Wikiversity enwikiversity https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Wikiversity:Main_Page MediaWiki 1.47.0-wmf.23 first-letter Media Special Talk User User talk Wikiversity Wikiversity talk File File talk MediaWiki MediaWiki talk Template Template talk Help Help talk Category Category talk School School talk Portal Portal talk Topic Topic talk Collection Collection talk Draft Draft talk TimedText TimedText talk Module Module talk Event Event talk 4 28 2836338 2835802 2026-10-06T17:39:15Z NDGGGGGG 3112222 2836338 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Wikiversity:Colloquium/Header}} <!-- MESSAGES GO BELOW --> == Add an edit count requirement for autoconfirmed? == Currently, only waiting for four days is required for a user to become autoconfirmed. I am proposing that we include a minimum edit count of 10 edits (akin to Wikipedia) especially because of [[Special:AbuseFilter/16|a private abuse fi6767676776 drizzzzy AHHHHH!!!!!!6767676776 drizzzzy AHHHHH!!!!!!6767676776 drizzzzy AHHHHH!!!!!!6767676776 drizzzzy AHHHHH!!!!!!6767676776 drizzzzy AHHHHH!!!!!!6767676776 drizzzzy AHHHHH!!!!!!6767676776 drizzzzy AHHHHH!!!!!!6767676776 drizzzzy AHHHHH!!!!!!6767676776 drizzzzy AHHHHH!!!!!!6767676776 drizzzzy AHHHHH!!!!!!6767676776 drizzzzy AHHHHH!!!!!!6767676776 drizzzzy AHHHHH!!!!!!6767676776 drizzzzy AHHHHH!!!!!!6767676776 drizzzzy AHHHHH!!!!!!6767676776 drizzzzy AHHHHH!!!!!!6767676776 drizzzzy AHHHHH!!!!!!6767676776 drizzzzy AHHHHH!!!!!!6767676776 drizzzzy AHHHHH!!!!!!6767676776 drizzzzy AHHHHH!!!!!!lter]], and LTAs may game autoconfirmed permissions to vandalize here. Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 23:01, 23 August 2026 (UTC) : [[Wikiversity:Autoconfirmed users]] : Are you suggesting an additional requirement? i.e., 4 days + 10 edits? : How is it adjusted? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 03:57, 5 September 2026 (UTC) :: Yes. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 01:30, 6 September 2026 (UTC) :: @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]]: I said yes to your first question. As for the adjustment question, in the InitialiseSettings.php file on noc.wikimedia.org, on <code>wgAutoConfirmCount</code> is where English Wikiversity would be added as <code>'enwikiversity' => 10,</code>. Does my reply make sense? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:31, 15 September 2026 (UTC) :As a newly volunteered member, it doesn't seem unreasonable to me to require a certain number of edits to establish my bona fides. [[User:Cfm490|Cfm490]] ([[User talk:Cfm490|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Cfm490|contribs]]) 17:53, 5 September 2026 (UTC) :I agree that adding an edit count requirement is a reasonable expectation before the user can become autoconfirmed. [[User:IanVG|IanVG]] ([[User talk:IanVG|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/IanVG|contribs]]) 18:56, 6 September 2026 (UTC) :+ 1 —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 19:40, 6 September 2026 (UTC) :'''Weak support''' Generally reasonable, but I would caution that we should really make this clear for those instances where professors have students edit here and make it frictionless for them to get autoconfirmed status. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 19:42, 6 September 2026 (UTC) : {{oppose|No support}} because I cannot see the [[Special:AbuseFilter/16|abuse filter]] cited as the primary reason and I do not know what LTAs is. I guess you don’t want support from ''ordinary'' users. ‑‑[[User:Kai Burghardt|Kays]] ([[User talk:Kai Burghardt|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kai Burghardt|contribs]]) 18:18, 14 September 2026 (UTC) ::Also some readers may be interested in this: ::* [[Wikipedia/Types of user accounts]] ::[[Special:Contributions/~2026-40514-81|~2026-40514-81]] ([[User talk:~2026-40514-81|talk]]) 19:05, 14 September 2026 (UTC) ::: An LTA means a long-term abuser, and it means someone who is usually abusive. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 20:42, 14 September 2026 (UTC) :'''Strong''' {{support}}; specially to battle LTA [[User:Mbataw|Mbataw]] ([[User talk:Mbataw|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mbataw|contribs]]) 13:17, 18 September 2026 (UTC) :{{support}}, having no edit count requirement for autoconfirmed is a bad idea in general. [[User:BooksBooksBooks3|BooksBooksBooks3]] ([[User talk:BooksBooksBooks3|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/BooksBooksBooks3|contribs]]) 01:43, 19 September 2026 (UTC) :Comment: I realize that it is not easy to be an admin on wikimedia projects. I realize that many admins have to deal with some VERY unpleasant personalities. But.. :Admins are not the only users who encounter harassment on wikimedia projects, big or small. Anyone who's been here as long as I have, has come across users who are not tolerated by the "community". Not necessarily because they are spammers, trollers, paid editors, LTAs , disruptive etc, but simply because they are different. :When I "edit" without logging in, I carry no baggage. I also get encouraging prompts such as this: :* This year, Wikipedia has had fewer visitors and fewer new supporters, so '''<big>your visit today means a lot</BIG>''' :Anyway, back to the topic at hand [[Wikipedia/Types of user accounts]]. I believe the section about IP editors is outdated since wikimedia now views users who are not logged-in as anonymous, and only trusted users are allowed to see their IP address (I am not clear on the details). I wonder if anyone participating here has an interest in bringing this page uptodate? [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40514-81|~2026-40514-81]] ([[User talk:~2026-40514-81|talk]]) 04:13, 22 September 2026 (UTC) : If there's some obvious things to fix, I'd say go ahead. It looks like there were several useful anonymous contributions to that page recently. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 07:54, 22 September 2026 (UTC) :hmm [[User:Tornaiden|Tornaiden]] ([[User talk:Tornaiden|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tornaiden|contribs]]) 02:02, 27 September 2026 (UTC) == Bartending Course on Wikiversity == I recently finished the course on [[Bartending]], and while I have experience editing on Wikipedia, this is my first Wikiversity project. If any of you have the time or interest, I could use an experienced eye to see if there's anything obviously missing from the course in terms of Wikiversity administration. I'm not sure what's active, if the course should belong in an existing school, or if there's any obvious discoverability tool I haven't implemented. Any tips are welcomed, or just a thumbs up saying it looks fine would be great. [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] recommended I post this here in case someone wanted to include the new course under News on the [[Wikiversity:Main Page|Main Page]]. Thanks! [[User:Sabbier|Sabbier]] ([[User talk:Sabbier|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sabbier|contribs]]) 01:24, 1 September 2026 (UTC) :Wow! Fantastic work- I'm so impressed! Your work gives me inspiration on how to better organize the courses I'm working on. :) [[User:IanVG|IanVG]] ([[User talk:IanVG|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/IanVG|contribs]]) 21:32, 3 September 2026 (UTC) : Awesome work. I've added this course to the [[Main Page/News|main page news]]. : We could also consider for [[Wikiversity:Featured]]. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 00:43, 5 September 2026 (UTC) ::The course [[Creating Wikiversity Courses]] is intended to provide guidance to new Wikiversity editors. I hope it is helpful and I welcome improvement suggestions. Thanks. [[User:Lbeaumont|Lbeaumont]] ([[User talk:Lbeaumont|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Lbeaumont|contribs]]) 14:08, 6 September 2026 (UTC) == Writing news here == I'm bringing up this discussion again because I think it is beneficial to the project since Wikinews is gone, thank you. [[User:BigKrow|BigKrow]] ([[User talk:BigKrow|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/BigKrow|contribs]]) 03:17, 1 September 2026 (UTC) : Given that the community consensus here was not to replicate WikiNews within Wikiversity, I suggest thinking differently e.g., in terms of specific news-related projects you are interested in that have educational objectives that satisfy Wikiversity's mission. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 00:46, 5 September 2026 (UTC) ::I wonder if you mean <u>Wikiversity:Main Page/News ?</u> ::If so I have just checked this page and I see it only contains news for 2026 and part of 2025, even though the history indicates it was created in the 2000-decade. If you go back and check all revisions there is a wealth of (historical?) information. [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40514-81|~2026-40514-81]] ([[User talk:~2026-40514-81|talk]]) 16:28, 13 September 2026 (UTC) ::: I didn't mean that page, but yes, its history could be reconstructed into a more accessible format. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 21:37, 13 September 2026 (UTC) == [[Wikiversity talk:Interface administrators#My thoughts about this user group]] == As I suggested, I would like to propose allowing permanent interface administrators on English Wikiversity. My temporary interface admin rights are about to expire soon, and I will soon create a new CfIA page (and its header). We should also have a minimum of two interface administrators. Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 16:44, 6 September 2026 (UTC) :I am also in favor of this and we did discuss it pretty recently and came to a consensus on extending IA rights and lowering the administrative overhead, but not allowing indefinite at this juncture. From my perspective, since we discussed this so recently and nothing seems to have changed much, I personally would recommend holding off for a couple of years or until/unless there is some critical new information. Again, I would continue to support indef IA rights were it to come up again and think that at least two is also a sensible proposal. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 17:32, 6 September 2026 (UTC) ::Responding to myself so that I don't derail: I would be interested/willing to be an indef IA. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 17:36, 6 September 2026 (UTC) : I made [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Interface Adminship]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:24, 6 September 2026 (UTC) :: CC to @[[User:Koavf|Koavf]]. I made a request since my IA rights are about to expire. We should also hold a separate vote to allow permanent IAs here (for this policy). [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 16:55, 7 September 2026 (UTC) : @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]], I count at least three in favor (votes below, and Koavf agreeing), so can you close this request? Thank you. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 15:22, 24 September 2026 (UTC) === Votes === * For the record, I am creating a separate subsection for voting, whether or not we should allow permanent interface administrators. {{support}} accordingly. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:32, 15 September 2026 (UTC) * {{support}} [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 00:51, 18 September 2026 (UTC) == Paid part-time Administrative Officer position with WikiJournal == [[WikiJournal User Group|WikiJournal]] is an open-access, nonprofit scholarly publisher hosted on Wikiversity. It uses the wiki format to allow authors to write and develop scholarly articles directly online. Submitted articles then undergo formal academic peer review and, when accepted, are published as citable journal articles while remaining freely accessible. WikiJournal is seeking expressions of interest in a new part-time '''Administrative Officer''' position. The officer would support the project's day-to-day organizational work, including: * Setting up and administering a system for tracking contractor hours and issuing payments. * Coordinating the contracting, onboarding, timekeeping and payment of technical editors and other contractors. * Maintaining financial, contractor and administrative records. * Assisting with grant administration, budget tracking and reporting. * Following up on board action items, deadlines and recurring obligations. * Supporting recruitment and other operational tasks as needed. This is a remote, flexibly scheduled contractor role averaging approximately '''6 hours per week'''. Compensation is proposed at '''US$25 per hour''', with up to approximately '''320 hours (US$8,000) available over the year'''. Applicants may be based internationally, although appointment will depend on WikiJournal being able to establish a practical and legally appropriate contracting and payment arrangement in the applicant's country of residence. Relevant experience may include administrative organization, bookkeeping or financial administration, contractor or personnel coordination, nonprofit or grant administration, Wikimedia participation, academic publishing, and open-access work. Applicants are not expected to have experience in every area. For the complete role description and further details, see [[WikiJournal User Group/Administrative officer]]. Those interested should reply in the '''[[Talk:WikiJournal User Group#Call for interest: Administrative Officer|Call for interest: Administrative Officer]]''' discussion by '''30 September 2026''', briefly describing their relevant experience, any connection to WikiJournal or related communities, and their general availability. Expressions of interest received later may still be considered if the position has not been filled. Recommendations of potentially suitable candidates are also welcome. [[User:Mikael Häggström|Mikael Häggström]] ([[User talk:Mikael Häggström|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mikael Häggström|contribs]]) 20:00, 10 September 2026 (UTC) == Server switch - Your wiki will be read-only for a short time soon == <section begin="server-switch"/><div class="plainlinks"> [[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/Server switch|Read this message in another language]] • [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&group=page-Tech%2FServer+switch&language=&action=page&filter= {{int:please-translate}}] The [[foundation:|Wikimedia Foundation]] will switch the traffic between its data centers. This will make sure that Wikipedia and the other Wikimedia wikis can stay online even after a disaster. All traffic will switch on '''{{#time:j xg|2026-09-23|en}}'''. The switch will start at '''[https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/{{#time:U|2026-09-23T14:00|en}} {{#time:H:i e|2026-09-23T14:00}}]'''. Unfortunately, because of some limitations in [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Manual:What is MediaWiki?|MediaWiki]], all editing must stop while the switch is made. We apologize for this disruption, and we are working to minimize it in the future. A banner will be displayed on all wikis 30 minutes before this operation happens. This banner will remain visible until the end of the operation. You can contribute to the [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special%3ATranslate&group=Centralnotice-tgroup-read_only_banner&task=view&language=&filter=&action=translate translation or proofreading] of this banner text. '''You will be able to read, but not edit, all wikis for a short period of time.''' * You will not be able to edit for up to an hour on {{#time:l j xg Y|2026-09-23|en}}. * If you try to edit or save during these times, you will see an error message. We hope that no edits will be lost during these minutes, but we can't guarantee it. If you see the error message, then please wait until everything is back to normal. Then you should be able to save your edit. But, we recommend that you make a copy of your changes first, just in case. ''Other effects'': * Background jobs will be slower and some may be dropped. Red links might not be updated as quickly as normal. If you create an article that is already linked somewhere else, the link will stay red longer than usual. Some long-running scripts will have to be stopped. * We expect the code deployments to happen as any other week. However, some case-by-case code freezes could punctually happen if the operation require them afterwards. * [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/GitLab|GitLab]] will be unavailable for about 90 minutes. This project may be postponed if necessary. You can [[wikitech:Switch_Datacenter|read the schedule at wikitech.wikimedia.org]]. Any changes will be announced in the schedule. '''Please share this information with your community.'''</div><section end="server-switch"/> [[m:user:Trizek (WMF)|Trizek (WMF)]] 12:58, 15 September 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Trizek (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Non-Technical_Village_Pumps_distribution_list&oldid=30513874 --> == Your feedback wanted: Remove ''(Language link added:) and similar'' edits from Special:RecentChanges == ''(Apologies for posting in English. You can help by translating it)'' Hello, I’m Danny from [[:en:w:Wikimedia_Deutschland|Wikimedia Deutschland’s]] [[m:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects|Wikidata For Wikimedia Projects]] team.<br/> We have been investigating and examining how Wikidata’s use in the [[Special:RecentChanges]] and [[Special:Watchlist]] pages can be made to be more useful, or less ‘noisy’ (fewer edits that have little value to the reader). We are currently exploring to make a change in the volume and the type of Wikidata edits that appear in these pages, and '''we need your feedback''' to help us ensure this is a positive change for the Wikis and won’t disrupt your workflows.<br/> Language links are also known as sitelinks or interlanguage links and describe when a Wikidata item is connected to a Wiki, adding it to the language dropdown tool for other connected Wikis. [[File:Types of Lang Link changes.png|x350px|frame|A variety of "Language Link" edits as seen in the Recent Changes feed]] The request for feedback is whether you support the removal of these language link edits from the Recent Changes and Watchlist feed, or would you oppose such a change and if so, why? Please share you thoughts on the dedicated '''[[m:Talk:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Clearer_Wikidata_Edit_Summaries/Hide_Language_Link_edits|metawiki Talk page]]'''. Further information about this change: [[m:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Clearer_Wikidata_Edit_Summaries/Hide_Language_Link_edits|m:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Hide_Language_Link_edits]] Thank you for any participation or feedback you give, -- [[m:User:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)|User:Danny Benjafield (WMDE)]] 12:23, 25 September 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Danny Benjafield (WMDE)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)/MassMessage_test_list&oldid=31080985 --> == Wikidata Sitelink changes in Recent Changes and Watchlist == ''(Apologies for cross-posting in English, translating it will help spread the message)'' Editors on group 1 wikis, including Wikiquote, Wikibooks, Wikiversity, Wikivoyage, and Wikisource, will no longer see notifications on [[Special:RecentChanges|Recent Changes]] and [[Special:Watchlist|Watchlist]] when a link to ''another'' language version of a page is added, removed, or changed in its Wikidata item. This change will begin on '''October 5 at 07:00 UTC''' as a two-week trial to reduce high-volume, low-value notifications and make higher-value changes easier to identify. Editors who rely on these notifications should be aware of the change and can share feedback or concerns on the [[m:Wikidata For Wikimedia Projects/Clearer Wikidata Edit Summaries/Hide Language Link edits|project]] or [[m:Talk:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Clearer_Wikidata_Edit_Summaries/Hide_Language_Link_edits|talk page]].<br/>Please reach out if you have any questions, thank you! -- [[User:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)|Danny Benjafield (WMDE)]] ([[User_talk:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)|talk]]) sent via [[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaWiki message delivery|contribs]]) 12:42, 1 October 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Danny Benjafield (WMDE)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)/MassMessage_test_list&oldid=31106967 --> == Demote [[Wikiversity:CheckUser policy]]? == I am proposing that we demote that policy to a standard page, mostly for two reasons: # Considering the few amount of custodians and the size of this wiki, I'd say that this project is considered too small to have any CUs, and relying on the stewards would be a more logical choice. # We haven't elected two CUs in a few years. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 20:53, 1 October 2026 (UTC) :Reasonable. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 17:09, 4 October 2026 (UTC) m6sgqqunlkbeykemm91awsmaqro0rdp 2836340 2836338 2026-10-06T17:39:19Z NDG 3006541 Reverted edit by [[Special:Contributions/NDGGGGGG|NDGGGGGG]] ([[User_talk:NDGGGGGG|talk]]) to last version by [[User:Koavf|Koavf]] using [[Wikiversity:Rollback|rollback]] 2835802 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Wikiversity:Colloquium/Header}} <!-- MESSAGES GO BELOW --> == Add an edit count requirement for autoconfirmed? == Currently, only waiting for four days is required for a user to become autoconfirmed. I am proposing that we include a minimum edit count of 10 edits (akin to Wikipedia) especially because of [[Special:AbuseFilter/16|a private abuse filter]], and LTAs may game autoconfirmed permissions to vandalize here. Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 23:01, 23 August 2026 (UTC) : [[Wikiversity:Autoconfirmed users]] : Are you suggesting an additional requirement? i.e., 4 days + 10 edits? : How is it adjusted? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 03:57, 5 September 2026 (UTC) :: Yes. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 01:30, 6 September 2026 (UTC) :: @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]]: I said yes to your first question. As for the adjustment question, in the InitialiseSettings.php file on noc.wikimedia.org, on <code>wgAutoConfirmCount</code> is where English Wikiversity would be added as <code>'enwikiversity' => 10,</code>. Does my reply make sense? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:31, 15 September 2026 (UTC) :As a newly volunteered member, it doesn't seem unreasonable to me to require a certain number of edits to establish my bona fides. [[User:Cfm490|Cfm490]] ([[User talk:Cfm490|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Cfm490|contribs]]) 17:53, 5 September 2026 (UTC) :I agree that adding an edit count requirement is a reasonable expectation before the user can become autoconfirmed. [[User:IanVG|IanVG]] ([[User talk:IanVG|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/IanVG|contribs]]) 18:56, 6 September 2026 (UTC) :+ 1 —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 19:40, 6 September 2026 (UTC) :'''Weak support''' Generally reasonable, but I would caution that we should really make this clear for those instances where professors have students edit here and make it frictionless for them to get autoconfirmed status. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 19:42, 6 September 2026 (UTC) : {{oppose|No support}} because I cannot see the [[Special:AbuseFilter/16|abuse filter]] cited as the primary reason and I do not know what LTAs is. I guess you don’t want support from ''ordinary'' users. ‑‑[[User:Kai Burghardt|Kays]] ([[User talk:Kai Burghardt|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kai Burghardt|contribs]]) 18:18, 14 September 2026 (UTC) ::Also some readers may be interested in this: ::* [[Wikipedia/Types of user accounts]] ::[[Special:Contributions/~2026-40514-81|~2026-40514-81]] ([[User talk:~2026-40514-81|talk]]) 19:05, 14 September 2026 (UTC) ::: An LTA means a long-term abuser, and it means someone who is usually abusive. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 20:42, 14 September 2026 (UTC) :'''Strong''' {{support}}; specially to battle LTA [[User:Mbataw|Mbataw]] ([[User talk:Mbataw|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mbataw|contribs]]) 13:17, 18 September 2026 (UTC) :{{support}}, having no edit count requirement for autoconfirmed is a bad idea in general. [[User:BooksBooksBooks3|BooksBooksBooks3]] ([[User talk:BooksBooksBooks3|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/BooksBooksBooks3|contribs]]) 01:43, 19 September 2026 (UTC) :Comment: I realize that it is not easy to be an admin on wikimedia projects. I realize that many admins have to deal with some VERY unpleasant personalities. But.. :Admins are not the only users who encounter harassment on wikimedia projects, big or small. Anyone who's been here as long as I have, has come across users who are not tolerated by the "community". Not necessarily because they are spammers, trollers, paid editors, LTAs , disruptive etc, but simply because they are different. :When I "edit" without logging in, I carry no baggage. I also get encouraging prompts such as this: :* This year, Wikipedia has had fewer visitors and fewer new supporters, so '''<big>your visit today means a lot</BIG>''' :Anyway, back to the topic at hand [[Wikipedia/Types of user accounts]]. I believe the section about IP editors is outdated since wikimedia now views users who are not logged-in as anonymous, and only trusted users are allowed to see their IP address (I am not clear on the details). I wonder if anyone participating here has an interest in bringing this page uptodate? [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40514-81|~2026-40514-81]] ([[User talk:~2026-40514-81|talk]]) 04:13, 22 September 2026 (UTC) : If there's some obvious things to fix, I'd say go ahead. It looks like there were several useful anonymous contributions to that page recently. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 07:54, 22 September 2026 (UTC) :hmm [[User:Tornaiden|Tornaiden]] ([[User talk:Tornaiden|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tornaiden|contribs]]) 02:02, 27 September 2026 (UTC) == Bartending Course on Wikiversity == I recently finished the course on [[Bartending]], and while I have experience editing on Wikipedia, this is my first Wikiversity project. If any of you have the time or interest, I could use an experienced eye to see if there's anything obviously missing from the course in terms of Wikiversity administration. I'm not sure what's active, if the course should belong in an existing school, or if there's any obvious discoverability tool I haven't implemented. Any tips are welcomed, or just a thumbs up saying it looks fine would be great. [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] recommended I post this here in case someone wanted to include the new course under News on the [[Wikiversity:Main Page|Main Page]]. Thanks! [[User:Sabbier|Sabbier]] ([[User talk:Sabbier|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sabbier|contribs]]) 01:24, 1 September 2026 (UTC) :Wow! Fantastic work- I'm so impressed! Your work gives me inspiration on how to better organize the courses I'm working on. :) [[User:IanVG|IanVG]] ([[User talk:IanVG|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/IanVG|contribs]]) 21:32, 3 September 2026 (UTC) : Awesome work. I've added this course to the [[Main Page/News|main page news]]. : We could also consider for [[Wikiversity:Featured]]. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 00:43, 5 September 2026 (UTC) ::The course [[Creating Wikiversity Courses]] is intended to provide guidance to new Wikiversity editors. I hope it is helpful and I welcome improvement suggestions. Thanks. [[User:Lbeaumont|Lbeaumont]] ([[User talk:Lbeaumont|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Lbeaumont|contribs]]) 14:08, 6 September 2026 (UTC) == Writing news here == I'm bringing up this discussion again because I think it is beneficial to the project since Wikinews is gone, thank you. [[User:BigKrow|BigKrow]] ([[User talk:BigKrow|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/BigKrow|contribs]]) 03:17, 1 September 2026 (UTC) : Given that the community consensus here was not to replicate WikiNews within Wikiversity, I suggest thinking differently e.g., in terms of specific news-related projects you are interested in that have educational objectives that satisfy Wikiversity's mission. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 00:46, 5 September 2026 (UTC) ::I wonder if you mean <u>Wikiversity:Main Page/News ?</u> ::If so I have just checked this page and I see it only contains news for 2026 and part of 2025, even though the history indicates it was created in the 2000-decade. If you go back and check all revisions there is a wealth of (historical?) information. [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40514-81|~2026-40514-81]] ([[User talk:~2026-40514-81|talk]]) 16:28, 13 September 2026 (UTC) ::: I didn't mean that page, but yes, its history could be reconstructed into a more accessible format. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 21:37, 13 September 2026 (UTC) == [[Wikiversity talk:Interface administrators#My thoughts about this user group]] == As I suggested, I would like to propose allowing permanent interface administrators on English Wikiversity. My temporary interface admin rights are about to expire soon, and I will soon create a new CfIA page (and its header). We should also have a minimum of two interface administrators. Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 16:44, 6 September 2026 (UTC) :I am also in favor of this and we did discuss it pretty recently and came to a consensus on extending IA rights and lowering the administrative overhead, but not allowing indefinite at this juncture. From my perspective, since we discussed this so recently and nothing seems to have changed much, I personally would recommend holding off for a couple of years or until/unless there is some critical new information. Again, I would continue to support indef IA rights were it to come up again and think that at least two is also a sensible proposal. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 17:32, 6 September 2026 (UTC) ::Responding to myself so that I don't derail: I would be interested/willing to be an indef IA. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 17:36, 6 September 2026 (UTC) : I made [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Interface Adminship]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:24, 6 September 2026 (UTC) :: CC to @[[User:Koavf|Koavf]]. I made a request since my IA rights are about to expire. We should also hold a separate vote to allow permanent IAs here (for this policy). [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 16:55, 7 September 2026 (UTC) : @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]], I count at least three in favor (votes below, and Koavf agreeing), so can you close this request? Thank you. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 15:22, 24 September 2026 (UTC) === Votes === * For the record, I am creating a separate subsection for voting, whether or not we should allow permanent interface administrators. {{support}} accordingly. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:32, 15 September 2026 (UTC) * {{support}} [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 00:51, 18 September 2026 (UTC) == Paid part-time Administrative Officer position with WikiJournal == [[WikiJournal User Group|WikiJournal]] is an open-access, nonprofit scholarly publisher hosted on Wikiversity. It uses the wiki format to allow authors to write and develop scholarly articles directly online. Submitted articles then undergo formal academic peer review and, when accepted, are published as citable journal articles while remaining freely accessible. WikiJournal is seeking expressions of interest in a new part-time '''Administrative Officer''' position. The officer would support the project's day-to-day organizational work, including: * Setting up and administering a system for tracking contractor hours and issuing payments. * Coordinating the contracting, onboarding, timekeeping and payment of technical editors and other contractors. * Maintaining financial, contractor and administrative records. * Assisting with grant administration, budget tracking and reporting. * Following up on board action items, deadlines and recurring obligations. * Supporting recruitment and other operational tasks as needed. This is a remote, flexibly scheduled contractor role averaging approximately '''6 hours per week'''. Compensation is proposed at '''US$25 per hour''', with up to approximately '''320 hours (US$8,000) available over the year'''. Applicants may be based internationally, although appointment will depend on WikiJournal being able to establish a practical and legally appropriate contracting and payment arrangement in the applicant's country of residence. Relevant experience may include administrative organization, bookkeeping or financial administration, contractor or personnel coordination, nonprofit or grant administration, Wikimedia participation, academic publishing, and open-access work. Applicants are not expected to have experience in every area. For the complete role description and further details, see [[WikiJournal User Group/Administrative officer]]. Those interested should reply in the '''[[Talk:WikiJournal User Group#Call for interest: Administrative Officer|Call for interest: Administrative Officer]]''' discussion by '''30 September 2026''', briefly describing their relevant experience, any connection to WikiJournal or related communities, and their general availability. Expressions of interest received later may still be considered if the position has not been filled. Recommendations of potentially suitable candidates are also welcome. [[User:Mikael Häggström|Mikael Häggström]] ([[User talk:Mikael Häggström|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mikael Häggström|contribs]]) 20:00, 10 September 2026 (UTC) == Server switch - Your wiki will be read-only for a short time soon == <section begin="server-switch"/><div class="plainlinks"> [[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/Server switch|Read this message in another language]] • [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&group=page-Tech%2FServer+switch&language=&action=page&filter= {{int:please-translate}}] The [[foundation:|Wikimedia Foundation]] will switch the traffic between its data centers. This will make sure that Wikipedia and the other Wikimedia wikis can stay online even after a disaster. All traffic will switch on '''{{#time:j xg|2026-09-23|en}}'''. The switch will start at '''[https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/{{#time:U|2026-09-23T14:00|en}} {{#time:H:i e|2026-09-23T14:00}}]'''. Unfortunately, because of some limitations in [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Manual:What is MediaWiki?|MediaWiki]], all editing must stop while the switch is made. We apologize for this disruption, and we are working to minimize it in the future. A banner will be displayed on all wikis 30 minutes before this operation happens. This banner will remain visible until the end of the operation. You can contribute to the [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special%3ATranslate&group=Centralnotice-tgroup-read_only_banner&task=view&language=&filter=&action=translate translation or proofreading] of this banner text. '''You will be able to read, but not edit, all wikis for a short period of time.''' * You will not be able to edit for up to an hour on {{#time:l j xg Y|2026-09-23|en}}. * If you try to edit or save during these times, you will see an error message. We hope that no edits will be lost during these minutes, but we can't guarantee it. If you see the error message, then please wait until everything is back to normal. Then you should be able to save your edit. But, we recommend that you make a copy of your changes first, just in case. ''Other effects'': * Background jobs will be slower and some may be dropped. Red links might not be updated as quickly as normal. If you create an article that is already linked somewhere else, the link will stay red longer than usual. Some long-running scripts will have to be stopped. * We expect the code deployments to happen as any other week. However, some case-by-case code freezes could punctually happen if the operation require them afterwards. * [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/GitLab|GitLab]] will be unavailable for about 90 minutes. This project may be postponed if necessary. You can [[wikitech:Switch_Datacenter|read the schedule at wikitech.wikimedia.org]]. Any changes will be announced in the schedule. '''Please share this information with your community.'''</div><section end="server-switch"/> [[m:user:Trizek (WMF)|Trizek (WMF)]] 12:58, 15 September 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Trizek (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Non-Technical_Village_Pumps_distribution_list&oldid=30513874 --> == Your feedback wanted: Remove ''(Language link added:) and similar'' edits from Special:RecentChanges == ''(Apologies for posting in English. You can help by translating it)'' Hello, I’m Danny from [[:en:w:Wikimedia_Deutschland|Wikimedia Deutschland’s]] [[m:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects|Wikidata For Wikimedia Projects]] team.<br/> We have been investigating and examining how Wikidata’s use in the [[Special:RecentChanges]] and [[Special:Watchlist]] pages can be made to be more useful, or less ‘noisy’ (fewer edits that have little value to the reader). We are currently exploring to make a change in the volume and the type of Wikidata edits that appear in these pages, and '''we need your feedback''' to help us ensure this is a positive change for the Wikis and won’t disrupt your workflows.<br/> Language links are also known as sitelinks or interlanguage links and describe when a Wikidata item is connected to a Wiki, adding it to the language dropdown tool for other connected Wikis. [[File:Types of Lang Link changes.png|x350px|frame|A variety of "Language Link" edits as seen in the Recent Changes feed]] The request for feedback is whether you support the removal of these language link edits from the Recent Changes and Watchlist feed, or would you oppose such a change and if so, why? Please share you thoughts on the dedicated '''[[m:Talk:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Clearer_Wikidata_Edit_Summaries/Hide_Language_Link_edits|metawiki Talk page]]'''. Further information about this change: [[m:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Clearer_Wikidata_Edit_Summaries/Hide_Language_Link_edits|m:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Hide_Language_Link_edits]] Thank you for any participation or feedback you give, -- [[m:User:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)|User:Danny Benjafield (WMDE)]] 12:23, 25 September 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Danny Benjafield (WMDE)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)/MassMessage_test_list&oldid=31080985 --> == Wikidata Sitelink changes in Recent Changes and Watchlist == ''(Apologies for cross-posting in English, translating it will help spread the message)'' Editors on group 1 wikis, including Wikiquote, Wikibooks, Wikiversity, Wikivoyage, and Wikisource, will no longer see notifications on [[Special:RecentChanges|Recent Changes]] and [[Special:Watchlist|Watchlist]] when a link to ''another'' language version of a page is added, removed, or changed in its Wikidata item. This change will begin on '''October 5 at 07:00 UTC''' as a two-week trial to reduce high-volume, low-value notifications and make higher-value changes easier to identify. Editors who rely on these notifications should be aware of the change and can share feedback or concerns on the [[m:Wikidata For Wikimedia Projects/Clearer Wikidata Edit Summaries/Hide Language Link edits|project]] or [[m:Talk:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Clearer_Wikidata_Edit_Summaries/Hide_Language_Link_edits|talk page]].<br/>Please reach out if you have any questions, thank you! -- [[User:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)|Danny Benjafield (WMDE)]] ([[User_talk:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)|talk]]) sent via [[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaWiki message delivery|contribs]]) 12:42, 1 October 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Danny Benjafield (WMDE)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)/MassMessage_test_list&oldid=31106967 --> == Demote [[Wikiversity:CheckUser policy]]? == I am proposing that we demote that policy to a standard page, mostly for two reasons: # Considering the few amount of custodians and the size of this wiki, I'd say that this project is considered too small to have any CUs, and relying on the stewards would be a more logical choice. # We haven't elected two CUs in a few years. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 20:53, 1 October 2026 (UTC) :Reasonable. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 17:09, 4 October 2026 (UTC) 7t7xjgu1qnwlsyx3k9nbekx8ivbixft 2836389 2836340 2026-10-07T02:15:53Z Theologiaministry89 3112254 /* Science of nature of love */ new section 2836389 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Wikiversity:Colloquium/Header}} <!-- MESSAGES GO BELOW --> == Add an edit count requirement for autoconfirmed? == Currently, only waiting for four days is required for a user to become autoconfirmed. I am proposing that we include a minimum edit count of 10 edits (akin to Wikipedia) especially because of [[Special:AbuseFilter/16|a private abuse filter]], and LTAs may game autoconfirmed permissions to vandalize here. Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 23:01, 23 August 2026 (UTC) : [[Wikiversity:Autoconfirmed users]] : Are you suggesting an additional requirement? i.e., 4 days + 10 edits? : How is it adjusted? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 03:57, 5 September 2026 (UTC) :: Yes. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 01:30, 6 September 2026 (UTC) :: @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]]: I said yes to your first question. As for the adjustment question, in the InitialiseSettings.php file on noc.wikimedia.org, on <code>wgAutoConfirmCount</code> is where English Wikiversity would be added as <code>'enwikiversity' => 10,</code>. Does my reply make sense? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:31, 15 September 2026 (UTC) :As a newly volunteered member, it doesn't seem unreasonable to me to require a certain number of edits to establish my bona fides. [[User:Cfm490|Cfm490]] ([[User talk:Cfm490|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Cfm490|contribs]]) 17:53, 5 September 2026 (UTC) :I agree that adding an edit count requirement is a reasonable expectation before the user can become autoconfirmed. [[User:IanVG|IanVG]] ([[User talk:IanVG|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/IanVG|contribs]]) 18:56, 6 September 2026 (UTC) :+ 1 —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 19:40, 6 September 2026 (UTC) :'''Weak support''' Generally reasonable, but I would caution that we should really make this clear for those instances where professors have students edit here and make it frictionless for them to get autoconfirmed status. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 19:42, 6 September 2026 (UTC) : {{oppose|No support}} because I cannot see the [[Special:AbuseFilter/16|abuse filter]] cited as the primary reason and I do not know what LTAs is. I guess you don’t want support from ''ordinary'' users. ‑‑[[User:Kai Burghardt|Kays]] ([[User talk:Kai Burghardt|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kai Burghardt|contribs]]) 18:18, 14 September 2026 (UTC) ::Also some readers may be interested in this: ::* [[Wikipedia/Types of user accounts]] ::[[Special:Contributions/~2026-40514-81|~2026-40514-81]] ([[User talk:~2026-40514-81|talk]]) 19:05, 14 September 2026 (UTC) ::: An LTA means a long-term abuser, and it means someone who is usually abusive. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 20:42, 14 September 2026 (UTC) :'''Strong''' {{support}}; specially to battle LTA [[User:Mbataw|Mbataw]] ([[User talk:Mbataw|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mbataw|contribs]]) 13:17, 18 September 2026 (UTC) :{{support}}, having no edit count requirement for autoconfirmed is a bad idea in general. [[User:BooksBooksBooks3|BooksBooksBooks3]] ([[User talk:BooksBooksBooks3|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/BooksBooksBooks3|contribs]]) 01:43, 19 September 2026 (UTC) :Comment: I realize that it is not easy to be an admin on wikimedia projects. I realize that many admins have to deal with some VERY unpleasant personalities. But.. :Admins are not the only users who encounter harassment on wikimedia projects, big or small. Anyone who's been here as long as I have, has come across users who are not tolerated by the "community". Not necessarily because they are spammers, trollers, paid editors, LTAs , disruptive etc, but simply because they are different. :When I "edit" without logging in, I carry no baggage. I also get encouraging prompts such as this: :* This year, Wikipedia has had fewer visitors and fewer new supporters, so '''<big>your visit today means a lot</BIG>''' :Anyway, back to the topic at hand [[Wikipedia/Types of user accounts]]. I believe the section about IP editors is outdated since wikimedia now views users who are not logged-in as anonymous, and only trusted users are allowed to see their IP address (I am not clear on the details). I wonder if anyone participating here has an interest in bringing this page uptodate? [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40514-81|~2026-40514-81]] ([[User talk:~2026-40514-81|talk]]) 04:13, 22 September 2026 (UTC) : If there's some obvious things to fix, I'd say go ahead. It looks like there were several useful anonymous contributions to that page recently. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 07:54, 22 September 2026 (UTC) :hmm [[User:Tornaiden|Tornaiden]] ([[User talk:Tornaiden|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tornaiden|contribs]]) 02:02, 27 September 2026 (UTC) == Bartending Course on Wikiversity == I recently finished the course on [[Bartending]], and while I have experience editing on Wikipedia, this is my first Wikiversity project. If any of you have the time or interest, I could use an experienced eye to see if there's anything obviously missing from the course in terms of Wikiversity administration. I'm not sure what's active, if the course should belong in an existing school, or if there's any obvious discoverability tool I haven't implemented. Any tips are welcomed, or just a thumbs up saying it looks fine would be great. [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] recommended I post this here in case someone wanted to include the new course under News on the [[Wikiversity:Main Page|Main Page]]. Thanks! [[User:Sabbier|Sabbier]] ([[User talk:Sabbier|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sabbier|contribs]]) 01:24, 1 September 2026 (UTC) :Wow! Fantastic work- I'm so impressed! Your work gives me inspiration on how to better organize the courses I'm working on. :) [[User:IanVG|IanVG]] ([[User talk:IanVG|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/IanVG|contribs]]) 21:32, 3 September 2026 (UTC) : Awesome work. I've added this course to the [[Main Page/News|main page news]]. : We could also consider for [[Wikiversity:Featured]]. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 00:43, 5 September 2026 (UTC) ::The course [[Creating Wikiversity Courses]] is intended to provide guidance to new Wikiversity editors. I hope it is helpful and I welcome improvement suggestions. Thanks. [[User:Lbeaumont|Lbeaumont]] ([[User talk:Lbeaumont|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Lbeaumont|contribs]]) 14:08, 6 September 2026 (UTC) == Writing news here == I'm bringing up this discussion again because I think it is beneficial to the project since Wikinews is gone, thank you. [[User:BigKrow|BigKrow]] ([[User talk:BigKrow|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/BigKrow|contribs]]) 03:17, 1 September 2026 (UTC) : Given that the community consensus here was not to replicate WikiNews within Wikiversity, I suggest thinking differently e.g., in terms of specific news-related projects you are interested in that have educational objectives that satisfy Wikiversity's mission. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 00:46, 5 September 2026 (UTC) ::I wonder if you mean <u>Wikiversity:Main Page/News ?</u> ::If so I have just checked this page and I see it only contains news for 2026 and part of 2025, even though the history indicates it was created in the 2000-decade. If you go back and check all revisions there is a wealth of (historical?) information. [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40514-81|~2026-40514-81]] ([[User talk:~2026-40514-81|talk]]) 16:28, 13 September 2026 (UTC) ::: I didn't mean that page, but yes, its history could be reconstructed into a more accessible format. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 21:37, 13 September 2026 (UTC) == [[Wikiversity talk:Interface administrators#My thoughts about this user group]] == As I suggested, I would like to propose allowing permanent interface administrators on English Wikiversity. My temporary interface admin rights are about to expire soon, and I will soon create a new CfIA page (and its header). We should also have a minimum of two interface administrators. Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 16:44, 6 September 2026 (UTC) :I am also in favor of this and we did discuss it pretty recently and came to a consensus on extending IA rights and lowering the administrative overhead, but not allowing indefinite at this juncture. From my perspective, since we discussed this so recently and nothing seems to have changed much, I personally would recommend holding off for a couple of years or until/unless there is some critical new information. Again, I would continue to support indef IA rights were it to come up again and think that at least two is also a sensible proposal. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 17:32, 6 September 2026 (UTC) ::Responding to myself so that I don't derail: I would be interested/willing to be an indef IA. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 17:36, 6 September 2026 (UTC) : I made [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Interface Adminship]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:24, 6 September 2026 (UTC) :: CC to @[[User:Koavf|Koavf]]. I made a request since my IA rights are about to expire. We should also hold a separate vote to allow permanent IAs here (for this policy). [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 16:55, 7 September 2026 (UTC) : @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]], I count at least three in favor (votes below, and Koavf agreeing), so can you close this request? Thank you. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 15:22, 24 September 2026 (UTC) === Votes === * For the record, I am creating a separate subsection for voting, whether or not we should allow permanent interface administrators. {{support}} accordingly. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:32, 15 September 2026 (UTC) * {{support}} [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 00:51, 18 September 2026 (UTC) == Paid part-time Administrative Officer position with WikiJournal == [[WikiJournal User Group|WikiJournal]] is an open-access, nonprofit scholarly publisher hosted on Wikiversity. It uses the wiki format to allow authors to write and develop scholarly articles directly online. Submitted articles then undergo formal academic peer review and, when accepted, are published as citable journal articles while remaining freely accessible. WikiJournal is seeking expressions of interest in a new part-time '''Administrative Officer''' position. The officer would support the project's day-to-day organizational work, including: * Setting up and administering a system for tracking contractor hours and issuing payments. * Coordinating the contracting, onboarding, timekeeping and payment of technical editors and other contractors. * Maintaining financial, contractor and administrative records. * Assisting with grant administration, budget tracking and reporting. * Following up on board action items, deadlines and recurring obligations. * Supporting recruitment and other operational tasks as needed. This is a remote, flexibly scheduled contractor role averaging approximately '''6 hours per week'''. Compensation is proposed at '''US$25 per hour''', with up to approximately '''320 hours (US$8,000) available over the year'''. Applicants may be based internationally, although appointment will depend on WikiJournal being able to establish a practical and legally appropriate contracting and payment arrangement in the applicant's country of residence. Relevant experience may include administrative organization, bookkeeping or financial administration, contractor or personnel coordination, nonprofit or grant administration, Wikimedia participation, academic publishing, and open-access work. Applicants are not expected to have experience in every area. For the complete role description and further details, see [[WikiJournal User Group/Administrative officer]]. Those interested should reply in the '''[[Talk:WikiJournal User Group#Call for interest: Administrative Officer|Call for interest: Administrative Officer]]''' discussion by '''30 September 2026''', briefly describing their relevant experience, any connection to WikiJournal or related communities, and their general availability. Expressions of interest received later may still be considered if the position has not been filled. Recommendations of potentially suitable candidates are also welcome. [[User:Mikael Häggström|Mikael Häggström]] ([[User talk:Mikael Häggström|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mikael Häggström|contribs]]) 20:00, 10 September 2026 (UTC) == Server switch - Your wiki will be read-only for a short time soon == <section begin="server-switch"/><div class="plainlinks"> [[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/Server switch|Read this message in another language]] • [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&group=page-Tech%2FServer+switch&language=&action=page&filter= {{int:please-translate}}] The [[foundation:|Wikimedia Foundation]] will switch the traffic between its data centers. This will make sure that Wikipedia and the other Wikimedia wikis can stay online even after a disaster. All traffic will switch on '''{{#time:j xg|2026-09-23|en}}'''. The switch will start at '''[https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/{{#time:U|2026-09-23T14:00|en}} {{#time:H:i e|2026-09-23T14:00}}]'''. Unfortunately, because of some limitations in [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Manual:What is MediaWiki?|MediaWiki]], all editing must stop while the switch is made. We apologize for this disruption, and we are working to minimize it in the future. A banner will be displayed on all wikis 30 minutes before this operation happens. This banner will remain visible until the end of the operation. You can contribute to the [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special%3ATranslate&group=Centralnotice-tgroup-read_only_banner&task=view&language=&filter=&action=translate translation or proofreading] of this banner text. '''You will be able to read, but not edit, all wikis for a short period of time.''' * You will not be able to edit for up to an hour on {{#time:l j xg Y|2026-09-23|en}}. * If you try to edit or save during these times, you will see an error message. We hope that no edits will be lost during these minutes, but we can't guarantee it. If you see the error message, then please wait until everything is back to normal. Then you should be able to save your edit. But, we recommend that you make a copy of your changes first, just in case. ''Other effects'': * Background jobs will be slower and some may be dropped. Red links might not be updated as quickly as normal. If you create an article that is already linked somewhere else, the link will stay red longer than usual. Some long-running scripts will have to be stopped. * We expect the code deployments to happen as any other week. However, some case-by-case code freezes could punctually happen if the operation require them afterwards. * [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/GitLab|GitLab]] will be unavailable for about 90 minutes. This project may be postponed if necessary. You can [[wikitech:Switch_Datacenter|read the schedule at wikitech.wikimedia.org]]. Any changes will be announced in the schedule. '''Please share this information with your community.'''</div><section end="server-switch"/> [[m:user:Trizek (WMF)|Trizek (WMF)]] 12:58, 15 September 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Trizek (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Non-Technical_Village_Pumps_distribution_list&oldid=30513874 --> == Your feedback wanted: Remove ''(Language link added:) and similar'' edits from Special:RecentChanges == ''(Apologies for posting in English. You can help by translating it)'' Hello, I’m Danny from [[:en:w:Wikimedia_Deutschland|Wikimedia Deutschland’s]] [[m:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects|Wikidata For Wikimedia Projects]] team.<br/> We have been investigating and examining how Wikidata’s use in the [[Special:RecentChanges]] and [[Special:Watchlist]] pages can be made to be more useful, or less ‘noisy’ (fewer edits that have little value to the reader). We are currently exploring to make a change in the volume and the type of Wikidata edits that appear in these pages, and '''we need your feedback''' to help us ensure this is a positive change for the Wikis and won’t disrupt your workflows.<br/> Language links are also known as sitelinks or interlanguage links and describe when a Wikidata item is connected to a Wiki, adding it to the language dropdown tool for other connected Wikis. [[File:Types of Lang Link changes.png|x350px|frame|A variety of "Language Link" edits as seen in the Recent Changes feed]] The request for feedback is whether you support the removal of these language link edits from the Recent Changes and Watchlist feed, or would you oppose such a change and if so, why? Please share you thoughts on the dedicated '''[[m:Talk:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Clearer_Wikidata_Edit_Summaries/Hide_Language_Link_edits|metawiki Talk page]]'''. Further information about this change: [[m:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Clearer_Wikidata_Edit_Summaries/Hide_Language_Link_edits|m:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Hide_Language_Link_edits]] Thank you for any participation or feedback you give, -- [[m:User:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)|User:Danny Benjafield (WMDE)]] 12:23, 25 September 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Danny Benjafield (WMDE)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)/MassMessage_test_list&oldid=31080985 --> == Wikidata Sitelink changes in Recent Changes and Watchlist == ''(Apologies for cross-posting in English, translating it will help spread the message)'' Editors on group 1 wikis, including Wikiquote, Wikibooks, Wikiversity, Wikivoyage, and Wikisource, will no longer see notifications on [[Special:RecentChanges|Recent Changes]] and [[Special:Watchlist|Watchlist]] when a link to ''another'' language version of a page is added, removed, or changed in its Wikidata item. This change will begin on '''October 5 at 07:00 UTC''' as a two-week trial to reduce high-volume, low-value notifications and make higher-value changes easier to identify. Editors who rely on these notifications should be aware of the change and can share feedback or concerns on the [[m:Wikidata For Wikimedia Projects/Clearer Wikidata Edit Summaries/Hide Language Link edits|project]] or [[m:Talk:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Clearer_Wikidata_Edit_Summaries/Hide_Language_Link_edits|talk page]].<br/>Please reach out if you have any questions, thank you! -- [[User:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)|Danny Benjafield (WMDE)]] ([[User_talk:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)|talk]]) sent via [[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaWiki message delivery|contribs]]) 12:42, 1 October 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Danny Benjafield (WMDE)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)/MassMessage_test_list&oldid=31106967 --> == Demote [[Wikiversity:CheckUser policy]]? == I am proposing that we demote that policy to a standard page, mostly for two reasons: # Considering the few amount of custodians and the size of this wiki, I'd say that this project is considered too small to have any CUs, and relying on the stewards would be a more logical choice. # We haven't elected two CUs in a few years. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 20:53, 1 October 2026 (UTC) :Reasonable. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 17:09, 4 October 2026 (UTC) == Science of nature of love == The word science is an English language word derived from the Greek language word scientia which means the knowledge or the simply the science because science is the systematic study of the nature of the universe. For example how the universe began? What is the origin of the universe? What is life? How the ✨ stars were formed? What is the half life of the ✨ stars? What are the neutron stars? What is the reaction in the hottest stars? What is black hole mystery? What is the dark energy? What is the dark matter? What is the foundation of the truth about the reality and existence of life on earth 🌎? Or chaos. [[User:Theologiaministry89|Theologiaministry89]] ([[User talk:Theologiaministry89|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Theologiaministry89|contribs]]) 02:15, 7 October 2026 (UTC) t6dsl6lcwbpv4bsg9jurjqvm6t9dteo 2836392 2836389 2026-10-07T02:21:32Z Koavf 147 Reverted edit by [[Special:Contributions/Theologiaministry89|Theologiaministry89]] ([[User_talk:Theologiaministry89|talk]]) to last version by [[User:NDG|NDG]] using [[Wikiversity:Rollback|rollback]] 2835802 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Wikiversity:Colloquium/Header}} <!-- MESSAGES GO BELOW --> == Add an edit count requirement for autoconfirmed? == Currently, only waiting for four days is required for a user to become autoconfirmed. I am proposing that we include a minimum edit count of 10 edits (akin to Wikipedia) especially because of [[Special:AbuseFilter/16|a private abuse filter]], and LTAs may game autoconfirmed permissions to vandalize here. Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 23:01, 23 August 2026 (UTC) : [[Wikiversity:Autoconfirmed users]] : Are you suggesting an additional requirement? i.e., 4 days + 10 edits? : How is it adjusted? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 03:57, 5 September 2026 (UTC) :: Yes. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 01:30, 6 September 2026 (UTC) :: @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]]: I said yes to your first question. As for the adjustment question, in the InitialiseSettings.php file on noc.wikimedia.org, on <code>wgAutoConfirmCount</code> is where English Wikiversity would be added as <code>'enwikiversity' => 10,</code>. Does my reply make sense? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:31, 15 September 2026 (UTC) :As a newly volunteered member, it doesn't seem unreasonable to me to require a certain number of edits to establish my bona fides. [[User:Cfm490|Cfm490]] ([[User talk:Cfm490|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Cfm490|contribs]]) 17:53, 5 September 2026 (UTC) :I agree that adding an edit count requirement is a reasonable expectation before the user can become autoconfirmed. [[User:IanVG|IanVG]] ([[User talk:IanVG|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/IanVG|contribs]]) 18:56, 6 September 2026 (UTC) :+ 1 —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 19:40, 6 September 2026 (UTC) :'''Weak support''' Generally reasonable, but I would caution that we should really make this clear for those instances where professors have students edit here and make it frictionless for them to get autoconfirmed status. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 19:42, 6 September 2026 (UTC) : {{oppose|No support}} because I cannot see the [[Special:AbuseFilter/16|abuse filter]] cited as the primary reason and I do not know what LTAs is. I guess you don’t want support from ''ordinary'' users. ‑‑[[User:Kai Burghardt|Kays]] ([[User talk:Kai Burghardt|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kai Burghardt|contribs]]) 18:18, 14 September 2026 (UTC) ::Also some readers may be interested in this: ::* [[Wikipedia/Types of user accounts]] ::[[Special:Contributions/~2026-40514-81|~2026-40514-81]] ([[User talk:~2026-40514-81|talk]]) 19:05, 14 September 2026 (UTC) ::: An LTA means a long-term abuser, and it means someone who is usually abusive. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 20:42, 14 September 2026 (UTC) :'''Strong''' {{support}}; specially to battle LTA [[User:Mbataw|Mbataw]] ([[User talk:Mbataw|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mbataw|contribs]]) 13:17, 18 September 2026 (UTC) :{{support}}, having no edit count requirement for autoconfirmed is a bad idea in general. [[User:BooksBooksBooks3|BooksBooksBooks3]] ([[User talk:BooksBooksBooks3|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/BooksBooksBooks3|contribs]]) 01:43, 19 September 2026 (UTC) :Comment: I realize that it is not easy to be an admin on wikimedia projects. I realize that many admins have to deal with some VERY unpleasant personalities. But.. :Admins are not the only users who encounter harassment on wikimedia projects, big or small. Anyone who's been here as long as I have, has come across users who are not tolerated by the "community". Not necessarily because they are spammers, trollers, paid editors, LTAs , disruptive etc, but simply because they are different. :When I "edit" without logging in, I carry no baggage. I also get encouraging prompts such as this: :* This year, Wikipedia has had fewer visitors and fewer new supporters, so '''<big>your visit today means a lot</BIG>''' :Anyway, back to the topic at hand [[Wikipedia/Types of user accounts]]. I believe the section about IP editors is outdated since wikimedia now views users who are not logged-in as anonymous, and only trusted users are allowed to see their IP address (I am not clear on the details). I wonder if anyone participating here has an interest in bringing this page uptodate? [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40514-81|~2026-40514-81]] ([[User talk:~2026-40514-81|talk]]) 04:13, 22 September 2026 (UTC) : If there's some obvious things to fix, I'd say go ahead. It looks like there were several useful anonymous contributions to that page recently. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 07:54, 22 September 2026 (UTC) :hmm [[User:Tornaiden|Tornaiden]] ([[User talk:Tornaiden|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tornaiden|contribs]]) 02:02, 27 September 2026 (UTC) == Bartending Course on Wikiversity == I recently finished the course on [[Bartending]], and while I have experience editing on Wikipedia, this is my first Wikiversity project. If any of you have the time or interest, I could use an experienced eye to see if there's anything obviously missing from the course in terms of Wikiversity administration. I'm not sure what's active, if the course should belong in an existing school, or if there's any obvious discoverability tool I haven't implemented. Any tips are welcomed, or just a thumbs up saying it looks fine would be great. [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] recommended I post this here in case someone wanted to include the new course under News on the [[Wikiversity:Main Page|Main Page]]. Thanks! [[User:Sabbier|Sabbier]] ([[User talk:Sabbier|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sabbier|contribs]]) 01:24, 1 September 2026 (UTC) :Wow! Fantastic work- I'm so impressed! Your work gives me inspiration on how to better organize the courses I'm working on. :) [[User:IanVG|IanVG]] ([[User talk:IanVG|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/IanVG|contribs]]) 21:32, 3 September 2026 (UTC) : Awesome work. I've added this course to the [[Main Page/News|main page news]]. : We could also consider for [[Wikiversity:Featured]]. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 00:43, 5 September 2026 (UTC) ::The course [[Creating Wikiversity Courses]] is intended to provide guidance to new Wikiversity editors. I hope it is helpful and I welcome improvement suggestions. Thanks. [[User:Lbeaumont|Lbeaumont]] ([[User talk:Lbeaumont|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Lbeaumont|contribs]]) 14:08, 6 September 2026 (UTC) == Writing news here == I'm bringing up this discussion again because I think it is beneficial to the project since Wikinews is gone, thank you. [[User:BigKrow|BigKrow]] ([[User talk:BigKrow|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/BigKrow|contribs]]) 03:17, 1 September 2026 (UTC) : Given that the community consensus here was not to replicate WikiNews within Wikiversity, I suggest thinking differently e.g., in terms of specific news-related projects you are interested in that have educational objectives that satisfy Wikiversity's mission. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 00:46, 5 September 2026 (UTC) ::I wonder if you mean <u>Wikiversity:Main Page/News ?</u> ::If so I have just checked this page and I see it only contains news for 2026 and part of 2025, even though the history indicates it was created in the 2000-decade. If you go back and check all revisions there is a wealth of (historical?) information. [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40514-81|~2026-40514-81]] ([[User talk:~2026-40514-81|talk]]) 16:28, 13 September 2026 (UTC) ::: I didn't mean that page, but yes, its history could be reconstructed into a more accessible format. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 21:37, 13 September 2026 (UTC) == [[Wikiversity talk:Interface administrators#My thoughts about this user group]] == As I suggested, I would like to propose allowing permanent interface administrators on English Wikiversity. My temporary interface admin rights are about to expire soon, and I will soon create a new CfIA page (and its header). We should also have a minimum of two interface administrators. Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 16:44, 6 September 2026 (UTC) :I am also in favor of this and we did discuss it pretty recently and came to a consensus on extending IA rights and lowering the administrative overhead, but not allowing indefinite at this juncture. From my perspective, since we discussed this so recently and nothing seems to have changed much, I personally would recommend holding off for a couple of years or until/unless there is some critical new information. Again, I would continue to support indef IA rights were it to come up again and think that at least two is also a sensible proposal. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 17:32, 6 September 2026 (UTC) ::Responding to myself so that I don't derail: I would be interested/willing to be an indef IA. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 17:36, 6 September 2026 (UTC) : I made [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Interface Adminship]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:24, 6 September 2026 (UTC) :: CC to @[[User:Koavf|Koavf]]. I made a request since my IA rights are about to expire. We should also hold a separate vote to allow permanent IAs here (for this policy). [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 16:55, 7 September 2026 (UTC) : @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]], I count at least three in favor (votes below, and Koavf agreeing), so can you close this request? Thank you. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 15:22, 24 September 2026 (UTC) === Votes === * For the record, I am creating a separate subsection for voting, whether or not we should allow permanent interface administrators. {{support}} accordingly. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:32, 15 September 2026 (UTC) * {{support}} [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 00:51, 18 September 2026 (UTC) == Paid part-time Administrative Officer position with WikiJournal == [[WikiJournal User Group|WikiJournal]] is an open-access, nonprofit scholarly publisher hosted on Wikiversity. It uses the wiki format to allow authors to write and develop scholarly articles directly online. Submitted articles then undergo formal academic peer review and, when accepted, are published as citable journal articles while remaining freely accessible. WikiJournal is seeking expressions of interest in a new part-time '''Administrative Officer''' position. The officer would support the project's day-to-day organizational work, including: * Setting up and administering a system for tracking contractor hours and issuing payments. * Coordinating the contracting, onboarding, timekeeping and payment of technical editors and other contractors. * Maintaining financial, contractor and administrative records. * Assisting with grant administration, budget tracking and reporting. * Following up on board action items, deadlines and recurring obligations. * Supporting recruitment and other operational tasks as needed. This is a remote, flexibly scheduled contractor role averaging approximately '''6 hours per week'''. Compensation is proposed at '''US$25 per hour''', with up to approximately '''320 hours (US$8,000) available over the year'''. Applicants may be based internationally, although appointment will depend on WikiJournal being able to establish a practical and legally appropriate contracting and payment arrangement in the applicant's country of residence. Relevant experience may include administrative organization, bookkeeping or financial administration, contractor or personnel coordination, nonprofit or grant administration, Wikimedia participation, academic publishing, and open-access work. Applicants are not expected to have experience in every area. For the complete role description and further details, see [[WikiJournal User Group/Administrative officer]]. Those interested should reply in the '''[[Talk:WikiJournal User Group#Call for interest: Administrative Officer|Call for interest: Administrative Officer]]''' discussion by '''30 September 2026''', briefly describing their relevant experience, any connection to WikiJournal or related communities, and their general availability. Expressions of interest received later may still be considered if the position has not been filled. Recommendations of potentially suitable candidates are also welcome. [[User:Mikael Häggström|Mikael Häggström]] ([[User talk:Mikael Häggström|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mikael Häggström|contribs]]) 20:00, 10 September 2026 (UTC) == Server switch - Your wiki will be read-only for a short time soon == <section begin="server-switch"/><div class="plainlinks"> [[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/Server switch|Read this message in another language]] • [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&group=page-Tech%2FServer+switch&language=&action=page&filter= {{int:please-translate}}] The [[foundation:|Wikimedia Foundation]] will switch the traffic between its data centers. This will make sure that Wikipedia and the other Wikimedia wikis can stay online even after a disaster. All traffic will switch on '''{{#time:j xg|2026-09-23|en}}'''. The switch will start at '''[https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/{{#time:U|2026-09-23T14:00|en}} {{#time:H:i e|2026-09-23T14:00}}]'''. Unfortunately, because of some limitations in [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Manual:What is MediaWiki?|MediaWiki]], all editing must stop while the switch is made. We apologize for this disruption, and we are working to minimize it in the future. A banner will be displayed on all wikis 30 minutes before this operation happens. This banner will remain visible until the end of the operation. You can contribute to the [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special%3ATranslate&group=Centralnotice-tgroup-read_only_banner&task=view&language=&filter=&action=translate translation or proofreading] of this banner text. '''You will be able to read, but not edit, all wikis for a short period of time.''' * You will not be able to edit for up to an hour on {{#time:l j xg Y|2026-09-23|en}}. * If you try to edit or save during these times, you will see an error message. We hope that no edits will be lost during these minutes, but we can't guarantee it. If you see the error message, then please wait until everything is back to normal. Then you should be able to save your edit. But, we recommend that you make a copy of your changes first, just in case. ''Other effects'': * Background jobs will be slower and some may be dropped. Red links might not be updated as quickly as normal. If you create an article that is already linked somewhere else, the link will stay red longer than usual. Some long-running scripts will have to be stopped. * We expect the code deployments to happen as any other week. However, some case-by-case code freezes could punctually happen if the operation require them afterwards. * [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/GitLab|GitLab]] will be unavailable for about 90 minutes. This project may be postponed if necessary. You can [[wikitech:Switch_Datacenter|read the schedule at wikitech.wikimedia.org]]. Any changes will be announced in the schedule. '''Please share this information with your community.'''</div><section end="server-switch"/> [[m:user:Trizek (WMF)|Trizek (WMF)]] 12:58, 15 September 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Trizek (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Non-Technical_Village_Pumps_distribution_list&oldid=30513874 --> == Your feedback wanted: Remove ''(Language link added:) and similar'' edits from Special:RecentChanges == ''(Apologies for posting in English. You can help by translating it)'' Hello, I’m Danny from [[:en:w:Wikimedia_Deutschland|Wikimedia Deutschland’s]] [[m:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects|Wikidata For Wikimedia Projects]] team.<br/> We have been investigating and examining how Wikidata’s use in the [[Special:RecentChanges]] and [[Special:Watchlist]] pages can be made to be more useful, or less ‘noisy’ (fewer edits that have little value to the reader). We are currently exploring to make a change in the volume and the type of Wikidata edits that appear in these pages, and '''we need your feedback''' to help us ensure this is a positive change for the Wikis and won’t disrupt your workflows.<br/> Language links are also known as sitelinks or interlanguage links and describe when a Wikidata item is connected to a Wiki, adding it to the language dropdown tool for other connected Wikis. [[File:Types of Lang Link changes.png|x350px|frame|A variety of "Language Link" edits as seen in the Recent Changes feed]] The request for feedback is whether you support the removal of these language link edits from the Recent Changes and Watchlist feed, or would you oppose such a change and if so, why? Please share you thoughts on the dedicated '''[[m:Talk:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Clearer_Wikidata_Edit_Summaries/Hide_Language_Link_edits|metawiki Talk page]]'''. Further information about this change: [[m:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Clearer_Wikidata_Edit_Summaries/Hide_Language_Link_edits|m:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Hide_Language_Link_edits]] Thank you for any participation or feedback you give, -- [[m:User:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)|User:Danny Benjafield (WMDE)]] 12:23, 25 September 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Danny Benjafield (WMDE)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)/MassMessage_test_list&oldid=31080985 --> == Wikidata Sitelink changes in Recent Changes and Watchlist == ''(Apologies for cross-posting in English, translating it will help spread the message)'' Editors on group 1 wikis, including Wikiquote, Wikibooks, Wikiversity, Wikivoyage, and Wikisource, will no longer see notifications on [[Special:RecentChanges|Recent Changes]] and [[Special:Watchlist|Watchlist]] when a link to ''another'' language version of a page is added, removed, or changed in its Wikidata item. This change will begin on '''October 5 at 07:00 UTC''' as a two-week trial to reduce high-volume, low-value notifications and make higher-value changes easier to identify. Editors who rely on these notifications should be aware of the change and can share feedback or concerns on the [[m:Wikidata For Wikimedia Projects/Clearer Wikidata Edit Summaries/Hide Language Link edits|project]] or [[m:Talk:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Clearer_Wikidata_Edit_Summaries/Hide_Language_Link_edits|talk page]].<br/>Please reach out if you have any questions, thank you! -- [[User:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)|Danny Benjafield (WMDE)]] ([[User_talk:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)|talk]]) sent via [[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaWiki message delivery|contribs]]) 12:42, 1 October 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Danny Benjafield (WMDE)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)/MassMessage_test_list&oldid=31106967 --> == Demote [[Wikiversity:CheckUser policy]]? == I am proposing that we demote that policy to a standard page, mostly for two reasons: # Considering the few amount of custodians and the size of this wiki, I'd say that this project is considered too small to have any CUs, and relying on the stewards would be a more logical choice. # We haven't elected two CUs in a few years. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 20:53, 1 October 2026 (UTC) :Reasonable. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 17:09, 4 October 2026 (UTC) 7t7xjgu1qnwlsyx3k9nbekx8ivbixft 2836395 2836392 2026-10-07T02:22:12Z Koavf 147 /* Votes */ 2836395 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Wikiversity:Colloquium/Header}} <!-- MESSAGES GO BELOW --> == Add an edit count requirement for autoconfirmed? == Currently, only waiting for four days is required for a user to become autoconfirmed. I am proposing that we include a minimum edit count of 10 edits (akin to Wikipedia) especially because of [[Special:AbuseFilter/16|a private abuse filter]], and LTAs may game autoconfirmed permissions to vandalize here. Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 23:01, 23 August 2026 (UTC) : [[Wikiversity:Autoconfirmed users]] : Are you suggesting an additional requirement? i.e., 4 days + 10 edits? : How is it adjusted? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 03:57, 5 September 2026 (UTC) :: Yes. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 01:30, 6 September 2026 (UTC) :: @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]]: I said yes to your first question. As for the adjustment question, in the InitialiseSettings.php file on noc.wikimedia.org, on <code>wgAutoConfirmCount</code> is where English Wikiversity would be added as <code>'enwikiversity' => 10,</code>. Does my reply make sense? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:31, 15 September 2026 (UTC) :As a newly volunteered member, it doesn't seem unreasonable to me to require a certain number of edits to establish my bona fides. [[User:Cfm490|Cfm490]] ([[User talk:Cfm490|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Cfm490|contribs]]) 17:53, 5 September 2026 (UTC) :I agree that adding an edit count requirement is a reasonable expectation before the user can become autoconfirmed. [[User:IanVG|IanVG]] ([[User talk:IanVG|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/IanVG|contribs]]) 18:56, 6 September 2026 (UTC) :+ 1 —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 19:40, 6 September 2026 (UTC) :'''Weak support''' Generally reasonable, but I would caution that we should really make this clear for those instances where professors have students edit here and make it frictionless for them to get autoconfirmed status. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 19:42, 6 September 2026 (UTC) : {{oppose|No support}} because I cannot see the [[Special:AbuseFilter/16|abuse filter]] cited as the primary reason and I do not know what LTAs is. I guess you don’t want support from ''ordinary'' users. ‑‑[[User:Kai Burghardt|Kays]] ([[User talk:Kai Burghardt|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kai Burghardt|contribs]]) 18:18, 14 September 2026 (UTC) ::Also some readers may be interested in this: ::* [[Wikipedia/Types of user accounts]] ::[[Special:Contributions/~2026-40514-81|~2026-40514-81]] ([[User talk:~2026-40514-81|talk]]) 19:05, 14 September 2026 (UTC) ::: An LTA means a long-term abuser, and it means someone who is usually abusive. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 20:42, 14 September 2026 (UTC) :'''Strong''' {{support}}; specially to battle LTA [[User:Mbataw|Mbataw]] ([[User talk:Mbataw|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mbataw|contribs]]) 13:17, 18 September 2026 (UTC) :{{support}}, having no edit count requirement for autoconfirmed is a bad idea in general. [[User:BooksBooksBooks3|BooksBooksBooks3]] ([[User talk:BooksBooksBooks3|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/BooksBooksBooks3|contribs]]) 01:43, 19 September 2026 (UTC) :Comment: I realize that it is not easy to be an admin on wikimedia projects. I realize that many admins have to deal with some VERY unpleasant personalities. But.. :Admins are not the only users who encounter harassment on wikimedia projects, big or small. Anyone who's been here as long as I have, has come across users who are not tolerated by the "community". Not necessarily because they are spammers, trollers, paid editors, LTAs , disruptive etc, but simply because they are different. :When I "edit" without logging in, I carry no baggage. I also get encouraging prompts such as this: :* This year, Wikipedia has had fewer visitors and fewer new supporters, so '''<big>your visit today means a lot</BIG>''' :Anyway, back to the topic at hand [[Wikipedia/Types of user accounts]]. I believe the section about IP editors is outdated since wikimedia now views users who are not logged-in as anonymous, and only trusted users are allowed to see their IP address (I am not clear on the details). I wonder if anyone participating here has an interest in bringing this page uptodate? [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40514-81|~2026-40514-81]] ([[User talk:~2026-40514-81|talk]]) 04:13, 22 September 2026 (UTC) : If there's some obvious things to fix, I'd say go ahead. It looks like there were several useful anonymous contributions to that page recently. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 07:54, 22 September 2026 (UTC) :hmm [[User:Tornaiden|Tornaiden]] ([[User talk:Tornaiden|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tornaiden|contribs]]) 02:02, 27 September 2026 (UTC) == Bartending Course on Wikiversity == I recently finished the course on [[Bartending]], and while I have experience editing on Wikipedia, this is my first Wikiversity project. If any of you have the time or interest, I could use an experienced eye to see if there's anything obviously missing from the course in terms of Wikiversity administration. I'm not sure what's active, if the course should belong in an existing school, or if there's any obvious discoverability tool I haven't implemented. Any tips are welcomed, or just a thumbs up saying it looks fine would be great. [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] recommended I post this here in case someone wanted to include the new course under News on the [[Wikiversity:Main Page|Main Page]]. Thanks! [[User:Sabbier|Sabbier]] ([[User talk:Sabbier|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sabbier|contribs]]) 01:24, 1 September 2026 (UTC) :Wow! Fantastic work- I'm so impressed! Your work gives me inspiration on how to better organize the courses I'm working on. :) [[User:IanVG|IanVG]] ([[User talk:IanVG|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/IanVG|contribs]]) 21:32, 3 September 2026 (UTC) : Awesome work. I've added this course to the [[Main Page/News|main page news]]. : We could also consider for [[Wikiversity:Featured]]. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 00:43, 5 September 2026 (UTC) ::The course [[Creating Wikiversity Courses]] is intended to provide guidance to new Wikiversity editors. I hope it is helpful and I welcome improvement suggestions. Thanks. [[User:Lbeaumont|Lbeaumont]] ([[User talk:Lbeaumont|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Lbeaumont|contribs]]) 14:08, 6 September 2026 (UTC) == Writing news here == I'm bringing up this discussion again because I think it is beneficial to the project since Wikinews is gone, thank you. [[User:BigKrow|BigKrow]] ([[User talk:BigKrow|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/BigKrow|contribs]]) 03:17, 1 September 2026 (UTC) : Given that the community consensus here was not to replicate WikiNews within Wikiversity, I suggest thinking differently e.g., in terms of specific news-related projects you are interested in that have educational objectives that satisfy Wikiversity's mission. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 00:46, 5 September 2026 (UTC) ::I wonder if you mean <u>Wikiversity:Main Page/News ?</u> ::If so I have just checked this page and I see it only contains news for 2026 and part of 2025, even though the history indicates it was created in the 2000-decade. If you go back and check all revisions there is a wealth of (historical?) information. [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40514-81|~2026-40514-81]] ([[User talk:~2026-40514-81|talk]]) 16:28, 13 September 2026 (UTC) ::: I didn't mean that page, but yes, its history could be reconstructed into a more accessible format. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 21:37, 13 September 2026 (UTC) == [[Wikiversity talk:Interface administrators#My thoughts about this user group]] == As I suggested, I would like to propose allowing permanent interface administrators on English Wikiversity. My temporary interface admin rights are about to expire soon, and I will soon create a new CfIA page (and its header). We should also have a minimum of two interface administrators. Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 16:44, 6 September 2026 (UTC) :I am also in favor of this and we did discuss it pretty recently and came to a consensus on extending IA rights and lowering the administrative overhead, but not allowing indefinite at this juncture. From my perspective, since we discussed this so recently and nothing seems to have changed much, I personally would recommend holding off for a couple of years or until/unless there is some critical new information. Again, I would continue to support indef IA rights were it to come up again and think that at least two is also a sensible proposal. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 17:32, 6 September 2026 (UTC) ::Responding to myself so that I don't derail: I would be interested/willing to be an indef IA. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 17:36, 6 September 2026 (UTC) : I made [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Interface Adminship]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:24, 6 September 2026 (UTC) :: CC to @[[User:Koavf|Koavf]]. I made a request since my IA rights are about to expire. We should also hold a separate vote to allow permanent IAs here (for this policy). [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 16:55, 7 September 2026 (UTC) : @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]], I count at least three in favor (votes below, and Koavf agreeing), so can you close this request? Thank you. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 15:22, 24 September 2026 (UTC) === Votes === * For the record, I am creating a separate subsection for voting, whether or not we should allow permanent interface administrators. {{support}} accordingly. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:32, 15 September 2026 (UTC) * {{support}} [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 00:51, 18 September 2026 (UTC) *{{support}} ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 02:22, 7 October 2026 (UTC) == Paid part-time Administrative Officer position with WikiJournal == [[WikiJournal User Group|WikiJournal]] is an open-access, nonprofit scholarly publisher hosted on Wikiversity. It uses the wiki format to allow authors to write and develop scholarly articles directly online. Submitted articles then undergo formal academic peer review and, when accepted, are published as citable journal articles while remaining freely accessible. WikiJournal is seeking expressions of interest in a new part-time '''Administrative Officer''' position. The officer would support the project's day-to-day organizational work, including: * Setting up and administering a system for tracking contractor hours and issuing payments. * Coordinating the contracting, onboarding, timekeeping and payment of technical editors and other contractors. * Maintaining financial, contractor and administrative records. * Assisting with grant administration, budget tracking and reporting. * Following up on board action items, deadlines and recurring obligations. * Supporting recruitment and other operational tasks as needed. This is a remote, flexibly scheduled contractor role averaging approximately '''6 hours per week'''. Compensation is proposed at '''US$25 per hour''', with up to approximately '''320 hours (US$8,000) available over the year'''. Applicants may be based internationally, although appointment will depend on WikiJournal being able to establish a practical and legally appropriate contracting and payment arrangement in the applicant's country of residence. Relevant experience may include administrative organization, bookkeeping or financial administration, contractor or personnel coordination, nonprofit or grant administration, Wikimedia participation, academic publishing, and open-access work. Applicants are not expected to have experience in every area. For the complete role description and further details, see [[WikiJournal User Group/Administrative officer]]. Those interested should reply in the '''[[Talk:WikiJournal User Group#Call for interest: Administrative Officer|Call for interest: Administrative Officer]]''' discussion by '''30 September 2026''', briefly describing their relevant experience, any connection to WikiJournal or related communities, and their general availability. Expressions of interest received later may still be considered if the position has not been filled. Recommendations of potentially suitable candidates are also welcome. [[User:Mikael Häggström|Mikael Häggström]] ([[User talk:Mikael Häggström|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mikael Häggström|contribs]]) 20:00, 10 September 2026 (UTC) == Server switch - Your wiki will be read-only for a short time soon == <section begin="server-switch"/><div class="plainlinks"> [[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/Server switch|Read this message in another language]] • [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&group=page-Tech%2FServer+switch&language=&action=page&filter= {{int:please-translate}}] The [[foundation:|Wikimedia Foundation]] will switch the traffic between its data centers. This will make sure that Wikipedia and the other Wikimedia wikis can stay online even after a disaster. All traffic will switch on '''{{#time:j xg|2026-09-23|en}}'''. The switch will start at '''[https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/{{#time:U|2026-09-23T14:00|en}} {{#time:H:i e|2026-09-23T14:00}}]'''. Unfortunately, because of some limitations in [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Manual:What is MediaWiki?|MediaWiki]], all editing must stop while the switch is made. We apologize for this disruption, and we are working to minimize it in the future. A banner will be displayed on all wikis 30 minutes before this operation happens. This banner will remain visible until the end of the operation. You can contribute to the [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special%3ATranslate&group=Centralnotice-tgroup-read_only_banner&task=view&language=&filter=&action=translate translation or proofreading] of this banner text. '''You will be able to read, but not edit, all wikis for a short period of time.''' * You will not be able to edit for up to an hour on {{#time:l j xg Y|2026-09-23|en}}. * If you try to edit or save during these times, you will see an error message. We hope that no edits will be lost during these minutes, but we can't guarantee it. If you see the error message, then please wait until everything is back to normal. Then you should be able to save your edit. But, we recommend that you make a copy of your changes first, just in case. ''Other effects'': * Background jobs will be slower and some may be dropped. Red links might not be updated as quickly as normal. If you create an article that is already linked somewhere else, the link will stay red longer than usual. Some long-running scripts will have to be stopped. * We expect the code deployments to happen as any other week. However, some case-by-case code freezes could punctually happen if the operation require them afterwards. * [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/GitLab|GitLab]] will be unavailable for about 90 minutes. This project may be postponed if necessary. You can [[wikitech:Switch_Datacenter|read the schedule at wikitech.wikimedia.org]]. Any changes will be announced in the schedule. '''Please share this information with your community.'''</div><section end="server-switch"/> [[m:user:Trizek (WMF)|Trizek (WMF)]] 12:58, 15 September 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Trizek (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Non-Technical_Village_Pumps_distribution_list&oldid=30513874 --> == Your feedback wanted: Remove ''(Language link added:) and similar'' edits from Special:RecentChanges == ''(Apologies for posting in English. You can help by translating it)'' Hello, I’m Danny from [[:en:w:Wikimedia_Deutschland|Wikimedia Deutschland’s]] [[m:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects|Wikidata For Wikimedia Projects]] team.<br/> We have been investigating and examining how Wikidata’s use in the [[Special:RecentChanges]] and [[Special:Watchlist]] pages can be made to be more useful, or less ‘noisy’ (fewer edits that have little value to the reader). We are currently exploring to make a change in the volume and the type of Wikidata edits that appear in these pages, and '''we need your feedback''' to help us ensure this is a positive change for the Wikis and won’t disrupt your workflows.<br/> Language links are also known as sitelinks or interlanguage links and describe when a Wikidata item is connected to a Wiki, adding it to the language dropdown tool for other connected Wikis. [[File:Types of Lang Link changes.png|x350px|frame|A variety of "Language Link" edits as seen in the Recent Changes feed]] The request for feedback is whether you support the removal of these language link edits from the Recent Changes and Watchlist feed, or would you oppose such a change and if so, why? Please share you thoughts on the dedicated '''[[m:Talk:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Clearer_Wikidata_Edit_Summaries/Hide_Language_Link_edits|metawiki Talk page]]'''. Further information about this change: [[m:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Clearer_Wikidata_Edit_Summaries/Hide_Language_Link_edits|m:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Hide_Language_Link_edits]] Thank you for any participation or feedback you give, -- [[m:User:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)|User:Danny Benjafield (WMDE)]] 12:23, 25 September 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Danny Benjafield (WMDE)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)/MassMessage_test_list&oldid=31080985 --> == Wikidata Sitelink changes in Recent Changes and Watchlist == ''(Apologies for cross-posting in English, translating it will help spread the message)'' Editors on group 1 wikis, including Wikiquote, Wikibooks, Wikiversity, Wikivoyage, and Wikisource, will no longer see notifications on [[Special:RecentChanges|Recent Changes]] and [[Special:Watchlist|Watchlist]] when a link to ''another'' language version of a page is added, removed, or changed in its Wikidata item. This change will begin on '''October 5 at 07:00 UTC''' as a two-week trial to reduce high-volume, low-value notifications and make higher-value changes easier to identify. Editors who rely on these notifications should be aware of the change and can share feedback or concerns on the [[m:Wikidata For Wikimedia Projects/Clearer Wikidata Edit Summaries/Hide Language Link edits|project]] or [[m:Talk:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Clearer_Wikidata_Edit_Summaries/Hide_Language_Link_edits|talk page]].<br/>Please reach out if you have any questions, thank you! -- [[User:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)|Danny Benjafield (WMDE)]] ([[User_talk:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)|talk]]) sent via [[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaWiki message delivery|contribs]]) 12:42, 1 October 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Danny Benjafield (WMDE)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)/MassMessage_test_list&oldid=31106967 --> == Demote [[Wikiversity:CheckUser policy]]? == I am proposing that we demote that policy to a standard page, mostly for two reasons: # Considering the few amount of custodians and the size of this wiki, I'd say that this project is considered too small to have any CUs, and relying on the stewards would be a more logical choice. # We haven't elected two CUs in a few years. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 20:53, 1 October 2026 (UTC) :Reasonable. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 17:09, 4 October 2026 (UTC) mw40kae8128kmj2no9aezx7pl4jzqg3 2836396 2836395 2026-10-07T02:24:17Z Codename Noreste 2969951 /* Wikiversity talk:Interface administrators#My thoughts about this user group */ addition: Second ping to @Jtneill. (-) ([[mw:c:Special:MyLanguage/User:JWBTH/CD|CD]]) 2836396 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Wikiversity:Colloquium/Header}} <!-- MESSAGES GO BELOW --> == Add an edit count requirement for autoconfirmed? == Currently, only waiting for four days is required for a user to become autoconfirmed. I am proposing that we include a minimum edit count of 10 edits (akin to Wikipedia) especially because of [[Special:AbuseFilter/16|a private abuse filter]], and LTAs may game autoconfirmed permissions to vandalize here. Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 23:01, 23 August 2026 (UTC) : [[Wikiversity:Autoconfirmed users]] : Are you suggesting an additional requirement? i.e., 4 days + 10 edits? : How is it adjusted? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 03:57, 5 September 2026 (UTC) :: Yes. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 01:30, 6 September 2026 (UTC) :: @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]]: I said yes to your first question. As for the adjustment question, in the InitialiseSettings.php file on noc.wikimedia.org, on <code>wgAutoConfirmCount</code> is where English Wikiversity would be added as <code>'enwikiversity' => 10,</code>. Does my reply make sense? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:31, 15 September 2026 (UTC) :As a newly volunteered member, it doesn't seem unreasonable to me to require a certain number of edits to establish my bona fides. [[User:Cfm490|Cfm490]] ([[User talk:Cfm490|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Cfm490|contribs]]) 17:53, 5 September 2026 (UTC) :I agree that adding an edit count requirement is a reasonable expectation before the user can become autoconfirmed. [[User:IanVG|IanVG]] ([[User talk:IanVG|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/IanVG|contribs]]) 18:56, 6 September 2026 (UTC) :+ 1 —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 19:40, 6 September 2026 (UTC) :'''Weak support''' Generally reasonable, but I would caution that we should really make this clear for those instances where professors have students edit here and make it frictionless for them to get autoconfirmed status. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 19:42, 6 September 2026 (UTC) : {{oppose|No support}} because I cannot see the [[Special:AbuseFilter/16|abuse filter]] cited as the primary reason and I do not know what LTAs is. I guess you don’t want support from ''ordinary'' users. ‑‑[[User:Kai Burghardt|Kays]] ([[User talk:Kai Burghardt|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kai Burghardt|contribs]]) 18:18, 14 September 2026 (UTC) ::Also some readers may be interested in this: ::* [[Wikipedia/Types of user accounts]] ::[[Special:Contributions/~2026-40514-81|~2026-40514-81]] ([[User talk:~2026-40514-81|talk]]) 19:05, 14 September 2026 (UTC) ::: An LTA means a long-term abuser, and it means someone who is usually abusive. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 20:42, 14 September 2026 (UTC) :'''Strong''' {{support}}; specially to battle LTA [[User:Mbataw|Mbataw]] ([[User talk:Mbataw|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mbataw|contribs]]) 13:17, 18 September 2026 (UTC) :{{support}}, having no edit count requirement for autoconfirmed is a bad idea in general. [[User:BooksBooksBooks3|BooksBooksBooks3]] ([[User talk:BooksBooksBooks3|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/BooksBooksBooks3|contribs]]) 01:43, 19 September 2026 (UTC) :Comment: I realize that it is not easy to be an admin on wikimedia projects. I realize that many admins have to deal with some VERY unpleasant personalities. But.. :Admins are not the only users who encounter harassment on wikimedia projects, big or small. Anyone who's been here as long as I have, has come across users who are not tolerated by the "community". Not necessarily because they are spammers, trollers, paid editors, LTAs , disruptive etc, but simply because they are different. :When I "edit" without logging in, I carry no baggage. I also get encouraging prompts such as this: :* This year, Wikipedia has had fewer visitors and fewer new supporters, so '''<big>your visit today means a lot</BIG>''' :Anyway, back to the topic at hand [[Wikipedia/Types of user accounts]]. I believe the section about IP editors is outdated since wikimedia now views users who are not logged-in as anonymous, and only trusted users are allowed to see their IP address (I am not clear on the details). I wonder if anyone participating here has an interest in bringing this page uptodate? [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40514-81|~2026-40514-81]] ([[User talk:~2026-40514-81|talk]]) 04:13, 22 September 2026 (UTC) : If there's some obvious things to fix, I'd say go ahead. It looks like there were several useful anonymous contributions to that page recently. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 07:54, 22 September 2026 (UTC) :hmm [[User:Tornaiden|Tornaiden]] ([[User talk:Tornaiden|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tornaiden|contribs]]) 02:02, 27 September 2026 (UTC) == Bartending Course on Wikiversity == I recently finished the course on [[Bartending]], and while I have experience editing on Wikipedia, this is my first Wikiversity project. If any of you have the time or interest, I could use an experienced eye to see if there's anything obviously missing from the course in terms of Wikiversity administration. I'm not sure what's active, if the course should belong in an existing school, or if there's any obvious discoverability tool I haven't implemented. Any tips are welcomed, or just a thumbs up saying it looks fine would be great. [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] recommended I post this here in case someone wanted to include the new course under News on the [[Wikiversity:Main Page|Main Page]]. Thanks! [[User:Sabbier|Sabbier]] ([[User talk:Sabbier|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sabbier|contribs]]) 01:24, 1 September 2026 (UTC) :Wow! Fantastic work- I'm so impressed! Your work gives me inspiration on how to better organize the courses I'm working on. :) [[User:IanVG|IanVG]] ([[User talk:IanVG|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/IanVG|contribs]]) 21:32, 3 September 2026 (UTC) : Awesome work. I've added this course to the [[Main Page/News|main page news]]. : We could also consider for [[Wikiversity:Featured]]. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 00:43, 5 September 2026 (UTC) ::The course [[Creating Wikiversity Courses]] is intended to provide guidance to new Wikiversity editors. I hope it is helpful and I welcome improvement suggestions. Thanks. [[User:Lbeaumont|Lbeaumont]] ([[User talk:Lbeaumont|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Lbeaumont|contribs]]) 14:08, 6 September 2026 (UTC) == Writing news here == I'm bringing up this discussion again because I think it is beneficial to the project since Wikinews is gone, thank you. [[User:BigKrow|BigKrow]] ([[User talk:BigKrow|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/BigKrow|contribs]]) 03:17, 1 September 2026 (UTC) : Given that the community consensus here was not to replicate WikiNews within Wikiversity, I suggest thinking differently e.g., in terms of specific news-related projects you are interested in that have educational objectives that satisfy Wikiversity's mission. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 00:46, 5 September 2026 (UTC) ::I wonder if you mean <u>Wikiversity:Main Page/News ?</u> ::If so I have just checked this page and I see it only contains news for 2026 and part of 2025, even though the history indicates it was created in the 2000-decade. If you go back and check all revisions there is a wealth of (historical?) information. [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40514-81|~2026-40514-81]] ([[User talk:~2026-40514-81|talk]]) 16:28, 13 September 2026 (UTC) ::: I didn't mean that page, but yes, its history could be reconstructed into a more accessible format. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 21:37, 13 September 2026 (UTC) == [[Wikiversity talk:Interface administrators#My thoughts about this user group]] == As I suggested, I would like to propose allowing permanent interface administrators on English Wikiversity. My temporary interface admin rights are about to expire soon, and I will soon create a new CfIA page (and its header). We should also have a minimum of two interface administrators. Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 16:44, 6 September 2026 (UTC) :I am also in favor of this and we did discuss it pretty recently and came to a consensus on extending IA rights and lowering the administrative overhead, but not allowing indefinite at this juncture. From my perspective, since we discussed this so recently and nothing seems to have changed much, I personally would recommend holding off for a couple of years or until/unless there is some critical new information. Again, I would continue to support indef IA rights were it to come up again and think that at least two is also a sensible proposal. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 17:32, 6 September 2026 (UTC) ::Responding to myself so that I don't derail: I would be interested/willing to be an indef IA. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 17:36, 6 September 2026 (UTC) : I made [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Interface Adminship]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:24, 6 September 2026 (UTC) :: CC to @[[User:Koavf|Koavf]]. I made a request since my IA rights are about to expire. We should also hold a separate vote to allow permanent IAs here (for this policy). [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 16:55, 7 September 2026 (UTC) : @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]], I count at least three in favor (votes below, and Koavf agreeing), so can you close this request? Thank you. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 15:22, 24 September 2026 (UTC) :: Second ping to @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 02:24, 7 October 2026 (UTC) === Votes === * For the record, I am creating a separate subsection for voting, whether or not we should allow permanent interface administrators. {{support}} accordingly. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:32, 15 September 2026 (UTC) * {{support}} [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 00:51, 18 September 2026 (UTC) *{{support}} ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 02:22, 7 October 2026 (UTC) == Paid part-time Administrative Officer position with WikiJournal == [[WikiJournal User Group|WikiJournal]] is an open-access, nonprofit scholarly publisher hosted on Wikiversity. It uses the wiki format to allow authors to write and develop scholarly articles directly online. Submitted articles then undergo formal academic peer review and, when accepted, are published as citable journal articles while remaining freely accessible. WikiJournal is seeking expressions of interest in a new part-time '''Administrative Officer''' position. The officer would support the project's day-to-day organizational work, including: * Setting up and administering a system for tracking contractor hours and issuing payments. * Coordinating the contracting, onboarding, timekeeping and payment of technical editors and other contractors. * Maintaining financial, contractor and administrative records. * Assisting with grant administration, budget tracking and reporting. * Following up on board action items, deadlines and recurring obligations. * Supporting recruitment and other operational tasks as needed. This is a remote, flexibly scheduled contractor role averaging approximately '''6 hours per week'''. Compensation is proposed at '''US$25 per hour''', with up to approximately '''320 hours (US$8,000) available over the year'''. Applicants may be based internationally, although appointment will depend on WikiJournal being able to establish a practical and legally appropriate contracting and payment arrangement in the applicant's country of residence. Relevant experience may include administrative organization, bookkeeping or financial administration, contractor or personnel coordination, nonprofit or grant administration, Wikimedia participation, academic publishing, and open-access work. Applicants are not expected to have experience in every area. For the complete role description and further details, see [[WikiJournal User Group/Administrative officer]]. Those interested should reply in the '''[[Talk:WikiJournal User Group#Call for interest: Administrative Officer|Call for interest: Administrative Officer]]''' discussion by '''30 September 2026''', briefly describing their relevant experience, any connection to WikiJournal or related communities, and their general availability. Expressions of interest received later may still be considered if the position has not been filled. Recommendations of potentially suitable candidates are also welcome. [[User:Mikael Häggström|Mikael Häggström]] ([[User talk:Mikael Häggström|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mikael Häggström|contribs]]) 20:00, 10 September 2026 (UTC) == Server switch - Your wiki will be read-only for a short time soon == <section begin="server-switch"/><div class="plainlinks"> [[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/Server switch|Read this message in another language]] • [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&group=page-Tech%2FServer+switch&language=&action=page&filter= {{int:please-translate}}] The [[foundation:|Wikimedia Foundation]] will switch the traffic between its data centers. This will make sure that Wikipedia and the other Wikimedia wikis can stay online even after a disaster. All traffic will switch on '''{{#time:j xg|2026-09-23|en}}'''. The switch will start at '''[https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/{{#time:U|2026-09-23T14:00|en}} {{#time:H:i e|2026-09-23T14:00}}]'''. Unfortunately, because of some limitations in [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Manual:What is MediaWiki?|MediaWiki]], all editing must stop while the switch is made. We apologize for this disruption, and we are working to minimize it in the future. A banner will be displayed on all wikis 30 minutes before this operation happens. This banner will remain visible until the end of the operation. You can contribute to the [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special%3ATranslate&group=Centralnotice-tgroup-read_only_banner&task=view&language=&filter=&action=translate translation or proofreading] of this banner text. '''You will be able to read, but not edit, all wikis for a short period of time.''' * You will not be able to edit for up to an hour on {{#time:l j xg Y|2026-09-23|en}}. * If you try to edit or save during these times, you will see an error message. We hope that no edits will be lost during these minutes, but we can't guarantee it. If you see the error message, then please wait until everything is back to normal. Then you should be able to save your edit. But, we recommend that you make a copy of your changes first, just in case. ''Other effects'': * Background jobs will be slower and some may be dropped. Red links might not be updated as quickly as normal. If you create an article that is already linked somewhere else, the link will stay red longer than usual. Some long-running scripts will have to be stopped. * We expect the code deployments to happen as any other week. However, some case-by-case code freezes could punctually happen if the operation require them afterwards. * [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/GitLab|GitLab]] will be unavailable for about 90 minutes. This project may be postponed if necessary. You can [[wikitech:Switch_Datacenter|read the schedule at wikitech.wikimedia.org]]. Any changes will be announced in the schedule. '''Please share this information with your community.'''</div><section end="server-switch"/> [[m:user:Trizek (WMF)|Trizek (WMF)]] 12:58, 15 September 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Trizek (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Non-Technical_Village_Pumps_distribution_list&oldid=30513874 --> == Your feedback wanted: Remove ''(Language link added:) and similar'' edits from Special:RecentChanges == ''(Apologies for posting in English. You can help by translating it)'' Hello, I’m Danny from [[:en:w:Wikimedia_Deutschland|Wikimedia Deutschland’s]] [[m:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects|Wikidata For Wikimedia Projects]] team.<br/> We have been investigating and examining how Wikidata’s use in the [[Special:RecentChanges]] and [[Special:Watchlist]] pages can be made to be more useful, or less ‘noisy’ (fewer edits that have little value to the reader). We are currently exploring to make a change in the volume and the type of Wikidata edits that appear in these pages, and '''we need your feedback''' to help us ensure this is a positive change for the Wikis and won’t disrupt your workflows.<br/> Language links are also known as sitelinks or interlanguage links and describe when a Wikidata item is connected to a Wiki, adding it to the language dropdown tool for other connected Wikis. [[File:Types of Lang Link changes.png|x350px|frame|A variety of "Language Link" edits as seen in the Recent Changes feed]] The request for feedback is whether you support the removal of these language link edits from the Recent Changes and Watchlist feed, or would you oppose such a change and if so, why? Please share you thoughts on the dedicated '''[[m:Talk:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Clearer_Wikidata_Edit_Summaries/Hide_Language_Link_edits|metawiki Talk page]]'''. Further information about this change: [[m:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Clearer_Wikidata_Edit_Summaries/Hide_Language_Link_edits|m:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Hide_Language_Link_edits]] Thank you for any participation or feedback you give, -- [[m:User:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)|User:Danny Benjafield (WMDE)]] 12:23, 25 September 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Danny Benjafield (WMDE)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)/MassMessage_test_list&oldid=31080985 --> == Wikidata Sitelink changes in Recent Changes and Watchlist == ''(Apologies for cross-posting in English, translating it will help spread the message)'' Editors on group 1 wikis, including Wikiquote, Wikibooks, Wikiversity, Wikivoyage, and Wikisource, will no longer see notifications on [[Special:RecentChanges|Recent Changes]] and [[Special:Watchlist|Watchlist]] when a link to ''another'' language version of a page is added, removed, or changed in its Wikidata item. This change will begin on '''October 5 at 07:00 UTC''' as a two-week trial to reduce high-volume, low-value notifications and make higher-value changes easier to identify. Editors who rely on these notifications should be aware of the change and can share feedback or concerns on the [[m:Wikidata For Wikimedia Projects/Clearer Wikidata Edit Summaries/Hide Language Link edits|project]] or [[m:Talk:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Clearer_Wikidata_Edit_Summaries/Hide_Language_Link_edits|talk page]].<br/>Please reach out if you have any questions, thank you! -- [[User:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)|Danny Benjafield (WMDE)]] ([[User_talk:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)|talk]]) sent via [[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaWiki message delivery|contribs]]) 12:42, 1 October 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Danny Benjafield (WMDE)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)/MassMessage_test_list&oldid=31106967 --> == Demote [[Wikiversity:CheckUser policy]]? == I am proposing that we demote that policy to a standard page, mostly for two reasons: # Considering the few amount of custodians and the size of this wiki, I'd say that this project is considered too small to have any CUs, and relying on the stewards would be a more logical choice. # We haven't elected two CUs in a few years. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 20:53, 1 October 2026 (UTC) :Reasonable. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 17:09, 4 October 2026 (UTC) 9jlakoncoywpqmaqqdckkyz3a8z4gr3 2836398 2836396 2026-10-07T02:27:00Z Theologiaministry89 3112254 /* Science as the knowledge of truth */ new section 2836398 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Wikiversity:Colloquium/Header}} <!-- MESSAGES GO BELOW --> == Add an edit count requirement for autoconfirmed? == Currently, only waiting for four days is required for a user to become autoconfirmed. I am proposing that we include a minimum edit count of 10 edits (akin to Wikipedia) especially because of [[Special:AbuseFilter/16|a private abuse filter]], and LTAs may game autoconfirmed permissions to vandalize here. Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 23:01, 23 August 2026 (UTC) : [[Wikiversity:Autoconfirmed users]] : Are you suggesting an additional requirement? i.e., 4 days + 10 edits? : How is it adjusted? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 03:57, 5 September 2026 (UTC) :: Yes. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 01:30, 6 September 2026 (UTC) :: @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]]: I said yes to your first question. As for the adjustment question, in the InitialiseSettings.php file on noc.wikimedia.org, on <code>wgAutoConfirmCount</code> is where English Wikiversity would be added as <code>'enwikiversity' => 10,</code>. Does my reply make sense? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:31, 15 September 2026 (UTC) :As a newly volunteered member, it doesn't seem unreasonable to me to require a certain number of edits to establish my bona fides. [[User:Cfm490|Cfm490]] ([[User talk:Cfm490|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Cfm490|contribs]]) 17:53, 5 September 2026 (UTC) :I agree that adding an edit count requirement is a reasonable expectation before the user can become autoconfirmed. [[User:IanVG|IanVG]] ([[User talk:IanVG|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/IanVG|contribs]]) 18:56, 6 September 2026 (UTC) :+ 1 —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 19:40, 6 September 2026 (UTC) :'''Weak support''' Generally reasonable, but I would caution that we should really make this clear for those instances where professors have students edit here and make it frictionless for them to get autoconfirmed status. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 19:42, 6 September 2026 (UTC) : {{oppose|No support}} because I cannot see the [[Special:AbuseFilter/16|abuse filter]] cited as the primary reason and I do not know what LTAs is. I guess you don’t want support from ''ordinary'' users. ‑‑[[User:Kai Burghardt|Kays]] ([[User talk:Kai Burghardt|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kai Burghardt|contribs]]) 18:18, 14 September 2026 (UTC) ::Also some readers may be interested in this: ::* [[Wikipedia/Types of user accounts]] ::[[Special:Contributions/~2026-40514-81|~2026-40514-81]] ([[User talk:~2026-40514-81|talk]]) 19:05, 14 September 2026 (UTC) ::: An LTA means a long-term abuser, and it means someone who is usually abusive. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 20:42, 14 September 2026 (UTC) :'''Strong''' {{support}}; specially to battle LTA [[User:Mbataw|Mbataw]] ([[User talk:Mbataw|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mbataw|contribs]]) 13:17, 18 September 2026 (UTC) :{{support}}, having no edit count requirement for autoconfirmed is a bad idea in general. [[User:BooksBooksBooks3|BooksBooksBooks3]] ([[User talk:BooksBooksBooks3|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/BooksBooksBooks3|contribs]]) 01:43, 19 September 2026 (UTC) :Comment: I realize that it is not easy to be an admin on wikimedia projects. I realize that many admins have to deal with some VERY unpleasant personalities. But.. :Admins are not the only users who encounter harassment on wikimedia projects, big or small. Anyone who's been here as long as I have, has come across users who are not tolerated by the "community". Not necessarily because they are spammers, trollers, paid editors, LTAs , disruptive etc, but simply because they are different. :When I "edit" without logging in, I carry no baggage. I also get encouraging prompts such as this: :* This year, Wikipedia has had fewer visitors and fewer new supporters, so '''<big>your visit today means a lot</BIG>''' :Anyway, back to the topic at hand [[Wikipedia/Types of user accounts]]. I believe the section about IP editors is outdated since wikimedia now views users who are not logged-in as anonymous, and only trusted users are allowed to see their IP address (I am not clear on the details). I wonder if anyone participating here has an interest in bringing this page uptodate? [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40514-81|~2026-40514-81]] ([[User talk:~2026-40514-81|talk]]) 04:13, 22 September 2026 (UTC) : If there's some obvious things to fix, I'd say go ahead. It looks like there were several useful anonymous contributions to that page recently. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 07:54, 22 September 2026 (UTC) :hmm [[User:Tornaiden|Tornaiden]] ([[User talk:Tornaiden|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tornaiden|contribs]]) 02:02, 27 September 2026 (UTC) == Bartending Course on Wikiversity == I recently finished the course on [[Bartending]], and while I have experience editing on Wikipedia, this is my first Wikiversity project. If any of you have the time or interest, I could use an experienced eye to see if there's anything obviously missing from the course in terms of Wikiversity administration. I'm not sure what's active, if the course should belong in an existing school, or if there's any obvious discoverability tool I haven't implemented. Any tips are welcomed, or just a thumbs up saying it looks fine would be great. [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] recommended I post this here in case someone wanted to include the new course under News on the [[Wikiversity:Main Page|Main Page]]. Thanks! [[User:Sabbier|Sabbier]] ([[User talk:Sabbier|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sabbier|contribs]]) 01:24, 1 September 2026 (UTC) :Wow! Fantastic work- I'm so impressed! Your work gives me inspiration on how to better organize the courses I'm working on. :) [[User:IanVG|IanVG]] ([[User talk:IanVG|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/IanVG|contribs]]) 21:32, 3 September 2026 (UTC) : Awesome work. I've added this course to the [[Main Page/News|main page news]]. : We could also consider for [[Wikiversity:Featured]]. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 00:43, 5 September 2026 (UTC) ::The course [[Creating Wikiversity Courses]] is intended to provide guidance to new Wikiversity editors. I hope it is helpful and I welcome improvement suggestions. Thanks. [[User:Lbeaumont|Lbeaumont]] ([[User talk:Lbeaumont|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Lbeaumont|contribs]]) 14:08, 6 September 2026 (UTC) == Writing news here == I'm bringing up this discussion again because I think it is beneficial to the project since Wikinews is gone, thank you. [[User:BigKrow|BigKrow]] ([[User talk:BigKrow|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/BigKrow|contribs]]) 03:17, 1 September 2026 (UTC) : Given that the community consensus here was not to replicate WikiNews within Wikiversity, I suggest thinking differently e.g., in terms of specific news-related projects you are interested in that have educational objectives that satisfy Wikiversity's mission. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 00:46, 5 September 2026 (UTC) ::I wonder if you mean <u>Wikiversity:Main Page/News ?</u> ::If so I have just checked this page and I see it only contains news for 2026 and part of 2025, even though the history indicates it was created in the 2000-decade. If you go back and check all revisions there is a wealth of (historical?) information. [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40514-81|~2026-40514-81]] ([[User talk:~2026-40514-81|talk]]) 16:28, 13 September 2026 (UTC) ::: I didn't mean that page, but yes, its history could be reconstructed into a more accessible format. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 21:37, 13 September 2026 (UTC) == [[Wikiversity talk:Interface administrators#My thoughts about this user group]] == As I suggested, I would like to propose allowing permanent interface administrators on English Wikiversity. My temporary interface admin rights are about to expire soon, and I will soon create a new CfIA page (and its header). We should also have a minimum of two interface administrators. Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 16:44, 6 September 2026 (UTC) :I am also in favor of this and we did discuss it pretty recently and came to a consensus on extending IA rights and lowering the administrative overhead, but not allowing indefinite at this juncture. From my perspective, since we discussed this so recently and nothing seems to have changed much, I personally would recommend holding off for a couple of years or until/unless there is some critical new information. Again, I would continue to support indef IA rights were it to come up again and think that at least two is also a sensible proposal. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 17:32, 6 September 2026 (UTC) ::Responding to myself so that I don't derail: I would be interested/willing to be an indef IA. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 17:36, 6 September 2026 (UTC) : I made [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Interface Adminship]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:24, 6 September 2026 (UTC) :: CC to @[[User:Koavf|Koavf]]. I made a request since my IA rights are about to expire. We should also hold a separate vote to allow permanent IAs here (for this policy). [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 16:55, 7 September 2026 (UTC) : @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]], I count at least three in favor (votes below, and Koavf agreeing), so can you close this request? Thank you. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 15:22, 24 September 2026 (UTC) :: Second ping to @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 02:24, 7 October 2026 (UTC) === Votes === * For the record, I am creating a separate subsection for voting, whether or not we should allow permanent interface administrators. {{support}} accordingly. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:32, 15 September 2026 (UTC) * {{support}} [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 00:51, 18 September 2026 (UTC) *{{support}} ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 02:22, 7 October 2026 (UTC) == Paid part-time Administrative Officer position with WikiJournal == [[WikiJournal User Group|WikiJournal]] is an open-access, nonprofit scholarly publisher hosted on Wikiversity. It uses the wiki format to allow authors to write and develop scholarly articles directly online. Submitted articles then undergo formal academic peer review and, when accepted, are published as citable journal articles while remaining freely accessible. WikiJournal is seeking expressions of interest in a new part-time '''Administrative Officer''' position. The officer would support the project's day-to-day organizational work, including: * Setting up and administering a system for tracking contractor hours and issuing payments. * Coordinating the contracting, onboarding, timekeeping and payment of technical editors and other contractors. * Maintaining financial, contractor and administrative records. * Assisting with grant administration, budget tracking and reporting. * Following up on board action items, deadlines and recurring obligations. * Supporting recruitment and other operational tasks as needed. This is a remote, flexibly scheduled contractor role averaging approximately '''6 hours per week'''. Compensation is proposed at '''US$25 per hour''', with up to approximately '''320 hours (US$8,000) available over the year'''. Applicants may be based internationally, although appointment will depend on WikiJournal being able to establish a practical and legally appropriate contracting and payment arrangement in the applicant's country of residence. Relevant experience may include administrative organization, bookkeeping or financial administration, contractor or personnel coordination, nonprofit or grant administration, Wikimedia participation, academic publishing, and open-access work. Applicants are not expected to have experience in every area. For the complete role description and further details, see [[WikiJournal User Group/Administrative officer]]. Those interested should reply in the '''[[Talk:WikiJournal User Group#Call for interest: Administrative Officer|Call for interest: Administrative Officer]]''' discussion by '''30 September 2026''', briefly describing their relevant experience, any connection to WikiJournal or related communities, and their general availability. Expressions of interest received later may still be considered if the position has not been filled. Recommendations of potentially suitable candidates are also welcome. [[User:Mikael Häggström|Mikael Häggström]] ([[User talk:Mikael Häggström|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mikael Häggström|contribs]]) 20:00, 10 September 2026 (UTC) == Server switch - Your wiki will be read-only for a short time soon == <section begin="server-switch"/><div class="plainlinks"> [[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/Server switch|Read this message in another language]] • [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&group=page-Tech%2FServer+switch&language=&action=page&filter= {{int:please-translate}}] The [[foundation:|Wikimedia Foundation]] will switch the traffic between its data centers. This will make sure that Wikipedia and the other Wikimedia wikis can stay online even after a disaster. All traffic will switch on '''{{#time:j xg|2026-09-23|en}}'''. The switch will start at '''[https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/{{#time:U|2026-09-23T14:00|en}} {{#time:H:i e|2026-09-23T14:00}}]'''. Unfortunately, because of some limitations in [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Manual:What is MediaWiki?|MediaWiki]], all editing must stop while the switch is made. We apologize for this disruption, and we are working to minimize it in the future. A banner will be displayed on all wikis 30 minutes before this operation happens. This banner will remain visible until the end of the operation. You can contribute to the [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special%3ATranslate&group=Centralnotice-tgroup-read_only_banner&task=view&language=&filter=&action=translate translation or proofreading] of this banner text. '''You will be able to read, but not edit, all wikis for a short period of time.''' * You will not be able to edit for up to an hour on {{#time:l j xg Y|2026-09-23|en}}. * If you try to edit or save during these times, you will see an error message. We hope that no edits will be lost during these minutes, but we can't guarantee it. If you see the error message, then please wait until everything is back to normal. Then you should be able to save your edit. But, we recommend that you make a copy of your changes first, just in case. ''Other effects'': * Background jobs will be slower and some may be dropped. Red links might not be updated as quickly as normal. If you create an article that is already linked somewhere else, the link will stay red longer than usual. Some long-running scripts will have to be stopped. * We expect the code deployments to happen as any other week. However, some case-by-case code freezes could punctually happen if the operation require them afterwards. * [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/GitLab|GitLab]] will be unavailable for about 90 minutes. This project may be postponed if necessary. You can [[wikitech:Switch_Datacenter|read the schedule at wikitech.wikimedia.org]]. Any changes will be announced in the schedule. '''Please share this information with your community.'''</div><section end="server-switch"/> [[m:user:Trizek (WMF)|Trizek (WMF)]] 12:58, 15 September 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Trizek (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Non-Technical_Village_Pumps_distribution_list&oldid=30513874 --> == Your feedback wanted: Remove ''(Language link added:) and similar'' edits from Special:RecentChanges == ''(Apologies for posting in English. You can help by translating it)'' Hello, I’m Danny from [[:en:w:Wikimedia_Deutschland|Wikimedia Deutschland’s]] [[m:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects|Wikidata For Wikimedia Projects]] team.<br/> We have been investigating and examining how Wikidata’s use in the [[Special:RecentChanges]] and [[Special:Watchlist]] pages can be made to be more useful, or less ‘noisy’ (fewer edits that have little value to the reader). We are currently exploring to make a change in the volume and the type of Wikidata edits that appear in these pages, and '''we need your feedback''' to help us ensure this is a positive change for the Wikis and won’t disrupt your workflows.<br/> Language links are also known as sitelinks or interlanguage links and describe when a Wikidata item is connected to a Wiki, adding it to the language dropdown tool for other connected Wikis. [[File:Types of Lang Link changes.png|x350px|frame|A variety of "Language Link" edits as seen in the Recent Changes feed]] The request for feedback is whether you support the removal of these language link edits from the Recent Changes and Watchlist feed, or would you oppose such a change and if so, why? Please share you thoughts on the dedicated '''[[m:Talk:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Clearer_Wikidata_Edit_Summaries/Hide_Language_Link_edits|metawiki Talk page]]'''. Further information about this change: [[m:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Clearer_Wikidata_Edit_Summaries/Hide_Language_Link_edits|m:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Hide_Language_Link_edits]] Thank you for any participation or feedback you give, -- [[m:User:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)|User:Danny Benjafield (WMDE)]] 12:23, 25 September 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Danny Benjafield (WMDE)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)/MassMessage_test_list&oldid=31080985 --> == Wikidata Sitelink changes in Recent Changes and Watchlist == ''(Apologies for cross-posting in English, translating it will help spread the message)'' Editors on group 1 wikis, including Wikiquote, Wikibooks, Wikiversity, Wikivoyage, and Wikisource, will no longer see notifications on [[Special:RecentChanges|Recent Changes]] and [[Special:Watchlist|Watchlist]] when a link to ''another'' language version of a page is added, removed, or changed in its Wikidata item. This change will begin on '''October 5 at 07:00 UTC''' as a two-week trial to reduce high-volume, low-value notifications and make higher-value changes easier to identify. Editors who rely on these notifications should be aware of the change and can share feedback or concerns on the [[m:Wikidata For Wikimedia Projects/Clearer Wikidata Edit Summaries/Hide Language Link edits|project]] or [[m:Talk:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Clearer_Wikidata_Edit_Summaries/Hide_Language_Link_edits|talk page]].<br/>Please reach out if you have any questions, thank you! -- [[User:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)|Danny Benjafield (WMDE)]] ([[User_talk:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)|talk]]) sent via [[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaWiki message delivery|contribs]]) 12:42, 1 October 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Danny Benjafield (WMDE)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)/MassMessage_test_list&oldid=31106967 --> == Demote [[Wikiversity:CheckUser policy]]? == I am proposing that we demote that policy to a standard page, mostly for two reasons: # Considering the few amount of custodians and the size of this wiki, I'd say that this project is considered too small to have any CUs, and relying on the stewards would be a more logical choice. # We haven't elected two CUs in a few years. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 20:53, 1 October 2026 (UTC) :Reasonable. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 17:09, 4 October 2026 (UTC) == Science as the knowledge of truth == [[Wikiversity:Colloquium#h-Science of nature of love-20261007021500|https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Wikiversity:Colloquium#h-Science_of_nature_of_love-20261007021500]] knowledge is an attribute of God by which the universe is created by the intelligent design experiment which is beyond the imagination of the human beings because of the pure knowledge, absolute truth of knowledge of God and the reality and existence of the universe how to interpret the mysteries of the universe and the proofs by the scientific, biblical and theological research and analysis or something else more complex mysteries hidden in the universe to revelation of nature of love of God in the universe and the heavens which is the throne of God and the living place or in Hebrew language Beth the house 🏡 or the Tabernacle of God among the hosts of the heavens which declare the glory of God in everything. One in All and all by one and the infinite dimensions of the manifold mysteries of the universe. [[User:Theologiaministry89|Theologiaministry89]] ([[User talk:Theologiaministry89|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Theologiaministry89|contribs]]) 02:27, 7 October 2026 (UTC) hjxgeuh4lve46374fp9k04667btlbw0 2836411 2836398 2026-10-07T03:01:38Z Koavf 147 Reverted edit by [[Special:Contributions/Theologiaministry89|Theologiaministry89]] ([[User_talk:Theologiaministry89|talk]]) to last version by [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] using [[Wikiversity:Rollback|rollback]] 2836396 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Wikiversity:Colloquium/Header}} <!-- MESSAGES GO BELOW --> == Add an edit count requirement for autoconfirmed? == Currently, only waiting for four days is required for a user to become autoconfirmed. I am proposing that we include a minimum edit count of 10 edits (akin to Wikipedia) especially because of [[Special:AbuseFilter/16|a private abuse filter]], and LTAs may game autoconfirmed permissions to vandalize here. Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 23:01, 23 August 2026 (UTC) : [[Wikiversity:Autoconfirmed users]] : Are you suggesting an additional requirement? i.e., 4 days + 10 edits? : How is it adjusted? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 03:57, 5 September 2026 (UTC) :: Yes. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 01:30, 6 September 2026 (UTC) :: @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]]: I said yes to your first question. As for the adjustment question, in the InitialiseSettings.php file on noc.wikimedia.org, on <code>wgAutoConfirmCount</code> is where English Wikiversity would be added as <code>'enwikiversity' => 10,</code>. Does my reply make sense? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:31, 15 September 2026 (UTC) :As a newly volunteered member, it doesn't seem unreasonable to me to require a certain number of edits to establish my bona fides. [[User:Cfm490|Cfm490]] ([[User talk:Cfm490|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Cfm490|contribs]]) 17:53, 5 September 2026 (UTC) :I agree that adding an edit count requirement is a reasonable expectation before the user can become autoconfirmed. [[User:IanVG|IanVG]] ([[User talk:IanVG|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/IanVG|contribs]]) 18:56, 6 September 2026 (UTC) :+ 1 —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 19:40, 6 September 2026 (UTC) :'''Weak support''' Generally reasonable, but I would caution that we should really make this clear for those instances where professors have students edit here and make it frictionless for them to get autoconfirmed status. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 19:42, 6 September 2026 (UTC) : {{oppose|No support}} because I cannot see the [[Special:AbuseFilter/16|abuse filter]] cited as the primary reason and I do not know what LTAs is. I guess you don’t want support from ''ordinary'' users. ‑‑[[User:Kai Burghardt|Kays]] ([[User talk:Kai Burghardt|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kai Burghardt|contribs]]) 18:18, 14 September 2026 (UTC) ::Also some readers may be interested in this: ::* [[Wikipedia/Types of user accounts]] ::[[Special:Contributions/~2026-40514-81|~2026-40514-81]] ([[User talk:~2026-40514-81|talk]]) 19:05, 14 September 2026 (UTC) ::: An LTA means a long-term abuser, and it means someone who is usually abusive. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 20:42, 14 September 2026 (UTC) :'''Strong''' {{support}}; specially to battle LTA [[User:Mbataw|Mbataw]] ([[User talk:Mbataw|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mbataw|contribs]]) 13:17, 18 September 2026 (UTC) :{{support}}, having no edit count requirement for autoconfirmed is a bad idea in general. [[User:BooksBooksBooks3|BooksBooksBooks3]] ([[User talk:BooksBooksBooks3|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/BooksBooksBooks3|contribs]]) 01:43, 19 September 2026 (UTC) :Comment: I realize that it is not easy to be an admin on wikimedia projects. I realize that many admins have to deal with some VERY unpleasant personalities. But.. :Admins are not the only users who encounter harassment on wikimedia projects, big or small. Anyone who's been here as long as I have, has come across users who are not tolerated by the "community". Not necessarily because they are spammers, trollers, paid editors, LTAs , disruptive etc, but simply because they are different. :When I "edit" without logging in, I carry no baggage. I also get encouraging prompts such as this: :* This year, Wikipedia has had fewer visitors and fewer new supporters, so '''<big>your visit today means a lot</BIG>''' :Anyway, back to the topic at hand [[Wikipedia/Types of user accounts]]. I believe the section about IP editors is outdated since wikimedia now views users who are not logged-in as anonymous, and only trusted users are allowed to see their IP address (I am not clear on the details). I wonder if anyone participating here has an interest in bringing this page uptodate? [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40514-81|~2026-40514-81]] ([[User talk:~2026-40514-81|talk]]) 04:13, 22 September 2026 (UTC) : If there's some obvious things to fix, I'd say go ahead. It looks like there were several useful anonymous contributions to that page recently. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 07:54, 22 September 2026 (UTC) :hmm [[User:Tornaiden|Tornaiden]] ([[User talk:Tornaiden|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tornaiden|contribs]]) 02:02, 27 September 2026 (UTC) == Bartending Course on Wikiversity == I recently finished the course on [[Bartending]], and while I have experience editing on Wikipedia, this is my first Wikiversity project. If any of you have the time or interest, I could use an experienced eye to see if there's anything obviously missing from the course in terms of Wikiversity administration. I'm not sure what's active, if the course should belong in an existing school, or if there's any obvious discoverability tool I haven't implemented. Any tips are welcomed, or just a thumbs up saying it looks fine would be great. [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] recommended I post this here in case someone wanted to include the new course under News on the [[Wikiversity:Main Page|Main Page]]. Thanks! [[User:Sabbier|Sabbier]] ([[User talk:Sabbier|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sabbier|contribs]]) 01:24, 1 September 2026 (UTC) :Wow! Fantastic work- I'm so impressed! Your work gives me inspiration on how to better organize the courses I'm working on. :) [[User:IanVG|IanVG]] ([[User talk:IanVG|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/IanVG|contribs]]) 21:32, 3 September 2026 (UTC) : Awesome work. I've added this course to the [[Main Page/News|main page news]]. : We could also consider for [[Wikiversity:Featured]]. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 00:43, 5 September 2026 (UTC) ::The course [[Creating Wikiversity Courses]] is intended to provide guidance to new Wikiversity editors. I hope it is helpful and I welcome improvement suggestions. Thanks. [[User:Lbeaumont|Lbeaumont]] ([[User talk:Lbeaumont|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Lbeaumont|contribs]]) 14:08, 6 September 2026 (UTC) == Writing news here == I'm bringing up this discussion again because I think it is beneficial to the project since Wikinews is gone, thank you. [[User:BigKrow|BigKrow]] ([[User talk:BigKrow|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/BigKrow|contribs]]) 03:17, 1 September 2026 (UTC) : Given that the community consensus here was not to replicate WikiNews within Wikiversity, I suggest thinking differently e.g., in terms of specific news-related projects you are interested in that have educational objectives that satisfy Wikiversity's mission. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 00:46, 5 September 2026 (UTC) ::I wonder if you mean <u>Wikiversity:Main Page/News ?</u> ::If so I have just checked this page and I see it only contains news for 2026 and part of 2025, even though the history indicates it was created in the 2000-decade. If you go back and check all revisions there is a wealth of (historical?) information. [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40514-81|~2026-40514-81]] ([[User talk:~2026-40514-81|talk]]) 16:28, 13 September 2026 (UTC) ::: I didn't mean that page, but yes, its history could be reconstructed into a more accessible format. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 21:37, 13 September 2026 (UTC) == [[Wikiversity talk:Interface administrators#My thoughts about this user group]] == As I suggested, I would like to propose allowing permanent interface administrators on English Wikiversity. My temporary interface admin rights are about to expire soon, and I will soon create a new CfIA page (and its header). We should also have a minimum of two interface administrators. Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 16:44, 6 September 2026 (UTC) :I am also in favor of this and we did discuss it pretty recently and came to a consensus on extending IA rights and lowering the administrative overhead, but not allowing indefinite at this juncture. From my perspective, since we discussed this so recently and nothing seems to have changed much, I personally would recommend holding off for a couple of years or until/unless there is some critical new information. Again, I would continue to support indef IA rights were it to come up again and think that at least two is also a sensible proposal. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 17:32, 6 September 2026 (UTC) ::Responding to myself so that I don't derail: I would be interested/willing to be an indef IA. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 17:36, 6 September 2026 (UTC) : I made [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Interface Adminship]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:24, 6 September 2026 (UTC) :: CC to @[[User:Koavf|Koavf]]. I made a request since my IA rights are about to expire. We should also hold a separate vote to allow permanent IAs here (for this policy). [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 16:55, 7 September 2026 (UTC) : @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]], I count at least three in favor (votes below, and Koavf agreeing), so can you close this request? Thank you. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 15:22, 24 September 2026 (UTC) :: Second ping to @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 02:24, 7 October 2026 (UTC) === Votes === * For the record, I am creating a separate subsection for voting, whether or not we should allow permanent interface administrators. {{support}} accordingly. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:32, 15 September 2026 (UTC) * {{support}} [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 00:51, 18 September 2026 (UTC) *{{support}} ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 02:22, 7 October 2026 (UTC) == Paid part-time Administrative Officer position with WikiJournal == [[WikiJournal User Group|WikiJournal]] is an open-access, nonprofit scholarly publisher hosted on Wikiversity. It uses the wiki format to allow authors to write and develop scholarly articles directly online. Submitted articles then undergo formal academic peer review and, when accepted, are published as citable journal articles while remaining freely accessible. WikiJournal is seeking expressions of interest in a new part-time '''Administrative Officer''' position. The officer would support the project's day-to-day organizational work, including: * Setting up and administering a system for tracking contractor hours and issuing payments. * Coordinating the contracting, onboarding, timekeeping and payment of technical editors and other contractors. * Maintaining financial, contractor and administrative records. * Assisting with grant administration, budget tracking and reporting. * Following up on board action items, deadlines and recurring obligations. * Supporting recruitment and other operational tasks as needed. This is a remote, flexibly scheduled contractor role averaging approximately '''6 hours per week'''. Compensation is proposed at '''US$25 per hour''', with up to approximately '''320 hours (US$8,000) available over the year'''. Applicants may be based internationally, although appointment will depend on WikiJournal being able to establish a practical and legally appropriate contracting and payment arrangement in the applicant's country of residence. Relevant experience may include administrative organization, bookkeeping or financial administration, contractor or personnel coordination, nonprofit or grant administration, Wikimedia participation, academic publishing, and open-access work. Applicants are not expected to have experience in every area. For the complete role description and further details, see [[WikiJournal User Group/Administrative officer]]. Those interested should reply in the '''[[Talk:WikiJournal User Group#Call for interest: Administrative Officer|Call for interest: Administrative Officer]]''' discussion by '''30 September 2026''', briefly describing their relevant experience, any connection to WikiJournal or related communities, and their general availability. Expressions of interest received later may still be considered if the position has not been filled. Recommendations of potentially suitable candidates are also welcome. [[User:Mikael Häggström|Mikael Häggström]] ([[User talk:Mikael Häggström|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mikael Häggström|contribs]]) 20:00, 10 September 2026 (UTC) == Server switch - Your wiki will be read-only for a short time soon == <section begin="server-switch"/><div class="plainlinks"> [[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/Server switch|Read this message in another language]] • [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&group=page-Tech%2FServer+switch&language=&action=page&filter= {{int:please-translate}}] The [[foundation:|Wikimedia Foundation]] will switch the traffic between its data centers. This will make sure that Wikipedia and the other Wikimedia wikis can stay online even after a disaster. All traffic will switch on '''{{#time:j xg|2026-09-23|en}}'''. The switch will start at '''[https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/{{#time:U|2026-09-23T14:00|en}} {{#time:H:i e|2026-09-23T14:00}}]'''. Unfortunately, because of some limitations in [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Manual:What is MediaWiki?|MediaWiki]], all editing must stop while the switch is made. We apologize for this disruption, and we are working to minimize it in the future. A banner will be displayed on all wikis 30 minutes before this operation happens. This banner will remain visible until the end of the operation. You can contribute to the [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special%3ATranslate&group=Centralnotice-tgroup-read_only_banner&task=view&language=&filter=&action=translate translation or proofreading] of this banner text. '''You will be able to read, but not edit, all wikis for a short period of time.''' * You will not be able to edit for up to an hour on {{#time:l j xg Y|2026-09-23|en}}. * If you try to edit or save during these times, you will see an error message. We hope that no edits will be lost during these minutes, but we can't guarantee it. If you see the error message, then please wait until everything is back to normal. Then you should be able to save your edit. But, we recommend that you make a copy of your changes first, just in case. ''Other effects'': * Background jobs will be slower and some may be dropped. Red links might not be updated as quickly as normal. If you create an article that is already linked somewhere else, the link will stay red longer than usual. Some long-running scripts will have to be stopped. * We expect the code deployments to happen as any other week. However, some case-by-case code freezes could punctually happen if the operation require them afterwards. * [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/GitLab|GitLab]] will be unavailable for about 90 minutes. This project may be postponed if necessary. You can [[wikitech:Switch_Datacenter|read the schedule at wikitech.wikimedia.org]]. Any changes will be announced in the schedule. '''Please share this information with your community.'''</div><section end="server-switch"/> [[m:user:Trizek (WMF)|Trizek (WMF)]] 12:58, 15 September 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Trizek (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Non-Technical_Village_Pumps_distribution_list&oldid=30513874 --> == Your feedback wanted: Remove ''(Language link added:) and similar'' edits from Special:RecentChanges == ''(Apologies for posting in English. You can help by translating it)'' Hello, I’m Danny from [[:en:w:Wikimedia_Deutschland|Wikimedia Deutschland’s]] [[m:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects|Wikidata For Wikimedia Projects]] team.<br/> We have been investigating and examining how Wikidata’s use in the [[Special:RecentChanges]] and [[Special:Watchlist]] pages can be made to be more useful, or less ‘noisy’ (fewer edits that have little value to the reader). We are currently exploring to make a change in the volume and the type of Wikidata edits that appear in these pages, and '''we need your feedback''' to help us ensure this is a positive change for the Wikis and won’t disrupt your workflows.<br/> Language links are also known as sitelinks or interlanguage links and describe when a Wikidata item is connected to a Wiki, adding it to the language dropdown tool for other connected Wikis. [[File:Types of Lang Link changes.png|x350px|frame|A variety of "Language Link" edits as seen in the Recent Changes feed]] The request for feedback is whether you support the removal of these language link edits from the Recent Changes and Watchlist feed, or would you oppose such a change and if so, why? Please share you thoughts on the dedicated '''[[m:Talk:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Clearer_Wikidata_Edit_Summaries/Hide_Language_Link_edits|metawiki Talk page]]'''. Further information about this change: [[m:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Clearer_Wikidata_Edit_Summaries/Hide_Language_Link_edits|m:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Hide_Language_Link_edits]] Thank you for any participation or feedback you give, -- [[m:User:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)|User:Danny Benjafield (WMDE)]] 12:23, 25 September 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Danny Benjafield (WMDE)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)/MassMessage_test_list&oldid=31080985 --> == Wikidata Sitelink changes in Recent Changes and Watchlist == ''(Apologies for cross-posting in English, translating it will help spread the message)'' Editors on group 1 wikis, including Wikiquote, Wikibooks, Wikiversity, Wikivoyage, and Wikisource, will no longer see notifications on [[Special:RecentChanges|Recent Changes]] and [[Special:Watchlist|Watchlist]] when a link to ''another'' language version of a page is added, removed, or changed in its Wikidata item. This change will begin on '''October 5 at 07:00 UTC''' as a two-week trial to reduce high-volume, low-value notifications and make higher-value changes easier to identify. Editors who rely on these notifications should be aware of the change and can share feedback or concerns on the [[m:Wikidata For Wikimedia Projects/Clearer Wikidata Edit Summaries/Hide Language Link edits|project]] or [[m:Talk:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Clearer_Wikidata_Edit_Summaries/Hide_Language_Link_edits|talk page]].<br/>Please reach out if you have any questions, thank you! -- [[User:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)|Danny Benjafield (WMDE)]] ([[User_talk:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)|talk]]) sent via [[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaWiki message delivery|contribs]]) 12:42, 1 October 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Danny Benjafield (WMDE)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)/MassMessage_test_list&oldid=31106967 --> == Demote [[Wikiversity:CheckUser policy]]? == I am proposing that we demote that policy to a standard page, mostly for two reasons: # Considering the few amount of custodians and the size of this wiki, I'd say that this project is considered too small to have any CUs, and relying on the stewards would be a more logical choice. # We haven't elected two CUs in a few years. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 20:53, 1 October 2026 (UTC) :Reasonable. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 17:09, 4 October 2026 (UTC) 9jlakoncoywpqmaqqdckkyz3a8z4gr3 2836436 2836411 2026-10-07T04:18:10Z Mu301 3705 /* Add an edit count requirement for autoconfirmed? */ support 2836436 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Wikiversity:Colloquium/Header}} <!-- MESSAGES GO BELOW --> == Add an edit count requirement for autoconfirmed? == Currently, only waiting for four days is required for a user to become autoconfirmed. I am proposing that we include a minimum edit count of 10 edits (akin to Wikipedia) especially because of [[Special:AbuseFilter/16|a private abuse filter]], and LTAs may game autoconfirmed permissions to vandalize here. Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 23:01, 23 August 2026 (UTC) : [[Wikiversity:Autoconfirmed users]] : Are you suggesting an additional requirement? i.e., 4 days + 10 edits? : How is it adjusted? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 03:57, 5 September 2026 (UTC) :: Yes. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 01:30, 6 September 2026 (UTC) :: @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]]: I said yes to your first question. As for the adjustment question, in the InitialiseSettings.php file on noc.wikimedia.org, on <code>wgAutoConfirmCount</code> is where English Wikiversity would be added as <code>'enwikiversity' => 10,</code>. Does my reply make sense? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:31, 15 September 2026 (UTC) :As a newly volunteered member, it doesn't seem unreasonable to me to require a certain number of edits to establish my bona fides. [[User:Cfm490|Cfm490]] ([[User talk:Cfm490|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Cfm490|contribs]]) 17:53, 5 September 2026 (UTC) :I agree that adding an edit count requirement is a reasonable expectation before the user can become autoconfirmed. [[User:IanVG|IanVG]] ([[User talk:IanVG|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/IanVG|contribs]]) 18:56, 6 September 2026 (UTC) :+ 1 —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 19:40, 6 September 2026 (UTC) :'''Weak support''' Generally reasonable, but I would caution that we should really make this clear for those instances where professors have students edit here and make it frictionless for them to get autoconfirmed status. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 19:42, 6 September 2026 (UTC) : {{oppose|No support}} because I cannot see the [[Special:AbuseFilter/16|abuse filter]] cited as the primary reason and I do not know what LTAs is. I guess you don’t want support from ''ordinary'' users. ‑‑[[User:Kai Burghardt|Kays]] ([[User talk:Kai Burghardt|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kai Burghardt|contribs]]) 18:18, 14 September 2026 (UTC) ::Also some readers may be interested in this: ::* [[Wikipedia/Types of user accounts]] ::[[Special:Contributions/~2026-40514-81|~2026-40514-81]] ([[User talk:~2026-40514-81|talk]]) 19:05, 14 September 2026 (UTC) ::: An LTA means a long-term abuser, and it means someone who is usually abusive. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 20:42, 14 September 2026 (UTC) :'''Strong''' {{support}}; specially to battle LTA [[User:Mbataw|Mbataw]] ([[User talk:Mbataw|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mbataw|contribs]]) 13:17, 18 September 2026 (UTC) :{{support}}, having no edit count requirement for autoconfirmed is a bad idea in general. [[User:BooksBooksBooks3|BooksBooksBooks3]] ([[User talk:BooksBooksBooks3|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/BooksBooksBooks3|contribs]]) 01:43, 19 September 2026 (UTC) :Comment: I realize that it is not easy to be an admin on wikimedia projects. I realize that many admins have to deal with some VERY unpleasant personalities. But.. :Admins are not the only users who encounter harassment on wikimedia projects, big or small. Anyone who's been here as long as I have, has come across users who are not tolerated by the "community". Not necessarily because they are spammers, trollers, paid editors, LTAs , disruptive etc, but simply because they are different. :When I "edit" without logging in, I carry no baggage. I also get encouraging prompts such as this: :* This year, Wikipedia has had fewer visitors and fewer new supporters, so '''<big>your visit today means a lot</BIG>''' :Anyway, back to the topic at hand [[Wikipedia/Types of user accounts]]. I believe the section about IP editors is outdated since wikimedia now views users who are not logged-in as anonymous, and only trusted users are allowed to see their IP address (I am not clear on the details). I wonder if anyone participating here has an interest in bringing this page uptodate? [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40514-81|~2026-40514-81]] ([[User talk:~2026-40514-81|talk]]) 04:13, 22 September 2026 (UTC) : If there's some obvious things to fix, I'd say go ahead. It looks like there were several useful anonymous contributions to that page recently. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 07:54, 22 September 2026 (UTC) :hmm [[User:Tornaiden|Tornaiden]] ([[User talk:Tornaiden|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tornaiden|contribs]]) 02:02, 27 September 2026 (UTC) {{support}} Having a reasonable (and very modest) number of edits in addition to 4 days is sensible and not overly burdensome. The benefits outweigh any inconveniences. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] ^{[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]} 04:18, 7 October 2026 (UTC) == Bartending Course on Wikiversity == I recently finished the course on [[Bartending]], and while I have experience editing on Wikipedia, this is my first Wikiversity project. If any of you have the time or interest, I could use an experienced eye to see if there's anything obviously missing from the course in terms of Wikiversity administration. I'm not sure what's active, if the course should belong in an existing school, or if there's any obvious discoverability tool I haven't implemented. Any tips are welcomed, or just a thumbs up saying it looks fine would be great. [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] recommended I post this here in case someone wanted to include the new course under News on the [[Wikiversity:Main Page|Main Page]]. Thanks! [[User:Sabbier|Sabbier]] ([[User talk:Sabbier|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sabbier|contribs]]) 01:24, 1 September 2026 (UTC) :Wow! Fantastic work- I'm so impressed! Your work gives me inspiration on how to better organize the courses I'm working on. :) [[User:IanVG|IanVG]] ([[User talk:IanVG|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/IanVG|contribs]]) 21:32, 3 September 2026 (UTC) : Awesome work. I've added this course to the [[Main Page/News|main page news]]. : We could also consider for [[Wikiversity:Featured]]. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 00:43, 5 September 2026 (UTC) ::The course [[Creating Wikiversity Courses]] is intended to provide guidance to new Wikiversity editors. I hope it is helpful and I welcome improvement suggestions. Thanks. [[User:Lbeaumont|Lbeaumont]] ([[User talk:Lbeaumont|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Lbeaumont|contribs]]) 14:08, 6 September 2026 (UTC) == Writing news here == I'm bringing up this discussion again because I think it is beneficial to the project since Wikinews is gone, thank you. [[User:BigKrow|BigKrow]] ([[User talk:BigKrow|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/BigKrow|contribs]]) 03:17, 1 September 2026 (UTC) : Given that the community consensus here was not to replicate WikiNews within Wikiversity, I suggest thinking differently e.g., in terms of specific news-related projects you are interested in that have educational objectives that satisfy Wikiversity's mission. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 00:46, 5 September 2026 (UTC) ::I wonder if you mean <u>Wikiversity:Main Page/News ?</u> ::If so I have just checked this page and I see it only contains news for 2026 and part of 2025, even though the history indicates it was created in the 2000-decade. If you go back and check all revisions there is a wealth of (historical?) information. [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40514-81|~2026-40514-81]] ([[User talk:~2026-40514-81|talk]]) 16:28, 13 September 2026 (UTC) ::: I didn't mean that page, but yes, its history could be reconstructed into a more accessible format. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 21:37, 13 September 2026 (UTC) == [[Wikiversity talk:Interface administrators#My thoughts about this user group]] == As I suggested, I would like to propose allowing permanent interface administrators on English Wikiversity. My temporary interface admin rights are about to expire soon, and I will soon create a new CfIA page (and its header). We should also have a minimum of two interface administrators. Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 16:44, 6 September 2026 (UTC) :I am also in favor of this and we did discuss it pretty recently and came to a consensus on extending IA rights and lowering the administrative overhead, but not allowing indefinite at this juncture. From my perspective, since we discussed this so recently and nothing seems to have changed much, I personally would recommend holding off for a couple of years or until/unless there is some critical new information. Again, I would continue to support indef IA rights were it to come up again and think that at least two is also a sensible proposal. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 17:32, 6 September 2026 (UTC) ::Responding to myself so that I don't derail: I would be interested/willing to be an indef IA. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 17:36, 6 September 2026 (UTC) : I made [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Interface Adminship]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:24, 6 September 2026 (UTC) :: CC to @[[User:Koavf|Koavf]]. I made a request since my IA rights are about to expire. We should also hold a separate vote to allow permanent IAs here (for this policy). [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 16:55, 7 September 2026 (UTC) : @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]], I count at least three in favor (votes below, and Koavf agreeing), so can you close this request? Thank you. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 15:22, 24 September 2026 (UTC) :: Second ping to @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 02:24, 7 October 2026 (UTC) === Votes === * For the record, I am creating a separate subsection for voting, whether or not we should allow permanent interface administrators. {{support}} accordingly. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:32, 15 September 2026 (UTC) * {{support}} [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 00:51, 18 September 2026 (UTC) *{{support}} ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 02:22, 7 October 2026 (UTC) == Paid part-time Administrative Officer position with WikiJournal == [[WikiJournal User Group|WikiJournal]] is an open-access, nonprofit scholarly publisher hosted on Wikiversity. It uses the wiki format to allow authors to write and develop scholarly articles directly online. Submitted articles then undