect, together with awareness, identification, working within the social context and regulation. These processes may be relevant when a child tries to enter a peer group, recognise other children's emotions and manage their own response during play.

Gal-Szabo et al. (2019) used the ASC model as theoretical foundation when examining children's emotional knowledge and social behaviour during preschool free play. The study found that situational understanding of the emotions was negatively related to uninvolved behaviour and was marginally positively related to more social play. However, the study examined preschool free play rather than specific outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) also found that children with disabilities experienced more barriers related to making contact, adapting play and physical play environment. These findings suggest that participation in outdoor play depends on both social interaction and children's ability to respond within the play situation, but they do not establish that social play causes better emotional well-being (Beekhuizen et al., 2025; Gal-Szabo et al., 2018).

=== '''Autonomy, parents and time''' ===
[https://w.wiki/4NyU Autonomy] can shape how children experience outdoor play (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified autonomy as a personal factor in inclusive outdoor play. Some children valued having independence over what they do and who they play with. Some children with disabilities wanted opportunities to play outside independently without direct parental involvement. Autonomy during play may also have an emotional function. Veraksa et al. (2025), in a systematic review of non-therapeutic play, identified autonomy as one feature through which play may support emotional regulation and coping. However, the review examined several forms of play and does not show that autonomy during outdoor play specially improves children's emotional well-being.

Parental support can also make outdoor play possible. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) found that parental involvement could support children's participation when a child needed help to access or participate in outdoor play. Time constraints also affected opportunities for outdoor play. Some children had less time to play outdoors because of parents' work schedule, after school arrangements or longer travel distance between home and school (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). These constraints could limit opportunities for outdoor play even when children wanted greater independence.

=== '''Outdoor environments and accessibility''' ===
Outdoor play environments can support or restrict children's participation (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified both physical and social features of outdoor environments as relevant to inclusive play. Children discussed safety, including traffic near playgrounds and disputes with other children. Accessibility was particularly important for children with disabilities because opportunities for inclusive outdoor play could be affected by play environments and physical abilities. Pereira et al. (2024) also showed that heterogeneity between studies limited clear conclusions about the effects of individual outdoor play space features.. 

Gibson et al. (2017) systematically reviewed five studies of loose-parts play (LPP) interventions with primary school aged children. The review found limited quantitative evidence to determine whether loose-parts interventions affected children's cognitive, social or emotional development. Together, these findings show that features of outdoor environments can support or restrict opportunities for play. However, current evidence does not establish that a particular environmental feature that improves children's emotional well-being (Beekhuizen et al., 2025; Gibson et al., 2017; Pereira et al., 2024). 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Case study: Part 5 Same play space, different experiences'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|Kim and Leo use the same school playground. Kim already knows many children and easily joins a group activity. Leo uses a mobility device and finds that some areas of the playground are difficult to access. Leo also does not know many children who are already playing. He prefers to play independently when possible. 
|}

The two children have access to the same playground space, but their opportunities to participate are different. There experiences are shaped by more than the physical space alone. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) also identified making contact, familiarity, autonomy and accessibility as factors that could support or restrict inclusive outdoor play.
Physical accessibility may affect whether a child can use part of playground, while familiarity with other children may affect whether the child can enter social play. Parental support may also help participation in some situations, while the child may still value greater independence
{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;

{Why might two children have different outdoor-play experiences even they use the same playground?.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+A. Physical, social and personal factors can affect how children are able to participate.
-B. Outdoor spaces provide the same opportunities for every child.
-C. Accessibility is the only factor that affects outdoor play..
-D. Children who know other children always have better emotional well-being.


&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}

|}
== '''What does recent research show about outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?''' ==
Recent research does not show a consistent association between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being. The findings are mixed across different emotional outcomes measured, the timing and context of outdoor play, children's behaviours, and the methods used to measure outdoor play. These differences are significant when interpreting whether outdoor play is associated with better emotional well-being.  

The recent studies shows this variation. More frequent outdoor play has been associated with better social-emotional competence (Ferguson et al., 2025) while association with emotional dysregulation differed according to the timing and context of outdoor play (Lee et al., 2025). Positive affect was also higher after outdoor play and and gymnasium recess than after classroom recess, but no significant differences in negative affect between settings (Poulos et al.,2026).   

Longer-term evidence also examines a different aspect of emotional functioning. More frequent outdoor play during the preschool years was associated with a greater likelihood of following a low and stable trajectory of internalising and externalising symptoms through childhood (Dodd et al., 2026). However, the studies differ in children's ages, research designs, measures of outdoor play and emotional outcomes. Therefore, the evidence should not be interpreted as showing one consistent effect across all children or forms of emotional well-being.

=== '''Consistency of recent research findings''' ===
Recent findings are not consistent across all emotional and developmental outcomes. Ferguson et al. (2025) found that more frequent outdoor play was associated with better social-emotional competence, including lower difficulties and greater [[Prosocial Behaviour|prosocial behaviour]]. In contrast, Davenport et al. (2025) found that most associations between outdoor play and the physical, [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive]] and social-emotional developmental indicators examined were not statistically significant. These differences show that positive association with outdoor play are not found across all developmental outcomes.

Findings can also differ according to the emotional outcome being measured. Poulos et al. (2026) found higher positive affect after outdoor and gymnasium recess than after classroom recess, but no significant differences in negative affect between the three recess settings.  Lee et al. (2025) found that  more afternoon outdoor play was associated with lower emotional dysregulation, while more outdoor play earlier and later in the day was associated with higher emotional dysregulation. These findings suggest that the association can differ according to both the emotional outcome and the timing of outdoor play.

The time period being examined also differs between studies. Dodd et al. (2026) found that more frequent outdoor play during the preschool years was associated with lower odds of belonging to less favourable internalising and externalising symptom trajectory across childhood. This is different from Poulos et al. (2026), who examined children's emotional states immediately after the recess. Therefore, recent research includes both immediate emotional outcomes and longer-term patterns of emotional functioning. 

Associations may vary across children and play contexts. Ferguson et al. (2025) reported differences according to ethnicity and whether outdoor play occurred on school days or weekends. Together, these findings suggest that the association between outdoor play and emotional well-being is not same across outcome.The studies differ in children's age, research designs, measures of outdoor play, and emotional outcomes. Thus, findings should not be treated as evidence of one single effect.

=== '''Strengths and limitations of current research''' ===
The strength of the evidence also differs according to research design. Dodd et al. (2026) used longitudinal data from 4,151 children and measured outdoor play during the preschool years at approximately 2, 3 and 4 years old, while internalising and externalising symptoms trajectories were measured later through to age 8. This strengthens the evidence about temporal ordering because outdoor play was measured before the later emotional outcomes. However, longitudinal evidence does not establish cause and effect, and the study relied on parent-reported measures.

Causal interpretation is also limited in other studies. Lee et al. (2025) used observational data and considered the possibility of reverse causation when interpreting associations between the timing of outdoor play and emotional dysregulation. This means the findings cannot establish whether outdoor play influenced emotional dysregulation or whether children's emotional functioning influenced when they played outdoors.

Measurement of outdoor play is another important consideration. Davenport et al. (2025) used both parent-reported and device-measured outdoor play and examined whether associations were independent of outdoor moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA). This is important because outdoor play and outdoor physical activity are related but should not be treated as interchangeable measures. However, the sample was relatively small (N=107) and most tested associations with developmental outcomes were not statistically significant.

Limitations are also present across the wider outdoor-play literature. De Lannoy et al. (2023) identified 275 Canadian outdoor-play publications and found that cross-sectional designs were the most common. Mental and emotional development had also received less research attention than physical health and development. This suggests that the evidence base for emotional well-being is less developed than some other areas of outdoor-play research.

T'''able 4'''

'''''Comparison of recent research'''''

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Study               
!Research method             
!Research strength                      
!Limitation                                                
|-
|  &lt;small&gt;Lee et al. (2025)&lt;/small&gt;                                     
|Observational; 6 month follow-up
|Examined the timing of outdoor play and tested working memory as a statistical mediator of the association with emotional dysregulation.     
|Observational mediation cannot establish causation; the study also considered possible reverse causation when interpreting timing-related findings.
|-
|Ferguson et al. (2025)
|Cross sectional; multi ethnic urban cohort (N=2,568)
|Large sample allowed associations to be examined across population groups and school-day/weekend outdoor play.
|Cross-sectional design cannot establish temporal direction; associations also differed across some groups and play contexts.
|-
|Davenport et al. (2025)
|Observational; preschool sample (N=107)
|Used both parent-reported and device-measured outdoor play and distinguished outdoor play from outdoor moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA)
|Small sample and most tested associations with developmental outcomes were not statistically significant.
|-
|Dodd et al. (2026)
|Longitudinal cohort (N = 4,151)
|Outdoor play was measured in the preschool years before later internalising and externalising symptom trajectories.
|Outdoor play and symptoms relied on parent reported measures, and the observational design does not establish causations.
|-
|Poulos et al. (2026)
|Recess comparison study (N=317)
|Compared children's positive and negative affect following outdoor, gymnasium and classroom recess
|Examined immediate affect during an extreme-heat context; higher positive affect was also found after gymnasium recess, so the result was not specific to outdoor recess.
|}
As shown in Table 4, the recent evidence has different methodological strengths and limitations. Longitudinal designs provide stronger evidence about temporal ordering than cross-sectional design studies, while device-based measures can address some limitations of parent report. However, much of the evidence remains observational, and differences in emotional outcomes, measures of outdoor play and play contexts limit the direct comparison between studies. 

Future research could benefit from more consistent measures of outdoor play, stronger longitudinal and experimental designs and greater attention to emotional outcomes across different children and play contexts. 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;

{Why should the recent findings not be interpreted as showing single consistent effect of outdoor play on children's emotional well-being?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
-A. Because all the studies used different countries.
+B. Because studies differed in emotional outcomes, measures of outdoor play, timing, context and research design.
-C. Because longitudinal studies are always more reliable and accurate.
-D. Because outdoor play only affects positive outcomes.


&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}

|}
== '''How do families, communities and schools support outdoor play opportunities?''' ==
[[File:Coalition Builds New Playground in One Day for Chicora-Cherokee Community (11054532905).jpg|thumb|325x325px|Figure 6. Families, communities and school can shape children's opportunities for play.]]
Outdoor play opportunities are shaped by children's social and physical environments. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified parents, outdoor play environments, communities and time constraints as environmental factors in inclusive outdoor play. The study also identified autonomy, growing up together, making contact and adapting ways of playing as factors that affected participation. The 2025 Position Statement on Active Outdoor Play recommends increasing opportunities for active outdoor play where people live, learn, work and play (Lee et al., 2025). It also recommends collaboration across sectors and settings to support equitable access. Together, these findings provide a broader context for considering the roles of families, communities and schools. These influences can operate across family, community and school settings (see Figure 5).

=== '''Families''' ===
Parents can influence whether children have opportunities to play outdoors. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified parents as an environmental factor in inclusive outdoor play. Children with disabilities described parents as important in encouraging participation. For some children, parents also helped to explain their disability to other children (Beekhuizen et al., 2025).  

Broader research also identifies parental factors in children's outdoor play. A systematic review of 21 peer reviewed studies involving children aged 0 to 12 years found that the importance placed on outdoor play was associated with how much time children spent playing outdoors  (Boxberger and Reimers, 2019). Evidence for parental encouragement and support was less consistent across children (Boxberger and Reimers, 2019). This suggests that family influence is not limited to direct encouragement. Parents' attitude towards outdoor play may shape children's opportunities to play outdoors. However, the review identified some associations but does not show that parental attitude caused greater outdoor play. 

Parental support  can also involve allowing children to have some independence during outdoor play. Support can make participation possible, but it does not always require direct parental involvement (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). This is particularly relevant when children want more control over how and where they play. Research on independent mobility also shows that children and parents may differ in how much independence they prefer (Han et al., 2022). The study identified different patterns in children's and parents' preferences for independent mobility. These findings show that parental support and autonomy do not always involve the same level of parental involvement. Some children may need support to access or join outdoor play while also wanting greater independence. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) also recommended providing children and parents with knowledge about disabilities and possible adaptations that could support participation. 

Time constraints can also limit family-level opportunities for outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) reported that some children had less time to play outdoors because of parents' work schedules, after-school arrangements and longer travel between home and school. This means that opportunities for outdoor play can be restricted even when children want to play and parents are supportive.

=== '''Communities''' ===
Community conditions can affect whether children have safe and inclusive opportunities for outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) described physical and social safety as important for inclusive outdoor play. Some playground structures also made participation difficult for children with disabilities. A systematic review of 25 studies found that both physical and social neighbourhood factors were associated with children's outdoor play (Visser &amp; van Aalst, 2022). Social factors included perceived safety, social cohesion and the presence of other children. However, the studies did not identify one neighbourhood feature that consistently explained children's outdoor play across all settings.

The social environment may also affect whether children can join others. Children with disabilities described smaller communities, including villages and schools, as places where children and parents could become more familiar with disability. Greater familiarity was associated with greater acceptance and stronger connections with other children (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Observational research also shows that physical access alone does not explain inclusive outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2026) observed 63 children with and without disabilities during six inclusive outdoor-play sessions and found children with disabilities had lower playfulness scores than children without disabilities. Unfamiliarity could also restrict social inclusion because children preferred to play with peers they already knew. This means providing the same outdoor space does not necessarily provide the same opportunity to participate.

The 2025 Position Statement on Active Outdoor Play recommends collaboration across sectors and settings to support equitable access to active outdoor play (Lee et al., 2025). The reviewed findings  show why both physical and social conditions matter. Children need places that can be accessed, but familiarity, safety and opportunities to join others can also affect participation. However, the evidence does not show that one community feature alone will increase outdoor play or improve emotional well-being.

=== '''Schools''' ===
Schools can provide opportunities for children with and without disabilities to become more familiar with one another. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified growing up together and making contact as interacting factors in inclusive outdoor play. Children described familiarity with other children as making contact easier. School circumstances can also affect the time available for outdoor play. Some children attending special primary education described long travel times between school and home as reducing their opportunities to play outdoors. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified these experiences as part of time constraints.

The physical school environment can also be changed to support outdoor activity and socio-emotional outcomes. Bikomeye et al. (2021) systematically reviewed six experimental studies of schoolyard greening. The interventions involved adding greenery and natural elements to schoolyards. Across the included studies, the review reported generally positive findings for physical activity and socio-emotional health. However, the review included only six studies. Schoolyard greening is also a specific intervention and should not be treated as evidence that all forms of outdoor play improve children's emotional well-being. 

Recess provides another school setting in which children's emotional experiences have been examined directly. Poulos et al. (2026) studied 317 Year 4 and 5 children during extreme heat. Positive affect was higher after outdoor and gymnasium recess than after classroom recess. There were no significant differences in negative affect between the three settings. Poulos et al. (2026) also identified implications for school health, policy and equity. The study discussed heat-adaptive infrastructure as one way to support access to recess environments during extreme heat. However, the findings do not show that outdoor recess is always better than indoor recess because positive affect was also higher after gymnasium recess. 

{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Quiz}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;

{Which statement best reflects how families, communities and school can support children's outdoor play opportunities?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}

+ Support can involve accessible environments, safety, familiarity, appropriate parental support and opportunities for children to participate with some independence.
- Providing the same outdoor space gives every child the same opportunity to participate.
-Schoolyard greening alone is enough to improve children's emotional well-being.
-Outdoor recess always produces better emotional outcomes than indoor recess.

&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}
== '''Conclusion''' ==
Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being are not represented by single, consistent concepts across recent research. Outdoor play should be distinguished from outdoor physical activity, while emotional well-being has been examined through emotional dysregulation, social-emotional competence, positive and negative affect, and internalising and externalising symptoms. These differences are important because findings across studies do not represent the same emotional outcomes or time frames. 

Outdoor play may be related to children's emotional well-being through several psychological processes, but the strength of evidence differs across them. Gross's (2015) emotion regulation framework helps explain how children may respond to emotional situations during play, while working memory provides more direct evidence of a possible cognitive process in the association between afternoon outdoor play and lower emotional dysregulation (Lee et al., 2025). However, these findings do not establish that outdoor play causes better emotion regulation or emotional well-being. Recent research also does not show one consistent effect across all children, outcomes or play contexts. Some studies report associations with better social-emotional competence, lower-risk symptom trajectories or higher positive affect, while other findings are mixed or non-significant (Davenport et al., 2025; Dodd et al., 2026; Ferguson et al., 2025). Differences in research design, measurement, timing and context therefore need to be considered when interpreting the evidence. 

Children's opportunities for outdoor play are also shaped by their social and physical environments. Accessibility, familiarity, autonomy, parental support, safety and opportunities to join other children can influence whether the same outdoor space provides the same opportunity to participate. Families, communities and schools can therefore support outdoor play by considering both access to outdoor spaces and the conditions that allow children to participate in ways that suit their needs and circumstances. Overall, current research suggests that outdoor play is associated with some aspects of children's emotional well-being, but the relationship is more complex than simply spending more time outdoors. The relation between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being varies depending on how outdoor play is measured, timing, context and children's opportunities to participate.

==See also==
* [[wikipedia:Affordance|Affordance]] (Wikipedia)
* [[wikipedia:Autonomy|Autonomy]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Cognitive psychology]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Emotion regulation in children|Emotion regulation in children]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Emotional regulation]] (Wikipedia)

* [[wikipedia:Emotional dysregulation|Emotional dysregulation]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Imaginative play and emotion regulation|Imaginative play and emotion regulation]] (Wikiversity)
* [[wikipedia:Working memory|Working memory]] (Wikipedia)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Beekhuizen, R. Q., Bloemen, M. A. T., Bolster, E. A. M., Visser, K., Lugt, R., Bassa, M., Henry, N. L., Kotte, E. M. W., Hartingsveldt, M., &amp; Gorter, J. W. (2026). Can You See Us Play? Observing Inclusive Outdoor Play Behaviour Among Children With and Without Disabilities: A Mixed Methods Study. Child : Care, Health &amp; Development, 52(1), e70198-n/a. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70198

Beekhuizen, R. Q., Bolster, E. A. M., Gorter, J. W., Henry, N. L., Visser, K., Wittink, H., Kotte, E. M. W., Sol, M. E., &amp; Bloemen, M. A. T. (2025). Play Together? Unveiling Facilitators and Barriers to Inclusive Outdoor Play for Dutch Children With and Without Disabilities: A Qualitative Study. Child: Care, Health &amp; Development, 51(6), Article e70154. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70154

Biino, V., Pesce, C., &amp; Martins, C. (2025). Motor Skill Development at Preschool Age in Girls and Boys: The Role of Outdoor Free Play. Children, 12(5), Article 594. https://doi.org/10.3390/children12050594

Bikomeye, J., Balza, J., &amp; Beyer, K. (2021). The Impact of Schoolyard Greening on Children’s Physical Activity and Socioemotional Health: A Systematic Review of Experimental Studies. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(2), 535. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18020535

Boxberger, K., &amp; Reimers, A. K. (2019). Parental correlates of outdoor play in boys and girls aged 0 to 12: A systematic review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(2, Art. 190), 19-16:2, Art. 190&lt;19. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16020190

Davenport, C., Kuzik, N., Larouche, R., &amp; Carson, V. (2025). The Associations Between Parental-Reported and Device-Based Measured Outdoor Play and Health Indicators of Physical, Cognitive, and Social–Emotional Development in Preschool-Aged Children. Pediatric Exercise Science, 37(2), 102–111. https://doi.org/10.1123/pes.2023-0119

de Lannoy, L., Barbeau, K., Seguin, N., &amp; Tremblay, M. S. (2023). Scoping review of children’s and youth’s outdoor play publications in Canada. Chronic Diseases in Canada, 43(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.24095/hpcdp.43.1.01

Dodd, H. F., Cordwell, K., Hesketh, K., Johnstone, A., de la Torre-Luque, A., &amp; McCrorie, P. (2026). Early outdoor play predicts trajectories of child mental health in a population-based cohort. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.70175

Ferguson, M., Teyhan, A., Lovell, R., Dodd, H., Wheeler, B., &amp; McEachan, R. (2025). The association between park visits, outdoor play and child social-emotional competency in a multi-ethnic, urban cohort. Wellbeing, Space and Society, 9, Article 100293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wss.2025.100293

Gal‐Szabo, D. E., Spinrad, T. L., Eisenberg, N., &amp; Sulik, M. J. (2019). The relations of children’s emotion knowledge to their observed social play and reticent/uninvolved behavior in preschool: Moderation by effortful control. Social Development (Oxford, England), 28(1), 57–73. https://doi.org/10.1111/sode.12321

Gibson, J. J. (1979). The ecological approach to visual perception / James J. Gibson. Houghton Mifflin.

Gibson, J.L., Cornell, M. &amp; Gill, T. A Systematic Review of Research into the Impact of Loose Parts Play on Children’s Cognitive, Social and Emotional Development. School Mental Health 9, 295–309 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-017-9220-9

Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion Regulation: Current Status and Future Prospects. Psychological Inquiry, 26(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2014.940781

Halberstadt, A. G., Denham, S. A., &amp; Dunsmore, J. C. (2001). Affective Social Competence. Social Development (Oxford, England), 10(1), 79–119. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9507.00150

Han, C. S., Brussoni, M. J., &amp; Mâsse, L. C. (2022). Parental Autonomy Support in the Context of Parent–Child Negotiation for Children’s Independent Mobility: ‘I Always Feel Safer With My Parents’ to ‘Boom! Bust Down Those Walls! The Journal of Early Adolescence, 42(6), Article 02724316211064513. https://doi.org/10.1177/02724316211064513

Johnstone, A., Martin, A., Cordovil, R., Fjørtoft, I., Iivonen, S., Jidovtseff, B., Lopes, F., Reilly, J. J., Thomson, H., Wells, V., &amp; McCrorie, P. (2022). Nature-Based Early Childhood Education and Children’s Social, Emotional and Cognitive Development: A Mixed-Methods Systematic Review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(10), 5967. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19105967

Lee, E.-Y., de Lannoy, L., Kim, Y.-B., Rathod, A., James, M. E., Lopes, O., Nasrallah, B., Thankarajah, A., Adjei-Boadi, D., de Barros, M. I. A., Duncan, S., Miller, R. M., Mygind, L., Vanderloo, L. M., Wang, P.-Y., &amp; Tremblay, M. S. (2025). 2025 Position statement on active outdoor play. The International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 22(1), Article 117. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-025-01813-9

Lee, J. J., Flouri, E., &amp; Jackson, Y. (2025). The Role of Timing and Amount of Outdoor Play in Emotional Dysregulation in Preschool Children. Child: Care, Health &amp; Development, 51(1), Article e70020. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70020

Morgenthaler, T., Lynch, H., Loebach, J., Pentland, D., &amp; Schulze, C. (2024). Using the Theory of Affordances to Understand Environment–Play Transactions: Environmental Taxonomy of Outdoor Play Space Features—A Scoping Review. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 78(4), Article 7804185120. https://doi.org/10.5014/ajot.2024.050606

Pereira, J. V., Vila-Nova, F., Veiga, G., Lopes, F., &amp; Cordovil, R. (2024). Associations between outdoor play features and children’s behavior and health: A systematic review. Health &amp; Place, 87, Article 103235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2024.103235

Poulos, A., Hassan, U. A., Wilson, K., Price, P. M., Vanos, J., &amp; Quilla, J. (2026). Differences in Schoolchildren’s Emotional State After Indoor Versus Outdoor Recess in Extreme‐Heat Weather. The Journal of School Health, 96(4), Article e70135. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.70135

Scherer, K. R. (2005). What are emotions? And how can they be measured? Social Science Information, 44(4), 695–729. https://doi.org/10.1177/0539018405058216

Veraksa, A. N., Plotnikova, V. A., Sukhikh, V. L., Kornienko, D. S., &amp; Rudnova, N. A. (2025). Non-therapeutic play to overcome negative emotional symptoms and improve emotional intelligence in children aged 3–7: a systematic review. Frontiers in Psychology, 16, 1475387. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1475387

Visser, K., &amp; Aalst, I. (2022). Neighbourhood Factors in Children’s Outdoor Play: A Systematic Literature Review. Tijdschrift Voor Economische En Sociale Geografie, 113(1), 80–95. https://doi.org/10.1111/tesg.12505

}}

==External links==
* [https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-play [https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-pla]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-play y]] (Encyclopedia in Early Childhood Development)
* [[https://www.outdoorplaycanada.ca/2026/06/02/sprout-able-resources-videos-and-tip-sheets-to-support-children-with-disabilities-in-outdoor-play/ https://www.outdoorplaycanada.ca/2026/06/02/sp]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[https://www.outdoorplaycanada.ca/2026/06/02/sprout-able-resources-videos-and-tip-sheets-to-support-children-with-disabilities-in-outdoor-play/ rout-able-resources-videos-and-tip-sheets-to-support-children-with-disabilities-in-outdoor-play/]/ SPROUT-able Resources: Videos and Tip Sheets to Support Children with Disabilities in Outdoor Play] (Outdoor Play Canada)

* https://www.who.int/news/item/24-04-2019-to-grow-up-healthy-children-need-to-sit-less-and-play-more&lt;nowiki/&gt; To grow up healthy, children need to sit less and play more] (World Health Organisation)

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== Overview ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;

|'''Case study: Part 1'''[[File:School children happily playing in playground.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. Children engaged in outdoor play, where social interactions, choice and control on the situation can create different emotional experiences.]]Imagine that...

A child arrives at playground and joins a group of children who are already playing. The children are making their own game and deciding the rules as they play. At first, the child enjoys choosing where and what to play. During the game, another child changes the rules and an argument breaks out. The child becomes frustrated and walks away from the activity. After watching for a short time, the child returns, suggests a new idea to continue the game and re-joins the group. 

How might experiences like this during outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? Emotional regulation provides one psychological framework for understanding how children may respond to situations like this during play (see figure 1).
|}

Outdoor play can involve more than physical movement. It can occur across playgrounds, gardens, streets and natural spaces. Outdoor play includes exploration, social interaction, choice, challenge, and engagement with the surrounding environment (Dodd et al., 2026; Pereira et al., 2024). These experiences can involve frustration, disagreement, uncertainty or excitement. This chapter examines how [[Emotional regulation|emotional,]] [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive]], social and environmental processes may help explain the relationship between outdoor play and children's [https://w.wiki/AHG6 emotional well-being.] 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|

;[[File:Bulb Idea Flat Icon GIF Animation.gif|alt=Focus questions|left|99x99px|thumb]]


'''Focus questions'''

* '''What are outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?'''
* '''How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?'''
* '''How do social and environmental conditions shape  children's outdoor play experiences?'''
* '''What does recent research show about outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?'''
* '''How can families, communities and schools support outdoor  play opportunities that may benefit children's emotional well-being?'''
|}

== '''Understanding outdoor play and children's emotional well-being''' ==
[[File:Water-outdoor-people-girl-play-boy-938233.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. ''Outdoor play can provide opportunities to explore, make choices, interact with others and respond to changing situations through activities such as water play.''|214x214px]]

Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being are not measured as single and consistent concepts across recent research. Outdoor play may be examined as voluntary and intrinsically motivated activity, self directed play, parent reported outdoor play, or device-measured outdoor play (Binno et al., 2025; Davenport et al., 2025; Dodd et al., 2026). It should also be distinguished from outdoor moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) because these measures do not represent the same behaviour (Davenport et al., 2025). Children's emotional well-being is also examined through different outcomes, including [https://w.wiki/7YC8 emotional dysregulation], social-emotional competence, positive and negative affect, and internalising or externalising symptoms (Dodd et al., 2026; Ferguson et al., 2025; Lee et al., 2025; Poulos et al., 2026).  

=== Outdoor play ===
Outdoor play is voluntary and intrinsically motivated activity that occurs in outdoor environments such as gardens, playgrounds, parks and natural spaces (Dodd et al., 2026). Free play can be also self-directed, allowing children to interact freely with the environment and make choices about their activities (Biino et al., 2025). Outdoor play should not be treated as the same as outdoor physical activity. The recent research outdoor play and outdoor moderate- to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) were examined as separate measures (Davenport et al., 2025). This distinction is important because outdoor play intensity of physical activity do not represent the same behaviour.  

=== Children's emotional well-being ===
Children's emotional well-being is not represented by a single common outcome across recent outdoor play research. Emotional dysregulation has been examined in relation to the amount and timing of outdoor play (Lee et al., 2025), while social-emotional competence includes social emotional difficulties and [[Prosocial behavior/Keywords/Definitions|prosocial behaviour]] (Ferguson et al., 2025). Other studies have examined positive and negative affect following recess (Poulos et al., 2026) and trajectories of internalising and externalising symptoms across childhood (Dodd et al., 2026). These outcomes represent different aspects and timeframes of emotional functioning, so they should not be treated as equivalent when findings are compared.

'''Table 1''' 

''Emotional outcomes examined in recent research on outdoor play and children's emotional well-being''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Study
!Outcome examined
!What the outcome represents                                                                                                  
|-
|Lee et al. (2025)   
|Emotional dysregulation
|Difficulties in emotional regulation; examined in relation to the amount of timing of outdoor play
|-
|Ferguson et al.          (2025)
|Social-emotional competence 
|Social-emotional difficulties and prosocial behaviour
|-
|Poulos et al. (2026)
|Positive and negative affect
|Children's affect following recess across different settings 
|-
|Dodd et al. (2026)
|Internalising and externalising symptoms
|Internalising: emotional symptoms and peer problems
Externalising: conduct problems and hyperactivity- inattention 
|}
Note. Outcome descriptions are based on the measures and constructs reported in the above cited studies. See Table 1. 

As shown in Table 1, the studies do not measure the same aspect or time frame of children's emotional functioning. Affect immediately following recess should not be treated as equivalent to emotional dysregulation measured over time or trajectories of internalising and externalising symptoms across childhood. This difference need to be considered when findings across studies are compared. 

'''Case study: part 2'''
 
''What is being measured?''

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |[[File:Children marbles.jpg|thumb|221x221px|'''Figure 3'''. ''Children's immediate emotional responses during outdoor play is different from long-term emotional functioning.'']]The child in the Case study: Part 1 becomes frustrated when the rules of the game change. This immediate emotional response is different from a longer-term pattern of emotional dysregulation or internalising symptoms. Research on outdoor play measures these outcomes across different time frames and contexts. When findings are compared, it is important to consider which aspect of emotional well-being is measured.

{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;

{A child's positive or negative affect immediately after recess represents the same emotional outcome as longer-term internalising or externalising symptoms.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}

- True
+ False

&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}

|}

== '''How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?''' ==
Outdoor play may be related to children's emotional well-being through emotional, cognitive, and social processes (Dodd et al., 2026). Possible pathways discussed in the recent research include cognitive, social and emotional skills, social interaction, physical activity, connection with nature and adventurous play (Dodd et al., 2026). However, these pathways have not all been directly tested as mechanisms, and much outdoor play research remains observational (Dodd et al., 2026; de Lannoy et al., 2023). Psychological theory can help to explain how and why outdoor play experiences may influence children's emotional well-being. However, theory alone does not show that psychological processes cause better emotional well-being.

Emotion involves more than subjective feelings. Scherer (2005) described emotion as coordinated changes across cognitive appraisal, physiological responses, action tendencies, expression and subjective feelings. Therefore, physiological response is one component of an emotional response rather than a separate explanation for the effects of outdoor play. Scherer (2005) did not examine outdoor play, so this framework does not provide evidence that outdoor play changes children's physiological responses or emotional well-being.

=== '''Emotion regulation''' ===
Emotion regulation provides a psychological framework for understanding how children may manage emotional situations during outdoor play. Gross (2015) described emotion regulation as a process involving identification, selection and implementation. Gross (2015) also described situation selection, situation modification, attentional deployment cognitive change and response modulation. During outdoor play, children may experience frustration, conflict, disagreement, uncertainty or changes to their activity. Gross's framework can be applied to consider how the children recognise an emotional response, choose strategies to manage and act on chosen strategies. However, Gross (2015) did not examine outdoor play, so applying the framework does not show that outdoor play improves children's emotion regulation.

Broader research on  children's play has also examined emotional functioning. Veraksa et al. (2025) systematically reviewed 33 studies on non-therapeutic play among children aged 3 to 7 and identified evidence involving emotional regulation, emotional intelligence, and negative emotional symptoms. The review included outdoor play alongside several other forms of play, so its findings should not be interpreted as evidence that outdoor play alone improves emotion regulation. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Case study: Part 3'''[[File:14Y Ncdc july 5th-802.jpg|thumb|202x202px|'''Figure 4'''. ''Children can respond differently to emotional situations that occur during outdoor play.'']]When the rules of game change, the child becomes frustrated and decides to step away. After a short time the child returns and suggests a different way to continue the game (see Figure 4). Suggesting a change to the game can be considered an example of situation modification. This shows how Gross's emotion regulation framework can be applied to an emotional situation during outdoor play.

{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;

{What does Gross (2015) emotion regulation framework show when it is applied to the outdoor-play scenario?.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
-A. Outdoor play causes better emotion regulation.
+B. Situation modification can help explain how the child responds to the situation.
-C. Children regulate emotions better outdoors than indoors.
-D. Stepping away from play always improves emotional well-being.


&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}

|}
=== '''Working memory and cognitive process''' ===
Working memory can be one cognitive process involved in the association between outdoor play and emotional dysregulation. Lee et al. (2025) examined 325 preschool children and tested working memory as a statistical mediator. More outdoor play between noon and 6 pm was associated with lower emotional dysregulation. In contrast, more outdoor play before noon and after 6 pm was associated with higher emotional dysregulation. Afternoon outdoor play was also associated with better working memory, and better working memory was associated with lower emotional dysregulation.

When working memory was included in the analysis, the association between afternoon outdoor play and emotional dysregulation was no longer statistically significant. Lee et al. (2025) reported this as full mediation. This suggests that working memory may be involved in the association between afternoon outdoor play and lower emotional dysregulation. However, the study was observational, so the mediation analysis does not show that outdoor play caused better working memory or lower emotional dysregulation.

Johnstone et al. (2022) reviewed 36 studies of nature-based [[early childhood education]]. The review found very low certainty evidence for some social, emotional, and cognitive outcomes, including [[self-regulation]], while findings for attention were inconsistent. Although, the review examined nature-based early childhood education rather than outdoor play. Therefore, it does not show that working memory explains the association between outdoor play and children's [https://w.wiki/AHG6 emotional well-being].

'''Table 2'''

''Psychological processes considered in the relationship between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!Process
!Contribution
!Evidence and limitations 
|-
|Emotion components 
|Emotion involves cognitive appraisal, physiological responses, action tendencies, expression and subjective feelings (Scherer, 2005)
|Provides psychological framework, but Scherer did not examine outdoor play.
|-
|Emotion regulation
|Gross's (2015) framework can be applied to emotional situations during outdoor play, including frustration, disagreement and changes to an activity. 
|Helps explain responses, but does not show that outdoor play improves emotion regulation.
|-
|Working memory
|Lee et al. (2025) examined working memory as a statistical mediator between outdoor play and emotional dysregulation.
|Provides direct observational evidence of possible cognitive process but does not establish causation. 
|-
|Broader play/nature evidence
|Veraksa et al. (2025) and Johnstone et al. (2022) examined related play and nature based contexts.
|Relevant to interpretation, but not specific evidence that outdoor play causes better emotional well-being. 
|}
Note. The sources provide different types of evidence, including psychological frameworks, direct outdoor-play research and broader evidence about outdoor play and children's emotional well-being. 

== '''How do social and environmental conditions shape on children's outdoor play experiences?''' ==
[[File:2026-10-03 214531-relationship between child and environment.png|thumb|284x284px|'''Figure 5.''' Children's opportunities for outdoor play can be different according to personal, interacting and environmental factors and the relationship between the child and the environment.

Note. Original conceptual summary is based on Beekhuizen et al. (2025) and Gibson (1979).]]
Outdoor play opportunities depend on social and physical environments. Children may have access to same outdoor space but may not have same opportunities for play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified personal, interacting and environmental factors that could support or restrict inclusive outdoor play. These differences can be considered through [https://w.wiki/VYfL affordance theory], which examines the opportunities for action through the relationship between an individual and the environment (Gibson, 1979). See Figure 5. 


=== Affordance theory and outdoor play environments ===
[https://w.wiki/VYfL Affordance theory] was developed by Gibson (1979) to explain the opportunities for action that an environment  provides in relation to the person using it. In outdoor play, the opportunities provided by a space can depend on its physical features and how a child is able to use those features. Morgenthaler et al. (2024) applied affordance theory to children's outdoor play and examined outdoor play transactions through environmental taxonomy of outdoor play space features. Their review identified 14 categories of spaces and 284 play occupations linked to different environmental features. Morgenthaler et al. (2024) showed that different spaces and objects can afford  different forms of play, which helps explain why same space may provide different opportunities. However this study examined the opportunities for play rather than children's well-being.

Pereira et al. (2024) also examined features of outdoor play spaces in a systematic review of 51 articles representing 45 primary studies. The review examined features such as fixed structures, natural elements, floor markings, loose equipment and available play areas. Some positive effects were reported, but there was substantial heterogeneity between studies. The studies differed in the environmental features examined, outcomes measures, and study methods, which made difficult to draw a clear conclusions about the effect of individual play space features (Pereira et al., 2024).Therefore, the review does not show that one particular environmental feature improves children's [https://w.wiki/AHG6 emotional well-being]. 

'''Table 3'''

''Examples of environmental features and possible affordances'' 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Environmental feature                             
!Possible affordance for play                                                        
|-
|Fixed structures (e.g. climbing frame)
|Physical activity such as climbing, physical play and risk-taking
|-
|Natural elements (e.g. tree, rocks, sand)
|Exploratory play, imaginative play, and sensory experiences
|-
|Floor markings (e.g. painted games)
|Rule based  and structured play
|-
|Loose equipment (e.g. balls, tyre, boxes) 
|Constructive, imaginative play, creative and problem solving play
|-
|Open play area
|Running, group play, and flexible use
|}
Note. This table is an original synthesis based on environmental features described by Pereira et al. (2024) and  affordance framework applied by Morgenthaler et al. (2024).  Environmental features can afford more than one type of play and the opportunities may vary between children. 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Case study: Part 4 Same space, different opportunities'''
Kim and Leo are both at the same school playground during recess. The playground has a climbing structure, a sand pit area and open natural space. 

Kim quickly joins a group of children using a climbing frame. The climbing frame structure provides opportunities for physical play and social interactions. 

Leo uses a sand pit with other child. He plays with loose materials and creates a sand castle and other different structures. The environment gives him an opportunity for imaginative play and social play. The environment gives him an opportunity for imaginative play and social play. These examples show how the same outdoor space can afford different forms of play for different children, depending on their interests, skills and social context.  

{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;

{Which statement best applies affordance theory to the example?.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
-A. The playground causes children to be more physically active.
+B. The same playground can provide different opportunities for play depending on the child and how they use the environment.
-C. Climbing structures always lead to better emotional well-being.
-D. Open spaces are only useful for social play.


&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}

|}
=== '''Social relationship and inclusion''' ===
Social relationships can shape whether children are able to join and continue outdoor play (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified making contact and growing up together as interacting factors in inclusive outdoor play. Familiarity with other children could make it easier to approach, communicate and play together, while joining unfamiliar children or existing game could be difficult.  

[https://w.wiki/WDsJ Affective social competence (ASC)] provides a psychological framework for understanding these social interactions (Halberstadt et al., 2001). The ASC model involves experiencing, sending and receiving affect, together with awareness, identification, working within the social context and regulation. These processes may be relevant when a child tries to enter a peer group, recognise other children's emotions and manage their own response during play.

Gal-Szabo et al. (2019) used the ASC model as theoretical foundation when examining children's emotional knowledge and social behaviour during preschool free play. The study found that situational understanding of the emotions was negatively related to uninvolved behaviour and was marginally positively related to more social play. However, the study examined preschool free play rather than specific outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) also found that children with disabilities experienced more barriers related to making contact, adapting play and physical play environment. These findings suggest that participation in outdoor play depends on both social interaction and children's ability to respond within the play situation, but they do not establish that social play causes better emotional well-being (Beekhuizen et al., 2025; Gal-Szabo et al., 2018).

=== '''Autonomy, parents and time''' ===
[https://w.wiki/4NyU Autonomy] can shape how children experience outdoor play (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified autonomy as a personal factor in inclusive outdoor play. Some children valued having independence over what they do and who they play with. Some children with disabilities wanted opportunities to play outside independently without direct parental involvement. Autonomy during play may also have an emotional function. Veraksa et al. (2025), in a systematic review of non-therapeutic play, identified autonomy as one feature through which play may support emotional regulation and coping. However, the review examined several forms of play and does not show that autonomy during outdoor play specially improves children's emotional well-being.

Parental support can also make outdoor play possible. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) found that parental involvement could support children's participation when a child needed help to access or participate in outdoor play. Time constraints also affected opportunities for outdoor play. Some children had less time to play outdoors because of parents' work schedule, after school arrangements or longer travel distance between home and school (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). These constraints could limit opportunities for outdoor play even when children wanted greater independence.

=== '''Outdoor environments and accessibility''' ===
Outdoor play environments can support or restrict children's participation (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified both physical and social features of outdoor environments as relevant to inclusive play. Children discussed safety, including traffic near playgrounds and disputes with other children. Accessibility was particularly important for children with disabilities because opportunities for inclusive outdoor play could be affected by play environments and physical abilities. Pereira et al. (2024) also showed that heterogeneity between studies limited clear conclusions about the effects of individual outdoor play space features.. 

Gibson et al. (2017) systematically reviewed five studies of loose-parts play (LPP) interventions with primary school aged children. The review found limited quantitative evidence to determine whether loose-parts interventions affected children's cognitive, social or emotional development. Together, these findings show that features of outdoor environments can support or restrict opportunities for play. However, current evidence does not establish that a particular environmental feature that improves children's emotional well-being (Beekhuizen et al., 2025; Gibson et al., 2017; Pereira et al., 2024). 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Case study: Part 5 Same play space, different experiences'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|Kim and Leo use the same school playground. Kim already knows many children and easily joins a group activity. Leo uses a mobility device and finds that some areas of the playground are difficult to access. Leo also does not know many children who are already playing. He prefers to play independently when possible. 
|}

The two children have access to the same playground space, but their opportunities to participate are different. There experiences are shaped by more than the physical space alone. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) also identified making contact, familiarity, autonomy and accessibility as factors that could support or restrict inclusive outdoor play.
Physical accessibility may affect whether a child can use part of playground, while familiarity with other children may affect whether the child can enter social play. Parental support may also help participation in some situations, while the child may still value greater independence
{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;

{Why might two children have different outdoor-play experiences even they use the same playground?.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+A. Physical, social and personal factors can affect how children are able to participate.
-B. Outdoor spaces provide the same opportunities for every child.
-C. Accessibility is the only factor that affects outdoor play..
-D. Children who know other children always have better emotional well-being.


&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}

|}
== '''What does recent research show about outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?''' ==
Recent research does not show a consistent association between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being. The findings are mixed across different emotional outcomes measured, the timing and context of outdoor play, children's behaviours, and the methods used to measure outdoor play. These differences are significant when interpreting whether outdoor play is associated with better emotional well-being.  

The recent studies shows this variation. More frequent outdoor play has been associated with better social-emotional competence (Ferguson et al., 2025) while association with emotional dysregulation differed according to the timing and context of outdoor play (Lee et al., 2025). Positive affect was also higher after outdoor play and and gymnasium recess than after classroom recess, but no significant differences in negative affect between settings (Poulos et al.,2026).   

Longer-term evidence also examines a different aspect of emotional functioning. More frequent outdoor play during the preschool years was associated with a greater likelihood of following a low and stable trajectory of internalising and externalising symptoms through childhood (Dodd et al., 2026). However, the studies differ in children's ages, research designs, measures of outdoor play and emotional outcomes. Therefore, the evidence should not be interpreted as showing one consistent effect across all children or forms of emotional well-being.

=== '''Consistency of recent research findings''' ===
Recent findings are not consistent across all emotional and developmental outcomes. Ferguson et al. (2025) found that more frequent outdoor play was associated with better social-emotional competence, including lower difficulties and greater [[Prosocial Behaviour|prosocial behaviour]]. In contrast, Davenport et al. (2025) found that most associations between outdoor play and the physical, [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive]] and social-emotional developmental indicators examined were not statistically significant. These differences show that positive association with outdoor play are not found across all developmental outcomes.

Findings can also differ according to the emotional outcome being measured. Poulos et al. (2026) found higher positive affect after outdoor and gymnasium recess than after classroom recess, but no significant differences in negative affect between the three recess settings.  Lee et al. (2025) found that  more afternoon outdoor play was associated with lower emotional dysregulation, while more outdoor play earlier and later in the day was associated with higher emotional dysregulation. These findings suggest that the association can differ according to both the emotional outcome and the timing of outdoor play.

The time period being examined also differs between studies. Dodd et al. (2026) found that more frequent outdoor play during the preschool years was associated with lower odds of belonging to less favourable internalising and externalising symptom trajectory across childhood. This is different from Poulos et al. (2026), who examined children's emotional states immediately after the recess. Therefore, recent research includes both immediate emotional outcomes and longer-term patterns of emotional functioning. 

Associations may vary across children and play contexts. Ferguson et al. (2025) reported differences according to ethnicity and whether outdoor play occurred on school days or weekends. Together, these findings suggest that the association between outdoor play and emotional well-being is not same across outcome.The studies differ in children's age, research designs, measures of outdoor play, and emotional outcomes. Thus, findings should not be treated as evidence of one single effect.

=== '''Strengths and limitations of current research''' ===
The strength of the evidence also differs according to research design. Dodd et al. (2026) used longitudinal data from 4,151 children and measured outdoor play during the preschool years at approximately 2, 3 and 4 years old, while internalising and externalising symptoms trajectories were measured later through to age 8. This strengthens the evidence about temporal ordering because outdoor play was measured before the later emotional outcomes. However, longitudinal evidence does not establish cause and effect, and the study relied on parent-reported measures.

Causal interpretation is also limited in other studies. Lee et al. (2025) used observational data and considered the possibility of reverse causation when interpreting associations between the timing of outdoor play and emotional dysregulation. This means the findings cannot establish whether outdoor play influenced emotional dysregulation or whether children's emotional functioning influenced when they played outdoors.

Measurement of outdoor play is another important consideration. Davenport et al. (2025) used both parent-reported and device-measured outdoor play and examined whether associations were independent of outdoor moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA). This is important because outdoor play and outdoor physical activity are related but should not be treated as interchangeable measures. However, the sample was relatively small (N=107) and most tested associations with developmental outcomes were not statistically significant.

Limitations are also present across the wider outdoor-play literature. De Lannoy et al. (2023) identified 275 Canadian outdoor-play publications and found that cross-sectional designs were the most common. Mental and emotional development had also received less research attention than physical health and development. This suggests that the evidence base for emotional well-being is less developed than some other areas of outdoor-play research.

T'''able 4'''

'''''Comparison of recent research'''''

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Study               
!Research method             
!Research strength                      
!Limitation                                                
|-
|  &lt;small&gt;Lee et al. (2025)&lt;/small&gt;                                     
|Observational; 6 month follow-up
|Examined the timing of outdoor play and tested working memory as a statistical mediator of the association with emotional dysregulation.     
|Observational mediation cannot establish causation; the study also considered possible reverse causation when interpreting timing-related findings.
|-
|Ferguson et al. (2025)
|Cross sectional; multi ethnic urban cohort (N=2,568)
|Large sample allowed associations to be examined across population groups and school-day/weekend outdoor play.
|Cross-sectional design cannot establish temporal direction; associations also differed across some groups and play contexts.
|-
|Davenport et al. (2025)
|Observational; preschool sample (N=107)
|Used both parent-reported and device-measured outdoor play and distinguished outdoor play from outdoor moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA)
|Small sample and most tested associations with developmental outcomes were not statistically significant.
|-
|Dodd et al. (2026)
|Longitudinal cohort (N = 4,151)
|Outdoor play was measured in the preschool years before later internalising and externalising symptom trajectories.
|Outdoor play and symptoms relied on parent reported measures, and the observational design does not establish causations.
|-
|Poulos et al. (2026)
|Recess comparison study (N=317)
|Compared children's positive and negative affect following outdoor, gymnasium and classroom recess
|Examined immediate affect during an extreme-heat context; higher positive affect was also found after gymnasium recess, so the result was not specific to outdoor recess.
|}
As shown in Table 4, the recent evidence has different methodological strengths and limitations. Longitudinal designs provide stronger evidence about temporal ordering than cross-sectional design studies, while device-based measures can address some limitations of parent report. However, much of the evidence remains observational, and differences in emotional outcomes, measures of outdoor play and play contexts limit the direct comparison between studies. 

Future research could benefit from more consistent measures of outdoor play, stronger longitudinal and experimental designs and greater attention to emotional outcomes across different children and play contexts. 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;

{Why should the recent findings not be interpreted as showing single consistent effect of outdoor play on children's emotional well-being?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
-A. Because all the studies used different countries.
+B. Because studies differed in emotional outcomes, measures of outdoor play, timing, context and research design.
-C. Because longitudinal studies are always more reliable and accurate.
-D. Because outdoor play only affects positive outcomes.


&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}

|}
== '''How do families, communities and schools support outdoor play opportunities?''' ==
[[File:Coalition Builds New Playground in One Day for Chicora-Cherokee Community (11054532905).jpg|thumb|325x325px|Figure 6. Families, communities and school can shape children's opportunities for play.]]
Outdoor play opportunities are shaped by children's social and physical environments. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified parents, outdoor play environments, communities and time constraints as environmental factors in inclusive outdoor play. The study also identified autonomy, growing up together, making contact and adapting ways of playing as factors that affected participation. The 2025 Position Statement on Active Outdoor Play recommends increasing opportunities for active outdoor play where people live, learn, work and play (Lee et al., 2025). It also recommends collaboration across sectors and settings to support equitable access. Together, these findings provide a broader context for considering the roles of families, communities and schools. These influences can operate across family, community and school settings (see Figure 5).

=== '''Families''' ===
Parents can influence whether children have opportunities to play outdoors. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified parents as an environmental factor in inclusive outdoor play. Children with disabilities described parents as important in encouraging participation. For some children, parents also helped to explain their disability to other children (Beekhuizen et al., 2025).  

Broader research also identifies parental factors in children's outdoor play. A systematic review of 21 peer reviewed studies involving children aged 0 to 12 years found that the importance placed on outdoor play was associated with how much time children spent playing outdoors  (Boxberger and Reimers, 2019). Evidence for parental encouragement and support was less consistent across children (Boxberger and Reimers, 2019). This suggests that family influence is not limited to direct encouragement. Parents' attitude towards outdoor play may shape children's opportunities to play outdoors. However, the review identified some associations but does not show that parental attitude caused greater outdoor play. 

Parental support  can also involve allowing children to have some independence during outdoor play. Support can make participation possible, but it does not always require direct parental involvement (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). This is particularly relevant when children want more control over how and where they play. Research on independent mobility also shows that children and parents may differ in how much independence they prefer (Han et al., 2022). The study identified different patterns in children's and parents' preferences for independent mobility. These findings show that parental support and autonomy do not always involve the same level of parental involvement. Some children may need support to access or join outdoor play while also wanting greater independence. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) also recommended providing children and parents with knowledge about disabilities and possible adaptations that could support participation. 

Time constraints can also limit family-level opportunities for outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) reported that some children had less time to play outdoors because of parents' work schedules, after-school arrangements and longer travel between home and school. This means that opportunities for outdoor play can be restricted even when children want to play and parents are supportive.

=== '''Communities''' ===
Community conditions can affect whether children have safe and inclusive opportunities for outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) described physical and social safety as important for inclusive outdoor play. Some playground structures also made participation difficult for children with disabilities. A systematic review of 25 studies found that both physical and social neighbourhood factors were associated with children's outdoor play (Visser &amp; van Aalst, 2022). Social factors included perceived safety, social cohesion and the presence of other children. However, the studies did not identify one neighbourhood feature that consistently explained children's outdoor play across all settings.

The social environment may also affect whether children can join others. Children with disabilities described smaller communities, including villages and schools, as places where children and parents could become more familiar with disability. Greater familiarity was associated with greater acceptance and stronger connections with other children (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Observational research also shows that physical access alone does not explain inclusive outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2026) observed 63 children with and without disabilities during six inclusive outdoor-play sessions and found children with disabilities had lower playfulness scores than children without disabilities. Unfamiliarity could also restrict social inclusion because children preferred to play with peers they already knew. This means providing the same outdoor space does not necessarily provide the same opportunity to participate.

The 2025 Position Statement on Active Outdoor Play recommends collaboration across sectors and settings to support equitable access to active outdoor play (Lee et al., 2025). The reviewed findings  show why both physical and social conditions matter. Children need places that can be accessed, but familiarity, safety and opportunities to join others can also affect participation. However, the evidence does not show that one community feature alone will increase outdoor play or improve emotional well-being.

=== '''Schools''' ===
Schools can provide opportunities for children with and without disabilities to become more familiar with one another. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified growing up together and making contact as interacting factors in inclusive outdoor play. Children described familiarity with other children as making contact easier. School circumstances can also affect the time available for outdoor play. Some children attending special primary education described long travel times between school and home as reducing their opportunities to play outdoors. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified these experiences as part of time constraints.

The physical school environment can also be changed to support outdoor activity and socio-emotional outcomes. Bikomeye et al. (2021) systematically reviewed six experimental studies of schoolyard greening. The interventions involved adding greenery and natural elements to schoolyards. Across the included studies, the review reported generally positive findings for physical activity and socio-emotional health. However, the review included only six studies. Schoolyard greening is also a specific intervention and should not be treated as evidence that all forms of outdoor play improve children's emotional well-being. 

Recess provides another school setting in which children's emotional experiences have been examined directly. Poulos et al. (2026) studied 317 Year 4 and 5 children during extreme heat. Positive affect was higher after outdoor and gymnasium recess than after classroom recess. There were no significant differences in negative affect between the three settings. Poulos et al. (2026) also identified implications for school health, policy and equity. The study discussed heat-adaptive infrastructure as one way to support access to recess environments during extreme heat. However, the findings do not show that outdoor recess is always better than indoor recess because positive affect was also higher after gymnasium recess. 

{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Quiz}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;

{Which statement best reflects how families, communities and school can support children's outdoor play opportunities?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}

+ Support can involve accessible environments, safety, familiarity, appropriate parental support and opportunities for children to participate with some independence.
- Providing the same outdoor space gives every child the same opportunity to participate.
-Schoolyard greening alone is enough to improve children's emotional well-being.
-Outdoor recess always produces better emotional outcomes than indoor recess.

&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}
== '''Conclusion''' ==
Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being are not represented by single, consistent concepts across recent research. Outdoor play should be distinguished from outdoor physical activity, while emotional well-being has been examined through emotional dysregulation, social-emotional competence, positive and negative affect, and internalising and externalising symptoms. These differences are important because findings across studies do not represent the same emotional outcomes or time frames. 

Outdoor play may be related to children's emotional well-being through several psychological processes, but the strength of evidence differs across them. Gross's (2015) emotion regulation framework helps explain how children may respond to emotional situations during play, while working memory provides more direct evidence of a possible cognitive process in the association between afternoon outdoor play and lower emotional dysregulation (Lee et al., 2025). However, these findings do not establish that outdoor play causes better emotion regulation or emotional well-being. Recent research also does not show one consistent effect across all children, outcomes or play contexts. Some studies report associations with better social-emotional competence, lower-risk symptom trajectories or higher positive affect, while other findings are mixed or non-significant (Davenport et al., 2025; Dodd et al., 2026; Ferguson et al., 2025). Differences in research design, measurement, timing and context therefore need to be considered when interpreting the evidence. 

Children's opportunities for outdoor play are also shaped by their social and physical environments. Accessibility, familiarity, autonomy, parental support, safety and opportunities to join other children can influence whether the same outdoor space provides the same opportunity to participate. Families, communities and schools can therefore support outdoor play by considering both access to outdoor spaces and the conditions that allow children to participate in ways that suit their needs and circumstances. Overall, current research suggests that outdoor play is associated with some aspects of children's emotional well-being, but the relationship is more complex than simply spending more time outdoors. The relation between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being varies depending on how outdoor play is measured, timing, context and children's opportunities to participate.

==See also==
* [[wikipedia:Affordance|Affordance]] (Wikipedia)
* [[wikipedia:Autonomy|Autonomy]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Cognitive psychology]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Emotion regulation in children|Emotion regulation in children]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Emotional regulation]] (Wikipedia)

* [[wikipedia:Emotional dysregulation|Emotional dysregulation]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Imaginative play and emotion regulation|Imaginative play and emotion regulation]] (Wikiversity)
* [[wikipedia:Working memory|Working memory]] (Wikipedia)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Beekhuizen, R. Q., Bloemen, M. A. T., Bolster, E. A. M., Visser, K., Lugt, R., Bassa, M., Henry, N. L., Kotte, E. M. W., Hartingsveldt, M., &amp; Gorter, J. W. (2026). Can You See Us Play? Observing Inclusive Outdoor Play Behaviour Among Children With and Without Disabilities: A Mixed Methods Study. Child : Care, Health &amp; Development, 52(1), e70198-n/a. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70198

Beekhuizen, R. Q., Bolster, E. A. M., Gorter, J. W., Henry, N. L., Visser, K., Wittink, H., Kotte, E. M. W., Sol, M. E., &amp; Bloemen, M. A. T. (2025). Play Together? Unveiling Facilitators and Barriers to Inclusive Outdoor Play for Dutch Children With and Without Disabilities: A Qualitative Study. Child: Care, Health &amp; Development, 51(6), Article e70154. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70154

Biino, V., Pesce, C., &amp; Martins, C. (2025). Motor Skill Development at Preschool Age in Girls and Boys: The Role of Outdoor Free Play. Children, 12(5), Article 594. https://doi.org/10.3390/children12050594

Bikomeye, J., Balza, J., &amp; Beyer, K. (2021). The Impact of Schoolyard Greening on Children’s Physical Activity and Socioemotional Health: A Systematic Review of Experimental Studies. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(2), 535. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18020535

Boxberger, K., &amp; Reimers, A. K. (2019). Parental correlates of outdoor play in boys and girls aged 0 to 12: A systematic review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(2, Art. 190), 19-16:2, Art. 190&lt;19. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16020190

Davenport, C., Kuzik, N., Larouche, R., &amp; Carson, V. (2025). The Associations Between Parental-Reported and Device-Based Measured Outdoor Play and Health Indicators of Physical, Cognitive, and Social–Emotional Development in Preschool-Aged Children. Pediatric Exercise Science, 37(2), 102–111. https://doi.org/10.1123/pes.2023-0119

de Lannoy, L., Barbeau, K., Seguin, N., &amp; Tremblay, M. S. (2023). Scoping review of children’s and youth’s outdoor play publications in Canada. Chronic Diseases in Canada, 43(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.24095/hpcdp.43.1.01

Dodd, H. F., Cordwell, K., Hesketh, K., Johnstone, A., de la Torre-Luque, A., &amp; McCrorie, P. (2026). Early outdoor play predicts trajectories of child mental health in a population-based cohort. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.70175

Ferguson, M., Teyhan, A., Lovell, R., Dodd, H., Wheeler, B., &amp; McEachan, R. (2025). The association between park visits, outdoor play and child social-emotional competency in a multi-ethnic, urban cohort. Wellbeing, Space and Society, 9, Article 100293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wss.2025.100293

Gal‐Szabo, D. E., Spinrad, T. L., Eisenberg, N., &amp; Sulik, M. J. (2019). The relations of children’s emotion knowledge to their observed social play and reticent/uninvolved behavior in preschool: Moderation by effortful control. Social Development (Oxford, England), 28(1), 57–73. https://doi.org/10.1111/sode.12321

Gibson, J. J. (1979). The ecological approach to visual perception / James J. Gibson. Houghton Mifflin.

Gibson, J.L., Cornell, M. &amp; Gill, T. A Systematic Review of Research into the Impact of Loose Parts Play on Children’s Cognitive, Social and Emotional Development. School Mental Health 9, 295–309 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-017-9220-9

Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion Regulation: Current Status and Future Prospects. Psychological Inquiry, 26(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2014.940781

Halberstadt, A. G., Denham, S. A., &amp; Dunsmore, J. C. (2001). Affective Social Competence. Social Development (Oxford, England), 10(1), 79–119. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9507.00150

Han, C. S., Brussoni, M. J., &amp; Mâsse, L. C. (2022). Parental Autonomy Support in the Context of Parent–Child Negotiation for Children’s Independent Mobility: ‘I Always Feel Safer With My Parents’ to ‘Boom! Bust Down Those Walls! The Journal of Early Adolescence, 42(6), Article 02724316211064513. https://doi.org/10.1177/02724316211064513

Johnstone, A., Martin, A., Cordovil, R., Fjørtoft, I., Iivonen, S., Jidovtseff, B., Lopes, F., Reilly, J. J., Thomson, H., Wells, V., &amp; McCrorie, P. (2022). Nature-Based Early Childhood Education and Children’s Social, Emotional and Cognitive Development: A Mixed-Methods Systematic Review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(10), 5967. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19105967

Lee, E.-Y., de Lannoy, L., Kim, Y.-B., Rathod, A., James, M. E., Lopes, O., Nasrallah, B., Thankarajah, A., Adjei-Boadi, D., de Barros, M. I. A., Duncan, S., Miller, R. M., Mygind, L., Vanderloo, L. M., Wang, P.-Y., &amp; Tremblay, M. S. (2025). 2025 Position statement on active outdoor play. The International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 22(1), Article 117. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-025-01813-9

Lee, J. J., Flouri, E., &amp; Jackson, Y. (2025). The Role of Timing and Amount of Outdoor Play in Emotional Dysregulation in Preschool Children. Child: Care, Health &amp; Development, 51(1), Article e70020. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70020

Morgenthaler, T., Lynch, H., Loebach, J., Pentland, D., &amp; Schulze, C. (2024). Using the Theory of Affordances to Understand Environment–Play Transactions: Environmental Taxonomy of Outdoor Play Space Features—A Scoping Review. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 78(4), Article 7804185120. https://doi.org/10.5014/ajot.2024.050606

Pereira, J. V., Vila-Nova, F., Veiga, G., Lopes, F., &amp; Cordovil, R. (2024). Associations between outdoor play features and children’s behavior and health: A systematic review. Health &amp; Place, 87, Article 103235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2024.103235

Poulos, A., Hassan, U. A., Wilson, K., Price, P. M., Vanos, J., &amp; Quilla, J. (2026). Differences in Schoolchildren’s Emotional State After Indoor Versus Outdoor Recess in Extreme‐Heat Weather. The Journal of School Health, 96(4), Article e70135. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.70135

Scherer, K. R. (2005). What are emotions? And how can they be measured? Social Science Information, 44(4), 695–729. https://doi.org/10.1177/0539018405058216

Veraksa, A. N., Plotnikova, V. A., Sukhikh, V. L., Kornienko, D. S., &amp; Rudnova, N. A. (2025). Non-therapeutic play to overcome negative emotional symptoms and improve emotional intelligence in children aged 3–7: a systematic review. Frontiers in Psychology, 16, 1475387. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1475387

Visser, K., &amp; Aalst, I. (2022). Neighbourhood Factors in Children’s Outdoor Play: A Systematic Literature Review. Tijdschrift Voor Economische En Sociale Geografie, 113(1), 80–95. https://doi.org/10.1111/tesg.12505

}}

==External links==
* [https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-play [https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-pla]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-play y]] (Encyclopedia in Early Childhood Development)
* [[https://www.outdoorplaycanada.ca/2026/06/02/sprout-able-resources-videos-and-tip-sheets-to-support-children-with-disabilities-in-outdoor-play/ https://www.outdoorplaycanada.ca/2026/06/02/sp]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[https://www.outdoorplaycanada.ca/2026/06/02/sprout-able-resources-videos-and-tip-sheets-to-support-children-with-disabilities-in-outdoor-play/ rout-able-resources-videos-and-tip-sheets-to-support-children-with-disabilities-in-outdoor-play/]/ SPROUT-able Resources: Videos and Tip Sheets to Support Children with Disabilities in Outdoor Play] (Outdoor Play Canada)

* https://www.who.int/news/item/24-04-2019-to-grow-up-healthy-children-need-to-sit-less-and-play-more&lt;nowiki/&gt; To grow up healthy, children need to sit less and play more] (World Health Organisation)

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__TOC__

== Overview ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;

|'''Case study: Part 1'''[[File:School children happily playing in playground.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. Children engaged in outdoor play, where social interactions, choice and control on the situation can create different emotional experiences.]]Imagine that...

A child arrives at playground and joins a group of children who are already playing. The children are making their own game and deciding the rules as they play. At first, the child enjoys choosing where and what to play. During the game, another child changes the rules and an argument breaks out. The child becomes frustrated and walks away from the activity. After watching for a short time, the child returns, suggests a new idea to continue the game and re-joins the group. 

How might experiences like this during outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? Emotional regulation provides one psychological framework for understanding how children may respond to situations like this during play (see figure 1).
|}

Outdoor play can involve more than physical movement. It can occur across playgrounds, gardens, streets and natural spaces. Outdoor play includes exploration, social interaction, choice, challenge, and engagement with the surrounding environment (Dodd et al., 2026; Pereira et al., 2024). These experiences can involve frustration, disagreement, uncertainty or excitement. This chapter examines how [[Emotional regulation|emotional,]] [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive]], social and environmental processes may help explain the relationship between outdoor play and children's [https://w.wiki/AHG6 emotional well-being.] 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|

;[[File:Bulb Idea Flat Icon GIF Animation.gif|alt=Focus questions|left|99x99px|thumb]]


'''Focus questions'''

* '''What are outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?'''
* '''How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?'''
* '''How do social and environmental conditions shape  children's outdoor play experiences?'''
* '''What does recent research show about outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?'''
* '''How can families, communities and schools support outdoor  play opportunities that may benefit children's emotional well-being?'''
|}

== '''Understanding outdoor play and children's emotional well-being''' ==
[[File:Water-outdoor-people-girl-play-boy-938233.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. ''Outdoor play can provide opportunities to explore, make choices, interact with others and respond to changing situations through activities such as water play.''|214x214px]]

Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being are not measured as single and consistent concepts across recent research. Outdoor play may be examined as voluntary and intrinsically motivated activity, self directed play, parent reported outdoor play, or device-measured outdoor play (Binno et al., 2025; Davenport et al., 2025; Dodd et al., 2026). It should also be distinguished from outdoor moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) because these measures do not represent the same behaviour (Davenport et al., 2025). Children's emotional well-being is also examined through different outcomes, including [https://w.wiki/7YC8 emotional dysregulation], social-emotional competence, positive and negative affect, and internalising or externalising symptoms (Dodd et al., 2026; Ferguson et al., 2025; Lee et al., 2025; Poulos et al., 2026).  

=== Outdoor play ===
Outdoor play is voluntary and intrinsically motivated activity that occurs in outdoor environments such as gardens, playgrounds, parks and natural spaces (Dodd et al., 2026). Free play can be also self-directed, allowing children to interact freely with the environment and make choices about their activities (Biino et al., 2025). Outdoor play should not be treated as the same as outdoor physical activity. The recent research outdoor play and outdoor moderate- to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) were examined as separate measures (Davenport et al., 2025). This distinction is important because outdoor play intensity of physical activity do not represent the same behaviour.  

=== Children's emotional well-being ===
Children's emotional well-being is not represented by a single common outcome across recent outdoor play research. Emotional dysregulation has been examined in relation to the amount and timing of outdoor play (Lee et al., 2025), while social-emotional competence includes social emotional difficulties and [[Prosocial behavior/Keywords/Definitions|prosocial behaviour]] (Ferguson et al., 2025). Other studies have examined positive and negative affect following recess (Poulos et al., 2026) and trajectories of internalising and externalising symptoms across childhood (Dodd et al., 2026). These outcomes represent different aspects and timeframes of emotional functioning, so they should not be treated as equivalent when findings are compared.

'''Table 1''' 

''Emotional outcomes examined in recent research on outdoor play and children's emotional well-being''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Study
!Outcome examined
!What the outcome represents                                                                                                  
|-
|Lee et al. (2025)   
|Emotional dysregulation
|Difficulties in emotional regulation; examined in relation to the amount of timing of outdoor play
|-
|Ferguson et al.          (2025)
|Social-emotional competence 
|Social-emotional difficulties and prosocial behaviour
|-
|Poulos et al. (2026)
|Positive and negative affect
|Children's affect following recess across different settings 
|-
|Dodd et al. (2026)
|Internalising and externalising symptoms
|Internalising: emotional symptoms and peer problems
Externalising: conduct problems and hyperactivity- inattention 
|}
Note. Outcome descriptions are based on the measures and constructs reported in the above cited studies. See Table 1. 

As shown in Table 1, the studies do not measure the same aspect or time frame of children's emotional functioning. Affect immediately following recess should not be treated as equivalent to emotional dysregulation measured over time or trajectories of internalising and externalising symptoms across childhood. This difference need to be considered when findings across studies are compared. 

'''Case study: part 2'''
 
''What is being measured?''

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |[[File:Children marbles.jpg|thumb|221x221px|'''Figure 3'''. ''Children's immediate emotional responses during outdoor play is different from long-term emotional functioning.'']]The child in the Case study: Part 1 becomes frustrated when the rules of the game change. This immediate emotional response is different from a longer-term pattern of emotional dysregulation or internalising symptoms. Research on outdoor play measures these outcomes across different time frames and contexts. When findings are compared, it is important to consider which aspect of emotional well-being is measured.

{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;

{A child's positive or negative affect immediately after recess represents the same emotional outcome as longer-term internalising or externalising symptoms.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}

- True
+ False

&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}

|}

== '''How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?''' ==
Outdoor play may be related to children's emotional well-being through emotional, cognitive, and social processes (Dodd et al., 2026). Possible pathways discussed in the recent research include cognitive, social and emotional skills, social interaction, physical activity, connection with nature and adventurous play (Dodd et al., 2026). However, these pathways have not all been directly tested as mechanisms, and much outdoor play research remains observational (Dodd et al., 2026; de Lannoy et al., 2023). Psychological theory can help to explain how and why outdoor play experiences may influence children's emotional well-being. However, theory alone does not show that psychological processes cause better emotional well-being.

Emotion involves more than subjective feelings. Scherer (2005) described emotion as coordinated changes across cognitive appraisal, physiological responses, action tendencies, expression and subjective feelings. Therefore, physiological response is one component of an emotional response rather than a separate explanation for the effects of outdoor play. Scherer (2005) did not examine outdoor play, so this framework does not provide evidence that outdoor play changes children's physiological responses or emotional well-being.

=== '''Emotion regulation''' ===
Emotion regulation provides a psychological framework for understanding how children may manage emotional situations during outdoor play. Gross (2015) described emotion regulation as a process involving identification, selection and implementation. Gross (2015) also described situation selection, situation modification, attentional deployment cognitive change and response modulation. During outdoor play, children may experience frustration, conflict, disagreement, uncertainty or changes to their activity. Gross's framework can be applied to consider how the children recognise an emotional response, choose strategies to manage and act on chosen strategies. However, Gross (2015) did not examine outdoor play, so applying the framework does not show that outdoor play improves children's emotion regulation.

Broader research on  children's play has also examined emotional functioning. Veraksa et al. (2025) systematically reviewed 33 studies on non-therapeutic play among children aged 3 to 7 and identified evidence involving emotional regulation, emotional intelligence, and negative emotional symptoms. The review included outdoor play alongside several other forms of play, so its findings should not be interpreted as evidence that outdoor play alone improves emotion regulation. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Case study: Part 3'''[[File:14Y Ncdc july 5th-802.jpg|thumb|202x202px|'''Figure 4'''. ''Children can respond differently to emotional situations that occur during outdoor play.'']]When the rules of game change, the child becomes frustrated and decides to step away. After a short time the child returns and suggests a different way to continue the game (see Figure 4). Suggesting a change to the game can be considered an example of situation modification. This shows how Gross's emotion regulation framework can be applied to an emotional situation during outdoor play.

{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;

{What does Gross (2015) emotion regulation framework show when it is applied to the outdoor-play scenario?.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
-A. Outdoor play causes better emotion regulation.
+B. Situation modification can help explain how the child responds to the situation.
-C. Children regulate emotions better outdoors than indoors.
-D. Stepping away from play always improves emotional well-being.


&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}

|}
=== '''Working memory and cognitive process''' ===
Working memory can be one cognitive process involved in the association between outdoor play and emotional dysregulation. Lee et al. (2025) examined 325 preschool children and tested working memory as a statistical mediator. More outdoor play between noon and 6 pm was associated with lower emotional dysregulation. In contrast, more outdoor play before noon and after 6 pm was associated with higher emotional dysregulation. Afternoon outdoor play was also associated with better working memory, and better working memory was associated with lower emotional dysregulation.

When working memory was included in the analysis, the association between afternoon outdoor play and emotional dysregulation was no longer statistically significant. Lee et al. (2025) reported this as full mediation. This suggests that working memory may be involved in the association between afternoon outdoor play and lower emotional dysregulation. However, the study was observational, so the mediation analysis does not show that outdoor play caused better working memory or lower emotional dysregulation.

Johnstone et al. (2022) reviewed 36 studies of nature-based [[early childhood education]]. The review found very low certainty evidence for some social, emotional, and cognitive outcomes, including [[self-regulation]], while findings for attention were inconsistent. Although, the review examined nature-based early childhood education rather than outdoor play. Therefore, it does not show that working memory explains the association between outdoor play and children's [https://w.wiki/AHG6 emotional well-being].

'''Table 2'''

''Psychological processes considered in the relationship between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!Process
!Contribution
!Evidence and limitations 
|-
|Emotion components 
|Emotion involves cognitive appraisal, physiological responses, action tendencies, expression and subjective feelings (Scherer, 2005)
|Provides psychological framework, but Scherer did not examine outdoor play.
|-
|Emotion regulation
|Gross's (2015) framework can be applied to emotional situations during outdoor play, including frustration, disagreement and changes to an activity. 
|Helps explain responses, but does not show that outdoor play improves emotion regulation.
|-
|Working memory
|Lee et al. (2025) examined working memory as a statistical mediator between outdoor play and emotional dysregulation.
|Provides direct observational evidence of possible cognitive process but does not establish causation. 
|-
|Broader play/nature evidence
|Veraksa et al. (2025) and Johnstone et al. (2022) examined related play and nature based contexts.
|Relevant to interpretation, but not specific evidence that outdoor play causes better emotional well-being. 
|}
Note. The sources provide different types of evidence, including psychological frameworks, direct outdoor-play research and broader evidence about outdoor play and children's emotional well-being. 

== '''How do social and environmental conditions shape on children's outdoor play experiences?''' ==
[[File:2026-10-03 214531-relationship between child and environment.png|thumb|284x284px|'''Figure 5.''' Children's opportunities for outdoor play can be different according to personal, interacting and environmental factors and the relationship between the child and the environment.

Note. Original conceptual summary is based on Beekhuizen et al. (2025) and Gibson (1979).]]
Outdoor play opportunities depend on social and physical environments. Children may have access to same outdoor space but may not have same opportunities for play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified personal, interacting and environmental factors that could support or restrict inclusive outdoor play. These differences can be considered through [https://w.wiki/VYfL affordance theory], which examines the opportunities for action through the relationship between an individual and the environment (Gibson, 1979). See Figure 5. 


=== Affordance theory and outdoor play environments ===
[https://w.wiki/VYfL Affordance theory] was developed by Gibson (1979) to explain the opportunities for action that an environment  provides in relation to the person using it. In outdoor play, the opportunities provided by a space can depend on its physical features and how a child is able to use those features. Morgenthaler et al. (2024) applied affordance theory to children's outdoor play and examined outdoor play transactions through environmental taxonomy of outdoor play space features. Their review identified 14 categories of spaces and 284 play occupations linked to different environmental features. Morgenthaler et al. (2024) showed that different spaces and objects can afford  different forms of play, which helps explain why same space may provide different opportunities. However this study examined the opportunities for play rather than children's well-being.

Pereira et al. (2024) also examined features of outdoor play spaces in a systematic review of 51 articles representing 45 primary studies. The review examined features such as fixed structures, natural elements, floor markings, loose equipment and available play areas. Some positive effects were reported, but there was substantial heterogeneity between studies. The studies differed in the environmental features examined, outcomes measures, and study methods, which made difficult to draw a clear conclusions about the effect of individual play space features (Pereira et al., 2024).Therefore, the review does not show that one particular environmental feature improves children's [https://w.wiki/AHG6 emotional well-being]. 

'''Table 3'''

''Examples of environmental features and possible affordances'' 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Environmental feature                             
!Possible affordance for play                                                        
|-
|Fixed structures (e.g. climbing frame)
|Physical activity such as climbing, physical play and risk-taking
|-
|Natural elements (e.g. tree, rocks, sand)
|Exploratory play, imaginative play, and sensory experiences
|-
|Floor markings (e.g. painted games)
|Rule based  and structured play
|-
|Loose equipment (e.g. balls, tyre, boxes) 
|Constructive, imaginative play, creative and problem solving play
|-
|Open play area
|Running, group play, and flexible use
|}
Note. This table is an original synthesis based on environmental features described by Pereira et al. (2024) and  affordance framework applied by Morgenthaler et al. (2024).  Environmental features can afford more than one type of play and the opportunities may vary between children. 
=== '''Social relationship and inclusion''' ===
Social relationships can shape whether children are able to join and continue outdoor play (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified making contact and growing up together as interacting factors in inclusive outdoor play. Familiarity with other children could make it easier to approach, communicate and play together, while joining unfamiliar children or existing game could be difficult. [https://w.wiki/WDsJ Affective social competence (ASC)] provides a psychological framework for understanding these social interactions (Halberstadt et al., 2001). The ASC model involves experiencing, sending and receiving affect, together with awareness, identification, working within the social context and regulation. These processes may be relevant when a child tries to enter a peer group, recognise other children's emotions and manage their own response during play.  

Gal-Szabo et al. (2019) used the ASC model as theoretical foundation when examining children's emotional knowledge and social behaviour during preschool free play. The study found that situational understanding of the emotions was negatively related to uninvolved behaviour and was marginally positively related to more social play. However, the study examined preschool free play rather than specific outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) also found that children with disabilities experienced more barriers related to making contact, adapting play and physical play environment. These findings suggest that participation in outdoor play depends on both social interaction and children's ability to respond within the play situation, but they do not establish that social play causes better emotional well-being (Beekhuizen et al., 2025; Gal-Szabo et al., 2019).

=== '''Autonomy, parents and time''' ===
[https://w.wiki/4NyU Autonomy] can shape how children experience outdoor play (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified autonomy as a personal factor in inclusive outdoor play. Some children with disabilities valued opportunities to play outside independently. Veraksa et al. (2025), in a systematic review of non-therapeutic play, identified autonomy as one feature through which play may support emotional regulation and coping. However, the review examined several forms of play and does not show that autonomy during outdoor play specifically improves children's emotional well-being.

Parental support can also make outdoor play possible. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) found that parental involvement could support children's participation when a child needed help to access or participate in outdoor play. Time constraints also affected opportunities for outdoor play. Some children had less time to play outdoors because of parents' work schedules, after school arrangements or longer travel distance between home and school (Beekhuizen et al., 2025).

=== '''Outdoor environments and accessibility''' ===
Outdoor play environments can support or restrict children's participation (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified both physical and social features of outdoor environments as relevant to inclusive play. Children discussed safety, including traffic near playgrounds and disputes with other children. Accessibility was particularly important for children with disabilities because opportunities for inclusive outdoor play could be affected by play environments and physical abilities. Pereira et al. (2024) also showed that heterogeneity between studies limited clear conclusions about the effects of individual outdoor play space features.. 

Gibson et al. (2017) systematically reviewed five studies of loose-parts play (LPP) interventions with primary school aged children. The review found limited quantitative evidence to determine whether loose-parts interventions affected children's cognitive, social or emotional development. Together, these findings show that features of outdoor environments can support or restrict opportunities for play. However, current evidence does not establish that a particular environmental feature improves children's emotional well-being (Beekhuizen et al., 2025; Gibson et al., 2017; Pereira et al., 2024). 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Case study: Part 4 Same play space, different experiences'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|Kim and Leo use the same school playground. Kim already knows many children and easily joins a group activity. Leo uses a mobility device and finds that some areas of the playground are difficult to access. Leo also does not know many children who are already playing. He prefers to play independently when possible. 
|}

The two children have access to the same playground space, but their opportunities to participate are different. Their experiences are shaped by more than the physical space alone. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) also identified making contact, familiarity, autonomy and accessibility as factors that could support or restrict inclusive outdoor play.
Physical accessibility may affect whether a child can use part of playground, while familiarity with other children may affect whether the child can enter social play. Parental support may also help participation in some situations, while the child may still value greater independence
{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;

{Why might two children have different outdoor-play experiences even they use the same playground?.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+A. Physical, social and personal factors can affect how children are able to participate.
-B. Outdoor spaces provide the same opportunities for every child.
-C. Accessibility is the only factor that affects outdoor play..
-D. Children who know other children always have better emotional well-being.


&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}

|}
== '''What does recent research show about outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?''' ==
Recent research does not show a consistent association between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being. The findings are mixed across different emotional outcomes measured, the timing and context of outdoor play, children's behaviours, and the methods used to measure outdoor play. These differences are significant when interpreting whether outdoor play is associated with better emotional well-being.  

The recent studies shows this variation. More frequent outdoor play has been associated with better social-emotional competence (Ferguson et al., 2025) while association with emotional dysregulation differed according to the timing and context of outdoor play (Lee et al., 2025). Positive affect was also higher after outdoor play and and gymnasium recess than after classroom recess, but no significant differences in negative affect between settings (Poulos et al.,2026).   

Longer-term evidence also examines a different aspect of emotional functioning. More frequent outdoor play during the preschool years was associated with a greater likelihood of following a low and stable trajectory of internalising and externalising symptoms through childhood (Dodd et al., 2026). However, the studies differ in children's ages, research designs, measures of outdoor play and emotional outcomes. Therefore, the evidence should not be interpreted as showing one consistent effect across all children or forms of emotional well-being.

=== '''Consistency of recent research findings''' ===
Recent findings are not consistent across all emotional and developmental outcomes. Ferguson et al. (2025) found that more frequent outdoor play was associated with better social-emotional competence, including lower difficulties and greater [[Prosocial Behaviour|prosocial behaviour]]. In contrast, Davenport et al. (2025) found that most associations between outdoor play and the physical, [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive]] and social-emotional developmental indicators examined were not statistically significant. These differences show that positive association with outdoor play are not found across all developmental outcomes.

Findings can also differ according to the emotional outcome being measured. Poulos et al. (2026) found higher positive affect after outdoor and gymnasium recess than after classroom recess, but no significant differences in negative affect between the three recess settings.  Lee et al. (2025) found that  more afternoon outdoor play was associated with lower emotional dysregulation, while more outdoor play earlier and later in the day was associated with higher emotional dysregulation. These findings suggest that the association can differ according to both the emotional outcome and the timing of outdoor play.

The time period being examined also differs between studies. Dodd et al. (2026) found that more frequent outdoor play during the preschool years was associated with lower odds of belonging to less favourable internalising and externalising symptom trajectory across childhood. This is different from Poulos et al. (2026), who examined children's emotional states immediately after the recess. Therefore, recent research includes both immediate emotional outcomes and longer-term patterns of emotional functioning. 

Associations may vary across children and play contexts. Ferguson et al. (2025) reported differences according to ethnicity and whether outdoor play occurred on school days or weekends. Together, these findings suggest that the association between outdoor play and emotional well-being is not same across outcome.The studies differ in children's age, research designs, measures of outdoor play, and emotional outcomes. Thus, findings should not be treated as evidence of one single effect.

=== '''Strengths and limitations of current research''' ===
The strength of the evidence also differs according to research design. Dodd et al. (2026) used longitudinal data from 4,151 children and measured outdoor play during the preschool years at approximately 2, 3 and 4 years old, while internalising and externalising symptoms trajectories were measured later through to age 8. This strengthens the evidence about temporal ordering because outdoor play was measured before the later emotional outcomes. However, longitudinal evidence does not establish cause and effect, and the study relied on parent-reported measures.

Causal interpretation is also limited in other studies. Lee et al. (2025) used observational data and considered the possibility of reverse causation when interpreting associations between the timing of outdoor play and emotional dysregulation. This means the findings cannot establish whether outdoor play influenced emotional dysregulation or whether children's emotional functioning influenced when they played outdoors.

Measurement of outdoor play is another important consideration. Davenport et al. (2025) used both parent-reported and device-measured outdoor play and examined whether associations were independent of outdoor moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA). This is important because outdoor play and outdoor physical activity are related but should not be treated as interchangeable measures. However, the sample was relatively small (N=107) and most tested associations with developmental outcomes were not statistically significant.

Limitations are also present across the wider outdoor-play literature. De Lannoy et al. (2023) identified 275 Canadian outdoor-play publications and found that cross-sectional designs were the most common. Mental and emotional development had also received less research attention than physical health and development. This suggests that the evidence base for emotional well-being is less developed than some other areas of outdoor-play research.

T'''able 4'''

'''''Comparison of recent research'''''

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Study               
!Research method             
!Research strength                      
!Limitation                                                
|-
|  &lt;small&gt;Lee et al. (2025)&lt;/small&gt;                                     
|Observational; 6 month follow-up
|Examined the timing of outdoor play and tested working memory as a statistical mediator of the association with emotional dysregulation.     
|Observational mediation cannot establish causation; the study also considered possible reverse causation when interpreting timing-related findings.
|-
|Ferguson et al. (2025)
|Cross sectional; multi ethnic urban cohort (N=2,568)
|Large sample allowed associations to be examined across population groups and school-day/weekend outdoor play.
|Cross-sectional design cannot establish temporal direction; associations also differed across some groups and play contexts.
|-
|Davenport et al. (2025)
|Observational; preschool sample (N=107)
|Used both parent-reported and device-measured outdoor play and distinguished outdoor play from outdoor moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA)
|Small sample and most tested associations with developmental outcomes were not statistically significant.
|-
|Dodd et al. (2026)
|Longitudinal cohort (N = 4,151)
|Outdoor play was measured in the preschool years before later internalising and externalising symptom trajectories.
|Outdoor play and symptoms relied on parent reported measures, and the observational design does not establish causations.
|-
|Poulos et al. (2026)
|Recess comparison study (N=317)
|Compared children's positive and negative affect following outdoor, gymnasium and classroom recess
|Examined immediate affect during an extreme-heat context; higher positive affect was also found after gymnasium recess, so the result was not specific to outdoor recess.
|}
As shown in Table 4, the recent evidence has different methodological strengths and limitations. Longitudinal designs provide stronger evidence about temporal ordering than cross-sectional design studies, while device-based measures can address some limitations of parent report. However, much of the evidence remains observational, and differences in emotional outcomes, measures of outdoor play and play contexts limit the direct comparison between studies. 

Future research could benefit from more consistent measures of outdoor play, stronger longitudinal and experimental designs and greater attention to emotional outcomes across different children and play contexts. 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;

{Why should the recent findings not be interpreted as showing single consistent effect of outdoor play on children's emotional well-being?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
-A. Because all the studies used different countries.
+B. Because studies differed in emotional outcomes, measures of outdoor play, timing, context and research design.
-C. Because longitudinal studies are always more reliable and accurate.
-D. Because outdoor play only affects positive outcomes.


&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}

|}
== '''How do families, communities and schools support outdoor play opportunities?''' ==
[[File:Coalition Builds New Playground in One Day for Chicora-Cherokee Community (11054532905).jpg|thumb|325x325px|Figure 6. Families, communities and school can shape children's opportunities for play.]]
Outdoor play opportunities are shaped by children's social and physical environments. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified parents, outdoor play environments, communities and time constraints as environmental factors in inclusive outdoor play. The study also identified autonomy, growing up together, making contact and adapting ways of playing as factors that affected participation. The 2025 Position Statement on Active Outdoor Play recommends increasing opportunities for active outdoor play where people live, learn, work and play (Lee et al., 2025). It also recommends collaboration across sectors and settings to support equitable access. Together, these findings provide a broader context for considering the roles of families, communities and schools. These influences can operate across family, community and school settings (see Figure 5).

=== '''Families''' ===
Parents can influence whether children have opportunities to play outdoors. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified parents as an environmental factor in inclusive outdoor play. Children with disabilities described parents as important in encouraging participation. For some children, parents also helped to explain their disability to other children (Beekhuizen et al., 2025).  

Broader research also identifies parental factors in children's outdoor play. A systematic review of 21 peer reviewed studies involving children aged 0 to 12 years found that the importance placed on outdoor play was associated with how much time children spent playing outdoors  (Boxberger and Reimers, 2019). Evidence for parental encouragement and support was less consistent across children (Boxberger and Reimers, 2019). This suggests that family influence is not limited to direct encouragement. Parents' attitude towards outdoor play may shape children's opportunities to play outdoors. However, the review identified some associations but does not show that parental attitude caused greater outdoor play. 

Parental support  can also involve allowing children to have some independence during outdoor play. Support can make participation possible, but it does not always require direct parental involvement (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). This is particularly relevant when children want more control over how and where they play. Research on independent mobility also shows that children and parents may differ in how much independence they prefer (Han et al., 2022). The study identified different patterns in children's and parents' preferences for independent mobility. These findings show that parental support and autonomy do not always involve the same level of parental involvement. Some children may need support to access or join outdoor play while also wanting greater independence. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) also recommended providing children and parents with knowledge about disabilities and possible adaptations that could support participation. 

Time constraints can also limit family-level opportunities for outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) reported that some children had less time to play outdoors because of parents' work schedules, after-school arrangements and longer travel between home and school. This means that opportunities for outdoor play can be restricted even when children want to play and parents are supportive.

=== '''Communities''' ===
Community conditions can affect whether children have safe and inclusive opportunities for outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) described physical and social safety as important for inclusive outdoor play. Some playground structures also made participation difficult for children with disabilities. A systematic review of 25 studies found that both physical and social neighbourhood factors were associated with children's outdoor play (Visser &amp; van Aalst, 2022). Social factors included perceived safety, social cohesion and the presence of other children. However, the studies did not identify one neighbourhood feature that consistently explained children's outdoor play across all settings.

The social environment may also affect whether children can join others. Children with disabilities described smaller communities, including villages and schools, as places where children and parents could become more familiar with disability. Greater familiarity was associated with greater acceptance and stronger connections with other children (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Observational research also shows that physical access alone does not explain inclusive outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2026) observed 63 children with and without disabilities during six inclusive outdoor-play sessions and found children with disabilities had lower playfulness scores than children without disabilities. Unfamiliarity could also restrict social inclusion because children preferred to play with peers they already knew. This means providing the same outdoor space does not necessarily provide the same opportunity to participate.

The 2025 Position Statement on Active Outdoor Play recommends collaboration across sectors and settings to support equitable access to active outdoor play (Lee et al., 2025). The reviewed findings  show why both physical and social conditions matter. Children need places that can be accessed, but familiarity, safety and opportunities to join others can also affect participation. However, the evidence does not show that one community feature alone will increase outdoor play or improve emotional well-being.

=== '''Schools''' ===
Schools can provide opportunities for children with and without disabilities to become more familiar with one another. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified growing up together and making contact as interacting factors in inclusive outdoor play. Children described familiarity with other children as making contact easier. School circumstances can also affect the time available for outdoor play. Some children attending special primary education described long travel times between school and home as reducing their opportunities to play outdoors. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified these experiences as part of time constraints.

The physical school environment can also be changed to support outdoor activity and socio-emotional outcomes. Bikomeye et al. (2021) systematically reviewed six experimental studies of schoolyard greening. The interventions involved adding greenery and natural elements to schoolyards. Across the included studies, the review reported generally positive findings for physical activity and socio-emotional health. However, the review included only six studies. Schoolyard greening is also a specific intervention and should not be treated as evidence that all forms of outdoor play improve children's emotional well-being. 

Recess provides another school setting in which children's emotional experiences have been examined directly. Poulos et al. (2026) studied 317 Year 4 and 5 children during extreme heat. Positive affect was higher after outdoor and gymnasium recess than after classroom recess. There were no significant differences in negative affect between the three settings. Poulos et al. (2026) also identified implications for school health, policy and equity. The study discussed heat-adaptive infrastructure as one way to support access to recess environments during extreme heat. However, the findings do not show that outdoor recess is always better than indoor recess because positive affect was also higher after gymnasium recess. 

{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Quiz}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;

{Which statement best reflects how families, communities and school can support children's outdoor play opportunities?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}

+ Support can involve accessible environments, safety, familiarity, appropriate parental support and opportunities for children to participate with some independence.
- Providing the same outdoor space gives every child the same opportunity to participate.
-Schoolyard greening alone is enough to improve children's emotional well-being.
-Outdoor recess always produces better emotional outcomes than indoor recess.

&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}
== '''Conclusion''' ==
Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being are not represented by single, consistent concepts across recent research. Outdoor play should be distinguished from outdoor physical activity, while emotional well-being has been examined through emotional dysregulation, social-emotional competence, positive and negative affect, and internalising and externalising symptoms. These differences are important because findings across studies do not represent the same emotional outcomes or time frames. 

Outdoor play may be related to children's emotional well-being through several psychological processes, but the strength of evidence differs across them. Gross's (2015) emotion regulation framework helps explain how children may respond to emotional situations during play, while working memory provides more direct evidence of a possible cognitive process in the association between afternoon outdoor play and lower emotional dysregulation (Lee et al., 2025). However, these findings do not establish that outdoor play causes better emotion regulation or emotional well-being. Recent research also does not show one consistent effect across all children, outcomes or play contexts. Some studies report associations with better social-emotional competence, lower-risk symptom trajectories or higher positive affect, while other findings are mixed or non-significant (Davenport et al., 2025; Dodd et al., 2026; Ferguson et al., 2025). Differences in research design, measurement, timing and context therefore need to be considered when interpreting the evidence. 

Children's opportunities for outdoor play are also shaped by their social and physical environments. Accessibility, familiarity, autonomy, parental support, safety and opportunities to join other children can influence whether the same outdoor space provides the same opportunity to participate. Families, communities and schools can therefore support outdoor play by considering both access to outdoor spaces and the conditions that allow children to participate in ways that suit their needs and circumstances. Overall, current research suggests that outdoor play is associated with some aspects of children's emotional well-being, but the relationship is more complex than simply spending more time outdoors. The relation between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being varies depending on how outdoor play is measured, timing, context and children's opportunities to participate.

==See also==
* [[wikipedia:Affordance|Affordance]] (Wikipedia)
* [[wikipedia:Autonomy|Autonomy]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Cognitive psychology]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Emotion regulation in children|Emotion regulation in children]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Emotional regulation]] (Wikipedia)

* [[wikipedia:Emotional dysregulation|Emotional dysregulation]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Imaginative play and emotion regulation|Imaginative play and emotion regulation]] (Wikiversity)
* [[wikipedia:Working memory|Working memory]] (Wikipedia)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Beekhuizen, R. Q., Bloemen, M. A. T., Bolster, E. A. M., Visser, K., Lugt, R., Bassa, M., Henry, N. L., Kotte, E. M. W., Hartingsveldt, M., &amp; Gorter, J. W. (2026). Can You See Us Play? Observing Inclusive Outdoor Play Behaviour Among Children With and Without Disabilities: A Mixed Methods Study. Child : Care, Health &amp; Development, 52(1), e70198-n/a. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70198

Beekhuizen, R. Q., Bolster, E. A. M., Gorter, J. W., Henry, N. L., Visser, K., Wittink, H., Kotte, E. M. W., Sol, M. E., &amp; Bloemen, M. A. T. (2025). Play Together? Unveiling Facilitators and Barriers to Inclusive Outdoor Play for Dutch Children With and Without Disabilities: A Qualitative Study. Child: Care, Health &amp; Development, 51(6), Article e70154. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70154

Biino, V., Pesce, C., &amp; Martins, C. (2025). Motor Skill Development at Preschool Age in Girls and Boys: The Role of Outdoor Free Play. Children, 12(5), Article 594. https://doi.org/10.3390/children12050594

Bikomeye, J., Balza, J., &amp; Beyer, K. (2021). The Impact of Schoolyard Greening on Children’s Physical Activity and Socioemotional Health: A Systematic Review of Experimental Studies. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(2), 535. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18020535

Boxberger, K., &amp; Reimers, A. K. (2019). Parental correlates of outdoor play in boys and girls aged 0 to 12: A systematic review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(2, Art. 190), 19-16:2, Art. 190&lt;19. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16020190

Davenport, C., Kuzik, N., Larouche, R., &amp; Carson, V. (2025). The Associations Between Parental-Reported and Device-Based Measured Outdoor Play and Health Indicators of Physical, Cognitive, and Social–Emotional Development in Preschool-Aged Children. Pediatric Exercise Science, 37(2), 102–111. https://doi.org/10.1123/pes.2023-0119

de Lannoy, L., Barbeau, K., Seguin, N., &amp; Tremblay, M. S. (2023). Scoping review of children’s and youth’s outdoor play publications in Canada. Chronic Diseases in Canada, 43(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.24095/hpcdp.43.1.01

Dodd, H. F., Cordwell, K., Hesketh, K., Johnstone, A., de la Torre-Luque, A., &amp; McCrorie, P. (2026). Early outdoor play predicts trajectories of child mental health in a population-based cohort. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.70175

Ferguson, M., Teyhan, A., Lovell, R., Dodd, H., Wheeler, B., &amp; McEachan, R. (2025). The association between park visits, outdoor play and child social-emotional competency in a multi-ethnic, urban cohort. Wellbeing, Space and Society, 9, Article 100293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wss.2025.100293

Gal‐Szabo, D. E., Spinrad, T. L., Eisenberg, N., &amp; Sulik, M. J. (2019). The relations of children’s emotion knowledge to their observed social play and reticent/uninvolved behavior in preschool: Moderation by effortful control. Social Development (Oxford, England), 28(1), 57–73. https://doi.org/10.1111/sode.12321

Gibson, J. J. (1979). The ecological approach to visual perception / James J. Gibson. Houghton Mifflin.

Gibson, J.L., Cornell, M. &amp; Gill, T. A Systematic Review of Research into the Impact of Loose Parts Play on Children’s Cognitive, Social and Emotional Development. School Mental Health 9, 295–309 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-017-9220-9

Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion Regulation: Current Status and Future Prospects. Psychological Inquiry, 26(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2014.940781

Halberstadt, A. G., Denham, S. A., &amp; Dunsmore, J. C. (2001). Affective Social Competence. Social Development (Oxford, England), 10(1), 79–119. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9507.00150

Han, C. S., Brussoni, M. J., &amp; Mâsse, L. C. (2022). Parental Autonomy Support in the Context of Parent–Child Negotiation for Children’s Independent Mobility: ‘I Always Feel Safer With My Parents’ to ‘Boom! Bust Down Those Walls! The Journal of Early Adolescence, 42(6), Article 02724316211064513. https://doi.org/10.1177/02724316211064513

Johnstone, A., Martin, A., Cordovil, R., Fjørtoft, I., Iivonen, S., Jidovtseff, B., Lopes, F., Reilly, J. J., Thomson, H., Wells, V., &amp; McCrorie, P. (2022). Nature-Based Early Childhood Education and Children’s Social, Emotional and Cognitive Development: A Mixed-Methods Systematic Review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(10), 5967. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19105967

Lee, E.-Y., de Lannoy, L., Kim, Y.-B., Rathod, A., James, M. E., Lopes, O., Nasrallah, B., Thankarajah, A., Adjei-Boadi, D., de Barros, M. I. A., Duncan, S., Miller, R. M., Mygind, L., Vanderloo, L. M., Wang, P.-Y., &amp; Tremblay, M. S. (2025). 2025 Position statement on active outdoor play. The International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 22(1), Article 117. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-025-01813-9

Lee, J. J., Flouri, E., &amp; Jackson, Y. (2025). The Role of Timing and Amount of Outdoor Play in Emotional Dysregulation in Preschool Children. Child: Care, Health &amp; Development, 51(1), Article e70020. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70020

Morgenthaler, T., Lynch, H., Loebach, J., Pentland, D., &amp; Schulze, C. (2024). Using the Theory of Affordances to Understand Environment–Play Transactions: Environmental Taxonomy of Outdoor Play Space Features—A Scoping Review. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 78(4), Article 7804185120. https://doi.org/10.5014/ajot.2024.050606

Pereira, J. V., Vila-Nova, F., Veiga, G., Lopes, F., &amp; Cordovil, R. (2024). Associations between outdoor play features and children’s behavior and health: A systematic review. Health &amp; Place, 87, Article 103235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2024.103235

Poulos, A., Hassan, U. A., Wilson, K., Price, P. M., Vanos, J., &amp; Quilla, J. (2026). Differences in Schoolchildren’s Emotional State After Indoor Versus Outdoor Recess in Extreme‐Heat Weather. The Journal of School Health, 96(4), Article e70135. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.70135

Scherer, K. R. (2005). What are emotions? And how can they be measured? Social Science Information, 44(4), 695–729. https://doi.org/10.1177/0539018405058216

Veraksa, A. N., Plotnikova, V. A., Sukhikh, V. L., Kornienko, D. S., &amp; Rudnova, N. A. (2025). Non-therapeutic play to overcome negative emotional symptoms and improve emotional intelligence in children aged 3–7: a systematic review. Frontiers in Psychology, 16, 1475387. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1475387

Visser, K., &amp; Aalst, I. (2022). Neighbourhood Factors in Children’s Outdoor Play: A Systematic Literature Review. Tijdschrift Voor Economische En Sociale Geografie, 113(1), 80–95. https://doi.org/10.1111/tesg.12505

}}

==External links==
* [https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-play [https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-pla]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-play y]] (Encyclopedia in Early Childhood Development)
* [[https://www.outdoorplaycanada.ca/2026/06/02/sprout-able-resources-videos-and-tip-sheets-to-support-children-with-disabilities-in-outdoor-play/ https://www.outdoorplaycanada.ca/2026/06/02/sp]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[https://www.outdoorplaycanada.ca/2026/06/02/sprout-able-resources-videos-and-tip-sheets-to-support-children-with-disabilities-in-outdoor-play/ rout-able-resources-videos-and-tip-sheets-to-support-children-with-disabilities-in-outdoor-play/]/ SPROUT-able Resources: Videos and Tip Sheets to Support Children with Disabilities in Outdoor Play] (Outdoor Play Canada)

* https://www.who.int/news/item/24-04-2019-to-grow-up-healthy-children-need-to-sit-less-and-play-more&lt;nowiki/&gt; To grow up healthy, children need to sit less and play more] (World Health Organisation)

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== Overview ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;

|'''Case study: Part 1'''[[File:School children happily playing in playground.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. Children engaged in outdoor play, where social interactions, choice and control on the situation can create different emotional experiences.]]Imagine that...

A child arrives at playground and joins a group of children who are already playing. The children are making their own game and deciding the rules as they play. At first, the child enjoys choosing where and what to play. During the game, another child changes the rules and an argument breaks out. The child becomes frustrated and walks away from the activity. After watching for a short time, the child returns, suggests a new idea to continue the game and re-joins the group. 

How might experiences like this during outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? Emotional regulation provides one psychological framework for understanding how children may respond to situations like this during play (see figure 1).
|}

Outdoor play can involve more than physical movement. It can occur across playgrounds, gardens, streets and natural spaces. Outdoor play includes exploration, social interaction, choice, challenge, and engagement with the surrounding environment (Dodd et al., 2026; Pereira et al., 2024). These experiences can involve frustration, disagreement, uncertainty or excitement. This chapter examines how [[Emotional regulation|emotional,]] [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive]], social and environmental processes may help explain the relationship between outdoor play and children's [https://w.wiki/AHG6 emotional well-being.] 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|

;[[File:Bulb Idea Flat Icon GIF Animation.gif|alt=Focus questions|left|99x99px|thumb]]


'''Focus questions'''

* '''What are outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?'''
* '''How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?'''
* '''How do social and environmental conditions shape  children's outdoor play experiences?'''
* '''What does recent research show about outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?'''
* '''How can families, communities and schools support outdoor  play opportunities that may benefit children's emotional well-being?'''
|}

== '''Understanding outdoor play and children's emotional well-being''' ==
[[File:Water-outdoor-people-girl-play-boy-938233.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. ''Outdoor play can provide opportunities to explore, make choices, interact with others and respond to changing situations through activities such as water play.''|214x214px]]

Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being are not measured as single and consistent concepts across recent research. Outdoor play may be examined as voluntary and intrinsically motivated activity, self directed play, parent reported outdoor play, or device-measured outdoor play (Binno et al., 2025; Davenport et al., 2025; Dodd et al., 2026). It should also be distinguished from outdoor moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) because these measures do not represent the same behaviour (Davenport et al., 2025). Children's emotional well-being is also examined through different outcomes, including [https://w.wiki/7YC8 emotional dysregulation], social-emotional competence, positive and negative affect, and internalising or externalising symptoms (Dodd et al., 2026; Ferguson et al., 2025; Lee et al., 2025; Poulos et al., 2026).  

=== Outdoor play ===
Outdoor play is voluntary and intrinsically motivated activity that occurs in outdoor environments such as gardens, playgrounds, parks and natural spaces (Dodd et al., 2026). Free play can be also self-directed, allowing children to interact freely with the environment and make choices about their activities (Biino et al., 2025). Outdoor play should not be treated as the same as outdoor physical activity. The recent research outdoor play and outdoor moderate- to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) were examined as separate measures (Davenport et al., 2025). This distinction is important because outdoor play intensity of physical activity do not represent the same behaviour.  

=== Children's emotional well-being ===
Children's emotional well-being is not represented by a single common outcome across recent outdoor play research. Emotional dysregulation has been examined in relation to the amount and timing of outdoor play (Lee et al., 2025), while social-emotional competence includes social emotional difficulties and [[Prosocial behavior/Keywords/Definitions|prosocial behaviour]] (Ferguson et al., 2025). Other studies have examined positive and negative affect following recess (Poulos et al., 2026) and trajectories of internalising and externalising symptoms across childhood (Dodd et al., 2026). These outcomes represent different aspects and timeframes of emotional functioning, so they should not be treated as equivalent when findings are compared.

'''Table 1''' 

''Emotional outcomes examined in recent research on outdoor play and children's emotional well-being''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Study
!Outcome examined
!What the outcome represents                                                                                                  
|-
|Lee et al. (2025)   
|Emotional dysregulation
|Difficulties in emotional regulation; examined in relation to the amount of timing of outdoor play
|-
|Ferguson et al.          (2025)
|Social-emotional competence 
|Social-emotional difficulties and prosocial behaviour
|-
|Poulos et al. (2026)
|Positive and negative affect
|Children's affect following recess across different settings 
|-
|Dodd et al. (2026)
|Internalising and externalising symptoms
|Internalising: emotional symptoms and peer problems
Externalising: conduct problems and hyperactivity- inattention 
|}
Note. Outcome descriptions are based on the measures and constructs reported in the above cited studies. See Table 1. 

As shown in Table 1, the studies do not measure the same aspect or time frame of children's emotional functioning. Affect immediately following recess should not be treated as equivalent to emotional dysregulation measured over time or trajectories of internalising and externalising symptoms across childhood. This difference need to be considered when findings across studies are compared. 

'''Case study: part 2'''
 
''What is being measured?''

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |[[File:Children marbles.jpg|thumb|221x221px|'''Figure 3'''. ''Children's immediate emotional responses during outdoor play is different from long-term emotional functioning.'']]The child in the Case study: Part 1 becomes frustrated when the rules of the game change. This immediate emotional response is different from a longer-term pattern of emotional dysregulation or internalising symptoms. Research on outdoor play measures these outcomes across different time frames and contexts. When findings are compared, it is important to consider which aspect of emotional well-being is measured.

{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;

{A child's positive or negative affect immediately after recess represents the same emotional outcome as longer-term internalising or externalising symptoms.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}

- True
+ False

&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}

|}

== '''How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?''' ==
Outdoor play may be related to children's emotional well-being through emotional, cognitive, and social processes (Dodd et al., 2026). Possible pathways discussed in the recent research include cognitive, social and emotional skills, social interaction, physical activity, connection with nature and adventurous play (Dodd et al., 2026). However, these pathways have not all been directly tested as mechanisms, and much outdoor play research remains observational (Dodd et al., 2026; de Lannoy et al., 2023). Psychological theory can help to explain how and why outdoor play experiences may influence children's emotional well-being. However, theory alone does not show that psychological processes cause better emotional well-being.

Emotion involves more than subjective feelings. Scherer (2005) described emotion as coordinated changes across cognitive appraisal, physiological responses, action tendencies, expression and subjective feelings. Therefore, physiological response is one component of an emotional response rather than a separate explanation for the effects of outdoor play. Scherer (2005) did not examine outdoor play, so this framework does not provide evidence that outdoor play changes children's physiological responses or emotional well-being.

=== '''Emotion regulation''' ===
Emotion regulation provides a psychological framework for understanding how children may manage emotional situations during outdoor play. Gross (2015) described emotion regulation as a process involving identification, selection and implementation. Gross (2015) also described situation selection, situation modification, attentional deployment cognitive change and response modulation. During outdoor play, children may experience frustration, conflict, disagreement, uncertainty or changes to their activity. Gross's framework can be applied to consider how the children recognise an emotional response, choose strategies to manage and act on chosen strategies. However, Gross (2015) did not examine outdoor play, so applying the framework does not show that outdoor play improves children's emotion regulation.

Broader research on  children's play has also examined emotional functioning. Veraksa et al. (2025) systematically reviewed 33 studies on non-therapeutic play among children aged 3 to 7 and identified evidence involving emotional regulation, emotional intelligence, and negative emotional symptoms. The review included outdoor play alongside several other forms of play, so its findings should not be interpreted as evidence that outdoor play alone improves emotion regulation. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Case study: Part 3'''[[File:14Y Ncdc july 5th-802.jpg|thumb|202x202px|'''Figure 4'''. ''Children can respond differently to emotional situations that occur during outdoor play.'']]When the rules of game change, the child becomes frustrated and decides to step away. After a short time the child returns and suggests a different way to continue the game (see Figure 4). Suggesting a change to the game can be considered an example of situation modification. This shows how Gross's emotion regulation framework can be applied to an emotional situation during outdoor play.

{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;

{What does Gross (2015) emotion regulation framework show when it is applied to the outdoor-play scenario?.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
-A. Outdoor play causes better emotion regulation.
+B. Situation modification can help explain how the child responds to the situation.
-C. Children regulate emotions better outdoors than indoors.
-D. Stepping away from play always improves emotional well-being.


&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}

|}
=== '''Working memory and cognitive process''' ===
Working memory can be one cognitive process involved in the association between outdoor play and emotional dysregulation. Lee et al. (2025) examined 325 preschool children and tested working memory as a statistical mediator. More outdoor play between noon and 6 pm was associated with lower emotional dysregulation. In contrast, more outdoor play before noon and after 6 pm was associated with higher emotional dysregulation. Afternoon outdoor play was also associated with better working memory, and better working memory was associated with lower emotional dysregulation.

When working memory was included in the analysis, the association between afternoon outdoor play and emotional dysregulation was no longer statistically significant. Lee et al. (2025) reported this as full mediation. This suggests that working memory may be involved in the association between afternoon outdoor play and lower emotional dysregulation. However, the study was observational, so the mediation analysis does not show that outdoor play caused better working memory or lower emotional dysregulation.

Johnstone et al. (2022) reviewed 36 studies of nature-based [[early childhood education]]. The review found very low certainty evidence for some social, emotional, and cognitive outcomes, including [[self-regulation]], while findings for attention were inconsistent. Although, the review examined nature-based early childhood education rather than outdoor play. Therefore, it does not show that working memory explains the association between outdoor play and children's [https://w.wiki/AHG6 emotional well-being].

'''Table 2'''

''Psychological processes considered in the relationship between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!Process
!Contribution
!Evidence and limitations 
|-
|Emotion components 
|Emotion involves cognitive appraisal, physiological responses, action tendencies, expression and subjective feelings (Scherer, 2005)
|Provides psychological framework, but Scherer did not examine outdoor play.
|-
|Emotion regulation
|Gross's (2015) framework can be applied to emotional situations during outdoor play, including frustration, disagreement and changes to an activity. 
|Helps explain responses, but does not show that outdoor play improves emotion regulation.
|-
|Working memory
|Lee et al. (2025) examined working memory as a statistical mediator between outdoor play and emotional dysregulation.
|Provides direct observational evidence of possible cognitive process but does not establish causation. 
|-
|Broader play/nature evidence
|Veraksa et al. (2025) and Johnstone et al. (2022) examined related play and nature based contexts.
|Relevant to interpretation, but not specific evidence that outdoor play causes better emotional well-being. 
|}
Note. The sources provide different types of evidence, including psychological frameworks, direct outdoor-play research and broader evidence about outdoor play and children's emotional well-being. 

== '''How do social and environmental conditions shape on children's outdoor play experiences?''' ==
[[File:2026-10-03 214531-relationship between child and environment.png|thumb|284x284px|'''Figure 5.''' Children's opportunities for outdoor play can be different according to personal, interacting and environmental factors and the relationship between the child and the environment.

Note. Original conceptual summary is based on Beekhuizen et al. (2025) and Gibson (1979).]]
Outdoor play opportunities depend on social and physical environments. Children may have access to same outdoor space but may not have same opportunities for play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified personal, interacting and environmental factors that could support or restrict inclusive outdoor play. These differences can be considered through [https://w.wiki/VYfL affordance theory], which examines the opportunities for action through the relationship between an individual and the environment (Gibson, 1979). See Figure 5. 


=== Affordance theory and outdoor play environments ===
[https://w.wiki/VYfL Affordance theory] was developed by Gibson (1979) to explain the opportunities for action that an environment  provides in relation to the person using it. In outdoor play, the opportunities provided by a space can depend on its physical features and how a child is able to use those features. Morgenthaler et al. (2024) applied affordance theory to children's outdoor play and examined outdoor play transactions through environmental taxonomy of outdoor play space features. Their review identified 14 categories of spaces and 284 play occupations linked to different environmental features. Morgenthaler et al. (2024) showed that different spaces and objects can afford  different forms of play, which helps explain why same space may provide different opportunities. However this study examined the opportunities for play rather than children's well-being.

Pereira et al. (2024) also examined features of outdoor play spaces in a systematic review of 51 articles representing 45 primary studies. The review examined features such as fixed structures, natural elements, floor markings, loose equipment and available play areas. Some positive effects were reported, but there was substantial heterogeneity between studies. The studies differed in the environmental features examined, outcomes measures, and study methods, which made difficult to draw a clear conclusions about the effect of individual play space features (Pereira et al., 2024).Therefore, the review does not show that one particular environmental feature improves children's [https://w.wiki/AHG6 emotional well-being]. 

'''Table 3'''

''Examples of environmental features and possible affordances'' 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Environmental feature                             
!Possible affordance for play                                                        
|-
|Fixed structures (e.g. climbing frame)
|Physical activity such as climbing, physical play and risk-taking
|-
|Natural elements (e.g. tree, rocks, sand)
|Exploratory play, imaginative play, and sensory experiences
|-
|Floor markings (e.g. painted games)
|Rule based  and structured play
|-
|Loose equipment (e.g. balls, tyre, boxes) 
|Constructive, imaginative play, creative and problem solving play
|-
|Open play area
|Running, group play, and flexible use
|}
Note. This table is an original synthesis based on environmental features described by Pereira et al. (2024) and  affordance framework applied by Morgenthaler et al. (2024).  Environmental features can afford more than one type of play and the opportunities may vary between children. 
=== '''Social relationship and inclusion''' ===
Social relationships can shape whether children are able to join and continue outdoor play (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified making contact and growing up together as interacting factors in inclusive outdoor play. Familiarity with other children could make it easier to approach, communicate and play together, while joining unfamiliar children or existing game could be difficult. [https://w.wiki/WDsJ Affective social competence (ASC)] provides a psychological framework for understanding these social interactions (Halberstadt et al., 2001). The ASC model involves experiencing, sending and receiving affect, together with awareness, identification, working within the social context and regulation. These processes may be relevant when a child tries to enter a peer group, recognise other children's emotions and manage their own response during play.  

Gal-Szabo et al. (2019) used the ASC model as theoretical foundation when examining children's emotional knowledge and social behaviour during preschool free play. The study found that situational understanding of the emotions was negatively related to uninvolved behaviour and was marginally positively related to more social play. However, the study examined preschool free play rather than specific outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) also found that children with disabilities experienced more barriers related to making contact, adapting play and physical play environment. These findings suggest that participation in outdoor play depends on both social interaction and children's ability to respond within the play situation, but they do not establish that social play causes better emotional well-being (Beekhuizen et al., 2025; Gal-Szabo et al., 2019).

=== '''Autonomy, parents and time''' ===
[https://w.wiki/4NyU Autonomy] can shape how children experience outdoor play (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified autonomy as a personal factor in inclusive outdoor play. Some children with disabilities valued opportunities to play outside independently. Veraksa et al. (2025), in a systematic review of non-therapeutic play, identified autonomy as one feature through which play may support emotional regulation and coping. However, the review examined several forms of play and does not show that autonomy during outdoor play specifically improves children's emotional well-being.

Parental support can also make outdoor play possible. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) found that parental involvement could support children's participation when a child needed help to access or participate in outdoor play. Time constraints also affected opportunities for outdoor play. Some children had less time to play outdoors because of parents' work schedules, after school arrangements or longer travel distance between home and school (Beekhuizen et al., 2025).

=== '''Outdoor environments and accessibility''' ===
Outdoor play environments can support or restrict children's participation (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified both physical and social features of outdoor environments as relevant to inclusive play. Children discussed safety, including traffic near playgrounds and disputes with other children. Accessibility was particularly important for children with disabilities because opportunities for inclusive outdoor play could be affected by play environments and physical abilities. Pereira et al. (2024) also showed that heterogeneity between studies limited clear conclusions about the effects of individual outdoor play space features.. 

Gibson et al. (2017) systematically reviewed five studies of loose-parts play (LPP) interventions with primary school aged children. The review found limited quantitative evidence to determine whether loose-parts interventions affected children's cognitive, social or emotional development. Together, these findings show that features of outdoor environments can support or restrict opportunities for play. However, current evidence does not establish that a particular environmental feature improves children's emotional well-being (Beekhuizen et al., 2025; Gibson et al., 2017; Pereira et al., 2024). 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Case study: Part 4 Same play space, different experiences'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|Kim and Leo use the same school playground. Kim already knows many children and easily joins a group activity. Leo uses a mobility device and finds that some areas of the playground are difficult to access. Leo also does not know many children who are already playing. He prefers to play independently when possible. 
|}

The two children have access to the same playground space, but their opportunities to participate are different. Their experiences are shaped by more than the physical space alone. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) also identified making contact, familiarity, autonomy and accessibility as factors that could support or restrict inclusive outdoor play.
Physical accessibility may affect whether a child can use part of playground, while familiarity with other children may affect whether the child can enter social play. Parental support may also help participation in some situations, while the child may still value greater independence
{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;

{Why might two children have different outdoor-play experiences even they use the same playground?.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+A. Physical, social and personal factors can affect how children are able to participate.
-B. Outdoor spaces provide the same opportunities for every child.
-C. Accessibility is the only factor that affects outdoor play..
-D. Children who know other children always have better emotional well-being.


&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}

|}
== '''What does recent research show about outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?''' ==
Recent research does not show a consistent association between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being. The findings are mixed across different emotional outcomes measured, the timing and context of outdoor play, children's behaviours, and the methods used to measure outdoor play. These differences need to be considered when the findings are interpreted.  

=== '''Consistency of recent research findings''' ===
Recent findings are not consistent across all emotional and developmental outcomes. Ferguson et al. (2025) found that more frequent outdoor play was associated with better social-emotional competence, including lower difficulties and greater [[Prosocial Behaviour|prosocial behaviour]]. In contrast, Davenport et al. (2025) found that most associations between outdoor play and the physical, [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive]] and social-emotional developmental indicators examined were not statistically significant. These differences show that positive associations with outdoor play are not found across all developmental outcomes.

Findings can also differ according to the emotional outcome being measured. Poulos et al. (2026) found higher positive affect after outdoor and gymnasium recess than after classroom recess, but no significant differences in negative affect between the three recess settings.  Lee et al. (2025) found that  more afternoon outdoor play was associated with lower emotional dysregulation, while more outdoor play earlier and later in the day was associated with higher emotional dysregulation. These findings suggest that the association can differ according to both the emotional outcome and the timing of outdoor play.

The time period being examined also differs between studies. Dodd et al. (2026) found that more frequent outdoor play during the preschool years was associated with lower odds of belonging to less favourable internalising and externalising symptom trajectory across childhood. This is different from Poulos et al. (2026), who examined children's emotional states immediately after the recess. Therefore, recent research includes both immediate emotional outcomes and longer-term patterns of emotional functioning. 

Associations may vary across children and play contexts. Ferguson et al. (2025) reported differences according to ethnicity and whether outdoor play occurred on school days or weekends. These differences further suggest that findings should not be treated as evidence of one single effect across all children or play contexts.

=== '''Strengths and limitations of current research''' ===
The strength of the evidence also differs according to research design. Dodd et al. (2026) used longitudinal data from 4,151 children and measured outdoor play during the preschool years at approximately 2, 3 and 4 years old, while internalising and externalising symptoms trajectories were measured later through to age 8. This strengthens the evidence about temporal ordering because outdoor play was measured before the later emotional outcomes. However, longitudinal evidence does not establish cause and effect, and the study relied on parent-reported measures.

Causal interpretation is also limited in other studies. Lee et al. (2025) used observational data and considered the possibility of reverse causation when interpreting associations between the timing of outdoor play and emotional dysregulation. This means the findings cannot establish whether outdoor play influenced emotional dysregulation or whether children's emotional functioning influenced when they played outdoors.

Measurement of outdoor play is another important consideration. Davenport et al. (2025) used both parent-reported and device-measured outdoor play and examined whether associations were independent of outdoor moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA). This is important because outdoor play and outdoor physical activity are related but should not be treated as interchangeable measures. However, the sample was relatively small (N=107) and most tested associations with developmental outcomes were not statistically significant.

Limitations are also present across the wider outdoor-play literature. De Lannoy et al. (2023) identified 275 Canadian outdoor-play publications and found that cross-sectional designs were the most common. Mental and emotional development had also received less research attention than physical health and development. This suggests that the evidence base for emotional well-being is less developed than some other areas of outdoor-play research.

T'''able 4'''

'''''Comparison of recent research'''''

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Study               
!Research method             
!Research strength                      
!Limitation                                                
|-
|  &lt;small&gt;Lee et al. (2025)&lt;/small&gt;                                     
|Observational; 6 month follow-up
|Examined the timing of outdoor play and tested working memory as a statistical mediator of the association with emotional dysregulation.     
|Observational mediation cannot establish causation; the study also considered possible reverse causation when interpreting timing-related findings.
|-
|Ferguson et al. (2025)
|Cross sectional; multi ethnic urban cohort (N=2,568)
|Large sample allowed associations to be examined across population groups and school-day/weekend outdoor play.
|Cross-sectional design cannot establish temporal direction; associations also differed across some groups and play contexts.
|-
|Davenport et al. (2025)
|Observational; preschool sample (N=107)
|Used both parent-reported and device-measured outdoor play and distinguished outdoor play from outdoor moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA)
|Small sample and most tested associations with developmental outcomes were not statistically significant.
|-
|Dodd et al. (2026)
|Longitudinal cohort (N = 4,151)
|Outdoor play was measured in the preschool years before later internalising and externalising symptom trajectories.
|Outdoor play and symptoms relied on parent reported measures, and the observational design does not establish causations.
|-
|Poulos et al. (2026)
|Recess comparison study (N=317)
|Compared children's positive and negative affect following outdoor, gymnasium and classroom recess
|Examined immediate affect during an extreme-heat context; higher positive affect was also found after gymnasium recess, so the result was not specific to outdoor recess.
|}
As shown in Table 4, the recent evidence has different methodological strengths and limitations. Longitudinal designs provide stronger evidence about temporal ordering than cross-sectional design studies, while device-based measures can address some limitations of parent report. However, much of the evidence remains observational, and differences in emotional outcomes, measures of outdoor play and play contexts limit the direct comparison between studies. 

Future research could benefit from more consistent measures of outdoor play, stronger longitudinal and experimental designs and greater attention to emotional outcomes across different children and play contexts. 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;

{Why should the recent findings not be interpreted as showing single consistent effect of outdoor play on children's emotional well-being?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
-A. Because all the studies used different countries.
+B. Because studies differed in emotional outcomes, measures of outdoor play, timing, context and research design.
-C. Because longitudinal studies are always more reliable and accurate.
-D. Because outdoor play only affects positive outcomes.


&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}

|}
== '''How do families, communities and schools support outdoor play opportunities?''' ==
[[File:Coalition Builds New Playground in One Day for Chicora-Cherokee Community (11054532905).jpg|thumb|325x325px|Figure 6. Families, communities and school can shape children's opportunities for play.]]
Outdoor play opportunities are shaped by children's social and physical environments. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified parents, outdoor play environments, communities and time constraints as environmental factors in inclusive outdoor play. The study also identified autonomy, growing up together, making contact and adapting ways of playing as factors that affected participation. The 2025 Position Statement on Active Outdoor Play recommends increasing opportunities for active outdoor play where people live, learn, work and play (Lee et al., 2025). It also recommends collaboration across sectors and settings to support equitable access. Together, these findings provide a broader context for considering the roles of families, communities and schools. These influences can operate across family, community and school settings (see Figure 5).

=== '''Families''' ===
Parents can influence whether children have opportunities to play outdoors. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified parents as an environmental factor in inclusive outdoor play. Children with disabilities described parents as important in encouraging participation. For some children, parents also helped to explain their disability to other children (Beekhuizen et al., 2025).  

Broader research also identifies parental factors in children's outdoor play. A systematic review of 21 peer reviewed studies involving children aged 0 to 12 years found that the importance placed on outdoor play was associated with how much time children spent playing outdoors  (Boxberger and Reimers, 2019). Evidence for parental encouragement and support was less consistent across children (Boxberger and Reimers, 2019). This suggests that family influence is not limited to direct encouragement. Parents' attitude towards outdoor play may shape children's opportunities to play outdoors. However, the review identified some associations but does not show that parental attitude caused greater outdoor play. 

Parental support  can also involve allowing children to have some independence during outdoor play. Support can make participation possible, but it does not always require direct parental involvement (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). This is particularly relevant when children want more control over how and where they play. Research on independent mobility also shows that children and parents may differ in how much independence they prefer (Han et al., 2022). The study identified different patterns in children's and parents' preferences for independent mobility. These findings show that parental support and autonomy do not always involve the same level of parental involvement. Some children may need support to access or join outdoor play while also wanting greater independence. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) also recommended providing children and parents with knowledge about disabilities and possible adaptations that could support participation. 

Time constraints can also limit family-level opportunities for outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) reported that some children had less time to play outdoors because of parents' work schedules, after-school arrangements and longer travel between home and school. This means that opportunities for outdoor play can be restricted even when children want to play and parents are supportive.

=== '''Communities''' ===
Community conditions can affect whether children have safe and inclusive opportunities for outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) described physical and social safety as important for inclusive outdoor play. Some playground structures also made participation difficult for children with disabilities. A systematic review of 25 studies found that both physical and social neighbourhood factors were associated with children's outdoor play (Visser &amp; van Aalst, 2022). Social factors included perceived safety, social cohesion and the presence of other children. However, the studies did not identify one neighbourhood feature that consistently explained children's outdoor play across all settings.

The social environment may also affect whether children can join others. Children with disabilities described smaller communities, including villages and schools, as places where children and parents could become more familiar with disability. Greater familiarity was associated with greater acceptance and stronger connections with other children (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Observational research also shows that physical access alone does not explain inclusive outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2026) observed 63 children with and without disabilities during six inclusive outdoor-play sessions and found children with disabilities had lower playfulness scores than children without disabilities. Unfamiliarity could also restrict social inclusion because children preferred to play with peers they already knew. This means providing the same outdoor space does not necessarily provide the same opportunity to participate.

The 2025 Position Statement on Active Outdoor Play recommends collaboration across sectors and settings to support equitable access to active outdoor play (Lee et al., 2025). The reviewed findings  show why both physical and social conditions matter. Children need places that can be accessed, but familiarity, safety and opportunities to join others can also affect participation. However, the evidence does not show that one community feature alone will increase outdoor play or improve emotional well-being.

=== '''Schools''' ===
Schools can provide opportunities for children with and without disabilities to become more familiar with one another. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified growing up together and making contact as interacting factors in inclusive outdoor play. Children described familiarity with other children as making contact easier. School circumstances can also affect the time available for outdoor play. Some children attending special primary education described long travel times between school and home as reducing their opportunities to play outdoors. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified these experiences as part of time constraints.

The physical school environment can also be changed to support outdoor activity and socio-emotional outcomes. Bikomeye et al. (2021) systematically reviewed six experimental studies of schoolyard greening. The interventions involved adding greenery and natural elements to schoolyards. Across the included studies, the review reported generally positive findings for physical activity and socio-emotional health. However, the review included only six studies. Schoolyard greening is also a specific intervention and should not be treated as evidence that all forms of outdoor play improve children's emotional well-being. 

Recess provides another school setting in which children's emotional experiences have been examined directly. Poulos et al. (2026) studied 317 Year 4 and 5 children during extreme heat. Positive affect was higher after outdoor and gymnasium recess than after classroom recess. There were no significant differences in negative affect between the three settings. Poulos et al. (2026) also identified implications for school health, policy and equity. The study discussed heat-adaptive infrastructure as one way to support access to recess environments during extreme heat. However, the findings do not show that outdoor recess is always better than indoor recess because positive affect was also higher after gymnasium recess. 

{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Quiz}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;

{Which statement best reflects how families, communities and school can support children's outdoor play opportunities?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}

+ Support can involve accessible environments, safety, familiarity, appropriate parental support and opportunities for children to participate with some independence.
- Providing the same outdoor space gives every child the same opportunity to participate.
-Schoolyard greening alone is enough to improve children's emotional well-being.
-Outdoor recess always produces better emotional outcomes than indoor recess.

&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}
== '''Conclusion''' ==
Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being are not represented by single, consistent concepts across recent research. Outdoor play should be distinguished from outdoor physical activity, while emotional well-being has been examined through emotional dysregulation, social-emotional competence, positive and negative affect, and internalising and externalising symptoms. These differences are important because findings across studies do not represent the same emotional outcomes or time frames. 

Outdoor play may be related to children's emotional well-being through several psychological processes, but the strength of evidence differs across them. Gross's (2015) emotion regulation framework helps explain how children may respond to emotional situations during play, while working memory provides more direct evidence of a possible cognitive process in the association between afternoon outdoor play and lower emotional dysregulation (Lee et al., 2025). However, these findings do not establish that outdoor play causes better emotion regulation or emotional well-being. Recent research also does not show one consistent effect across all children, outcomes or play contexts. Some studies report associations with better social-emotional competence, lower-risk symptom trajectories or higher positive affect, while other findings are mixed or non-significant (Davenport et al., 2025; Dodd et al., 2026; Ferguson et al., 2025). Differences in research design, measurement, timing and context therefore need to be considered when interpreting the evidence. 

Children's opportunities for outdoor play are also shaped by their social and physical environments. Accessibility, familiarity, autonomy, parental support, safety and opportunities to join other children can influence whether the same outdoor space provides the same opportunity to participate. Families, communities and schools can therefore support outdoor play by considering both access to outdoor spaces and the conditions that allow children to participate in ways that suit their needs and circumstances. Overall, current research suggests that outdoor play is associated with some aspects of children's emotional well-being, but the relationship is more complex than simply spending more time outdoors. The relation between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being varies depending on how outdoor play is measured, timing, context and children's opportunities to participate.

==See also==
* [[wikipedia:Affordance|Affordance]] (Wikipedia)
* [[wikipedia:Autonomy|Autonomy]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Cognitive psychology]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Emotion regulation in children|Emotion regulation in children]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Emotional regulation]] (Wikipedia)

* [[wikipedia:Emotional dysregulation|Emotional dysregulation]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Imaginative play and emotion regulation|Imaginative play and emotion regulation]] (Wikiversity)
* [[wikipedia:Working memory|Working memory]] (Wikipedia)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Beekhuizen, R. Q., Bloemen, M. A. T., Bolster, E. A. M., Visser, K., Lugt, R., Bassa, M., Henry, N. L., Kotte, E. M. W., Hartingsveldt, M., &amp; Gorter, J. W. (2026). Can You See Us Play? Observing Inclusive Outdoor Play Behaviour Among Children With and Without Disabilities: A Mixed Methods Study. Child : Care, Health &amp; Development, 52(1), e70198-n/a. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70198

Beekhuizen, R. Q., Bolster, E. A. M., Gorter, J. W., Henry, N. L., Visser, K., Wittink, H., Kotte, E. M. W., Sol, M. E., &amp; Bloemen, M. A. T. (2025). Play Together? Unveiling Facilitators and Barriers to Inclusive Outdoor Play for Dutch Children With and Without Disabilities: A Qualitative Study. Child: Care, Health &amp; Development, 51(6), Article e70154. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70154

Biino, V., Pesce, C., &amp; Martins, C. (2025). Motor Skill Development at Preschool Age in Girls and Boys: The Role of Outdoor Free Play. Children, 12(5), Article 594. https://doi.org/10.3390/children12050594

Bikomeye, J., Balza, J., &amp; Beyer, K. (2021). The Impact of Schoolyard Greening on Children’s Physical Activity and Socioemotional Health: A Systematic Review of Experimental Studies. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(2), 535. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18020535

Boxberger, K., &amp; Reimers, A. K. (2019). Parental correlates of outdoor play in boys and girls aged 0 to 12: A systematic review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(2, Art. 190), 19-16:2, Art. 190&lt;19. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16020190

Davenport, C., Kuzik, N., Larouche, R., &amp; Carson, V. (2025). The Associations Between Parental-Reported and Device-Based Measured Outdoor Play and Health Indicators of Physical, Cognitive, and Social–Emotional Development in Preschool-Aged Children. Pediatric Exercise Science, 37(2), 102–111. https://doi.org/10.1123/pes.2023-0119

de Lannoy, L., Barbeau, K., Seguin, N., &amp; Tremblay, M. S. (2023). Scoping review of children’s and youth’s outdoor play publications in Canada. Chronic Diseases in Canada, 43(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.24095/hpcdp.43.1.01

Dodd, H. F., Cordwell, K., Hesketh, K., Johnstone, A., de la Torre-Luque, A., &amp; McCrorie, P. (2026). Early outdoor play predicts trajectories of child mental health in a population-based cohort. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.70175

Ferguson, M., Teyhan, A., Lovell, R., Dodd, H., Wheeler, B., &amp; McEachan, R. (2025). The association between park visits, outdoor play and child social-emotional competency in a multi-ethnic, urban cohort. Wellbeing, Space and Society, 9, Article 100293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wss.2025.100293

Gal‐Szabo, D. E., Spinrad, T. L., Eisenberg, N., &amp; Sulik, M. J. (2019). The relations of children’s emotion knowledge to their observed social play and reticent/uninvolved behavior in preschool: Moderation by effortful control. Social Development (Oxford, England), 28(1), 57–73. https://doi.org/10.1111/sode.12321

Gibson, J. J. (1979). The ecological approach to visual perception / James J. Gibson. Houghton Mifflin.

Gibson, J.L., Cornell, M. &amp; Gill, T. A Systematic Review of Research into the Impact of Loose Parts Play on Children’s Cognitive, Social and Emotional Development. School Mental Health 9, 295–309 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-017-9220-9

Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion Regulation: Current Status and Future Prospects. Psychological Inquiry, 26(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2014.940781

Halberstadt, A. G., Denham, S. A., &amp; Dunsmore, J. C. (2001). Affective Social Competence. Social Development (Oxford, England), 10(1), 79–119. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9507.00150

Han, C. S., Brussoni, M. J., &amp; Mâsse, L. C. (2022). Parental Autonomy Support in the Context of Parent–Child Negotiation for Children’s Independent Mobility: ‘I Always Feel Safer With My Parents’ to ‘Boom! Bust Down Those Walls! The Journal of Early Adolescence, 42(6), Article 02724316211064513. https://doi.org/10.1177/02724316211064513

Johnstone, A., Martin, A., Cordovil, R., Fjørtoft, I., Iivonen, S., Jidovtseff, B., Lopes, F., Reilly, J. J., Thomson, H., Wells, V., &amp; McCrorie, P. (2022). Nature-Based Early Childhood Education and Children’s Social, Emotional and Cognitive Development: A Mixed-Methods Systematic Review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(10), 5967. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19105967

Lee, E.-Y., de Lannoy, L., Kim, Y.-B., Rathod, A., James, M. E., Lopes, O., Nasrallah, B., Thankarajah, A., Adjei-Boadi, D., de Barros, M. I. A., Duncan, S., Miller, R. M., Mygind, L., Vanderloo, L. M., Wang, P.-Y., &amp; Tremblay, M. S. (2025). 2025 Position statement on active outdoor play. The International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 22(1), Article 117. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-025-01813-9

Lee, J. J., Flouri, E., &amp; Jackson, Y. (2025). The Role of Timing and Amount of Outdoor Play in Emotional Dysregulation in Preschool Children. Child: Care, Health &amp; Development, 51(1), Article e70020. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70020

Morgenthaler, T., Lynch, H., Loebach, J., Pentland, D., &amp; Schulze, C. (2024). Using the Theory of Affordances to Understand Environment–Play Transactions: Environmental Taxonomy of Outdoor Play Space Features—A Scoping Review. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 78(4), Article 7804185120. https://doi.org/10.5014/ajot.2024.050606

Pereira, J. V., Vila-Nova, F., Veiga, G., Lopes, F., &amp; Cordovil, R. (2024). Associations between outdoor play features and children’s behavior and health: A systematic review. Health &amp; Place, 87, Article 103235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2024.103235

Poulos, A., Hassan, U. A., Wilson, K., Price, P. M., Vanos, J., &amp; Quilla, J. (2026). Differences in Schoolchildren’s Emotional State After Indoor Versus Outdoor Recess in Extreme‐Heat Weather. The Journal of School Health, 96(4), Article e70135. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.70135

Scherer, K. R. (2005). What are emotions? And how can they be measured? Social Science Information, 44(4), 695–729. https://doi.org/10.1177/0539018405058216

Veraksa, A. N., Plotnikova, V. A., Sukhikh, V. L., Kornienko, D. S., &amp; Rudnova, N. A. (2025). Non-therapeutic play to overcome negative emotional symptoms and improve emotional intelligence in children aged 3–7: a systematic review. Frontiers in Psychology, 16, 1475387. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1475387

Visser, K., &amp; Aalst, I. (2022). Neighbourhood Factors in Children’s Outdoor Play: A Systematic Literature Review. Tijdschrift Voor Economische En Sociale Geografie, 113(1), 80–95. https://doi.org/10.1111/tesg.12505

}}

==External links==
* [https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-play [https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-pla]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-play y]] (Encyclopedia in Early Childhood Development)
* [[https://www.outdoorplaycanada.ca/2026/06/02/sprout-able-resources-videos-and-tip-sheets-to-support-children-with-disabilities-in-outdoor-play/ https://www.outdoorplaycanada.ca/2026/06/02/sp]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[https://www.outdoorplaycanada.ca/2026/06/02/sprout-able-resources-videos-and-tip-sheets-to-support-children-with-disabilities-in-outdoor-play/ rout-able-resources-videos-and-tip-sheets-to-support-children-with-disabilities-in-outdoor-play/]/ SPROUT-able Resources: Videos and Tip Sheets to Support Children with Disabilities in Outdoor Play] (Outdoor Play Canada)

* https://www.who.int/news/item/24-04-2019-to-grow-up-healthy-children-need-to-sit-less-and-play-more&lt;nowiki/&gt; To grow up healthy, children need to sit less and play more] (World Health Organisation)

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Children]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Nature]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Well-being]]</text>
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__TOC__

== Overview ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;

|'''Case study: Part 1'''[[File:School children happily playing in playground.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. Children engaged in outdoor play, where social interactions, choice and control on the situation can create different emotional experiences.]]Imagine that...

A child arrives at playground and joins a group of children who are already playing. The children are making their own game and deciding the rules as they play. At first, the child enjoys choosing where and what to play. During the game, another child changes the rules and an argument breaks out. The child becomes frustrated and walks away from the activity. After watching for a short time, the child returns, suggests a new idea to continue the game and re-joins the group. 

How might experiences like this during outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? Emotional regulation provides one psychological framework for understanding how children may respond to situations like this during play (see figure 1).
|}

Outdoor play can involve more than physical movement. It can occur across playgrounds, gardens, streets and natural spaces. Outdoor play includes exploration, social interaction, choice, challenge, and engagement with the surrounding environment (Dodd et al., 2026; Pereira et al., 2024). These experiences can involve frustration, disagreement, uncertainty or excitement. This chapter examines how [[Emotional regulation|emotional,]] [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive]], social and environmental processes may help explain the relationship between outdoor play and children's [https://w.wiki/AHG6 emotional well-being.] 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|

;[[File:Bulb Idea Flat Icon GIF Animation.gif|alt=Focus questions|left|99x99px|thumb]]


'''Focus questions'''

* '''What are outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?'''
* '''How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?'''
* '''How do social and environmental conditions shape  children's outdoor play experiences?'''
* '''What does recent research show about outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?'''
* '''How can families, communities and schools support outdoor  play opportunities that may benefit children's emotional well-being?'''
|}

== '''Understanding outdoor play and children's emotional well-being''' ==
[[File:Water-outdoor-people-girl-play-boy-938233.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. ''Outdoor play can provide opportunities to explore, make choices, interact with others and respond to changing situations through activities such as water play.''|214x214px]]

Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being are not measured as single and consistent concepts across recent research. Outdoor play may be examined as voluntary and intrinsically motivated activity, self directed play, parent reported outdoor play, or device-measured outdoor play (Binno et al., 2025; Davenport et al., 2025; Dodd et al., 2026). It should also be distinguished from outdoor moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) because these measures do not represent the same behaviour (Davenport et al., 2025). Children's emotional well-being is also examined through different outcomes, including [https://w.wiki/7YC8 emotional dysregulation], social-emotional competence, positive and negative affect, and internalising or externalising symptoms (Dodd et al., 2026; Ferguson et al., 2025; Lee et al., 2025; Poulos et al., 2026).  

=== Outdoor play ===
Outdoor play is voluntary and intrinsically motivated activity that occurs in outdoor environments such as gardens, playgrounds, parks and natural spaces (Dodd et al., 2026). Free play can be also self-directed, allowing children to interact freely with the environment and make choices about their activities (Biino et al., 2025). Outdoor play should not be treated as the same as outdoor physical activity. The recent research outdoor play and outdoor moderate- to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) were examined as separate measures (Davenport et al., 2025). This distinction is important because outdoor play intensity of physical activity do not represent the same behaviour.  

=== Children's emotional well-being ===
Children's emotional well-being is not represented by a single common outcome across recent outdoor play research. Emotional dysregulation has been examined in relation to the amount and timing of outdoor play (Lee et al., 2025), while social-emotional competence includes social emotional difficulties and [[Prosocial behavior/Keywords/Definitions|prosocial behaviour]] (Ferguson et al., 2025). Other studies have examined positive and negative affect following recess (Poulos et al., 2026) and trajectories of internalising and externalising symptoms across childhood (Dodd et al., 2026). These outcomes represent different aspects and timeframes of emotional functioning, so they should not be treated as equivalent when findings are compared.

'''Table 1''' 

''Emotional outcomes examined in recent research on outdoor play and children's emotional well-being''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Study
!Outcome examined
!What the outcome represents                                                                                                  
|-
|Lee et al. (2025)   
|Emotional dysregulation
|Difficulties in emotional regulation; examined in relation to the amount of timing of outdoor play
|-
|Ferguson et al.          (2025)
|Social-emotional competence 
|Social-emotional difficulties and prosocial behaviour
|-
|Poulos et al. (2026)
|Positive and negative affect
|Children's affect following recess across different settings 
|-
|Dodd et al. (2026)
|Internalising and externalising symptoms
|Internalising: emotional symptoms and peer problems
Externalising: conduct problems and hyperactivity- inattention 
|}
Note. Outcome descriptions are based on the measures and constructs reported in the above cited studies. See Table 1. 

As shown in Table 1, the studies do not measure the same aspect or time frame of children's emotional functioning. Affect immediately following recess should not be treated as equivalent to emotional dysregulation measured over time or trajectories of internalising and externalising symptoms across childhood. This difference need to be considered when findings across studies are compared. 

'''Case study: part 2'''
 
''What is being measured?''

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |[[File:Children marbles.jpg|thumb|221x221px|'''Figure 3'''. ''Children's immediate emotional responses during outdoor play is different from long-term emotional functioning.'']]The child in the Case study: Part 1 becomes frustrated when the rules of the game change. This immediate emotional response is different from a longer-term pattern of emotional dysregulation or internalising symptoms. Research on outdoor play measures these outcomes across different time frames and contexts. When findings are compared, it is important to consider which aspect of emotional well-being is measured.

{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;

{A child's positive or negative affect immediately after recess represents the same emotional outcome as longer-term internalising or externalising symptoms.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}

- True
+ False

&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}

|}

== '''How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?''' ==
Outdoor play may be related to children's emotional well-being through emotional, cognitive, and social processes (Dodd et al., 2026). Possible pathways discussed in the recent research include cognitive, social and emotional skills, social interaction, physical activity, connection with nature and adventurous play (Dodd et al., 2026). However, these pathways have not all been directly tested as mechanisms, and much outdoor play research remains observational (Dodd et al., 2026; de Lannoy et al., 2023). Psychological theory can help to explain how and why outdoor play experiences may influence children's emotional well-being. However, theory alone does not show that psychological processes cause better emotional well-being.

Emotion involves more than subjective feelings. Scherer (2005) described emotion as coordinated changes across cognitive appraisal, physiological responses, action tendencies, expression and subjective feelings. Therefore, physiological response is one component of an emotional response rather than a separate explanation for the effects of outdoor play. Scherer (2005) did not examine outdoor play, so this framework does not provide evidence that outdoor play changes children's physiological responses or emotional well-being.

=== '''Emotion regulation''' ===
Emotion regulation provides a psychological framework for understanding how children may manage emotional situations during outdoor play. Gross (2015) described emotion regulation as a process involving identification, selection and implementation. Gross (2015) also described situation selection, situation modification, attentional deployment cognitive change and response modulation. During outdoor play, children may experience frustration, conflict, disagreement, uncertainty or changes to their activity. Gross's framework can be applied to consider how the children recognise an emotional response, choose strategies to manage and act on chosen strategies. However, Gross (2015) did not examine outdoor play, so applying the framework does not show that outdoor play improves children's emotion regulation.

Broader research on  children's play has also examined emotional functioning. Veraksa et al. (2025) systematically reviewed 33 studies on non-therapeutic play among children aged 3 to 7 and identified evidence involving emotional regulation, emotional intelligence, and negative emotional symptoms. The review included outdoor play alongside several other forms of play, so its findings should not be interpreted as evidence that outdoor play alone improves emotion regulation. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Case study: Part 3'''[[File:14Y Ncdc july 5th-802.jpg|thumb|202x202px|'''Figure 4'''. ''Children can respond differently to emotional situations that occur during outdoor play.'']]When the rules of game change, the child becomes frustrated and decides to step away. After a short time the child returns and suggests a different way to continue the game (see Figure 4). Suggesting a change to the game can be considered an example of situation modification. This shows how Gross's emotion regulation framework can be applied to an emotional situation during outdoor play.

{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;

{What does Gross (2015) emotion regulation framework show when it is applied to the outdoor-play scenario?.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
-A. Outdoor play causes better emotion regulation.
+B. Situation modification can help explain how the child responds to the situation.
-C. Children regulate emotions better outdoors than indoors.
-D. Stepping away from play always improves emotional well-being.


&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}

|}
=== '''Working memory and cognitive process''' ===
Working memory can be one cognitive process involved in the association between outdoor play and emotional dysregulation. Lee et al. (2025) examined 325 preschool children and tested working memory as a statistical mediator. More outdoor play between noon and 6 pm was associated with lower emotional dysregulation. In contrast, more outdoor play before noon and after 6 pm was associated with higher emotional dysregulation. Afternoon outdoor play was also associated with better working memory, and better working memory was associated with lower emotional dysregulation.

When working memory was included in the analysis, the association between afternoon outdoor play and emotional dysregulation was no longer statistically significant. Lee et al. (2025) reported this as full mediation. This suggests that working memory may be involved in the association between afternoon outdoor play and lower emotional dysregulation. However, the study was observational, so the mediation analysis does not show that outdoor play caused better working memory or lower emotional dysregulation.

Johnstone et al. (2022) reviewed 36 studies of nature-based [[early childhood education]]. The review found very low certainty evidence for some social, emotional, and cognitive outcomes, including [[self-regulation]], while findings for attention were inconsistent. Although, the review examined nature-based early childhood education rather than outdoor play. Therefore, it does not show that working memory explains the association between outdoor play and children's [https://w.wiki/AHG6 emotional well-being].

'''Table 2'''

''Psychological processes considered in the relationship between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!Process
!Contribution
!Evidence and limitations 
|-
|Emotion components 
|Emotion involves cognitive appraisal, physiological responses, action tendencies, expression and subjective feelings (Scherer, 2005)
|Provides psychological framework, but Scherer did not examine outdoor play.
|-
|Emotion regulation
|Gross's (2015) framework can be applied to emotional situations during outdoor play, including frustration, disagreement and changes to an activity. 
|Helps explain responses, but does not show that outdoor play improves emotion regulation.
|-
|Working memory
|Lee et al. (2025) examined working memory as a statistical mediator between outdoor play and emotional dysregulation.
|Provides direct observational evidence of possible cognitive process but does not establish causation. 
|-
|Broader play/nature evidence
|Veraksa et al. (2025) and Johnstone et al. (2022) examined related play and nature based contexts.
|Relevant to interpretation, but not specific evidence that outdoor play causes better emotional well-being. 
|}
Note. The sources provide different types of evidence, including psychological frameworks, direct outdoor-play research and broader evidence about outdoor play and children's emotional well-being. 

== '''How do social and environmental conditions shape on children's outdoor play experiences?''' ==
[[File:2026-10-03 214531-relationship between child and environment.png|thumb|284x284px|'''Figure 5.''' Children's opportunities for outdoor play can be different according to personal, interacting and environmental factors and the relationship between the child and the environment.

Note. Original conceptual summary is based on Beekhuizen et al. (2025) and Gibson (1979).]]
Outdoor play opportunities depend on social and physical environments. Children may have access to same outdoor space but may not have same opportunities for play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified personal, interacting and environmental factors that could support or restrict inclusive outdoor play. These differences can be considered through [https://w.wiki/VYfL affordance theory], which examines the opportunities for action through the relationship between an individual and the environment (Gibson, 1979). See Figure 5. 


=== Affordance theory and outdoor play environments ===
[https://w.wiki/VYfL Affordance theory] was developed by Gibson (1979) to explain the opportunities for action that an environment  provides in relation to the person using it. In outdoor play, the opportunities provided by a space can depend on its physical features and how a child is able to use those features. Morgenthaler et al. (2024) applied affordance theory to children's outdoor play and examined outdoor play transactions through environmental taxonomy of outdoor play space features. Their review identified 14 categories of spaces and 284 play occupations linked to different environmental features. Morgenthaler et al. (2024) showed that different spaces and objects can afford  different forms of play, which helps explain why same space may provide different opportunities. However this study examined the opportunities for play rather than children's well-being.

Pereira et al. (2024) also examined features of outdoor play spaces in a systematic review of 51 articles representing 45 primary studies. The review examined features such as fixed structures, natural elements, floor markings, loose equipment and available play areas. Some positive effects were reported, but there was substantial heterogeneity between studies. The studies differed in the environmental features examined, outcomes measures, and study methods, which made difficult to draw a clear conclusions about the effect of individual play space features (Pereira et al., 2024).Therefore, the review does not show that one particular environmental feature improves children's [https://w.wiki/AHG6 emotional well-being]. 

'''Table 3'''

''Examples of environmental features and possible affordances'' 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Environmental feature                             
!Possible affordance for play                                                        
|-
|Fixed structures (e.g. climbing frame)
|Physical activity such as climbing, physical play and risk-taking
|-
|Natural elements (e.g. tree, rocks, sand)
|Exploratory play, imaginative play, and sensory experiences
|-
|Floor markings (e.g. painted games)
|Rule based  and structured play
|-
|Loose equipment (e.g. balls, tyre, boxes) 
|Constructive, imaginative play, creative and problem solving play
|-
|Open play area
|Running, group play, and flexible use
|}
Note. This table is an original synthesis based on environmental features described by Pereira et al. (2024) and  affordance framework applied by Morgenthaler et al. (2024).  Environmental features can afford more than one type of play and the opportunities may vary between children. 
=== '''Social relationship and inclusion''' ===
Social relationships can shape whether children are able to join and continue outdoor play (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified making contact and growing up together as interacting factors in inclusive outdoor play. Familiarity with other children could make it easier to approach, communicate and play together, while joining unfamiliar children or existing game could be difficult. [https://w.wiki/WDsJ Affective social competence (ASC)] provides a psychological framework for understanding these social interactions (Halberstadt et al., 2001). The ASC model involves experiencing, sending and receiving affect, together with awareness, identification, working within the social context and regulation. These processes may be relevant when a child tries to enter a peer group, recognise other children's emotions and manage their own response during play.  

Gal-Szabo et al. (2019) used the ASC model as theoretical foundation when examining children's emotional knowledge and social behaviour during preschool free play. The study found that situational understanding of the emotions was negatively related to uninvolved behaviour and was marginally positively related to more social play. However, the study examined preschool free play rather than specific outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) also found that children with disabilities experienced more barriers related to making contact, adapting play and physical play environment. These findings suggest that participation in outdoor play depends on both social interaction and children's ability to respond within the play situation, but they do not establish that social play causes better emotional well-being (Beekhuizen et al., 2025; Gal-Szabo et al., 2019).

=== '''Autonomy, parents and time''' ===
[https://w.wiki/4NyU Autonomy] can shape how children experience outdoor play (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified autonomy as a personal factor in inclusive outdoor play. Some children with disabilities valued opportunities to play outside independently. Veraksa et al. (2025), in a systematic review of non-therapeutic play, identified autonomy as one feature through which play may support emotional regulation and coping. However, the review examined several forms of play and does not show that autonomy during outdoor play specifically improves children's emotional well-being.

Parental support can also make outdoor play possible. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) found that parental involvement could support children's participation when a child needed help to access or participate in outdoor play. Time constraints also affected opportunities for outdoor play. Some children had less time to play outdoors because of parents' work schedules, after school arrangements or longer travel distance between home and school (Beekhuizen et al., 2025).

=== '''Outdoor environments and accessibility''' ===
Outdoor play environments can support or restrict children's participation (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified both physical and social features of outdoor environments as relevant to inclusive play. Children discussed safety, including traffic near playgrounds and disputes with other children. Accessibility was particularly important for children with disabilities because opportunities for inclusive outdoor play could be affected by play environments and physical abilities. Pereira et al. (2024) also showed that heterogeneity between studies limited clear conclusions about the effects of individual outdoor play space features.. 

Gibson et al. (2017) systematically reviewed five studies of loose-parts play (LPP) interventions with primary school aged children. The review found limited quantitative evidence to determine whether loose-parts interventions affected children's cognitive, social or emotional development. Together, these findings show that features of outdoor environments can support or restrict opportunities for play. However, current evidence does not establish that a particular environmental feature improves children's emotional well-being (Beekhuizen et al., 2025; Gibson et al., 2017; Pereira et al., 2024). 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Case study: Part 4 Same play space, different experiences'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|Kim and Leo use the same school playground. Kim already knows many children and easily joins a group activity. Leo uses a mobility device and finds that some areas of the playground are difficult to access. Leo also does not know many children who are already playing. He prefers to play independently when possible. 
|}

The two children have access to the same playground space, but their opportunities to participate are different. Their experiences are shaped by more than the physical space alone. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) also identified making contact, familiarity, autonomy and accessibility as factors that could support or restrict inclusive outdoor play.
Physical accessibility may affect whether a child can use part of playground, while familiarity with other children may affect whether the child can enter social play. Parental support may also help participation in some situations, while the child may still value greater independence
{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;

{Why might two children have different outdoor-play experiences even they use the same playground?.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+A. Physical, social and personal factors can affect how children are able to participate.
-B. Outdoor spaces provide the same opportunities for every child.
-C. Accessibility is the only factor that affects outdoor play..
-D. Children who know other children always have better emotional well-being.


&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}

|}
== '''What does recent research show about outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?''' ==
Recent research does not show a consistent association between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being. The findings are mixed across different emotional outcomes measured, the timing and context of outdoor play, children's behaviours, and the methods used to measure outdoor play. These differences need to be considered when the findings are interpreted.  

=== '''Consistency of recent research findings''' ===
Recent findings are not consistent across all emotional and developmental outcomes. Ferguson et al. (2025) found that more frequent outdoor play was associated with better social-emotional competence, including lower difficulties and greater [[Prosocial Behaviour|prosocial behaviour]]. In contrast, Davenport et al. (2025) found that most associations between outdoor play and the physical, [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive]] and social-emotional developmental indicators examined were not statistically significant. These differences show that positive associations with outdoor play are not found across all developmental outcomes.

Findings can also differ according to the emotional outcome being measured. Poulos et al. (2026) found higher positive affect after outdoor and gymnasium recess than after classroom recess, but no significant differences in negative affect between the three recess settings.  Lee et al. (2025) found that  more afternoon outdoor play was associated with lower emotional dysregulation, while more outdoor play earlier and later in the day was associated with higher emotional dysregulation. These findings suggest that the association can differ according to both the emotional outcome and the timing of outdoor play.

The time period being examined also differs between studies. Dodd et al. (2026) found that more frequent outdoor play during the preschool years was associated with lower odds of belonging to less favourable internalising and externalising symptom trajectory across childhood. This is different from Poulos et al. (2026), who examined children's emotional states immediately after the recess. Therefore, recent research includes both immediate emotional outcomes and longer-term patterns of emotional functioning. 

Associations may vary across children and play contexts. Ferguson et al. (2025) reported differences according to ethnicity and whether outdoor play occurred on school days or weekends. These differences further suggest that findings should not be treated as evidence of one single effect across all children or play contexts.

=== '''Strengths and limitations of current research''' ===
The strength of the evidence also differs according to research design. Dodd et al. (2026) used longitudinal data from 4,151 children and measured outdoor play during the preschool years at approximately 2, 3 and 4 years old, while internalising and externalising symptom trajectories were measured later through to age 8. This strengthens the evidence about temporal ordering because outdoor play was measured before the later emotional outcomes. However, longitudinal evidence does not establish cause and effect, and the study relied on parent-reported measures.

Causal interpretation is also limited in other studies. Lee et al. (2025) used observational data and considered the possibility of reverse causation when interpreting associations between the timing of outdoor play and emotional dysregulation. This means the findings cannot establish whether outdoor play influenced emotional dysregulation or whether children's emotional functioning influenced when they played outdoors.

Measurement of outdoor play is another important consideration. Davenport et al. (2025) used both parent-reported and device-measured outdoor play and examined whether associations were independent of outdoor moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA). This is important because outdoor play and outdoor physical activity are related but should not be treated as interchangeable measures. However, the sample was relatively small (N=107) and most tested associations with developmental outcomes were not statistically significant.

Limitations are also present across the wider outdoor-play literature. De Lannoy et al. (2023) identified 275 Canadian outdoor-play publications and found that cross-sectional designs were the most common. Mental and emotional development had also received less research attention than physical health and development. This suggests that the evidence base for emotional well-being is less developed than some other areas of outdoor-play research.

T'''able 4'''

'''''Comparison of recent research'''''

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Study               
!Research method             
!Research strength                      
!Limitation                                                
|-
|  &lt;small&gt;Lee et al. (2025)&lt;/small&gt;                                     
|Observational; 6 month follow-up
|Examined the timing of outdoor play and tested working memory as a statistical mediator of the association with emotional dysregulation.     
|Observational mediation cannot establish causation; the study also considered possible reverse causation when interpreting timing-related findings.
|-
|Ferguson et al. (2025)
|Cross sectional; multi ethnic urban cohort (N=2,568)
|Large sample allowed associations to be examined across population groups and school-day/weekend outdoor play.
|Cross-sectional design cannot establish temporal direction; associations also differed across some groups and play contexts.
|-
|Davenport et al. (2025)
|Observational; preschool sample (N=107)
|Used both parent-reported and device-measured outdoor play and distinguished outdoor play from outdoor moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA)
|Small sample and most tested associations with developmental outcomes were not statistically significant.
|-
|Dodd et al. (2026)
|Longitudinal cohort (N = 4,151)
|Outdoor play was measured in the preschool years before later internalising and externalising symptom trajectories.
|Outdoor play and symptoms relied on parent reported measures, and the observational design does not establish causations.
|-
|Poulos et al. (2026)
|Recess comparison study (N=317)
|Compared children's positive and negative affect following outdoor, gymnasium and classroom recess
|Examined immediate affect during an extreme-heat context; higher positive affect was also found after gymnasium recess, so the result was not specific to outdoor recess.
|}
As shown in Table 4, the recent evidence has different methodological strengths and limitations. Longitudinal designs provide stronger evidence about temporal ordering than cross-sectional studies, while device-based measures can address some limitations of parent report. However, much of the evidence remains observational, and differences in emotional outcomes, measures of outdoor play and play contexts limit the direct comparison between studies. Future research could benefit from more consistent measures of outdoor play, stronger longitudinal and experimental designs and greater attention to emotional outcomes across different children and play contexts. 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;

{Why should the recent findings not be interpreted as showing single consistent effect of outdoor play on children's emotional well-being?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
-A. Because all the studies used different countries.
+B. Because studies differed in emotional outcomes, measures of outdoor play, timing, context and research design.
-C. Because longitudinal studies are always more reliable and accurate.
-D. Because outdoor play only affects positive outcomes.


&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}

|}
== '''How do families, communities and schools support outdoor play opportunities?''' ==
[[File:Coalition Builds New Playground in One Day for Chicora-Cherokee Community (11054532905).jpg|thumb|325x325px|Figure 6. Families, communities and school can shape children's opportunities for play.]]
Outdoor play opportunities are shaped by children's social and physical environments. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified parents, outdoor play environments, communities and time constraints as environmental factors in inclusive outdoor play. The study also identified autonomy, growing up together, making contact and adapting ways of playing as factors that affected participation. The 2025 Position Statement on Active Outdoor Play recommends increasing opportunities for active outdoor play where people live, learn, work and play (Lee et al., 2025). It also recommends collaboration across sectors and settings to support equitable access. Together, these findings provide a broader context for considering the roles of families, communities and schools. These influences can operate across family, community and school settings (see Figure 5).

=== '''Families''' ===
Parents can influence whether children have opportunities to play outdoors. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified parents as an environmental factor in inclusive outdoor play. Children with disabilities described parents as important in encouraging participation. For some children, parents also helped to explain their disability to other children (Beekhuizen et al., 2025).  

Broader research also identifies parental factors in children's outdoor play. A systematic review of 21 peer reviewed studies involving children aged 0 to 12 years found that the importance placed on outdoor play was associated with how much time children spent playing outdoors  (Boxberger and Reimers, 2019). Evidence for parental encouragement and support was less consistent across children (Boxberger and Reimers, 2019). This suggests that family influence is not limited to direct encouragement. Parents' attitude towards outdoor play may shape children's opportunities to play outdoors. However, the review identified some associations but does not show that parental attitude caused greater outdoor play. 

Parental support  can also involve allowing children to have some independence during outdoor play. Support can make participation possible, but it does not always require direct parental involvement (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). This is particularly relevant when children want more control over how and where they play. Research on independent mobility also shows that children and parents may differ in how much independence they prefer (Han et al., 2022). The study identified different patterns in children's and parents' preferences for independent mobility. These findings show that parental support and autonomy do not always involve the same level of parental involvement. Some children may need support to access or join outdoor play while also wanting greater independence. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) also recommended providing children and parents with knowledge about disabilities and possible adaptations that could support participation. 

Time constraints can also limit family-level opportunities for outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) reported that some children had less time to play outdoors because of parents' work schedules, after-school arrangements and longer travel between home and school. This means that opportunities for outdoor play can be restricted even when children want to play and parents are supportive.

=== '''Communities''' ===
Community conditions can affect whether children have safe and inclusive opportunities for outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) described physical and social safety as important for inclusive outdoor play. Some playground structures also made participation difficult for children with disabilities. A systematic review of 25 studies found that both physical and social neighbourhood factors were associated with children's outdoor play (Visser &amp; van Aalst, 2022). Social factors included perceived safety, social cohesion and the presence of other children. However, the studies did not identify one neighbourhood feature that consistently explained children's outdoor play across all settings.

The social environment may also affect whether children can join others. Children with disabilities described smaller communities, including villages and schools, as places where children and parents could become more familiar with disability. Greater familiarity was associated with greater acceptance and stronger connections with other children (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Observational research also shows that physical access alone does not explain inclusive outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2026) observed 63 children with and without disabilities during six inclusive outdoor-play sessions and found children with disabilities had lower playfulness scores than children without disabilities. Unfamiliarity could also restrict social inclusion because children preferred to play with peers they already knew. This means providing the same outdoor space does not necessarily provide the same opportunity to participate.

The 2025 Position Statement on Active Outdoor Play recommends collaboration across sectors and settings to support equitable access to active outdoor play (Lee et al., 2025). The reviewed findings  show why both physical and social conditions matter. Children need places that can be accessed, but familiarity, safety and opportunities to join others can also affect participation. However, the evidence does not show that one community feature alone will increase outdoor play or improve emotional well-being.

=== '''Schools''' ===
Schools can provide opportunities for children with and without disabilities to become more familiar with one another. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified growing up together and making contact as interacting factors in inclusive outdoor play. Children described familiarity with other children as making contact easier. School circumstances can also affect the time available for outdoor play. Some children attending special primary education described long travel times between school and home as reducing their opportunities to play outdoors. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified these experiences as part of time constraints.

The physical school environment can also be changed to support outdoor activity and socio-emotional outcomes. Bikomeye et al. (2021) systematically reviewed six experimental studies of schoolyard greening. The interventions involved adding greenery and natural elements to schoolyards. Across the included studies, the review reported generally positive findings for physical activity and socio-emotional health. However, the review included only six studies. Schoolyard greening is also a specific intervention and should not be treated as evidence that all forms of outdoor play improve children's emotional well-being. 

Recess provides another school setting in which children's emotional experiences have been examined directly. Poulos et al. (2026) studied 317 Year 4 and 5 children during extreme heat. Positive affect was higher after outdoor and gymnasium recess than after classroom recess. There were no significant differences in negative affect between the three settings. Poulos et al. (2026) also identified implications for school health, policy and equity. The study discussed heat-adaptive infrastructure as one way to support access to recess environments during extreme heat. However, the findings do not show that outdoor recess is always better than indoor recess because positive affect was also higher after gymnasium recess. 

{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Quiz}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;

{Which statement best reflects how families, communities and school can support children's outdoor play opportunities?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}

+ Support can involve accessible environments, safety, familiarity, appropriate parental support and opportunities for children to participate with some independence.
- Providing the same outdoor space gives every child the same opportunity to participate.
-Schoolyard greening alone is enough to improve children's emotional well-being.
-Outdoor recess always produces better emotional outcomes than indoor recess.

&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}
== '''Conclusion''' ==
Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being are not represented by single, consistent concepts across recent research. Outdoor play should be distinguished from outdoor physical activity, while emotional well-being has been examined through emotional dysregulation, social-emotional competence, positive and negative affect, and internalising and externalising symptoms. These differences are important because findings across studies do not represent the same emotional outcomes or time frames. 

Outdoor play may be related to children's emotional well-being through several psychological processes, but the strength of evidence differs across them. Gross's (2015) emotion regulation framework helps explain how children may respond to emotional situations during play, while working memory provides more direct evidence of a possible cognitive process in the association between afternoon outdoor play and lower emotional dysregulation (Lee et al., 2025). However, these findings do not establish that outdoor play causes better emotion regulation or emotional well-being. Recent research also does not show one consistent effect across all children, outcomes or play contexts. Some studies report associations with better social-emotional competence, lower-risk symptom trajectories or higher positive affect, while other findings are mixed or non-significant (Davenport et al., 2025; Dodd et al., 2026; Ferguson et al., 2025). Differences in research design, measurement, timing and context therefore need to be considered when interpreting the evidence. 

Children's opportunities for outdoor play are also shaped by their social and physical environments. Accessibility, familiarity, autonomy, parental support, safety and opportunities to join other children can influence whether the same outdoor space provides the same opportunity to participate. Families, communities and schools can therefore support outdoor play by considering both access to outdoor spaces and the conditions that allow children to participate in ways that suit their needs and circumstances. Overall, current research suggests that outdoor play is associated with some aspects of children's emotional well-being, but the relationship is more complex than simply spending more time outdoors. The relation between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being varies depending on how outdoor play is measured, timing, context and children's opportunities to participate.

==See also==
* [[wikipedia:Affordance|Affordance]] (Wikipedia)
* [[wikipedia:Autonomy|Autonomy]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Cognitive psychology]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Emotion regulation in children|Emotion regulation in children]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Emotional regulation]] (Wikipedia)

* [[wikipedia:Emotional dysregulation|Emotional dysregulation]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Imaginative play and emotion regulation|Imaginative play and emotion regulation]] (Wikiversity)
* [[wikipedia:Working memory|Working memory]] (Wikipedia)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Beekhuizen, R. Q., Bloemen, M. A. T., Bolster, E. A. M., Visser, K., Lugt, R., Bassa, M., Henry, N. L., Kotte, E. M. W., Hartingsveldt, M., &amp; Gorter, J. W. (2026). Can You See Us Play? Observing Inclusive Outdoor Play Behaviour Among Children With and Without Disabilities: A Mixed Methods Study. Child : Care, Health &amp; Development, 52(1), e70198-n/a. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70198

Beekhuizen, R. Q., Bolster, E. A. M., Gorter, J. W., Henry, N. L., Visser, K., Wittink, H., Kotte, E. M. W., Sol, M. E., &amp; Bloemen, M. A. T. (2025). Play Together? Unveiling Facilitators and Barriers to Inclusive Outdoor Play for Dutch Children With and Without Disabilities: A Qualitative Study. Child: Care, Health &amp; Development, 51(6), Article e70154. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70154

Biino, V., Pesce, C., &amp; Martins, C. (2025). Motor Skill Development at Preschool Age in Girls and Boys: The Role of Outdoor Free Play. Children, 12(5), Article 594. https://doi.org/10.3390/children12050594

Bikomeye, J., Balza, J., &amp; Beyer, K. (2021). The Impact of Schoolyard Greening on Children’s Physical Activity and Socioemotional Health: A Systematic Review of Experimental Studies. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(2), 535. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18020535

Boxberger, K., &amp; Reimers, A. K. (2019). Parental correlates of outdoor play in boys and girls aged 0 to 12: A systematic review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(2, Art. 190), 19-16:2, Art. 190&lt;19. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16020190

Davenport, C., Kuzik, N., Larouche, R., &amp; Carson, V. (2025). The Associations Between Parental-Reported and Device-Based Measured Outdoor Play and Health Indicators of Physical, Cognitive, and Social–Emotional Development in Preschool-Aged Children. Pediatric Exercise Science, 37(2), 102–111. https://doi.org/10.1123/pes.2023-0119

de Lannoy, L., Barbeau, K., Seguin, N., &amp; Tremblay, M. S. (2023). Scoping review of children’s and youth’s outdoor play publications in Canada. Chronic Diseases in Canada, 43(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.24095/hpcdp.43.1.01

Dodd, H. F., Cordwell, K., Hesketh, K., Johnstone, A., de la Torre-Luque, A., &amp; McCrorie, P. (2026). Early outdoor play predicts trajectories of child mental health in a population-based cohort. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.70175

Ferguson, M., Teyhan, A., Lovell, R., Dodd, H., Wheeler, B., &amp; McEachan, R. (2025). The association between park visits, outdoor play and child social-emotional competency in a multi-ethnic, urban cohort. Wellbeing, Space and Society, 9, Article 100293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wss.2025.100293

Gal‐Szabo, D. E., Spinrad, T. L., Eisenberg, N., &amp; Sulik, M. J. (2019). The relations of children’s emotion knowledge to their observed social play and reticent/uninvolved behavior in preschool: Moderation by effortful control. Social Development (Oxford, England), 28(1), 57–73. https://doi.org/10.1111/sode.12321

Gibson, J. J. (1979). The ecological approach to visual perception / James J. Gibson. Houghton Mifflin.

Gibson, J.L., Cornell, M. &amp; Gill, T. A Systematic Review of Research into the Impact of Loose Parts Play on Children’s Cognitive, Social and Emotional Development. School Mental Health 9, 295–309 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-017-9220-9

Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion Regulation: Current Status and Future Prospects. Psychological Inquiry, 26(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2014.940781

Halberstadt, A. G., Denham, S. A., &amp; Dunsmore, J. C. (2001). Affective Social Competence. Social Development (Oxford, England), 10(1), 79–119. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9507.00150

Han, C. S., Brussoni, M. J., &amp; Mâsse, L. C. (2022). Parental Autonomy Support in the Context of Parent–Child Negotiation for Children’s Independent Mobility: ‘I Always Feel Safer With My Parents’ to ‘Boom! Bust Down Those Walls! The Journal of Early Adolescence, 42(6), Article 02724316211064513. https://doi.org/10.1177/02724316211064513

Johnstone, A., Martin, A., Cordovil, R., Fjørtoft, I., Iivonen, S., Jidovtseff, B., Lopes, F., Reilly, J. J., Thomson, H., Wells, V., &amp; McCrorie, P. (2022). Nature-Based Early Childhood Education and Children’s Social, Emotional and Cognitive Development: A Mixed-Methods Systematic Review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(10), 5967. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19105967

Lee, E.-Y., de Lannoy, L., Kim, Y.-B., Rathod, A., James, M. E., Lopes, O., Nasrallah, B., Thankarajah, A., Adjei-Boadi, D., de Barros, M. I. A., Duncan, S., Miller, R. M., Mygind, L., Vanderloo, L. M., Wang, P.-Y., &amp; Tremblay, M. S. (2025). 2025 Position statement on active outdoor play. The International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 22(1), Article 117. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-025-01813-9

Lee, J. J., Flouri, E., &amp; Jackson, Y. (2025). The Role of Timing and Amount of Outdoor Play in Emotional Dysregulation in Preschool Children. Child: Care, Health &amp; Development, 51(1), Article e70020. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70020

Morgenthaler, T., Lynch, H., Loebach, J., Pentland, D., &amp; Schulze, C. (2024). Using the Theory of Affordances to Understand Environment–Play Transactions: Environmental Taxonomy of Outdoor Play Space Features—A Scoping Review. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 78(4), Article 7804185120. https://doi.org/10.5014/ajot.2024.050606

Pereira, J. V., Vila-Nova, F., Veiga, G., Lopes, F., &amp; Cordovil, R. (2024). Associations between outdoor play features and children’s behavior and health: A systematic review. Health &amp; Place, 87, Article 103235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2024.103235

Poulos, A., Hassan, U. A., Wilson, K., Price, P. M., Vanos, J., &amp; Quilla, J. (2026). Differences in Schoolchildren’s Emotional State After Indoor Versus Outdoor Recess in Extreme‐Heat Weather. The Journal of School Health, 96(4), Article e70135. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.70135

Scherer, K. R. (2005). What are emotions? And how can they be measured? Social Science Information, 44(4), 695–729. https://doi.org/10.1177/0539018405058216

Veraksa, A. N., Plotnikova, V. A., Sukhikh, V. L., Kornienko, D. S., &amp; Rudnova, N. A. (2025). Non-therapeutic play to overcome negative emotional symptoms and improve emotional intelligence in children aged 3–7: a systematic review. Frontiers in Psychology, 16, 1475387. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1475387

Visser, K., &amp; Aalst, I. (2022). Neighbourhood Factors in Children’s Outdoor Play: A Systematic Literature Review. Tijdschrift Voor Economische En Sociale Geografie, 113(1), 80–95. https://doi.org/10.1111/tesg.12505

}}

==External links==
* [https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-play [https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-pla]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-play y]] (Encyclopedia in Early Childhood Development)
* [[https://www.outdoorplaycanada.ca/2026/06/02/sprout-able-resources-videos-and-tip-sheets-to-support-children-with-disabilities-in-outdoor-play/ https://www.outdoorplaycanada.ca/2026/06/02/sp]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[https://www.outdoorplaycanada.ca/2026/06/02/sprout-able-resources-videos-and-tip-sheets-to-support-children-with-disabilities-in-outdoor-play/ rout-able-resources-videos-and-tip-sheets-to-support-children-with-disabilities-in-outdoor-play/]/ SPROUT-able Resources: Videos and Tip Sheets to Support Children with Disabilities in Outdoor Play] (Outdoor Play Canada)

* https://www.who.int/news/item/24-04-2019-to-grow-up-healthy-children-need-to-sit-less-and-play-more&lt;nowiki/&gt; To grow up healthy, children need to sit less and play more] (World Health Organisation)

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__TOC__

== Overview ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;

|'''Case study: Part 1'''[[File:School children happily playing in playground.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. Children engaged in outdoor play, where social interactions, choice and control on the situation can create different emotional experiences.]]Imagine that...

A child arrives at playground and joins a group of children who are already playing. The children are making their own game and deciding the rules as they play. At first, the child enjoys choosing where and what to play. During the game, another child changes the rules and an argument breaks out. The child becomes frustrated and walks away from the activity. After watching for a short time, the child returns, suggests a new idea to continue the game and re-joins the group. 

How might experiences like this during outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? Emotional regulation provides one psychological framework for understanding how children may respond to situations like this during play (see figure 1).
|}

Outdoor play can involve more than physical movement. It can occur across playgrounds, gardens, streets and natural spaces. Outdoor play includes exploration, social interaction, choice, challenge, and engagement with the surrounding environment (Dodd et al., 2026; Pereira et al., 2024). These experiences can involve frustration, disagreement, uncertainty or excitement. This chapter examines how [[Emotional regulation|emotional,]] [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive]], social and environmental processes may help explain the relationship between outdoor play and children's [https://w.wiki/AHG6 emotional well-being.] 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|

;[[File:Bulb Idea Flat Icon GIF Animation.gif|alt=Focus questions|left|99x99px|thumb]]


'''Focus questions'''

* '''What are outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?'''
* '''How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?'''
* '''How do social and environmental conditions shape  children's outdoor play experiences?'''
* '''What does recent research show about outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?'''
* '''How can families, communities and schools support outdoor  play opportunities that may benefit children's emotional well-being?'''
|}

== '''Understanding outdoor play and children's emotional well-being''' ==
[[File:Water-outdoor-people-girl-play-boy-938233.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. ''Outdoor play can provide opportunities to explore, make choices, interact with others and respond to changing situations through activities such as water play.''|214x214px]]

Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being are not measured as single and consistent concepts across recent research. Outdoor play may be examined as voluntary and intrinsically motivated activity, self directed play, parent reported outdoor play, or device-measured outdoor play (Binno et al., 2025; Davenport et al., 2025; Dodd et al., 2026). It should also be distinguished from outdoor moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) because these measures do not represent the same behaviour (Davenport et al., 2025). Children's emotional well-being is also examined through different outcomes, including [https://w.wiki/7YC8 emotional dysregulation], social-emotional competence, positive and negative affect, and internalising or externalising symptoms (Dodd et al., 2026; Ferguson et al., 2025; Lee et al., 2025; Poulos et al., 2026).  

=== Outdoor play ===
Outdoor play is voluntary and intrinsically motivated activity that occurs in outdoor environments such as gardens, playgrounds, parks and natural spaces (Dodd et al., 2026). Free play can be also self-directed, allowing children to interact freely with the environment and make choices about their activities (Biino et al., 2025). Outdoor play should not be treated as the same as outdoor physical activity. The recent research outdoor play and outdoor moderate- to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) were examined as separate measures (Davenport et al., 2025). This distinction is important because outdoor play intensity of physical activity do not represent the same behaviour.  

=== Children's emotional well-being ===
Children's emotional well-being is not represented by a single common outcome across recent outdoor play research. Emotional dysregulation has been examined in relation to the amount and timing of outdoor play (Lee et al., 2025), while social-emotional competence includes social emotional difficulties and [[Prosocial behavior/Keywords/Definitions|prosocial behaviour]] (Ferguson et al., 2025). Other studies have examined positive and negative affect following recess (Poulos et al., 2026) and trajectories of internalising and externalising symptoms across childhood (Dodd et al., 2026). These outcomes represent different aspects and timeframes of emotional functioning, so they should not be treated as equivalent when findings are compared.

'''Table 1''' 

''Emotional outcomes examined in recent research on outdoor play and children's emotional well-being''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Study
!Outcome examined
!What the outcome represents                                                                                                  
|-
|Lee et al. (2025)   
|Emotional dysregulation
|Difficulties in emotional regulation; examined in relation to the amount of timing of outdoor play
|-
|Ferguson et al.          (2025)
|Social-emotional competence 
|Social-emotional difficulties and prosocial behaviour
|-
|Poulos et al. (2026)
|Positive and negative affect
|Children's affect following recess across different settings 
|-
|Dodd et al. (2026)
|Internalising and externalising symptoms
|Internalising: emotional symptoms and peer problems
Externalising: conduct problems and hyperactivity- inattention 
|}
Note. Outcome descriptions are based on the measures and constructs reported in the above cited studies. See Table 1. 

As shown in Table 1, the studies do not measure the same aspect or time frame of children's emotional functioning. Affect immediately following recess should not be treated as equivalent to emotional dysregulation measured over time or trajectories of internalising and externalising symptoms across childhood. This difference need to be considered when findings across studies are compared. 

'''Case study: part 2'''
 
''What is being measured?''

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |[[File:Children marbles.jpg|thumb|221x221px|'''Figure 3'''. ''Children's immediate emotional responses during outdoor play is different from long-term emotional functioning.'']]The child in the Case study: Part 1 becomes frustrated when the rules of the game change. This immediate emotional response is different from a longer-term pattern of emotional dysregulation or internalising symptoms. Research on outdoor play measures these outcomes across different time frames and contexts. When findings are compared, it is important to consider which aspect of emotional well-being is measured.

{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;

{A child's positive or negative affect immediately after recess represents the same emotional outcome as longer-term internalising or externalising symptoms.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}

- True
+ False

&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}

|}

== '''How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?''' ==
Outdoor play may be related to children's emotional well-being through emotional, cognitive, and social processes (Dodd et al., 2026). Possible pathways discussed in the recent research include cognitive, social and emotional skills, social interaction, physical activity, connection with nature and adventurous play (Dodd et al., 2026). However, these pathways have not all been directly tested as mechanisms, and much outdoor play research remains observational (Dodd et al., 2026; de Lannoy et al., 2023). Psychological theory can help to explain how and why outdoor play experiences may influence children's emotional well-being. However, theory alone does not show that psychological processes cause better emotional well-being.

Emotion involves more than subjective feelings. Scherer (2005) described emotion as coordinated changes across cognitive appraisal, physiological responses, action tendencies, expression and subjective feelings. Therefore, physiological response is one component of an emotional response rather than a separate explanation for the effects of outdoor play. Scherer (2005) did not examine outdoor play, so this framework does not provide evidence that outdoor play changes children's physiological responses or emotional well-being.

=== '''Emotion regulation''' ===
Emotion regulation provides a psychological framework for understanding how children may manage emotional situations during outdoor play. Gross (2015) described emotion regulation as a process involving identification, selection and implementation. Gross (2015) also described situation selection, situation modification, attentional deployment cognitive change and response modulation. During outdoor play, children may experience frustration, conflict, disagreement, uncertainty or changes to their activity. Gross's framework can be applied to consider how the children recognise an emotional response, choose strategies to manage and act on chosen strategies. However, Gross (2015) did not examine outdoor play, so applying the framework does not show that outdoor play improves children's emotion regulation.

Broader research on  children's play has also examined emotional functioning. Veraksa et al. (2025) systematically reviewed 33 studies on non-therapeutic play among children aged 3 to 7 and identified evidence involving emotional regulation, emotional intelligence, and negative emotional symptoms. The review included outdoor play alongside several other forms of play, so its findings should not be interpreted as evidence that outdoor play alone improves emotion regulation. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Case study: Part 3'''[[File:14Y Ncdc july 5th-802.jpg|thumb|202x202px|'''Figure 4'''. ''Children can respond differently to emotional situations that occur during outdoor play.'']]When the rules of game change, the child becomes frustrated and decides to step away. After a short time the child returns and suggests a different way to continue the game (see Figure 4). Suggesting a change to the game can be considered an example of situation modification. This shows how Gross's emotion regulation framework can be applied to an emotional situation during outdoor play.

{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;

{What does Gross (2015) emotion regulation framework show when it is applied to the outdoor-play scenario?.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
-A. Outdoor play causes better emotion regulation.
+B. Situation modification can help explain how the child responds to the situation.
-C. Children regulate emotions better outdoors than indoors.
-D. Stepping away from play always improves emotional well-being.


&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}

|}
=== '''Working memory and cognitive process''' ===
Working memory can be one cognitive process involved in the association between outdoor play and emotional dysregulation. Lee et al. (2025) examined 325 preschool children and tested working memory as a statistical mediator. More outdoor play between noon and 6 pm was associated with lower emotional dysregulation. In contrast, more outdoor play before noon and after 6 pm was associated with higher emotional dysregulation. Afternoon outdoor play was also associated with better working memory, and better working memory was associated with lower emotional dysregulation.

When working memory was included in the analysis, the association between afternoon outdoor play and emotional dysregulation was no longer statistically significant. Lee et al. (2025) reported this as full mediation. This suggests that working memory may be involved in the association between afternoon outdoor play and lower emotional dysregulation. However, the study was observational, so the mediation analysis does not show that outdoor play caused better working memory or lower emotional dysregulation.

Johnstone et al. (2022) reviewed 36 studies of nature-based [[early childhood education]]. The review found very low certainty evidence for some social, emotional, and cognitive outcomes, including [[self-regulation]], while findings for attention were inconsistent. Although, the review examined nature-based early childhood education rather than outdoor play. Therefore, it does not show that working memory explains the association between outdoor play and children's [https://w.wiki/AHG6 emotional well-being].

'''Table 2'''

''Psychological processes considered in the relationship between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!Process
!Contribution
!Evidence and limitations 
|-
|Emotion components 
|Emotion involves cognitive appraisal, physiological responses, action tendencies, expression and subjective feelings (Scherer, 2005)
|Provides psychological framework, but Scherer did not examine outdoor play.
|-
|Emotion regulation
|Gross's (2015) framework can be applied to emotional situations during outdoor play, including frustration, disagreement and changes to an activity. 
|Helps explain responses, but does not show that outdoor play improves emotion regulation.
|-
|Working memory
|Lee et al. (2025) examined working memory as a statistical mediator between outdoor play and emotional dysregulation.
|Provides direct observational evidence of possible cognitive process but does not establish causation. 
|-
|Broader play/nature evidence
|Veraksa et al. (2025) and Johnstone et al. (2022) examined related play and nature based contexts.
|Relevant to interpretation, but not specific evidence that outdoor play causes better emotional well-being. 
|}
Note. The sources provide different types of evidence, including psychological frameworks, direct outdoor-play research and broader evidence about outdoor play and children's emotional well-being. 

== '''How do social and environmental conditions shape on children's outdoor play experiences?''' ==
[[File:2026-10-03 214531-relationship between child and environment.png|thumb|284x284px|'''Figure 5.''' Children's opportunities for outdoor play can be different according to personal, interacting and environmental factors and the relationship between the child and the environment.

Note. Original conceptual summary is based on Beekhuizen et al. (2025) and Gibson (1979).]]
Outdoor play opportunities depend on social and physical environments. Children may have access to same outdoor space but may not have same opportunities for play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified personal, interacting and environmental factors that could support or restrict inclusive outdoor play. These differences can be considered through [https://w.wiki/VYfL affordance theory], which examines the opportunities for action through the relationship between an individual and the environment (Gibson, 1979). See Figure 5. 


=== Affordance theory and outdoor play environments ===
[https://w.wiki/VYfL Affordance theory] was developed by Gibson (1979) to explain the opportunities for action that an environment  provides in relation to the person using it. In outdoor play, the opportunities provided by a space can depend on its physical features and how a child is able to use those features. Morgenthaler et al. (2024) applied affordance theory to children's outdoor play and examined outdoor play transactions through environmental taxonomy of outdoor play space features. Their review identified 14 categories of spaces and 284 play occupations linked to different environmental features. Morgenthaler et al. (2024) showed that different spaces and objects can afford  different forms of play, which helps explain why same space may provide different opportunities. However this study examined the opportunities for play rather than children's well-being.

Pereira et al. (2024) also examined features of outdoor play spaces in a systematic review of 51 articles representing 45 primary studies. The review examined features such as fixed structures, natural elements, floor markings, loose equipment and available play areas. Some positive effects were reported, but there was substantial heterogeneity between studies. The studies differed in the environmental features examined, outcomes measures, and study methods, which made difficult to draw a clear conclusions about the effect of individual play space features (Pereira et al., 2024).Therefore, the review does not show that one particular environmental feature improves children's [https://w.wiki/AHG6 emotional well-being]. 

'''Table 3'''

''Examples of environmental features and possible affordances'' 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Environmental feature                             
!Possible affordance for play                                                        
|-
|Fixed structures (e.g. climbing frame)
|Physical activity such as climbing, physical play and risk-taking
|-
|Natural elements (e.g. tree, rocks, sand)
|Exploratory play, imaginative play, and sensory experiences
|-
|Floor markings (e.g. painted games)
|Rule based  and structured play
|-
|Loose equipment (e.g. balls, tyre, boxes) 
|Constructive, imaginative play, creative and problem solving play
|-
|Open play area
|Running, group play, and flexible use
|}
Note. This table is an original synthesis based on environmental features described by Pereira et al. (2024) and  affordance framework applied by Morgenthaler et al. (2024).  Environmental features can afford more than one type of play and the opportunities may vary between children. 
=== '''Social relationship and inclusion''' ===
Social relationships can shape whether children are able to join and continue outdoor play (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified making contact and growing up together as interacting factors in inclusive outdoor play. Familiarity with other children could make it easier to approach, communicate and play together, while joining unfamiliar children or existing game could be difficult. [https://w.wiki/WDsJ Affective social competence (ASC)] provides a psychological framework for understanding these social interactions (Halberstadt et al., 2001). The ASC model involves experiencing, sending and receiving affect, together with awareness, identification, working within the social context and regulation. These processes may be relevant when a child tries to enter a peer group, recognise other children's emotions and manage their own response during play.  

Gal-Szabo et al. (2019) used the ASC model as theoretical foundation when examining children's emotional knowledge and social behaviour during preschool free play. The study found that situational understanding of the emotions was negatively related to uninvolved behaviour and was marginally positively related to more social play. However, the study examined preschool free play rather than specific outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) also found that children with disabilities experienced more barriers related to making contact, adapting play and physical play environment. These findings suggest that participation in outdoor play depends on both social interaction and children's ability to respond within the play situation, but they do not establish that social play causes better emotional well-being (Beekhuizen et al., 2025; Gal-Szabo et al., 2019).

=== '''Autonomy, parents and time''' ===
[https://w.wiki/4NyU Autonomy] can shape how children experience outdoor play (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified autonomy as a personal factor in inclusive outdoor play. Some children with disabilities valued opportunities to play outside independently. Veraksa et al. (2025), in a systematic review of non-therapeutic play, identified autonomy as one feature through which play may support emotional regulation and coping. However, the review examined several forms of play and does not show that autonomy during outdoor play specifically improves children's emotional well-being.

Parental support can also make outdoor play possible. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) found that parental involvement could support children's participation when a child needed help to access or participate in outdoor play. Time constraints also affected opportunities for outdoor play. Some children had less time to play outdoors because of parents' work schedules, after school arrangements or longer travel distance between home and school (Beekhuizen et al., 2025).

=== '''Outdoor environments and accessibility''' ===
Outdoor play environments can support or restrict children's participation (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified both physical and social features of outdoor environments as relevant to inclusive play. Children discussed safety, including traffic near playgrounds and disputes with other children. Accessibility was particularly important for children with disabilities because opportunities for inclusive outdoor play could be affected by play environments and physical abilities. Pereira et al. (2024) also showed that heterogeneity between studies limited clear conclusions about the effects of individual outdoor play space features.. 

Gibson et al. (2017) systematically reviewed five studies of loose-parts play (LPP) interventions with primary school aged children. The review found limited quantitative evidence to determine whether loose-parts interventions affected children's cognitive, social or emotional development. Together, these findings show that features of outdoor environments can support or restrict opportunities for play. However, current evidence does not establish that a particular environmental feature improves children's emotional well-being (Beekhuizen et al., 2025; Gibson et al., 2017; Pereira et al., 2024). 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Case study: Part 4 Same play space, different experiences'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|Kim and Leo use the same school playground. Kim already knows many children and easily joins a group activity. Leo uses a mobility device and finds that some areas of the playground are difficult to access. Leo also does not know many children who are already playing. He prefers to play independently when possible. 
|}

The two children have access to the same playground space, but their opportunities to participate are different. Their experiences are shaped by more than the physical space alone. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) also identified making contact, familiarity, autonomy and accessibility as factors that could support or restrict inclusive outdoor play.
Physical accessibility may affect whether a child can use part of playground, while familiarity with other children may affect whether the child can enter social play. Parental support may also help participation in some situations, while the child may still value greater independence
{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;

{Why might two children have different outdoor-play experiences even they use the same playground?.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+A. Physical, social and personal factors can affect how children are able to participate.
-B. Outdoor spaces provide the same opportunities for every child.
-C. Accessibility is the only factor that affects outdoor play..
-D. Children who know other children always have better emotional well-being.


&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}

|}
== '''What does recent research show about outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?''' ==
Recent research does not show a consistent association between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being. The findings are mixed across different emotional outcomes measured, the timing and context of outdoor play, children's behaviours, and the methods used to measure outdoor play. These differences need to be considered when the findings are interpreted.  

=== '''Consistency of recent research findings''' ===
Recent findings are not consistent across all emotional and developmental outcomes. Ferguson et al. (2025) found that more frequent outdoor play was associated with better social-emotional competence, including lower difficulties and greater [[Prosocial Behaviour|prosocial behaviour]]. In contrast, Davenport et al. (2025) found that most associations between outdoor play and the physical, [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive]] and social-emotional developmental indicators examined were not statistically significant. These differences show that positive associations with outdoor play are not found across all developmental outcomes.

Findings can also differ according to the emotional outcome being measured. Poulos et al. (2026) found higher positive affect after outdoor and gymnasium recess than after classroom recess, but no significant differences in negative affect between the three recess settings.  Lee et al. (2025) found that  more afternoon outdoor play was associated with lower emotional dysregulation, while more outdoor play earlier and later in the day was associated with higher emotional dysregulation. These findings suggest that the association can differ according to both the emotional outcome and the timing of outdoor play.

The time period being examined also differs between studies. Dodd et al. (2026) found that more frequent outdoor play during the preschool years was associated with lower odds of belonging to less favourable internalising and externalising symptom trajectory across childhood. This is different from Poulos et al. (2026), who examined children's emotional states immediately after the recess. Therefore, recent research includes both immediate emotional outcomes and longer-term patterns of emotional functioning. 

Associations may vary across children and play contexts. Ferguson et al. (2025) reported differences according to ethnicity and whether outdoor play occurred on school days or weekends. These differences further suggest that findings should not be treated as evidence of one single effect across all children or play contexts.

=== '''Strengths and limitations of current research''' ===
The strength of the evidence also differs according to research design. Dodd et al. (2026) used longitudinal data from 4,151 children and measured outdoor play during the preschool years at approximately 2, 3 and 4 years old, while internalising and externalising symptom trajectories were measured later through to age 8. This strengthens the evidence about temporal ordering because outdoor play was measured before the later emotional outcomes. However, longitudinal evidence does not establish cause and effect, and the study relied on parent-reported measures.

Causal interpretation is also limited in other studies. Lee et al. (2025) used observational data and considered the possibility of reverse causation when interpreting associations between the timing of outdoor play and emotional dysregulation. This means the findings cannot establish whether outdoor play influenced emotional dysregulation or whether children's emotional functioning influenced when they played outdoors.

Measurement of outdoor play is another important consideration. Davenport et al. (2025) used both parent-reported and device-measured outdoor play and examined whether associations were independent of outdoor moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA). This is important because outdoor play and outdoor physical activity are related but should not be treated as interchangeable measures. However, the sample was relatively small (N=107) and most tested associations with developmental outcomes were not statistically significant.

Limitations are also present across the wider outdoor-play literature. De Lannoy et al. (2023) identified 275 Canadian outdoor-play publications and found that cross-sectional designs were the most common. Mental and emotional development had also received less research attention than physical health and development. This suggests that the evidence base for emotional well-being is less developed than some other areas of outdoor-play research.

T'''able 4'''

'''''Comparison of recent research'''''

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Study               
!Research method             
!Research strength                      
!Limitation                                                
|-
|  &lt;small&gt;Lee et al. (2025)&lt;/small&gt;                                     
|Observational; 6 month follow-up
|Examined the timing of outdoor play and tested working memory as a statistical mediator of the association with emotional dysregulation.     
|Observational mediation cannot establish causation; the study also considered possible reverse causation when interpreting timing-related findings.
|-
|Ferguson et al. (2025)
|Cross sectional; multi ethnic urban cohort (N=2,568)
|Large sample allowed associations to be examined across population groups and school-day/weekend outdoor play.
|Cross-sectional design cannot establish temporal direction; associations also differed across some groups and play contexts.
|-
|Davenport et al. (2025)
|Observational; preschool sample (N=107)
|Used both parent-reported and device-measured outdoor play and distinguished outdoor play from outdoor moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA)
|Small sample and most tested associations with developmental outcomes were not statistically significant.
|-
|Dodd et al. (2026)
|Longitudinal cohort (N = 4,151)
|Outdoor play was measured in the preschool years before later internalising and externalising symptom trajectories.
|Outdoor play and symptoms relied on parent reported measures, and the observational design does not establish causations.
|-
|Poulos et al. (2026)
|Recess comparison study (N=317)
|Compared children's positive and negative affect following outdoor, gymnasium and classroom recess
|Examined immediate affect during an extreme-heat context; higher positive affect was also found after gymnasium recess, so the result was not specific to outdoor recess.
|}
As shown in Table 4, the recent evidence has different methodological strengths and limitations. Longitudinal designs provide stronger evidence about temporal ordering than cross-sectional studies, while device-based measures can address some limitations of parent report. However, much of the evidence remains observational, and differences in emotional outcomes, measures of outdoor play and play contexts limit the direct comparison between studies. Future research could benefit from more consistent measures of outdoor play, stronger longitudinal and experimental designs and greater attention to emotional outcomes across different children and play contexts. 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;

{Why should the recent findings not be interpreted as showing single consistent effect of outdoor play on children's emotional well-being?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
-A. Because all the studies used different countries.
+B. Because studies differed in emotional outcomes, measures of outdoor play, timing, context and research design.
-C. Because longitudinal studies are always more reliable and accurate.
-D. Because outdoor play only affects positive outcomes.


&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}

|}
== '''How can families, communities and schools support outdoor play opportunities that may benefit children's emotional well-being?''' ==
[[File:Coalition Builds New Playground in One Day for Chicora-Cherokee Community (11054532905).jpg|thumb|325x325px|Figure 6. Families, communities and schools can shape children's opportunities for play.]]
Outdoor play opportunities are shaped by children's social and physical environments. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified parents, outdoor play environments, communities and time constraints as environmental factors in inclusive outdoor play. The study also identified autonomy, growing up together, making contact and adapting ways of playing as factors that affected participation. The 2025 Position Statement on Active Outdoor Play recommends increasing opportunities for active outdoor play where people live, learn, work and play (Lee et al., 2025). It also recommends collaboration across sectors and settings to support equitable access. These influences can operate across family, community and school settings (see Figure 6).

=== '''Families''' ===
Parents can influence whether children have opportunities to play outdoors. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified parents as an environmental factor in inclusive outdoor play. Children with disabilities described parents as important in encouraging participation. For some children, parents also helped to explain their disability to other children (Beekhuizen et al., 2025).  

Broader research also identifies parental factors in children's outdoor play. A systematic review of 21 peer-reviewed studies involving children aged 0 to 12 years found that the importance placed on outdoor play was associated with how much time children spent playing outdoors  (Boxberger &amp; Reimers, 2019). Evidence for parental encouragement and support was less consistent across children (Boxberger &amp; Reimers, 2019). Therefore, parents' attitudes towards outdoor play may shape children's opportunities beyond direct encouragement. However, the review identified some associations but does not show that parental attitudes caused greater outdoor play. 

Parental support  can also involve allowing children to have some independence during outdoor play. Support can make participation possible, but it does not always require direct parental involvement (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Research on independent mobility also shows that children and parents may differ in how much independence they prefer (Han et al., 2022). This suggests that parental support and autonomy do not always involve the same level of involvement. Some children may need support to access or join outdoor play while also wanting greater independence. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) also recommended providing children and parents with knowledge about disabilities and possible adaptations that could support participation. 

Time constraints can also limit family-level opportunities for outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) reported that some children had less time to play outdoors because of parents' work schedules, after-school arrangements and longer travel between home and school.

=== '''Communities''' ===
Community conditions can affect whether children have safe and inclusive opportunities for outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) described physical and social safety as important for inclusive outdoor play. Some playground structures also made participation difficult for children with disabilities. A systematic review of 25 studies found that both physical and social neighbourhood factors were associated with children's outdoor play (Visser &amp; van Aalst, 2022). Social factors included perceived safety, social cohesion and the presence of other children. However, the studies did not identify one neighbourhood feature that consistently explained children's outdoor play across all settings.

The social environment may also affect whether children can join others. Children with disabilities described smaller communities, including villages and schools, as places where children and parents could become more familiar with disability. Greater familiarity was associated with greater acceptance and stronger connections with other children (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Observational research also shows that physical access alone does not explain inclusive outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2026) observed 63 children with and without disabilities during six inclusive outdoor-play sessions and found children with disabilities had lower playfulness scores than children without disabilities. Unfamiliarity could also restrict social inclusion because children preferred to play with peers they already knew. 

The 2025 Position Statement on Active Outdoor Play recommends collaboration across sectors and settings to support equitable access to active outdoor play (Lee et al., 2025). The reviewed findings  show why both physical and social conditions matter. Children need places that can be accessed, but familiarity, safety and opportunities to join others can also affect participation. However, the evidence does not show that one community feature alone will increase outdoor play or improve emotional well-being.

=== '''Schools''' ===
Schools can provide opportunities for children with and without disabilities to become more familiar with one another. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified growing up together and making contact as interacting factors in inclusive outdoor play. Children described familiarity with other children as making contact easier. School circumstances can also affect the time available for outdoor play. Some children attending special primary education described long travel times between school and home as reducing their opportunities to play outdoors.

The physical school environment can also be changed to support outdoor activity and socio-emotional outcomes. Bikomeye et al. (2021) systematically reviewed six experimental studies of schoolyard greening. The interventions involved adding greenery and natural elements to schoolyards. Across the included studies, the review reported generally positive findings for physical activity and socio-emotional health. However, the review included only six studies. Schoolyard greening is also a specific intervention and should not be treated as evidence that all forms of outdoor play improve children's emotional well-being. 

Recess provides another school setting in which children's emotional experiences have been examined directly. Poulos et al. (2026) studied 317 Year 4 and 5 children during extreme heat. Positive affect was higher after outdoor and gymnasium recess than after classroom recess. There were no significant differences in negative affect between the three settings. The study discussed heat-adaptive infrastructure as one way to support access to recess environments during extreme heat. However, the findings do not show that outdoor recess is always better than indoor recess because positive affect was also higher after gymnasium recess. 

{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Quiz}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;

{Which statement best reflects how families, communities and schools can support children's outdoor play opportunities?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}

+ Support can involve accessible environments, safety, familiarity, appropriate parental support and opportunities for children to participate with some independence.
- Providing the same outdoor space gives every child the same opportunity to participate.
-Schoolyard greening alone is enough to improve children's emotional well-being.
-Outdoor recess always produces better emotional outcomes than indoor recess.

&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}
== '''Conclusion''' ==
Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being are not represented by single, consistent concepts across recent research. Outdoor play should be distinguished from outdoor physical activity, while emotional well-being has been examined through emotional dysregulation, social-emotional competence, positive and negative affect, and internalising and externalising symptoms. These differences are important because findings across studies do not represent the same emotional outcomes or timeframes. 

Outdoor play may be related to children's emotional well-being through several psychological processes, but the strength of evidence differs across them. Gross's (2015) emotion regulation framework helps explain how children may respond to emotional situations during play, while working memory provides more direct evidence of a possible cognitive process in the association between afternoon outdoor play and lower emotional dysregulation (Lee et al., 2025). However, these findings do not establish that outdoor play causes better emotion regulation or emotional well-being. Recent research also does not show one consistent effect across all children, outcomes or play contexts. Differences in research design, measurement, timing and context therefore need to be considered when interpreting the evidence. 

Children's opportunities for outdoor play are also shaped by their social and physical environments. Accessibility, familiarity, autonomy, parental support, safety and opportunities to join other children can influence whether the same outdoor space provides the same opportunity to participate. Families, communities and schools can therefore support outdoor play by considering both access to outdoor spaces and the conditions that allow children to participate in ways that suit their needs and circumstances. The relation between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being varies depending on how outdoor play is measured, timing, context and children's opportunities to participate.

==See also==
* [[wikipedia:Affordance|Affordance]] (Wikipedia)
* [[wikipedia:Autonomy|Autonomy]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Cognitive psychology]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Emotion regulation in children|Emotion regulation in children]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Emotional regulation]] (Wikipedia)

* [[wikipedia:Emotional dysregulation|Emotional dysregulation]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Imaginative play and emotion regulation|Imaginative play and emotion regulation]] (Wikiversity)
* [[wikipedia:Working memory|Working memory]] (Wikipedia)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Beekhuizen, R. Q., Bloemen, M. A. T., Bolster, E. A. M., Visser, K., Lugt, R., Bassa, M., Henry, N. L., Kotte, E. M. W., Hartingsveldt, M., &amp; Gorter, J. W. (2026). Can You See Us Play? Observing Inclusive Outdoor Play Behaviour Among Children With and Without Disabilities: A Mixed Methods Study. Child : Care, Health &amp; Development, 52(1), e70198-n/a. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70198

Beekhuizen, R. Q., Bolster, E. A. M., Gorter, J. W., Henry, N. L., Visser, K., Wittink, H., Kotte, E. M. W., Sol, M. E., &amp; Bloemen, M. A. T. (2025). Play Together? Unveiling Facilitators and Barriers to Inclusive Outdoor Play for Dutch Children With and Without Disabilities: A Qualitative Study. Child: Care, Health &amp; Development, 51(6), Article e70154. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70154

Biino, V., Pesce, C., &amp; Martins, C. (2025). Motor Skill Development at Preschool Age in Girls and Boys: The Role of Outdoor Free Play. Children, 12(5), Article 594. https://doi.org/10.3390/children12050594

Bikomeye, J., Balza, J., &amp; Beyer, K. (2021). The Impact of Schoolyard Greening on Children’s Physical Activity and Socioemotional Health: A Systematic Review of Experimental Studies. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(2), 535. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18020535

Boxberger, K., &amp; Reimers, A. K. (2019). Parental correlates of outdoor play in boys and girls aged 0 to 12: A systematic review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(2, Art. 190), 19-16:2, Art. 190&lt;19. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16020190

Davenport, C., Kuzik, N., Larouche, R., &amp; Carson, V. (2025). The Associations Between Parental-Reported and Device-Based Measured Outdoor Play and Health Indicators of Physical, Cognitive, and Social–Emotional Development in Preschool-Aged Children. Pediatric Exercise Science, 37(2), 102–111. https://doi.org/10.1123/pes.2023-0119

de Lannoy, L., Barbeau, K., Seguin, N., &amp; Tremblay, M. S. (2023). Scoping review of children’s and youth’s outdoor play publications in Canada. Chronic Diseases in Canada, 43(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.24095/hpcdp.43.1.01

Dodd, H. F., Cordwell, K., Hesketh, K., Johnstone, A., de la Torre-Luque, A., &amp; McCrorie, P. (2026). Early outdoor play predicts trajectories of child mental health in a population-based cohort. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.70175

Ferguson, M., Teyhan, A., Lovell, R., Dodd, H., Wheeler, B., &amp; McEachan, R. (2025). The association between park visits, outdoor play and child social-emotional competency in a multi-ethnic, urban cohort. Wellbeing, Space and Society, 9, Article 100293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wss.2025.100293

Gal‐Szabo, D. E., Spinrad, T. L., Eisenberg, N., &amp; Sulik, M. J. (2019). The relations of children’s emotion knowledge to their observed social play and reticent/uninvolved behavior in preschool: Moderation by effortful control. Social Development (Oxford, England), 28(1), 57–73. https://doi.org/10.1111/sode.12321

Gibson, J. J. (1979). The ecological approach to visual perception / James J. Gibson. Houghton Mifflin.

Gibson, J.L., Cornell, M. &amp; Gill, T. A Systematic Review of Research into the Impact of Loose Parts Play on Children’s Cognitive, Social and Emotional Development. School Mental Health 9, 295–309 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-017-9220-9

Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion Regulation: Current Status and Future Prospects. Psychological Inquiry, 26(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2014.940781

Halberstadt, A. G., Denham, S. A., &amp; Dunsmore, J. C. (2001). Affective Social Competence. Social Development (Oxford, England), 10(1), 79–119. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9507.00150

Han, C. S., Brussoni, M. J., &amp; Mâsse, L. C. (2022). Parental Autonomy Support in the Context of Parent–Child Negotiation for Children’s Independent Mobility: ‘I Always Feel Safer With My Parents’ to ‘Boom! Bust Down Those Walls! The Journal of Early Adolescence, 42(6), Article 02724316211064513. https://doi.org/10.1177/02724316211064513

Johnstone, A., Martin, A., Cordovil, R., Fjørtoft, I., Iivonen, S., Jidovtseff, B., Lopes, F., Reilly, J. J., Thomson, H., Wells, V., &amp; McCrorie, P. (2022). Nature-Based Early Childhood Education and Children’s Social, Emotional and Cognitive Development: A Mixed-Methods Systematic Review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(10), 5967. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19105967

Lee, E.-Y., de Lannoy, L., Kim, Y.-B., Rathod, A., James, M. E., Lopes, O., Nasrallah, B., Thankarajah, A., Adjei-Boadi, D., de Barros, M. I. A., Duncan, S., Miller, R. M., Mygind, L., Vanderloo, L. M., Wang, P.-Y., &amp; Tremblay, M. S. (2025). 2025 Position statement on active outdoor play. The International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 22(1), Article 117. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-025-01813-9

Lee, J. J., Flouri, E., &amp; Jackson, Y. (2025). The Role of Timing and Amount of Outdoor Play in Emotional Dysregulation in Preschool Children. Child: Care, Health &amp; Development, 51(1), Article e70020. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70020

Morgenthaler, T., Lynch, H., Loebach, J., Pentland, D., &amp; Schulze, C. (2024). Using the Theory of Affordances to Understand Environment–Play Transactions: Environmental Taxonomy of Outdoor Play Space Features—A Scoping Review. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 78(4), Article 7804185120. https://doi.org/10.5014/ajot.2024.050606

Pereira, J. V., Vila-Nova, F., Veiga, G., Lopes, F., &amp; Cordovil, R. (2024). Associations between outdoor play features and children’s behavior and health: A systematic review. Health &amp; Place, 87, Article 103235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2024.103235

Poulos, A., Hassan, U. A., Wilson, K., Price, P. M., Vanos, J., &amp; Quilla, J. (2026). Differences in Schoolchildren’s Emotional State After Indoor Versus Outdoor Recess in Extreme‐Heat Weather. The Journal of School Health, 96(4), Article e70135. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.70135

Scherer, K. R. (2005). What are emotions? And how can they be measured? Social Science Information, 44(4), 695–729. https://doi.org/10.1177/0539018405058216

Veraksa, A. N., Plotnikova, V. A., Sukhikh, V. L., Kornienko, D. S., &amp; Rudnova, N. A. (2025). Non-therapeutic play to overcome negative emotional symptoms and improve emotional intelligence in children aged 3–7: a systematic review. Frontiers in Psychology, 16, 1475387. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1475387

Visser, K., &amp; Aalst, I. (2022). Neighbourhood Factors in Children’s Outdoor Play: A Systematic Literature Review. Tijdschrift Voor Economische En Sociale Geografie, 113(1), 80–95. https://doi.org/10.1111/tesg.12505

}}

==External links==
* [https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-play [https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-pla]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-play y]] (Encyclopedia in Early Childhood Development)
* [[https://www.outdoorplaycanada.ca/2026/06/02/sprout-able-resources-videos-and-tip-sheets-to-support-children-with-disabilities-in-outdoor-play/ https://www.outdoorplaycanada.ca/2026/06/02/sp]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[https://www.outdoorplaycanada.ca/2026/06/02/sprout-able-resources-videos-and-tip-sheets-to-support-children-with-disabilities-in-outdoor-play/ rout-able-resources-videos-and-tip-sheets-to-support-children-with-disabilities-in-outdoor-play/]/ SPROUT-able Resources: Videos and Tip Sheets to Support Children with Disabilities in Outdoor Play] (Outdoor Play Canada)

* https://www.who.int/news/item/24-04-2019-to-grow-up-healthy-children-need-to-sit-less-and-play-more&lt;nowiki/&gt; To grow up healthy, children need to sit less and play more] (World Health Organisation)

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__TOC__

== Overview ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;

|'''Case study: Part 1'''[[File:School children happily playing in playground.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. Children engaged in outdoor play, where social interactions, choice and control on the situation can create different emotional experiences.]]Imagine that...

A child arrives at playground and joins a group of children who are already playing. The children are making their own game and deciding the rules as they play. At first, the child enjoys choosing where and what to play. During the game, another child changes the rules and an argument breaks out. The child becomes frustrated and walks away from the activity. After watching for a short time, the child returns, suggests a new idea to continue the game and re-joins the group. 

How might experiences like this during outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? Emotional regulation provides one psychological framework for understanding how children may respond to situations like this during play (see Figure 1).
|}

Outdoor play can involve more than physical movement. It can occur across playgrounds, gardens, streets and natural spaces and can include exploration, social interaction, choice, challenge, and engagement with the surrounding environment (Dodd et al., 2026; Pereira et al., 2024). These experiences can involve frustration, disagreement, uncertainty or excitement. This chapter examines how [[Emotional regulation|emotional,]] [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive]], social and environmental processes may help explain the relationship between outdoor play and children's [https://w.wiki/AHG6 emotional well-being.] 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|

;[[File:Bulb Idea Flat Icon GIF Animation.gif|alt=Focus questions|left|99x99px|thumb]]


'''Focus questions'''

* '''What are outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?'''
* '''How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?'''
* '''How do social and environmental conditions shape  children's outdoor play experiences?'''
* '''What does recent research show about outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?'''
* '''How can families, communities and schools support outdoor  play opportunities that may benefit children's emotional well-being?'''
|}

== '''Understanding outdoor play and children's emotional well-being''' ==
[[File:Water-outdoor-people-girl-play-boy-938233.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. ''Outdoor play can provide opportunities to explore, make choices, interact with others and respond to changing situations through activities such as water play.''|214x214px]]

Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being are not measured as single and consistent concepts across recent research. Outdoor play may be examined as voluntary and intrinsically motivated activity, self directed play, parent reported outdoor play, or device-measured outdoor play (Binno et al., 2025; Davenport et al., 2025; Dodd et al., 2026). It should also be distinguished from outdoor moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) because these measures do not represent the same behaviour (Davenport et al., 2025).   

=== Outdoor play ===
Outdoor play is voluntary and intrinsically motivated activity that occurs in outdoor environments such as gardens, playgrounds, parks and natural spaces (Dodd et al., 2026). Free play can also be self-directed, allowing children to interact freely with the environment and make choices about their activities (Biino et al., 2025). Outdoor play should not be treated as the same as outdoor physical activity.  Davenport et al. (2025) examined outdoor play and outdoor MVPA as separate measures showing that outdoor play and physical activity intensity should not be treated as the same behaviour.  

=== Children's emotional well-being ===
Children's emotional well-being is not represented by a single common outcome across recent outdoor play research. Emotional dysregulation has been examined in relation to the amount and timing of outdoor play (Lee et al., 2025), while social-emotional competence includes social emotional difficulties and [[Prosocial behavior/Keywords/Definitions|prosocial behaviour]] (Ferguson et al., 2025). Other studies have examined positive and negative affect following recess (Poulos et al., 2026) and trajectories of internalising and externalising symptoms across childhood (Dodd et al., 2026). These outcomes represent different aspects and timeframes of emotional functioning, so they should not be treated as equivalent when findings are compared.

'''Table 1''' 

''Emotional outcomes examined in recent research on outdoor play and children's emotional well-being''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Study
!Outcome examined
!What the outcome represents                                                                                                  
|-
|Lee et al. (2025)   
|Emotional dysregulation
|Difficulties in emotion regulation
|-
|Ferguson et al.          (2025)
|Social-emotional competence 
|Social-emotional difficulties and prosocial behaviour
|-
|Poulos et al. (2026)
|Positive and negative affect
|Emotional state following recess 
|-
|Dodd et al. (2026)
|Internalising and externalising symptoms
|Long-term internalising and externalising symptom patterns 
|}
Note. Outcome descriptions are based on the measures and constructs reported in the cited studies. See Table 1. 

As shown in Table 1, the studies do not measure the same aspect or timeframe of children's emotional functioning. Affect immediately following recess should not be treated as equivalent to emotional dysregulation measured over time or trajectories of internalising and externalising symptoms across childhood.  

'''Case study: part 2'''
 
''What is being measured?''

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |[[File:Children marbles.jpg|thumb|221x221px|'''Figure 3'''. ''Children's immediate emotional responses during outdoor play are different from long-term emotional functioning.'']]The child in the Case study: Part 1 becomes frustrated when the rules of the game change. This immediate emotional response is different from a longer-term pattern of emotional dysregulation or internalising symptoms. Research measures these outcomes across different time frames, so the aspect of emotional well-being being measured needs to be considered when findings are compared.

{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;

{A child's positive or negative affect immediately after recess represents the same emotional outcome as longer-term internalising or externalising symptoms.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}

- True
+ False

&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}

|}

== '''How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?''' ==
Outdoor play may be related to children's emotional well-being through emotional, cognitive, and social processes (Dodd et al., 2026). Possible pathways discussed in the recent research include cognitive, social and emotional skills, social interaction, physical activity, connection with nature and adventurous play (Dodd et al., 2026). However, these pathways have not all been directly tested as mechanisms, and much outdoor play research remains observational (Dodd et al., 2026; de Lannoy et al., 2023). Psychological theory can help to explain how and why outdoor play experiences may influence children's emotional well-being. However, theory alone does not show that psychological processes cause better emotional well-being.

Emotion involves more than subjective feelings. Scherer (2005) described emotion as coordinated changes across cognitive appraisal, physiological responses, action tendencies, expression and subjective feelings. Therefore, physiological response is one component of an emotional response rather than a separate explanation for the effects of outdoor play. Scherer (2005) did not examine outdoor play, so this framework does not provide evidence that outdoor play changes children's physiological responses or emotional well-being.

=== '''Emotion regulation''' ===
Emotion regulation provides a psychological framework for understanding how children may manage emotional situations during outdoor play. Gross (2015) described emotion regulation as a process involving identification, selection and implementation. Gross (2015) also described situation selection, situation modification, attentional deployment cognitive change and response modulation. During outdoor play, children may experience frustration, conflict, disagreement, uncertainty or changes to their activity. Gross's framework can be applied to consider how the children recognise an emotional response, choose strategies to manage and act on chosen strategies. However, Gross (2015) did not examine outdoor play, so applying the framework does not show that outdoor play improves children's emotion regulation.

Broader research on  children's play has also examined emotional functioning. Veraksa et al. (2025) systematically reviewed 33 studies on non-therapeutic play among children aged 3 to 7 and identified evidence involving emotional regulation, emotional intelligence, and negative emotional symptoms. The review included outdoor play alongside several other forms of play, so its findings should not be interpreted as evidence that outdoor play alone improves emotion regulation. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Case study: Part 3'''[[File:14Y Ncdc july 5th-802.jpg|thumb|202x202px|'''Figure 4'''. ''Children can respond differently to emotional situations that occur during outdoor play.'']]When the rules of game change, the child becomes frustrated and decides to step away. After a short time the child returns and suggests a different way to continue the game (see Figure 4). Suggesting a change to the game can be considered an example of situation modification. This shows how Gross's emotion regulation framework can be applied to an emotional situation during outdoor play.

{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;

{What does Gross (2015) emotion regulation framework show when it is applied to the outdoor-play scenario?.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
-A. Outdoor play causes better emotion regulation.
+B. Situation modification can help explain how the child responds to the situation.
-C. Children regulate emotions better outdoors than indoors.
-D. Stepping away from play always improves emotional well-being.


&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}

|}
=== '''Working memory and cognitive process''' ===
Working memory can be one cognitive process involved in the association between outdoor play and emotional dysregulation. Lee et al. (2025) examined 325 preschool children and tested working memory as a statistical mediator. More outdoor play between noon and 6 pm was associated with lower emotional dysregulation. In contrast, more outdoor play before noon and after 6 pm was associated with higher emotional dysregulation. Afternoon outdoor play was also associated with better working memory, and better working memory was associated with lower emotional dysregulation.

When working memory was included in the analysis, the association between afternoon outdoor play and emotional dysregulation was no longer statistically significant. Lee et al. (2025) reported this as full mediation. This suggests that working memory may be involved in the association between afternoon outdoor play and lower emotional dysregulation. However, the study was observational, so the mediation analysis does not show that outdoor play caused better working memory or lower emotional dysregulation.

Johnstone et al. (2022) reviewed 36 studies of nature-based [[early childhood education]]. The review found very low certainty evidence for some social, emotional, and cognitive outcomes, including [[self-regulation]], while findings for attention were inconsistent. Although, the review examined nature-based early childhood education rather than outdoor play. Therefore, it does not show that working memory explains the association between outdoor play and children's [https://w.wiki/AHG6 emotional well-being].

'''Table 2'''

''Psychological processes considered in the relationship between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!Process
!Contribution
!Evidence and limitations 
|-
|Emotion components 
|Emotion involves cognitive appraisal, physiological responses, action tendencies, expression and subjective feelings (Scherer, 2005)
|Provides psychological framework, but Scherer did not examine outdoor play.
|-
|Emotion regulation
|Gross's (2015) framework can be applied to emotional situations during outdoor play, including frustration, disagreement and changes to an activity. 
|Helps explain responses, but does not show that outdoor play improves emotion regulation.
|-
|Working memory
|Lee et al. (2025) examined working memory as a statistical mediator between outdoor play and emotional dysregulation.
|Provides direct observational evidence of possible cognitive process but does not establish causation. 
|-
|Broader play/nature evidence
|Veraksa et al. (2025) and Johnstone et al. (2022) examined related play and nature based contexts.
|Relevant to interpretation, but not specific evidence that outdoor play causes better emotional well-being. 
|}
Note. The sources provide different types of evidence, including psychological frameworks, direct outdoor-play research and broader evidence about outdoor play and children's emotional well-being. 

== '''How do social and environmental conditions shape on children's outdoor play experiences?''' ==
[[File:2026-10-03 214531-relationship between child and environment.png|thumb|284x284px|'''Figure 5.''' Children's opportunities for outdoor play can be different according to personal, interacting and environmental factors and the relationship between the child and the environment.

Note. Original conceptual summary is based on Beekhuizen et al. (2025) and Gibson (1979).]]
Outdoor play opportunities depend on social and physical environments. Children may have access to same outdoor space but may not have same opportunities for play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified personal, interacting and environmental factors that could support or restrict inclusive outdoor play. These differences can be considered through [https://w.wiki/VYfL affordance theory], which examines the opportunities for action through the relationship between an individual and the environment (Gibson, 1979). See Figure 5. 


=== Affordance theory and outdoor play environments ===
[https://w.wiki/VYfL Affordance theory] was developed by Gibson (1979) to explain the opportunities for action that an environment  provides in relation to the person using it. In outdoor play, the opportunities provided by a space can depend on its physical features and how a child is able to use those features. Morgenthaler et al. (2024) applied affordance theory to children's outdoor play and examined outdoor play transactions through environmental taxonomy of outdoor play space features. Their review identified 14 categories of spaces and 284 play occupations linked to different environmental features. Morgenthaler et al. (2024) showed that different spaces and objects can afford  different forms of play, which helps explain why same space may provide different opportunities. However this study examined the opportunities for play rather than children's well-being.

Pereira et al. (2024) also examined features of outdoor play spaces in a systematic review of 51 articles representing 45 primary studies. The review examined features such as fixed structures, natural elements, floor markings, loose equipment and available play areas. Some positive effects were reported, but there was substantial heterogeneity between studies. The studies differed in the environmental features examined, outcomes measures, and study methods, which made difficult to draw a clear conclusions about the effect of individual play space features (Pereira et al., 2024).Therefore, the review does not show that one particular environmental feature improves children's [https://w.wiki/AHG6 emotional well-being]. 

'''Table 3'''

''Examples of environmental features and possible affordances'' 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Environmental feature                             
!Possible affordance for play                                                        
|-
|Fixed structures (e.g. climbing frame)
|Physical activity such as climbing, physical play and risk-taking
|-
|Natural elements (e.g. tree, rocks, sand)
|Exploratory play, imaginative play, and sensory experiences
|-
|Floor markings (e.g. painted games)
|Rule based  and structured play
|-
|Loose equipment (e.g. balls, tyre, boxes) 
|Constructive, imaginative play, creative and problem solving play
|-
|Open play area
|Running, group play, and flexible use
|}
Note. This table is an original synthesis based on environmental features described by Pereira et al. (2024) and  affordance framework applied by Morgenthaler et al. (2024).  Environmental features can afford more than one type of play and the opportunities may vary between children. 
=== '''Social relationship and inclusion''' ===
Social relationships can shape whether children are able to join and continue outdoor play (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified making contact and growing up together as interacting factors in inclusive outdoor play. Familiarity with other children could make it easier to approach, communicate and play together, while joining unfamiliar children or existing game could be difficult. [https://w.wiki/WDsJ Affective social competence (ASC)] provides a psychological framework for understanding these social interactions (Halberstadt et al., 2001). The ASC model involves experiencing, sending and receiving affect, together with awareness, identification, working within the social context and regulation. These processes may be relevant when a child tries to enter a peer group, recognise other children's emotions and manage their own response during play.  

Gal-Szabo et al. (2019) used the ASC model as theoretical foundation when examining children's emotional knowledge and social behaviour during preschool free play. The study found that situational understanding of the emotions was negatively related to uninvolved behaviour and was marginally positively related to more social play. However, the study examined preschool free play rather than specific outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) also found that children with disabilities experienced more barriers related to making contact, adapting play and physical play environment. These findings suggest that participation in outdoor play depends on both social interaction and children's ability to respond within the play situation, but they do not establish that social play causes better emotional well-being (Beekhuizen et al., 2025; Gal-Szabo et al., 2019).

=== '''Autonomy, parents and time''' ===
[https://w.wiki/4NyU Autonomy] can shape how children experience outdoor play (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified autonomy as a personal factor in inclusive outdoor play. Some children with disabilities valued opportunities to play outside independently. Veraksa et al. (2025), in a systematic review of non-therapeutic play, identified autonomy as one feature through which play may support emotional regulation and coping. However, the review examined several forms of play and does not show that autonomy during outdoor play specifically improves children's emotional well-being.

Parental support can also make outdoor play possible. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) found that parental involvement could support children's participation when a child needed help to access or participate in outdoor play. Time constraints also affected opportunities for outdoor play. Some children had less time to play outdoors because of parents' work schedules, after school arrangements or longer travel distance between home and school (Beekhuizen et al., 2025).

=== '''Outdoor environments and accessibility''' ===
Outdoor play environments can support or restrict children's participation (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified both physical and social features of outdoor environments as relevant to inclusive play. Children discussed safety, including traffic near playgrounds and disputes with other children. Accessibility was particularly important for children with disabilities because opportunities for inclusive outdoor play could be affected by play environments and physical abilities. Pereira et al. (2024) also showed that heterogeneity between studies limited clear conclusions about the effects of individual outdoor play space features.. 

Gibson et al. (2017) systematically reviewed five studies of loose-parts play (LPP) interventions with primary school aged children. The review found limited quantitative evidence to determine whether loose-parts interventions affected children's cognitive, social or emotional development. Together, these findings show that features of outdoor environments can support or restrict opportunities for play. However, current evidence does not establish that a particular environmental feature improves children's emotional well-being (Beekhuizen et al., 2025; Gibson et al., 2017; Pereira et al., 2024). 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Case study: Part 4 Same play space, different experiences'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|Kim and Leo use the same school playground. Kim already knows many children and easily joins a group activity. Leo uses a mobility device and finds that some areas of the playground are difficult to access. Leo also does not know many children who are already playing. He prefers to play independently when possible. 
|}

The two children have access to the same playground space, but their opportunities to participate are different. Their experiences are shaped by more than the physical space alone. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) also identified making contact, familiarity, autonomy and accessibility as factors that could support or restrict inclusive outdoor play.
Physical accessibility may affect whether a child can use part of playground, while familiarity with other children may affect whether the child can enter social play. Parental support may also help participation in some situations, while the child may still value greater independence
{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;

{Why might two children have different outdoor-play experiences even they use the same playground?.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+A. Physical, social and personal factors can affect how children are able to participate.
-B. Outdoor spaces provide the same opportunities for every child.
-C. Accessibility is the only factor that affects outdoor play..
-D. Children who know other children always have better emotional well-being.


&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}

|}
== '''What does recent research show about outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?''' ==
Recent research does not show a consistent association between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being. The findings are mixed across different emotional outcomes measured, the timing and context of outdoor play, children's behaviours, and the methods used to measure outdoor play. These differences need to be considered when the findings are interpreted.  

=== '''Consistency of recent research findings''' ===
Recent findings are not consistent across all emotional and developmental outcomes. Ferguson et al. (2025) found that more frequent outdoor play was associated with better social-emotional competence, including lower difficulties and greater [[Prosocial Behaviour|prosocial behaviour]]. In contrast, Davenport et al. (2025) found that most associations between outdoor play and the physical, [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive]] and social-emotional developmental indicators examined were not statistically significant. These differences show that positive associations with outdoor play are not found across all developmental outcomes.

Findings can also differ according to the emotional outcome being measured. Poulos et al. (2026) found higher positive affect after outdoor and gymnasium recess than after classroom recess, but no significant differences in negative affect between the three recess settings.  Lee et al. (2025) found that  more afternoon outdoor play was associated with lower emotional dysregulation, while more outdoor play earlier and later in the day was associated with higher emotional dysregulation. These findings suggest that the association can differ according to both the emotional outcome and the timing of outdoor play.

The time period being examined also differs between studies. Dodd et al. (2026) found that more frequent outdoor play during the preschool years was associated with lower odds of belonging to less favourable internalising and externalising symptom trajectory across childhood. This is different from Poulos et al. (2026), who examined children's emotional states immediately after the recess. Therefore, recent research includes both immediate emotional outcomes and longer-term patterns of emotional functioning. 

Associations may vary across children and play contexts. Ferguson et al. (2025) reported differences according to ethnicity and whether outdoor play occurred on school days or weekends. These differences further suggest that findings should not be treated as evidence of one single effect across all children or play contexts.

=== '''Strengths and limitations of current research''' ===
The strength of the evidence also differs according to research design. Dodd et al. (2026) used longitudinal data from 4,151 children and measured outdoor play during the preschool years at approximately 2, 3 and 4 years old, while internalising and externalising symptom trajectories were measured later through to age 8. This strengthens the evidence about temporal ordering because outdoor play was measured before the later emotional outcomes. However, longitudinal evidence does not establish cause and effect, and the study relied on parent-reported measures.

Causal interpretation is also limited in other studies. Lee et al. (2025) used observational data and considered the possibility of reverse causation when interpreting associations between the timing of outdoor play and emotional dysregulation. This means the findings cannot establish whether outdoor play influenced emotional dysregulation or whether children's emotional functioning influenced when they played outdoors.

Measurement of outdoor play is another important consideration. Davenport et al. (2025) used both parent-reported and device-measured outdoor play and examined whether associations were independent of outdoor moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA). This is important because outdoor play and outdoor physical activity are related but should not be treated as interchangeable measures. However, the sample was relatively small (N=107) and most tested associations with developmental outcomes were not statistically significant.

Limitations are also present across the wider outdoor-play literature. De Lannoy et al. (2023) identified 275 Canadian outdoor-play publications and found that cross-sectional designs were the most common. Mental and emotional development had also received less research attention than physical health and development. This suggests that the evidence base for emotional well-being is less developed than some other areas of outdoor-play research.

T'''able 4'''

'''''Comparison of recent research'''''

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Study               
!Research method             
!Research strength                      
!Limitation                                                
|-
|  &lt;small&gt;Lee et al. (2025)&lt;/small&gt;                                     
|Observational; 6 month follow-up
|Examined the timing of outdoor play and tested working memory as a statistical mediator of the association with emotional dysregulation.     
|Observational mediation cannot establish causation; the study also considered possible reverse causation when interpreting timing-related findings.
|-
|Ferguson et al. (2025)
|Cross sectional; multi ethnic urban cohort (N=2,568)
|Large sample allowed associations to be examined across population groups and school-day/weekend outdoor play.
|Cross-sectional design cannot establish temporal direction; associations also differed across some groups and play contexts.
|-
|Davenport et al. (2025)
|Observational; preschool sample (N=107)
|Used both parent-reported and device-measured outdoor play and distinguished outdoor play from outdoor moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA)
|Small sample and most tested associations with developmental outcomes were not statistically significant.
|-
|Dodd et al. (2026)
|Longitudinal cohort (N = 4,151)
|Outdoor play was measured in the preschool years before later internalising and externalising symptom trajectories.
|Outdoor play and symptoms relied on parent reported measures, and the observational design does not establish causations.
|-
|Poulos et al. (2026)
|Recess comparison study (N=317)
|Compared children's positive and negative affect following outdoor, gymnasium and classroom recess
|Examined immediate affect during an extreme-heat context; higher positive affect was also found after gymnasium recess, so the result was not specific to outdoor recess.
|}
As shown in Table 4, the recent evidence has different methodological strengths and limitations. Longitudinal designs provide stronger evidence about temporal ordering than cross-sectional studies, while device-based measures can address some limitations of parent report. However, much of the evidence remains observational, and differences in emotional outcomes, measures of outdoor play and play contexts limit the direct comparison between studies. Future research could benefit from more consistent measures of outdoor play, stronger longitudinal and experimental designs and greater attention to emotional outcomes across different children and play contexts. 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;

{Why should the recent findings not be interpreted as showing single consistent effect of outdoor play on children's emotional well-being?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
-A. Because all the studies used different countries.
+B. Because studies differed in emotional outcomes, measures of outdoor play, timing, context and research design.
-C. Because longitudinal studies are always more reliable and accurate.
-D. Because outdoor play only affects positive outcomes.


&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}

|}
== '''How can families, communities and schools support outdoor play opportunities that may benefit children's emotional well-being?''' ==
[[File:Coalition Builds New Playground in One Day for Chicora-Cherokee Community (11054532905).jpg|thumb|325x325px|Figure 6. Families, communities and schools can shape children's opportunities for play.]]
Outdoor play opportunities are shaped by children's social and physical environments. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified parents, outdoor play environments, communities and time constraints as environmental factors in inclusive outdoor play. The study also identified autonomy, growing up together, making contact and adapting ways of playing as factors that affected participation. The 2025 Position Statement on Active Outdoor Play recommends increasing opportunities for active outdoor play where people live, learn, work and play (Lee et al., 2025). It also recommends collaboration across sectors and settings to support equitable access. These influences can operate across family, community and school settings (see Figure 6).

=== '''Families''' ===
Parents can influence whether children have opportunities to play outdoors. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified parents as an environmental factor in inclusive outdoor play. Children with disabilities described parents as important in encouraging participation. For some children, parents also helped to explain their disability to other children (Beekhuizen et al., 2025).  

Broader research also identifies parental factors in children's outdoor play. A systematic review of 21 peer-reviewed studies involving children aged 0 to 12 years found that the importance placed on outdoor play was associated with how much time children spent playing outdoors  (Boxberger &amp; Reimers, 2019). Evidence for parental encouragement and support was less consistent across children (Boxberger &amp; Reimers, 2019). Therefore, parents' attitudes towards outdoor play may shape children's opportunities beyond direct encouragement. However, the review identified some associations but does not show that parental attitudes caused greater outdoor play. 

Parental support  can also involve allowing children to have some independence during outdoor play. Support can make participation possible, but it does not always require direct parental involvement (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Research on independent mobility also shows that children and parents may differ in how much independence they prefer (Han et al., 2022). This suggests that parental support and autonomy do not always involve the same level of involvement. Some children may need support to access or join outdoor play while also wanting greater independence. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) also recommended providing children and parents with knowledge about disabilities and possible adaptations that could support participation. 

Time constraints can also limit family-level opportunities for outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) reported that some children had less time to play outdoors because of parents' work schedules, after-school arrangements and longer travel between home and school.

=== '''Communities''' ===
Community conditions can affect whether children have safe and inclusive opportunities for outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) described physical and social safety as important for inclusive outdoor play. Some playground structures also made participation difficult for children with disabilities. A systematic review of 25 studies found that both physical and social neighbourhood factors were associated with children's outdoor play (Visser &amp; van Aalst, 2022). Social factors included perceived safety, social cohesion and the presence of other children. However, the studies did not identify one neighbourhood feature that consistently explained children's outdoor play across all settings.

The social environment may also affect whether children can join others. Children with disabilities described smaller communities, including villages and schools, as places where children and parents could become more familiar with disability. Greater familiarity was associated with greater acceptance and stronger connections with other children (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Observational research also shows that physical access alone does not explain inclusive outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2026) observed 63 children with and without disabilities during six inclusive outdoor-play sessions and found children with disabilities had lower playfulness scores than children without disabilities. Unfamiliarity could also restrict social inclusion because children preferred to play with peers they already knew. 

The 2025 Position Statement on Active Outdoor Play recommends collaboration across sectors and settings to support equitable access to active outdoor play (Lee et al., 2025). The reviewed findings  show why both physical and social conditions matter. Children need places that can be accessed, but familiarity, safety and opportunities to join others can also affect participation. However, the evidence does not show that one community feature alone will increase outdoor play or improve emotional well-being.

=== '''Schools''' ===
Schools can provide opportunities for children with and without disabilities to become more familiar with one another. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified growing up together and making contact as interacting factors in inclusive outdoor play. Children described familiarity with other children as making contact easier. School circumstances can also affect the time available for outdoor play. Some children attending special primary education described long travel times between school and home as reducing their opportunities to play outdoors.

The physical school environment can also be changed to support outdoor activity and socio-emotional outcomes. Bikomeye et al. (2021) systematically reviewed six experimental studies of schoolyard greening. The interventions involved adding greenery and natural elements to schoolyards. Across the included studies, the review reported generally positive findings for physical activity and socio-emotional health. However, the review included only six studies. Schoolyard greening is also a specific intervention and should not be treated as evidence that all forms of outdoor play improve children's emotional well-being. 

Recess provides another school setting in which children's emotional experiences have been examined directly. Poulos et al. (2026) studied 317 Year 4 and 5 children during extreme heat. Positive affect was higher after outdoor and gymnasium recess than after classroom recess. There were no significant differences in negative affect between the three settings. The study discussed heat-adaptive infrastructure as one way to support access to recess environments during extreme heat. However, the findings do not show that outdoor recess is always better than indoor recess because positive affect was also higher after gymnasium recess. 

{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Quiz}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;

{Which statement best reflects how families, communities and schools can support children's outdoor play opportunities?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}

+ Support can involve accessible environments, safety, familiarity, appropriate parental support and opportunities for children to participate with some independence.
- Providing the same outdoor space gives every child the same opportunity to participate.
-Schoolyard greening alone is enough to improve children's emotional well-being.
-Outdoor recess always produces better emotional outcomes than indoor recess.

&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}
== '''Conclusion''' ==
Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being are not represented by single, consistent concepts across recent research. Outdoor play should be distinguished from outdoor physical activity, while emotional well-being has been examined through emotional dysregulation, social-emotional competence, positive and negative affect, and internalising and externalising symptoms. These differences are important because findings across studies do not represent the same emotional outcomes or timeframes. 

Outdoor play may be related to children's emotional well-being through several psychological processes, but the strength of evidence differs across them. Gross's (2015) emotion regulation framework helps explain how children may respond to emotional situations during play, while working memory provides more direct evidence of a possible cognitive process in the association between afternoon outdoor play and lower emotional dysregulation (Lee et al., 2025). However, these findings do not establish that outdoor play causes better emotion regulation or emotional well-being. Recent research also does not show one consistent effect across all children, outcomes or play contexts. Differences in research design, measurement, timing and context therefore need to be considered when interpreting the evidence. 

Children's opportunities for outdoor play are also shaped by their social and physical environments. Accessibility, familiarity, autonomy, parental support, safety and opportunities to join other children can influence whether the same outdoor space provides the same opportunity to participate. Families, communities and schools can therefore support outdoor play by considering both access to outdoor spaces and the conditions that allow children to participate in ways that suit their needs and circumstances. The relation between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being varies depending on how outdoor play is measured, timing, context and children's opportunities to participate.

==See also==
* [[wikipedia:Affordance|Affordance]] (Wikipedia)
* [[wikipedia:Autonomy|Autonomy]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Cognitive psychology]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Emotion regulation in children|Emotion regulation in children]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Emotional regulation]] (Wikipedia)

* [[wikipedia:Emotional dysregulation|Emotional dysregulation]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Imaginative play and emotion regulation|Imaginative play and emotion regulation]] (Wikiversity)
* [[wikipedia:Working memory|Working memory]] (Wikipedia)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Beekhuizen, R. Q., Bloemen, M. A. T., Bolster, E. A. M., Visser, K., Lugt, R., Bassa, M., Henry, N. L., Kotte, E. M. W., Hartingsveldt, M., &amp; Gorter, J. W. (2026). Can You See Us Play? Observing Inclusive Outdoor Play Behaviour Among Children With and Without Disabilities: A Mixed Methods Study. Child : Care, Health &amp; Development, 52(1), e70198-n/a. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70198

Beekhuizen, R. Q., Bolster, E. A. M., Gorter, J. W., Henry, N. L., Visser, K., Wittink, H., Kotte, E. M. W., Sol, M. E., &amp; Bloemen, M. A. T. (2025). Play Together? Unveiling Facilitators and Barriers to Inclusive Outdoor Play for Dutch Children With and Without Disabilities: A Qualitative Study. Child: Care, Health &amp; Development, 51(6), Article e70154. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70154

Biino, V., Pesce, C., &amp; Martins, C. (2025). Motor Skill Development at Preschool Age in Girls and Boys: The Role of Outdoor Free Play. Children, 12(5), Article 594. https://doi.org/10.3390/children12050594

Bikomeye, J., Balza, J., &amp; Beyer, K. (2021). The Impact of Schoolyard Greening on Children’s Physical Activity and Socioemotional Health: A Systematic Review of Experimental Studies. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(2), 535. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18020535

Boxberger, K., &amp; Reimers, A. K. (2019). Parental correlates of outdoor play in boys and girls aged 0 to 12: A systematic review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(2, Art. 190), 19-16:2, Art. 190&lt;19. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16020190

Davenport, C., Kuzik, N., Larouche, R., &amp; Carson, V. (2025). The Associations Between Parental-Reported and Device-Based Measured Outdoor Play and Health Indicators of Physical, Cognitive, and Social–Emotional Development in Preschool-Aged Children. Pediatric Exercise Science, 37(2), 102–111. https://doi.org/10.1123/pes.2023-0119

de Lannoy, L., Barbeau, K., Seguin, N., &amp; Tremblay, M. S. (2023). Scoping review of children’s and youth’s outdoor play publications in Canada. Chronic Diseases in Canada, 43(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.24095/hpcdp.43.1.01

Dodd, H. F., Cordwell, K., Hesketh, K., Johnstone, A., de la Torre-Luque, A., &amp; McCrorie, P. (2026). Early outdoor play predicts trajectories of child mental health in a population-based cohort. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.70175

Ferguson, M., Teyhan, A., Lovell, R., Dodd, H., Wheeler, B., &amp; McEachan, R. (2025). The association between park visits, outdoor play and child social-emotional competency in a multi-ethnic, urban cohort. Wellbeing, Space and Society, 9, Article 100293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wss.2025.100293

Gal‐Szabo, D. E., Spinrad, T. L., Eisenberg, N., &amp; Sulik, M. J. (2019). The relations of children’s emotion knowledge to their observed social play and reticent/uninvolved behavior in preschool: Moderation by effortful control. Social Development (Oxford, England), 28(1), 57–73. https://doi.org/10.1111/sode.12321

Gibson, J. J. (1979). The ecological approach to visual perception / James J. Gibson. Houghton Mifflin.

Gibson, J.L., Cornell, M. &amp; Gill, T. A Systematic Review of Research into the Impact of Loose Parts Play on Children’s Cognitive, Social and Emotional Development. School Mental Health 9, 295–309 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-017-9220-9

Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion Regulation: Current Status and Future Prospects. Psychological Inquiry, 26(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2014.940781

Halberstadt, A. G., Denham, S. A., &amp; Dunsmore, J. C. (2001). Affective Social Competence. Social Development (Oxford, England), 10(1), 79–119. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9507.00150

Han, C. S., Brussoni, M. J., &amp; Mâsse, L. C. (2022). Parental Autonomy Support in the Context of Parent–Child Negotiation for Children’s Independent Mobility: ‘I Always Feel Safer With My Parents’ to ‘Boom! Bust Down Those Walls! The Journal of Early Adolescence, 42(6), Article 02724316211064513. https://doi.org/10.1177/02724316211064513

Johnstone, A., Martin, A., Cordovil, R., Fjørtoft, I., Iivonen, S., Jidovtseff, B., Lopes, F., Reilly, J. J., Thomson, H., Wells, V., &amp; McCrorie, P. (2022). Nature-Based Early Childhood Education and Children’s Social, Emotional and Cognitive Development: A Mixed-Methods Systematic Review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(10), 5967. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19105967

Lee, E.-Y., de Lannoy, L., Kim, Y.-B., Rathod, A., James, M. E., Lopes, O., Nasrallah, B., Thankarajah, A., Adjei-Boadi, D., de Barros, M. I. A., Duncan, S., Miller, R. M., Mygind, L., Vanderloo, L. M., Wang, P.-Y., &amp; Tremblay, M. S. (2025). 2025 Position statement on active outdoor play. The International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 22(1), Article 117. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-025-01813-9

Lee, J. J., Flouri, E., &amp; Jackson, Y. (2025). The Role of Timing and Amount of Outdoor Play in Emotional Dysregulation in Preschool Children. Child: Care, Health &amp; Development, 51(1), Article e70020. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70020

Morgenthaler, T., Lynch, H., Loebach, J., Pentland, D., &amp; Schulze, C. (2024). Using the Theory of Affordances to Understand Environment–Play Transactions: Environmental Taxonomy of Outdoor Play Space Features—A Scoping Review. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 78(4), Article 7804185120. https://doi.org/10.5014/ajot.2024.050606

Pereira, J. V., Vila-Nova, F., Veiga, G., Lopes, F., &amp; Cordovil, R. (2024). Associations between outdoor play features and children’s behavior and health: A systematic review. Health &amp; Place, 87, Article 103235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2024.103235

Poulos, A., Hassan, U. A., Wilson, K., Price, P. M., Vanos, J., &amp; Quilla, J. (2026). Differences in Schoolchildren’s Emotional State After Indoor Versus Outdoor Recess in Extreme‐Heat Weather. The Journal of School Health, 96(4), Article e70135. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.70135

Scherer, K. R. (2005). What are emotions? And how can they be measured? Social Science Information, 44(4), 695–729. https://doi.org/10.1177/0539018405058216

Veraksa, A. N., Plotnikova, V. A., Sukhikh, V. L., Kornienko, D. S., &amp; Rudnova, N. A. (2025). Non-therapeutic play to overcome negative emotional symptoms and improve emotional intelligence in children aged 3–7: a systematic review. Frontiers in Psychology, 16, 1475387. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1475387

Visser, K., &amp; Aalst, I. (2022). Neighbourhood Factors in Children’s Outdoor Play: A Systematic Literature Review. Tijdschrift Voor Economische En Sociale Geografie, 113(1), 80–95. https://doi.org/10.1111/tesg.12505

}}

==External links==
* [https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-play [https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-pla]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-play y]] (Encyclopedia in Early Childhood Development)
* [[https://www.outdoorplaycanada.ca/2026/06/02/sprout-able-resources-videos-and-tip-sheets-to-support-children-with-disabilities-in-outdoor-play/ https://www.outdoorplaycanada.ca/2026/06/02/sp]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[https://www.outdoorplaycanada.ca/2026/06/02/sprout-able-resources-videos-and-tip-sheets-to-support-children-with-disabilities-in-outdoor-play/ rout-able-resources-videos-and-tip-sheets-to-support-children-with-disabilities-in-outdoor-play/]/ SPROUT-able Resources: Videos and Tip Sheets to Support Children with Disabilities in Outdoor Play] (Outdoor Play Canada)

* https://www.who.int/news/item/24-04-2019-to-grow-up-healthy-children-need-to-sit-less-and-play-more&lt;nowiki/&gt; To grow up healthy, children need to sit less and play more] (World Health Organisation)

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__TOC__

== Overview ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;

|'''Case study: Part 1'''[[File:School children happily playing in playground.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. Children engaged in outdoor play, where social interactions, choice and control on the situation can create different emotional experiences.]]Imagine that...

A child arrives at playground and joins a group of children who are already playing. The children are making their own game and deciding the rules as they play. At first, the child enjoys choosing where and what to play. During the game, another child changes the rules and an argument breaks out. The child becomes frustrated and walks away from the activity. After watching for a short time, the child returns, suggests a new idea to continue the game and re-joins the group. 

How might experiences like this during outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? Emotional regulation provides one psychological framework for understanding how children may respond to situations like this during play (see Figure 1).
|}

Outdoor play can involve more than physical movement. It can occur across playgrounds, gardens, streets and natural spaces and can include exploration, social interaction, choice, challenge, and engagement with the surrounding environment (Dodd et al., 2026; Pereira et al., 2024). These experiences can involve frustration, disagreement, uncertainty or excitement. This chapter examines how [[Emotional regulation|emotional,]] [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive]], social and environmental processes may help explain the relationship between outdoor play and children's [https://w.wiki/AHG6 emotional well-being.] 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|

;[[File:Bulb Idea Flat Icon GIF Animation.gif|alt=Focus questions|left|99x99px|thumb]]


'''Focus questions'''

* '''What are outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?'''
* '''How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?'''
* '''How do social and environmental conditions shape  children's outdoor play experiences?'''
* '''What does recent research show about outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?'''
* '''How can families, communities and schools support outdoor  play opportunities that may benefit children's emotional well-being?'''
|}

== '''Understanding outdoor play and children's emotional well-being''' ==
[[File:Water-outdoor-people-girl-play-boy-938233.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. ''Outdoor play can provide opportunities to explore, make choices, interact with others and respond to changing situations through activities such as water play.''|214x214px]]

Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being are not measured as single and consistent concepts across recent research. Outdoor play may be examined as voluntary and intrinsically motivated activity, self directed play, parent reported outdoor play, or device-measured outdoor play (Binno et al., 2025; Davenport et al., 2025; Dodd et al., 2026). It should also be distinguished from outdoor moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) because these measures do not represent the same behaviour (Davenport et al., 2025).   

=== Outdoor play ===
Outdoor play is voluntary and intrinsically motivated activity that occurs in outdoor environments such as gardens, playgrounds, parks and natural spaces (Dodd et al., 2026). Free play can also be self-directed, allowing children to interact freely with the environment and make choices about their activities (Biino et al., 2025). Outdoor play should not be treated as the same as outdoor physical activity.  Davenport et al. (2025) examined outdoor play and outdoor MVPA as separate measures showing that outdoor play and physical activity intensity should not be treated as the same behaviour.  

=== Children's emotional well-being ===
Children's emotional well-being is not represented by a single common outcome across recent outdoor play research. Emotional dysregulation has been examined in relation to the amount and timing of outdoor play (Lee et al., 2025), while social-emotional competence includes social emotional difficulties and [[Prosocial behavior/Keywords/Definitions|prosocial behaviour]] (Ferguson et al., 2025). Other studies have examined positive and negative affect following recess (Poulos et al., 2026) and trajectories of internalising and externalising symptoms across childhood (Dodd et al., 2026). These outcomes represent different aspects and timeframes of emotional functioning, so they should not be treated as equivalent when findings are compared.

'''Table 1''' 

''Emotional outcomes examined in recent research on outdoor play and children's emotional well-being''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Study
!Outcome examined
!What the outcome represents                                                                                                  
|-
|Lee et al. (2025)   
|Emotional dysregulation
|Difficulties in emotion regulation
|-
|Ferguson et al.          (2025)
|Social-emotional competence 
|Social-emotional difficulties and prosocial behaviour
|-
|Poulos et al. (2026)
|Positive and negative affect
|Emotional state following recess 
|-
|Dodd et al. (2026)
|Internalising and externalising symptoms
|Long-term internalising and externalising symptom patterns 
|}
Note. Outcome descriptions are based on the measures and constructs reported in the cited studies. See Table 1. 

As shown in Table 1, the studies do not measure the same aspect or timeframe of children's emotional functioning. Affect immediately following recess should not be treated as equivalent to emotional dysregulation measured over time or trajectories of internalising and externalising symptoms across childhood.  

'''Case study: part 2'''
 
''What is being measured?''

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |[[File:Children marbles.jpg|thumb|221x221px|'''Figure 3'''. ''Children's immediate emotional responses during outdoor play are different from long-term emotional functioning.'']]The child in the Case study: Part 1 becomes frustrated when the rules of the game change. This immediate emotional response is different from a longer-term pattern of emotional dysregulation or internalising symptoms. Research measures these outcomes across different time frames, so the aspect of emotional well-being being measured needs to be considered when findings are compared.

{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;

{A child's positive or negative affect immediately after recess represents the same emotional outcome as longer-term internalising or externalising symptoms.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}

- True
+ False

&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}

|}

== '''How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?''' ==
Outdoor play may be related to children's emotional well-being through emotional, cognitive, and social processes (Dodd et al., 2026). Possible pathways discussed in recent research include cognitive, social and emotional skills, social interaction, physical activity, connection with nature and adventurous play (Dodd et al., 2026). However, these pathways have not all been directly tested as mechanisms, and much outdoor play research remains observational (Dodd et al., 2026; de Lannoy et al., 2023). Psychological theory can help explain how and why outdoor play experiences may influence children's emotional well-being. However, theory alone does not show that psychological processes cause better emotional well-being.

Emotion involves more than subjective feelings. Scherer (2005) described emotion as coordinated changes across cognitive appraisal, physiological responses, action tendencies, expression and subjective feelings. Therefore, physiological response is one component of an emotional response rather than a separate explanation for the effects of outdoor play. Scherer (2005) did not examine outdoor play, so this framework does not provide evidence that outdoor play changes children's physiological responses or emotional well-being.

=== '''Emotion regulation''' ===
Emotion regulation provides a psychological framework for understanding how children may manage emotional situations during outdoor play. Gross (2015) described emotion regulation as a process involving identification, selection and implementation. Gross (2015) also described situation selection, situation modification, attentional deployment cognitive change and response modulation. During outdoor play, children may experience frustration, conflict, uncertainty or changes to their activity. Gross's framework can be applied to consider how the children recognise an emotional response, choose strategies to manage and act on chosen strategies. However, Gross (2015) did not examine outdoor play, so applying the framework does not show that outdoor play improves children's emotion regulation.

Broader research on  children's play has also examined emotional functioning. Veraksa et al. (2025) systematically reviewed 33 studies on non-therapeutic play among children aged 3 to 7 and identified evidence involving emotion regulation, emotional intelligence, and negative emotional symptoms. The review included outdoor play alongside several other forms of play, so its findings should not be interpreted as evidence that outdoor play alone improves emotion regulation. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Case study: Part 3'''[[File:14Y Ncdc july 5th-802.jpg|thumb|202x202px|'''Figure 4'''. ''Children can respond differently to emotional situations that occur during outdoor play.'']]When the rules of game change, the child becomes frustrated and decides to step away. After a short time the child returns and suggests a different way to continue the game (see Figure 4). Suggesting a change to the game can be considered an example of situation modification. 

{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;

{What does Gross (2015) emotion regulation framework show when it is applied to the outdoor-play scenario?.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
-A. Outdoor play causes better emotion regulation.
+B. Situation modification can help explain how the child responds to the situation.
-C. Children regulate emotions better outdoors than indoors.
-D. Stepping away from play always improves emotional well-being.


&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}

|}
=== '''Working memory and cognitive process''' ===
Working memory can be one cognitive process involved in the association between outdoor play and emotional dysregulation. Lee et al. (2025) examined 325 preschool children and tested working memory as a statistical mediator. More outdoor play between noon and 6 pm was associated with lower emotional dysregulation. More outdoor play before noon and after 6 pm was associated with higher emotional dysregulation. Afternoon outdoor play was also associated with better working memory, and better working memory was associated with lower emotional dysregulation. When working memory was included in the analysis, the association between afternoon outdoor play and emotional dysregulation was no longer statistically significant. Lee et al. (2025) reported this as full mediation. However, the study was observational, so the mediation analysis does not show that outdoor play caused better working memory or lower emotional dysregulation.

Johnstone et al. (2022) reviewed 36 studies of nature-based [[early childhood education]]. The review found very low certainty evidence for some social, emotional, and cognitive outcomes, including [[self-regulation]], while findings for attention were inconsistent. However, nature-based early childhood education is not the same as outdoor play, so this review does not provide direct evidence for working memory as a mechanism. 

'''Table 2'''

''Psychological processes considered in the relationship between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!Process
!Contribution
!Evidence and limitations 
|-
|Emotion components 
|Emotion involves cognitive appraisal, physiological responses, action tendencies, expression and subjective feelings (Scherer, 2005)
|Provides psychological framework, but Scherer did not examine outdoor play.
|-
|Emotion regulation
|Gross's (2015) framework can be applied to emotional situations during outdoor play, including frustration, disagreement and changes to an activity. 
|Helps explain responses, but does not show that outdoor play improves emotion regulation.
|-
|Working memory
|Lee et al. (2025) examined working memory as a statistical mediator between outdoor play and emotional dysregulation.
|Provides direct observational evidence of possible cognitive process but does not establish causation. 
|}
Note. The sources provide different types of evidence, including psychological frameworks, direct outdoor-play research and broader evidence about outdoor play and children's emotional well-being. 

== '''How do social and environmental conditions shape on children's outdoor play experiences?''' ==
[[File:2026-10-03 214531-relationship between child and environment.png|thumb|284x284px|'''Figure 5.''' Children's opportunities for outdoor play can be different according to personal, interacting and environmental factors and the relationship between the child and the environment.

Note. Original conceptual summary is based on Beekhuizen et al. (2025) and Gibson (1979).]]
Outdoor play opportunities depend on social and physical environments. Children may have access to same outdoor space but may not have same opportunities for play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified personal, interacting and environmental factors that could support or restrict inclusive outdoor play. These differences can be considered through [https://w.wiki/VYfL affordance theory], which examines the opportunities for action through the relationship between an individual and the environment (Gibson, 1979). See Figure 5. 


=== Affordance theory and outdoor play environments ===
[https://w.wiki/VYfL Affordance theory] was developed by Gibson (1979) to explain the opportunities for action that an environment  provides in relation to the person using it. In outdoor play, the opportunities provided by a space can depend on its physical features and how a child is able to use those features. Morgenthaler et al. (2024) applied affordance theory to children's outdoor play and examined outdoor play transactions through environmental taxonomy of outdoor play space features. Their review identified 14 categories of spaces and 284 play occupations linked to different environmental features. Morgenthaler et al. (2024) showed that different spaces and objects can afford  different forms of play, which helps explain why same space may provide different opportunities. However this study examined the opportunities for play rather than children's well-being.

Pereira et al. (2024) also examined features of outdoor play spaces in a systematic review of 51 articles representing 45 primary studies. The review examined features such as fixed structures, natural elements, floor markings, loose equipment and available play areas. Some positive effects were reported, but there was substantial heterogeneity between studies. The studies differed in the environmental features examined, outcomes measures, and study methods, which made difficult to draw a clear conclusions about the effect of individual play space features (Pereira et al., 2024).Therefore, the review does not show that one particular environmental feature improves children's [https://w.wiki/AHG6 emotional well-being]. 

'''Table 3'''

''Examples of environmental features and possible affordances'' 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Environmental feature                             
!Possible affordance for play                                                        
|-
|Fixed structures (e.g. climbing frame)
|Physical activity such as climbing, physical play and risk-taking
|-
|Natural elements (e.g. tree, rocks, sand)
|Exploratory play, imaginative play, and sensory experiences
|-
|Floor markings (e.g. painted games)
|Rule based  and structured play
|-
|Loose equipment (e.g. balls, tyre, boxes) 
|Constructive, imaginative play, creative and problem solving play
|-
|Open play area
|Running, group play, and flexible use
|}
Note. This table is an original synthesis based on environmental features described by Pereira et al. (2024) and  affordance framework applied by Morgenthaler et al. (2024).  Environmental features can afford more than one type of play and the opportunities may vary between children. 
=== '''Social relationship and inclusion''' ===
Social relationships can shape whether children are able to join and continue outdoor play (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified making contact and growing up together as interacting factors in inclusive outdoor play. Familiarity with other children could make it easier to approach, communicate and play together, while joining unfamiliar children or existing game could be difficult. [https://w.wiki/WDsJ Affective social competence (ASC)] provides a psychological framework for understanding these social interactions (Halberstadt et al., 2001). The ASC model involves experiencing, sending and receiving affect, together with awareness, identification, working within the social context and regulation. These processes may be relevant when a child tries to enter a peer group, recognise other children's emotions and manage their own response during play.  

Gal-Szabo et al. (2019) used the ASC model as theoretical foundation when examining children's emotional knowledge and social behaviour during preschool free play. The study found that situational understanding of the emotions was negatively related to uninvolved behaviour and was marginally positively related to more social play. However, the study examined preschool free play rather than specific outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) also found that children with disabilities experienced more barriers related to making contact, adapting play and physical play environment. These findings suggest that participation in outdoor play depends on both social interaction and children's ability to respond within the play situation, but they do not establish that social play causes better emotional well-being (Beekhuizen et al., 2025; Gal-Szabo et al., 2019).

=== '''Autonomy, parents and time''' ===
[https://w.wiki/4NyU Autonomy] can shape how children experience outdoor play (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified autonomy as a personal factor in inclusive outdoor play. Some children with disabilities valued opportunities to play outside independently. Veraksa et al. (2025), in a systematic review of non-therapeutic play, identified autonomy as one feature through which play may support emotional regulation and coping. However, the review examined several forms of play and does not show that autonomy during outdoor play specifically improves children's emotional well-being.

Parental support can also make outdoor play possible. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) found that parental involvement could support children's participation when a child needed help to access or participate in outdoor play. Time constraints also affected opportunities for outdoor play. Some children had less time to play outdoors because of parents' work schedules, after school arrangements or longer travel distance between home and school (Beekhuizen et al., 2025).

=== '''Outdoor environments and accessibility''' ===
Outdoor play environments can support or restrict children's participation (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified both physical and social features of outdoor environments as relevant to inclusive play. Children discussed safety, including traffic near playgrounds and disputes with other children. Accessibility was particularly important for children with disabilities because opportunities for inclusive outdoor play could be affected by play environments and physical abilities. Pereira et al. (2024) also showed that heterogeneity between studies limited clear conclusions about the effects of individual outdoor play space features.. 

Gibson et al. (2017) systematically reviewed five studies of loose-parts play (LPP) interventions with primary school aged children. The review found limited quantitative evidence to determine whether loose-parts interventions affected children's cognitive, social or emotional development. Together, these findings show that features of outdoor environments can support or restrict opportunities for play. However, current evidence does not establish that a particular environmental feature improves children's emotional well-being (Beekhuizen et al., 2025; Gibson et al., 2017; Pereira et al., 2024). 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Case study: Part 4 Same play space, different experiences'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|Kim and Leo use the same school playground. Kim already knows many children and easily joins a group activity. Leo uses a mobility device and finds that some areas of the playground are difficult to access. Leo also does not know many children who are already playing. He prefers to play independently when possible. 
|}

The two children have access to the same playground space, but their opportunities to participate are different. Their experiences are shaped by more than the physical space alone. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) also identified making contact, familiarity, autonomy and accessibility as factors that could support or restrict inclusive outdoor play.
Physical accessibility may affect whether a child can use part of playground, while familiarity with other children may affect whether the child can enter social play. Parental support may also help participation in some situations, while the child may still value greater independence
{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;

{Why might two children have different outdoor-play experiences even they use the same playground?.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+A. Physical, social and personal factors can affect how children are able to participate.
-B. Outdoor spaces provide the same opportunities for every child.
-C. Accessibility is the only factor that affects outdoor play..
-D. Children who know other children always have better emotional well-being.


&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}

|}
== '''What does recent research show about outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?''' ==
Recent research does not show a consistent association between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being. The findings are mixed across different emotional outcomes measured, the timing and context of outdoor play, children's behaviours, and the methods used to measure outdoor play. These differences need to be considered when the findings are interpreted.  

=== '''Consistency of recent research findings''' ===
Recent findings are not consistent across all emotional and developmental outcomes. Ferguson et al. (2025) found that more frequent outdoor play was associated with better social-emotional competence, including lower difficulties and greater [[Prosocial Behaviour|prosocial behaviour]]. In contrast, Davenport et al. (2025) found that most associations between outdoor play and the physical, [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive]] and social-emotional developmental indicators examined were not statistically significant. These differences show that positive associations with outdoor play are not found across all developmental outcomes.

Findings can also differ according to the emotional outcome being measured. Poulos et al. (2026) found higher positive affect after outdoor and gymnasium recess than after classroom recess, but no significant differences in negative affect between the three recess settings.  Lee et al. (2025) found that  more afternoon outdoor play was associated with lower emotional dysregulation, while more outdoor play earlier and later in the day was associated with higher emotional dysregulation. These findings suggest that the association can differ according to both the emotional outcome and the timing of outdoor play.

The time period being examined also differs between studies. Dodd et al. (2026) found that more frequent outdoor play during the preschool years was associated with lower odds of belonging to less favourable internalising and externalising symptom trajectory across childhood. This is different from Poulos et al. (2026), who examined children's emotional states immediately after the recess. Therefore, recent research includes both immediate emotional outcomes and longer-term patterns of emotional functioning. 

Associations may vary across children and play contexts. Ferguson et al. (2025) reported differences according to ethnicity and whether outdoor play occurred on school days or weekends. These differences further suggest that findings should not be treated as evidence of one single effect across all children or play contexts.

=== '''Strengths and limitations of current research''' ===
The strength of the evidence also differs according to research design. Dodd et al. (2026) used longitudinal data from 4,151 children and measured outdoor play during the preschool years at approximately 2, 3 and 4 years old, while internalising and externalising symptom trajectories were measured later through to age 8. This strengthens the evidence about temporal ordering because outdoor play was measured before the later emotional outcomes. However, longitudinal evidence does not establish cause and effect, and the study relied on parent-reported measures.

Causal interpretation is also limited in other studies. Lee et al. (2025) used observational data and considered the possibility of reverse causation when interpreting associations between the timing of outdoor play and emotional dysregulation. This means the findings cannot establish whether outdoor play influenced emotional dysregulation or whether children's emotional functioning influenced when they played outdoors.

Measurement of outdoor play is another important consideration. Davenport et al. (2025) used both parent-reported and device-measured outdoor play and examined whether associations were independent of outdoor moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA). This is important because outdoor play and outdoor physical activity are related but should not be treated as interchangeable measures. However, the sample was relatively small (N=107) and most tested associations with developmental outcomes were not statistically significant.

Limitations are also present across the wider outdoor-play literature. De Lannoy et al. (2023) identified 275 Canadian outdoor-play publications and found that cross-sectional designs were the most common. Mental and emotional development had also received less research attention than physical health and development. This suggests that the evidence base for emotional well-being is less developed than some other areas of outdoor-play research.

T'''able 4'''

'''''Comparison of recent research'''''

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Study               
!Research method             
!Research strength                      
!Limitation                                                
|-
|  &lt;small&gt;Lee et al. (2025)&lt;/small&gt;                                     
|Observational; 6 month follow-up
|Examined the timing of outdoor play and tested working memory as a statistical mediator of the association with emotional dysregulation.     
|Observational mediation cannot establish causation; the study also considered possible reverse causation when interpreting timing-related findings.
|-
|Ferguson et al. (2025)
|Cross sectional; multi ethnic urban cohort (N=2,568)
|Large sample allowed associations to be examined across population groups and school-day/weekend outdoor play.
|Cross-sectional design cannot establish temporal direction; associations also differed across some groups and play contexts.
|-
|Davenport et al. (2025)
|Observational; preschool sample (N=107)
|Used both parent-reported and device-measured outdoor play and distinguished outdoor play from outdoor moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA)
|Small sample and most tested associations with developmental outcomes were not statistically significant.
|-
|Dodd et al. (2026)
|Longitudinal cohort (N = 4,151)
|Outdoor play was measured in the preschool years before later internalising and externalising symptom trajectories.
|Outdoor play and symptoms relied on parent reported measures, and the observational design does not establish causations.
|-
|Poulos et al. (2026)
|Recess comparison study (N=317)
|Compared children's positive and negative affect following outdoor, gymnasium and classroom recess
|Examined immediate affect during an extreme-heat context; higher positive affect was also found after gymnasium recess, so the result was not specific to outdoor recess.
|}
As shown in Table 4, the recent evidence has different methodological strengths and limitations. Longitudinal designs provide stronger evidence about temporal ordering than cross-sectional studies, while device-based measures can address some limitations of parent report. However, much of the evidence remains observational, and differences in emotional outcomes, measures of outdoor play and play contexts limit the direct comparison between studies. Future research could benefit from more consistent measures of outdoor play, stronger longitudinal and experimental designs and greater attention to emotional outcomes across different children and play contexts. 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;

{Why should the recent findings not be interpreted as showing single consistent effect of outdoor play on children's emotional well-being?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
-A. Because all the studies used different countries.
+B. Because studies differed in emotional outcomes, measures of outdoor play, timing, context and research design.
-C. Because longitudinal studies are always more reliable and accurate.
-D. Because outdoor play only affects positive outcomes.


&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}

|}
== '''How can families, communities and schools support outdoor play opportunities that may benefit children's emotional well-being?''' ==
[[File:Coalition Builds New Playground in One Day for Chicora-Cherokee Community (11054532905).jpg|thumb|325x325px|Figure 6. Families, communities and schools can shape children's opportunities for play.]]
Outdoor play opportunities are shaped by children's social and physical environments. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified parents, outdoor play environments, communities and time constraints as environmental factors in inclusive outdoor play. The study also identified autonomy, growing up together, making contact and adapting ways of playing as factors that affected participation. The 2025 Position Statement on Active Outdoor Play recommends increasing opportunities for active outdoor play where people live, learn, work and play (Lee et al., 2025). It also recommends collaboration across sectors and settings to support equitable access. These influences can operate across family, community and school settings (see Figure 6).

=== '''Families''' ===
Parents can influence whether children have opportunities to play outdoors. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified parents as an environmental factor in inclusive outdoor play. Children with disabilities described parents as important in encouraging participation. For some children, parents also helped to explain their disability to other children (Beekhuizen et al., 2025).  

Broader research also identifies parental factors in children's outdoor play. A systematic review of 21 peer-reviewed studies involving children aged 0 to 12 years found that the importance placed on outdoor play was associated with how much time children spent playing outdoors  (Boxberger &amp; Reimers, 2019). Evidence for parental encouragement and support was less consistent across children (Boxberger &amp; Reimers, 2019). Therefore, parents' attitudes towards outdoor play may shape children's opportunities beyond direct encouragement. However, the review identified some associations but does not show that parental attitudes caused greater outdoor play. 

Parental support  can also involve allowing children to have some independence during outdoor play. Support can make participation possible, but it does not always require direct parental involvement (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Research on independent mobility also shows that children and parents may differ in how much independence they prefer (Han et al., 2022). This suggests that parental support and autonomy do not always involve the same level of involvement. Some children may need support to access or join outdoor play while also wanting greater independence. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) also recommended providing children and parents with knowledge about disabilities and possible adaptations that could support participation. 

Time constraints can also limit family-level opportunities for outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) reported that some children had less time to play outdoors because of parents' work schedules, after-school arrangements and longer travel between home and school.

=== '''Communities''' ===
Community conditions can affect whether children have safe and inclusive opportunities for outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) described physical and social safety as important for inclusive outdoor play. Some playground structures also made participation difficult for children with disabilities. A systematic review of 25 studies found that both physical and social neighbourhood factors were associated with children's outdoor play (Visser &amp; van Aalst, 2022). Social factors included perceived safety, social cohesion and the presence of other children. However, the studies did not identify one neighbourhood feature that consistently explained children's outdoor play across all settings.

The social environment may also affect whether children can join others. Children with disabilities described smaller communities, including villages and schools, as places where children and parents could become more familiar with disability. Greater familiarity was associated with greater acceptance and stronger connections with other children (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Observational research also shows that physical access alone does not explain inclusive outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2026) observed 63 children with and without disabilities during six inclusive outdoor-play sessions and found children with disabilities had lower playfulness scores than children without disabilities. Unfamiliarity could also restrict social inclusion because children preferred to play with peers they already knew. 

The 2025 Position Statement on Active Outdoor Play recommends collaboration across sectors and settings to support equitable access to active outdoor play (Lee et al., 2025). The reviewed findings  show why both physical and social conditions matter. Children need places that can be accessed, but familiarity, safety and opportunities to join others can also affect participation. However, the evidence does not show that one community feature alone will increase outdoor play or improve emotional well-being.

=== '''Schools''' ===
Schools can provide opportunities for children with and without disabilities to become more familiar with one another. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified growing up together and making contact as interacting factors in inclusive outdoor play. Children described familiarity with other children as making contact easier. School circumstances can also affect the time available for outdoor play. Some children attending special primary education described long travel times between school and home as reducing their opportunities to play outdoors.

The physical school environment can also be changed to support outdoor activity and socio-emotional outcomes. Bikomeye et al. (2021) systematically reviewed six experimental studies of schoolyard greening. The interventions involved adding greenery and natural elements to schoolyards. Across the included studies, the review reported generally positive findings for physical activity and socio-emotional health. However, the review included only six studies. Schoolyard greening is also a specific intervention and should not be treated as evidence that all forms of outdoor play improve children's emotional well-being. 

Recess provides another school setting in which children's emotional experiences have been examined directly. Poulos et al. (2026) studied 317 Year 4 and 5 children during extreme heat. Positive affect was higher after outdoor and gymnasium recess than after classroom recess. There were no significant differences in negative affect between the three settings. The study discussed heat-adaptive infrastructure as one way to support access to recess environments during extreme heat. However, the findings do not show that outdoor recess is always better than indoor recess because positive affect was also higher after gymnasium recess. 

{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Quiz}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;

{Which statement best reflects how families, communities and schools can support children's outdoor play opportunities?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}

+ Support can involve accessible environments, safety, familiarity, appropriate parental support and opportunities for children to participate with some independence.
- Providing the same outdoor space gives every child the same opportunity to participate.
-Schoolyard greening alone is enough to improve children's emotional well-being.
-Outdoor recess always produces better emotional outcomes than indoor recess.

&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}
== '''Conclusion''' ==
Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being are not represented by single, consistent concepts across recent research. Outdoor play should be distinguished from outdoor physical activity, while emotional well-being has been examined through emotional dysregulation, social-emotional competence, positive and negative affect, and internalising and externalising symptoms. These differences are important because findings across studies do not represent the same emotional outcomes or timeframes. 

Outdoor play may be related to children's emotional well-being through several psychological processes, but the strength of evidence differs across them. Gross's (2015) emotion regulation framework helps explain how children may respond to emotional situations during play, while working memory provides more direct evidence of a possible cognitive process in the association between afternoon outdoor play and lower emotional dysregulation (Lee et al., 2025). However, these findings do not establish that outdoor play causes better emotion regulation or emotional well-being. Recent research also does not show one consistent effect across all children, outcomes or play contexts. Differences in research design, measurement, timing and context therefore need to be considered when interpreting the evidence. 

Children's opportunities for outdoor play are also shaped by their social and physical environments. Accessibility, familiarity, autonomy, parental support, safety and opportunities to join other children can influence whether the same outdoor space provides the same opportunity to participate. Families, communities and schools can therefore support outdoor play by considering both access to outdoor spaces and the conditions that allow children to participate in ways that suit their needs and circumstances. The relation between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being varies depending on how outdoor play is measured, timing, context and children's opportunities to participate.

==See also==
* [[wikipedia:Affordance|Affordance]] (Wikipedia)
* [[wikipedia:Autonomy|Autonomy]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Cognitive psychology]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Emotion regulation in children|Emotion regulation in children]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Emotional regulation]] (Wikipedia)

* [[wikipedia:Emotional dysregulation|Emotional dysregulation]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Imaginative play and emotion regulation|Imaginative play and emotion regulation]] (Wikiversity)
* [[wikipedia:Working memory|Working memory]] (Wikipedia)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Beekhuizen, R. Q., Bloemen, M. A. T., Bolster, E. A. M., Visser, K., Lugt, R., Bassa, M., Henry, N. L., Kotte, E. M. W., Hartingsveldt, M., &amp; Gorter, J. W. (2026). Can You See Us Play? Observing Inclusive Outdoor Play Behaviour Among Children With and Without Disabilities: A Mixed Methods Study. Child : Care, Health &amp; Development, 52(1), e70198-n/a. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70198

Beekhuizen, R. Q., Bolster, E. A. M., Gorter, J. W., Henry, N. L., Visser, K., Wittink, H., Kotte, E. M. W., Sol, M. E., &amp; Bloemen, M. A. T. (2025). Play Together? Unveiling Facilitators and Barriers to Inclusive Outdoor Play for Dutch Children With and Without Disabilities: A Qualitative Study. Child: Care, Health &amp; Development, 51(6), Article e70154. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70154

Biino, V., Pesce, C., &amp; Martins, C. (2025). Motor Skill Development at Preschool Age in Girls and Boys: The Role of Outdoor Free Play. Children, 12(5), Article 594. https://doi.org/10.3390/children12050594

Bikomeye, J., Balza, J., &amp; Beyer, K. (2021). The Impact of Schoolyard Greening on Children’s Physical Activity and Socioemotional Health: A Systematic Review of Experimental Studies. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(2), 535. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18020535

Boxberger, K., &amp; Reimers, A. K. (2019). Parental correlates of outdoor play in boys and girls aged 0 to 12: A systematic review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(2, Art. 190), 19-16:2, Art. 190&lt;19. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16020190

Davenport, C., Kuzik, N., Larouche, R., &amp; Carson, V. (2025). The Associations Between Parental-Reported and Device-Based Measured Outdoor Play and Health Indicators of Physical, Cognitive, and Social–Emotional Development in Preschool-Aged Children. Pediatric Exercise Science, 37(2), 102–111. https://doi.org/10.1123/pes.2023-0119

de Lannoy, L., Barbeau, K., Seguin, N., &amp; Tremblay, M. S. (2023). Scoping review of children’s and youth’s outdoor play publications in Canada. Chronic Diseases in Canada, 43(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.24095/hpcdp.43.1.01

Dodd, H. F., Cordwell, K., Hesketh, K., Johnstone, A., de la Torre-Luque, A., &amp; McCrorie, P. (2026). Early outdoor play predicts trajectories of child mental health in a population-based cohort. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.70175

Ferguson, M., Teyhan, A., Lovell, R., Dodd, H., Wheeler, B., &amp; McEachan, R. (2025). The association between park visits, outdoor play and child social-emotional competency in a multi-ethnic, urban cohort. Wellbeing, Space and Society, 9, Article 100293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wss.2025.100293

Gal‐Szabo, D. E., Spinrad, T. L., Eisenberg, N., &amp; Sulik, M. J. (2019). The relations of children’s emotion knowledge to their observed social play and reticent/uninvolved behavior in preschool: Moderation by effortful control. Social Development (Oxford, England), 28(1), 57–73. https://doi.org/10.1111/sode.12321

Gibson, J. J. (1979). The ecological approach to visual perception / James J. Gibson. Houghton Mifflin.

Gibson, J.L., Cornell, M. &amp; Gill, T. A Systematic Review of Research into the Impact of Loose Parts Play on Children’s Cognitive, Social and Emotional Development. School Mental Health 9, 295–309 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-017-9220-9

Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion Regulation: Current Status and Future Prospects. Psychological Inquiry, 26(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2014.940781

Halberstadt, A. G., Denham, S. A., &amp; Dunsmore, J. C. (2001). Affective Social Competence. Social Development (Oxford, England), 10(1), 79–119. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9507.00150

Han, C. S., Brussoni, M. J., &amp; Mâsse, L. C. (2022). Parental Autonomy Support in the Context of Parent–Child Negotiation for Children’s Independent Mobility: ‘I Always Feel Safer With My Parents’ to ‘Boom! Bust Down Those Walls! The Journal of Early Adolescence, 42(6), Article 02724316211064513. https://doi.org/10.1177/02724316211064513

Johnstone, A., Martin, A., Cordovil, R., Fjørtoft, I., Iivonen, S., Jidovtseff, B., Lopes, F., Reilly, J. J., Thomson, H., Wells, V., &amp; McCrorie, P. (2022). Nature-Based Early Childhood Education and Children’s Social, Emotional and Cognitive Development: A Mixed-Methods Systematic Review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(10), 5967. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19105967

Lee, E.-Y., de Lannoy, L., Kim, Y.-B., Rathod, A., James, M. E., Lopes, O., Nasrallah, B., Thankarajah, A., Adjei-Boadi, D., de Barros, M. I. A., Duncan, S., Miller, R. M., Mygind, L., Vanderloo, L. M., Wang, P.-Y., &amp; Tremblay, M. S. (2025). 2025 Position statement on active outdoor play. The International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 22(1), Article 117. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-025-01813-9

Lee, J. J., Flouri, E., &amp; Jackson, Y. (2025). The Role of Timing and Amount of Outdoor Play in Emotional Dysregulation in Preschool Children. Child: Care, Health &amp; Development, 51(1), Article e70020. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70020

Morgenthaler, T., Lynch, H., Loebach, J., Pentland, D., &amp; Schulze, C. (2024). Using the Theory of Affordances to Understand Environment–Play Transactions: Environmental Taxonomy of Outdoor Play Space Features—A Scoping Review. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 78(4), Article 7804185120. https://doi.org/10.5014/ajot.2024.050606

Pereira, J. V., Vila-Nova, F., Veiga, G., Lopes, F., &amp; Cordovil, R. (2024). Associations between outdoor play features and children’s behavior and health: A systematic review. Health &amp; Place, 87, Article 103235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2024.103235

Poulos, A., Hassan, U. A., Wilson, K., Price, P. M., Vanos, J., &amp; Quilla, J. (2026). Differences in Schoolchildren’s Emotional State After Indoor Versus Outdoor Recess in Extreme‐Heat Weather. The Journal of School Health, 96(4), Article e70135. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.70135

Scherer, K. R. (2005). What are emotions? And how can they be measured? Social Science Information, 44(4), 695–729. https://doi.org/10.1177/0539018405058216

Veraksa, A. N., Plotnikova, V. A., Sukhikh, V. L., Kornienko, D. S., &amp; Rudnova, N. A. (2025). Non-therapeutic play to overcome negative emotional symptoms and improve emotional intelligence in children aged 3–7: a systematic review. Frontiers in Psychology, 16, 1475387. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1475387

Visser, K., &amp; Aalst, I. (2022). Neighbourhood Factors in Children’s Outdoor Play: A Systematic Literature Review. Tijdschrift Voor Economische En Sociale Geografie, 113(1), 80–95. https://doi.org/10.1111/tesg.12505

}}

==External links==
* [https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-play [https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-pla]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-play y]] (Encyclopedia in Early Childhood Development)
* [[https://www.outdoorplaycanada.ca/2026/06/02/sprout-able-resources-videos-and-tip-sheets-to-support-children-with-disabilities-in-outdoor-play/ https://www.outdoorplaycanada.ca/2026/06/02/sp]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[https://www.outdoorplaycanada.ca/2026/06/02/sprout-able-resources-videos-and-tip-sheets-to-support-children-with-disabilities-in-outdoor-play/ rout-able-resources-videos-and-tip-sheets-to-support-children-with-disabilities-in-outdoor-play/]/ SPROUT-able Resources: Videos and Tip Sheets to Support Children with Disabilities in Outdoor Play] (Outdoor Play Canada)

* https://www.who.int/news/item/24-04-2019-to-grow-up-healthy-children-need-to-sit-less-and-play-more&lt;nowiki/&gt; To grow up healthy, children need to sit less and play more] (World Health Organisation)

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
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[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Well-being]]</text>
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    <title>Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Volunteer wellbeing</title>
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      <text bytes="20888" sha1="84u9xkyehanryxiz8gw7p48shx21v5e" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Volunteer wellbeing:&lt;br&gt;How does volunteering affect volunteers' subjective wellbeing?}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}

[[File:Youth-soccer-indiana.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. Parent volunteering is common in youth sports.]]

;Scenario

Claire and Trevor both spend their Saturday mornings volunteering at their local soccer club. Claire looks forward to volunteering, loves helping kids learn new skills and has formed close friendships with other volunteers. Trevor enjoyed the role initially but now feels pressured to attend, is upset about the recognition he receives, feels that his contribution is not recognised and struggles to balance volunteering with other commitments. 

Even though they spend the same amount of time volunteering, Claire leaves feeling energised and fulfilled while Trevor feels burnt out, exhausted and resentful. 

Why might similar activities, conditions, activities and responsibilities have such different effects on their wellbeing? 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

[[wikipedia:Volunteering|Volunteering]] is an important part of many community organisations and essential services, but most of the focus is placed on how volunteering helps others not on the wellbeing of the volunteers who make their missions possible. 

Volunteering is linked with positive experiences including social connection, purpose and growth. However these benefits are not guaranteed, and they do not affect everyone in the same way. Volunteers also experience stress and exhaustion. Over time, these challenges can have an effect on their wellbeing and result in them stepping away from volunteering altogether. Understanding volunteer wellbeing is not only important for the volunteers themselves, but also for the [https://www.acnc.gov.au/media/news/new-report-highlights-essential-role-volunteer-run-charities-australia organisations that rely on their continued participation to function] {{ic|Move external links into either References or External links}}.  

Psychological science helps us to understand why volunteering holds deep rewards for some and is an unsustainable commitment for others. Research on wellbeing can provide insights on how people feel and evaluate their lives, it can also tell us how volunteering contributes to a person's sense of meaning, purpose and growth. Motivational frameworks and theories, like self-determination theory (SDT) can explain how the quality of someone's motivation, their individual psychological needs and the environment that they volunteer in can shape an individual's experiences. 

Viewing volunteering through the lens of psychological science can give us a clearer picture of when volunteering can support wellbeing, and when and why it can become too psychologically demanding for some. 

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Focus questions

{{ic|Use bullet-points as shown in Tutorial 2}}

1. How does volunteering affect subjective wellbeing? &lt;br&gt;
2. Why can volunteering influence subjective wellbeing?&lt;br&gt; 
3. When does volunteering enhance or undermine wellbeing? 

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Understanding Wellbeing ==

* What does subjective wellbeing mean?

Wellbeing is an extremely broad subject that describes how people feel about their lives, whether they feel like their lives are meaningful and how satisfied they are. In the field of psychological research [[wikipedia:Subjective_well-being|subjective wellbeing]] (SWB) refers to how people evaluate and experience their lives (Diener, 1984). It is understood through three main categories: 

# Life satisfaction - Whether a person views their life positively overall
# Positive Affect - How frequently a person experiences positive moods and feelings 
# Negative Affect - The frequency or intensity of unpleasent moods and emotions 

These three categories are useful when attempting to distinguish whether a volunteering experience may improve some parts of a person's wellbeing and/or detract from others. 
* Hedonic versus eudaimonic wellbeing 
Wellbeing is also understood through both hedonic and eudaimonic viewpoints. Hedonic wellbeing is best understood as being focused on happiness, pleasureable experiences and positive emotions while avoiding discomfort and pain, whereas eudaimonic wellbeing is concerned with the pursuit of self-realisation, meaning and purpose (Ryan &amp; Deci, 2001). 

These two concepts are key to understanding the experiences of a volunteer. A volunteer may not always receive short term happiness or avoid stress in their role, but they may receive satisfaction if they feel like their contribution is meaningful, they have developed themselves or are working towards something of long-term value. Viewing volunteering through both of these lenses provides a broader understanding of volunteerings relationship to wellbeing. 
* Why are both perspectives relevant when considering volunteers?

The distinction between the concepts of hedonic and eudaimonic wellbeing are particularly relevant because studies have found that volunteering does not influence all forms of wellbeing in the same way. A study by Son and Wilson (2012) found that volunteering did not predict hedonic wellbeing but did predict later eudaimonic wellbeing. This study also suggests that this relationship works in both ways, with those that reported higher wellbeing being more likely to volunteer. 

==How Volunteering Affects Wellbeing ==

* Volunteering is broadly associated with better wellbeing 

Nichol et al. (2023) conducted a review of multiple systematic reviews and discovered links between volunteering and benefits across physical, mental and social wellbeing

* Different aspects of wellbeing respond differently to volunteering 

Longitudinal studies link volunteering with feelings of a greater purpose in life, social connection, increases in positive affect (Kim et al., 2020). However they also found that the act of volunteering was not tied to improvements in life satisfaction or negative affect, suggesting that volunteering can support some aspects of wellbeing without improving all of them.   

* Volunteering itself can contribute to improved wellbeing 

In a randomised control study in older Australians, Jongenelis et al. (2021) found that people who commenced volunteering had improved life satisfaction, purpose and personal growth compared to their peers that did not.    

==Why Volunteering can Improve Wellbeing==
[[File:SelfDeterminationTheory.svg|thumb|303x303px|'''Figure 2'''. a diagram depicting the elements of self determination theory]]The above research proposes that volunteering can support aspects of wellbeing, but these benefits are not simply due to a person surrendering their time to an organisation. 

[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Volunteer motivation|So why do people volunteer?]]  

Volunteering allows people the opportunity to build meaningful relationships, feel capable and contribute to something meaningful. This is directly relevant to the satisfaction of basic psychological needs and the experiences of purpose, growth and [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2017/Meaning and happiness|meaning]]. 

=== Self-Determination and Psychological Needs ===
Volunteering creates the opportunities for a person to satisfy their basic needs of autonomy, relatedness and competence. Self-determination theory (SDT) explains that the satisfaction of these needs is what leads to wellbeing and motivation (Deci &amp; Ryan, 1985).

The basic needs of SDT are summarised in Figure 2. 

Within volunteer environments these needs may be satisfied by: 

* The ability to choose meaningful work 
* applying and developing skills 
* forming close connections and sharing values with others

This requirement for satisfaction is clear within empirical research on volunteering. a study conducted by Lubics et al. (2026) found that the fulfilment of autonomy, relatedness and competence was associated with greater wellbeing in volunteers, inversly it also found that the frustration of these needs was associated with poorer outcomes and wellbeing in the tested population. 

'''''AUTHORS NOTE''''' - Expand the above to explain the benefits of volunteering through SDT's needs framework 

=== Meaning, Purpose and Growth ===

* Reassert the details surrounding Hedonic and Eudaimonic wellbeing - focusing on eudaimonic wellbeing as an indicator for wellbeing in volunteers.

Eudaimonic wellbeing is the experience of living well and meaningfully, rather than only pursuing short term pleasure or happiness. from the eudaimonic perspective volunteering is particularly well placed to provide this experience.

* Explain volunteering allows the opportunities for meaning and growth

Volunteering can provide a role in community, allow someone the opportunity to directly impact others, give a deep sense of purpose and provide the opportunity for someone to develop new skills. This experience may motivate someone to continue volunteering, even if their role is demanding or does not provide them with short-term hedonic wellbeing. 

* link to a study showing the application of meaning purpose and growth

We also know that people benefit the most from volunteering when the role is important to them, and they feel that they are genuinely involved in what they are doing (Meneghini &amp; Colledani, 2022).

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Stop sign us.jpg|right|360px|alt=A standard red octagonal stop sign]]

'''Reflection Stop!''' 

Using the previous example of Claire and Trevor consider the following questions: 

1. What basic psychological needs under SDT appear to be supported for Claire?&lt;br&gt;
2. Which basic needs do not appear to be met for Trevor?&lt;br&gt; 
3. Who appears to be experiencing more motivated or autonomous control? Why?&lt;br&gt; 
4. How might their different experiences affect their subjective wellbeing?  

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

'''''AUTHORS NOTE''' -'' The above will be expanded to discuss how volunteering supports eudaimonic wellbeing in participants, particularly contributing to something beyond oneself.

== When volunteering helps, and when it does not ==
The benefits of volunteering are not guaranteed. Someones experience of the same roles and activities can vary widely depending on why they are volunteering, the demands that they face and the environment they are in. 

These positions provide meaning connection and growth, but these benefits can be totally redundant when participation feels unsustainable or poorly supported. 

Understanding the differences in experience and motivation helps to explain why volunteering is a net positive for some and entirely untenable for others.

=== Autonomous and Controlled Motivation ===
The quality of an individuals motivation is a key concept in SDT. SDT distinguishes between two different forms of motivation
# Autonomous motivation - Where behaviour is driven or acted on because an activity is personally meaningful or enjoyable
# Controlled motivation - Where behaviour is driven or acted on through obligation, external expectations, pressure or guilt

seperating these two forms of motivation may be key when assessing a volunteers wellbeing. is a person volunteering because they genuinely enjoy it? Or are they feeling psychologically pressured to continue? 

Wu and Li (2018) explored this in their study on motivation with 2022 volunteers. This research found that volunteers with higher autonomous motivation was associated with higher levels of life satisfaction and lower rates of emotional exhaustion in the cohort. It also showed that those volunteering because of controlled motivation experienced the opposite. 

do people volunteer because they enjoy their role? or do they volunteer because other people depend on them, they are experiencing feelings of guilt, or outside expectations keep them coming back?  

'''''AUTHORS NOTE''''' - The above will explain how autonomous and controlled motivation could lead to different experiences for volunteers conducting the same activity 

=== The Volunteering Environment: Support, Stress and Burnout ===

* Volunteering can become overwhelming when its responsibilities compete with the other areas of a persons life 

Outside time commitments, family responsibilities, employment and study obligations can make it difficult for anyone to balance a volunteering role within their lives. 

studies have found that interference between a persons home life and volunteering were associated with a volunteers intention to leave their position (Magrone et al., 2024). This study also discusses that recognition and support from organisations could alleviate some of these effects. 

Another study from the same journal explored burnout in volunteers in rural Australia. Holmes et al. (2026) highlight that high workloads, shortages of volunteers, bureaucracy, limited funding and time commitments contributed to burnout in rural volunteers. 

* The environment of a volunteer organisation influences how these demands are experienced 

Volunteer organisations have the ability to influence the amount of pressure experienced by their volunteers. simple things like the recognition of effort, realistic expectations, flexibility with peoples lives and appropriate resource management can help volunteers to manage demanding roles. Unfortunately, poor support mechanisms and unrealistic expectations can undermind the benefits that make volunteering rewarding.

some volunteering environments are also in highstress and potentially harmful environments - [https://www.lifeline.org.au/ Lifeline]

Environments that provide the key elements of SDT are less likely to experience the above 

the study from Magrone et al. (2024) also found that organisational support and appreciation can reduce the negative effects of the impact the volunteering has on their home lives. this demonstrates that stress experienced by volunteers is often systemic within an organisational structure. 

* if demands are high and support is limited, stress and burnout undermine wellbeing 

High pressure contributes to the emotional tolls and reduces the positive experience of wellbeing in volunteers. Holmes et al. (2026) who reviewed burnout in australian volunteers, explored that the pressures associated with volunteering can reduce the positive wellbeing outcomes that volunteering can provide. 

this evidence suggests that the environment someone volunteers in can shape whether they experience a positive effect on their wellbeing. supportive environments may help wellbeing, while high stress environments can contribute to exhaustion and poor wellbeing    

;Knowledge check

&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Which response from the sporting club would be most likely to support Trevor's wellbeing? }
- Increase his responsibilities so he feels more important in the club .
+ Discuss his workload with him, provide greater flexibility, clarify expectations, and recognise his contribution .
- Reduce communication with him so that he can manage his role independently .
- Remind him that other volunteers depend on him and that leaving would create extra work .

{Which of Trevor's psychological needs is most likely to be undermined if he feels pressured to volunteering even if he no longer wants to?.}
- Competence.
- Relatedness.
- Personal Growth.
+ Autonomy.
&lt;/quiz&gt;

'''''AUTHORS NOTE'' -''' Expand the above to explain that volunteering can become psychologically demanding when factors combine. also explain how demands and organisational support can increase or undermind a volunteers wellbeing.  

==Conclusion==

* Volunteering can support people's subjective wellbeing, but its effects are not uniform
* psychology helps us to explain how and why volunteering can improve wellbeing 
* the benefits of volunteering depend on an individuals experience in the role 
* volunteerings effects are a complex interaction between the volunteer, their individual motivations and the environments they are volunteering in. 

Take home message 

Volunteering can be a strong source of wellbeing for people that feel they have choice in their role, find their contribution meaningful, feel supported and have a sustainable amount of responsibility. When these factors are missing, volunteering can become a source of stress and poor wellbeing. 

* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Functional approach to volunteerism|Functional approach to volunteerism]] - How does the functional approach explain volunteer motivation and how can it be applied? (Book chapter, 2024) 
* [[wikipedia:Subjective_well-being|Subjective well-being]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Subjective well-being|Subjective well-being]] (Book chapter, 2020) 
* [[wikipedia:Hedonic_motivation|Hedonic motivation]] (Wikipedia) 
* [[wikipedia:Eudaimonia|Eduaimonia]] (Wikipedia) 
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Deci, E. L., &amp; Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. ''Contemporary Sociology'', ''17''(2).

Diener, E. (1984). Subjective well-being. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''95''(3), 542–575. 
https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.95.3.542

Holmes, K., Lockstone-Binney, L., Davies, A., O’Halloran, M., &amp; Janowski, I. (2026). Managing burnout among rural volunteers in Australia. ''International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations'', 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0957876526000161

Jongenelis, M. I., Jackson, B., Newton, R. U., &amp; Pettigrew, S. (2021). Longitudinal associations between formal volunteering and well-being among retired older people: Follow-up results from a randomized controlled trial. Aging &amp; Mental Health, 26(2), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2021.1884845

Kim, E. S., Whillans, A. V., Lee, M. T., Chen, Y., &amp; VanderWeele, T. J. (2020). Volunteering and subsequent health and well-being in older adults: An outcome-wide longitudinal approach. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 59(2), 176–186. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2020.03.004

Lubics, O., Magyaródi, T., &amp; Nagy, H. (2026). Basic psychological needs and beneficence in the volunteer experience: Exploring satisfaction, frustration, and their links to well-being and ill-being. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly. https://doi.org/10.1177/08997640261453280

Magrone, M., Montani, F., Emili, S., Bakker, A. B., &amp; Sommovigo, V. (2024). A new look at job demands, resources, and volunteers’ intentions to leave: The role of work–home interference and burnout. VOLUNTAS International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11266-024-00679-y

Meneghini, A. M., &amp; Colledani, D. (2022). “Doing well by doing good”: When and how volunteering fosters hedonic and eudaimonic well-being. The Humanistic Psychologist. https://doi.org/10.1037/hum0000303

Nichol, B., Wilson, R., Rodrigues, A., &amp; Haighton, C. (2023). Exploring the effects of volunteering on the social, mental, and physical health and well-being of volunteers: An umbrella review. VOLUNTAS: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations, 35(1). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11266-023-00573-z

Ryan, R., &amp; Deci, E. (2001). On happiness and human potentials: A review of research on hedonic and eudaimonic well-being. Annual Review of Psychology, 52(1), 141–166. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.141

Son, J., &amp; Wilson, J. (2012). Volunteer work and hedonic, eudemonic, and social well-being. Sociological Forum, 27(3), 658–681. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1573-7861.2012.01340.x

Wu, Y., &amp; Li, C. (2018). Helping others helps? A self-determination theory approach on work climate and wellbeing among volunteers. Applied Research in Quality of Life, 14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-018-9642-z

}}

==External links==
[[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

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[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Volunteering]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Well-being]]</text>
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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}

[[File:Youth-soccer-indiana.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. Parent volunteering is common in youth sports.]]

;Scenario

Claire and Trevor both spend their Saturday mornings volunteering at their local soccer club. Claire looks forward to volunteering, loves helping kids learn new skills and has formed close friendships with other volunteers. Trevor enjoyed the role initially but now feels pressured to attend, is upset about the recognition he receives, feels that his contribution is not recognised and struggles to balance volunteering with other commitments. 

Even though they spend the same amount of time volunteering, Claire leaves feeling energised and fulfilled while Trevor feels burnt out, exhausted and resentful. 

Why might similar activities, conditions, activities and responsibilities have such different effects on their wellbeing? 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

[[wikipedia:Volunteering|Volunteering]] is an important part of many community organisations and essential services, Community sport provides one example of the contribution that many people make (see Figure 1.). However much of the focus placed on volunteering in organisations is about how it helps others, not on the wellbeing of the volunteers who make their missions possible.. 

Volunteering is linked with positive experiences including social connection, purpose and growth. However these benefits are not guaranteed, and they do not affect everyone in the same way. Volunteers also experience stress and exhaustion. Over time, these challenges can have an effect on their wellbeing and result in them stepping away from volunteering altogether. Understanding volunteer wellbeing is not only important for the volunteers themselves, but also for the [https://www.acnc.gov.au/media/news/new-report-highlights-essential-role-volunteer-run-charities-australia organisations that rely on their continued participation to function] {{ic|Move external links into either References or External links}}.  

Psychological science helps us to understand why volunteering holds deep rewards for some and is an unsustainable commitment for others. Research on wellbeing can provide insights on how people feel and evaluate their lives, it can also tell us how volunteering contributes to a person's sense of meaning, purpose and growth. Motivational frameworks and theories, like self-determination theory (SDT) can explain how the quality of someone's motivation, their individual psychological needs and the environment that they volunteer in can shape an individual's experiences. 

Viewing volunteering through the lens of psychological science can give us a clearer picture of when volunteering can support wellbeing, and when and why it can become too psychologically demanding for some. 

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Focus questions

{{ic|Use bullet-points as shown in Tutorial 2}}

1. How does volunteering affect subjective wellbeing? &lt;br&gt;
2. Why can volunteering influence subjective wellbeing?&lt;br&gt; 
3. When does volunteering enhance or undermine wellbeing? 

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Understanding Wellbeing ==

* What does subjective wellbeing mean?

Wellbeing is an extremely broad subject that describes how people feel about their lives, whether they feel like their lives are meaningful and how satisfied they are. In the field of psychological research [[wikipedia:Subjective_well-being|subjective wellbeing]] (SWB) refers to how people evaluate and experience their lives (Diener, 1984). It is understood through three main categories: 

# Life satisfaction - Whether a person views their life positively overall
# Positive Affect - How frequently a person experiences positive moods and feelings 
# Negative Affect - The frequency or intensity of unpleasent moods and emotions 

These three categories are useful when attempting to distinguish whether a volunteering experience may improve some parts of a person's wellbeing and/or detract from others. 
* Hedonic versus eudaimonic wellbeing 
Wellbeing is also understood through both hedonic and eudaimonic viewpoints. Hedonic wellbeing is best understood as being focused on happiness, pleasureable experiences and positive emotions while avoiding discomfort and pain, whereas eudaimonic wellbeing is concerned with the pursuit of self-realisation, meaning and purpose (Ryan &amp; Deci, 2001). 

These two concepts are key to understanding the experiences of a volunteer. A volunteer may not always receive short term happiness or avoid stress in their role, but they may receive satisfaction if they feel like their contribution is meaningful, they have developed themselves or are working towards something of long-term value. Viewing volunteering through both of these lenses provides a broader understanding of volunteerings relationship to wellbeing. 
* Why are both perspectives relevant when considering volunteers?

The distinction between the concepts of hedonic and eudaimonic wellbeing are particularly relevant because studies have found that volunteering does not influence all forms of wellbeing in the same way. A study by Son and Wilson (2012) found that volunteering did not predict hedonic wellbeing but did predict later eudaimonic wellbeing. This study also suggests that this relationship works in both ways, with those that reported higher wellbeing being more likely to volunteer. 

==How Volunteering Affects Wellbeing ==

* Volunteering is broadly associated with better wellbeing 

Nichol et al. (2023) conducted a review of multiple systematic reviews and discovered links between volunteering and benefits across physical, mental and social wellbeing

* Different aspects of wellbeing respond differently to volunteering 

Longitudinal studies link volunteering with feelings of a greater purpose in life, social connection, increases in positive affect (Kim et al., 2020). However they also found that the act of volunteering was not tied to improvements in life satisfaction or negative affect, suggesting that volunteering can support some aspects of wellbeing without improving all of them.   

* Volunteering itself can contribute to improved wellbeing 

In a randomised control study in older Australians, Jongenelis et al. (2021) found that people who commenced volunteering had improved life satisfaction, purpose and personal growth compared to their peers that did not.    

==Why Volunteering can Improve Wellbeing==
[[File:SelfDeterminationTheory.svg|thumb|303x303px|'''Figure 2'''. a diagram depicting the elements of self determination theory]]The above research proposes that volunteering can support aspects of wellbeing, but these benefits are not simply due to a person surrendering their time to an organisation. 

[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Volunteer motivation|So why do people volunteer?]]  

Volunteering allows people the opportunity to build meaningful relationships, feel capable and contribute to something meaningful. This is directly relevant to the satisfaction of basic psychological needs and the experiences of purpose, growth and [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2017/Meaning and happiness|meaning]]. 

=== Self-Determination and Psychological Needs ===
Volunteering creates the opportunities for a person to satisfy their basic needs of autonomy, relatedness and competence. Self-determination theory (SDT) explains that the satisfaction of these needs is what leads to wellbeing and motivation (Deci &amp; Ryan, 1985).

The basic needs of SDT are summarised in Figure 2. 

Within volunteer environments these needs may be satisfied by: 

* The ability to choose meaningful work 
* applying and developing skills 
* forming close connections and sharing values with others

This requirement for satisfaction is clear within empirical research on volunteering. a study conducted by Lubics et al. (2026) found that the fulfilment of autonomy, relatedness and competence was associated with greater wellbeing in volunteers, inversly it also found that the frustration of these needs was associated with poorer outcomes and wellbeing in the tested population. 

'''''AUTHORS NOTE''''' - Expand the above to explain the benefits of volunteering through SDT's needs framework 

=== Meaning, Purpose and Growth ===

* Reassert the details surrounding Hedonic and Eudaimonic wellbeing - focusing on eudaimonic wellbeing as an indicator for wellbeing in volunteers.

Eudaimonic wellbeing is the experience of living well and meaningfully, rather than only pursuing short term pleasure or happiness. from the eudaimonic perspective volunteering is particularly well placed to provide this experience.

* Explain volunteering allows the opportunities for meaning and growth

Volunteering can provide a role in community, allow someone the opportunity to directly impact others, give a deep sense of purpose and provide the opportunity for someone to develop new skills. This experience may motivate someone to continue volunteering, even if their role is demanding or does not provide them with short-term hedonic wellbeing. 

* link to a study showing the application of meaning purpose and growth

We also know that people benefit the most from volunteering when the role is important to them, and they feel that they are genuinely involved in what they are doing (Meneghini &amp; Colledani, 2022).

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Stop sign us.jpg|right|360px|alt=A standard red octagonal stop sign]]

'''Reflection Stop!''' 

Using the previous example of Claire and Trevor consider the following questions: 

1. What basic psychological needs under SDT appear to be supported for Claire?&lt;br&gt;
2. Which basic needs do not appear to be met for Trevor?&lt;br&gt; 
3. Who appears to be experiencing more motivated or autonomous control? Why?&lt;br&gt; 
4. How might their different experiences affect their subjective wellbeing?  

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

'''''AUTHORS NOTE''' -'' The above will be expanded to discuss how volunteering supports eudaimonic wellbeing in participants, particularly contributing to something beyond oneself.

== When volunteering helps, and when it does not ==
The benefits of volunteering are not guaranteed. Someones experience of the same roles and activities can vary widely depending on why they are volunteering, the demands that they face and the environment they are in. 

These positions provide meaning connection and growth, but these benefits can be totally redundant when participation feels unsustainable or poorly supported. 

Understanding the differences in experience and motivation helps to explain why volunteering is a net positive for some and entirely untenable for others.

=== Autonomous and Controlled Motivation ===
The quality of an individuals motivation is a key concept in SDT. SDT distinguishes between two different forms of motivation
# Autonomous motivation - Where behaviour is driven or acted on because an activity is personally meaningful or enjoyable
# Controlled motivation - Where behaviour is driven or acted on through obligation, external expectations, pressure or guilt

seperating these two forms of motivation may be key when assessing a volunteers wellbeing. is a person volunteering because they genuinely enjoy it? Or are they feeling psychologically pressured to continue? 

Wu and Li (2018) explored this in their study on motivation with 2022 volunteers. This research found that volunteers with higher autonomous motivation was associated with higher levels of life satisfaction and lower rates of emotional exhaustion in the cohort. It also showed that those volunteering because of controlled motivation experienced the opposite. 

do people volunteer because they enjoy their role? or do they volunteer because other people depend on them, they are experiencing feelings of guilt, or outside expectations keep them coming back?  

'''''AUTHORS NOTE''''' - The above will explain how autonomous and controlled motivation could lead to different experiences for volunteers conducting the same activity 

=== The Volunteering Environment: Support, Stress and Burnout ===

* Volunteering can become overwhelming when its responsibilities compete with the other areas of a persons life 

Outside time commitments, family responsibilities, employment and study obligations can make it difficult for anyone to balance a volunteering role within their lives. 

studies have found that interference between a persons home life and volunteering were associated with a volunteers intention to leave their position (Magrone et al., 2024). This study also discusses that recognition and support from organisations could alleviate some of these effects. 

Another study from the same journal explored burnout in volunteers in rural Australia. Holmes et al. (2026) highlight that high workloads, shortages of volunteers, bureaucracy, limited funding and time commitments contributed to burnout in rural volunteers. 

* The environment of a volunteer organisation influences how these demands are experienced 

Volunteer organisations have the ability to influence the amount of pressure experienced by their volunteers. simple things like the recognition of effort, realistic expectations, flexibility with peoples lives and appropriate resource management can help volunteers to manage demanding roles. Unfortunately, poor support mechanisms and unrealistic expectations can undermind the benefits that make volunteering rewarding.

some volunteering environments are also in highstress and potentially harmful environments - [https://www.lifeline.org.au/ Lifeline]

Environments that provide the key elements of SDT are less likely to experience the above 

the study from Magrone et al. (2024) also found that organisational support and appreciation can reduce the negative effects of the impact the volunteering has on their home lives. this demonstrates that stress experienced by volunteers is often systemic within an organisational structure. 

* if demands are high and support is limited, stress and burnout undermine wellbeing 

High pressure contributes to the emotional tolls and reduces the positive experience of wellbeing in volunteers. Holmes et al. (2026) who reviewed burnout in australian volunteers, explored that the pressures associated with volunteering can reduce the positive wellbeing outcomes that volunteering can provide. 

this evidence suggests that the environment someone volunteers in can shape whether they experience a positive effect on their wellbeing. supportive environments may help wellbeing, while high stress environments can contribute to exhaustion and poor wellbeing    

;Knowledge check

&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Which response from the sporting club would be most likely to support Trevor's wellbeing? }
- Increase his responsibilities so he feels more important in the club .
+ Discuss his workload with him, provide greater flexibility, clarify expectations, and recognise his contribution .
- Reduce communication with him so that he can manage his role independently .
- Remind him that other volunteers depend on him and that leaving would create extra work .

{Which of Trevor's psychological needs is most likely to be undermined if he feels pressured to volunteering even if he no longer wants to?.}
- Competence.
- Relatedness.
- Personal Growth.
+ Autonomy.
&lt;/quiz&gt;

'''''AUTHORS NOTE'' -''' Expand the above to explain that volunteering can become psychologically demanding when factors combine. also explain how demands and organisational support can increase or undermind a volunteers wellbeing.  

==Conclusion==

* Volunteering can support people's subjective wellbeing, but its effects are not uniform
* psychology helps us to explain how and why volunteering can improve wellbeing 
* the benefits of volunteering depend on an individuals experience in the role 
* volunteerings effects are a complex interaction between the volunteer, their individual motivations and the environments they are volunteering in. 

Take home message 

Volunteering can be a strong source of wellbeing for people that feel they have choice in their role, find their contribution meaningful, feel supported and have a sustainable amount of responsibility. When these factors are missing, volunteering can become a source of stress and poor wellbeing. 

* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Functional approach to volunteerism|Functional approach to volunteerism]] - How does the functional approach explain volunteer motivation and how can it be applied? (Book chapter, 2024) 
* [[wikipedia:Subjective_well-being|Subjective well-being]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Subjective well-being|Subjective well-being]] (Book chapter, 2020) 
* [[wikipedia:Hedonic_motivation|Hedonic motivation]] (Wikipedia) 
* [[wikipedia:Eudaimonia|Eduaimonia]] (Wikipedia) 
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Deci, E. L., &amp; Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. ''Contemporary Sociology'', ''17''(2).

Diener, E. (1984). Subjective well-being. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''95''(3), 542–575. 
https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.95.3.542

Holmes, K., Lockstone-Binney, L., Davies, A., O’Halloran, M., &amp; Janowski, I. (2026). Managing burnout among rural volunteers in Australia. ''International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations'', 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0957876526000161

Jongenelis, M. I., Jackson, B., Newton, R. U., &amp; Pettigrew, S. (2021). Longitudinal associations between formal volunteering and well-being among retired older people: Follow-up results from a randomized controlled trial. Aging &amp; Mental Health, 26(2), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2021.1884845

Kim, E. S., Whillans, A. V., Lee, M. T., Chen, Y., &amp; VanderWeele, T. J. (2020). Volunteering and subsequent health and well-being in older adults: An outcome-wide longitudinal approach. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 59(2), 176–186. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2020.03.004

Lubics, O., Magyaródi, T., &amp; Nagy, H. (2026). Basic psychological needs and beneficence in the volunteer experience: Exploring satisfaction, frustration, and their links to well-being and ill-being. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly. https://doi.org/10.1177/08997640261453280

Magrone, M., Montani, F., Emili, S., Bakker, A. B., &amp; Sommovigo, V. (2024). A new look at job demands, resources, and volunteers’ intentions to leave: The role of work–home interference and burnout. VOLUNTAS International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11266-024-00679-y

Meneghini, A. M., &amp; Colledani, D. (2022). “Doing well by doing good”: When and how volunteering fosters hedonic and eudaimonic well-being. The Humanistic Psychologist. https://doi.org/10.1037/hum0000303

Nichol, B., Wilson, R., Rodrigues, A., &amp; Haighton, C. (2023). Exploring the effects of volunteering on the social, mental, and physical health and well-being of volunteers: An umbrella review. VOLUNTAS: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations, 35(1). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11266-023-00573-z

Ryan, R., &amp; Deci, E. (2001). On happiness and human potentials: A review of research on hedonic and eudaimonic well-being. Annual Review of Psychology, 52(1), 141–166. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.141

Son, J., &amp; Wilson, J. (2012). Volunteer work and hedonic, eudemonic, and social well-being. Sociological Forum, 27(3), 658–681. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1573-7861.2012.01340.x

Wu, Y., &amp; Li, C. (2018). Helping others helps? A self-determination theory approach on work climate and wellbeing among volunteers. Applied Research in Quality of Life, 14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-018-9642-z

}}

==External links==
[[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Volunteering]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Well-being]]</text>
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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}

[[File:Youth-soccer-indiana.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. Parent volunteering is common in youth sports.]]

;Scenario

Claire and Trevor both spend their Saturday mornings volunteering at their local soccer club. Claire looks forward to volunteering, loves helping kids learn new skills and has formed close friendships with other volunteers. Trevor enjoyed the role initially but now feels pressured to attend, is upset about the recognition he receives, feels that his contribution is not recognised and struggles to balance volunteering with other commitments. 

Even though they spend the same amount of time volunteering, Claire leaves feeling energised and fulfilled while Trevor feels burnt out, exhausted and resentful. 

Why might similar activities, conditions, activities and responsibilities have such different effects on their wellbeing? 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

[[wikipedia:Volunteering|Volunteering]] is an important part of many community organisations and essential services, Community sport provides one example of the contribution that many people make (see Figure 1.). However much of the focus placed on volunteering in organisations is about how it helps others, not on the wellbeing of the volunteers who make their missions possible.. 

Volunteering is linked with positive experiences including social connection, purpose and growth. (include reference) Unfortunately these benefits are not guaranteed, and they do not affect everyone in the same way. Volunteers may also experience stress and exhaustion, especially when their responsibilities become difficult to manage and maintain (include reference). Over time, these challenges can have an effect on their wellbeing and result in them stepping away from volunteering altogether (include reference if previous does not cover claim). Understanding volunteer wellbeing is  therefore not only important for the volunteers themselves, but also for the [https://www.acnc.gov.au/media/news/new-report-highlights-essential-role-volunteer-run-charities-australia organisations that rely on their continued participation to function] {{ic|Move external links into either References or External links}}.  

Psychological science helps us to understand why volunteering holds deep rewards for some and is an unsustainable commitment for others. Research on wellbeing can provide insights on how people feel and evaluate their lives, it can also tell us how volunteering contributes to a person's sense of meaning, purpose and growth. Motivational frameworks and theories, like self-determination theory (SDT) can explain how the quality of someone's motivation, their individual psychological needs and the environment that they volunteer in can shape an individual's experiences. 

Viewing volunteering through the lens of psychological science can give us a clearer picture of when volunteering can support wellbeing, and when and why it can become too psychologically demanding for some. 

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Focus questions

{{ic|Use bullet-points as shown in Tutorial 2}}

1. How does volunteering affect subjective wellbeing? &lt;br&gt;
2. Why can volunteering influence subjective wellbeing?&lt;br&gt; 
3. When does volunteering enhance or undermine wellbeing? 

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Understanding Wellbeing ==

* What does subjective wellbeing mean?

Wellbeing is an extremely broad subject that describes how people feel about their lives, whether they feel like their lives are meaningful and how satisfied they are. In the field of psychological research [[wikipedia:Subjective_well-being|subjective wellbeing]] (SWB) refers to how people evaluate and experience their lives (Diener, 1984). It is understood through three main categories: 

# Life satisfaction - Whether a person views their life positively overall
# Positive Affect - How frequently a person experiences positive moods and feelings 
# Negative Affect - The frequency or intensity of unpleasent moods and emotions 

These three categories are useful when attempting to distinguish whether a volunteering experience may improve some parts of a person's wellbeing and/or detract from others. 
* Hedonic versus eudaimonic wellbeing 
Wellbeing is also understood through both hedonic and eudaimonic viewpoints. Hedonic wellbeing is best understood as being focused on happiness, pleasureable experiences and positive emotions while avoiding discomfort and pain, whereas eudaimonic wellbeing is concerned with the pursuit of self-realisation, meaning and purpose (Ryan &amp; Deci, 2001). 

These two concepts are key to understanding the experiences of a volunteer. A volunteer may not always receive short term happiness or avoid stress in their role, but they may receive satisfaction if they feel like their contribution is meaningful, they have developed themselves or are working towards something of long-term value. Viewing volunteering through both of these lenses provides a broader understanding of volunteerings relationship to wellbeing. 
* Why are both perspectives relevant when considering volunteers?

The distinction between the concepts of hedonic and eudaimonic wellbeing are particularly relevant because studies have found that volunteering does not influence all forms of wellbeing in the same way. A study by Son and Wilson (2012) found that volunteering did not predict hedonic wellbeing but did predict later eudaimonic wellbeing. This study also suggests that this relationship works in both ways, with those that reported higher wellbeing being more likely to volunteer. 

==How Volunteering Affects Wellbeing ==

* Volunteering is broadly associated with better wellbeing 

Nichol et al. (2023) conducted a review of multiple systematic reviews and discovered links between volunteering and benefits across physical, mental and social wellbeing

* Different aspects of wellbeing respond differently to volunteering 

Longitudinal studies link volunteering with feelings of a greater purpose in life, social connection, increases in positive affect (Kim et al., 2020). However they also found that the act of volunteering was not tied to improvements in life satisfaction or negative affect, suggesting that volunteering can support some aspects of wellbeing without improving all of them.   

* Volunteering itself can contribute to improved wellbeing 

In a randomised control study in older Australians, Jongenelis et al. (2021) found that people who commenced volunteering had improved life satisfaction, purpose and personal growth compared to their peers that did not.    

==Why Volunteering can Improve Wellbeing==
[[File:SelfDeterminationTheory.svg|thumb|303x303px|'''Figure 2'''. a diagram depicting the elements of self determination theory]]The above research proposes that volunteering can support aspects of wellbeing, but these benefits are not simply due to a person surrendering their time to an organisation. 

[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Volunteer motivation|So why do people volunteer?]]  

Volunteering allows people the opportunity to build meaningful relationships, feel capable and contribute to something meaningful. This is directly relevant to the satisfaction of basic psychological needs and the experiences of purpose, growth and [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2017/Meaning and happiness|meaning]]. 

=== Self-Determination and Psychological Needs ===
Volunteering creates the opportunities for a person to satisfy their basic needs of autonomy, relatedness and competence. Self-determination theory (SDT) explains that the satisfaction of these needs is what leads to wellbeing and motivation (Deci &amp; Ryan, 1985).

The basic needs of SDT are summarised in Figure 2. 

Within volunteer environments these needs may be satisfied by: 

* The ability to choose meaningful work 
* applying and developing skills 
* forming close connections and sharing values with others

This requirement for satisfaction is clear within empirical research on volunteering. a study conducted by Lubics et al. (2026) found that the fulfilment of autonomy, relatedness and competence was associated with greater wellbeing in volunteers, inversly it also found that the frustration of these needs was associated with poorer outcomes and wellbeing in the tested population. 

'''''AUTHORS NOTE''''' - Expand the above to explain the benefits of volunteering through SDT's needs framework 

=== Meaning, Purpose and Growth ===

* Reassert the details surrounding Hedonic and Eudaimonic wellbeing - focusing on eudaimonic wellbeing as an indicator for wellbeing in volunteers.

Eudaimonic wellbeing is the experience of living well and meaningfully, rather than only pursuing short term pleasure or happiness. from the eudaimonic perspective volunteering is particularly well placed to provide this experience.

* Explain volunteering allows the opportunities for meaning and growth

Volunteering can provide a role in community, allow someone the opportunity to directly impact others, give a deep sense of purpose and provide the opportunity for someone to develop new skills. This experience may motivate someone to continue volunteering, even if their role is demanding or does not provide them with short-term hedonic wellbeing. 

* link to a study showing the application of meaning purpose and growth

We also know that people benefit the most from volunteering when the role is important to them, and they feel that they are genuinely involved in what they are doing (Meneghini &amp; Colledani, 2022).

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Stop sign us.jpg|right|360px|alt=A standard red octagonal stop sign]]

'''Reflection Stop!''' 

Using the previous example of Claire and Trevor consider the following questions: 

1. What basic psychological needs under SDT appear to be supported for Claire?&lt;br&gt;
2. Which basic needs do not appear to be met for Trevor?&lt;br&gt; 
3. Who appears to be experiencing more motivated or autonomous control? Why?&lt;br&gt; 
4. How might their different experiences affect their subjective wellbeing?  

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

'''''AUTHORS NOTE''' -'' The above will be expanded to discuss how volunteering supports eudaimonic wellbeing in participants, particularly contributing to something beyond oneself.

== When volunteering helps, and when it does not ==
The benefits of volunteering are not guaranteed. Someones experience of the same roles and activities can vary widely depending on why they are volunteering, the demands that they face and the environment they are in. 

These positions provide meaning connection and growth, but these benefits can be totally redundant when participation feels unsustainable or poorly supported. 

Understanding the differences in experience and motivation helps to explain why volunteering is a net positive for some and entirely untenable for others.

=== Autonomous and Controlled Motivation ===
The quality of an individuals motivation is a key concept in SDT. SDT distinguishes between two different forms of motivation
# Autonomous motivation - Where behaviour is driven or acted on because an activity is personally meaningful or enjoyable
# Controlled motivation - Where behaviour is driven or acted on through obligation, external expectations, pressure or guilt

seperating these two forms of motivation may be key when assessing a volunteers wellbeing. is a person volunteering because they genuinely enjoy it? Or are they feeling psychologically pressured to continue? 

Wu and Li (2018) explored this in their study on motivation with 2022 volunteers. This research found that volunteers with higher autonomous motivation was associated with higher levels of life satisfaction and lower rates of emotional exhaustion in the cohort. It also showed that those volunteering because of controlled motivation experienced the opposite. 

do people volunteer because they enjoy their role? or do they volunteer because other people depend on them, they are experiencing feelings of guilt, or outside expectations keep them coming back?  

'''''AUTHORS NOTE''''' - The above will explain how autonomous and controlled motivation could lead to different experiences for volunteers conducting the same activity 

=== The Volunteering Environment: Support, Stress and Burnout ===

* Volunteering can become overwhelming when its responsibilities compete with the other areas of a persons life 

Outside time commitments, family responsibilities, employment and study obligations can make it difficult for anyone to balance a volunteering role within their lives. 

studies have found that interference between a persons home life and volunteering were associated with a volunteers intention to leave their position (Magrone et al., 2024). This study also discusses that recognition and support from organisations could alleviate some of these effects. 

Another study from the same journal explored burnout in volunteers in rural Australia. Holmes et al. (2026) highlight that high workloads, shortages of volunteers, bureaucracy, limited funding and time commitments contributed to burnout in rural volunteers. 

* The environment of a volunteer organisation influences how these demands are experienced 

Volunteer organisations have the ability to influence the amount of pressure experienced by their volunteers. simple things like the recognition of effort, realistic expectations, flexibility with peoples lives and appropriate resource management can help volunteers to manage demanding roles. Unfortunately, poor support mechanisms and unrealistic expectations can undermind the benefits that make volunteering rewarding.

some volunteering environments are also in highstress and potentially harmful environments - [https://www.lifeline.org.au/ Lifeline]

Environments that provide the key elements of SDT are less likely to experience the above 

the study from Magrone et al. (2024) also found that organisational support and appreciation can reduce the negative effects of the impact the volunteering has on their home lives. this demonstrates that stress experienced by volunteers is often systemic within an organisational structure. 

* if demands are high and support is limited, stress and burnout undermine wellbeing 

High pressure contributes to the emotional tolls and reduces the positive experience of wellbeing in volunteers. Holmes et al. (2026) who reviewed burnout in australian volunteers, explored that the pressures associated with volunteering can reduce the positive wellbeing outcomes that volunteering can provide. 

this evidence suggests that the environment someone volunteers in can shape whether they experience a positive effect on their wellbeing. supportive environments may help wellbeing, while high stress environments can contribute to exhaustion and poor wellbeing    

;Knowledge check

&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Which response from the sporting club would be most likely to support Trevor's wellbeing? }
- Increase his responsibilities so he feels more important in the club .
+ Discuss his workload with him, provide greater flexibility, clarify expectations, and recognise his contribution .
- Reduce communication with him so that he can manage his role independently .
- Remind him that other volunteers depend on him and that leaving would create extra work .

{Which of Trevor's psychological needs is most likely to be undermined if he feels pressured to volunteering even if he no longer wants to?.}
- Competence.
- Relatedness.
- Personal Growth.
+ Autonomy.
&lt;/quiz&gt;

'''''AUTHORS NOTE'' -''' Expand the above to explain that volunteering can become psychologically demanding when factors combine. also explain how demands and organisational support can increase or undermind a volunteers wellbeing.  

==Conclusion==

* Volunteering can support people's subjective wellbeing, but its effects are not uniform
* psychology helps us to explain how and why volunteering can improve wellbeing 
* the benefits of volunteering depend on an individuals experience in the role 
* volunteerings effects are a complex interaction between the volunteer, their individual motivations and the environments they are volunteering in. 

Take home message 

Volunteering can be a strong source of wellbeing for people that feel they have choice in their role, find their contribution meaningful, feel supported and have a sustainable amount of responsibility. When these factors are missing, volunteering can become a source of stress and poor wellbeing. 

* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Functional approach to volunteerism|Functional approach to volunteerism]] - How does the functional approach explain volunteer motivation and how can it be applied? (Book chapter, 2024) 
* [[wikipedia:Subjective_well-being|Subjective well-being]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Subjective well-being|Subjective well-being]] (Book chapter, 2020) 
* [[wikipedia:Hedonic_motivation|Hedonic motivation]] (Wikipedia) 
* [[wikipedia:Eudaimonia|Eduaimonia]] (Wikipedia) 
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Deci, E. L., &amp; Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. ''Contemporary Sociology'', ''17''(2).

Diener, E. (1984). Subjective well-being. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''95''(3), 542–575. 
https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.95.3.542

Holmes, K., Lockstone-Binney, L., Davies, A., O’Halloran, M., &amp; Janowski, I. (2026). Managing burnout among rural volunteers in Australia. ''International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations'', 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0957876526000161

Jongenelis, M. I., Jackson, B., Newton, R. U., &amp; Pettigrew, S. (2021). Longitudinal associations between formal volunteering and well-being among retired older people: Follow-up results from a randomized controlled trial. Aging &amp; Mental Health, 26(2), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2021.1884845

Kim, E. S., Whillans, A. V., Lee, M. T., Chen, Y., &amp; VanderWeele, T. J. (2020). Volunteering and subsequent health and well-being in older adults: An outcome-wide longitudinal approach. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 59(2), 176–186. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2020.03.004

Lubics, O., Magyaródi, T., &amp; Nagy, H. (2026). Basic psychological needs and beneficence in the volunteer experience: Exploring satisfaction, frustration, and their links to well-being and ill-being. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly. https://doi.org/10.1177/08997640261453280

Magrone, M., Montani, F., Emili, S., Bakker, A. B., &amp; Sommovigo, V. (2024). A new look at job demands, resources, and volunteers’ intentions to leave: The role of work–home interference and burnout. VOLUNTAS International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11266-024-00679-y

Meneghini, A. M., &amp; Colledani, D. (2022). “Doing well by doing good”: When and how volunteering fosters hedonic and eudaimonic well-being. The Humanistic Psychologist. https://doi.org/10.1037/hum0000303

Nichol, B., Wilson, R., Rodrigues, A., &amp; Haighton, C. (2023). Exploring the effects of volunteering on the social, mental, and physical health and well-being of volunteers: An umbrella review. VOLUNTAS: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations, 35(1). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11266-023-00573-z

Ryan, R., &amp; Deci, E. (2001). On happiness and human potentials: A review of research on hedonic and eudaimonic well-being. Annual Review of Psychology, 52(1), 141–166. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.141

Son, J., &amp; Wilson, J. (2012). Volunteer work and hedonic, eudemonic, and social well-being. Sociological Forum, 27(3), 658–681. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1573-7861.2012.01340.x

Wu, Y., &amp; Li, C. (2018). Helping others helps? A self-determination theory approach on work climate and wellbeing among volunteers. Applied Research in Quality of Life, 14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-018-9642-z

}}

==External links==
[[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

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    <title>Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Dark empathy</title>
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      <text bytes="16434" sha1="myhxvxzp5zie124ynv2rt18d52huyg7" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Dark empathy:&lt;br&gt;What is dark empathy, what are its consequences, and what can be done to address it?}}
__TOC__
==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}{{ic|Make it more clear how this connects to dark empathy}}

;Scenario

Imagine your extroverted friend, Nikki, has lost their confidence and is isolating herself. After months of attempting to catch up for coffee, she shows up late and spends most of the time glued to her phone. She apologizes as she sends messages every 10 minutes to let her partner know what she is doing. 
You ask her how she has been and she spends all her time talking about her partner and mentions she is no longer participating in her usual hobbies. 

You have noticed that since she met her partner, Fedrick, she rarely goes anywhere without him. She says he has the same interests as her and enjoys spending time with her. After an hour, Fedrick turns up at the cafe to join the conversation. His stories are often focused on himself and his shared trauma with Nikki. 

You are starting to suspect that Fedrick has been manipulating Nikki and your friend seems unhappy despite telling you otherwise. 

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

* Dark empathy is a developed skill that uses the understanding of emotion and people's vulnerabilities against them to control and manipulate for their advantage {{citation needed}} {{expand}}
* Understanding why and how people use dark empathy is important to preventing and addressing the concern {{citation needed}} {{grammar}}
* Research indicates understanding emotional intelligence, the dark triad, theory of mind, and the schemas could assist with understanding the motivation behind dark empathy {{citation needed}}

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}

;Focus questions

*How do we develop empathy?  
*What drives an individual to use empathy to control and manipulate other people in their life?  
*How can psychological theory develop strategies to understand and assist individuals mitigate the negative effects of empathy? 

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== The development of empathy ==

* [[Empathy]] is the ability to share feelings and thoughts of others while remaining self-other determination (Håkansson Eklund &amp; Summer Meranius, 2021). 
*Empathy is not an innate, rather learned and developed. It can be cultivated through techniques to understand other's feelings and foster pro-social behaviour (Abramson, 2021) 
*Although, empathy does not have have a natural morality which means the individual has to choose how to use their understanding of other's emotions and feelings {{citation needed}}. 

=== Types of empathy ===

Empathy is a large element of [[emotional intelligence]] in an understanding and sharing feeling with others {{citation needed}}. Empathy has bright and dark sides as well two types: 
* Affective empathy is physical and emotional sharing of feelings
**This empathy is experiencing with the other person which is found more commonly in bright empathy ()
* Cognitive empathy is the intellectual understanding of another’s emotions and thoughts without feeling their pain. 
**This empathy is the understanding, yet keeping that self-other determination which makes it easier for manipulating by utilising emotions against another

[[File:The Dark Triad Traits.svg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' The dark triad and subsets of the three elements {{ic|Expand figure size so that it is easier to read the text.}}]]

=== The dark tetrad ===
Dark personality traits were called the 'dark triad' (Paulhus &amp; Williams, 2002). An expansion on these traits were to include a fourth element, sadism (Mededovic &amp; Petrovic, 2015). There are four elements to the dark tetrad:
* Narcissism
* Machiavellianism
* Psychopathy
* Sadism
These personalities demonstrate the 

=== Making of a dark empath ===

*Dark Empathy is understanding those feelings and harnessing against others {{citation needed}}
* Development of dark empathy is when an individual has high levels of dark traits (narcissism, machiavellianism, psychopathy, and sadism) and alongside retained high cognitive and affective empathy capacity (Gojković et al., 2022)
* Research assessing individuals with high levels of dark traits concluded these personality types do not share ethics and morality meaning they are more likely to be honest and fair towards others (Mededovic &amp; Petrovic, 2015)
* Dark empathy isn't a psychological diagnosis, yet a term how an individual differences from other diagnoses from the dark tetrad {{grammar}} {{citation needed}} {{clarify}}
* Dark empathy is found in individuals with high dark triad traits and cognitive empathy {{citation needed}}. Cognitive empathy rather than affective empathy allows the individual to understanding emotions and thoughts without having to feel the emotions which in turn makes it easier to manipulate others
* '''An individual with affective dissonance is another indicator of dark empathy.''' It is having twisted or contradictory emotional reactions, such as feeling happy when someone else is suffering that is present in those with high dark traits (Gojković et al., 2022).
*Research demonstrates that experiencing trauma as a child where you had to predict and understand other's emotions to keep safe may lead to the development of dark empathy {{citation needed}}

== Consequences of dark empathy ==

*The person using dark empathy and those they are manipulating are both impacted by the behaviour and will harm their wellbeing {{citation needed}}
*While the use of empathy may bring people together through a shared emotion and experience, dark empathy isolates from community {{grammar}} {{citation needed}}

=== Effects on victims of dark empathy ===

*The immediate impacts are startle and unlikely to be noticed, yet over time an individual will develop chronic anxiety, lower self-esteem and emotional dependency {{citation needed}}

=== Outcome for dark empaths ===

*An individual using dark empathy will find the control and manipulation effective and after time keeping up this level of deception is exhausting. {{citation needed}}
*It will impact their mental health potentially leading to depression, mood instability, difficulty maintaining long-term relationships and identity confusion {{citation needed}}

== Address dark empathy ==

*Dark empathy is not easily recognised in others {{citation needed}}
*A narcissist or sociopath may use understanding of schemas to influence others while a dark empath uses their empathy to control and most likely enjoy other's vulnerable emotions {{citation needed}}

=== Regaining themselves: recovering from a dark empathy ===

*Recognise the patterns used by the dark empath {{citation needed}}
*Prioritise your self and trust your instincts {{citation needed}}
*Set healthy emotional boundaries in this relationship
*Seek therapy particularly CBT {{citation needed}}
*Seperation from the dark empath {{citation needed}}

=== Unravelling from dark empathy ===

*Recognising and acknowledging the pattern of behaviour of controlling those around them and the impacts on theirs and other’s wellbeing {{citation needed}}
*Attending therapy is the best way to address and understand the behaviours {{citation needed}}. Some therapies that would be appropriate and effective for dark empaths are:
**Trauma-informed therapy
**[[w:Cognitive_behavioral_therapy|Cognitive Behaviour Therapy]] (CBT)
**[[w:Schema_therapy|Schema therapy]]
**Emotional regulation and accountability training {{citation needed}}.

== Conclusion ==

* Emotional intelligence does not come with morality {{citation needed}}
* The dark triad is an indicator of dark empathy if individual have high dark traits and affective cognitive empathy {{citation needed}}
* Cognitive empathy and trauma patterns can develop the drive for using dark empathy {{citation needed}}
* Effective identification and therapy will assist with managing an individual using empathy against others {{citation needed}}

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure
* Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options:

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s)

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* Arguably the most important section
* Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking
* For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
*[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Dark triad personality and emotion|Dark triad personality and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) 
*[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Emotional intelligence and anti-social behaviour|Emotional intelligence and antisocial behaviour]] (Book chapter, 2019)
*[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Emotional intelligence and the dark triad|Emotional intelligence and the dark triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
*[[wikipedia:Machiavellianism_(psychology)|Machiavellianism]] (Wikipedia) 
*[[wikipedia:Narcissism|Narcissism]] (Wikipedia)
*[[wikipedia:Psychopathy|Psychopathy]] (Wikipedia)
*[[wikipedia:Dark_triad|The Dark Triad]] (Wikipedia)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Abramson, A. (2021, November 1). Cultivating empathy. Monitor on Psychology, 52(8). https://www.apa.org/monitor/2021/11/feature-cultivating-empathy

Gojković, V., Dostanić, J. S., &amp; Đurić, V. (2022). Structure of darkness: The Dark Triad, the ‘Dark’ Empathy and the ‘Dark’ Narcissism. Primenjena psihologija (Online), 15(2), 237-268. https://doi.org/10.19090/pp.v15i2.2380

Håkansson Eklund, J., &amp; Summer Meranius, M. (2021). Toward a consensus on the nature of empathy: A review of reviews. Patient education and counseling, 104(2), 300-307. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pec.2020.08.022 

Heym, N., Firth, J., Kibowski, F., Sumich, A., Egan, V., &amp; Bloxsom, C. A. (2019). Empathy at the heart of darkness: Empathy deficits that bind the dark triad and those that mediate indirect relational aggression. Frontiers in psychiatry, 10, 95. 

Heym, N., Kibowski, F., Bloxsom, C. A. J., Blanchard, A., Harper, A., Wallace, L., Firth, J., &amp; Sumich, A. (2021). The Dark Empath: Characterising dark traits in the presence of empathy. Personality and Individual Differences, 169, 110172-110172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110172 

Huang, C., Wu, Z., Sha, S., Liu, C., Yang, L., Jiang, P., Zhang, H., &amp; Yang, C. (2025). The Dark Side of Empathy: The Role of Excessive Affective Empathy in Mental Health Disorders. Biological psychiatry (1969), 98(5), 404-415. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2024.12.020 

Kaufman, S. B., Yaden, D. B., Hyde, E., &amp; Tsukayama, E. (2019). The Light vs. Dark Triad of Personality: Contrasting Two Very Different Profiles of Human Nature [Original Research]. Frontiers in psychology, Volume 10 - 2019. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00467 

Mededovic, J., &amp; Petrovic, B. (2015). The Dark Tetrad: Structural Properties and Location in the Personality Space. Journal of individual differences, 36(4), 228-236. https://doi.org/10.1027/1614-0001/a000179 

Mikkelsen, E. N., Geraldi, J., &amp; Clegg, S. (2026). The Dark Side of Empathy and Organization Studies. Organization studies. https://doi.org/10.1177/01708406261459079

Paulhus, D. L., &amp; Williams, K. M. (2002). The Dark Triad of personality: Narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy. Journal of research in personality, 36(6), 556-563. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0092-6566(02)00505-6

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
*** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
*** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
* [https://www.sciencefocus.com/wellbeing/dark-empaths Dark Empaths] (Science Focus)
* [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/basics/dark-triad Dark Triad] (Psychology Today)
* [https://www.theguardian.com/science/2024/nov/10/narcissists-only-more-devious-the-truth-about-dark-empaths 'Narcissists - only more devious': the truth about dark empaths] (the Guardian)

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__TOC__
==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}{{ic|Make it more clear how this connects to dark empathy}}

;Scenario

Imagine your extroverted friend, Nikki, has lost their confidence and is isolating herself. After months of attempting to catch up for coffee, she shows up late and spends most of the time glued to her phone. She apologizes as she sends messages every 10 minutes to let her partner know what she is doing. 
You ask her how she has been and she spends all her time talking about her partner and mentions she is no longer participating in her usual hobbies. 

You have noticed that since she met her partner, Fedrick, she rarely goes anywhere without him. She says he has the same interests as her and enjoys spending time with her. After an hour, Fedrick turns up at the cafe to join the conversation. His stories are often focused on himself and his shared trauma with Nikki. 

You are starting to suspect that Fedrick has been manipulating Nikki and your friend seems unhappy despite telling you otherwise. 

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

* Dark empathy is a developed skill that uses the understanding of emotion and people's vulnerabilities against them to control and manipulate for their advantage {{citation needed}} {{expand}}
* Understanding why and how people use dark empathy is important to preventing and addressing the concern {{citation needed}} {{grammar}}
* Research indicates understanding emotional intelligence, the dark triad, theory of mind, and the schemas could assist with understanding the motivation behind dark empathy {{citation needed}}

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}

;Focus questions

*How do we develop empathy?  
*What drives an individual to use empathy to control and manipulate other people in their life?  
*How can psychological theory develop strategies to understand and assist individuals mitigate the negative effects of empathy? 

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== The development of empathy ==

* [[Empathy]] is the ability to share feelings and thoughts of others while remaining self-other determination (Håkansson Eklund &amp; Summer Meranius, 2021). 
*Empathy is not an innate, rather learned and developed. It can be cultivated through techniques to understand other's feelings and foster pro-social behaviour (Abramson, 2021) 
*Although, empathy does not have have a natural morality which means the individual has to choose how to use their understanding of other's emotions and feelings {{citation needed}}. 

=== Types of empathy ===

Empathy is a large element of [[emotional intelligence]] in an understanding and sharing feeling with others {{citation needed}}. Empathy has bright and dark sides as well two types: 
* Affective empathy is physical and emotional sharing of feelings
**This empathy is experiencing with the other person which is found more commonly in bright empathy
* Cognitive empathy is the intellectual understanding of another’s emotions and thoughts without feeling their pain. 
**This empathy is the understanding, yet keeping that self-other determination which makes it easier for manipulating by utilising emotions against another

[[File:The Dark Triad Traits.svg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' The dark triad and subsets of the three elements {{ic|Expand figure size so that it is easier to read the text.}}]]

=== The dark tetrad ===
Dark personality traits were called the dark triad (Paulhus &amp; Williams, 2002). An expansion on these traits were to include a fourth element, sadism (Mededovic &amp; Petrovic, 2015). There are four elements to the dark tetrad:
* Narcissism
* Machiavellianism
* Psychopathy
* Sadism
These personalities demonstrate the 

=== Making of a dark empath ===

*Dark Empathy is understanding those feelings and harnessing against others {{citation needed}}
* Development of dark empathy is when an individual has high levels of dark traits (narcissism, machiavellianism, psychopathy, and sadism) and alongside retained high cognitive and affective empathy capacity (Gojković et al., 2022)
* Research assessing individuals with high levels of dark traits concluded these personality types do not share ethics and morality meaning they are more likely to be honest and fair towards others (Mededovic &amp; Petrovic, 2015)
* Dark empathy isn't a psychological diagnosis, yet a term how an individual differences from other diagnoses from the dark tetrad {{grammar}} {{citation needed}} {{clarify}}
* Dark empathy is found in individuals with high dark triad traits and cognitive empathy {{citation needed}}. Cognitive empathy rather than affective empathy allows the individual to understanding emotions and thoughts without having to feel the emotions which in turn makes it easier to manipulate others
* '''An individual with affective dissonance is another indicator of dark empathy.''' It is having twisted or contradictory emotional reactions, such as feeling happy when someone else is suffering that is present in those with high dark traits (Gojković et al., 2022).
*Research demonstrates that experiencing trauma as a child where you had to predict and understand other's emotions to keep safe may lead to the development of dark empathy {{citation needed}}

== Consequences of dark empathy ==

*The person using dark empathy and those they are manipulating are both impacted by the behaviour and will harm their wellbeing {{citation needed}}
*While the use of empathy may bring people together through a shared emotion and experience, dark empathy isolates from community {{grammar}} {{citation needed}}

=== Effects on victims of dark empathy ===

*The immediate impacts are startle and unlikely to be noticed, yet over time an individual will develop chronic anxiety, lower self-esteem and emotional dependency {{citation needed}}

=== Outcome for dark empaths ===

*An individual using dark empathy will find the control and manipulation effective and after time keeping up this level of deception is exhausting. {{citation needed}}
*It will impact their mental health potentially leading to depression, mood instability, difficulty maintaining long-term relationships and identity confusion {{citation needed}}

== Address dark empathy ==

*Dark empathy is not easily recognised in others {{citation needed}}
*A narcissist or sociopath may use understanding of schemas to influence others while a dark empath uses their empathy to control and most likely enjoy other's vulnerable emotions {{citation needed}}

=== Regaining themselves: recovering from a dark empathy ===

*Recognise the patterns used by the dark empath {{citation needed}}
*Prioritise your self and trust your instincts {{citation needed}}
*Set healthy emotional boundaries in this relationship
*Seek therapy particularly CBT {{citation needed}}
*Seperation from the dark empath {{citation needed}}

=== Unravelling from dark empathy ===

*Recognising and acknowledging the pattern of behaviour of controlling those around them and the impacts on theirs and other’s wellbeing {{citation needed}}
*Attending therapy is the best way to address and understand the behaviours {{citation needed}}. Some therapies that would be appropriate and effective for dark empaths are:
**Trauma-informed therapy
**[[w:Cognitive_behavioral_therapy|Cognitive Behaviour Therapy]] (CBT)
**[[w:Schema_therapy|Schema therapy]]
**Emotional regulation and accountability training {{citation needed}}.

== Conclusion ==

* Emotional intelligence does not come with morality {{citation needed}}
* The dark triad is an indicator of dark empathy if individual have high dark traits and affective cognitive empathy {{citation needed}}
* Cognitive empathy and trauma patterns can develop the drive for using dark empathy {{citation needed}}
* Effective identification and therapy will assist with managing an individual using empathy against others {{citation needed}}

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure
* Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options:

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s)

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* Arguably the most important section
* Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking
* For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
*[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Dark triad personality and emotion|Dark triad personality and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) 
*[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Emotional intelligence and anti-social behaviour|Emotional intelligence and antisocial behaviour]] (Book chapter, 2019)
*[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Emotional intelligence and the dark triad|Emotional intelligence and the dark triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
*[[wikipedia:Machiavellianism_(psychology)|Machiavellianism]] (Wikipedia) 
*[[wikipedia:Narcissism|Narcissism]] (Wikipedia)
*[[wikipedia:Psychopathy|Psychopathy]] (Wikipedia)
*[[wikipedia:Dark_triad|The Dark Triad]] (Wikipedia)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Abramson, A. (2021, November 1). Cultivating empathy. Monitor on Psychology, 52(8). https://www.apa.org/monitor/2021/11/feature-cultivating-empathy

Gojković, V., Dostanić, J. S., &amp; Đurić, V. (2022). Structure of darkness: The Dark Triad, the ‘Dark’ Empathy and the ‘Dark’ Narcissism. Primenjena psihologija (Online), 15(2), 237-268. https://doi.org/10.19090/pp.v15i2.2380

Håkansson Eklund, J., &amp; Summer Meranius, M. (2021). Toward a consensus on the nature of empathy: A review of reviews. Patient education and counseling, 104(2), 300-307. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pec.2020.08.022 

Heym, N., Firth, J., Kibowski, F., Sumich, A., Egan, V., &amp; Bloxsom, C. A. (2019). Empathy at the heart of darkness: Empathy deficits that bind the dark triad and those that mediate indirect relational aggression. Frontiers in psychiatry, 10, 95. 

Heym, N., Kibowski, F., Bloxsom, C. A. J., Blanchard, A., Harper, A., Wallace, L., Firth, J., &amp; Sumich, A. (2021). The Dark Empath: Characterising dark traits in the presence of empathy. Personality and Individual Differences, 169, 110172-110172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110172 

Huang, C., Wu, Z., Sha, S., Liu, C., Yang, L., Jiang, P., Zhang, H., &amp; Yang, C. (2025). The Dark Side of Empathy: The Role of Excessive Affective Empathy in Mental Health Disorders. Biological psychiatry (1969), 98(5), 404-415. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2024.12.020 

Kaufman, S. B., Yaden, D. B., Hyde, E., &amp; Tsukayama, E. (2019). The Light vs. Dark Triad of Personality: Contrasting Two Very Different Profiles of Human Nature [Original Research]. Frontiers in psychology, Volume 10 - 2019. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00467 

Mededovic, J., &amp; Petrovic, B. (2015). The Dark Tetrad: Structural Properties and Location in the Personality Space. Journal of individual differences, 36(4), 228-236. https://doi.org/10.1027/1614-0001/a000179 

Mikkelsen, E. N., Geraldi, J., &amp; Clegg, S. (2026). The Dark Side of Empathy and Organization Studies. Organization studies. https://doi.org/10.1177/01708406261459079

Paulhus, D. L., &amp; Williams, K. M. (2002). The Dark Triad of personality: Narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy. Journal of research in personality, 36(6), 556-563. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0092-6566(02)00505-6

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
*** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
*** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
* [https://www.sciencefocus.com/wellbeing/dark-empaths Dark Empaths] (Science Focus)
* [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/basics/dark-triad Dark Triad] (Psychology Today)
* [https://www.theguardian.com/science/2024/nov/10/narcissists-only-more-devious-the-truth-about-dark-empaths 'Narcissists - only more devious': the truth about dark empaths] (the Guardian)

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]]</text>
      <sha1>4d7nbeovtz8rv8h4g4sp0ssjqyqbaw1</sha1>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Adolescent risk-taking and reward-system development</title>
    <ns>1</ns>
    <id>331270</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2835859</id>
      <parentid>2829685</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-10-05T03:45:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3216724</username>
        <id>3106797</id>
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      <text bytes="5842" sha1="sdkur5pj3g65s2wxd9rrskd9ojb5nc0" xml:space="preserve">==When does adolescent risk-taking peak?==
I'd be curious to know if its possible to say when risk-taking peaks in adolescence?
Sincerely, James

---- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 04:07, 19 August 2026 (UTC)

== Changes made  ==

hello, I changed the casing of your fist heading to make all the letters lower case expect for the first letter. I believe this is the format our teacher wants us to follow but just double check  [[User:Ella Kay244|Ella Kay244]] ([[User talk:Ella Kay244|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ella Kay244|contribs]]) 04:24, 25 August 2026 (UTC)


== Discussion comment: Adolescent risk-taking ==
Hi! I really liked the example of Mia at the start, I think works really well because it shows how quickly a situation can change when friends are involved. I also think it would be interesting to see whether reward-seeking is always negative, or whether some of these behaviours could be beneficial, e.g., independence or trying new things. I hadn’t really thought about the positive side of risk-taking before, so I think that will be an interesting part of your chapter!--[[User:U3275908|U3275908]] ([[User talk:U3275908|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3275908|contribs]]) 11:09, 26 August 2026 (UTC)

== How is reward classified for an adolescent? ==

I'd be super interested in what classified as a reward for adolescents. It's a really cool topic you've got, you covered social rewards briefly but other more general areas you talked about weren't so clear cut. Nothing on you its just the nature of how some of these things are laid out.  
Well done!! :) [[User:Revial76|Revial76]] ([[User talk:Revial76|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Revial76|contribs]]) 15:23, 27 August 2026 (UTC)

&lt;!-- Official topic development feedback --&gt;
{{METF/2026
|1=
&lt;!-- Title --&gt;
# Title and subtitle are correctly worded and use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]]
|2=
&lt;!-- Heading structure --&gt;
&lt;!-- 2-level --&gt;
# Excellent – Well developed [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|2-level heading structure]]. Meaningful headings clearly relate directly to the core topic.
# Be careful that the structure isn't overly ambitious because the word count might blow out; be prepared to concentrate on core topics only
# The subtitle in the sub-headings should probably have the first letters capitalised
&lt;!-- Alignment with focus questions --&gt;
# Insufficient alignment between sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings
|3=
&lt;!-- Overview--&gt;
# Very good
&lt;!-- Scenario --&gt;
# A scenario or case study is presented in a feature box with an image at the start of this section
&lt;!-- Description --&gt;
# A promising description of the problem/topic is planned or presented
# Consider making this more user-friendly, shifting most or all of the citations into subsequent sections
# Move external links into the references or external links
&lt;!-- Focus questions --&gt;
# Develop closer alignment between the sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings
|4=
&lt;!-- Key points--&gt;
&lt;!-- Overall --&gt;
# Excellent – key points are well developed for each section
&lt;!-- Conclusion --&gt;
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# Cite each figure at least once in the main text using APA style (e.g., see Figure 1)
&lt;!-- Size --&gt;
# Consider increasing image size(s)
|6=
&lt;!-- Learning feature --&gt;
&lt;!-- Interwiki links ---&gt;
# Add in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for first mention of key terms to [[w:|Wikipedia]] and/or [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]])
&lt;!-- Scenarios/examples/case studies --&gt;
# Consider use of more scenarios/examples/case studies 
&lt;!-- Quiz --&gt;
# Promising use of quiz question(s)
&lt;!-- Tables --&gt;
# Also consider using tables to summarise key information
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&lt;!-- References --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overall --&gt;
# Very good
&lt;!-- Systematic reviews --&gt;
# What are the most relevant systematic reviews/meta-analyses about this topic?
&lt;!-- APA style --&gt;
# Check and correct [https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/reference-guide.pdf APA referencing style]:
## capitalisation
|8=
&lt;!-- Resources --&gt;
&lt;!-- See also --&gt;
# See also
## Excellent
&lt;!-- External links --&gt;
# External links
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&lt;!-- Social contribution --&gt;
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}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 08:37, 30 August 2026 (UTC)

== Suggestion for a related source ==
Hey there! This chapter seems to be coming along nicely, and I'm interested in how you'll expand upon it as you go. I'm doing a related chapter [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Game of dice task and decision-making|here]] about the Game of Dice Task and how it relates to risk-based decision making. I've found a source in my own research that I think could be useful for your chapter, especially to the point of how executive functions develop over adolescence and the effect this has on decision-making. [https://www-tandfonline-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/doi/full/10.1080/09297049.2014.934216 The study by Schiebener et al. (2014)] highlights cognitive differences between executive functions and reasoning, and makes a compelling case that in situtations of explicit numerical risk, the development of executive functions, not reasoning capability, is important for advantageous choices.

Hope this is helpful and best of luck with finalising your chapter. - Ryan [[User:U3216724|U3216724]] ([[User talk:U3216724|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3216724|contribs]]) 03:45, 5 October 2026 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>sdkur5pj3g65s2wxd9rrskd9ojb5nc0</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2835860</id>
      <parentid>2835859</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-10-05T03:46:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3216724</username>
        <id>3106797</id>
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      <comment>/* Suggestion for a related source */ Reply</comment>
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      <text bytes="6110" sha1="gp2qfjtej7lg8tee0lfvcf7rdf5u48j" xml:space="preserve">==When does adolescent risk-taking peak?==
I'd be curious to know if its possible to say when risk-taking peaks in adolescence?
Sincerely, James

---- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 04:07, 19 August 2026 (UTC)

== Changes made  ==

hello, I changed the casing of your fist heading to make all the letters lower case expect for the first letter. I believe this is the format our teacher wants us to follow but just double check  [[User:Ella Kay244|Ella Kay244]] ([[User talk:Ella Kay244|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ella Kay244|contribs]]) 04:24, 25 August 2026 (UTC)


== Discussion comment: Adolescent risk-taking ==
Hi! I really liked the example of Mia at the start, I think works really well because it shows how quickly a situation can change when friends are involved. I also think it would be interesting to see whether reward-seeking is always negative, or whether some of these behaviours could be beneficial, e.g., independence or trying new things. I hadn’t really thought about the positive side of risk-taking before, so I think that will be an interesting part of your chapter!--[[User:U3275908|U3275908]] ([[User talk:U3275908|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3275908|contribs]]) 11:09, 26 August 2026 (UTC)

== How is reward classified for an adolescent? ==

I'd be super interested in what classified as a reward for adolescents. It's a really cool topic you've got, you covered social rewards briefly but other more general areas you talked about weren't so clear cut. Nothing on you its just the nature of how some of these things are laid out.  
Well done!! :) [[User:Revial76|Revial76]] ([[User talk:Revial76|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Revial76|contribs]]) 15:23, 27 August 2026 (UTC)

&lt;!-- Official topic development feedback --&gt;
{{METF/2026
|1=
&lt;!-- Title --&gt;
# Title and subtitle are correctly worded and use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]]
|2=
&lt;!-- Heading structure --&gt;
&lt;!-- 2-level --&gt;
# Excellent – Well developed [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|2-level heading structure]]. Meaningful headings clearly relate directly to the core topic.
# Be careful that the structure isn't overly ambitious because the word count might blow out; be prepared to concentrate on core topics only
# The subtitle in the sub-headings should probably have the first letters capitalised
&lt;!-- Alignment with focus questions --&gt;
# Insufficient alignment between sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings
|3=
&lt;!-- Overview--&gt;
# Very good
&lt;!-- Scenario --&gt;
# A scenario or case study is presented in a feature box with an image at the start of this section
&lt;!-- Description --&gt;
# A promising description of the problem/topic is planned or presented
# Consider making this more user-friendly, shifting most or all of the citations into subsequent sections
# Move external links into the references or external links
&lt;!-- Focus questions --&gt;
# Develop closer alignment between the sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings
|4=
&lt;!-- Key points--&gt;
&lt;!-- Overall --&gt;
# Excellent – key points are well developed for each section
&lt;!-- Conclusion --&gt;
# Conclusion is well developed
|5=
&lt;!-- Figure --&gt;
# Figure(s) are presented and captioned
&lt;!-- Cite --&gt;
# Cite each figure at least once in the main text using APA style (e.g., see Figure 1)
&lt;!-- Size --&gt;
# Consider increasing image size(s)
|6=
&lt;!-- Learning feature --&gt;
&lt;!-- Interwiki links ---&gt;
# Add in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for first mention of key terms to [[w:|Wikipedia]] and/or [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]])
&lt;!-- Scenarios/examples/case studies --&gt;
# Consider use of more scenarios/examples/case studies 
&lt;!-- Quiz --&gt;
# Promising use of quiz question(s)
&lt;!-- Tables --&gt;
# Also consider using tables to summarise key information
|7=
&lt;!-- References --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overall --&gt;
# Very good
&lt;!-- Systematic reviews --&gt;
# What are the most relevant systematic reviews/meta-analyses about this topic?
&lt;!-- APA style --&gt;
# Check and correct [https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/reference-guide.pdf APA referencing style]:
## capitalisation
|8=
&lt;!-- Resources --&gt;
&lt;!-- See also --&gt;
# See also
## Excellent
&lt;!-- External links --&gt;
# External links
## Excellent
|9=
&lt;!-- User page --&gt;
# Excellent
|10=
&lt;!-- Social contribution --&gt;
# Excellent – at least three different types of contributions with direct link(s) to evidence
}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 08:37, 30 August 2026 (UTC)

== Suggestion for a related source ==
Hey there! This chapter seems to be coming along nicely, and I'm interested in how you'll expand upon it as you go. I'm doing a related chapter [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Game of dice task and decision-making|here]] about the Game of Dice Task and how it relates to risk-based decision making. I've found a source in my own research that I think could be useful for your chapter, especially to the point of how executive functions develop over adolescence and the effect this has on decision-making. [https://www-tandfonline-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/doi/full/10.1080/09297049.2014.934216 The study by Schiebener et al. (2014)] highlights cognitive differences between executive functions and reasoning, and makes a compelling case that in situtations of explicit numerical risk, the development of executive functions, not reasoning capability, is important for advantageous choices.

Hope this is helpful and best of luck with finalising your chapter. - Ryan [[User:U3216724|U3216724]] ([[User talk:U3216724|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3216724|contribs]]) 03:45, 5 October 2026 (UTC)

:This may also be a useful source for addressing James' initial comment about addressing when risk-taking peaks in adolescence. :) [[User:U3216724|U3216724]] ([[User talk:U3216724|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3216724|contribs]]) 03:46, 5 October 2026 (UTC)</text>
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      <text bytes="2049" sha1="cl5fbksk4nhdnee0b9tjjfbgowck409" xml:space="preserve">== About Me ==

Hi,

My name is Xander and I am third year student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra] who is studying psychology. 

I am very passionate about:

* Music
* Film and television
* Things associated with fantasy or the medieval period
Some of my favourite films and television shows (not in order) include:

* [[wikipedia:The_Lord_of_the_Rings_(film_series)|Lord of the Rings]] (the whole trilogy)
* [[w:Buffy_the_Vampire_Slayer|Buffy the Vampire Slayer]]
* [[w:Good_Will_Hunting|Good Will Hunting]]
* [[w:Adventure_Time|Adventure Time]]
* [[w:The_Dark_Knight|The Dark Knight]]

When it comes to music I mainly listen to genres ranging from [[w:2000s_in_music|2000s pop]] to [[w:Heavy_metal_music|heavy metal]]. 

== Book Chapter ==

I am working on the chapter [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Social connection and emotion regulation|social connection and emotion regulation]]. Feel free to suggest any references or content that I should address in the discussion page!

== Social Contributions ==

# [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FGetting_started&amp;diff=2823064&amp;oldid=2823062 Added the template and edited the title for this page (19/08/2026)]
# [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FMental_health_first_aid_and_helping_behaviour&amp;diff=2823426&amp;oldid=2823423 Added the template and edited the title for this page (20/08/2026)]
# [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455261?entry_id=806521 Posted a reply to a UCLearn discussion post (20/08/2026)]
# [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Positive emotion dysregulation#c-U3284040-20260825013500-See Also Addition|Provided feedback to a book chapter page (25/08/2026)]]
# [[:File:2008... enjoying my best friends!.jpg|Uploaded image to Wikimedia Commons - Check File History (25/08/2026)]]
# [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/456345?entry_id=814497 Replied to a UCLearn discussion post (05/09/2026)]</text>
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      <text bytes="2202" sha1="d3uhwsmbxvyffucddl0rq4wl747eo3p" xml:space="preserve">== About Me ==

Hi,

My name is Xander and I am third year student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra] who is studying psychology. 

I am very passionate about:

* Music
* Film and television
* Things associated with fantasy or the medieval period
Some of my favourite films and television shows (not in order) include:

* [[wikipedia:The_Lord_of_the_Rings_(film_series)|Lord of the Rings]] (the whole trilogy)
* [[w:Buffy_the_Vampire_Slayer|Buffy the Vampire Slayer]]
* [[w:Good_Will_Hunting|Good Will Hunting]]
* [[w:Adventure_Time|Adventure Time]]
* [[w:The_Dark_Knight|The Dark Knight]]

When it comes to music I mainly listen to genres ranging from [[w:2000s_in_music|2000s pop]] to [[w:Heavy_metal_music|heavy metal]]. 

== Book Chapter ==

I am working on the chapter [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Social connection and emotion regulation|social connection and emotion regulation]]. Feel free to suggest any references or content that I should address in the discussion page!

== Social Contributions ==

# [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FGetting_started&amp;diff=2823064&amp;oldid=2823062 Added the template and edited the title for this page (19/08/2026)]
# [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FMental_health_first_aid_and_helping_behaviour&amp;diff=2823426&amp;oldid=2823423 Added the template and edited the title for this page (20/08/2026)]
# [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455261?entry_id=806521 Posted a reply to a UCLearn discussion post (20/08/2026)]
# [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Positive emotion dysregulation#c-U3284040-20260825013500-See Also Addition|Provided feedback to a book chapter page (25/08/2026)]]
# [[:File:2008... enjoying my best friends!.jpg|Uploaded image to Wikimedia Commons - Check File History (25/08/2026)]]
# [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/456345?entry_id=814497 Replied to a UCLearn discussion post (05/09/2026)]
# [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/464746?entry_id=823746 Answered a question on a UCLearn discussion post (05/10/2026)]</text>
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      <text bytes="9927" sha1="kbak1r23ui63fcmafcfgytkz3ir3u15" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Getting started:&lt;br&gt;Why is task initiation difficult and how to overcome it?}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}

[[File:Scrolling on phone (cropped).jpg||thumb|right|150px|'''Figure 1'''. An individual scrolling on their phone.]] 

;Scenario

John is a university student with an assignment due in five days time which he has not started. Despite knowing that he needs to begin the assignment soon in order to have it completed by the due date, he finds the prospect of starting the assignment daunting, and so continues to find alternative activities to distract himself, such as scrolling on social media (see Figure 1.)

John is struggling with task initiation, and is using procrastination as a coping behaviour to manage his negative feelings associated with starting the assignment.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Executive functions are set of top-down cognitive processes that support individuals in relation to goal-directed behaviour through facilitating planning, attention, concentration, and mental flexibility (Diamond, 2013). Three core executive functions are often discussed: inhibition control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility (Miyake et al. 2000). Higher-order executive functions are derived from these, such as planning, task-switching, and fluid intelligence (Collins &amp; Koechlin, 2012), although these functions are often subjects of debate in terms of domain specificity. One such function is that of task initiation. 

Task initiation is an executive function that allows an individual to begin a specific task at a desired time without unnecessary hesitation or delay. Task initiation can be inhibited by various cognitive, emotional, and motivational factors. When tasks are associated with negative emotions such as anxiety, shame, or stress, are perceived as low-priority, distant, or unclear and thus do not inspire motivation, or when an individual has adverse cognitive factors related to executive functioning, task initiation can quickly become difficult. 

Impaired task initiation is often associated with procrastination, which is the act of intentionally delaying a task or set of tasks despite the knowledge that there will be negative consequences. Procrastination is used to manage and regulation the negative emotions associated with task initiation on a short-term basis (Sirois &amp; Pychyl, 2013) and is also often influenced by cognitive processes such as temporal discounting. Despite this, it is important to note the distinction between task initiation as a neurological process and procrastination as an active, voluntary choice to delay tasks.

Individuals who struggle with task initiation and procrastination long-term may suffer negative health aspects such as chronic stress and increased anxiety and depression (Stead et al., 2010) as well as decreased performance in academic or workplace environments (Steel, 2007). Understanding the cognitive and psychological mechanisms of task initiation and the various factors influencing it can help to bolster task initiation in individuals – such as through the development of mitigation strategies and measures for procrastination, for example – thus reducing the negative impact of impaired task initiation on individual’s lives.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* What are the cognitive processes underlying task initiation?
* How do motivational and emotional factors influence task initiation?
* Why does task initiation become difficult?
* What are the differences and interactions between task initiation and procrastination? 
* How can task initiation be improved?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Cognitive processes ==
Task initiation can be examined as functioning through the interactions of the core executive functions that it is derived from. Working memory involves the visualisation and maintenance of goals through the monitoring, coding, and revising of relevant information, inhibition control is the ability to deliberately suppress competing responses, and cognitive flexibility allows for set-shifting, the ability to shift between tasks or mental sets (Miyake et al., 2020), all of which are important factors in relation to functional task initiation in individuals. However, intention to initiate a task does not always translate to induced behaviour, and various cognitive models and theories offer explanations for this discrepancy. Notable among these include the theory of planned behaviour (TPB), the Rubicon model of action phases, implementation intentions (“if-then” planning), and the health action process model (HAPA).

=== Theory of planned behaviour ===
The theory of planned behaviour (Ajzek, 1991) proposes that attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control jointly contribute to shape an individual's behavioural intention, which is then theorised to be the most immediate determinant of behaviour. However, perceived behavioural control - often conceptually related or compared to self-efficacy - is also stated as directly interacting with behaviour due to the dependence of behaviour on whether an individual has sufficient control over performing it, a relationship that is stated within the model as being strongest when perceived control reasonably reflects actual control. Thus, this can lead to an intention-action gap: favourable attitudes and supportive norms may generate an intention to begin a task, but insufficient perceived or actual behavioural control can prevent that intention from being translated into action.

=== Rubicon model of action phases ===
The Rubicon model of action phases (Heckhausen &amp; Gollwitzer, 1987) divides the process from intention to action into four phases: pre-decisional (choosing between potential goals through weighing their feasibility and desirability), pre-actional (planning the implementation of the chosen goal), actional (executing the plan) and post-actional (evaluating the outcomes to initial goals and subsequently adjusting future behaviour). The model therefore provides a framework for understanding the intention-action gap: after forming a goal intention, an individual may still fail to progress from the pre-actional to the actional phase, representing a volitional problem in which an intended behaviour is not successfully initiated. [MAYBE REWORD]

=== Implementation intentions ===

=== Health action process model ===

== Motivation and emotion ==

== Difficulties ==

== Procrastination ==

==Improving task initiation ==

== Conclusion ==

== See also ==

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Procrastination|Procrastination]] (Book chapter, 2011)
* [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]] (Wikipedia)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1= 
Barkley, R. A. (2012). Executive functions: What they are, how they work, and why they evolved. Guilford Press. 

Erisman, S. M., &amp; Roemer, L. (2010). A preliminary investigation of the effects of experimentally induced mindfulness on emotional responding to film clips. ''Emotion'', ''10''(1), 72–82. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017162 

Gollwitzer, P. M. (1999). Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans. ''American Psychologist, 54''(7), 493–503. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.54.7.493

Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., &amp; Wager, T. D. (2000)'''.''' The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex &quot;Frontal Lobe&quot; tasks: A latent variable analysis. ''Cognitive Psychology'', ''41''(1), 49–100. https://doi.org/10.1006/cogp.1999.0734

Sirois, F. M., Molnar, D. S., &amp; Hirsch, J. K. (2017). A Meta-analytic and Conceptual Update on the Associations Between Procrastination and Multidimensional Perfectionism. European Journal of Personality, 31(2), 137–159. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2098 

Sirois, F., &amp; Pychyl, T. (2013). Procrastination and the Priority of Short-Term Mood Regulation: Consequences for Future Self. ''Social and Personality Psychology Compass'', ''7''(2), 115–127. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12011 

Stead, R., Shanahan, M. J., &amp; Neufeld, R. W. J. (2010). “I’ll go to therapy, eventually”: Procrastination, stress and mental health. Personality and Individual Differences, 49(3), 175–180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.03.028 

Steel, P. (2007). The nature of procrastination: A meta-analytic and theoretical review of quintessential self-regulatory failure. ''Psychological Bulletin, 133''(1), 65–94. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.65 

Trope, Y., &amp; Liberman, N. (2010). Construal-Level Theory of Psychological Distance. ''Psychological Review'', ''117''(2), 440–463. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018963 

Wäschle, K., Allgaier, A., Lachner, A., Fink, S., &amp; Nückles, M. (2014). Procrastination and self-efficacy: Tracing vicious and virtuous circles in self-regulated learning. Learning and Instruction, 29, 103–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2013.09.005 

Wohl, M. J. A., Pychyl, T. A., &amp; Bennett, S. H. (2010). I forgive myself, now I can study: How self-forgiveness for procrastinating can reduce future procrastination. ''Personality and Individual Differences'', ''48''(7), 803–808. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.01.029

}}

== External links ==

* [https://www.verywellmind.com/wall-of-awful-in-adhd-12000744 How the Wall of Awful Prevents Task Initiation in ADHD - and What Can Help You Push Through] (Verywell Mind, 2026)
* [https://www.theguardian.com/wellness/2025/sep/12/executive-dysfunction-overcome What is 'executive dysfunction' and how do you overcome it?] (The Guardian, 2025)
* [https://www.psychologicalscience.org/observer/why-wait-the-science-behind-procrastination Why Wait? The Science Behind Procrastination] (Association for Psychological Science, 2013) 

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[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Goal pursuit]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Procrastination]]</text>
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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}

[[File:Scrolling on phone (cropped).jpg||thumb|right|150px|'''Figure 1'''. An individual scrolling on their phone.]] 

;Scenario

John is a university student with an assignment due in five days time which he has not started. Despite knowing that he needs to begin the assignment soon in order to have it completed by the due date, he finds the prospect of starting the assignment daunting, and so continues to find alternative activities to distract himself, such as scrolling on social media (see Figure 1.)

John is struggling with task initiation, and is using procrastination as a coping behaviour to manage his negative feelings associated with starting the assignment.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Executive functions are set of top-down cognitive processes that support individuals in relation to goal-directed behaviour through facilitating planning, attention, concentration, and mental flexibility (Diamond, 2013). Three core executive functions are often discussed: inhibition control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility (Miyake et al. 2000). Higher-order executive functions are derived from these, such as planning, task-switching, and fluid intelligence (Collins &amp; Koechlin, 2012), although these functions are often subjects of debate in terms of domain specificity. One such function is that of task initiation. 

Task initiation is an executive function that allows an individual to begin a specific task at a desired time without unnecessary hesitation or delay. Task initiation can be inhibited by various cognitive, emotional, and motivational factors. When tasks are associated with negative emotions such as anxiety, shame, or stress, are perceived as low-priority, distant, or unclear and thus do not inspire motivation, or when an individual has adverse cognitive factors related to executive functioning, task initiation can quickly become difficult. 

Impaired task initiation is often associated with procrastination, which is the act of intentionally delaying a task or set of tasks despite the knowledge that there will be negative consequences. Procrastination is used to manage and regulation the negative emotions associated with task initiation on a short-term basis (Sirois &amp; Pychyl, 2013) and is also often influenced by cognitive processes such as temporal discounting. Despite this, it is important to note the distinction between task initiation as a neurological process and procrastination as an active, voluntary choice to delay tasks.

Individuals who struggle with task initiation and procrastination long-term may suffer negative health aspects such as chronic stress and increased anxiety and depression (Stead et al., 2010) as well as decreased performance in academic or workplace environments (Steel, 2007). Understanding the cognitive and psychological mechanisms of task initiation and the various factors influencing it can help to bolster task initiation in individuals – such as through the development of mitigation strategies and measures for procrastination, for example – thus reducing the negative impact of impaired task initiation on individual’s lives.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* What are the cognitive processes underlying task initiation?
* How do motivational and emotional factors influence task initiation?
* Why does task initiation become difficult?
* What are the differences and interactions between task initiation and procrastination? 
* How can task initiation be improved?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Cognitive processes ==
Task initiation can be examined as functioning through the interactions of the core executive functions that it is derived from. Working memory involves the visualisation and maintenance of goals through the monitoring, coding, and revising of relevant information, inhibition control is the ability to deliberately suppress competing responses, and cognitive flexibility allows for set-shifting, the ability to shift between tasks or mental sets (Miyake et al., 2020), all of which are important factors in relation to functional task initiation in individuals. However, intention to initiate a task does not always translate to induced behaviour, and various cognitive models and theories offer explanations for this discrepancy. Notable among these include the theory of planned behaviour (TPB), the Rubicon model of action phases, and implementation intentions (“if-then” planning).

=== Theory of planned behaviour ===
The theory of planned behaviour (Ajzek, 1991) proposes that attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control jointly contribute to shape an individual's behavioural intention, which is then theorised to be the most immediate determinant of behaviour. However, perceived behavioural control - often conceptually related or compared to self-efficacy - is also stated as directly interacting with behaviour due to the dependence of behaviour on whether an individual has sufficient control over performing it, a relationship that is stated within the model as being strongest when perceived control reasonably reflects actual control. Thus, this can lead to an intention-action gap: favourable attitudes and supportive norms may generate an intention to begin a task, but insufficient perceived or actual behavioural control can prevent that intention from being translated into action.

=== Rubicon model of action phases ===
The Rubicon model of action phases (Heckhausen &amp; Gollwitzer, 1987) divides the process from intention to action into four phases: pre-decisional (choosing between potential goals through weighing their feasibility and desirability), pre-actional (planning the implementation of the chosen goal), actional (executing the plan) and post-actional (evaluating the outcomes to initial goals and subsequently adjusting future behaviour). The model therefore provides a framework for understanding the intention-action gap: after forming a goal intention, an individual may still fail to progress from the pre-actional to the actional phase, representing a volitional problem in which an intended behaviour is not successfully initiated. [MAYBE REWORD]

=== Implementation intentions ===

== Motivation and emotion ==

== Difficulties ==

== Procrastination ==

==Improving task initiation ==

== Conclusion ==

== See also ==

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Procrastination|Procrastination]] (Book chapter, 2011)
* [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]] (Wikipedia)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1= 
Barkley, R. A. (2012). Executive functions: What they are, how they work, and why they evolved. Guilford Press. 

Erisman, S. M., &amp; Roemer, L. (2010). A preliminary investigation of the effects of experimentally induced mindfulness on emotional responding to film clips. ''Emotion'', ''10''(1), 72–82. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017162 

Gollwitzer, P. M. (1999). Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans. ''American Psychologist, 54''(7), 493–503. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.54.7.493

Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., &amp; Wager, T. D. (2000)'''.''' The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex &quot;Frontal Lobe&quot; tasks: A latent variable analysis. ''Cognitive Psychology'', ''41''(1), 49–100. https://doi.org/10.1006/cogp.1999.0734

Sirois, F. M., Molnar, D. S., &amp; Hirsch, J. K. (2017). A Meta-analytic and Conceptual Update on the Associations Between Procrastination and Multidimensional Perfectionism. European Journal of Personality, 31(2), 137–159. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2098 

Sirois, F., &amp; Pychyl, T. (2013). Procrastination and the Priority of Short-Term Mood Regulation: Consequences for Future Self. ''Social and Personality Psychology Compass'', ''7''(2), 115–127. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12011 

Stead, R., Shanahan, M. J., &amp; Neufeld, R. W. J. (2010). “I’ll go to therapy, eventually”: Procrastination, stress and mental health. Personality and Individual Differences, 49(3), 175–180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.03.028 

Steel, P. (2007). The nature of procrastination: A meta-analytic and theoretical review of quintessential self-regulatory failure. ''Psychological Bulletin, 133''(1), 65–94. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.65 

Trope, Y., &amp; Liberman, N. (2010). Construal-Level Theory of Psychological Distance. ''Psychological Review'', ''117''(2), 440–463. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018963 

Wäschle, K., Allgaier, A., Lachner, A., Fink, S., &amp; Nückles, M. (2014). Procrastination and self-efficacy: Tracing vicious and virtuous circles in self-regulated learning. Learning and Instruction, 29, 103–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2013.09.005 

Wohl, M. J. A., Pychyl, T. A., &amp; Bennett, S. H. (2010). I forgive myself, now I can study: How self-forgiveness for procrastinating can reduce future procrastination. ''Personality and Individual Differences'', ''48''(7), 803–808. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.01.029

}}

== External links ==

* [https://www.verywellmind.com/wall-of-awful-in-adhd-12000744 How the Wall of Awful Prevents Task Initiation in ADHD - and What Can Help You Push Through] (Verywell Mind, 2026)
* [https://www.theguardian.com/wellness/2025/sep/12/executive-dysfunction-overcome What is 'executive dysfunction' and how do you overcome it?] (The Guardian, 2025)
* [https://www.psychologicalscience.org/observer/why-wait-the-science-behind-procrastination Why Wait? The Science Behind Procrastination] (Association for Psychological Science, 2013) 

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[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Goal pursuit]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Procrastination]]</text>
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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}

[[File:Scrolling on phone (cropped).jpg||thumb|right|150px|'''Figure 1'''. An individual scrolling on their phone.]] 

;Scenario

John is a university student with an assignment due in five days time which he has not started. Despite knowing that he needs to begin the assignment soon in order to have it completed by the due date, he finds the prospect of starting the assignment daunting, and so continues to find alternative activities to distract himself, such as scrolling on social media (see Figure 1.)

John is struggling with task initiation, and is using procrastination as a coping behaviour to manage his negative feelings associated with starting the assignment.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Executive functions are set of top-down cognitive processes that support individuals in relation to goal-directed behaviour through facilitating planning, attention, concentration, and mental flexibility (Diamond, 2013). Three core executive functions are often discussed: inhibition control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility (Miyake et al. 2000). Higher-order executive functions are derived from these, such as planning, task-switching, and fluid intelligence (Collins &amp; Koechlin, 2012), although these functions are often subjects of debate in terms of domain specificity. One such function is that of task initiation. 

Task initiation is an executive function that allows an individual to begin a specific task at a desired time without unnecessary hesitation or delay. Task initiation can be inhibited by various cognitive, emotional, and motivational factors. When tasks are associated with negative emotions such as anxiety, shame, or stress, are perceived as low-priority, distant, or unclear and thus do not inspire motivation, or when an individual has adverse cognitive factors related to executive functioning, task initiation can quickly become difficult. 

Impaired task initiation is often associated with procrastination, which is the act of intentionally delaying a task or set of tasks despite the knowledge that there will be negative consequences. Procrastination is used to manage and regulation the negative emotions associated with task initiation on a short-term basis (Sirois &amp; Pychyl, 2013) and is also often influenced by cognitive processes such as temporal discounting. Despite this, it is important to note the distinction between task initiation as a neurological process and procrastination as an active, voluntary choice to delay tasks.

Individuals who struggle with task initiation and procrastination long-term may suffer negative health aspects such as chronic stress and increased anxiety and depression (Stead et al., 2010) as well as decreased performance in academic or workplace environments (Steel, 2007). Understanding the cognitive and psychological mechanisms of task initiation and the various factors influencing it can help to bolster task initiation in individuals – such as through the development of mitigation strategies and measures for procrastination, for example – thus reducing the negative impact of impaired task initiation on individual’s lives.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* What are the cognitive processes underlying task initiation?
* How do motivational and emotional factors influence task initiation?
* Why does task initiation become difficult?
* What are the differences and interactions between task initiation and procrastination? 
* How can task initiation be improved?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Cognitive processes ==
Task initiation can be examined as functioning through the interactions of the core executive functions that it is derived from. Working memory involves the visualisation and maintenance of goals through the monitoring, coding, and revising of relevant information, inhibition control is the ability to deliberately suppress competing responses, and cognitive flexibility allows for set-shifting, the ability to shift between tasks or mental sets (Miyake et al., 2020), all of which are important factors in relation to functional task initiation in individuals. However, intention to initiate a task does not always translate to induced behaviour, and various cognitive models and theories offer explanations for this discrepancy. Notable among these include the theory of planned behaviour (TPB), the Rubicon model of action phases, and implementation intentions (“if-then” planning).

=== Theory of planned behaviour ===
The theory of planned behaviour (Ajzek, 1991) proposes that attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control jointly contribute to shape an individual's behavioural intention, which is then theorised to be the most immediate determinant of behaviour. However, perceived behavioural control - often conceptually related or compared to self-efficacy - is also stated as directly interacting with behaviour due to the dependence of behaviour on whether an individual has sufficient control over performing it, a relationship that is stated within the model as being strongest when perceived control reasonably reflects actual control. Thus, this can lead to an intention-action gap: favourable attitudes and supportive norms may generate an intention to begin a task, but insufficient perceived or actual behavioural control can prevent that intention from being translated into action.

=== Rubicon model of action phases ===
The Rubicon model of action phases (Heckhausen &amp; Gollwitzer, 1987) divides the process from intention to action into four phases: pre-decisional (choosing between potential goals through weighing their feasibility and desirability), pre-actional (planning the implementation of the chosen goal), actional (executing the plan) and post-actional (evaluating the outcomes to initial goals and subsequently adjusting future behaviour). The model therefore provides a framework for understanding the intention-action gap: after forming a goal intention, an individual may still fail to progress from the pre-actional to the actional phase, representing a volitional problem in which an intended behaviour is not successfully initiated. [MAYBE REWORD]

== Motivation and emotion ==

== Difficulties ==

== Procrastination ==

==Improving task initiation ==

== Conclusion ==

== See also ==

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Procrastination|Procrastination]] (Book chapter, 2011)
* [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]] (Wikipedia)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1= 
Barkley, R. A. (2012). Executive functions: What they are, how they work, and why they evolved. Guilford Press. 

Erisman, S. M., &amp; Roemer, L. (2010). A preliminary investigation of the effects of experimentally induced mindfulness on emotional responding to film clips. ''Emotion'', ''10''(1), 72–82. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017162 

Gollwitzer, P. M. (1999). Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans. ''American Psychologist, 54''(7), 493–503. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.54.7.493

Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., &amp; Wager, T. D. (2000)'''.''' The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex &quot;Frontal Lobe&quot; tasks: A latent variable analysis. ''Cognitive Psychology'', ''41''(1), 49–100. https://doi.org/10.1006/cogp.1999.0734

Sirois, F. M., Molnar, D. S., &amp; Hirsch, J. K. (2017). A Meta-analytic and Conceptual Update on the Associations Between Procrastination and Multidimensional Perfectionism. European Journal of Personality, 31(2), 137–159. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2098 

Sirois, F., &amp; Pychyl, T. (2013). Procrastination and the Priority of Short-Term Mood Regulation: Consequences for Future Self. ''Social and Personality Psychology Compass'', ''7''(2), 115–127. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12011 

Stead, R., Shanahan, M. J., &amp; Neufeld, R. W. J. (2010). “I’ll go to therapy, eventually”: Procrastination, stress and mental health. Personality and Individual Differences, 49(3), 175–180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.03.028 

Steel, P. (2007). The nature of procrastination: A meta-analytic and theoretical review of quintessential self-regulatory failure. ''Psychological Bulletin, 133''(1), 65–94. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.65 

Trope, Y., &amp; Liberman, N. (2010). Construal-Level Theory of Psychological Distance. ''Psychological Review'', ''117''(2), 440–463. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018963 

Wäschle, K., Allgaier, A., Lachner, A., Fink, S., &amp; Nückles, M. (2014). Procrastination and self-efficacy: Tracing vicious and virtuous circles in self-regulated learning. Learning and Instruction, 29, 103–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2013.09.005 

Wohl, M. J. A., Pychyl, T. A., &amp; Bennett, S. H. (2010). I forgive myself, now I can study: How self-forgiveness for procrastinating can reduce future procrastination. ''Personality and Individual Differences'', ''48''(7), 803–808. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.01.029

}}

== External links ==

* [https://www.verywellmind.com/wall-of-awful-in-adhd-12000744 How the Wall of Awful Prevents Task Initiation in ADHD - and What Can Help You Push Through] (Verywell Mind, 2026)
* [https://www.theguardian.com/wellness/2025/sep/12/executive-dysfunction-overcome What is 'executive dysfunction' and how do you overcome it?] (The Guardian, 2025)
* [https://www.psychologicalscience.org/observer/why-wait-the-science-behind-procrastination Why Wait? The Science Behind Procrastination] (Association for Psychological Science, 2013) 

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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}

[[File:Scrolling on phone (cropped).jpg||thumb|right|150px|'''Figure 1'''. An individual scrolling on their phone.]] 

;Scenario

John is a university student with an assignment due in five days time which he has not started. Despite knowing that he needs to begin the assignment soon in order to have it completed by the due date, he finds the prospect of starting the assignment daunting, and so continues to find alternative activities to distract himself, such as scrolling on social media (see Figure 1.)

John is struggling with task initiation, and is using procrastination as a coping behaviour to manage his negative feelings associated with starting the assignment.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Executive functions are set of top-down cognitive processes that support individuals in relation to goal-directed behaviour through facilitating planning, attention, concentration, and mental flexibility (Diamond, 2013). Three core executive functions are often discussed: inhibition control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility (Miyake et al. 2000). Higher-order executive functions are derived from these, such as planning, task-switching, and fluid intelligence (Collins &amp; Koechlin, 2012), although these functions are often subjects of debate in terms of domain specificity. One such function is that of task initiation. 

Task initiation is an executive function that allows an individual to begin a specific task at a desired time without unnecessary hesitation or delay. Task initiation can be inhibited by various cognitive, emotional, and motivational factors. When tasks are associated with negative emotions such as anxiety, shame, or stress, are perceived as low-priority, distant, or unclear and thus do not inspire motivation, or when an individual has adverse cognitive factors related to executive functioning, task initiation can quickly become difficult. 

Impaired task initiation is often associated with procrastination, which is the act of intentionally delaying a task or set of tasks despite the knowledge that there will be negative consequences. Procrastination is used to manage and regulation the negative emotions associated with task initiation on a short-term basis (Sirois &amp; Pychyl, 2013) and is also often influenced by cognitive processes such as temporal discounting. Despite this, it is important to note the distinction between task initiation as a neurological process and procrastination as an active, voluntary choice to delay tasks.

Individuals who struggle with task initiation and procrastination long-term may suffer negative health aspects such as chronic stress and increased anxiety and depression (Stead et al., 2010) as well as decreased performance in academic or workplace environments (Steel, 2007). Understanding the cognitive and psychological mechanisms of task initiation and the various factors influencing it can help to bolster task initiation in individuals – such as through the development of mitigation strategies and measures for procrastination, for example – thus reducing the negative impact of impaired task initiation on individual’s lives.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* What are the cognitive processes underlying task initiation?
* How do motivational and emotional factors influence task initiation?
* Why does task initiation become difficult?
* What are the differences and interactions between task initiation and procrastination? 
* How can task initiation be improved?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Cognitive processes ==
Task initiation can be examined as functioning through the interactions of the core executive functions that it is derived from. Working memory involves the visualisation and maintenance of goals through the monitoring, coding, and revising of relevant information, inhibition control is the ability to deliberately suppress competing responses, and cognitive flexibility allows for set-shifting, the ability to shift between tasks or mental sets (Miyake et al., 2020), all of which are important factors in relation to functional task initiation in individuals. However, intention to initiate a task does not always translate to induced behaviour, and various cognitive models and theories offer explanations for this discrepancy. Notable among these include the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) and the Rubicon model of action phases.

=== Theory of planned behaviour ===
The theory of planned behaviour (Ajzek, 1991) proposes that attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control jointly contribute to shape an individual's behavioural intention, which is then theorised to be the most immediate determinant of behaviour. However, perceived behavioural control - often conceptually related or compared to self-efficacy - is also stated as directly interacting with behaviour due to the dependence of behaviour on whether an individual has sufficient control over performing it, a relationship that is stated within the model as being strongest when perceived control reasonably reflects actual control. Thus, this can lead to an intention-action gap: favourable attitudes and supportive norms may generate an intention to begin a task, but insufficient perceived or actual behavioural control can prevent that intention from being translated into action.

=== Rubicon model of action phases ===
The Rubicon model of action phases (Heckhausen &amp; Gollwitzer, 1987) divides the process from intention to action into four phases: pre-decisional (choosing between potential goals through weighing their feasibility and desirability), pre-actional (planning the implementation of the chosen goal), actional (executing the plan) and post-actional (evaluating the outcomes to initial goals and subsequently adjusting future behaviour). The model therefore provides a framework for understanding the intention-action gap: after forming a goal intention, an individual may still fail to progress from the pre-actional to the actional phase, representing a volitional problem in which an intended behaviour is not successfully initiated. [MAYBE REWORD]

== Motivational and emotional barriers ==
Motivation and emotion are two psychological areas of study which both pertain to task initiation and may be examined to understand how and why task initiation can become difficult. [Expand?]

=== Motivation ===
Task initiation is partly dependent on motivational influences such as the anticipated benefit of the task, the perceived likelihood of success, and the costs associated with performing it. Expectancy-value theory proposes that the expected outcomes and subjective value placed upon tasks by individuals heavily influences choice and persistence in relation to tasks (Wigfield &amp; Eccles, 2000). Similarly, self-efficacy theory proposes that individuals' efficacy expectations are the major determinant in relation to goal setting, task choice, effort expenditure, and persistence (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002). 

=== Emotion ===

== Procrastination ==

==Improving task initiation ==

== Conclusion ==

== See also ==

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Procrastination|Procrastination]] (Book chapter, 2011)
* [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]] (Wikipedia)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1= 
Barkley, R. A. (2012). Executive functions: What they are, how they work, and why they evolved. Guilford Press. 

Erisman, S. M., &amp; Roemer, L. (2010). A preliminary investigation of the effects of experimentally induced mindfulness on emotional responding to film clips. ''Emotion'', ''10''(1), 72–82. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017162 

Gollwitzer, P. M. (1999). Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans. ''American Psychologist, 54''(7), 493–503. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.54.7.493

Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., &amp; Wager, T. D. (2000)'''.''' The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex &quot;Frontal Lobe&quot; tasks: A latent variable analysis. ''Cognitive Psychology'', ''41''(1), 49–100. https://doi.org/10.1006/cogp.1999.0734

Sirois, F. M., Molnar, D. S., &amp; Hirsch, J. K. (2017). A Meta-analytic and Conceptual Update on the Associations Between Procrastination and Multidimensional Perfectionism. European Journal of Personality, 31(2), 137–159. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2098 

Sirois, F., &amp; Pychyl, T. (2013). Procrastination and the Priority of Short-Term Mood Regulation: Consequences for Future Self. ''Social and Personality Psychology Compass'', ''7''(2), 115–127. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12011 

Stead, R., Shanahan, M. J., &amp; Neufeld, R. W. J. (2010). “I’ll go to therapy, eventually”: Procrastination, stress and mental health. Personality and Individual Differences, 49(3), 175–180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.03.028 

Steel, P. (2007). The nature of procrastination: A meta-analytic and theoretical review of quintessential self-regulatory failure. ''Psychological Bulletin, 133''(1), 65–94. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.65 

Trope, Y., &amp; Liberman, N. (2010). Construal-Level Theory of Psychological Distance. ''Psychological Review'', ''117''(2), 440–463. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018963 

Wäschle, K., Allgaier, A., Lachner, A., Fink, S., &amp; Nückles, M. (2014). Procrastination and self-efficacy: Tracing vicious and virtuous circles in self-regulated learning. Learning and Instruction, 29, 103–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2013.09.005 

Wohl, M. J. A., Pychyl, T. A., &amp; Bennett, S. H. (2010). I forgive myself, now I can study: How self-forgiveness for procrastinating can reduce future procrastination. ''Personality and Individual Differences'', ''48''(7), 803–808. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.01.029

}}

== External links ==

* [https://www.verywellmind.com/wall-of-awful-in-adhd-12000744 How the Wall of Awful Prevents Task Initiation in ADHD - and What Can Help You Push Through] (Verywell Mind, 2026)
* [https://www.theguardian.com/wellness/2025/sep/12/executive-dysfunction-overcome What is 'executive dysfunction' and how do you overcome it?] (The Guardian, 2025)
* [https://www.psychologicalscience.org/observer/why-wait-the-science-behind-procrastination Why Wait? The Science Behind Procrastination] (Association for Psychological Science, 2013) 

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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}

[[File:Scrolling on phone (cropped).jpg||thumb|right|150px|'''Figure 1'''. An individual scrolling on their phone.]] 

;Scenario

John is a university student with an assignment due in five days time which he has not started. Despite knowing that he needs to begin the assignment soon in order to have it completed by the due date, he finds the prospect of starting the assignment daunting, and so continues to find alternative activities to distract himself, such as scrolling on social media (see Figure 1.)

John is struggling with task initiation, and is using procrastination as a coping behaviour to manage his negative feelings associated with starting the assignment.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Executive functions are set of top-down cognitive processes that support individuals in relation to goal-directed behaviour through facilitating planning, attention, concentration, and mental flexibility (Diamond, 2013). Three core executive functions are often discussed: inhibition control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility (Miyake et al. 2000). Higher-order executive functions are derived from these, such as planning, task-switching, and fluid intelligence (Collins &amp; Koechlin, 2012), although these functions are often subjects of debate in terms of domain specificity. One such function is that of task initiation. 

Task initiation is an executive function that allows an individual to begin a specific task at a desired time without unnecessary hesitation or delay. Task initiation can be inhibited by various cognitive, emotional, and motivational factors. When tasks are associated with negative emotions such as anxiety, shame, or stress, are perceived as low-priority, distant, or unclear and thus do not inspire motivation, or when an individual has adverse cognitive factors related to executive functioning, task initiation can quickly become difficult. 

Impaired task initiation is often associated with procrastination, which is the act of intentionally delaying a task or set of tasks despite the knowledge that there will be negative consequences. Procrastination is used to manage and regulation the negative emotions associated with task initiation on a short-term basis (Sirois &amp; Pychyl, 2013) and is also often influenced by cognitive processes such as temporal discounting. Despite this, it is important to note the distinction between task initiation as a neurological process and procrastination as an active, voluntary choice to delay tasks.

Individuals who struggle with task initiation and procrastination long-term may suffer negative health aspects such as chronic stress and increased anxiety and depression (Stead et al., 2010) as well as decreased performance in academic or workplace environments (Steel, 2007). Understanding the cognitive and psychological mechanisms of task initiation and the various factors influencing it can help to bolster task initiation in individuals – such as through the development of mitigation strategies and measures for procrastination, for example – thus reducing the negative impact of impaired task initiation on individual’s lives.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* What are the cognitive processes underlying task initiation?
* How do motivational and emotional factors influence task initiation?
* Why does task initiation become difficult?
* What are the differences and interactions between task initiation and procrastination? 
* How can task initiation be improved?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Cognitive processes ==
Task initiation can be examined as functioning through the interactions of the core executive functions that it is derived from. Working memory involves the visualisation and maintenance of goals through the monitoring, coding, and revising of relevant information, inhibition control is the ability to deliberately suppress competing responses, and cognitive flexibility allows for set-shifting, the ability to shift between tasks or mental sets (Miyake et al., 2020), all of which are important factors in relation to functional task initiation in individuals. However, intention to initiate a task does not always translate to induced behaviour, and various cognitive models and theories offer explanations for this discrepancy. Notable among these include the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) and the Rubicon model of action phases.

=== Theory of planned behaviour ===
The theory of planned behaviour (Ajzen, 1991) proposes that attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control jointly contribute to shape an individual's behavioural intention, which is then theorised to be the most immediate determinant of behaviour. However, perceived behavioural control - often conceptually related or compared to self-efficacy - is also stated as directly interacting with behaviour due to the dependence of behaviour on whether an individual has sufficient control over performing it, a relationship that is stated within the model as being strongest when perceived control reasonably reflects actual control. Thus, this can lead to an intention-action gap: favourable attitudes and supportive norms may generate an intention to begin a task, but insufficient perceived or actual behavioural control can prevent that intention from being translated into action.

=== Rubicon model of action phases ===
The Rubicon model of action phases (Heckhausen &amp; Gollwitzer, 1987) divides the process from intention to action into four phases: pre-decisional (choosing between potential goals through weighing their feasibility and desirability), pre-actional (planning the implementation of the chosen goal), actional (executing the plan) and post-actional (evaluating the outcomes to initial goals and subsequently adjusting future behaviour). The model therefore provides a framework for understanding the intention-action gap: after forming a goal intention, an individual may still fail to progress from the pre-actional to the actional phase, representing a volitional problem in which an intended behaviour is not successfully initiated. [MAYBE REWORD]

== Motivational and emotional barriers ==
Motivation and emotion are two psychological areas of study which both pertain to task initiation and may be examined to understand how and why task initiation can become difficult. [Expand?]

=== Motivation ===
Task initiation is partly dependent on motivational influences such as the anticipated benefit of the task, the perceived likelihood of success, and the costs associated with performing it. Expectancy-value theory proposes that the expected outcomes and subjective value placed upon tasks by individuals heavily influences choice and persistence in relation to tasks (Wigfield &amp; Eccles, 2000). Similarly, self-efficacy theory proposes that individuals' efficacy expectations are the major determinant in relation to goal setting, task choice, effort expenditure, and persistence (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002). Additionally, neurological theories such as the expected value of control (EVC) propose that the brain weighs anticipated rewards against the costs of metabolic and cognitive exertion and allocates cognitive control accordingly, thus providing an explanation for why task initiation may be inhibited for demanding tasks even if they have been appraised as as valuable and achievable (Shenhav et al., 2013). 

=== Emotion ===
Task initiation is also dependent on anticipatory emotions associated with the task. Boredom, frustration, and resentment 

== Procrastination ==

==Improving task initiation ==

== Conclusion ==

== See also ==

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Procrastination|Procrastination]] (Book chapter, 2011)
* [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]] (Wikipedia)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1= 
Barkley, R. A. (2012). Executive functions: What they are, how they work, and why they evolved. Guilford Press. 

Erisman, S. M., &amp; Roemer, L. (2010). A preliminary investigation of the effects of experimentally induced mindfulness on emotional responding to film clips. ''Emotion'', ''10''(1), 72–82. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017162 

Gollwitzer, P. M. (1999). Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans. ''American Psychologist, 54''(7), 493–503. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.54.7.493

Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., &amp; Wager, T. D. (2000)'''.''' The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex &quot;Frontal Lobe&quot; tasks: A latent variable analysis. ''Cognitive Psychology'', ''41''(1), 49–100. https://doi.org/10.1006/cogp.1999.0734

Sirois, F. M., Molnar, D. S., &amp; Hirsch, J. K. (2017). A Meta-analytic and Conceptual Update on the Associations Between Procrastination and Multidimensional Perfectionism. European Journal of Personality, 31(2), 137–159. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2098 

Sirois, F., &amp; Pychyl, T. (2013). Procrastination and the Priority of Short-Term Mood Regulation: Consequences for Future Self. ''Social and Personality Psychology Compass'', ''7''(2), 115–127. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12011 

Stead, R., Shanahan, M. J., &amp; Neufeld, R. W. J. (2010). “I’ll go to therapy, eventually”: Procrastination, stress and mental health. Personality and Individual Differences, 49(3), 175–180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.03.028 

Steel, P. (2007). The nature of procrastination: A meta-analytic and theoretical review of quintessential self-regulatory failure. ''Psychological Bulletin, 133''(1), 65–94. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.65 

Trope, Y., &amp; Liberman, N. (2010). Construal-Level Theory of Psychological Distance. ''Psychological Review'', ''117''(2), 440–463. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018963 

Wäschle, K., Allgaier, A., Lachner, A., Fink, S., &amp; Nückles, M. (2014). Procrastination and self-efficacy: Tracing vicious and virtuous circles in self-regulated learning. Learning and Instruction, 29, 103–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2013.09.005 

Wohl, M. J. A., Pychyl, T. A., &amp; Bennett, S. H. (2010). I forgive myself, now I can study: How self-forgiveness for procrastinating can reduce future procrastination. ''Personality and Individual Differences'', ''48''(7), 803–808. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.01.029

}}

== External links ==

* [https://www.verywellmind.com/wall-of-awful-in-adhd-12000744 How the Wall of Awful Prevents Task Initiation in ADHD - and What Can Help You Push Through] (Verywell Mind, 2026)
* [https://www.theguardian.com/wellness/2025/sep/12/executive-dysfunction-overcome What is 'executive dysfunction' and how do you overcome it?] (The Guardian, 2025)
* [https://www.psychologicalscience.org/observer/why-wait-the-science-behind-procrastination Why Wait? The Science Behind Procrastination] (Association for Psychological Science, 2013) 

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[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Goal pursuit]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Procrastination]]</text>
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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}

[[File:Scrolling on phone (cropped).jpg||thumb|right|150px|'''Figure 1'''. An individual scrolling on their phone.]] 

;Scenario

John is a university student with an assignment due in five days time which he has not started. Despite knowing that he needs to begin the assignment soon in order to have it completed by the due date, he finds the prospect of starting the assignment daunting, and so continues to find alternative activities to distract himself, such as scrolling on social media (see Figure 1.)

John is struggling with task initiation, and is using procrastination as a coping behaviour to manage his negative feelings associated with starting the assignment.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Executive functions are set of top-down cognitive processes that support individuals in relation to goal-directed behaviour through facilitating planning, attention, concentration, and mental flexibility (Diamond, 2013). Three core executive functions are often discussed: inhibition control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility (Miyake et al. 2000). Higher-order executive functions are derived from these, such as planning, task-switching, and fluid intelligence (Collins &amp; Koechlin, 2012), although these functions are often subjects of debate in terms of domain specificity. One such function is that of task initiation. 

Task initiation is an executive function that allows an individual to begin a specific task at a desired time without unnecessary hesitation or delay. Task initiation can be inhibited by various cognitive, emotional, and motivational factors. When tasks are associated with negative emotions such as anxiety, shame, or stress, are perceived as low-priority, distant, or unclear and thus do not inspire motivation, or when an individual has adverse cognitive factors related to executive functioning, task initiation can quickly become difficult. 

Impaired task initiation is often associated with procrastination, which is the act of intentionally delaying a task or set of tasks despite the knowledge that there will be negative consequences. Procrastination is used to manage and regulation the negative emotions associated with task initiation on a short-term basis (Sirois &amp; Pychyl, 2013) and is also often influenced by cognitive processes such as temporal discounting. Despite this, it is important to note the distinction between task initiation as a neurological process and procrastination as an active, voluntary choice to delay tasks.

Individuals who struggle with task initiation and procrastination long-term may suffer negative health aspects such as chronic stress and increased anxiety and depression (Stead et al., 2010) as well as decreased performance in academic or workplace environments (Steel, 2007). Understanding the cognitive and psychological mechanisms of task initiation and the various factors influencing it can help to bolster task initiation in individuals – such as through the development of mitigation strategies and measures for procrastination, for example – thus reducing the negative impact of impaired task initiation on individual’s lives.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* What are the cognitive processes underlying task initiation?
* How do motivational and emotional factors influence task initiation?
* Why does task initiation become difficult?
* What are the differences and interactions between task initiation and procrastination? 
* How can task initiation be improved?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Cognitive processes ==
Task initiation can be examined as functioning through the interactions of the core executive functions that it is derived from. Working memory involves the visualisation and maintenance of goals through the monitoring, coding, and revising of relevant information, inhibition control is the ability to deliberately suppress competing responses, and cognitive flexibility allows for set-shifting, the ability to shift between tasks or mental sets (Miyake et al., 2020), all of which are important factors in relation to functional task initiation in individuals. However, intention to initiate a task does not always translate to induced behaviour, and various cognitive models and theories offer explanations for this discrepancy. Notable among these include the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) and the Rubicon model of action phases.

=== Theory of planned behaviour ===
The theory of planned behaviour (Ajzen, 1991) proposes that attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control jointly contribute to shape an individual's behavioural intention, which is then theorised to be the most immediate determinant of behaviour. However, perceived behavioural control - often conceptually related or compared to self-efficacy - is also stated as directly interacting with behaviour due to the dependence of behaviour on whether an individual has sufficient control over performing it, a relationship that is stated within the model as being strongest when perceived control reasonably reflects actual control. Thus, this can lead to an intention-action gap: favourable attitudes and supportive norms may generate an intention to begin a task, but insufficient perceived or actual behavioural control can prevent that intention from being translated into action.

=== Rubicon model of action phases ===
The Rubicon model of action phases (Heckhausen &amp; Gollwitzer, 1987) divides the process from intention to action into four phases: pre-decisional (choosing between potential goals through weighing their feasibility and desirability), pre-actional (planning the implementation of the chosen goal), actional (executing the plan) and post-actional (evaluating the outcomes to initial goals and subsequently adjusting future behaviour). The model therefore provides a framework for understanding the intention-action gap: after forming a goal intention, an individual may still fail to progress from the pre-actional to the actional phase, representing a volitional problem in which an intended behaviour is not successfully initiated. [MAYBE REWORD]

== Motivational and emotional barriers ==
Motivation and emotion are two psychological areas of study which both pertain to task initiation and may be examined to understand how and why task initiation can become difficult. [Expand?]

=== Motivation ===
Task initiation is partly dependent on motivational influences such as the anticipated benefit of the task, the perceived likelihood of success, and the costs associated with performing it. Expectancy-value theory proposes that the expected outcomes and subjective value placed upon tasks by individuals heavily influences choice and persistence in relation to tasks (Wigfield &amp; Eccles, 2000). Similarly, self-efficacy theory proposes that individuals' efficacy expectations are the major determinant in relation to goal setting, task choice, effort expenditure, and persistence (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002). Additionally, neurological theories such as the expected value of control (EVC) propose that the brain weighs anticipated rewards against the costs of metabolic and cognitive exertion and allocates cognitive control accordingly, thus providing an explanation for why task initiation may be inhibited for demanding tasks even if they have been appraised as as valuable and achievable (Shenhav et al., 2013). 

=== Emotion ===
Task initiation is also dependent on anticipatory emotions associated with the task. Natural aversion to negative emotions such as boredom, frustration, resentment, stress, and anxiety decrease the likelihood of task initiation (Sirois &amp; Pychyl, 2013), and greater task aversiveness as a result of these emotions is associated with greater behavioural delay (Blunt &amp; Pychyl, 2000). These negative emotions can arise separately as a result of unique tasks, but are also often linked to chronic dispositions such as perfectionism, low self-efficacy, or even simply pre-existing negative emotions; research indicates that individuals with negative emotions such as shame or guilt due to previous failures are re-exposed to these negative feelings when thinking about task initiation (Wäschle et al., 2014). 

== Procrastination ==

==Improving task initiation ==

== Conclusion ==

== See also ==

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Procrastination|Procrastination]] (Book chapter, 2011)
* [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]] (Wikipedia)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1= 
Barkley, R. A. (2012). Executive functions: What they are, how they work, and why they evolved. Guilford Press. 

Erisman, S. M., &amp; Roemer, L. (2010). A preliminary investigation of the effects of experimentally induced mindfulness on emotional responding to film clips. ''Emotion'', ''10''(1), 72–82. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017162 

Gollwitzer, P. M. (1999). Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans. ''American Psychologist, 54''(7), 493–503. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.54.7.493

Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., &amp; Wager, T. D. (2000)'''.''' The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex &quot;Frontal Lobe&quot; tasks: A latent variable analysis. ''Cognitive Psychology'', ''41''(1), 49–100. https://doi.org/10.1006/cogp.1999.0734

Sirois, F. M., Molnar, D. S., &amp; Hirsch, J. K. (2017). A Meta-analytic and Conceptual Update on the Associations Between Procrastination and Multidimensional Perfectionism. European Journal of Personality, 31(2), 137–159. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2098 

Sirois, F., &amp; Pychyl, T. (2013). Procrastination and the Priority of Short-Term Mood Regulation: Consequences for Future Self. ''Social and Personality Psychology Compass'', ''7''(2), 115–127. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12011 

Stead, R., Shanahan, M. J., &amp; Neufeld, R. W. J. (2010). “I’ll go to therapy, eventually”: Procrastination, stress and mental health. Personality and Individual Differences, 49(3), 175–180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.03.028 

Steel, P. (2007). The nature of procrastination: A meta-analytic and theoretical review of quintessential self-regulatory failure. ''Psychological Bulletin, 133''(1), 65–94. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.65 

Trope, Y., &amp; Liberman, N. (2010). Construal-Level Theory of Psychological Distance. ''Psychological Review'', ''117''(2), 440–463. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018963 

Wäschle, K., Allgaier, A., Lachner, A., Fink, S., &amp; Nückles, M. (2014). Procrastination and self-efficacy: Tracing vicious and virtuous circles in self-regulated learning. Learning and Instruction, 29, 103–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2013.09.005 

Wohl, M. J. A., Pychyl, T. A., &amp; Bennett, S. H. (2010). I forgive myself, now I can study: How self-forgiveness for procrastinating can reduce future procrastination. ''Personality and Individual Differences'', ''48''(7), 803–808. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.01.029

}}

== External links ==

* [https://www.verywellmind.com/wall-of-awful-in-adhd-12000744 How the Wall of Awful Prevents Task Initiation in ADHD - and What Can Help You Push Through] (Verywell Mind, 2026)
* [https://www.theguardian.com/wellness/2025/sep/12/executive-dysfunction-overcome What is 'executive dysfunction' and how do you overcome it?] (The Guardian, 2025)
* [https://www.psychologicalscience.org/observer/why-wait-the-science-behind-procrastination Why Wait? The Science Behind Procrastination] (Association for Psychological Science, 2013) 

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Goal pursuit]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Procrastination]]</text>
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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}

[[File:Scrolling on phone (cropped).jpg||thumb|right|150px|'''Figure 1'''. An individual scrolling on their phone.]] 

;Scenario

John is a university student with an assignment due in five days time which he has not started. Despite knowing that he needs to begin the assignment soon in order to have it completed by the due date, he finds the prospect of starting the assignment daunting, and so continues to find alternative activities to distract himself, such as scrolling on social media (see Figure 1.)

John is struggling with task initiation, and is using procrastination as a coping behaviour to manage his negative feelings associated with starting the assignment.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Executive functions are set of top-down cognitive processes that support individuals in relation to goal-directed behaviour through facilitating planning, attention, concentration, and mental flexibility (Diamond, 2013). Three core executive functions are often discussed: inhibition control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility (Miyake et al. 2000). Higher-order executive functions are derived from these, such as planning, task-switching, and fluid intelligence (Collins &amp; Koechlin, 2012), although these functions are often subjects of debate in terms of domain specificity. One such function is that of task initiation. 

Task initiation is an executive function that allows an individual to begin a specific task at a desired time without unnecessary hesitation or delay. Task initiation can be inhibited by various cognitive, emotional, and motivational factors. When tasks are associated with negative emotions such as anxiety, shame, or stress, are perceived as low-priority, distant, or unclear and thus do not inspire motivation, or when an individual has adverse cognitive factors related to executive functioning, task initiation can quickly become difficult. 

Impaired task initiation is often associated with procrastination, which is the act of intentionally delaying a task or set of tasks despite the knowledge that there will be negative consequences. Procrastination is used to manage and regulation the negative emotions associated with task initiation on a short-term basis (Sirois &amp; Pychyl, 2013) and is also often influenced by cognitive processes such as temporal discounting. Despite this, it is important to note the distinction between task initiation as a neurological process and procrastination as an active, voluntary choice to delay tasks.

Individuals who struggle with task initiation and procrastination long-term may suffer negative health aspects such as chronic stress and increased anxiety and depression (Stead et al., 2010) as well as decreased performance in academic or workplace environments (Steel, 2007). Understanding the cognitive and psychological mechanisms of task initiation and the various factors influencing it can help to bolster task initiation in individuals – such as through the development of mitigation strategies and measures for procrastination, for example – thus reducing the negative impact of impaired task initiation on individual’s lives.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* What are the cognitive processes underlying task initiation?
* How do motivational and emotional factors influence task initiation?
* Why does task initiation become difficult?
* What are the differences and interactions between task initiation and procrastination? 
* How can task initiation be improved?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Cognitive processes ==
Task initiation can be examined as functioning through the interactions of the core executive functions that it is derived from. Working memory involves the visualisation and maintenance of goals through the monitoring, coding, and revising of relevant information, inhibition control is the ability to deliberately suppress competing responses, and cognitive flexibility allows for set-shifting, the ability to shift between tasks or mental sets (Miyake et al., 2020), all of which are important factors in relation to functional task initiation in individuals. However, intention to initiate a task does not always translate to induced behaviour, and various cognitive models and theories offer explanations for this discrepancy. Notable among these include the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) and the Rubicon model of action phases.

=== Theory of planned behaviour ===
The theory of planned behaviour (Ajzen, 1991) proposes that attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control jointly contribute to shape an individual's behavioural intention, which is then theorised to be the most immediate determinant of behaviour. However, perceived behavioural control - often conceptually related or compared to self-efficacy - is also stated as directly interacting with behaviour due to the dependence of behaviour on whether an individual has sufficient control over performing it, a relationship that is stated within the model as being strongest when perceived control reasonably reflects actual control. Thus, this can lead to an intention-action gap: favourable attitudes and supportive norms may generate an intention to begin a task, but insufficient perceived or actual behavioural control can prevent that intention from being translated into action.

=== Rubicon model of action phases ===
The Rubicon model of action phases (Heckhausen &amp; Gollwitzer, 1987) divides the process from intention to action into four phases: pre-decisional (choosing between potential goals through weighing their feasibility and desirability), pre-actional (planning the implementation of the chosen goal), actional (executing the plan) and post-actional (evaluating the outcomes to initial goals and subsequently adjusting future behaviour). The model therefore provides a framework for understanding the intention-action gap: after forming a goal intention, an individual may still fail to progress from the pre-actional to the actional phase, representing a volitional problem in which an intended behaviour is not successfully initiated. [MAYBE REWORD]

=== Construal level theory (CLT) ===
An additional cognitive factor influencing task initiation is mental representation. Construal level theory is a psychological framework centred around the concept of psychological distance, and it distinguishes between high-level, abstract representations and low-level, concrete representations. High-level representations revolve around task purpose, value, and reward, and may boost motivation, but also delay initiation due to a lack of operational starting points; low-level representations decrease this friction through an emphasis on practical and logistical steps, and thus representing a task in this way increase task initiation through making the immediate actions required to begin it more apparent (Trope &amp; Liberman, 2010).

== Motivational and emotional barriers ==
Motivation and emotion are two psychological areas of study which both pertain to task initiation and may be examined to understand how and why task initiation can become difficult. [Expand?]

=== Motivation ===
Task initiation is partly dependent on motivational influences such as the anticipated benefit of the task, the perceived likelihood of success, and the costs associated with performing it. Expectancy-value theory proposes that the expected outcomes and subjective value placed upon tasks by individuals heavily influences choice and persistence in relation to tasks (Wigfield &amp; Eccles, 2000). Similarly, self-efficacy theory proposes that individuals' efficacy expectations are the major determinant in relation to goal setting, task choice, effort expenditure, and persistence (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002). Additionally, neurological theories such as the expected value of control (EVC) propose that the brain weighs anticipated rewards against the costs of metabolic and cognitive exertion and allocates cognitive control accordingly, thus providing an explanation for why task initiation may be inhibited for demanding tasks even if they have been appraised as as valuable and achievable (Shenhav et al., 2013). 

=== Emotion ===
Task initiation is also dependent on anticipatory emotions associated with the task. Natural aversion to negative emotions such as boredom, frustration, resentment, stress, and anxiety decrease the likelihood of task initiation (Sirois &amp; Pychyl, 2013), and greater task aversiveness as a result of these emotions is associated with greater behavioural delay (Blunt &amp; Pychyl, 2000). These negative emotions can arise separately as a result of unique tasks, but are also often linked to chronic dispositions such as perfectionism, low self-efficacy, or even simply pre-existing negative emotions; research indicates that individuals with negative emotions such as shame or guilt due to previous failures are re-exposed to these negative feelings when thinking about task initiation (Wäschle et al., 2014). 

== Procrastination ==

==Improving task initiation ==

== Conclusion ==

== See also ==

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Procrastination|Procrastination]] (Book chapter, 2011)
* [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]] (Wikipedia)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1= 
Barkley, R. A. (2012). Executive functions: What they are, how they work, and why they evolved. Guilford Press. 

Erisman, S. M., &amp; Roemer, L. (2010). A preliminary investigation of the effects of experimentally induced mindfulness on emotional responding to film clips. ''Emotion'', ''10''(1), 72–82. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017162 

Gollwitzer, P. M. (1999). Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans. ''American Psychologist, 54''(7), 493–503. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.54.7.493

Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., &amp; Wager, T. D. (2000)'''.''' The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex &quot;Frontal Lobe&quot; tasks: A latent variable analysis. ''Cognitive Psychology'', ''41''(1), 49–100. https://doi.org/10.1006/cogp.1999.0734

Sirois, F. M., Molnar, D. S., &amp; Hirsch, J. K. (2017). A Meta-analytic and Conceptual Update on the Associations Between Procrastination and Multidimensional Perfectionism. European Journal of Personality, 31(2), 137–159. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2098 

Sirois, F., &amp; Pychyl, T. (2013). Procrastination and the Priority of Short-Term Mood Regulation: Consequences for Future Self. ''Social and Personality Psychology Compass'', ''7''(2), 115–127. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12011 

Stead, R., Shanahan, M. J., &amp; Neufeld, R. W. J. (2010). “I’ll go to therapy, eventually”: Procrastination, stress and mental health. Personality and Individual Differences, 49(3), 175–180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.03.028 

Steel, P. (2007). The nature of procrastination: A meta-analytic and theoretical review of quintessential self-regulatory failure. ''Psychological Bulletin, 133''(1), 65–94. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.65 

Trope, Y., &amp; Liberman, N. (2010). Construal-Level Theory of Psychological Distance. ''Psychological Review'', ''117''(2), 440–463. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018963 

Wäschle, K., Allgaier, A., Lachner, A., Fink, S., &amp; Nückles, M. (2014). Procrastination and self-efficacy: Tracing vicious and virtuous circles in self-regulated learning. Learning and Instruction, 29, 103–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2013.09.005 

Wohl, M. J. A., Pychyl, T. A., &amp; Bennett, S. H. (2010). I forgive myself, now I can study: How self-forgiveness for procrastinating can reduce future procrastination. ''Personality and Individual Differences'', ''48''(7), 803–808. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.01.029

}}

== External links ==

* [https://www.verywellmind.com/wall-of-awful-in-adhd-12000744 How the Wall of Awful Prevents Task Initiation in ADHD - and What Can Help You Push Through] (Verywell Mind, 2026)
* [https://www.theguardian.com/wellness/2025/sep/12/executive-dysfunction-overcome What is 'executive dysfunction' and how do you overcome it?] (The Guardian, 2025)
* [https://www.psychologicalscience.org/observer/why-wait-the-science-behind-procrastination Why Wait? The Science Behind Procrastination] (Association for Psychological Science, 2013) 

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Goal pursuit]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Procrastination]]</text>
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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}

[[File:Scrolling on phone (cropped).jpg||thumb|right|150px|'''Figure 1'''. An individual scrolling on their phone.]] 

;Scenario

John is a university student with an assignment due in five days time which he has not started. Despite knowing that he needs to begin the assignment soon in order to have it completed by the due date, he finds the prospect of starting the assignment daunting, and so continues to find alternative activities to distract himself, such as scrolling on social media (see Figure 1.)

John is struggling with task initiation, and is using procrastination as a coping behaviour to manage his negative feelings associated with starting the assignment.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Executive functions are set of top-down cognitive processes that support individuals in relation to goal-directed behaviour through facilitating planning, attention, concentration, and mental flexibility (Diamond, 2013). Three core executive functions are often discussed: inhibition control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility (Miyake et al. 2000). Higher-order executive functions are derived from these, such as planning, task-switching, and fluid intelligence (Collins &amp; Koechlin, 2012), although these functions are often subjects of debate in terms of domain specificity. One such function is that of task initiation. 

Task initiation is an executive function that allows an individual to begin a specific task at a desired time without unnecessary hesitation or delay. Task initiation can be inhibited by various cognitive, emotional, and motivational factors. When tasks are associated with negative emotions such as anxiety, shame, or stress, are perceived as low-priority, distant, or unclear and thus do not inspire motivation, or when an individual has adverse cognitive factors related to executive functioning, task initiation can quickly become difficult. 

Impaired task initiation is often associated with procrastination, which is the act of intentionally delaying a task or set of tasks despite the knowledge that there will be negative consequences. Procrastination is used to manage and regulation the negative emotions associated with task initiation on a short-term basis (Sirois &amp; Pychyl, 2013) and is also often influenced by cognitive processes such as temporal discounting. Despite this, it is important to note the distinction between task initiation as a neurological process and procrastination as an active, voluntary choice to delay tasks.

Individuals who struggle with task initiation and procrastination long-term may suffer negative health aspects such as chronic stress and increased anxiety and depression (Stead et al., 2010) as well as decreased performance in academic or workplace environments (Steel, 2007). Understanding the cognitive and psychological mechanisms of task initiation and the various factors influencing it can help to bolster task initiation in individuals – such as through the development of mitigation strategies and measures for procrastination, for example – thus reducing the negative impact of impaired task initiation on individual’s lives.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* What are the cognitive processes underlying task initiation?
* How do motivational and emotional factors influence task initiation?
* Why does task initiation become difficult?
* What are the differences and interactions between task initiation and procrastination? 
* How can task initiation be improved?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Cognitive processes ==
Task initiation can be examined as functioning through the interactions of the core executive functions that it is derived from. Working memory involves the visualisation and maintenance of goals through the monitoring, coding, and revising of relevant information, inhibition control is the ability to deliberately suppress competing responses, and cognitive flexibility allows for set-shifting, the ability to shift between tasks or mental sets (Miyake et al., 2020), all of which are important factors in relation to functional task initiation in individuals. However, intention to initiate a task does not always translate to induced behaviour, and various cognitive models and theories offer explanations for this discrepancy. Notable among these include the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) and the Rubicon model of action phases.

=== Theory of planned behaviour ===
The theory of planned behaviour (Ajzen, 1991) proposes that attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control jointly contribute to shape an individual's behavioural intention, which is then theorised to be the most immediate determinant of behaviour. However, perceived behavioural control - often conceptually related or compared to self-efficacy - is also stated as directly interacting with behaviour due to the dependence of behaviour on whether an individual has sufficient control over performing it, a relationship that is stated within the model as being strongest when perceived control reasonably reflects actual control. Thus, this can lead to an intention-action gap: favourable attitudes and supportive norms may generate an intention to begin a task, but insufficient perceived or actual behavioural control can prevent that intention from being translated into action.

=== Rubicon model of action phases ===
The Rubicon model of action phases (Heckhausen &amp; Gollwitzer, 1987) divides the process from intention to action into four phases: pre-decisional (choosing between potential goals through weighing their feasibility and desirability), pre-actional (planning the implementation of the chosen goal), actional (executing the plan) and post-actional (evaluating the outcomes to initial goals and subsequently adjusting future behaviour). The model therefore provides a framework for understanding the intention-action gap: after forming a goal intention, an individual may still fail to progress from the pre-actional to the actional phase, representing a volitional problem in which an intended behaviour is not successfully initiated. [MAYBE REWORD]

=== Construal level theory (CLT) ===
An additional cognitive factor influencing task initiation is mental representation. Construal level theory is a psychological framework centred around the concept of psychological distance, and it distinguishes between high-level, abstract representations and low-level, concrete representations. High-level representations revolve around task purpose, value, and reward, and may boost motivation, but also delay initiation due to a lack of operational starting points; low-level representations decrease this friction through an emphasis on practical and logistical steps, and thus representing a task in this way may increase task initiation through making the immediate actions required to begin it more apparent (Trope &amp; Liberman, 2010).

== Motivational and emotional barriers ==
Motivation and emotion are two psychological areas of study which both pertain to task initiation and may be examined to understand how and why task initiation can become difficult. [Expand?]

=== Motivation ===
Task initiation is partly dependent on motivational influences such as the anticipated benefit of the task, the perceived likelihood of success, and the costs associated with performing it. Expectancy-value theory proposes that the expected outcomes and subjective value placed upon tasks by individuals heavily influences choice and persistence in relation to tasks (Wigfield &amp; Eccles, 2000). Similarly, self-efficacy theory proposes that individuals' efficacy expectations are the major determinant in relation to goal setting, task choice, effort expenditure, and persistence (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002). Additionally, neurological theories such as the expected value of control (EVC) propose that the brain weighs anticipated rewards against the costs of metabolic and cognitive exertion and allocates cognitive control accordingly, thus providing an explanation for why task initiation may be inhibited for demanding tasks even if they have been appraised as as valuable and achievable (Shenhav et al., 2013). 

=== Emotion ===
Task initiation is also dependent on anticipatory emotions associated with the task. Natural aversion to negative emotions such as boredom, frustration, resentment, stress, and anxiety decrease the likelihood of task initiation (Sirois &amp; Pychyl, 2013), and greater task aversiveness as a result of these emotions is associated with greater behavioural delay (Blunt &amp; Pychyl, 2000). These negative emotions can arise separately as a result of unique tasks, but are also often linked to chronic dispositions such as perfectionism, low self-efficacy, or even simply pre-existing negative emotions; research indicates that individuals with negative emotions such as shame or guilt due to previous failures are re-exposed to these negative feelings when thinking about task initiation (Wäschle et al., 2014). 

== Procrastination ==

==Improving task initiation ==

== Conclusion ==

== See also ==

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Procrastination|Procrastination]] (Book chapter, 2011)
* [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]] (Wikipedia)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1= 
Barkley, R. A. (2012). Executive functions: What they are, how they work, and why they evolved. Guilford Press. 

Erisman, S. M., &amp; Roemer, L. (2010). A preliminary investigation of the effects of experimentally induced mindfulness on emotional responding to film clips. ''Emotion'', ''10''(1), 72–82. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017162 

Gollwitzer, P. M. (1999). Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans. ''American Psychologist, 54''(7), 493–503. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.54.7.493

Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., &amp; Wager, T. D. (2000)'''.''' The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex &quot;Frontal Lobe&quot; tasks: A latent variable analysis. ''Cognitive Psychology'', ''41''(1), 49–100. https://doi.org/10.1006/cogp.1999.0734

Sirois, F. M., Molnar, D. S., &amp; Hirsch, J. K. (2017). A Meta-analytic and Conceptual Update on the Associations Between Procrastination and Multidimensional Perfectionism. European Journal of Personality, 31(2), 137–159. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2098 

Sirois, F., &amp; Pychyl, T. (2013). Procrastination and the Priority of Short-Term Mood Regulation: Consequences for Future Self. ''Social and Personality Psychology Compass'', ''7''(2), 115–127. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12011 

Stead, R., Shanahan, M. J., &amp; Neufeld, R. W. J. (2010). “I’ll go to therapy, eventually”: Procrastination, stress and mental health. Personality and Individual Differences, 49(3), 175–180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.03.028 

Steel, P. (2007). The nature of procrastination: A meta-analytic and theoretical review of quintessential self-regulatory failure. ''Psychological Bulletin, 133''(1), 65–94. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.65 

Trope, Y., &amp; Liberman, N. (2010). Construal-Level Theory of Psychological Distance. ''Psychological Review'', ''117''(2), 440–463. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018963 

Wäschle, K., Allgaier, A., Lachner, A., Fink, S., &amp; Nückles, M. (2014). Procrastination and self-efficacy: Tracing vicious and virtuous circles in self-regulated learning. Learning and Instruction, 29, 103–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2013.09.005 

Wohl, M. J. A., Pychyl, T. A., &amp; Bennett, S. H. (2010). I forgive myself, now I can study: How self-forgiveness for procrastinating can reduce future procrastination. ''Personality and Individual Differences'', ''48''(7), 803–808. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.01.029

}}

== External links ==

* [https://www.verywellmind.com/wall-of-awful-in-adhd-12000744 How the Wall of Awful Prevents Task Initiation in ADHD - and What Can Help You Push Through] (Verywell Mind, 2026)
* [https://www.theguardian.com/wellness/2025/sep/12/executive-dysfunction-overcome What is 'executive dysfunction' and how do you overcome it?] (The Guardian, 2025)
* [https://www.psychologicalscience.org/observer/why-wait-the-science-behind-procrastination Why Wait? The Science Behind Procrastination] (Association for Psychological Science, 2013) 

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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}

[[File:Scrolling on phone (cropped).jpg||thumb|right|150px|'''Figure 1'''. An individual scrolling on their phone.]] 

;Scenario

John is a university student with an assignment due in five days time which he has not started. Despite knowing that he needs to begin the assignment soon in order to have it completed by the due date, he finds the prospect of starting the assignment daunting, and so continues to find alternative activities to distract himself, such as scrolling on social media (see Figure 1.)

John is struggling with task initiation, and is using procrastination as a coping behaviour to manage his negative feelings associated with starting the assignment.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Executive functions are set of top-down cognitive processes that support individuals in relation to goal-directed behaviour through facilitating planning, attention, concentration, and mental flexibility (Diamond, 2013). Three core executive functions are often discussed: inhibition control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility (Miyake et al. 2000). Higher-order executive functions are derived from these, such as planning, task-switching, and fluid intelligence (Collins &amp; Koechlin, 2012), although these functions are often subjects of debate in terms of domain specificity. One such function is that of task initiation. 

Task initiation is an executive function that allows an individual to begin a specific task at a desired time without unnecessary hesitation or delay. Task initiation can be inhibited by various cognitive, emotional, and motivational factors. When tasks are associated with negative emotions such as anxiety, shame, or stress, are perceived as low-priority, distant, or unclear and thus do not inspire motivation, or when an individual has adverse cognitive factors related to executive functioning, task initiation can quickly become difficult. 

Impaired task initiation is often associated with procrastination, defined as the voluntary delay of an intended course of action despite expecting negative consequences from that delay (Steel, 2007). Although there is overlap between the concepts, difficulties in task initiation refer more broadly to problems translating intentions into action, whereas procrastination represents one particular form of delayed goal-directed behaviour. [Check definition from Steel articles]

Individuals who struggle with task initiation and procrastination long-term may suffer negative health aspects such as chronic stress and increased anxiety and depression (Stead et al., 2010) as well as decreased performance in academic or workplace environments (Steel, 2007). Understanding the cognitive and psychological mechanisms of task initiation and the various factors influencing it can help to bolster task initiation in individuals – such as through the development of mitigation strategies and measures for procrastination, for example – thus reducing the negative impact of impaired task initiation on individual’s lives.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* What are the cognitive processes underlying task initiation?
* How do motivational and emotional factors influence task initiation?
* Why does task initiation become difficult?
* What are the differences and interactions between task initiation and procrastination? 
* How can task initiation be improved?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Cognitive processes ==
Task initiation can be examined as functioning through the interactions of the core executive functions that it is derived from. Working memory involves the visualisation and maintenance of goals through the monitoring, coding, and revising of relevant information, inhibition control is the ability to deliberately suppress competing responses, and cognitive flexibility allows for set-shifting, the ability to shift between tasks or mental sets (Miyake et al., 2020), all of which are important factors in relation to functional task initiation in individuals. However, intention to initiate a task does not always translate to induced behaviour, and various cognitive models and theories offer explanations for this discrepancy. Notable among these include the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) and the Rubicon model of action phases.

=== Theory of planned behaviour ===
The theory of planned behaviour (Ajzen, 1991) proposes that attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control jointly contribute to shape an individual's behavioural intention, which is then theorised to be the most immediate determinant of behaviour. However, perceived behavioural control - often conceptually related or compared to self-efficacy - is also stated as directly interacting with behaviour due to the dependence of behaviour on whether an individual has sufficient control over performing it, a relationship that is stated within the model as being strongest when perceived control reasonably reflects actual control. Thus, this can lead to an intention-action gap: favourable attitudes and supportive norms may generate an intention to begin a task, but insufficient perceived or actual behavioural control can prevent that intention from being translated into action.

=== Rubicon model of action phases ===
The Rubicon model of action phases (Heckhausen &amp; Gollwitzer, 1987) divides the process from intention to action into four phases: pre-decisional (choosing between potential goals through weighing their feasibility and desirability), pre-actional (planning the implementation of the chosen goal), actional (executing the plan) and post-actional (evaluating the outcomes to initial goals and subsequently adjusting future behaviour). The model therefore provides a framework for understanding the intention-action gap: after forming a goal intention, an individual may still fail to progress from the pre-actional to the actional phase, representing a volitional problem in which an intended behaviour is not successfully initiated. [MAYBE REWORD]

=== Construal level theory (CLT) ===
An additional cognitive factor influencing task initiation is mental representation. Construal level theory is a psychological framework centred around the concept of psychological distance, and it distinguishes between high-level, abstract representations and low-level, concrete representations. High-level representations revolve around task purpose, value, and reward, and may boost motivation, but also delay initiation due to a lack of operational starting points; low-level representations decrease this friction through an emphasis on practical and logistical steps, and thus representing a task in this way may increase task initiation through making the immediate actions required to begin it more apparent (Trope &amp; Liberman, 2010).

== Motivational and emotional barriers ==
Motivation and emotion are two psychological areas of study which both pertain to task initiation and may be examined to understand how and why task initiation can become difficult. [Expand?]

=== Motivation ===
Task initiation is partly dependent on motivational influences such as the anticipated benefit of the task, the perceived likelihood of success, and the costs associated with performing it. Expectancy-value theory proposes that the expected outcomes and subjective value placed upon tasks by individuals heavily influences choice and persistence in relation to tasks (Wigfield &amp; Eccles, 2000). Similarly, self-efficacy theory proposes that individuals' efficacy expectations are the major determinant in relation to goal setting, task choice, effort expenditure, and persistence (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002). Additionally, neurological theories such as the expected value of control (EVC) propose that the brain weighs anticipated rewards against the costs of metabolic and cognitive exertion and allocates cognitive control accordingly, thus providing an explanation for why task initiation may be inhibited for demanding tasks even if they have been appraised as as valuable and achievable (Shenhav et al., 2013). 

=== Emotion ===
Task initiation is also dependent on anticipatory emotions associated with the task. Natural aversion to negative emotions such as boredom, frustration, resentment, stress, and anxiety decrease the likelihood of task initiation (Sirois &amp; Pychyl, 2013), and greater task aversiveness as a result of these emotions is associated with greater behavioural delay (Blunt &amp; Pychyl, 2000). These negative emotions can arise separately as a result of unique tasks, but are also often linked to chronic dispositions such as perfectionism, low self-efficacy, or even simply pre-existing negative emotions; research indicates that individuals with negative emotions such as shame or guilt due to previous failures are re-exposed to these negative feelings when thinking about task initiation (Wäschle et al., 2014). 

== Procrastination ==
Procrastination is used to manage and regulation the negative emotions associated with task initiation on a short-term basis (Sirois &amp; Pychyl, 2013) and is also often influenced by cognitive processes such as temporal discounting. Despite this, it is important to note the distinction between task initiation as a neurological process and procrastination as an active, voluntary choice to delay tasks.

==Improving task initiation ==

== Conclusion ==

== See also ==

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Procrastination|Procrastination]] (Book chapter, 2011)
* [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]] (Wikipedia)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1= 
Barkley, R. A. (2012). Executive functions: What they are, how they work, and why they evolved. Guilford Press. 

Erisman, S. M., &amp; Roemer, L. (2010). A preliminary investigation of the effects of experimentally induced mindfulness on emotional responding to film clips. ''Emotion'', ''10''(1), 72–82. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017162 

Gollwitzer, P. M. (1999). Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans. ''American Psychologist, 54''(7), 493–503. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.54.7.493

Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., &amp; Wager, T. D. (2000)'''.''' The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex &quot;Frontal Lobe&quot; tasks: A latent variable analysis. ''Cognitive Psychology'', ''41''(1), 49–100. https://doi.org/10.1006/cogp.1999.0734

Sirois, F. M., Molnar, D. S., &amp; Hirsch, J. K. (2017). A Meta-analytic and Conceptual Update on the Associations Between Procrastination and Multidimensional Perfectionism. European Journal of Personality, 31(2), 137–159. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2098 

Sirois, F., &amp; Pychyl, T. (2013). Procrastination and the Priority of Short-Term Mood Regulation: Consequences for Future Self. ''Social and Personality Psychology Compass'', ''7''(2), 115–127. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12011 

Stead, R., Shanahan, M. J., &amp; Neufeld, R. W. J. (2010). “I’ll go to therapy, eventually”: Procrastination, stress and mental health. Personality and Individual Differences, 49(3), 175–180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.03.028 

Steel, P. (2007). The nature of procrastination: A meta-analytic and theoretical review of quintessential self-regulatory failure. ''Psychological Bulletin, 133''(1), 65–94. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.65 

Trope, Y., &amp; Liberman, N. (2010). Construal-Level Theory of Psychological Distance. ''Psychological Review'', ''117''(2), 440–463. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018963 

Wäschle, K., Allgaier, A., Lachner, A., Fink, S., &amp; Nückles, M. (2014). Procrastination and self-efficacy: Tracing vicious and virtuous circles in self-regulated learning. Learning and Instruction, 29, 103–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2013.09.005 

Wohl, M. J. A., Pychyl, T. A., &amp; Bennett, S. H. (2010). I forgive myself, now I can study: How self-forgiveness for procrastinating can reduce future procrastination. ''Personality and Individual Differences'', ''48''(7), 803–808. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.01.029

}}

== External links ==

* [https://www.verywellmind.com/wall-of-awful-in-adhd-12000744 How the Wall of Awful Prevents Task Initiation in ADHD - and What Can Help You Push Through] (Verywell Mind, 2026)
* [https://www.theguardian.com/wellness/2025/sep/12/executive-dysfunction-overcome What is 'executive dysfunction' and how do you overcome it?] (The Guardian, 2025)
* [https://www.psychologicalscience.org/observer/why-wait-the-science-behind-procrastination Why Wait? The Science Behind Procrastination] (Association for Psychological Science, 2013) 

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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}

[[File:Scrolling on phone (cropped).jpg||thumb|right|150px|'''Figure 1'''. An individual scrolling on their phone.]] 

;Scenario

John is a university student with an assignment due in five days time which he has not started. Despite knowing that he needs to begin the assignment soon in order to have it completed by the due date, he finds the prospect of starting the assignment daunting, and so continues to find alternative activities to distract himself, such as scrolling on social media (see Figure 1.)

John is struggling with task initiation, and is using procrastination as a coping behaviour to manage his negative feelings associated with starting the assignment.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Executive functions are set of top-down cognitive processes that support individuals in relation to goal-directed behaviour through facilitating planning, attention, concentration, and mental flexibility (Diamond, 2013). Three core executive functions are often discussed: inhibition control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility (Miyake et al. 2000). Higher-order executive functions are derived from these, such as planning, task-switching, and fluid intelligence (Collins &amp; Koechlin, 2012), although these functions are often subjects of debate in terms of domain specificity. One such function is that of task initiation. 

Task initiation is an executive function that allows an individual to begin a specific task at a desired time without unnecessary hesitation or delay. Task initiation can be inhibited by various cognitive, emotional, and motivational factors. When tasks are associated with negative emotions such as anxiety, shame, or stress, are perceived as low-priority, distant, or unclear and thus do not inspire motivation, or when an individual has adverse cognitive factors related to executive functioning, task initiation can quickly become difficult. 

Impaired task initiation is often associated with procrastination, defined as the voluntary delay of an intended course of action despite expecting negative consequences from that delay (Steel, 2007). Although there is overlap between the concepts, difficulties in task initiation refer more broadly to problems translating intentions into action, whereas procrastination represents one particular form of delayed goal-directed behaviour. [Check definition from Steel articles]

Individuals who struggle with task initiation and procrastination long-term may suffer negative health aspects such as chronic stress and increased anxiety and depression (Stead et al., 2010) as well as decreased performance in academic or workplace environments (Steel, 2007). Understanding the cognitive and psychological mechanisms of task initiation and the various factors influencing it can help to bolster task initiation in individuals – such as through the development of mitigation strategies and measures for procrastination, for example – thus reducing the negative impact of impaired task initiation on individual’s lives.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* What are the cognitive processes underlying task initiation?
* How do motivational and emotional factors influence task initiation?
* Why does task initiation become difficult?
* What are the differences and interactions between task initiation and procrastination? 
* How can task initiation be improved?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Cognitive processes ==
Task initiation can be examined as functioning through the interactions of the core executive functions that it is derived from. Working memory involves the visualisation and maintenance of goals through the monitoring, coding, and revising of relevant information, inhibition control is the ability to deliberately suppress competing responses, and cognitive flexibility allows for set-shifting, the ability to shift between tasks or mental sets (Miyake et al., 2020), all of which are important factors in relation to functional task initiation in individuals. However, intention to initiate a task does not always translate to induced behaviour, and various cognitive models and theories offer explanations for this discrepancy. Notable among these include the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) and the Rubicon model of action phases.

=== Theory of planned behaviour ===
The theory of planned behaviour proposes that attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control jointly contribute to shape an individual's behavioural intention, which is then theorised to be the most immediate determinant of behaviour (Ajzen, 1991). However, perceived behavioural control - often conceptually related or compared to self-efficacy - is also stated as directly interacting with behaviour due to the dependence of behaviour on whether an individual has sufficient control over performing it, a relationship that is stated within the model as being strongest when perceived control reasonably reflects actual control. Thus, this can lead to an intention-action gap: favourable attitudes and supportive norms may generate an intention to begin a task, but insufficient perceived or actual behavioural control can prevent that intention from being translated into action.

=== Rubicon model of action phases ===
The Rubicon model of action phases  divides the process from intention to action into four phases: pre-decisional (choosing between potential goals through weighing their feasibility and desirability), pre-actional (planning the implementation of the chosen goal), actional (executing the plan) and post-actional (evaluating the outcomes to initial goals and subsequently adjusting future behaviour) (Heckhausen &amp; Gollwitzer, 1987). The model therefore provides a framework for understanding the intention-action gap: after forming a goal intention, an individual may still fail to progress from the pre-actional to the actional phase, representing a volitional problem in which an intended behaviour is not successfully initiated. [MAYBE REWORD]

=== Construal level theory (CLT) ===
An additional cognitive factor influencing task initiation is mental representation. Construal level theory is a psychological framework centred around the concept of psychological distance, and it distinguishes between high-level, abstract representations and low-level, concrete representations. High-level representations revolve around task purpose, value, and reward, and may boost motivation, but also delay initiation due to a lack of operational starting points; low-level representations decrease this friction through an emphasis on practical and logistical steps, and thus representing a task in this way may increase task initiation through making the immediate actions required to begin it more apparent (Trope &amp; Liberman, 2010).

== Motivational and emotional barriers ==
Motivation and emotion are two psychological areas of study which both pertain to task initiation and may be examined to understand how and why task initiation can become difficult. [Expand?]

=== Motivation ===
Task initiation is partly dependent on motivational influences such as the anticipated benefit of the task, the perceived likelihood of success, and the costs associated with performing it. Expectancy-value theory proposes that the expected outcomes and subjective value placed upon tasks by individuals heavily influences choice and persistence in relation to tasks (Wigfield &amp; Eccles, 2000). Similarly, self-efficacy theory proposes that individuals' efficacy expectations are the major determinant in relation to goal setting, task choice, effort expenditure, and persistence (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002). Additionally, neurological theories such as the expected value of control (EVC) propose that the brain weighs anticipated rewards against the costs of metabolic and cognitive exertion and allocates cognitive control accordingly, thus providing an explanation for why task initiation may be inhibited for demanding tasks even if they have been appraised as as valuable and achievable (Shenhav et al., 2013). 

=== Emotion ===
Task initiation is also dependent on anticipatory emotions associated with the task. Natural aversion to negative emotions such as boredom, frustration, resentment, stress, and anxiety decrease the likelihood of task initiation (Sirois &amp; Pychyl, 2013), and greater task aversiveness as a result of these emotions is associated with greater behavioural delay (Blunt &amp; Pychyl, 2000). These negative emotions can arise separately as a result of unique tasks, but are also often linked to chronic dispositions such as perfectionism, low self-efficacy, or even simply pre-existing negative emotions; research indicates that individuals with negative emotions such as shame or guilt due to previous failures are re-exposed to these negative feelings when thinking about task initiation (Wäschle et al., 2014). 

== Procrastination ==
Procrastination is separately distinguished from impaired task initiation in that it is a specific form of delay in which intended actions are unnecessarily postponed despite foreseeable adverse consequences. Despite being defined as voluntary choice, it is heavily correlated with failures of emotional regulation, and thus the choice to avoid task initiation is driven by neurological and emotional defence mechanisms as opposed to rational, calculative volition [citation needed]. 

Steel (2007) identifies procrastination as a failure of self-regulation, with strong associative factors of task aversiveness, task delay, self-efficacy, and impulsiveness, as well as facets of conscientiousness such as self-control, distractibility, organisation, and achievement motivation. These effects are stated to be consistent with temporal motivation theory; similarly, Sirois and Pychyl (2013) state that while procrastination is used to manage and regulate the negative emotions associated with task initiation on a short-term basis, it is also influenced by cognitive processes such as temporal discounting.

=== Temporal motivation theory ===

==Improving task initiation ==

== Conclusion ==

== See also ==

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Procrastination|Procrastination]] (Book chapter, 2011)
* [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]] (Wikipedia)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1= 
Barkley, R. A. (2012). Executive functions: What they are, how they work, and why they evolved. Guilford Press. 

Erisman, S. M., &amp; Roemer, L. (2010). A preliminary investigation of the effects of experimentally induced mindfulness on emotional responding to film clips. ''Emotion'', ''10''(1), 72–82. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017162 

Gollwitzer, P. M. (1999). Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans. ''American Psychologist, 54''(7), 493–503. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.54.7.493

Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., &amp; Wager, T. D. (2000)'''.''' The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex &quot;Frontal Lobe&quot; tasks: A latent variable analysis. ''Cognitive Psychology'', ''41''(1), 49–100. https://doi.org/10.1006/cogp.1999.0734

Sirois, F. M., Molnar, D. S., &amp; Hirsch, J. K. (2017). A Meta-analytic and Conceptual Update on the Associations Between Procrastination and Multidimensional Perfectionism. European Journal of Personality, 31(2), 137–159. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2098 

Sirois, F., &amp; Pychyl, T. (2013). Procrastination and the Priority of Short-Term Mood Regulation: Consequences for Future Self. ''Social and Personality Psychology Compass'', ''7''(2), 115–127. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12011 

Stead, R., Shanahan, M. J., &amp; Neufeld, R. W. J. (2010). “I’ll go to therapy, eventually”: Procrastination, stress and mental health. Personality and Individual Differences, 49(3), 175–180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.03.028 

Steel, P. (2007). The nature of procrastination: A meta-analytic and theoretical review of quintessential self-regulatory failure. ''Psychological Bulletin, 133''(1), 65–94. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.65 

Trope, Y., &amp; Liberman, N. (2010). Construal-Level Theory of Psychological Distance. ''Psychological Review'', ''117''(2), 440–463. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018963 

Wäschle, K., Allgaier, A., Lachner, A., Fink, S., &amp; Nückles, M. (2014). Procrastination and self-efficacy: Tracing vicious and virtuous circles in self-regulated learning. Learning and Instruction, 29, 103–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2013.09.005 

Wohl, M. J. A., Pychyl, T. A., &amp; Bennett, S. H. (2010). I forgive myself, now I can study: How self-forgiveness for procrastinating can reduce future procrastination. ''Personality and Individual Differences'', ''48''(7), 803–808. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.01.029

}}

== External links ==

* [https://www.verywellmind.com/wall-of-awful-in-adhd-12000744 How the Wall of Awful Prevents Task Initiation in ADHD - and What Can Help You Push Through] (Verywell Mind, 2026)
* [https://www.theguardian.com/wellness/2025/sep/12/executive-dysfunction-overcome What is 'executive dysfunction' and how do you overcome it?] (The Guardian, 2025)
* [https://www.psychologicalscience.org/observer/why-wait-the-science-behind-procrastination Why Wait? The Science Behind Procrastination] (Association for Psychological Science, 2013) 

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Goal pursuit]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Procrastination]]</text>
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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}

[[File:Scrolling on phone (cropped).jpg||thumb|right|150px|'''Figure 1'''. An individual scrolling on their phone.]] 

;Scenario

John is a university student with an assignment due in five days time which he has not started. Despite knowing that he needs to begin the assignment soon in order to have it completed by the due date, he finds the prospect of starting the assignment daunting, and so continues to find alternative activities to distract himself, such as scrolling on social media (see Figure 1.)

John is struggling with task initiation, and is using procrastination as a coping behaviour to manage his negative feelings associated with starting the assignment.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Executive functions are set of top-down cognitive processes that support individuals in relation to goal-directed behaviour through facilitating planning, attention, concentration, and mental flexibility (Diamond, 2013). Three core executive functions are often discussed: inhibition control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility (Miyake et al. 2000). Higher-order executive functions are derived from these, such as planning, task-switching, and fluid intelligence (Collins &amp; Koechlin, 2012), although these functions are often subjects of debate in terms of domain specificity. One such function is that of task initiation. 

Task initiation is an executive function that allows an individual to begin a specific task at a desired time without unnecessary hesitation or delay. Task initiation can be inhibited by various cognitive, emotional, and motivational factors. When tasks are associated with negative emotions such as anxiety, shame, or stress, are perceived as low-priority, distant, or unclear and thus do not inspire motivation, or when an individual has adverse cognitive factors related to executive functioning, task initiation can quickly become difficult. 

Impaired task initiation is often associated with procrastination, defined as the voluntary delay of an intended course of action despite expecting negative consequences from that delay (Steel, 2007). Although there is overlap between the concepts, difficulties in task initiation refer more broadly to problems translating intentions into action, whereas procrastination represents one particular form of delayed goal-directed behaviour. [Check definition from Steel articles]

Individuals who struggle with task initiation and procrastination long-term may suffer negative health aspects such as chronic stress and increased anxiety and depression (Stead et al., 2010) as well as decreased performance in academic or workplace environments (Steel, 2007). Understanding the cognitive and psychological mechanisms of task initiation and the various factors influencing it can help to bolster task initiation in individuals – such as through the development of mitigation strategies and measures for procrastination, for example – thus reducing the negative impact of impaired task initiation on individual’s lives.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* What are the cognitive processes underlying task initiation?
* How do motivational and emotional factors influence task initiation?
* Why does task initiation become difficult?
* What are the differences and interactions between task initiation and procrastination? 
* How can task initiation be improved?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Cognitive processes ==
Task initiation can be examined as functioning through the interactions of the core executive functions that it is derived from. Working memory involves the visualisation and maintenance of goals through the monitoring, coding, and revising of relevant information, inhibition control is the ability to deliberately suppress competing responses, and cognitive flexibility allows for set-shifting, the ability to shift between tasks or mental sets (Miyake et al., 2020), all of which are important factors in relation to functional task initiation in individuals. However, intention to initiate a task does not always translate to induced behaviour, and various cognitive models and theories offer explanations for this discrepancy. Notable among these include the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) and the Rubicon model of action phases.

=== Theory of planned behaviour ===
The theory of planned behaviour proposes that attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control jointly contribute to shape an individual's behavioural intention, which is then theorised to be the most immediate determinant of behaviour (Ajzen, 1991). However, perceived behavioural control - often conceptually related or compared to self-efficacy - is also stated as directly interacting with behaviour due to the dependence of behaviour on whether an individual has sufficient control over performing it, a relationship that is stated within the model as being strongest when perceived control reasonably reflects actual control. Thus, this can lead to an intention-action gap: favourable attitudes and supportive norms may generate an intention to begin a task, but insufficient perceived or actual behavioural control can prevent that intention from being translated into action.

=== Rubicon model of action phases ===
The Rubicon model of action phases  divides the process from intention to action into four phases: pre-decisional (choosing between potential goals through weighing their feasibility and desirability), pre-actional (planning the implementation of the chosen goal), actional (executing the plan) and post-actional (evaluating the outcomes to initial goals and subsequently adjusting future behaviour) (Heckhausen &amp; Gollwitzer, 1987). The model therefore provides a framework for understanding the intention-action gap: after forming a goal intention, an individual may still fail to progress from the pre-actional to the actional phase, representing a volitional problem in which an intended behaviour is not successfully initiated. [MAYBE REWORD]

=== Construal level theory (CLT) ===
An additional cognitive factor influencing task initiation is mental representation. Construal level theory is a psychological framework centred around the concept of psychological distance, and it distinguishes between high-level, abstract representations and low-level, concrete representations. High-level representations revolve around task purpose, value, and reward, and may boost motivation, but also delay initiation due to a lack of operational starting points; low-level representations decrease this friction through an emphasis on practical and logistical steps, and thus representing a task in this way may increase task initiation through making the immediate actions required to begin it more apparent (Trope &amp; Liberman, 2010).

== Motivational and emotional barriers ==
Motivation and emotion are two psychological areas of study which both pertain to task initiation and may be examined to understand how and why task initiation can become difficult. [Expand?]

=== Motivation ===
Task initiation is partly dependent on motivational influences such as the anticipated benefit of the task, the perceived likelihood of success, and the costs associated with performing it. Expectancy-value theory proposes that the expected outcomes and subjective value placed upon tasks by individuals heavily influences choice and persistence in relation to tasks (Wigfield &amp; Eccles, 2000). Similarly, self-efficacy theory proposes that individuals' efficacy expectations are the major determinant in relation to goal setting, task choice, effort expenditure, and persistence (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002). Additionally, neurological theories such as the expected value of control (EVC) propose that the brain weighs anticipated rewards against the costs of metabolic and cognitive exertion and allocates cognitive control accordingly, thus providing an explanation for why task initiation may be inhibited for demanding tasks even if they have been appraised as as valuable and achievable (Shenhav et al., 2013). 

=== Emotion ===
Task initiation is also dependent on anticipatory emotions associated with the task. Natural aversion to negative emotions such as boredom, frustration, resentment, stress, and anxiety decrease the likelihood of task initiation (Sirois &amp; Pychyl, 2013), and greater task aversiveness as a result of these emotions is associated with greater behavioural delay (Blunt &amp; Pychyl, 2000). These negative emotions can arise separately as a result of unique tasks, but are also often linked to chronic dispositions such as perfectionism, low self-efficacy, or even simply pre-existing negative emotions; research indicates that individuals with negative emotions such as shame or guilt due to previous failures are re-exposed to these negative feelings when thinking about task initiation (Wäschle et al., 2014). 

== Procrastination ==
Procrastination is separately distinguished from impaired task initiation in that it is a specific form of delay in which intended actions are unnecessarily postponed despite foreseeable adverse consequences. Despite being defined as voluntary choice, it is heavily correlated with failures of emotional regulation, and thus the choice to avoid task initiation is driven by neurological and emotional defence mechanisms as opposed to rational, calculative volition [citation needed]. 

Steel (2007) identifies procrastination as a failure of self-regulation, with strong associative factors of task aversiveness, task delay, self-efficacy, and impulsiveness, as well as facets of conscientiousness such as self-control, distractibility, organisation, and achievement motivation. These effects are stated to be consistent with temporal motivation theory; similarly, Sirois and Pychyl (2013) state that while procrastination is used to manage and regulate the negative emotions associated with task initiation on a short-term basis, it is also influenced by cognitive processes such as temporal discounting.

=== Temporal motivation theory ===
Temporal motivation theory acts as a comprehensive motivational framework, incorporating core elements of expectancy theory, hyperbolic discounting, need theory, and cumulative prospect theory, with an emphasis on time as a critical motivational factor. The theory posits the following formula for understanding motivation:

&lt;math&gt;Motivation = {Expectancy \times Value\over 1+Impulsiveness\times Delay}&lt;/math&gt;

==Improving task initiation ==

== Conclusion ==

== See also ==

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Procrastination|Procrastination]] (Book chapter, 2011)
* [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]] (Wikipedia)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1= 
Barkley, R. A. (2012). Executive functions: What they are, how they work, and why they evolved. Guilford Press. 

Erisman, S. M., &amp; Roemer, L. (2010). A preliminary investigation of the effects of experimentally induced mindfulness on emotional responding to film clips. ''Emotion'', ''10''(1), 72–82. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017162 

Gollwitzer, P. M. (1999). Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans. ''American Psychologist, 54''(7), 493–503. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.54.7.493

Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., &amp; Wager, T. D. (2000)'''.''' The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex &quot;Frontal Lobe&quot; tasks: A latent variable analysis. ''Cognitive Psychology'', ''41''(1), 49–100. https://doi.org/10.1006/cogp.1999.0734

Sirois, F. M., Molnar, D. S., &amp; Hirsch, J. K. (2017). A Meta-analytic and Conceptual Update on the Associations Between Procrastination and Multidimensional Perfectionism. European Journal of Personality, 31(2), 137–159. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2098 

Sirois, F., &amp; Pychyl, T. (2013). Procrastination and the Priority of Short-Term Mood Regulation: Consequences for Future Self. ''Social and Personality Psychology Compass'', ''7''(2), 115–127. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12011 

Stead, R., Shanahan, M. J., &amp; Neufeld, R. W. J. (2010). “I’ll go to therapy, eventually”: Procrastination, stress and mental health. Personality and Individual Differences, 49(3), 175–180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.03.028 

Steel, P. (2007). The nature of procrastination: A meta-analytic and theoretical review of quintessential self-regulatory failure. ''Psychological Bulletin, 133''(1), 65–94. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.65 

Trope, Y., &amp; Liberman, N. (2010). Construal-Level Theory of Psychological Distance. ''Psychological Review'', ''117''(2), 440–463. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018963 

Wäschle, K., Allgaier, A., Lachner, A., Fink, S., &amp; Nückles, M. (2014). Procrastination and self-efficacy: Tracing vicious and virtuous circles in self-regulated learning. Learning and Instruction, 29, 103–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2013.09.005 

Wohl, M. J. A., Pychyl, T. A., &amp; Bennett, S. H. (2010). I forgive myself, now I can study: How self-forgiveness for procrastinating can reduce future procrastination. ''Personality and Individual Differences'', ''48''(7), 803–808. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.01.029

}}

== External links ==

* [https://www.verywellmind.com/wall-of-awful-in-adhd-12000744 How the Wall of Awful Prevents Task Initiation in ADHD - and What Can Help You Push Through] (Verywell Mind, 2026)
* [https://www.theguardian.com/wellness/2025/sep/12/executive-dysfunction-overcome What is 'executive dysfunction' and how do you overcome it?] (The Guardian, 2025)
* [https://www.psychologicalscience.org/observer/why-wait-the-science-behind-procrastination Why Wait? The Science Behind Procrastination] (Association for Psychological Science, 2013) 

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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}

[[File:Scrolling on phone (cropped).jpg||thumb|right|150px|'''Figure 1'''. An individual scrolling on their phone.]] 

;Scenario

John is a university student with an assignment due in five days time which he has not started. Despite knowing that he needs to begin the assignment soon in order to have it completed by the due date, he finds the prospect of starting the assignment daunting, and so continues to find alternative activities to distract himself, such as scrolling on social media (see Figure 1.)

John is struggling with task initiation, and is using procrastination as a coping behaviour to manage his negative feelings associated with starting the assignment.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Executive functions are set of top-down cognitive processes that support individuals in relation to goal-directed behaviour through facilitating planning, attention, concentration, and mental flexibility (Diamond, 2013). Three core executive functions are often discussed: inhibition control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility (Miyake et al. 2000). Higher-order executive functions are derived from these, such as planning, task-switching, and fluid intelligence (Collins &amp; Koechlin, 2012), although these functions are often subjects of debate in terms of domain specificity. One such function is that of task initiation. 

Task initiation is an executive function that allows an individual to begin a specific task at a desired time without unnecessary hesitation or delay. Task initiation can be inhibited by various cognitive, emotional, and motivational factors. When tasks are associated with negative emotions such as anxiety, shame, or stress, are perceived as low-priority, distant, or unclear and thus do not inspire motivation, or when an individual has adverse cognitive factors related to executive functioning, task initiation can quickly become difficult. 

Impaired task initiation is often associated with procrastination, defined as the voluntary delay of an intended course of action despite expecting negative consequences from that delay (Steel, 2007). Although there is overlap between the concepts, difficulties in task initiation refer more broadly to problems translating intentions into action, whereas procrastination represents one particular form of delayed goal-directed behaviour. [Check definition from Steel articles]

Individuals who struggle with task initiation and procrastination long-term may suffer negative health aspects such as chronic stress and increased anxiety and depression (Stead et al., 2010) as well as decreased performance in academic or workplace environments (Steel, 2007). Understanding the cognitive and psychological mechanisms of task initiation and the various factors influencing it can help to bolster task initiation in individuals – such as through the development of mitigation strategies and measures for procrastination, for example – thus reducing the negative impact of impaired task initiation on individual’s lives.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* What are the cognitive processes underlying task initiation?
* How do motivational and emotional factors influence task initiation?
* Why does task initiation become difficult?
* What are the differences and interactions between task initiation and procrastination? 
* How can task initiation be improved?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Cognitive processes ==
Task initiation can be examined as functioning through the interactions of the core executive functions that it is derived from. Working memory involves the visualisation and maintenance of goals through the monitoring, coding, and revising of relevant information, inhibition control is the ability to deliberately suppress competing responses, and cognitive flexibility allows for set-shifting, the ability to shift between tasks or mental sets (Miyake et al., 2020), all of which are important factors in relation to functional task initiation in individuals. However, intention to initiate a task does not always translate to induced behaviour, and various cognitive models and theories offer explanations for this discrepancy. Notable among these include the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) and the Rubicon model of action phases.

=== Theory of planned behaviour ===
The theory of planned behaviour proposes that attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control jointly contribute to shape an individual's behavioural intention, which is then theorised to be the most immediate determinant of behaviour (Ajzen, 1991). However, perceived behavioural control - often conceptually related or compared to self-efficacy - is also stated as directly interacting with behaviour due to the dependence of behaviour on whether an individual has sufficient control over performing it, a relationship that is stated within the model as being strongest when perceived control reasonably reflects actual control. Thus, this can lead to an intention-action gap: favourable attitudes and supportive norms may generate an intention to begin a task, but insufficient perceived or actual behavioural control can prevent that intention from being translated into action.

=== Rubicon model of action phases ===
The Rubicon model of action phases  divides the process from intention to action into four phases: pre-decisional (choosing between potential goals through weighing their feasibility and desirability), pre-actional (planning the implementation of the chosen goal), actional (executing the plan) and post-actional (evaluating the outcomes to initial goals and subsequently adjusting future behaviour) (Heckhausen &amp; Gollwitzer, 1987). The model therefore provides a framework for understanding the intention-action gap: after forming a goal intention, an individual may still fail to progress from the pre-actional to the actional phase, representing a volitional problem in which an intended behaviour is not successfully initiated. [MAYBE REWORD]

=== Construal level theory (CLT) ===
An additional cognitive factor influencing task initiation is mental representation. Construal level theory is a psychological framework centred around the concept of psychological distance, and it distinguishes between high-level, abstract representations and low-level, concrete representations. High-level representations revolve around task purpose, value, and reward, and may boost motivation, but also delay initiation due to a lack of operational starting points; low-level representations decrease this friction through an emphasis on practical and logistical steps, and thus representing a task in this way may increase task initiation through making the immediate actions required to begin it more apparent (Trope &amp; Liberman, 2010).

== Motivational and emotional barriers ==
Motivation and emotion are two psychological areas of study which both pertain to task initiation and may be examined to understand how and why task initiation can become difficult. [Expand?]

=== Motivation ===
Task initiation is partly dependent on motivational influences such as the anticipated benefit of the task, the perceived likelihood of success, and the costs associated with performing it. Expectancy-value theory proposes that the expected outcomes and subjective value placed upon tasks by individuals heavily influences choice and persistence in relation to tasks (Wigfield &amp; Eccles, 2000). Similarly, self-efficacy theory proposes that individuals' efficacy expectations are the major determinant in relation to goal setting, task choice, effort expenditure, and persistence (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002). Additionally, neurological theories such as the expected value of control (EVC) propose that the brain weighs anticipated rewards against the costs of metabolic and cognitive exertion and allocates cognitive control accordingly, thus providing an explanation for why task initiation may be inhibited for demanding tasks even if they have been appraised as as valuable and achievable (Shenhav et al., 2013). 

=== Emotion ===
Task initiation is also dependent on anticipatory emotions associated with the task. Natural aversion to negative emotions such as boredom, frustration, resentment, stress, and anxiety decrease the likelihood of task initiation (Sirois &amp; Pychyl, 2013), and greater task aversiveness as a result of these emotions is associated with greater behavioural delay (Blunt &amp; Pychyl, 2000). These negative emotions can arise separately as a result of unique tasks, but are also often linked to chronic dispositions such as perfectionism, low self-efficacy, or even simply pre-existing negative emotions; research indicates that individuals with negative emotions such as shame or guilt due to previous failures are re-exposed to these negative feelings when thinking about task initiation (Wäschle et al., 2014). 

== Procrastination ==
Procrastination is separately distinguished from impaired task initiation in that it is a specific form of delay in which intended actions are unnecessarily postponed despite foreseeable adverse consequences. Despite being defined as voluntary choice, it is heavily correlated with failures of emotional regulation, and thus the choice to avoid task initiation is driven by neurological and emotional defence mechanisms as opposed to rational, calculative volition [citation needed]. 

=== Self-regulation ===
Steel (2007) identifies procrastination as a failure of self-regulation, with strong associative factors of task aversiveness, task delay, self-efficacy, and impulsiveness, as well as facets of conscientiousness such as self-control, distractibility, organisation, and achievement motivation. These effects are stated to be consistent with temporal motivation theory; similarly, while Sirois and Pychyl (2013) focus primarily on procrastination as a form of short-term emotional regulation, observe procrastination as being influenced by cognitive processes such as temporal discounting. 

==== Temporal motivation theory ====
Temporal motivation theory acts as a comprehensive motivational framework, incorporating core elements of expectancy theory, hyperbolic discounting, need theory, and cumulative prospect theory, with an emphasis on time as a critical motivational factor (Steel &amp; König, 2006). The theory posits the following formula for understanding motivation:

&lt;math&gt;Motivation = {Expectancy \times Value\over 1+Impulsiveness\times Delay}&lt;/math&gt;

with motivation as the desire for a specific outcome, expectancy as the perceived chance of success, value as the desire or benefit attached to the outcome, impulsiveness as individual sensitivity to delay, and delay as the amount of time remaining to complete the task.

This formula provides critical insight into the nature of time and deadlines upon motivation and subsequent procrastination: far-off rewards or consequences decrease motivation to initiate tasks, while individual differences are accounted for via impulsiveness. As deadlines approach and delay shrinks, motivation increases exponentially, leading to a decrease in procrastination and an increase in likelihood to initiate the deadline-bound task. However, as with task initiation as a broader concept, procrastination is also influenced by emotional factors.

=== Emotional regulation ===
Sirois and Pychyl (2013) argue that procrastination is used as short-term mood regulation and repair: temporarily avoiding an aversive task momentarily improves mood while transferring costs to the future self. This process may be influenced by negative reinforcement, a concept within operant conditioning theory where a behaviour is strengthened through the removal of a negative stimulus (Skinner, 1963). This can conceptually lead to a reinforcement cycle: an aversive task produces a negative emotion, leading to avoidance, which provides immediate emotional relief, and thus avoidance becomes more likely in the future. 

[Expand?]

==Improving task initiation ==
Various cognitive and behavioural strategies and implementations have been proposed to improve task initiation. As difficulties with task initiation have been identified as arising from executive, motivational, and emotional factors, these interventions are typically aimed at the specific mechanisms prevention action. These strategies include implementation actions, task decomposition, self-efficacy, emotional regulation, cognitive behavioural therapy, distraction minimisation, and other minor actionable strategies. 

=== Cognitive strategies to improve task initiation ===

=== Motivational strategies to improve task initiation ===

=== Emotional strategies to improve task initiation ===

=== General strategies to improve task initiation ===

== Conclusion ==

== See also ==

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Procrastination|Procrastination]] (Book chapter, 2011)
* [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]] (Wikipedia)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1= 
Barkley, R. A. (2012). Executive functions: What they are, how they work, and why they evolved. Guilford Press. 

Erisman, S. M., &amp; Roemer, L. (2010). A preliminary investigation of the effects of experimentally induced mindfulness on emotional responding to film clips. ''Emotion'', ''10''(1), 72–82. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017162 

Gollwitzer, P. M. (1999). Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans. ''American Psychologist, 54''(7), 493–503. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.54.7.493

Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., &amp; Wager, T. D. (2000)'''.''' The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex &quot;Frontal Lobe&quot; tasks: A latent variable analysis. ''Cognitive Psychology'', ''41''(1), 49–100. https://doi.org/10.1006/cogp.1999.0734

Sirois, F. M., Molnar, D. S., &amp; Hirsch, J. K. (2017). A Meta-analytic and Conceptual Update on the Associations Between Procrastination and Multidimensional Perfectionism. European Journal of Personality, 31(2), 137–159. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2098 

Sirois, F., &amp; Pychyl, T. (2013). Procrastination and the Priority of Short-Term Mood Regulation: Consequences for Future Self. ''Social and Personality Psychology Compass'', ''7''(2), 115–127. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12011 

Stead, R., Shanahan, M. J., &amp; Neufeld, R. W. J. (2010). “I’ll go to therapy, eventually”: Procrastination, stress and mental health. Personality and Individual Differences, 49(3), 175–180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.03.028 

Steel, P. (2007). The nature of procrastination: A meta-analytic and theoretical review of quintessential self-regulatory failure. ''Psychological Bulletin, 133''(1), 65–94. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.65 

Trope, Y., &amp; Liberman, N. (2010). Construal-Level Theory of Psychological Distance. ''Psychological Review'', ''117''(2), 440–463. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018963 

Wäschle, K., Allgaier, A., Lachner, A., Fink, S., &amp; Nückles, M. (2014). Procrastination and self-efficacy: Tracing vicious and virtuous circles in self-regulated learning. Learning and Instruction, 29, 103–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2013.09.005 

Wohl, M. J. A., Pychyl, T. A., &amp; Bennett, S. H. (2010). I forgive myself, now I can study: How self-forgiveness for procrastinating can reduce future procrastination. ''Personality and Individual Differences'', ''48''(7), 803–808. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.01.029

}}

== External links ==

* [https://www.verywellmind.com/wall-of-awful-in-adhd-12000744 How the Wall of Awful Prevents Task Initiation in ADHD - and What Can Help You Push Through] (Verywell Mind, 2026)
* [https://www.theguardian.com/wellness/2025/sep/12/executive-dysfunction-overcome What is 'executive dysfunction' and how do you overcome it?] (The Guardian, 2025)
* [https://www.psychologicalscience.org/observer/why-wait-the-science-behind-procrastination Why Wait? The Science Behind Procrastination] (Association for Psychological Science, 2013) 

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[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Goal pursuit]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Procrastination]]</text>
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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}

[[File:Scrolling on phone (cropped).jpg||thumb|right|150px|'''Figure 1'''. An individual scrolling on their phone.]] 

;Scenario

John is a university student with an assignment due in five days time which he has not started. Despite knowing that he needs to begin the assignment soon in order to have it completed by the due date, he finds the prospect of starting the assignment daunting, and so continues to find alternative activities to distract himself, such as scrolling on social media (see Figure 1.)

John is struggling with task initiation, and is using procrastination as a coping behaviour to manage his negative feelings associated with starting the assignment.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

[[w:Executive_functions|Executive functions]] are a set of [https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-top-down-processing-2795975 top-down cognitive processes] that support [[w:Individual|individuals]] in relation to [[w:Goal|goal]]-directed [[w:Behavior|behaviour]] (Diamond, 2013). Three commonly distinguished executive functions are [[w:Inhibitory_control|inhibition]], [[w:Working_memory|working memory]], and [[w:Task_switching_(psychology)|shifting]] (Miyake et al., 2000), though shifting has since been replaced and subcategorised within the broader concept of [[w:Cognitive_flexibility|cognitive flexibility]]. Higher-order executive functions are derived from these, such as [[w:Reason|reasoning]], [[w:Problem_solving|problem solving]], and [[w:Planning|planning]] (Collins &amp; Koechlin, 2012), although there is no universally-agreed upon [[w:Taxonomy|taxonomy]] due to differences in definitions, labels, and groups across theoretical models. One example of a higher-order executive function is that of task initiation. 

Task initiation is an executive function that allows an individual to begin a specific task at a desired time without unnecessary hesitation or delay. Task initiation can be inhibited by various [[w:Cognition|cognitive]], [[w:Emotion|emotional]], and [[w:Motivation|motivational]] factors. When tasks are associated with negative emotions such as [[w:Anxiety|anxiety]], [[w:Shame|shame]], or [[w:Psychological_stress|stress]], are perceived as low-priority, distant, or unclear and thus do not inspire motivation, or when an individual has adverse cognitive factors related to executive functioning, task initiation can quickly become difficult. 

Impaired task initiation is often associated with [[w:Procrastination|procrastination]], defined as the voluntary delay of an intended course of action despite expecting negative consequences from that delay (Steel, 2007). Although there is overlap between the concepts, difficulties in task initiation refer more broadly to problems translating intentions into action, whereas procrastination represents one particular form of delayed goal-directed behaviour. [Check definition from Steel articles]

Individuals who struggle with task initiation and procrastination long-term may suffer negative health aspects such as [[w:Chronic_stress|chronic stress]] and increased anxiety and [[w:Depression_(mood)|depression]] (Stead et al., 2010) as well as decreased performance in academic or workplace environments (Steel, 2007). Understanding the cognitive and psychological mechanisms of task initiation and the various factors influencing it can help to bolster task initiation in individuals – such as through the development of mitigation strategies and measures for procrastination, for example – thus reducing the negative impact of impaired task initiation on individual’s lives.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* What are the cognitive processes underlying task initiation?
* How do motivational and emotional factors influence task initiation?
* Why does task initiation become difficult?
* What are the differences and interactions between task initiation and procrastination? 
* How can task initiation be improved?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Cognitive processes ==
Task initiation can be examined as functioning through the interactions of the core executive functions that it is derived from. Working memory involves the [[w:Mental_image|visualisation]] and maintenance of goals through the monitoring, coding, and revising of relevant information, inhibition control is the ability to deliberately suppress competing responses, and cognitive flexibility allows for set-shifting, the ability to shift between tasks or mental sets (Miyake et al., 2020), all of which are important factors in relation to functional task initiation in individuals. However, intention to initiate a task does not always translate to induced behaviour, and various cognitive models and theories offer explanations for this discrepancy. Notable among these include the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) and the Rubicon model of action phases.

=== Theory of planned behaviour ===
The theory of planned behaviour proposes that attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control jointly contribute to shape an individual's behavioural intention, which is then theorised to be the most immediate determinant of behaviour (Ajzen, 1991). However, perceived behavioural control - often conceptually related or compared to self-efficacy - is also stated as directly interacting with behaviour due to the dependence of behaviour on whether an individual has sufficient control over performing it, a relationship that is stated within the model as being strongest when perceived control reasonably reflects actual control. Thus, this can lead to an intention-action gap: favourable attitudes and supportive norms may generate an intention to begin a task, but insufficient perceived or actual behavioural control can prevent that intention from being translated into action.

=== Rubicon model of action phases ===
The Rubicon model of action phases  divides the process from intention to action into four phases: pre-decisional (choosing between potential goals through weighing their feasibility and desirability), pre-actional (planning the implementation of the chosen goal), actional (executing the plan) and post-actional (evaluating the outcomes to initial goals and subsequently adjusting future behaviour) (Heckhausen &amp; Gollwitzer, 1987). The model therefore provides a framework for understanding the intention-action gap: after forming a goal intention, an individual may still fail to progress from the pre-actional to the actional phase, representing a volitional problem in which an intended behaviour is not successfully initiated. [MAYBE REWORD]

=== Construal level theory (CLT) ===
An additional cognitive factor influencing task initiation is mental representation. Construal level theory is a psychological framework centred around the concept of psychological distance, and it distinguishes between high-level, abstract representations and low-level, concrete representations. High-level representations revolve around task purpose, value, and reward, and may boost motivation, but also delay initiation due to a lack of operational starting points; low-level representations decrease this friction through an emphasis on practical and logistical steps, and thus representing a task in this way may increase task initiation through making the immediate actions required to begin it more apparent (Trope &amp; Liberman, 2010).

== Motivational and emotional barriers ==
Motivation and emotion are two psychological areas of study which both pertain to task initiation and may be examined to understand how and why task initiation can become difficult. [Expand?]

=== Motivation ===
Task initiation is partly dependent on motivational influences such as the anticipated benefit of the task, the perceived likelihood of success, and the costs associated with performing it. Expectancy-value theory proposes that the expected outcomes and subjective value placed upon tasks by individuals heavily influences choice and persistence in relation to tasks (Wigfield &amp; Eccles, 2000). Similarly, self-efficacy theory proposes that individuals' efficacy expectations are the major determinant in relation to goal setting, task choice, effort expenditure, and persistence (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002). Additionally, neurological theories such as the expected value of control (EVC) propose that the brain weighs anticipated rewards against the costs of metabolic and cognitive exertion and allocates cognitive control accordingly, thus providing an explanation for why task initiation may be inhibited for demanding tasks even if they have been appraised as as valuable and achievable (Shenhav et al., 2013). 

=== Emotion ===
Task initiation is also dependent on anticipatory emotions associated with the task. Natural aversion to negative emotions such as boredom, frustration, resentment, stress, and anxiety decrease the likelihood of task initiation (Sirois &amp; Pychyl, 2013), and greater task aversiveness as a result of these emotions is associated with greater behavioural delay (Blunt &amp; Pychyl, 2000). These negative emotions can arise separately as a result of unique tasks, but are also often linked to chronic dispositions such as perfectionism, low self-efficacy, or even simply pre-existing negative emotions; research indicates that individuals with negative emotions such as shame or guilt due to previous failures are re-exposed to these negative feelings when thinking about task initiation (Wäschle et al., 2014). 

== Procrastination ==
Procrastination is separately distinguished from impaired task initiation in that it is a specific form of delay in which intended actions are unnecessarily postponed despite foreseeable adverse consequences. Despite being defined as voluntary choice, it is heavily correlated with failures of emotional regulation, and thus the choice to avoid task initiation is driven by neurological and emotional defence mechanisms as opposed to rational, calculative volition [citation needed]. 

=== Self-regulation ===
Steel (2007) identifies procrastination as a failure of self-regulation, with strong associative factors of task aversiveness, task delay, self-efficacy, and impulsiveness, as well as facets of conscientiousness such as self-control, distractibility, organisation, and achievement motivation. These effects are stated to be consistent with temporal motivation theory; similarly, while Sirois and Pychyl (2013) focus primarily on procrastination as a form of short-term emotional regulation, observe procrastination as being influenced by cognitive processes such as temporal discounting. 

==== Temporal motivation theory ====
Temporal motivation theory acts as a comprehensive motivational framework, incorporating core elements of expectancy theory, hyperbolic discounting, need theory, and cumulative prospect theory, with an emphasis on time as a critical motivational factor (Steel &amp; König, 2006). The theory posits the following formula for understanding motivation:

&lt;math&gt;Motivation = {Expectancy \times Value\over 1+Impulsiveness\times Delay}&lt;/math&gt;

with motivation as the desire for a specific outcome, expectancy as the perceived chance of success, value as the desire or benefit attached to the outcome, impulsiveness as individual sensitivity to delay, and delay as the amount of time remaining to complete the task.

This formula provides critical insight into the nature of time and deadlines upon motivation and subsequent procrastination: far-off rewards or consequences decrease motivation to initiate tasks, while individual differences are accounted for via impulsiveness. As deadlines approach and delay shrinks, motivation increases exponentially, leading to a decrease in procrastination and an increase in likelihood to initiate the deadline-bound task. However, as with task initiation as a broader concept, procrastination is also influenced by emotional factors.

=== Emotional regulation ===
Sirois and Pychyl (2013) argue that procrastination is used as short-term mood regulation and repair: temporarily avoiding an aversive task momentarily improves mood while transferring costs to the future self. This process may be influenced by negative reinforcement, a concept within operant conditioning theory where a behaviour is strengthened through the removal of a negative stimulus (Skinner, 1963). This can conceptually lead to a reinforcement cycle: an aversive task produces a negative emotion, leading to avoidance, which provides immediate emotional relief, and thus avoidance becomes more likely in the future. 

[Expand?]

==Improving task initiation ==
Various cognitive and behavioural strategies and implementations have been proposed to improve task initiation. As difficulties with task initiation have been identified as arising from executive, motivational, and emotional factors, these interventions are typically aimed at the specific mechanisms prevention action. These strategies include implementation actions, task decomposition, self-efficacy, emotional regulation, cognitive behavioural therapy, distraction minimisation, and other minor actionable strategies. 

=== Cognitive strategies to improve task initiation ===

=== Motivational strategies to improve task initiation ===

=== Emotional strategies to improve task initiation ===

=== General strategies to improve task initiation ===

== Conclusion ==

== See also ==

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Procrastination|Procrastination]] (Book chapter, 2011)
* [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]] (Wikipedia)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1= 
Barkley, R. A. (2012). Executive functions: What they are, how they work, and why they evolved. Guilford Press. 

Erisman, S. M., &amp; Roemer, L. (2010). A preliminary investigation of the effects of experimentally induced mindfulness on emotional responding to film clips. ''Emotion'', ''10''(1), 72–82. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017162 

Gollwitzer, P. M. (1999). Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans. ''American Psychologist, 54''(7), 493–503. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.54.7.493

Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., &amp; Wager, T. D. (2000)'''.''' The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex &quot;Frontal Lobe&quot; tasks: A latent variable analysis. ''Cognitive Psychology'', ''41''(1), 49–100. https://doi.org/10.1006/cogp.1999.0734

Sirois, F. M., Molnar, D. S., &amp; Hirsch, J. K. (2017). A Meta-analytic and Conceptual Update on the Associations Between Procrastination and Multidimensional Perfectionism. European Journal of Personality, 31(2), 137–159. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2098 

Sirois, F., &amp; Pychyl, T. (2013). Procrastination and the Priority of Short-Term Mood Regulation: Consequences for Future Self. ''Social and Personality Psychology Compass'', ''7''(2), 115–127. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12011 

Stead, R., Shanahan, M. J., &amp; Neufeld, R. W. J. (2010). “I’ll go to therapy, eventually”: Procrastination, stress and mental health. Personality and Individual Differences, 49(3), 175–180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.03.028 

Steel, P. (2007). The nature of procrastination: A meta-analytic and theoretical review of quintessential self-regulatory failure. ''Psychological Bulletin, 133''(1), 65–94. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.65 

Trope, Y., &amp; Liberman, N. (2010). Construal-Level Theory of Psychological Distance. ''Psychological Review'', ''117''(2), 440–463. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018963 

Wäschle, K., Allgaier, A., Lachner, A., Fink, S., &amp; Nückles, M. (2014). Procrastination and self-efficacy: Tracing vicious and virtuous circles in self-regulated learning. Learning and Instruction, 29, 103–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2013.09.005 

Wohl, M. J. A., Pychyl, T. A., &amp; Bennett, S. H. (2010). I forgive myself, now I can study: How self-forgiveness for procrastinating can reduce future procrastination. ''Personality and Individual Differences'', ''48''(7), 803–808. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.01.029

}}

== External links ==

* [https://www.verywellmind.com/wall-of-awful-in-adhd-12000744 How the Wall of Awful Prevents Task Initiation in ADHD - and What Can Help You Push Through] (Verywell Mind, 2026)
* [https://www.theguardian.com/wellness/2025/sep/12/executive-dysfunction-overcome What is 'executive dysfunction' and how do you overcome it?] (The Guardian, 2025)
* [https://www.psychologicalscience.org/observer/why-wait-the-science-behind-procrastination Why Wait? The Science Behind Procrastination] (Association for Psychological Science, 2013) 

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      <text bytes="18149" sha1="gc4cdpvn32nnqzg8t9c9yeggb07gjha" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Getting started:&lt;br&gt;Why is task initiation difficult and how to overcome it?}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}

[[File:Scrolling on phone (cropped).jpg||thumb|right|150px|'''Figure 1'''. An individual scrolling on their phone.]] 

;Scenario

John is a university student with an assignment due in five days time which he has not started. Despite knowing that he needs to begin the assignment soon in order to have it completed by the due date, he finds the prospect of starting the assignment daunting, and so continues to find alternative activities to distract himself, such as scrolling on social media (see Figure 1.)

John is struggling with task initiation, and is using procrastination as a coping behaviour to manage his negative feelings associated with starting the assignment.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

[[w:Executive_functions|Executive functions]] are a set of [https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-top-down-processing-2795975 top-down cognitive processes] that support [[w:Individual|individuals]] in relation to [[w:Goal|goal]]-directed [[w:Behavior|behaviour]] (Diamond, 2013). Miyake et al. (2000) distinguish three core executive functions: [[w:Inhibitory_control|inhibition]], [[w:Working_memory|working memory]], and [[w:Task_switching_(psychology)|shifting]], though shifting has since largely been subcategorised within the broader concept of [[w:Cognitive_flexibility|cognitive flexibility]]. Higher-order executive functions are derived from these, such as [[w:Reason|reasoning]], [[w:Problem_solving|problem solving]], and [[w:Planning|planning]] (Collins &amp; Koechlin, 2012), although there is no universally-agreed upon [[w:Taxonomy|taxonomy]] due to differences in definitions, labels, and groups across theoretical models. One example of a higher-order executive function is that of task initiation. 

Task initiation is an executive function that allows an individual to begin a specific task at a desired time without unnecessary hesitation or delay. Task initiation can be inhibited by various [[w:Cognition|cognitive]], [[w:Emotion|emotional]], and [[w:Motivation|motivational]] factors. When tasks are associated with negative emotions such as [[w:Anxiety|anxiety]], [[w:Shame|shame]], or [[w:Psychological_stress|stress]], are perceived as low-priority, distant, or unclear and thus do not inspire motivation, or when an individual has adverse cognitive factors related to executive functioning, task initiation can quickly become difficult. 

Impaired task initiation is often associated with [[w:Procrastination|procrastination]], defined as the voluntary delay of an intended course of action despite expecting negative consequences from that delay (Steel, 2007). Although there is overlap between the concepts, difficulties in task initiation refer more broadly to problems translating intentions into action, whereas procrastination represents one particular form of delayed goal-directed behaviour. [Check definition from Steel articles]

Individuals who struggle with task initiation and procrastination long-term may suffer negative health aspects such as [[w:Chronic_stress|chronic stress]] and increased anxiety and [[w:Depression_(mood)|depression]] (Stead et al., 2010) as well as decreased performance in academic or workplace environments (Steel, 2007). Understanding the cognitive and psychological mechanisms of task initiation and the various factors influencing it can help to bolster task initiation in individuals – such as through the development of mitigation strategies and measures for procrastination, for example – thus reducing the negative impact of impaired task initiation on individual’s lives.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* What are the cognitive processes underlying task initiation?
* How do motivational and emotional factors influence task initiation?
* Why does task initiation become difficult?
* What are the differences and interactions between task initiation and procrastination? 
* How can task initiation be improved?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Cognitive processes ==
Task initiation can be examined as functioning through the interactions of the core executive functions that it is derived from. Working memory involves the [[w:Mental_image|visualisation]] and maintenance of goals through the monitoring, coding, and revising of relevant information, inhibition control is the ability to deliberately suppress competing responses, and cognitive flexibility allows for set-shifting, the ability to shift between tasks or mental sets (Miyake et al., 2020), all of which are important factors in relation to functional task initiation in individuals. However, intention to initiate a task does not always translate to induced behaviour, and various cognitive models and theories offer explanations for this discrepancy. Notable among these include the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) and the Rubicon model of action phases.

[Working memory overload, cognitive flexibility deficits?]

=== Theory of planned behaviour ===
The theory of planned behaviour proposes that attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control jointly contribute to shape an individual's behavioural intention, which is then theorised to be the most immediate determinant of behaviour (Ajzen, 1991). However, perceived behavioural control - often conceptually related or compared to self-efficacy - is also stated as directly interacting with behaviour due to the dependence of behaviour on whether an individual has sufficient control over performing it, a relationship that is stated within the model as being strongest when perceived control reasonably reflects actual control. Thus, this can lead to an intention-action gap: favourable attitudes and supportive norms may generate an intention to begin a task, but insufficient perceived or actual behavioural control can prevent that intention from being translated into action.

=== Rubicon model of action phases ===
The Rubicon model of action phases  divides the process from intention to action into four phases: pre-decisional (choosing between potential goals through weighing their feasibility and desirability), pre-actional (planning the implementation of the chosen goal), actional (executing the plan) and post-actional (evaluating the outcomes to initial goals and subsequently adjusting future behaviour) (Heckhausen &amp; Gollwitzer, 1987). The model therefore provides a framework for understanding the intention-action gap: after forming a goal intention, an individual may still fail to progress from the pre-actional to the actional phase, representing a volitional problem in which an intended behaviour is not successfully initiated. [MAYBE REWORD]

=== Construal level theory (CLT) ===
An additional cognitive factor influencing task initiation is mental representation. Construal level theory is a psychological framework centred around the concept of psychological distance, and it distinguishes between high-level, abstract representations and low-level, concrete representations. High-level representations revolve around task purpose, value, and reward, and may boost motivation, but also delay initiation due to a lack of operational starting points; low-level representations decrease this friction through an emphasis on practical and logistical steps, and thus representing a task in this way may increase task initiation through making the immediate actions required to begin it more apparent (Trope &amp; Liberman, 2010).

== Motivational and emotional barriers ==
Motivation and emotion are two psychological areas of study which both pertain to task initiation and may be examined to understand how and why task initiation can become difficult. [Expand?]

=== Motivation ===
Task initiation is partly dependent on motivational influences such as the anticipated benefit of the task, the perceived likelihood of success, and the costs associated with performing it. Expectancy-value theory proposes that the expected outcomes and subjective value placed upon tasks by individuals heavily influences choice and persistence in relation to tasks (Wigfield &amp; Eccles, 2000). Similarly, self-efficacy theory proposes that individuals' efficacy expectations are the major determinant in relation to goal setting, task choice, effort expenditure, and persistence (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002). Additionally, neurological theories such as the expected value of control (EVC) propose that the brain weighs anticipated rewards against the costs of metabolic and cognitive exertion and allocates cognitive control accordingly, thus providing an explanation for why task initiation may be inhibited for demanding tasks even if they have been appraised as as valuable and achievable (Shenhav et al., 2013). 

=== Emotion ===
Task initiation is also dependent on anticipatory emotions associated with the task. Natural aversion to negative emotions such as boredom, frustration, resentment, stress, and anxiety decrease the likelihood of task initiation (Sirois &amp; Pychyl, 2013), and greater task aversiveness as a result of these emotions is associated with greater behavioural delay (Blunt &amp; Pychyl, 2000). These negative emotions can arise separately as a result of unique tasks, but are also often linked to chronic dispositions such as perfectionism, low self-efficacy, or even simply pre-existing negative emotions; research indicates that individuals with negative emotions such as shame or guilt due to previous failures are re-exposed to these negative feelings when thinking about task initiation (Wäschle et al., 2014). 

== Procrastination ==
Procrastination is separately distinguished from impaired task initiation in that it is a specific form of delay in which intended actions are unnecessarily postponed despite foreseeable adverse consequences. Despite being defined as voluntary choice, it is heavily correlated with failures of emotional regulation, and thus the choice to avoid task initiation is driven by neurological and emotional defence mechanisms as opposed to rational, calculative volition [citation needed]. 

=== Self-regulation ===
Steel (2007) identifies procrastination as a failure of self-regulation, with strong associative factors of task aversiveness, task delay, self-efficacy, and impulsiveness, as well as facets of conscientiousness such as self-control, distractibility, organisation, and achievement motivation. These effects are stated to be consistent with temporal motivation theory; similarly, while Sirois and Pychyl (2013) focus primarily on procrastination as a form of short-term emotional regulation, observe procrastination as being influenced by cognitive processes such as temporal discounting. 

==== Temporal motivation theory ====
Temporal motivation theory acts as a comprehensive motivational framework, incorporating core elements of expectancy theory, hyperbolic discounting, need theory, and cumulative prospect theory, with an emphasis on time as a critical motivational factor (Steel &amp; König, 2006). The theory posits the following formula for understanding motivation:

&lt;math&gt;Motivation = {Expectancy \times Value\over 1+Impulsiveness\times Delay}&lt;/math&gt;

with motivation as the desire for a specific outcome, expectancy as the perceived chance of success, value as the desire or benefit attached to the outcome, impulsiveness as individual sensitivity to delay, and delay as the amount of time remaining to complete the task.

This formula provides critical insight into the nature of time and deadlines upon motivation and subsequent procrastination: far-off rewards or consequences decrease motivation to initiate tasks, while individual differences are accounted for via impulsiveness. As deadlines approach and delay shrinks, motivation increases exponentially, leading to a decrease in procrastination and an increase in likelihood to initiate the deadline-bound task. However, as with task initiation as a broader concept, procrastination is also influenced by emotional factors.

=== Emotional regulation ===
Sirois and Pychyl (2013) argue that procrastination is used as short-term mood regulation and repair: temporarily avoiding an aversive task momentarily improves mood while transferring costs to the future self. This process may be influenced by negative reinforcement, a concept within operant conditioning theory where a behaviour is strengthened through the removal of a negative stimulus (Skinner, 1963). This can conceptually lead to a reinforcement cycle: an aversive task produces a negative emotion, leading to avoidance, which provides immediate emotional relief, and thus avoidance becomes more likely in the future. 

[Expand?]

== Disorders inhibiting task initiation ==
- ADHD, ASD, depression, anxiety/ptsd, OCD.

==Improving task initiation ==
Various cognitive and behavioural strategies and implementations have been proposed to improve task initiation. As difficulties with task initiation have been identified as arising from executive, motivational, and emotional factors, these interventions are typically aimed at the specific mechanisms prevention action. These strategies include implementation actions, task decomposition, self-efficacy, emotional regulation, cognitive behavioural therapy, distraction minimisation, and other minor actionable strategies. 

=== Cognitive strategies to improve task initiation ===
The two identified cognitive inhibitions to task initiation are the intention-action gap, and [maladaptive] task visualisation. To address these, implementation intentions and task decomposition strategies are identified.

==== Implementation intentions ====

==== Task decomposition ====

=== Motivational strategies to improve task initiation ===
- Expectancy value theory: increase value or reduce perceived cost (utility-value intervention)

- self-efficacy theory: &quot;mastery experiences&quot; (bandura) 

- Expected value of control: similar to EVT, increase payoff or reduce executive cost (incentives, nearer rewards or feedback, simplify the initial action, potentially rely on familiar/well-learned processes)

=== Emotional strategies to improve task initiation ===
- self-forgiveness and compassion shown to decrease psychological effects of previous procrastination and failures (wohl, 2010)

- emotional acceptance: experiencing negative emotions without procrastinating rather than waiting for negative emotions to dissipate helps individuals to experience aversive feelings while still executing tasks (erisman and roemer, 2010)

=== General strategies to improve task initiation ===
- Restricting access to environmental distractions to reduce need for inhibitory control 

- Cognitive behavioural therapy?

== Conclusion ==

== See also ==

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Procrastination|Procrastination]] (Book chapter, 2011)
* [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]] (Wikipedia)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1= 
Barkley, R. A. (2012). Executive functions: What they are, how they work, and why they evolved. Guilford Press. 

Erisman, S. M., &amp; Roemer, L. (2010). A preliminary investigation of the effects of experimentally induced mindfulness on emotional responding to film clips. ''Emotion'', ''10''(1), 72–82. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017162 

Gollwitzer, P. M. (1999). Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans. ''American Psychologist, 54''(7), 493–503. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.54.7.493

Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., &amp; Wager, T. D. (2000)'''.''' The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex &quot;Frontal Lobe&quot; tasks: A latent variable analysis. ''Cognitive Psychology'', ''41''(1), 49–100. https://doi.org/10.1006/cogp.1999.0734

Sirois, F. M., Molnar, D. S., &amp; Hirsch, J. K. (2017). A Meta-analytic and Conceptual Update on the Associations Between Procrastination and Multidimensional Perfectionism. European Journal of Personality, 31(2), 137–159. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2098 

Sirois, F., &amp; Pychyl, T. (2013). Procrastination and the Priority of Short-Term Mood Regulation: Consequences for Future Self. ''Social and Personality Psychology Compass'', ''7''(2), 115–127. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12011 

Stead, R., Shanahan, M. J., &amp; Neufeld, R. W. J. (2010). “I’ll go to therapy, eventually”: Procrastination, stress and mental health. Personality and Individual Differences, 49(3), 175–180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.03.028 

Steel, P. (2007). The nature of procrastination: A meta-analytic and theoretical review of quintessential self-regulatory failure. ''Psychological Bulletin, 133''(1), 65–94. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.65 

Trope, Y., &amp; Liberman, N. (2010). Construal-Level Theory of Psychological Distance. ''Psychological Review'', ''117''(2), 440–463. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018963 

Wäschle, K., Allgaier, A., Lachner, A., Fink, S., &amp; Nückles, M. (2014). Procrastination and self-efficacy: Tracing vicious and virtuous circles in self-regulated learning. Learning and Instruction, 29, 103–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2013.09.005 

Wohl, M. J. A., Pychyl, T. A., &amp; Bennett, S. H. (2010). I forgive myself, now I can study: How self-forgiveness for procrastinating can reduce future procrastination. ''Personality and Individual Differences'', ''48''(7), 803–808. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.01.029

}}

== External links ==

* [https://www.verywellmind.com/wall-of-awful-in-adhd-12000744 How the Wall of Awful Prevents Task Initiation in ADHD - and What Can Help You Push Through] (Verywell Mind, 2026)
* [https://www.theguardian.com/wellness/2025/sep/12/executive-dysfunction-overcome What is 'executive dysfunction' and how do you overcome it?] (The Guardian, 2025)
* [https://www.psychologicalscience.org/observer/why-wait-the-science-behind-procrastination Why Wait? The Science Behind Procrastination] (Association for Psychological Science, 2013) 

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[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Goal pursuit]]
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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}

[[File:Bianca Chatfield 2008c.jpg|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. International netball players playing at a tournament. ]]

Maggie had always considered herself an athlete. Netball training shaped her days, her confidence, and her identity. But, one bad landing changed everything. The injury benched her for months, and without competition or routine, she felt her sense of self slipping.

As rehabilitation dragged on, motivation became unpredictable. Some days she was desperate to return but other days she wondered if she still belonged in the sport at all. Fear of reinjury, pressure to perform, and the loss of her athletic identity made the path back feel uncertain. Her body was healing but her identity was not. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Injury can destabilise an athlete’s core sense of self. When sport is central to [[wikipedia:Identity_(social_science)|identity]], losing the ability to participate can trigger grief, uncertainty, and reduced confidence. This identity disruption directly affects motivation to return, often creating a tension between wanting to restore the self and fearing further injury.

Understanding this relationship is crucial for coaches, clinicians and athletes navigating return to sport decisions.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Focus questions

* How can identity shapes{{g}} motivation?
* How does injury can weaken or strengthen the desire to return?
* How do factors like self determination, social support, and emotional regulation influence recovery?
* What interventions can rebuild identity and motivation?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Athletic identity==
Identity sits at the centre of human experience. It is shaped by what we do, how we see ourselves, and how we believe others see us. [[wikipedia:Athletic_identity|Athletic identity]] is whereby an individual considers themselves an athlete. 

'''How does sport shape our identity?'''

*Identity formation is a key developmental task in adolescence that can become especially significant when young athletes experience a sport injury (Brewer and Chatterton 2024). A disruption such as an injury can directly shape how they see themselves and their future in sport.

'''Team v individual sport'''
* Can being part of a team verse playing an individual sport shape the way we form our athletic identity?
'''Participation v elite sport'''

* Does the level of competition shape the way identity is formed and the emphasis placed on this component of identity. 
* Do elite athletes form a stronger connection with athletic identity (see Figure 1) {{ic|Cite this figure in the Overview}}. 

'''Sporting community'''

* Being apart of something bigger thank ourselves can be a drawing force to participation in sport.
* The role of teammates and coaches can be crucial to developing our own identity. 

== Motivation to return to sport post injury ==

* A study by Brewer et all (2003) found in a study from athletes who were recovering from ACL injury and had a stronger athletic identity were more likely to commit to their rehabilitation.
* Intrinsic and extrinsic motivators.
* Community contributions.&lt;br /&gt;

== Key theories ==

Psychological theories such as [[wikipedia:Self-determination_theory|self determination theory]] can support the return to sport following an injury and assist with rebuilding of athletic identity. 

* Self determination theory was created by psychologists Edward Deci and Richard Ryan in the 1900's and formalised in their book in 1985. 
* They considered motivation to be largely intrinsic with three basis needs of autonomy, competence and relatedness.
* Consideration to intrinsic value extrinsic motivation in sport. 

;Quiz
Test your knowledge!

&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Psychologists Edward Deci and Richard Ryan created self determination theory and formalised the theory in 1985?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{The three basic needs outlined in self determination theory are autonomy, competence and relatedness?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
Athletic injury does more than interrupt training it disrupts identity, confidence, and the psychological foundations of motivation. When athletes experience a break in their athletic identity, their drive to return becomes shaped not only by physical readiness but by how they reconstruct their sense of self during recovery. Psychological science offers clear insights into how identity, motivation, and emotional regulation interact in this process.

== See also ==

* [[wikipedia:Athletic_identity|Athletic identity]] (Wikipedia)
* [[wikipedia:Identity|Identity]] (Wikipedia)
* [[wikipedia:Sports_injury|Sports injury]] (Wikipedia)
* [[wikipedia:Team_sport|Team sport]] (Wikipedia)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Brewer, B. W., &amp; Chatterton, H. A. (2024). Athletic identity and sport injury processes and outcomes in young athletes: A supplemental narrative review. Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology, 9(4), 191. https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk9040191

Brewer BW, Cornelius AE, Van Raalte JL, Petitpas AJ, Sklar JH, Pohlman MH, et al. Age-related differences in predictors of adherence to rehabilitation after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction. J Athl Train. 2003;38(2):158–62.

McGinley, J., Stapleton, E., Worrall, H., Ellis, H. B., Wilson, P. L., &amp; Ulman, S. (2021). Sport participation and psychosocial factors which influence athletic identity in youth athletes with anterior cruciate ligament injury. Frontiers in Sports and Active Living, 3, 660836. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.906300

Lu, F. J. H., Lee, W. P., Chang, Y. K., Chou, C. C., Hsu, Y. W., Lin, J. H., &amp; Gill, D. L. (2016). Mental toughness, social support, and athletic identity: Moderators of the life stress–injury relationship in collegiate football players. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 24, 92–100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2016.01.009

Ohji, S., Aizawa, J., Hirohata, K. et al. Athletic identity and sport commitment in athletes after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction who have returned to sports at their pre-injury level of competition. BMC Sports Sci Med Rehabil 13, 37 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13102-021-00264-6

Weber Rawlins, M. L., Beasley, L. E., &amp; Kontos, A. P. (2023). The influence of athletic identity, passion, and perceptions of concussion severity on athletes’ willingness to report concussion symptoms. Journal of Sport Rehabilitation, 32(7), 767–775. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsr.2022-0313

Webster, K. E., Clement, D., &amp; Ardern, C. L. (2021). Differences in athletic identity, sport participation, and psychosocial factors following anterior cruciate ligament rehabilitation in youth athletes. Frontiers in Sports and Active Living, 3, 660835. https://doi.org/10.3389/fspor.2021.660835

}}

==External links==
* [https://www.ausport.gov.au Australian Sports Commission] (&lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.ausport.gov.au/&lt;/nowiki&gt;)
* [https://www.beyondblue.org.au Beyond Blue] (&lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.beyondblue.org.au/&lt;/nowiki&gt;)

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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=12}}
[[File:Cartoon Black Woman Shopping Online.svg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. Online shopping addiction {{ic|explain connection to mesolimbic pathway}}]]

;Scenario

Imagine you are scrolling through the website of your favourite store. There are sales everywhere, free shipping for orders over $100 and you have some time to spare. You are so excited by the thought of receiving a parcel in the mail, that you just add items to your cart without really needing them or even liking the items that much. Seeing the parcel at the door and taking it inside to unbox is more exciting than the item itself. Then after you've received it, you may forget about it or wonder why you bought it in the first place?

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

This scenario demonstrates a broader psychological issue which involves the tendency to become addicted to various behaviours (see Figure 1). The ventral tegmental area (VTA) to the nucleus accumbens pathway, is strongly involved in addiction motivation (Ebrahimi et al., 2024). This pathway is a core component of the mesolimbic pathway which starts in the midbrain and ends in the forebrain (Ebrahimi et al., 2024). Understanding the function of the VTA to nucleus accumbens pathway is important in recognising how certain behaviours become addictive and why anticipation can outweigh actual reward. Many addictive behaviours can somewhat be insignificant but others can cause a substantial amount of harm to oneself or other people. Considering the potential impacts of addiction, developing an understanding of the physiological psychology behind it is beneficial.

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}}
'''Focus questions'''

* How does the mesolimbic pathway normally function in motivation and reward?
* How do addictive substances and behaviours alter dopamine signalling within the mesolimbic pathway?
* How does the environment interact with the mesolimbic pathway to reinforce addictive behaviours?

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Mesolimbic pathway function ==
Key points:

* The nucleus accumbens is activated by [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2017/Dopamine and drug addiction|dopamine]] which is a neurotransmitter projected from the ventral tegmental area (VTA) (Ebrahimi et al., 2024).
* Naturally rewarding stimuli increase the release of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens and the dopamine response decreases when stimuli is incessant (Salgado &amp; Kaplitt, 2015).
* The mesolimbic pathway is essential for behavioural activation, sustained engagement, putting in effort and working towards goals (Salamone &amp; Correa, 2012)

The nucleus accumbens, located in the ventral striatum, is a key structure in the brain that is responsible for reward, motivation and pleasure (Ebrahimi et al., 2024). The nucleus accumbens is activated by dopamine which is projected from the ventral tegmental area (VTA). This pathway that dopamine travels, starts at the VTA in the midbrain and ends at the nucleus accumbens, in the limbic area. It is therefore known as the mesolimbic pathway and it is heavily involved in addiction motivation.

== How addictive substances and behaviours alter the mesolimbic pathway ==
Key points:

* Reward deficiency syndrome suggests that motivation to engage in risk-taking behaviours increases when there is a dopamine deficiency in the reward system (Blum et al., 2022)
* Consistent drug taking can cause permanent functional changes in the mesolimbic pathway
* Changes caused by repetitive dopamine stimulation result in an abnormal amount of motivation to consume the drug, even when the individual finds it unenjoyable

(Alcaro et al., 2007)

== How the environment interacts with the mesolimbic pathway ==
Key points:

* Severe stress caused by childhood adversity and other factors such as social isolation (Trainor, 2011) affect the mesolimbic pathway
* Low dopamine transporter (DAT) causes more sensitivity in the mesolimbic pathway, meaning stimulant substances such as cocaine have more of an affect and produce longer rewards signals (Enoch, 2011)
* A modulated mesolimbic system caused by stress can lead to chronic stress-induced depression (Baik, 2020)

== Recovery of the mesolimbic pathway ==

* Related to reward deficiency syndrome - short term treatment may involve blocking dopamine receptors in the nucleus accumbens
* Long term treatment may involve increasing dopamine signalling in the nucleus accumbens
* Increasing dopamine signalling will help to avoid relapse 

(Blum &amp; Gold, 2011)

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure
* Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options:

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s)

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages


Planning to have a quiz with 1-2 questions at the end of each main section.

Might add some questions throughout that refer to the scenario from the start to tie it in.

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2017/Dopamine and drug addiction]]

embedded in text under mesolimbic pathway function

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* Arguably the most important section
* Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking
* For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words
*The mesolimbic pathway starts at the ventral tegmental area and ends at the nucleus accumbens
*This pathway is involved in reward and motivation
*Addictive substances and behaviours can modulate the mesolimbic pathway 
*Exposure to stress can increase vulnerability to addiction
*Reward deficiency syndrome increases risk of addiction and other risk-taking behaviours
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
[[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[wikipedia:Mesolimbic_pathway|Mesolimbic pathway]] (Wikipedia)

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Motivational toxicity|Motivational toxicity]] (Book chapter, 2010)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Alcaro, A., Huber, R., &amp; Panksepp, J. (2007). Behavioral functions of the mesolimbic dopaminergic system: An affective neuroethological perspective. Brain Research Reviews, 56(2), 21–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainresrev.2007.07.014

Baik, J.-H. (2020). Stress and the dopaminergic reward system. Experimental &amp; Molecular Medicine, 52(12), 1883. https://doi.org/10.1038/s12276-020-00532-4

Blum, K., &amp; Gold, M. S. (2011). Neuro-chemical activation of brain reward meso-limbic circuitry is associated with relapse prevention and drug hunger: A hypothesis. Medical Hypotheses, 76(4), 580. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mehy.2011.01.005

Blum, K., McLaughlin, T., Bowirrat, A., Modestino, E. J., Baron, D., Gomez, L. L., Ceccanti, M., Braverman, E. R., Thanos, P. K., Cadet, J. L., Elman, I., Badgaiyan, R. D., Jalali, R., Green, R., Simpatico, T. A., Gupta, A., &amp; Gold, M. S. (2022). Reward deficiency syndrome (RDS) surprisingly is evolutionary and found everywhere: Is it “blowin’ in the wind”? Journal of Personalized Medicine, 12(2), 4. https://doi.org/10.3390/jpm12020321

Ebrahimi, M. N., Banazadeh, M., Alitaneh, Z., Suha, A. J., Esmaeili, A., Hasannejad-Asl, B., Siahposht-Khachaki, A., Hassanshahi, A., &amp; Bagheri-Mohammadi, S. (2024). The distribution of neurotransmitters in the brain circuitry: Mesolimbic pathway and addiction. ''Physiology &amp; Behavior, 284'', 2. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2024.114639

Enoch, M.-A. (2011). The role of early life stress as a predictor for alcohol and drug dependence. Psychopharmacology, 214(1), 22. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-010-1916-6

Salamone, J. D., &amp; Correa, M. (2012). The mysterious motivational functions of mesolimbic dopamine. Neuron, 76(3), 470. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2012.10.021

Salgado, S., &amp; Kaplitt, M. G. (2015). The nucleus accumbens: A comprehensive review. Stereotactic and Functional Neurosurgery, 93(2), 82. https://doi.org/10.1159/000368279

Trainor, B. C. (2011). Stress responses and the mesolimbic dopamine system: Social contexts and sex differences. Hormones and Behavior, 60(5), 6–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2011.08.013
}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
*** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
*** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
[[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. 

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f7E0mTJQ2KM 2-minute neuroscience: reward system] (Neurochallenged, YouTube)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D8TJNU9pbto Rewiring your dopamine systems] (StarTalk, YouTube)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

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[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Neuroscience]]
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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=12}}
[[File:Cartoon Black Woman Shopping Online.svg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. Online shopping addiction {{ic|explain connection to mesolimbic pathway}}]]

;Scenario

Imagine you are scrolling through the website of your favourite store. There are sales everywhere, free shipping for orders over $100 and you have some time to spare. You are so excited by the thought of receiving a parcel in the mail, that you just add items to your cart without really needing them or even liking the items that much. Seeing the parcel at the door and taking it inside to unbox is more exciting than the item itself. Then after you've received it, you may forget about it or wonder why you bought it in the first place?

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

This scenario demonstrates a broader psychological issue which involves the tendency to become addicted to various behaviours (see Figure 1). The ventral tegmental area (VTA) to the nucleus accumbens pathway, is strongly involved in addiction motivation (Ebrahimi et al., 2024). This pathway is a core component of the mesolimbic pathway which starts in the midbrain and ends in the forebrain (Ebrahimi et al., 2024). Understanding the function of the VTA to nucleus accumbens pathway is important in recognising how certain behaviours become addictive and why anticipation can outweigh actual reward. Many addictive behaviours can somewhat be insignificant but others can cause a substantial amount of harm to oneself or other people. Considering the potential impacts of addiction, developing an understanding of the physiological psychology behind it is beneficial.

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}}
'''Focus questions'''

* How does the mesolimbic pathway normally function in motivation and reward?
* How do addictive substances and behaviours alter dopamine signalling within the mesolimbic pathway?
* How does the environment interact with the mesolimbic pathway to reinforce addictive behaviours?

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Mesolimbic pathway function ==
Key points:

* The nucleus accumbens is activated by [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2017/Dopamine and drug addiction|dopamine]] which is a neurotransmitter projected from the ventral tegmental area (VTA) (Ebrahimi et al., 2024).
* Naturally rewarding stimuli increase the release of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens and the dopamine response decreases when stimuli is incessant (Salgado &amp; Kaplitt, 2015).
* The mesolimbic pathway is essential for behavioural activation, sustained engagement, putting in effort and working towards goals (Salamone &amp; Correa, 2012)

The nucleus accumbens, located in the ventral striatum, is a key structure in the brain that is responsible for reward, motivation and pleasure (Ebrahimi et al., 2024). The nucleus accumbens is activated by dopamine which is projected from the ventral tegmental area (VTA). This pathway that dopamine travels along, starts at the VTA in the midbrain and ends at the nucleus accumbens, in the limbic area. It is therefore known as the mesolimbic pathway and it is heavily involved in addiction motivation.

== How addictive substances and behaviours alter the mesolimbic pathway ==
Key points:

* Reward deficiency syndrome suggests that motivation to engage in risk-taking behaviours increases when there is a dopamine deficiency in the reward system (Blum et al., 2022)
* Consistent drug taking can cause permanent functional changes in the mesolimbic pathway
* Changes caused by repetitive dopamine stimulation result in an abnormal amount of motivation to consume the drug, even when the individual finds it unenjoyable

(Alcaro et al., 2007)

== How the environment interacts with the mesolimbic pathway ==
Key points:

* Severe stress caused by childhood adversity and other factors such as social isolation (Trainor, 2011) affect the mesolimbic pathway
* Low dopamine transporter (DAT) causes more sensitivity in the mesolimbic pathway, meaning stimulant substances such as cocaine have more of an affect and produce longer rewards signals (Enoch, 2011)
* A modulated mesolimbic system caused by stress can lead to chronic stress-induced depression (Baik, 2020)

== Recovery of the mesolimbic pathway ==

* Related to reward deficiency syndrome - short term treatment may involve blocking dopamine receptors in the nucleus accumbens
* Long term treatment may involve increasing dopamine signalling in the nucleus accumbens
* Increasing dopamine signalling will help to avoid relapse 

(Blum &amp; Gold, 2011)

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure
* Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options:

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s)

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages


Planning to have a quiz with 1-2 questions at the end of each main section.

Might add some questions throughout that refer to the scenario from the start to tie it in.

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2017/Dopamine and drug addiction]]

embedded in text under mesolimbic pathway function

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* Arguably the most important section
* Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking
* For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words
*The mesolimbic pathway starts at the ventral tegmental area and ends at the nucleus accumbens
*This pathway is involved in reward and motivation
*Addictive substances and behaviours can modulate the mesolimbic pathway 
*Exposure to stress can increase vulnerability to addiction
*Reward deficiency syndrome increases risk of addiction and other risk-taking behaviours
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
[[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[wikipedia:Mesolimbic_pathway|Mesolimbic pathway]] (Wikipedia)

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Motivational toxicity|Motivational toxicity]] (Book chapter, 2010)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Alcaro, A., Huber, R., &amp; Panksepp, J. (2007). Behavioral functions of the mesolimbic dopaminergic system: An affective neuroethological perspective. Brain Research Reviews, 56(2), 21–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainresrev.2007.07.014

Baik, J.-H. (2020). Stress and the dopaminergic reward system. Experimental &amp; Molecular Medicine, 52(12), 1883. https://doi.org/10.1038/s12276-020-00532-4

Blum, K., &amp; Gold, M. S. (2011). Neuro-chemical activation of brain reward meso-limbic circuitry is associated with relapse prevention and drug hunger: A hypothesis. Medical Hypotheses, 76(4), 580. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mehy.2011.01.005

Blum, K., McLaughlin, T., Bowirrat, A., Modestino, E. J., Baron, D., Gomez, L. L., Ceccanti, M., Braverman, E. R., Thanos, P. K., Cadet, J. L., Elman, I., Badgaiyan, R. D., Jalali, R., Green, R., Simpatico, T. A., Gupta, A., &amp; Gold, M. S. (2022). Reward deficiency syndrome (RDS) surprisingly is evolutionary and found everywhere: Is it “blowin’ in the wind”? Journal of Personalized Medicine, 12(2), 4. https://doi.org/10.3390/jpm12020321

Ebrahimi, M. N., Banazadeh, M., Alitaneh, Z., Suha, A. J., Esmaeili, A., Hasannejad-Asl, B., Siahposht-Khachaki, A., Hassanshahi, A., &amp; Bagheri-Mohammadi, S. (2024). The distribution of neurotransmitters in the brain circuitry: Mesolimbic pathway and addiction. ''Physiology &amp; Behavior, 284'', 2. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2024.114639

Enoch, M.-A. (2011). The role of early life stress as a predictor for alcohol and drug dependence. Psychopharmacology, 214(1), 22. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-010-1916-6

Salamone, J. D., &amp; Correa, M. (2012). The mysterious motivational functions of mesolimbic dopamine. Neuron, 76(3), 470. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2012.10.021

Salgado, S., &amp; Kaplitt, M. G. (2015). The nucleus accumbens: A comprehensive review. Stereotactic and Functional Neurosurgery, 93(2), 82. https://doi.org/10.1159/000368279

Trainor, B. C. (2011). Stress responses and the mesolimbic dopamine system: Social contexts and sex differences. Hormones and Behavior, 60(5), 6–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2011.08.013
}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
*** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
*** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
[[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. 

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f7E0mTJQ2KM 2-minute neuroscience: reward system] (Neurochallenged, YouTube)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D8TJNU9pbto Rewiring your dopamine systems] (StarTalk, YouTube)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=12}}
[[File:Cartoon Black Woman Shopping Online.svg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. Online shopping addiction {{ic|explain connection to mesolimbic pathway}}]]

;Scenario

Imagine you are scrolling through the website of your favourite store. There are sales everywhere, free shipping for orders over $100 and you have some time to spare. You are so excited by the thought of receiving a parcel in the mail, that you just add items to your cart without really needing them or even liking the items that much. Seeing the parcel at the door and taking it inside to unbox is more exciting than the item itself. Then after you've received it, you may forget about it or wonder why you bought it in the first place?

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

This scenario demonstrates a broader psychological issue which involves the tendency to become addicted to various behaviours (see Figure 1). The ventral tegmental area (VTA) to the nucleus accumbens pathway, is strongly involved in addiction motivation (Ebrahimi et al., 2024). This pathway is a core component of the mesolimbic pathway which starts in the midbrain and ends in the forebrain (Ebrahimi et al., 2024). Understanding the function of the VTA to nucleus accumbens pathway is important in recognising how certain behaviours become addictive and why anticipation can outweigh actual reward. Many addictive behaviours can somewhat be insignificant but others can cause a substantial amount of harm to oneself or other people. Considering the potential impacts of addiction, developing an understanding of the physiological psychology behind it is beneficial.

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}}
'''Focus questions'''

* How does the mesolimbic pathway normally function in motivation and reward?
* How do addictive substances and behaviours alter dopamine signalling within the mesolimbic pathway?
* How does the environment interact with the mesolimbic pathway to reinforce addictive behaviours?

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Mesolimbic pathway function ==
Key points:

* The nucleus accumbens is activated by [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2017/Dopamine and drug addiction|dopamine]] which is a neurotransmitter projected from the ventral tegmental area (VTA) (Ebrahimi et al., 2024).
* Naturally rewarding stimuli increase the release of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens and the dopamine response decreases when stimuli is incessant (Salgado &amp; Kaplitt, 2015).
* The mesolimbic pathway is essential for behavioural activation, sustained engagement, putting in effort and working towards goals (Salamone &amp; Correa, 2012)

The nucleus accumbens, located in the ventral striatum, is a key structure in the brain that is responsible for reward, motivation and pleasure (Ebrahimi et al., 2024). The nucleus accumbens is activated by dopamine which is projected from the ventral tegmental area (VTA). This pathway that dopamine travels along, starts at the VTA in the midbrain and ends at the nucleus accumbens, in the limbic area. It is known as the mesolimbic pathway and it is heavily involved in addiction motivation.

== How addictive substances and behaviours alter the mesolimbic pathway ==
Key points:

* Reward deficiency syndrome suggests that motivation to engage in risk-taking behaviours increases when there is a dopamine deficiency in the reward system (Blum et al., 2022)
* Consistent drug taking can cause permanent functional changes in the mesolimbic pathway
* Changes caused by repetitive dopamine stimulation result in an abnormal amount of motivation to consume the drug, even when the individual finds it unenjoyable

(Alcaro et al., 2007)

== How the environment interacts with the mesolimbic pathway ==
Key points:

* Severe stress caused by childhood adversity and other factors such as social isolation (Trainor, 2011) affect the mesolimbic pathway
* Low dopamine transporter (DAT) causes more sensitivity in the mesolimbic pathway, meaning stimulant substances such as cocaine have more of an affect and produce longer rewards signals (Enoch, 2011)
* A modulated mesolimbic system caused by stress can lead to chronic stress-induced depression (Baik, 2020)

== Recovery of the mesolimbic pathway ==

* Related to reward deficiency syndrome - short term treatment may involve blocking dopamine receptors in the nucleus accumbens
* Long term treatment may involve increasing dopamine signalling in the nucleus accumbens
* Increasing dopamine signalling will help to avoid relapse 

(Blum &amp; Gold, 2011)

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure
* Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options:

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s)

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages


Planning to have a quiz with 1-2 questions at the end of each main section.

Might add some questions throughout that refer to the scenario from the start to tie it in.

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2017/Dopamine and drug addiction]]

embedded in text under mesolimbic pathway function

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* Arguably the most important section
* Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking
* For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words
*The mesolimbic pathway starts at the ventral tegmental area and ends at the nucleus accumbens
*This pathway is involved in reward and motivation
*Addictive substances and behaviours can modulate the mesolimbic pathway 
*Exposure to stress can increase vulnerability to addiction
*Reward deficiency syndrome increases risk of addiction and other risk-taking behaviours
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
[[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[wikipedia:Mesolimbic_pathway|Mesolimbic pathway]] (Wikipedia)

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Motivational toxicity|Motivational toxicity]] (Book chapter, 2010)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Alcaro, A., Huber, R., &amp; Panksepp, J. (2007). Behavioral functions of the mesolimbic dopaminergic system: An affective neuroethological perspective. Brain Research Reviews, 56(2), 21–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainresrev.2007.07.014

Baik, J.-H. (2020). Stress and the dopaminergic reward system. Experimental &amp; Molecular Medicine, 52(12), 1883. https://doi.org/10.1038/s12276-020-00532-4

Blum, K., &amp; Gold, M. S. (2011). Neuro-chemical activation of brain reward meso-limbic circuitry is associated with relapse prevention and drug hunger: A hypothesis. Medical Hypotheses, 76(4), 580. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mehy.2011.01.005

Blum, K., McLaughlin, T., Bowirrat, A., Modestino, E. J., Baron, D., Gomez, L. L., Ceccanti, M., Braverman, E. R., Thanos, P. K., Cadet, J. L., Elman, I., Badgaiyan, R. D., Jalali, R., Green, R., Simpatico, T. A., Gupta, A., &amp; Gold, M. S. (2022). Reward deficiency syndrome (RDS) surprisingly is evolutionary and found everywhere: Is it “blowin’ in the wind”? Journal of Personalized Medicine, 12(2), 4. https://doi.org/10.3390/jpm12020321

Ebrahimi, M. N., Banazadeh, M., Alitaneh, Z., Suha, A. J., Esmaeili, A., Hasannejad-Asl, B., Siahposht-Khachaki, A., Hassanshahi, A., &amp; Bagheri-Mohammadi, S. (2024). The distribution of neurotransmitters in the brain circuitry: Mesolimbic pathway and addiction. ''Physiology &amp; Behavior, 284'', 2. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2024.114639

Enoch, M.-A. (2011). The role of early life stress as a predictor for alcohol and drug dependence. Psychopharmacology, 214(1), 22. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-010-1916-6

Salamone, J. D., &amp; Correa, M. (2012). The mysterious motivational functions of mesolimbic dopamine. Neuron, 76(3), 470. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2012.10.021

Salgado, S., &amp; Kaplitt, M. G. (2015). The nucleus accumbens: A comprehensive review. Stereotactic and Functional Neurosurgery, 93(2), 82. https://doi.org/10.1159/000368279

Trainor, B. C. (2011). Stress responses and the mesolimbic dopamine system: Social contexts and sex differences. Hormones and Behavior, 60(5), 6–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2011.08.013
}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
*** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
*** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
[[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. 

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f7E0mTJQ2KM 2-minute neuroscience: reward system] (Neurochallenged, YouTube)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D8TJNU9pbto Rewiring your dopamine systems] (StarTalk, YouTube)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Neuroscience]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Neurotransmitters/Dopamine]]</text>
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      <text bytes="19121" sha1="6eq6uk1xyw3f5ixj3txquq9jsuj3jxz" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
Hello Everyone,

I am currently a 3rd year psychology student at [https://www.google.com/search?client=safari&amp;rls=en&amp;q=University+of+canberra&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;oe=UTF-8 University of Canberra] 

This semester I am studying [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] unit.

My future goal is to become clinical psychologist and work with Australian Federal Police.

My Linkedln profile:  https://www.linkedin.com/in/palak-kathiriya-6b7048289/

Thank you for visiting my linkedln profile and this page!

== Hobbies ==

* Dancing
* Hiking
* Travelling to different countries 
* Painting 
* Cycling 
* Nature exploration
** Birdwatching
** Gardening 

== Book Chapter I'm working on ==
I am working on a really interesting topic for my book chapter. My chapter title is: Positive emotion dysregulation: What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning? 

Link for my book chapter: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Positive emotion dysregulation|Positive emotion dysregulation]] 

== Social contributions ==
All times are in Canberra local time (AEST/AEDT)
# 12:58 pm, 26 August 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FWarm-glow_giving&amp;diff=2826658&amp;oldid=2826657 Added the template and the title for this page - For this chapter: Warm-glow giving - Why does giving feel good and how does this influence prosocial behaviour? '''('''Book Chapter, 2026)]
# 11:59 am, 26 August 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FPerfectionism_and_procrastination&amp;diff=2826589&amp;oldid=2826579 Fixed spelling error in one of the focus question - For this chapter:  Perfectionism and procrastination - What is the role of perfectionism in procrastination and what can be done about it? (Book Chapter, 2026)]
# 12:28 pm, 26 August 2026: [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Motivations for using sex work services#Heading casing|Made a suggestion about overview section - For this chapter: Motivations for using sex work services: What motivates use of sex work services? (Book Chapter, 2026)]]
# 2:03 pm, 26 August 2026: [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/456558 Provided a couple of sources for the development of breathing exercises and relaxation book chapter (Book Chapter, 2026) (UC Learn)]
#8:10 am, 2 September 2026: [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/458145 Commented on discussion forum about how to use GenAI in the unit and what are the expectations if we use GenAI (UC Learn)]
# 10:14 am , 2 September 2026:[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FSelf-control_and_ego_depletion_recovery&amp;diff=2830323&amp;oldid=2761410 Fixed spelling error in book chapter - For this chapter - Self-control and ego depletion recovery: How do people restore self-control resources after depletion and what factors influence recovery? (Book Chapter, 2025)]
# 10:22 am, 2 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2025/Grit_and_academic_achievement&amp;diff=prev&amp;oldid=2830325 Changed few sentences to make it grammatically better - For this chapter: Grit and academic achievement  What role does grit play in academic achievement and can it be fostered in future students? (Book Chapter, 2025)]
# 10:48 am, 2 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FCancer_screening_and_emotion&amp;diff=2830328&amp;oldid=2823381 Rewrote one paragraph in overview section to make it easier to understand - For this chapter: Cancer screening and emotion: How do emotions such as fear, anxiety, and relief influence cancer screening uptake?(Book Chapter, 2025)]
# 10:54 am, 2 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FCancer_screening_and_emotion&amp;diff=2830330&amp;oldid=2830328 Added reference to support one claim in overview section - For this chapter: Cancer screening and emotion:How do emotions such as fear, anxiety, and relief influence cancer screening uptake? (Book Chapter, 2025)]
#12:56 pm, 2 September 2026: [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455261 Commented on discussion forum about what interests me more in motivation and emotion unit and what I would like to learn (UC Learn)]
#9:17 pm, 3 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FGrit_and_academic_achievement&amp;diff=2830732&amp;oldid=2830326 Corrected grammar and sentence structure, fixed spelling, removed repetition, and improved wording for clarity and flow - For this chapter: Grit and academic achievement - What role does grit play in academic achievement and can it be fostered in future students? - (Book Chapter, 2025)]
#9:27 pm, 3 September 2026: [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being|Provided suggestion for wikiversity book chapter page and clarified that the user page should be separate than the book chapter - For this chapter: Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being - How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? Overview - (Book Chapter, 2025)]]
#8:28 am, 4 September 2026: [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/456345 Commented on discussion forum about what motivates me and what helps me to keep going if I am not feeling motivated (UC Learn)] 
#8:30 am, 7 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FGrit_and_academic_achievement&amp;diff=2831894&amp;oldid=2830732 Changed few spelling errors, fixed sentence structure and punctuation, shortened some repetitive wording while keeping original ideas - For this chapter- Grit and academic achievement - What role does grit play in academic achievement and can it be fostered in future students? - (Book Chapter, 2025)]
#8:50 am, 7 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FCancer_screening_and_emotion&amp;diff=2831919&amp;oldid=2830330 Changed few sentences to make it grammatically correct and to maintain sentence flow - For this chapter - Cancer screening and emotion: How do emotions such as fear, anxiety, and relief influence cancer screening uptake? - (Book chapter, 2025)]
#8:34 pm, 8 September 2026:[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FBoredom_and_substance_use&amp;diff=2832227&amp;oldid=2804069 Changed few sentences to make it grammatically correct and added citations to support few claims - For this  chapter - Boredom and substance use: What role does boredom play in motivating substance use?- (Book chapter, 2025)]
#8:43 pm, 8 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FBoredom_and_substance_use&amp;diff=2832228&amp;oldid=2832227 Added citations to support claims in overview section - For this chapter - Boredom and substance use: What role does boredom play in motivating substance use ? (Book chapter, 2025)]
#8:59 pm, 8 September 2026: [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455064 Commented on UC Learn discussion forum to connect with peers and also shared my Linkedln profile]
#9:19 pm, 8 September 2026: [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Warm-glow giving|Provided suggestion about overview section on talk page - For this chapter - Warm-glow giving - Why does giving feel good and how does this influence prosocial behaviour?- (Book chapter, 2026)]]
#9:43 pm, 8 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3AMotivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FSubcortical_structures_and_motivational_drive#See_also_and_external_links_section Commented on talk page to improve see also, external links,  and conclusion section - For this chapter - Subcortical structures and motivational drive: How do subcortical brain regions generate basic motivational impulses and energy?- (Book chapter, 2026)]
#3:07 pm , 9 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2022%2FEnvironmental_volunteering_motivation&amp;diff=2832334&amp;oldid=2814930 Corrected few grammatical errors, added citation to few important claims, provided an introductory paragraph in environmental volunteering section, explained few points in detail, added volume number in one of the references - For this chapter - Environmental volunteering motivation: What motivates environmental volunteering (Book chapter, 2022)]
#3:19 pm, 9 September 2026: [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/457190 Commented on UC Learn about a book chapter question related to value congruence and motivation]
#9:35 pm, 9 September 2026: [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Alcohol use for emotion regulation|Provided suggestion about book chapter that chapter should include both positive and negative dysregulation - For this chapter - Alcohol use for emotion regulation : why and how people use alcohol to regulate their emotions? - (Book chapter, 2026)]]
#9:45 pm, 9 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FAlcohol_use_for_emotion_regulation&amp;diff=2832417&amp;oldid=2830147 Fixed title for this chapter - For this chapter - Alcohol use for emotion regulation: why and how people use alcohol to regulate their emotions? - (Book chapter, 2026)]
#10:00 am, 11 September 2026: [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/461216 Contributed in discussion forum and answered question about word count (UC Learn)]
#10:40 am, 11 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2024%2FE-cigarette_use_motivation&amp;diff=2832747&amp;oldid=2754142 Used bullet points to organise see also and external link section and included source in parentheses - For this chapter - E-cigarettes use motivation: What motivates starting and continuing vaping of nicotine e-cigarettes? - (Book chapter, 2024)]
#11:01 am, 11 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2024%2FSleep_and_ego_depletion&amp;diff=2832750&amp;oldid=2741278 Corrected grammar and spelling errors - For this chapter - Sleep and ego depletion: How does sleep affect the capacity for self-control and willpower? - (Book chapter, 2024)]
#11:14 pm, 11 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2020%2FChild_killer_motivation&amp;diff=2832817&amp;oldid=2721628 Used bullet points to organise see also section and provided few external sources - For this chapter - Child killer motivation: What motivates a child to kill? (Book chapter, 2020)]
#9:02 pm, 12 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2022%2FBurnout&amp;diff=2832924&amp;oldid=2666399 Fixed overcapitalisation in focus questions, moved one reference into references section and fixed see also section - For this chapter - Burnout: What is burnout and how can be it managed and prevented - (Book chapter, 2022)]
#9:37 pm, 12 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2022%2FTo-do_lists&amp;diff=2832933&amp;oldid=2655448 Corrected grammar and spelling errors - For this chapter -To-do lists: Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively? - (Book chapter, 2022)]
#8:17 pm, 14 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2024%2FAbusive_relationships_and_emotional_dependency&amp;diff=2833144&amp;oldid=2723675 Rewrote sentence to make it more clear to understand - For this chapter - Abusive relationships and emotional dependency: What psychological mechanisms drive emotional dependency and how does it perpetuate abusive relationships?(Book chapter, 2024)]
#8:34 pm, 14 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2024%2FDopamine_fasting&amp;diff=2833148&amp;oldid=2716222 Rewrote few sentences to make it grammatically correct- For this chapter -Dopamine fasting: What is dopamine fasting and how does it affect motivation and emotion?- (Book chapter, 2024)]
#8:41 pm, 14 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2018%2FBody_image_and_emotional_well-being&amp;diff=2833150&amp;oldid=2596066 Improved see also section - For this chapter - Body image and emotional well-being: How does body image influence one's emotional well being?- (Book chapter, 2018)]
#8:47 pm, 14 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2021%2FClimate_change_helplessness&amp;diff=2833152&amp;oldid=2596067 Corrected few spellings and external links section - For this chapter -Climate change helplessness: How does learned helplessness impact motivation to engage in behaviours to limit climate change?(Book chapter, 2021)]
#9:05 pm, 14 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2021%2FDental_fear&amp;diff=2833154&amp;oldid=2649741 Corrected grammatical errors - For this chapter -Dental fear: What causes dental fear, what are the consequences, and how can it be managed? - (Book chapter, 2021)]
#7:01 pm, 15 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FPsychedelic_treatment_of_eating_disorders&amp;diff=2833299&amp;oldid=2832896 Corrected 2 spelling mistake - For this chapter- Psychedelic treatment of eating disorders:] [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FPsychedelic_treatment_of_eating_disorders&amp;diff=2833299&amp;oldid=2832896 How might psychedelic-assisted therapy influence psychological mechanisms involved in eating disorders? - (Book chapter, 2026)] 
#7:14 pm, 15 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FWisdom%2C_motivation%2C_and_emotion&amp;diff=2833301&amp;oldid=2831617 Corrected spelling error - For this  chapter - Wisdom, motivation, and emotion: How do motivational and emotional processes contribute to wisdom? - (Book chapter, 2026)]
#11:05 am, 16 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FGender_and_achievement_motivation&amp;diff=2833381&amp;oldid=2832014 Corrected few grammatical errors - For this Chapter - Gender and achievement motivation: How does gender shape where, how, and under what conditions achievement motivation is expressed? - (Book chapter, 2026)]
#11:23 am, 16 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FVolunteer_wellbeing&amp;diff=2833387&amp;oldid=2829983 Corrected grammar error - For this chapter -Volunteer wellbeing: How does volunteering affect volunteers' subjective wellbeing? - (Book chapter, 2026)]
#7: 38 pm, 16 September 2026: [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Creative inspiration and effort|Commented on talk page and provided suggestion about theory that can be included in the chapter - For this chapter - Creative inspiration and effort: How do inspiration and effort interact during the creative process?]]
#3:35 pm, 16 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2024%2FAlcohol%2C_dopamine%2C_motivation%2C_and_emotion&amp;diff=2833572&amp;oldid=2677570 Corrected 2 spellings - For this chapter - Alcohol, dopamine, motivation, and emotion:] [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2024%2FAlcohol%2C_dopamine%2C_motivation%2C_and_emotion&amp;diff=2833572&amp;oldid=2677570 What role does dopamine play in motivational and emotional responses to alcohol consumption? - (Book chapter, 2024)]
#3:48 pm, 16 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2024%2FVasopressin_and_motivation&amp;diff=2833579&amp;oldid=2729665 Corrected spelling error - For this chapter - Vasopressin and motivation: How does vasopressin influence motivation? - (Book chapter, 2024)]
#3:53 pm, 16 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2024%2FSleep_onset_optimisation&amp;diff=2833580&amp;oldid=2687478 Corrected 2 spellings - For this chapter - Sleep onset optimisation : What techniques assist in falling asleep promptly? - (Book chapter, 2024)]
#2:12 pm, 18 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FProcrastination_and_temporal_discounting&amp;diff=2833689&amp;oldid=2761864 Corrected spelling errors - For this chapter - Procastination and temporal discounting: How does valuing immediate rewards over future outcomes contribute to procrastination? - (Book chapter, 2025)]
#2:20 pm, 18 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FMaladaptive_defence_mechanisms_and_distress&amp;diff=2833691&amp;oldid=2761577 Corrected spelling errors - For this chapter- Maladaptive defence mechanisms and distress: In what ways do maladaptive defences shape emotional regulation and behavioural responses when under pressure? - (Book chapter, 2025)]
#11:02 am, 19 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2023%2FSublimation&amp;diff=2833828&amp;oldid=2582187 Corrected 3 spelling errors - For this chapter -Sublimation: How can Sublimation be fostered? (Book chapter, 2023)]
#1:50 pm, 29 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FInner_voice_in_anxiety&amp;diff=2834960&amp;oldid=2761762 Corrected spelling error - For this chapter- Inner voice in anxiety: What role does the inner voice play in maintaining or alleviating anxiety? - (Book chapter, 2025)]
#4:52 pm, 29 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2023%2FMultiple_selves_theory%2C_motivation%2C_and_emotion&amp;diff=2834969&amp;oldid=2755077 Corrected grammar - For this chapter - Multiple selves, motivation, and emotion: How does the concept of multiple selves impact our motivational and emotional experiences? - (Book chapter, 2023)]
#5:07 pm, 29 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2021%2FEmotional_eating&amp;diff=2834971&amp;oldid=2573916 Corrected spelling error - For this chapter - Emotional eating: What is emotional eating and what effect does it have on emotion and health?- (Book chapter, 2021)]
#5:21 pm, 29 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2021%2FBrain_fog&amp;diff=2834973&amp;oldid=2345136 Corrected grammar - For this chapter - Brain fog: What is brain fog, what causes it, and how can it be managed?- (Book chapter, 2021)]
#9:13 pm, 5 October 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2022%2FSmiling_and_emotion&amp;diff=2835932&amp;oldid=2787538 Corrected 2 spelling error - For this chapter -Smiling and emotion: What is the relationship between smiling and emotion? - (Book chapter, 2022)]
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      <text bytes="19415" sha1="26v6fsc31xcva5nxgjq9cu2qrf25v7p" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
Hello Everyone,

I am currently a 3rd year psychology student at [https://www.google.com/search?client=safari&amp;rls=en&amp;q=University+of+canberra&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;oe=UTF-8 University of Canberra] 

This semester I am studying [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] unit.

My future goal is to become clinical psychologist and work with Australian Federal Police.

My Linkedln profile:  https://www.linkedin.com/in/palak-kathiriya-6b7048289/

Thank you for visiting my linkedln profile and this page!

== Hobbies ==

* Dancing
* Hiking
* Travelling to different countries 
* Painting 
* Cycling 
* Nature exploration
** Birdwatching
** Gardening 

== Book Chapter I'm working on ==
I am working on a really interesting topic for my book chapter. My chapter title is: Positive emotion dysregulation: What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning? 

Link for my book chapter: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Positive emotion dysregulation|Positive emotion dysregulation]] 

== Social contributions ==
All times are in Canberra local time (AEST/AEDT)
# 12:58 pm, 26 August 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FWarm-glow_giving&amp;diff=2826658&amp;oldid=2826657 Added the template and the title for this page - For this chapter: Warm-glow giving - Why does giving feel good and how does this influence prosocial behaviour? '''('''Book Chapter, 2026)]
# 11:59 am, 26 August 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FPerfectionism_and_procrastination&amp;diff=2826589&amp;oldid=2826579 Fixed spelling error in one of the focus question - For this chapter:  Perfectionism and procrastination - What is the role of perfectionism in procrastination and what can be done about it? (Book Chapter, 2026)]
# 12:28 pm, 26 August 2026: [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Motivations for using sex work services#Heading casing|Made a suggestion about overview section - For this chapter: Motivations for using sex work services: What motivates use of sex work services? (Book Chapter, 2026)]]
# 2:03 pm, 26 August 2026: [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/456558 Provided a couple of sources for the development of breathing exercises and relaxation book chapter (Book Chapter, 2026) (UC Learn)]
#8:10 am, 2 September 2026: [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/458145 Commented on discussion forum about how to use GenAI in the unit and what are the expectations if we use GenAI (UC Learn)]
# 10:14 am , 2 September 2026:[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FSelf-control_and_ego_depletion_recovery&amp;diff=2830323&amp;oldid=2761410 Fixed spelling error in book chapter - For this chapter - Self-control and ego depletion recovery: How do people restore self-control resources after depletion and what factors influence recovery? (Book Chapter, 2025)]
# 10:22 am, 2 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2025/Grit_and_academic_achievement&amp;diff=prev&amp;oldid=2830325 Changed few sentences to make it grammatically better - For this chapter: Grit and academic achievement  What role does grit play in academic achievement and can it be fostered in future students? (Book Chapter, 2025)]
# 10:48 am, 2 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FCancer_screening_and_emotion&amp;diff=2830328&amp;oldid=2823381 Rewrote one paragraph in overview section to make it easier to understand - For this chapter: Cancer screening and emotion: How do emotions such as fear, anxiety, and relief influence cancer screening uptake?(Book Chapter, 2025)]
# 10:54 am, 2 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FCancer_screening_and_emotion&amp;diff=2830330&amp;oldid=2830328 Added reference to support one claim in overview section - For this chapter: Cancer screening and emotion:How do emotions such as fear, anxiety, and relief influence cancer screening uptake? (Book Chapter, 2025)]
#12:56 pm, 2 September 2026: [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455261 Commented on discussion forum about what interests me more in motivation and emotion unit and what I would like to learn (UC Learn)]
#9:17 pm, 3 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FGrit_and_academic_achievement&amp;diff=2830732&amp;oldid=2830326 Corrected grammar and sentence structure, fixed spelling, removed repetition, and improved wording for clarity and flow - For this chapter: Grit and academic achievement - What role does grit play in academic achievement and can it be fostered in future students? - (Book Chapter, 2025)]
#9:27 pm, 3 September 2026: [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being|Provided suggestion for wikiversity book chapter page and clarified that the user page should be separate than the book chapter - For this chapter: Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being - How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? Overview - (Book Chapter, 2025)]]
#8:28 am, 4 September 2026: [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/456345 Commented on discussion forum about what motivates me and what helps me to keep going if I am not feeling motivated (UC Learn)] 
#8:30 am, 7 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FGrit_and_academic_achievement&amp;diff=2831894&amp;oldid=2830732 Changed few spelling errors, fixed sentence structure and punctuation, shortened some repetitive wording while keeping original ideas - For this chapter- Grit and academic achievement - What role does grit play in academic achievement and can it be fostered in future students? - (Book Chapter, 2025)]
#8:50 am, 7 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FCancer_screening_and_emotion&amp;diff=2831919&amp;oldid=2830330 Changed few sentences to make it grammatically correct and to maintain sentence flow - For this chapter - Cancer screening and emotion: How do emotions such as fear, anxiety, and relief influence cancer screening uptake? - (Book chapter, 2025)]
#8:34 pm, 8 September 2026:[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FBoredom_and_substance_use&amp;diff=2832227&amp;oldid=2804069 Changed few sentences to make it grammatically correct and added citations to support few claims - For this  chapter - Boredom and substance use: What role does boredom play in motivating substance use?- (Book chapter, 2025)]
#8:43 pm, 8 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FBoredom_and_substance_use&amp;diff=2832228&amp;oldid=2832227 Added citations to support claims in overview section - For this chapter - Boredom and substance use: What role does boredom play in motivating substance use ? (Book chapter, 2025)]
#8:59 pm, 8 September 2026: [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455064 Commented on UC Learn discussion forum to connect with peers and also shared my Linkedln profile]
#9:19 pm, 8 September 2026: [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Warm-glow giving|Provided suggestion about overview section on talk page - For this chapter - Warm-glow giving - Why does giving feel good and how does this influence prosocial behaviour?- (Book chapter, 2026)]]
#9:43 pm, 8 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3AMotivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FSubcortical_structures_and_motivational_drive#See_also_and_external_links_section Commented on talk page to improve see also, external links,  and conclusion section - For this chapter - Subcortical structures and motivational drive: How do subcortical brain regions generate basic motivational impulses and energy?- (Book chapter, 2026)]
#3:07 pm , 9 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2022%2FEnvironmental_volunteering_motivation&amp;diff=2832334&amp;oldid=2814930 Corrected few grammatical errors, added citation to few important claims, provided an introductory paragraph in environmental volunteering section, explained few points in detail, added volume number in one of the references - For this chapter - Environmental volunteering motivation: What motivates environmental volunteering (Book chapter, 2022)]
#3:19 pm, 9 September 2026: [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/457190 Commented on UC Learn about a book chapter question related to value congruence and motivation]
#9:35 pm, 9 September 2026: [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Alcohol use for emotion regulation|Provided suggestion about book chapter that chapter should include both positive and negative dysregulation - For this chapter - Alcohol use for emotion regulation : why and how people use alcohol to regulate their emotions? - (Book chapter, 2026)]]
#9:45 pm, 9 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FAlcohol_use_for_emotion_regulation&amp;diff=2832417&amp;oldid=2830147 Fixed title for this chapter - For this chapter - Alcohol use for emotion regulation: why and how people use alcohol to regulate their emotions? - (Book chapter, 2026)]
#10:00 am, 11 September 2026: [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/461216 Contributed in discussion forum and answered question about word count (UC Learn)]
#10:40 am, 11 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2024%2FE-cigarette_use_motivation&amp;diff=2832747&amp;oldid=2754142 Used bullet points to organise see also and external link section and included source in parentheses - For this chapter - E-cigarettes use motivation: What motivates starting and continuing vaping of nicotine e-cigarettes? - (Book chapter, 2024)]
#11:01 am, 11 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2024%2FSleep_and_ego_depletion&amp;diff=2832750&amp;oldid=2741278 Corrected grammar and spelling errors - For this chapter - Sleep and ego depletion: How does sleep affect the capacity for self-control and willpower? - (Book chapter, 2024)]
#11:14 pm, 11 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2020%2FChild_killer_motivation&amp;diff=2832817&amp;oldid=2721628 Used bullet points to organise see also section and provided few external sources - For this chapter - Child killer motivation: What motivates a child to kill? (Book chapter, 2020)]
#9:02 pm, 12 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2022%2FBurnout&amp;diff=2832924&amp;oldid=2666399 Fixed overcapitalisation in focus questions, moved one reference into references section and fixed see also section - For this chapter - Burnout: What is burnout and how can be it managed and prevented - (Book chapter, 2022)]
#9:37 pm, 12 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2022%2FTo-do_lists&amp;diff=2832933&amp;oldid=2655448 Corrected grammar and spelling errors - For this chapter -To-do lists: Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively? - (Book chapter, 2022)]
#8:17 pm, 14 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2024%2FAbusive_relationships_and_emotional_dependency&amp;diff=2833144&amp;oldid=2723675 Rewrote sentence to make it more clear to understand - For this chapter - Abusive relationships and emotional dependency: What psychological mechanisms drive emotional dependency and how does it perpetuate abusive relationships?(Book chapter, 2024)]
#8:34 pm, 14 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2024%2FDopamine_fasting&amp;diff=2833148&amp;oldid=2716222 Rewrote few sentences to make it grammatically correct- For this chapter -Dopamine fasting: What is dopamine fasting and how does it affect motivation and emotion?- (Book chapter, 2024)]
#8:41 pm, 14 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2018%2FBody_image_and_emotional_well-being&amp;diff=2833150&amp;oldid=2596066 Improved see also section - For this chapter - Body image and emotional well-being: How does body image influence one's emotional well being?- (Book chapter, 2018)]
#8:47 pm, 14 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2021%2FClimate_change_helplessness&amp;diff=2833152&amp;oldid=2596067 Corrected few spellings and external links section - For this chapter -Climate change helplessness: How does learned helplessness impact motivation to engage in behaviours to limit climate change?(Book chapter, 2021)]
#9:05 pm, 14 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2021%2FDental_fear&amp;diff=2833154&amp;oldid=2649741 Corrected grammatical errors - For this chapter -Dental fear: What causes dental fear, what are the consequences, and how can it be managed? - (Book chapter, 2021)]
#7:01 pm, 15 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FPsychedelic_treatment_of_eating_disorders&amp;diff=2833299&amp;oldid=2832896 Corrected 2 spelling mistake - For this chapter- Psychedelic treatment of eating disorders:] [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FPsychedelic_treatment_of_eating_disorders&amp;diff=2833299&amp;oldid=2832896 How might psychedelic-assisted therapy influence psychological mechanisms involved in eating disorders? - (Book chapter, 2026)] 
#7:14 pm, 15 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FWisdom%2C_motivation%2C_and_emotion&amp;diff=2833301&amp;oldid=2831617 Corrected spelling error - For this  chapter - Wisdom, motivation, and emotion: How do motivational and emotional processes contribute to wisdom? - (Book chapter, 2026)]
#11:05 am, 16 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FGender_and_achievement_motivation&amp;diff=2833381&amp;oldid=2832014 Corrected few grammatical errors - For this Chapter - Gender and achievement motivation: How does gender shape where, how, and under what conditions achievement motivation is expressed? - (Book chapter, 2026)]
#11:23 am, 16 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FVolunteer_wellbeing&amp;diff=2833387&amp;oldid=2829983 Corrected grammar error - For this chapter -Volunteer wellbeing: How does volunteering affect volunteers' subjective wellbeing? - (Book chapter, 2026)]
#7: 38 pm, 16 September 2026: [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Creative inspiration and effort|Commented on talk page and provided suggestion about theory that can be included in the chapter - For this chapter - Creative inspiration and effort: How do inspiration and effort interact during the creative process?]]
#3:35 pm, 16 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2024%2FAlcohol%2C_dopamine%2C_motivation%2C_and_emotion&amp;diff=2833572&amp;oldid=2677570 Corrected 2 spellings - For this chapter - Alcohol, dopamine, motivation, and emotion:] [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2024%2FAlcohol%2C_dopamine%2C_motivation%2C_and_emotion&amp;diff=2833572&amp;oldid=2677570 What role does dopamine play in motivational and emotional responses to alcohol consumption? - (Book chapter, 2024)]
#3:48 pm, 16 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2024%2FVasopressin_and_motivation&amp;diff=2833579&amp;oldid=2729665 Corrected spelling error - For this chapter - Vasopressin and motivation: How does vasopressin influence motivation? - (Book chapter, 2024)]
#3:53 pm, 16 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2024%2FSleep_onset_optimisation&amp;diff=2833580&amp;oldid=2687478 Corrected 2 spellings - For this chapter - Sleep onset optimisation : What techniques assist in falling asleep promptly? - (Book chapter, 2024)]
#2:12 pm, 18 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FProcrastination_and_temporal_discounting&amp;diff=2833689&amp;oldid=2761864 Corrected spelling errors - For this chapter - Procastination and temporal discounting: How does valuing immediate rewards over future outcomes contribute to procrastination? - (Book chapter, 2025)]
#2:20 pm, 18 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FMaladaptive_defence_mechanisms_and_distress&amp;diff=2833691&amp;oldid=2761577 Corrected spelling errors - For this chapter- Maladaptive defence mechanisms and distress: In what ways do maladaptive defences shape emotional regulation and behavioural responses when under pressure? - (Book chapter, 2025)]
#11:02 am, 19 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2023%2FSublimation&amp;diff=2833828&amp;oldid=2582187 Corrected 3 spelling errors - For this chapter -Sublimation: How can Sublimation be fostered? (Book chapter, 2023)]
#1:50 pm, 29 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FInner_voice_in_anxiety&amp;diff=2834960&amp;oldid=2761762 Corrected spelling error - For this chapter- Inner voice in anxiety: What role does the inner voice play in maintaining or alleviating anxiety? - (Book chapter, 2025)]
#4:52 pm, 29 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2023%2FMultiple_selves_theory%2C_motivation%2C_and_emotion&amp;diff=2834969&amp;oldid=2755077 Corrected grammar - For this chapter - Multiple selves, motivation, and emotion: How does the concept of multiple selves impact our motivational and emotional experiences? - (Book chapter, 2023)]
#5:07 pm, 29 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2021%2FEmotional_eating&amp;diff=2834971&amp;oldid=2573916 Corrected spelling error - For this chapter - Emotional eating: What is emotional eating and what effect does it have on emotion and health?- (Book chapter, 2021)]
#5:21 pm, 29 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2021%2FBrain_fog&amp;diff=2834973&amp;oldid=2345136 Corrected grammar - For this chapter - Brain fog: What is brain fog, what causes it, and how can it be managed?- (Book chapter, 2021)]
#9:13 pm, 5 October 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2022%2FSmiling_and_emotion&amp;diff=2835932&amp;oldid=2787538 Corrected 2 spelling error - For this chapter -Smiling and emotion: What is the relationship between smiling and emotion? - (Book chapter, 2022)]
#9:18 pm, 5 October 2026:[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2022%2FNarcissism_and_emotion&amp;diff=2835936&amp;oldid=2446275 Corrected spelling error - For this chapter - Narcissism and emotion: What is the relationship between narcissism and emotion? - (Book chapter, 2022)]</text>
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    <title>Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Competence motivation in self-determination theory</title>
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      <text bytes="11203" sha1="2p6pd3l31qffnc2mzldqbw9mz6uf63l" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Competence motivation in self-determination theory:&lt;br&gt;How does the need for competence function within self-determination theory to shape motivation and behaviour?}}
__TOC__

==Overview==

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. Uncertainty and self-doubt can arise when tackling an unfamiliar, complex task without clear guidance or feedback.]]

'''Scenario'''  

Imagine this you've just been assigned a project to review and reorganise over 500 folders across your team's records management system, with no real guidance on where to start or what the finished result should look like. At first, it seems manageable, maybe just one small sub-section of the files, so you jump in and start asking colleagues which folders they'd like kept. But, as weeks pass, the project keeps revealing new layers of complexity you hadn't anticipated. You find yourself unsure whether you're organising things the &quot;right&quot; way, second-guessing decisions you've already made, and increasingly doubting your own ability to manage a task this size (see Figure 1). Is the project simply harder than expected, or is something else going on?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

People are not motivated equally by the same environment. According to [[w:Self-determination theory|self-determination theory]] (SDT), the need for '''competence''', feeling effective and capable, is one of three basic psychological needs, alongside autonomy and relatedness (Ryan &amp; Deci, 2017). When competence is supported through optimal challenge and structured feedback, intrinsic motivation and wellbeing increase; when it is frustrated, motivation, performance, and wellbeing decline (Vansteenkiste et al., 2020). Understanding competence need satisfaction has direct, practical value in workplaces, education, and training design, because it explains why some environments motivate people and others quietly cause disengagement.
 
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* What is competence, according to self-determination theory?
* What is intrinsic motivation, and how does competence relate to it?
* What is cognitive evaluation theory, and how does it explain the impact of competence on intrinsic motivation?
* What factors support or undermine intrinsic motivation through their impact on competence?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Self-determination theory and competence==
This section introduces self-determination theory as a whole, then narrows in on where competence specifically fits within it.

===What is self-determination theory?===
Self-determination theory is a broad theory of human motivation built on three innate psychological needs: autonomy, competence, and relatedness (Deci &amp; Ryan, 1985; Ryan &amp; Deci, 2017). Competence shares some conceptual ground with [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]], particularly his esteem needs. However, unlike Maslow's sequential hierarchy, SDT treats competence as continuously essential alongside autonomy and relatedness, rather than emerging only once lower needs are met (Ryan &amp; Deci, 2017).

===What is competence within self-determination theory?===
Competence sits within Basic Psychological Needs Theory, one of SDT's mini-theories (Vansteenkiste et al., 2020). It refers to the need to feel effective and capable of producing desired outcomes, rather than merely possessing a skill. Optimal challenge and structured feedback support competence, while absent, harsh, or overly controlling feedback frustrates it (Ryan &amp; Deci, 2000). Competence differs from generic self-esteem or confidence, as it is tied to specific, situated experiences of mastery rather than a global self-view.

==Competence and intrinsic motivation==
Beyond simply being a need, competence plays a direct role in shaping the quality of a person's motivation, particularly whether it is intrinsic.

== Add research on Amotivation and extrinsic motivation here==
{{ic|Include at least an introductory paragraph before branching into sub-headings}}

===What is intrinsic motivation, and how does competence relate to it?===
Self-determination theory describes a continuum from controlled motivation, acting because of external pressure, to autonomous motivation, acting because an activity feels genuinely valued or enjoyable (Ryan &amp; Deci, 2017). Competence satisfaction pushes people toward the autonomous end of this continuum, as feeling capable makes an activity feel more self-endorsed rather than merely obligatory. Intrinsically motivated behaviour is, by definition, behaviour engaged in for its own sake, and competence is one of the key needs that sustains it (Deci &amp; Ryan, 1985).

===What is cognitive evaluation theory, and how does it explain the impact of competence on intrinsic motivation?===
Cognitive Evaluation Theory, a mini-theory within SDT, proposes that competence-supportive feedback fuels intrinsic motivation only when it is paired with a sense of autonomy (Ryan &amp; Deci, 2000). 

A meta-analysis by Fong and colleagues (2019) found that negative feedback undermines intrinsic motivation more than neutral or no feedback at all, demonstrating how the framing of feedback specifically affects perceived competence.

==Applying competence in practice==
Research in applied settings shows competence satisfaction has measurable consequences beyond the laboratory, and this evidence points toward concrete design changes.

===Empirical evidence in applied settings===
* Baard, Deci, and Ryan (2004) found that employees' satisfaction of autonomy, competence, and relatedness in the workplace predicted both performance and wellbeing.
* Taris, van Beek, and Schaufeli (2020) linked need satisfaction, including competence, to healthier patterns of work engagement over workaholism in a longitudinal study.
* Together, these findings suggest competence satisfaction is not just theoretically important but measurably consequential in real workplace outcomes.

===Applying competence-supportive design===
* Structuring feedback to be specific and frequent, calibrating task challenge to a person's current skill level, and building visible progress markers into training or teaching design are concrete ways to support competence satisfaction (Ryan &amp; Deci, 2000; Vansteenkiste et al., 2020).
* Returning to the opening scenario, regular check-ins with a manager or clearer upfront guidance could have restored a sense of competence earlier, rather than leaving it to develop through trial and error.
* This has practical relevance for managers designing onboarding, teachers structuring assessment, and coaches structuring skill progression.

;Quiz

Choose your answer and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Which of the following best supports the psychological need for competence?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Vague, infrequent feedback
- No feedback at all
+ Structured feedback paired with achievable challenge
- Constant praise regardless of performance
&lt;/quiz&gt;

- add a question on how environments change motivation... e.g work and school

==Conclusion==
Competence is a distinct, well-evidenced psychological need central to self-determination theory. Its satisfaction, or frustration, has measurable effects on motivation, performance, and wellbeing across educational, workplace, and everyday settings. Practical design choices, particularly around feedback and challenge calibration, can meaningfully support this need and improve people's motivational lives.

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* Arguably the most important section
* Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking
* For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem

== See also ==
{{expand}}

==References==
Put into alphabetical order

{{Hanging indent|1=

Baard, P. P., Deci, E. L., &amp; Ryan, R. M. (2004). Intrinsic Need Satisfaction: A Motivational Basis of Performance and Well-Being in Two Work Settings. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 34(10), 2045–2068. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2004.tb02690.

Deci, E. L., &amp; Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior (1st ed.). Springer New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-2271-7

Fong, C. J., Patall, E. A., Vasquez, A. C., &amp; Stautberg, S. (2019). A Meta-Analysis of Negative Feedback on Intrinsic Motivation. Educational Psychology Review, 31(1), 121–162. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-018-9446-6

Ryan, R. M., &amp; Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-Determination Theory and the Facilitation of Intrinsic Motivation, Social Development, and Well-Being. The American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68

Ryan, R. M., &amp; Deci, E. L. (2017). Self-determination theory: Basic psychological needs in motivation, development, and wellness (pp. xii, 756). The Guilford Press. https://doi.org/10.1521/978.14625/28806

Taris, T. W., van Beek, I., &amp; Schaufeli, W. B. (2020). The Motivational Make-Up of Workaholism and Work Engagement: A Longitudinal Study on Need Satisfaction, Motivation, and Heavy Work Investment. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 1419. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01419

Vansteenkiste, M., Ryan, R. M., &amp; Soenens, B. (2020). Basic psychological need theory: Advancements, critical themes, and future directions. Motivation and Emotion, 44(1), 1–31. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-019-09818-1

}}

==External links==
{{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}}

https://open.ncl.ac.uk/theories/20/self-determination-theory/

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self-determination theory/Competence]]</text>
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      <text bytes="1914" sha1="0dxdzso6biymttmx6p7wwykgztr6wfw" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
Hey there! My name is Ryan (''they/them''). I am a student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra] in my third and final year of a Bachelor of Science in Psychology.

I am interested in [[wikipedia:Ecological_psychology|ecological psychology]], [[wikipedia:Phenomenology_(psychology)|phenomenology]] and [[wikipedia:Behavioral_game_theory|behavioural game theory]]. 

In my free time, I enjoy:

* Video games - Recently, I have been playing ''[[wikipedia:Risk_of_Rain_2|Risk of Rain 2]]'', ''[[wikipedia:Helldivers_2|Helldivers 2]]'' and ''[[wikipedia:Warhammer_40,000:_Darktide|Warhammer 40,000: Darktide]]''. 
* ''[[wikipedia:Magic:_The_Gathering|Magic the Gathering]]''
* Birdwatching
* Knitting 

== My book chapter ==
For the 2026 [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] unit, I am currently working on the book chapter [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Game of dice task and decision-making|Game of dice task and decision-making]].

== Social contributions ==

#25 August 2026 - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2025/Automaticity_in_goal_striving&amp;diff=prev&amp;oldid=2825442 Added missing hyperlinks to scenario box on Automaticity in goal striving]
#25 August 2026 - Posted a [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/457412 discussion on Canvas] inviting others to try the Game of Dice Task and share their thoughts.
#25 August 2026 - [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Melatonin and circadian motivation#c-U3216724-20260825031200-Feedback and suggestions|Suggested changes on Melatonin and circadian motivation]]. 
#5 October 2026 - [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Adolescent risk-taking and reward-system development#c-U3216724-20261005034500-Suggestion for a related source|Suggested source for use on related 2026 book chapter Adolescent risk-taking and reward-system development.]]</text>
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      <comment>Changed order of headings to better align with focus questions and improve narrative structure</comment>
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      <text bytes="16292" sha1="re1vjd3w5mfjj12z40zx8krfojyas8l" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Game of dice task and decision-making:&lt;br&gt;What does the game of dice task reveal about risk-based decision-making?}}
__TOC__
==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
[[File:Gaming dice multisided blue.jpg|right|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. Dice have clearly defined odds {{ic|Explain how this connects to the scenario and topic}}]]

; Imagine this ...

Emile has money to spend on a night out and decides to go to a casino. He arrives at a dice table, where a card in front of him lists his betting options. He could bet on the dealer rolling one specific number for a large payout, but the chances of it happening are low: exactly 1 in 6. 

He could also bet on four numbers at once, winning if the dealer rolls one of them. His payout shrinks significantly, but his odds of winning increase to 2 in 3. These odds are not hidden from Emile; he knows exactly what his chances of winning and losing are (see Figure 1). 

For the first few rolls, Emile spends his money on safer bets. After a couple of small wins, he's feeling confident and switches to the single number bet, hoping for that big win. He loses. He goes for the single number again. He loses again. By the end of the night, despite knowing the odds the whole time, Emile has lost most of his money on the riskiest, least likely bets. 

Why did Emile make riskier choices, even though his chances of winning were so much lower?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

* The Game of Dice Task (GDT) is a valuable tool for investigating performance under explicit risk. Participants have defined probabilities and consequences. This helps assess the neurological and individual motivations for risk taking (Brand et al., 2005).
* Decision-making depends on cognitive mechanisms as well as individual perceptions of risk. Game of Dice Task (GDT) research implicates probability processing, executive functioning, reasoning, the effects of feedback, individual strategy and memory - in general, executive control (Pertl et al., 2017; Schiebener et al., 2011; Schiebener et al., 2014; Schiebener &amp; Brand, 2015).
* Risk-based decision-making requires people to consider probability, outcomes and potential rewards. Greater rewards with lower chances may or may not be perceived as advantageous: there is a difference between taking an uncertain choice and a risk (Brand et al., 2006; Mishra, 2014).

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}}
'''Focus questions'''

* What is the Game of Dice Task?
* What is risk-based decision-making? 
* Which psychological processes affect decision-making under explicit risk?
* What can the Game of Dice Task tell us about developmental and neurological disorders?
* How can the Game of Dice Task be applied to real-world decision-making?

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== The Game of Dice Task ==

* Developed by Brand et al. (2004, 2005) in studying patients with Parkinson's disease and Korsakoff. Performance was significantly impaired in these patients, with specific executive functions and brain regions implicated: the limbic-orbitofrontal-striatal loop and dorsolateral prefrontal-striatal loop
* Participants attempt to maximise money over 18 trials. A single six-sided die is randomly &quot;thrown&quot; (virtually) each trial. Participants bet on the rolled number by selecting pre-determined combinations of 1, 2, 3 or 4 numbers. Selecting one number gives a 1/6 chances of winning, with the highest possible gain, selecting two numbers gives a 1/3 chance, with a slightly lower gain, and so on.
{{font color|red|Author's note: Insert table depicting choices, probability and rewards, as well as figure depicting GDT display.}} 
* Participants receive information about the outcome and current monetary balance, creating a feedback opportunity to monitor success/failure in previous decisions (Brand, 2008).
* Different from previous gambling tasks, e.g the Iowa Gambling Task, in which participants discover strategy through previous experience. Known probabilities distinguish risk-based decision-making under explicit risk vs. uncertainty or learned risk (Brand et al., 2006)

== Risk-based decision-making ==

* Risk-based decision-making refers to choices made under 'risk': this means that the outcome of a choice is unknown, but the probability of a given outcome can be known. E.g, rolling a six-sided die has an unknown result, but the probability that any given number will be face-up is 1/6. 
* This is different to uncertainty in which both the outcome ''and'' the probability of that outcome are unknown. The GDT is a measure of risk choices defined in this way. Other measures, like the IGT, combine uncertainty and risk, creating ambiguous risk scenarios (Brand et al., 2006; De Groot &amp; Thurik, 2018).
* People do not make the same choices when presented with the same risk scenarios. This suggests individual differences in perception, risk preference, loss aversion, mathematical processing, affective responses and executive functioning (Lowenstein et al., 2001; Mishra, 2014; Pachur &amp; Zilker, 2026).
* Taking risks is not always an indication of poor decision making. Choices may be more or less advantageous based on reward and probability. 

== Psychological mechanisms of risk-based decision-making ==

* The GDT can examine how risk-based decision-making develops, matures, or becomes impaired. Evidence from clinical populations suggests relationships between GDT performance and particular cognitive or neurological systems. Risk-based decision-making changes substantially during childhood and adolescence. Schiebener et al. (2014) examined participants aged 8–19 years and found developmental improvements in GDT performance: likely refined executive control. 
* Brand et al. (2004) found that people with Parkinson's disease performed worse on the GDT than healthy controls, and disadvantageous choices were associated with executive functions and feedback processing. A  review of decision-making under risk and ambiguity in Parkinson's disease concluded that executive functions are impacted, but may play different roles depending on the decision-making task and its cognitive demands (Colautti et al., 2023), further suggesting separate cognitive processes for risk and ambiguity. Other neurological conditions show similar links between executive functioning and GDT performance. For example, people with Korsakoff syndrome show impaired performance on the GDT, with the impairment associated with executive functions (Brand et al., 2005; Brand et al., 2009).
* Feedback processing is also important to GDT performance. Removing feedback (i.e, win or loss, total wins or losses, current and previous balance, etc.) worsened performance in healthy individuals, suggesting cognitive and affective processing are both important for advantageous decision making (Brand, 2008). Amnesic patients showed no difference in GDT performance with or without feedback, consistently performing poorly, illustrating the importance of feedback and experience in avoiding disadvantageous choices (Brand et al., 2009).

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Executive functioning can influence whether someone makes advantageous choices in the GDT:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Feedback is irrelevant to GDT performance, since the probabilities are already known:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Applications and limitations of the GDT ==

* GDT findings should be interpreted as evidence about a particular form of risk-based decision-making. Different behavioural tasks capture different aspects of decision-making. Laboratory measures of risk and decision-making do not necessarily measure a single unified construct (Buelow &amp; Blaine, 2015; Colautti et al., 2023).
* The controlled nature and specific probabilities of the GDT allows researchers to investigate the contribution of executive control, reasoning, numerical processing and feedback. It has been useful in identifying deficits in cognitive ability amongst clinical populations. This also has some conceptual relevance for real world decisions involving defined risk.
* Many real word scenarios are confounded with uncertainty, social pressures, competing goals and subjective reward considerations. The GDT is not necessarily effective at predicting real-life decision-making (Buelow et al., 2024). 

==Conclusion==
* The GDT provides a controlled way to study decision-making under risk. Because the probabilities and possible outcomes are known, the GDT allows researchers to examine how people use information about risk when making repeated decisions.
* Advantageous decision-making is not simply about avoiding risk. It involves considering the probability and potential outcomes of different choices and using reasoning, executive functioning and feedback to guide decisions. A risky choice is not necessarily a poor decision if the potential reward and probability of success make it advantageous.
* GDT performance is influenced by a range of cognitive processes and individual differences. The GDT therefore helps researchers examine why some people are better able than others to adjust their decisions to the risks and outcomes involved. However, it is not necessarily an appropriate analogue for decision-making in complex real life situations. 

* Arguably the most important section
* Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking
* For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
* [[wikipedia:Decision-making|Decision-making]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Dopamine and decision making|Dopamine and decision making]] (Book chapter, 2024)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Gambling addiction motivation|Gambling addiction motivation]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[wikipedia:Risk|Risk]] (Wikipedia)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Brand, M., Fujiwara, E., Borsutzky, S., Kalbe, E., Kessler, J., &amp; Markowitsch, H. J. (2005). Decision-making deficits of korsakoff patients in a new gambling task with explicit rules: Associations with executive functions. ''Neuropsychology'', ''19''(3), 267–277. https://doi.org/10.1037/0894-4105.19.3.267

Brand, M., Labudda, K., Kalbe, E., Hilker, R., Emmans, D., Fuchs, G., Kessler, J., &amp; Markowitsch, H. J. (2004). Decision‐making impairments in patients with Parkinson’s disease. ''Behavioural Neurology'', ''15''(3–4), 77–85. https://doi.org/10.1155/2004/578354

Brand, M., Labudda, K., &amp; Markowitsch, H. J. (2006). Neuropsychological correlates of decision-making in ambiguous and risky situations. ''Neural Networks'', ''19''(8), 1266–1276. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neunet.2006.03.001

Brand, M., Pawlikowski, M., Labudda, K., Laier, C., Rothkirch, N. von, &amp; Markowitsch, H. J. (2009). Do amnesic patients with Korsakoff’s syndrome use feedback when making decisions under risky conditions? An experimental investigation with the game of dice task with and without feedback. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''69''(2), 279–290. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2008.08.003

Brand, Matthias. (2008). Does the feedback from previous trials influence current decisions? A study on the role of feedback processing in making decisions under explicit risk conditions. ''Journal of Neuropsychology'', ''2''(2), 431–443. https://doi.org/10.1348/174866407x220607

Buelow, M. T., &amp; Blaine, A. L. (2015). The assessment of risky decision making: A factor analysis of performance on the Iowa Gambling Task, Balloon Analogue Risk Task, and Columbia Card Task. ''Psychological Assessment'', ''27''(3), 777–785. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038622

Buelow, M. T., Okdie, B. M., &amp; Kowalsky, J. M. (2024). Ecological validity of common behavioral decision making tasks: Evidence across two samples. ''Neuropsychology, Development, and Cognition. Section A, Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology/Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology'', ''46''(3), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2024.2337759

Colautti, L., Iannello, P., Maria Caterina Silveri, &amp; Antonietti, A. (2023). Decision-making under ambiguity and risk and executive functions in parkinson’s disease patients: A scoping review of the studies investigating the Iowa gambling task and the game of dice. ''Cognitive, Affective, &amp; Behavioral Neuroscience'', ''23''(5), 1225–1243. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13415-023-01106-3

De Groot, K., &amp; Thurik, R. (2018). Disentangling risk and uncertainty: When risk-taking measures are not about risk. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''9''. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02194

Loewenstein, G. F., Weber, E. U., Hsee, C. K., &amp; Welch, N. (2001). Risk as feelings. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''127''(2), 267–286. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.127.2.267

Mishra, S. (2014). Decision-making under risk: Integrating perspectives from biology, economics, and psychology. ''Personality and Social Psychology Review'', ''18''(3), 280–307. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868314530517

Pachur, T., &amp; Zilker, V. (2026). Psychological theories of decision-making under risk. ''The Cambridge Handbook of Behavioural Data Science'', 76–105. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108939010.009

Pertl, M.-T., Zamarian, L., &amp; Delazer, M. (2017). Reasoning and mathematical skills contribute to normatively superior decision making under risk: Evidence from the game of dice task. ''Cognitive Processing'', ''18''(3), 249–260. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10339-017-0813-x

Schiebener, J., &amp; Brand, M. (2015). Self-reported strategies in decisions under risk: Role of feedback, reasoning abilities, executive functions, short-term-memory, and working memory. ''Cognitive Processing'', ''16''(4), 401–416. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10339-015-0665-1

Schiebener, J., Wegmann, E., Gathmann, B., Laier, C., Pawlikowski, M., &amp; Brand, M. (2014). Among three different executive functions, general executive control ability is a key predictor of decision making under objective risk. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''5''. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01386

Schiebener, J., Zamarian, L., Delazer, M., &amp; Brand, M. (2011). Executive functions, categorization of probabilities, and learning from feedback: What does really matter for decision making under explicit risk conditions?. ''Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology'', ''33''(9), 1025–1039. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2011.595702 
}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
*** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
*** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
* [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/hovercraft-full-eels/202012/risky-gamble-or-uncertain-future A risky gamble or an uncertain future?] (Psychology Today)
* [https://www.millisecond.com/library/gameofdicetask Game of dice task] (Millisecond Software)

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[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Decision making]]</text>
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      <comment>Added adolescent risk-taking and reward-system development in See also</comment>
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      <text bytes="16458" sha1="5qwdxa29166aieiibrjqffkj0ndpygp" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Game of dice task and decision-making:&lt;br&gt;What does the game of dice task reveal about risk-based decision-making?}}
__TOC__
==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
[[File:Gaming dice multisided blue.jpg|right|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. Dice have clearly defined odds {{ic|Explain how this connects to the scenario and topic}}]]

; Imagine this ...

Emile has money to spend on a night out and decides to go to a casino. He arrives at a dice table, where a card in front of him lists his betting options. He could bet on the dealer rolling one specific number for a large payout, but the chances of it happening are low: exactly 1 in 6. 

He could also bet on four numbers at once, winning if the dealer rolls one of them. His payout shrinks significantly, but his odds of winning increase to 2 in 3. These odds are not hidden from Emile; he knows exactly what his chances of winning and losing are (see Figure 1). 

For the first few rolls, Emile spends his money on safer bets. After a couple of small wins, he's feeling confident and switches to the single number bet, hoping for that big win. He loses. He goes for the single number again. He loses again. By the end of the night, despite knowing the odds the whole time, Emile has lost most of his money on the riskiest, least likely bets. 

Why did Emile make riskier choices, even though his chances of winning were so much lower?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

* The Game of Dice Task (GDT) is a valuable tool for investigating performance under explicit risk. Participants have defined probabilities and consequences. This helps assess the neurological and individual motivations for risk taking (Brand et al., 2005).
* Decision-making depends on cognitive mechanisms as well as individual perceptions of risk. Game of Dice Task (GDT) research implicates probability processing, executive functioning, reasoning, the effects of feedback, individual strategy and memory - in general, executive control (Pertl et al., 2017; Schiebener et al., 2011; Schiebener et al., 2014; Schiebener &amp; Brand, 2015).
* Risk-based decision-making requires people to consider probability, outcomes and potential rewards. Greater rewards with lower chances may or may not be perceived as advantageous: there is a difference between taking an uncertain choice and a risk (Brand et al., 2006; Mishra, 2014).

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}}
'''Focus questions'''

* What is the Game of Dice Task?
* What is risk-based decision-making? 
* Which psychological processes affect decision-making under explicit risk?
* What can the Game of Dice Task tell us about developmental and neurological disorders?
* How can the Game of Dice Task be applied to real-world decision-making?

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== The Game of Dice Task ==

* Developed by Brand et al. (2004, 2005) in studying patients with Parkinson's disease and Korsakoff. Performance was significantly impaired in these patients, with specific executive functions and brain regions implicated: the limbic-orbitofrontal-striatal loop and dorsolateral prefrontal-striatal loop
* Participants attempt to maximise money over 18 trials. A single six-sided die is randomly &quot;thrown&quot; (virtually) each trial. Participants bet on the rolled number by selecting pre-determined combinations of 1, 2, 3 or 4 numbers. Selecting one number gives a 1/6 chances of winning, with the highest possible gain, selecting two numbers gives a 1/3 chance, with a slightly lower gain, and so on.
{{font color|red|Author's note: Insert table depicting choices, probability and rewards, as well as figure depicting GDT display.}} 
* Participants receive information about the outcome and current monetary balance, creating a feedback opportunity to monitor success/failure in previous decisions (Brand, 2008).
* Different from previous gambling tasks, e.g the Iowa Gambling Task, in which participants discover strategy through previous experience. Known probabilities distinguish risk-based decision-making under explicit risk vs. uncertainty or learned risk (Brand et al., 2006)

== Risk-based decision-making ==

* Risk-based decision-making refers to choices made under 'risk': this means that the outcome of a choice is unknown, but the probability of a given outcome can be known. E.g, rolling a six-sided die has an unknown result, but the probability that any given number will be face-up is 1/6. 
* This is different to uncertainty in which both the outcome ''and'' the probability of that outcome are unknown. The GDT is a measure of risk choices defined in this way. Other measures, like the IGT, combine uncertainty and risk, creating ambiguous risk scenarios (Brand et al., 2006; De Groot &amp; Thurik, 2018).
* People do not make the same choices when presented with the same risk scenarios. This suggests individual differences in perception, risk preference, loss aversion, mathematical processing, affective responses and executive functioning (Lowenstein et al., 2001; Mishra, 2014; Pachur &amp; Zilker, 2026).
* Taking risks is not always an indication of poor decision making. Choices may be more or less advantageous based on reward and probability. 

== Psychological mechanisms of risk-based decision-making ==

* The GDT can examine how risk-based decision-making develops, matures, or becomes impaired. Evidence from clinical populations suggests relationships between GDT performance and particular cognitive or neurological systems. Risk-based decision-making changes substantially during childhood and adolescence. Schiebener et al. (2014) examined participants aged 8–19 years and found developmental improvements in GDT performance: likely refined executive control. 
* Brand et al. (2004) found that people with Parkinson's disease performed worse on the GDT than healthy controls, and disadvantageous choices were associated with executive functions and feedback processing. A  review of decision-making under risk and ambiguity in Parkinson's disease concluded that executive functions are impacted, but may play different roles depending on the decision-making task and its cognitive demands (Colautti et al., 2023), further suggesting separate cognitive processes for risk and ambiguity. Other neurological conditions show similar links between executive functioning and GDT performance. For example, people with Korsakoff syndrome show impaired performance on the GDT, with the impairment associated with executive functions (Brand et al., 2005; Brand et al., 2009).
* Feedback processing is also important to GDT performance. Removing feedback (i.e, win or loss, total wins or losses, current and previous balance, etc.) worsened performance in healthy individuals, suggesting cognitive and affective processing are both important for advantageous decision making (Brand, 2008). Amnesic patients showed no difference in GDT performance with or without feedback, consistently performing poorly, illustrating the importance of feedback and experience in avoiding disadvantageous choices (Brand et al., 2009).

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Executive functioning can influence whether someone makes advantageous choices in the GDT:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Feedback is irrelevant to GDT performance, since the probabilities are already known:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Applications and limitations of the GDT ==

* GDT findings should be interpreted as evidence about a particular form of risk-based decision-making. Different behavioural tasks capture different aspects of decision-making. Laboratory measures of risk and decision-making do not necessarily measure a single unified construct (Buelow &amp; Blaine, 2015; Colautti et al., 2023).
* The controlled nature and specific probabilities of the GDT allows researchers to investigate the contribution of executive control, reasoning, numerical processing and feedback. It has been useful in identifying deficits in cognitive ability amongst clinical populations. This also has some conceptual relevance for real world decisions involving defined risk.
* Many real word scenarios are confounded with uncertainty, social pressures, competing goals and subjective reward considerations. The GDT is not necessarily effective at predicting real-life decision-making (Buelow et al., 2024). 

==Conclusion==
* The GDT provides a controlled way to study decision-making under risk. Because the probabilities and possible outcomes are known, the GDT allows researchers to examine how people use information about risk when making repeated decisions.
* Advantageous decision-making is not simply about avoiding risk. It involves considering the probability and potential outcomes of different choices and using reasoning, executive functioning and feedback to guide decisions. A risky choice is not necessarily a poor decision if the potential reward and probability of success make it advantageous.
* GDT performance is influenced by a range of cognitive processes and individual differences. The GDT therefore helps researchers examine why some people are better able than others to adjust their decisions to the risks and outcomes involved. However, it is not necessarily an appropriate analogue for decision-making in complex real life situations. 

* Arguably the most important section
* Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking
* For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Adolescent risk-taking and reward-system development|Adolescent risk-taking and reward-system development]] (Book chapter, 2026)
* [[wikipedia:Decision-making|Decision-making]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Dopamine and decision making|Dopamine and decision making]] (Book chapter, 2024)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Gambling addiction motivation|Gambling addiction motivation]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[wikipedia:Risk|Risk]] (Wikipedia)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Brand, M., Fujiwara, E., Borsutzky, S., Kalbe, E., Kessler, J., &amp; Markowitsch, H. J. (2005). Decision-making deficits of korsakoff patients in a new gambling task with explicit rules: Associations with executive functions. ''Neuropsychology'', ''19''(3), 267–277. https://doi.org/10.1037/0894-4105.19.3.267

Brand, M., Labudda, K., Kalbe, E., Hilker, R., Emmans, D., Fuchs, G., Kessler, J., &amp; Markowitsch, H. J. (2004). Decision‐making impairments in patients with Parkinson’s disease. ''Behavioural Neurology'', ''15''(3–4), 77–85. https://doi.org/10.1155/2004/578354

Brand, M., Labudda, K., &amp; Markowitsch, H. J. (2006). Neuropsychological correlates of decision-making in ambiguous and risky situations. ''Neural Networks'', ''19''(8), 1266–1276. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neunet.2006.03.001

Brand, M., Pawlikowski, M., Labudda, K., Laier, C., Rothkirch, N. von, &amp; Markowitsch, H. J. (2009). Do amnesic patients with Korsakoff’s syndrome use feedback when making decisions under risky conditions? An experimental investigation with the game of dice task with and without feedback. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''69''(2), 279–290. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2008.08.003

Brand, Matthias. (2008). Does the feedback from previous trials influence current decisions? A study on the role of feedback processing in making decisions under explicit risk conditions. ''Journal of Neuropsychology'', ''2''(2), 431–443. https://doi.org/10.1348/174866407x220607

Buelow, M. T., &amp; Blaine, A. L. (2015). The assessment of risky decision making: A factor analysis of performance on the Iowa Gambling Task, Balloon Analogue Risk Task, and Columbia Card Task. ''Psychological Assessment'', ''27''(3), 777–785. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038622

Buelow, M. T., Okdie, B. M., &amp; Kowalsky, J. M. (2024). Ecological validity of common behavioral decision making tasks: Evidence across two samples. ''Neuropsychology, Development, and Cognition. Section A, Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology/Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology'', ''46''(3), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2024.2337759

Colautti, L., Iannello, P., Maria Caterina Silveri, &amp; Antonietti, A. (2023). Decision-making under ambiguity and risk and executive functions in parkinson’s disease patients: A scoping review of the studies investigating the Iowa gambling task and the game of dice. ''Cognitive, Affective, &amp; Behavioral Neuroscience'', ''23''(5), 1225–1243. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13415-023-01106-3

De Groot, K., &amp; Thurik, R. (2018). Disentangling risk and uncertainty: When risk-taking measures are not about risk. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''9''. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02194

Loewenstein, G. F., Weber, E. U., Hsee, C. K., &amp; Welch, N. (2001). Risk as feelings. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''127''(2), 267–286. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.127.2.267

Mishra, S. (2014). Decision-making under risk: Integrating perspectives from biology, economics, and psychology. ''Personality and Social Psychology Review'', ''18''(3), 280–307. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868314530517

Pachur, T., &amp; Zilker, V. (2026). Psychological theories of decision-making under risk. ''The Cambridge Handbook of Behavioural Data Science'', 76–105. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108939010.009

Pertl, M.-T., Zamarian, L., &amp; Delazer, M. (2017). Reasoning and mathematical skills contribute to normatively superior decision making under risk: Evidence from the game of dice task. ''Cognitive Processing'', ''18''(3), 249–260. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10339-017-0813-x

Schiebener, J., &amp; Brand, M. (2015). Self-reported strategies in decisions under risk: Role of feedback, reasoning abilities, executive functions, short-term-memory, and working memory. ''Cognitive Processing'', ''16''(4), 401–416. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10339-015-0665-1

Schiebener, J., Wegmann, E., Gathmann, B., Laier, C., Pawlikowski, M., &amp; Brand, M. (2014). Among three different executive functions, general executive control ability is a key predictor of decision making under objective risk. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''5''. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01386

Schiebener, J., Zamarian, L., Delazer, M., &amp; Brand, M. (2011). Executive functions, categorization of probabilities, and learning from feedback: What does really matter for decision making under explicit risk conditions?. ''Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology'', ''33''(9), 1025–1039. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2011.595702 
}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
*** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
*** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
* [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/hovercraft-full-eels/202012/risky-gamble-or-uncertain-future A risky gamble or an uncertain future?] (Psychology Today)
* [https://www.millisecond.com/library/gameofdicetask Game of dice task] (Millisecond Software)

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Decision making]]</text>
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      <text bytes="1593" sha1="r0hmpfo76sato8xk0c9ob6h47btngns" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
Hi, I'm '''Stephanie Piper''' I am studying [[motivation and emotion]] at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/current-students University of Canberra]. I am a 3rd year psychology student.

== Hobbies ==
[[File:Listas! (180948337).jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. Swimming is good for both your physical and emotional health.  |300x300px]]
* Playing sport
** Walking 
** [[w:League_tag|League tag]]
** Oztag 
** [[Swimming]]
* Cooking 
* Crafts
* Reading 

== Book chapter I'm working on ==
The book chapter I am working on is [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Youth environmental activism motivation|Youth environmental activism motivation-What motivates young people to engage in environmental activism?]]

== Social contributions ==

# [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FAkrasia&amp;diff=2826105&amp;oldid=2826068 Capitalized Letter I]
#[[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Sex work motivation|Made a suggestion]] 
#[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/456345 Shared what motivates me]
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FAkrasia&amp;diff=2835157&amp;oldid=2834189 Removed double spacing in text]
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FArtificial_intelligence_and_academic_motivation&amp;diff=2835171&amp;oldid=2833227 Corrected spelling of several]
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      <text bytes="1798" sha1="gzqy4bhowerocnqn7ydbckt5400aq8u" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
Hi, I'm '''Stephanie Piper''' I am studying [[motivation and emotion]] at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/current-students University of Canberra]. I am a 3rd year psychology student.

== Hobbies ==
[[File:Listas! (180948337).jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. Swimming is good for both your physical and emotional health.  |300x300px]]
* Playing sport
** Walking 
** [[w:League_tag|League tag]]
** Oztag 
** [[Swimming]]
* Cooking 
* Crafts
* Reading 

== Book chapter I'm working on ==
The book chapter I am working on is [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Youth environmental activism motivation|Youth environmental activism motivation-What motivates young people to engage in environmental activism?]]

== Social contributions ==

# [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FAkrasia&amp;diff=2826105&amp;oldid=2826068 Capitalized Letter I]
#[[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Sex work motivation|Made a suggestion]] 
#[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/456345 Shared what motivates me]
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FAkrasia&amp;diff=2835157&amp;oldid=2834189 Removed double spacing in text]
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FArtificial_intelligence_and_academic_motivation&amp;diff=2835171&amp;oldid=2833227 Corrected spelling of several]
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FAttachment_styles_and_relatedness_motivation&amp;diff=2835883&amp;oldid=2833332 Minor edits to section]
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FAthletic_identity_loss_and_returning_to_sport_after_injury&amp;diff=2835898&amp;oldid=2832727 Minor edits to scenario section]</text>
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      <text bytes="1934" sha1="rh37bzyjefn6wzavaebqpmf74mcxnhe" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
Hi, I'm '''Stephanie Piper''' I am studying [[motivation and emotion]] at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/current-students University of Canberra]. I am a 3rd year psychology student.

== Hobbies ==
[[File:Listas! (180948337).jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. Swimming is good for both your physical and emotional health.  |300x300px]]
* Playing sport
** Walking 
** [[w:League_tag|League tag]]
** Oztag 
** [[Swimming]]
* Cooking 
* Crafts
* Reading 

== Book chapter I'm working on ==
The book chapter I am working on is [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Youth environmental activism motivation|Youth environmental activism motivation-What motivates young people to engage in environmental activism?]]

== Social contributions ==

# [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FAkrasia&amp;diff=2826105&amp;oldid=2826068 Capitalized Letter I]
#[[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Sex work motivation|Made a suggestion]] 
#[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/456345 Shared what motivates me]
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FAkrasia&amp;diff=2835157&amp;oldid=2834189 Removed double spacing in text]
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FArtificial_intelligence_and_academic_motivation&amp;diff=2835171&amp;oldid=2833227 Corrected spelling of several]
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FAttachment_styles_and_relatedness_motivation&amp;diff=2835883&amp;oldid=2833332 Minor edits to section]
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FAthletic_identity_loss_and_returning_to_sport_after_injury&amp;diff=2835898&amp;oldid=2832727 Minor edits to scenario section]
#[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/464746 Created discussion page for discussion regarding book chapter]</text>
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      <text bytes="2105" sha1="pvi11ic7w3bhml20v5vc19swrsmbeuv" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
Hi, I'm '''Stephanie Piper''' I am studying [[motivation and emotion]] at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/current-students University of Canberra]. I am a 3rd year psychology student.

== Hobbies ==
[[File:Listas! (180948337).jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. Swimming is good for both your physical and emotional health.  |300x300px]]
* Playing sport
** Walking 
** [[w:League_tag|League tag]]
** Oztag 
** [[Swimming]]
* Cooking 
* Crafts
* Reading 

== Book chapter I'm working on ==
The book chapter I am working on is [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Youth environmental activism motivation|Youth environmental activism motivation-What motivates young people to engage in environmental activism?]]

== Social contributions ==

# [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FAkrasia&amp;diff=2826105&amp;oldid=2826068 Capitalized Letter I]
#[[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Sex work motivation|Made a suggestion]] 
#[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/456345 Shared what motivates me]
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FAkrasia&amp;diff=2835157&amp;oldid=2834189 Removed double spacing in text]
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FArtificial_intelligence_and_academic_motivation&amp;diff=2835171&amp;oldid=2833227 Corrected spelling of several]
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FAttachment_styles_and_relatedness_motivation&amp;diff=2835883&amp;oldid=2833332 Minor edits to section]
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FAthletic_identity_loss_and_returning_to_sport_after_injury&amp;diff=2835898&amp;oldid=2832727 Minor edits to scenario section]
#[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/464746 Created discussion page for discussion regarding book chapter]
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FAutomaticity_and_goal_pursuit&amp;diff=2835902&amp;oldid=2834193 Edited multiple paragraphs]</text>
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      <text bytes="2284" sha1="dcpgcni8funs3qkwxnd2jsudmi0nm3r" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
Hi, I'm '''Stephanie Piper''' I am studying [[motivation and emotion]] at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/current-students University of Canberra]. I am a 3rd year psychology student.

== Hobbies ==
[[File:Listas! (180948337).jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. Swimming is good for both your physical and emotional health.  |300x300px]]
* Playing sport
** Walking 
** [[w:League_tag|League tag]]
** Oztag 
** [[Swimming]]
* Cooking 
* Crafts
* Reading 

== Book chapter I'm working on ==
The book chapter I am working on is [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Youth environmental activism motivation|Youth environmental activism motivation-What motivates young people to engage in environmental activism?]]

== Social contributions ==

# [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FAkrasia&amp;diff=2826105&amp;oldid=2826068 Capitalized Letter I]
#[[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Sex work motivation|Made a suggestion]] 
#[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/456345 Shared what motivates me]
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FAkrasia&amp;diff=2835157&amp;oldid=2834189 Removed double spacing in text]
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FArtificial_intelligence_and_academic_motivation&amp;diff=2835171&amp;oldid=2833227 Corrected spelling of several]
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FAttachment_styles_and_relatedness_motivation&amp;diff=2835883&amp;oldid=2833332 Minor edits to section]
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FAthletic_identity_loss_and_returning_to_sport_after_injury&amp;diff=2835898&amp;oldid=2832727 Minor edits to scenario section]
#[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/464746 Created discussion page for discussion regarding book chapter]
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FAutomaticity_and_goal_pursuit&amp;diff=2835902&amp;oldid=2834193 Edited multiple paragraphs]
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FCompetence_motivation_in_self-determination_theory&amp;diff=2835944&amp;oldid=2834612 Added a comma]</text>
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        <username>U3275908</username>
        <id>3108582</id>
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      <comment>/* About Me */  updated and added linkedin link</comment>
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      <text bytes="1479" sha1="mkqhg6pgbvnd05ihys18g5cfnfyey4b" xml:space="preserve">== About Me ==
Hi, My Name is Lucy, I am 3rd year Science in Psychology student at the University of Canberra, once I complete my degree, I am going into a Master of Primary Teaching next year. I love looking at how psychology can effect the development of children and I am looking forward to applying my learning from psychology to child development!

[https://www.linkedin.com/in/lucy-whybrow-7b453231a/ My LinkedIn!]

== Book Chapter I am working on ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-determination theory and physical activity|Self-determination theory and physical activity]]  

== Social Contributions ==

=== Edit Chapters ===

# I proof-read and edited all of the grammar in the book chapter Anger and Sport: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FAnger_and_sport&amp;diff=2826516&amp;oldid=2765097 Difference between revisions] 26/08/26 20:50

=== Chapter Discussions ===

# I added a discussion comment to another in progress book chapter: [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Adolescent risk-taking and reward-system development#c-U3275908-20260826110900-Discussion comment: Adolescent risk-taking|Adolescent risk-taking and reward-system development discussion]] 26/08/26 21:10

=== UCLearn Discussions ===

# I replied to a discussion post on UC Learn about another students book chapter [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/457190?entry_id=809441 UC Learn discussion post] 26/08/26 20:20</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Large language models/Context economy of agent runs</title>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Evgenii Arsentev</username>
        <id>3110906</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Section 2.3: checking whether a published context file is read (log study, DOI 10.5281/zenodo.23018429); one exercise; reference</comment>
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      <text bytes="16315" sha1="hd8f6nz288r39unzyetdu214gw0tkxj" xml:space="preserve">{{Short description|Why agent runs cost what they do, and how to measure it}}

This learning resource is a sub-page of [[Large language models]]. It is about a practical question that anyone running a coding agent meets within a week of starting: '''why does a session that does ordinary work cost what it costs, and what actually reduces that cost?'''

The short answer is that the cost of an agent run is dominated not by the text the model writes, but by the text it reads again and again. This resource explains the mechanism, shows how to measure it without the two mistakes that make the measurement wrong, and works through a controlled experiment whose result contradicts the advice most commonly given.

{{RightTOC}}

== Learning objectives ==

After working through this resource a learner should be able to:

* explain why the resource consumption of a multi-step agent run grows faster than the amount of text the agent produces;
* distinguish '''cache write''' from '''cache read''' and say why their price difference determines the shape of the cost curve;
* take a usage log from an agent runtime and compute the cost of a run correctly, avoiding double counting and truncated records;
* design a controlled comparison between two ways of working with an agent, and state honestly what such a comparison can and cannot establish;
* read a U-shaped cost curve and recognise when the bottom of it is a ''plateau'' rather than a point.

== 1. Why repeated input dominates ==

An agent that works on a task over several steps does not send a fresh question to the model each time. It sends the accumulated conversation: the original instructions, every file it has read, every command it has run, and every answer it has produced so far. Then it appends the next step and sends the whole thing again.

The consequence is worth stating as an inequality. If a run has ''n'' steps and the context after step ''i'' has length ''c&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;'', the total input the model processes is

: &lt;math&gt;\sum_{i=1}^{n} c_i&lt;/math&gt;

while the total output is only the sum of what was generated at each step, which in practical runs is one to two orders of magnitude smaller. A token admitted into the context on the first step of a sixty-step run is paid for sixty times. A token generated on the last step is paid for once.

This is why intuitions carried over from single-turn use of a language model mislead. In single-turn use, &quot;keep the answer short&quot; is sound advice about cost. In agent use, the cost lever is almost entirely on the input side, and the question becomes: ''what is in the context, and how long does it stay there?''

[[File:Cost concentration in 722 coding-agent sessions (2026).svg|thumb|Cumulative share of modeled cost against share of sessions, 722 coding-agent sessions ranked by cost]]
A log study by Arsentev (2026) analysed 722 coding-agent sessions run on two machines, covering 150,902 model calls and 34.6 billion tokens. Cost was modeled from the public price list rather than taken from invoices. More than 85% of the modeled cost came from context handling, meaning cache writes plus cache reads. The distribution was uneven: about 3% of sessions produced 80% of the cost, and sessions longer than 200 calls, only 8% of the total, produced more than 90% of the cost. This concentration shows why the input-side lever matters most in a small share of long-running sessions, rather than being spread evenly across all agent activity.

=== 1.1 Caching changes the arithmetic, but does not remove the effect ===

Because the same prefix is re-sent on every step, runtimes cache it. A cached prefix is charged at a reduced rate on subsequent reads, but writing it into the cache costs more than an ordinary input token. Per token, a cache ''write'' costs many times more than a cache ''read''; the exact ratio depends on the price list and on how long the cache is kept (a one-hour cache write is billed at twice the ordinary input rate).

That single ratio is the whole story of this resource, because it creates a tension:

* '''starting a new session often''' means the cache is written from scratch each time — many expensive writes;
* '''never starting a new session''' means the context grows without limit, and every step re-reads a larger prefix — many cheap reads, but a great many of them.

Two opposite failure modes, both expensive. Whenever a quantity is made worse by increasing ''and'' by decreasing a parameter, the curve between the extremes has a minimum somewhere in the middle. Finding it is an empirical question, not one to be settled by argument.

== 2. Measuring a run correctly ==

Before any comparison can be made, a single run must be measured. Two mistakes are common enough that they deserve naming, and both were found the hard way in the experiment described in section 3.

=== 2.1 Deduplicate, but keep the largest record ===

A streaming runtime may emit several usage records for one model invocation: an early snapshot taken while the response is still being generated, and a final record once it completes. Both may carry the same message identifier.

Counting both '''double counts''' the invocation. Counting only the first '''halves the output''', because the first record was written before generation finished.

The correct procedure is therefore:

# group usage records by their message or request identifier;
# within each group, take the '''element-wise maximum''' across every usage field, rather than the first or the last record;
# sum the resulting per-invocation records.

A learner who takes only one lesson from this resource should take this one: a usage log is not a list of events to be added up, it is a set of observations of events, and observations of the same event must be reconciled before summation.

=== 2.2 Do not infer success from the exit status of a test runner ===

A comparison of cost is meaningless unless the work was actually done. It is tempting to record success by checking whether a test command exited zero, or by counting lines that look like test output.

Test runners differ in what they print. A runner that emits a human-readable summary rather than a machine-readable protocol will defeat a line-counting heuristic silently — producing not an error but a wrong number, which is worse. Parse the runner's actual summary, and recompute pass and fail counts from the stored output rather than trusting a status recorded at the time.

=== 2.3 Check that the context you publish is actually read ===

The same discipline applies one step earlier, to context that a site offers to models before any agent run starts. A common practice is to serve a plain-text summary at &lt;code&gt;/llms.txt&lt;/code&gt; on the assumption that language-model crawlers will fetch it. Nothing tells a crawler that the file exists, so the assumption can be tested in an ordinary access log.

In one fifteen-day log of a single origin server (28 August – 11 September 2026, 345,808 parsed requests), 46,155 requests carried one of 22 user-agent tokens published by search and AI operators. None of them asked for &lt;code&gt;/llms.txt&lt;/code&gt; or &lt;code&gt;/llms-full.txt&lt;/code&gt;. From 9 to 11 September, after the files were first served, the same tokens fetched &lt;code&gt;/robots.txt&lt;/code&gt; 698 times and &lt;code&gt;/sitemap.xml&lt;/code&gt; 282 times. All 67 requests for the context files came from clients without a crawler token.

The limits are narrow and should be read with the numbers: one origin with three pooled hostnames, about two days of exposure, and self-asserted user agents. About a third of the crawler-token requests bypassed the CDN, none of them from the operators' published address ranges, so much of that traffic is probably imitation. The result shows absence on one server, not across the web. The lesson for measurement is the same as in 2.1 and 2.2: a file being present is not evidence that it is used.

== 3. A controlled experiment ==

The following experiment is reported here as a worked example of the method above. Its data and analysis scripts are published; see [[#References|references]].

=== 3.1 Design ===

A fixed set of '''12 self-contained programming tasks''' was defined against a growing synthetic library, each task requiring its tests to pass. The same 12 tasks were then executed under '''six conditions''', differing only in how many tasks were given to one session before a fresh session was started:

: 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 12 tasks per session.

One task per session is the behaviour of a user who clears context constantly; twelve tasks per session is the behaviour of a user who never clears it. Each condition was repeated '''6 times''', giving '''36 runs''' in total. Across all runs '''4,086 tests''' were executed with no failures, so the conditions can be compared on cost alone.

=== 3.2 Result ===

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ Cost and cache behaviour by session length (mean of 6 replicates)
! Tasks per session !! Sessions !! Model invocations !! Cache write (tokens) !! Cache read (tokens) !! Cost
|-
| 1 (clear always) || 12 || 94 || 252,533 || 3,622,795 || $2.17
|-
| 2 || 6 || 84 || 169,670 || 3,578,718 || $1.85
|-
| '''3''' || 4 || 72 || 131,100 || 3,160,517 || '''$1.62'''
|-
| 4 || 3 || 71 || 123,478 || 3,466,808 || $1.70
|-
| 6 || 2 || 71 || 105,746 || 3,796,905 || $1.68
|-
| 12 (never clear) || 1 || 63 || 87,846 || 4,451,367 || $1.78
|}

Clearing after every task costs '''33.5% more''' than clearing every third task, for identical work with identical test outcomes. Never clearing costs 9.7% more in the point estimate, which is not significant after adjustment. (Costs corrected on 15 September 2026, see version 1.2 of the report: an earlier version priced cache reads and writes incorrectly and reported a 25.3% spread. Token counts and test results were not affected.)

The mechanism is visible in the two cache columns and it is two-sided:

* cache '''write''' falls monotonically as sessions get longer (252,533 → 87,846), because there are fewer fresh sessions to pay for;
* context per invocation '''rises''' monotonically (approximately 38,000 → 71,000 tokens), because a long session accumulates;
* their product, cache '''read''', is therefore U-shaped, and since one-hour cache writes are priced at 20 times reads, both ends of the range are expensive for different reasons.

=== 3.3 The bottom is a plateau, not a point ===

It would be easy, and wrong, to conclude &quot;clear every third task&quot;. Exact two-sided permutation tests over all 924 partitions of six against six give:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ Comparisons against the cheapest condition
! Comparison !! ''p'' !! Interpretation
|-
| 3 vs 1 || 0.0022 || separated; this is the smallest value attainable at 6 versus 6
|-
| 3 vs 12 || 0.046 || not significant after Holm adjustment over five comparisons (0.14)
|-
| 3 vs 2 || 0.0022 || separated
|-
| 3 vs 4 || 0.17 || '''not distinguishable'''
|-
| 3 vs 6 || 0.45 || '''not distinguishable'''
|}

So the defensible statement is not that three is best. It is that '''three, four and six are indistinguishable from one another, while clearing after every task is clearly worse'''; whether never clearing is also worse is not established at this sample size. The practical rule that follows is loose on purpose: work in batches of a few tasks per session, and do not adopt either habit that sits at an end of the range.

=== 3.4 What this experiment cannot establish ===

Honest limits matter more than headline numbers, and a learner should be able to state them:

* one model, one task set, one growing repository;
* six replicates per condition, which is enough to separate the extremes and not enough to separate neighbours;
* the task set is synthetic and self-contained, so it understates the cost of exploration in an unfamiliar codebase;
* pricing ratios are those of one provider at one time; the ''shape'' of the curve follows from write being dearer than read, but the position of its minimum does not transfer automatically.

* a test suite that passes in every condition cannot tell the conditions apart on quality: all 4,086 tests passed with zero variance, so the comparison rests on cost alone. Why such a result set supports no conclusion about quality, and what a record should say about it, is argued in Arsentev (2026), ''A Suite That Does Not Discriminate''.

Figures on this page follow the corrected version 1.2 of the report. Earlier versions, and an earlier three-replicate run, reported smaller spreads (25.3% and 32.9%) computed with incorrect prices; they should not be quoted.

== 4. Exercises ==

# '''Arithmetic of accumulation.''' An agent run has 40 steps. The context is 5,000 tokens after step 1 and grows by 1,500 tokens per step. Compute the total input processed and compare it with a total output of 400 tokens per step. What fraction of the work is re-reading?
# '''Reconciling a log.''' Take any usage log that contains duplicate records for one invocation. Compute the total three ways — summing everything, keeping the first of each duplicate, keeping the element-wise maximum — and explain which of the three errors would be invisible to a reader of the final number.
# '''Break-even.''' Let ''w'' be the price of a cache write and ''r'' the price of a cache read per token, with ''w'' = ''a''·''r'' for some ratio ''a'' &gt; 1. Take ''a'' from the current price list of the model you use. Write the cost of ''k'' tasks per session as a function of ''k'' under a linear model of context growth, and find the ''k'' that minimises it. Compare your answer with the table in section 3.2 and account for any difference.
# '''Replication.''' Design the same comparison for a task set in a real repository rather than a synthetic one. State in advance which direction you expect the optimum to move, and why.
# '''Critique.''' The experiment holds the task set fixed and varies only session length. Name one confound this design does ''not'' control for, and propose a modification that would.
# '''Is it read?''' Pick a file your site publishes for machines (&lt;code&gt;robots.txt&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;sitemap.xml&lt;/code&gt; or &lt;code&gt;llms.txt&lt;/code&gt;). From your access log, count the requests for it by user-agent token over one week. Then state which part of that count you cannot tell apart from imitation, and what evidence would let you.

== 5. See also ==

* [[Large language models]]
* [[Artificial intelligence]]
* [[Machine learning]]

== References ==

* Arsentev, E. (2026). ''The Context Economy of Agentic LLM Sessions: Where the Money Actually Goes''. Zenodo. Version 1.1 (corrected 15 September 2026). {{doi|10.5281/zenodo.22759216}} — log study of 722 agent sessions cited in section 1; costs are modeled from the public price list.
* Arsentev, E. (2026). ''contextburn: a run-efficiency meter for language-model coding agents''. Zenodo. {{doi|10.5281/zenodo.22712985}} — open-source meter that reports, from local agent logs, the share of paid tokens that became output rather than context re-reading.
* Arsentev, E. (2026). ''Clear Every Third Task: A Measured U-Curve in the Context Economy of Coding Agents''. Zenodo. Version 1.2 (corrected 15 September 2026). {{doi|10.5281/zenodo.22759217}} — report, dataset and analysis scripts for the experiment in section 3. Run-level data: {{doi|10.57967/hf/10366}}.
* Arsentev, E. (2026). ''A Suite That Does Not Discriminate: The Case for Result-Set Fields in Agent Conformance Records''. Qeios. {{doi|10.32388/0BV3Z8}} — why a suite that passes everywhere cannot support a quality comparison.
* Arsentev, E. (2026). ''Agent Run Metrics: A JSON Interchange Format for Resource Accounting of Language-Model Agent Runs''. Internet-Draft &lt;code&gt;draft-arsentev-agent-run-metrics-00&lt;/code&gt;, IETF Datatracker — an interchange format for the per-run and per-step quantities used here, including a normative statement that one reported step corresponds to one completed model invocation.

[[Category:Artificial intelligence]]
[[Category:Machine learning]]
[[Category:Computer science]]
* Arsentev, E. (2026). ''No Request With a Known Crawler User-Agent Reached llms.txt: Fifteen Days of Logs at One Origin Server''. Zenodo. Version 1.0. {{doi|10.5281/zenodo.23018429}} — technical report, analysis scripts and aggregate counts (no IP addresses) for the log study in section 2.3.</text>
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    <title>Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Romantic entertainment and love beliefs</title>
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      <contributor>
        <username>U3247927</username>
        <id>3005952</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Generative AI declaration */ old image kept crashing, created a new image and have updated the ai acknowledgement</comment>
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      <text bytes="9961" sha1="60n3t6dch0vf1psc35slid2adlimo00" xml:space="preserve">== Heading casing ==
{| style=&quot;float: center; background:transparent;color:inherit;&quot;
|-
| [[File:Crystal Clear app ktip.svg|48px|left]]
| {{#if:U3247927|Hi [[User:U3247927|U3247927]].|}} FYI, the recommended [[Wikiversity]] heading style uses [[w:Letter case#Sentence_case|sentence casing]]. For example:&lt;br&gt;
&lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;Self-determination theory&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/big&gt;
rather than
&lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;Self-Determination Theory&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

Here's an example chapter with correct heading casing: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Growth mindset development|Growth mindset development]]

-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 03:25, 14 September 2026 (UTC)
|}

&lt;!-- Official topic development feedback --&gt;
{{METF/2026
|1=
&lt;!-- Title --&gt;
# Title and subtitle are correctly worded and use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]]
|2=
&lt;!-- Headings --&gt;
# See earlier comment about [[#heading casing|heading casing]]
&lt;!-- Heading structure --&gt;
&lt;!-- 2-level --&gt;
# Promising [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|2-level heading structure]] – could benefit from further development and/or refinement
&lt;!-- Other ---&gt;
# Avoid having sections with only 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings
# Check grammar (e.g,. missing question mark)
&lt;!-- Remove --&gt;
# Remove sub-headings in the Overview
&lt;!-- Alignment with focus questions --&gt;
# Insufficient alignment between sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings
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&lt;!-- Overview--&gt;
# Excellent – Scenario, image, evocative description of the problem/topic, and focus questions
# Very good
# Good
# Basic
# Insufficient
# Hasn't been developed – Needs scenario, image, evocative description of the problem/topic, and focus questions
&lt;!-- GenAI ---&gt;
# Does this section include [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI content]]? If so, it needs to be acknowledged as such in the edit summaries, otherwise it violates academic integrity.
&lt;!-- Scenario --&gt;
# Promising scenario; could benefit from further development
# I moved an image into the feature box to help attract reader interest
# I reduced the image size
# The scenario figure needs an APA style caption
&lt;!-- Description --&gt;
# A promising description of the problem/topic is planned or presented
# Keep this description brief; move detail in subsequent sections
# What are the most relevant psychological theories?
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&lt;!-- Focus questions --&gt;
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# Develop closer alignment between the sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings
# There is no need for a question dedicated to research; instead, integrate covered of research throughout
# There are too many focus questions; only include questions that are needed to address the sub-title; avoid side-quests—these are usually better treated as examples or scenarios, or left out altogether so that the chapter can concentrate on the core task of synthesising the best psychological theory and research about the topic.
|4=
&lt;!-- Key points--&gt;
&lt;!-- Overall --&gt;
# Partial development
# On the right track, but don't beat around the bush; cut to the chase by explaining what the best psychological theory and research tells us about how romantic entertainment influences beliefs and expectations about love and romantic relationships.
# Strive for an integrated balance of the best psychological theory and research about this topic, with practical examples.
&lt;!-- Citation style --&gt;
# Use [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/basic-principles APA style 7th edition for citations] (e.g., do not italicise)
&lt;!-- Other --&gt;
# For sections with sub-sections, provide key points for an overview paragraph prior to branching into the sub-headings
# Consider using Studiosity Writing Feedback+ or a similar writing-support service (e.g., Grammarly) to improve the quality of written expression and check for grammatical and spelling errors in the book chapter draft.
&lt;!-- GenAI ---&gt;
# Do these key points include [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI content]]? If so, this needs to be acknowledged in the edit summaries, otherwise it violates academic integrity.
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&lt;!-- Size --&gt;
# Consider increasing/decreasing each image size(s) to better fit with the surrounding text
&lt;!-- Creation --&gt;
# Well done on creating and uploading your own image! {{smile}}—this can also be listed on your user page as a social contribution
|6=
&lt;!-- Learning feature --&gt;
&lt;!-- Interwiki links ---&gt;
# One in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki link]] for first mention of key term to [[w:|Wikipedia]]. Also embed links to [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]].
&lt;!-- Scenarios/examples/case studies --&gt;
# Consider incorporating additional scenarios, examples, or case studies to illustrate key concepts. These could build on the Overview scenario or introduce new real-world situations in the main body of the chapter to demonstrate how the concepts apply in practice.
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|7=
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# Good
# What are the most relevant systematic reviews/meta-analyses about this topic?
&lt;!-- APA style --&gt;
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## capitalisation
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# Basic but effective
# Not created – see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]
&lt;!-- Description about self --&gt;
# Brief description about self – consider expanding
&lt;!-- Links to profile(s) --&gt;
# Consider linking to your [https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/ eportfolio] page and/or any other professional online profile or resume such as [https://www.linkedin.com/ LinkedIn]. This is not required, but it can be useful to interlink your professional networks.
&lt;!-- Link to book chapter --&gt;
# A link to the book chapter is provided
|10=
&lt;!-- Social contribution --&gt;
# Good – two out of three types of contributions made with direct link(s) to evidence. The other type of contribution is making:
# One out of three types of contributions made with direct link(s) to evidence. The other types of contribution are making:
#* direct improvements to other [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters (past or current)]]
# To add direct links to evidence of Wikiversity edits or comments: view the page history, select the version of the page before and after your contributions, click &quot;compare selected revisions&quot;, and paste the comparison URL on your user page. For more info, see [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Making and summarising social contributions|Making and summarising social contributions]]. This was demonstrated in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing#Social contributions|Tutorial 2]].
}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 03:25, 14 September 2026 (UTC)

== Suggestion for 'External links' section ==
Hi there, 

Well done on your topic development! I enjoyed reading through the work you have done thus far. I noticed that you hadn't yet included external links to related resources on the topic.

You should check out these articles on romantic entertainment and beliefs about love, I think that they might be a valuable addition to your chapter:

* [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/reel-therapy/202607/how-5-classic-rom-coms-teach-us-to-love-better How 5 classic rom-coms teach us to love better] (Psychology Today)
* [https://medium.com/@michaelanava444/romantic-cinema-whats-real-and-what-s-not-2f1e3dffd7c Romantic cinema: what’s real and what’s not] (Medium)
* [https://theconversation.com/what-love-island-can-tell-us-about-the-history-of-love-119751 What Love Island can tell us about the history of love] (The Conversation)

Best regards. [[User:U3285438|U3285438]] ([[User talk:U3285438|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3285438|contribs]]) 04:24, 17 September 2026 (UTC)

:Thank you for finding these sources ! [[User:U3247927|U3247927]] ([[User talk:U3247927|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3247927|contribs]]) 00:31, 25 September 2026 (UTC)

== Generative AI declaration ==
Microsoft Copilot (OpenAI GPT-5-based conversational AI) was used as a writing-support tool during preparation of the overview section. All content was subsequently reviewed, revised, and checked against academic sources by the author. [[User:U3247927|U3247927]] ([[User talk:U3247927|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3247927|contribs]]) 00:49, 25 September 2026 (UTC)

:'''AI-generated image notice:''' Figure 1 was generated using Microsoft Copilot (OpenAI GPT-5-based conversational AI) based on author-developed prompts and subsequently reviewed and selected by the author for inclusion in this chapter. [[User:U3247927|U3247927]] ([[User talk:U3247927|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3247927|contribs]]) 01:01, 25 September 2026 (UTC)</text>
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    <title>William Petty</title>
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      <text bytes="3681" sha1="iq9korkloqm8qtp9x0t7eig1e2jvxnl" xml:space="preserve">{{10% done}}
Welcome to the pages about '''William Petty'''.

William Petty (1623–1687) was an English scientist, best known for his contributions to the very early fields of political economy and statistics.
As a young man, he had a number of remarkable adventures and, in a highly unconventional manner and within a short space of time, managed to acquire knowledge in a wide range of fields.

Around 1651, he worked as a lecturer in anatomy at Brasenose College, Oxford, and was also appointed Gresham Professor of Music in London. Just one year later, he set off for Ireland, following in the footsteps of Cromwell’s army. In 1654, he secured a contract to map Ireland: the Down Survey. He acquired thousands of hectares of land in south-west Ireland. Meanwhile, he also carried out all manner of research and was active as an inventor.

His economic work was decisively influenced by [[:w:en:Thomas Hobbes|Thomas Hobbes]]. Petty served as his personal secretary for some time. [[:w:en:Francis Bacon|Francis Bacon]]’s influence on the development of Petty’s thinking was also significant.

Petty's first important economic publication{{sfn|Schumpeter|1981|p=210}} was ''A Treatise of Taxes and Contributions'' (1662). This was soon followed by a text, written 1665, only published 1691: ''Verbum Sapienti''. His ''Political Anatomy of Ireland'' followed 1672. In 1676 he wrote ''Political Arithmetick'' (first published 1690). His ''Quantulumcunque concerning Money'' was written 1682. Important were his ''Essays on Political Arithmetick'' (written between 1671 and 1687).&lt;br /&gt;All these texts were republished by Charles H. Hull in 1899 in ''The Economic Writings of Sir William Petty''. 

And then there is ''Natural and Political Observations … upon the Bills of Mortality,'' published in 1662 by John Graunt. But the influence of Petty on this text has been considerable, to say the least. 

== Political Arithmetick ==
[[:w:en:Charles Davenant|Charles Davenant]] (1656–1714), himself an economist, and one of the &quot;ablest followers&quot;{{sfn|Schumpeter|1981|p=210}} of Petty, wrote: &quot;By Political Arithmetick we mean the art of reasoning by figures, upon things relating to government. The art itself is undoubtedly very ancient; but the application of it to the particular objects of revenue and trade, is what Sir William Petty first began, who, as yet, has been followed by very few: he first gave it that name and brought it into rules and methods.&quot;&lt;ref name=Davenant&gt;{{cite book
| last = Charles | first = Charles | authorlink = :w:en:Charles Davenant
| editor-last = Whitworth | editor-first = Charles
| date = 1771
| title = The political and commercial works of that celebrated writer Charles D'avenant, LL.D. (etc. etc.) in five volumes, vol. 1
| chapter = Of the use of Political Arithmetick, in all considerations about the revenues and trade
| page = 128
| location = London
| publisher = Horsfield etc.
| url = https://hdl.handle.net/2027/iau.31858028903502?urlappend=%3Bseq=154%3Bownerid=13510798903864349-158
}}&lt;/ref&gt;


== Additional resources ==
* [[:w:en:William Petty|William Petty]] at English [[File:Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg|16px|alt=16 px Wikipedia logo]] Wikipedia
* [[:s:en:Author:William Petty|William Petty]] at English [[Image:wikisource-logo.svg|16x16px]] Wikisource


== Footnotes ==
{{References}}

== Sources ==
* {{cite book
| last = Schumpeter | first = Joseph A.
| date = 1981
| orig-date = 1951
| editor-last = Schumpter | editor-first = Elizabeth Boody
| title = History of Economic Analysis
| location = London etc.
| publisher = George Allen &amp; Unwin
| ISBN = 0 04 330086 3
| ref = harv
}}

[[category:History of Economic Thought]]</text>
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      <comment>Couple cuddling on a couch while watching the film Pretty Woman. The image is a synthetic creation and does not depict real people, events, or locations. Any resemblance to actual individuals is coincidental.</comment>
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Couple cuddling on a couch while watching the film Pretty Woman. The image is a synthetic creation and does not depict real people, events, or locations. Any resemblance to actual individuals is coincidental.</text>
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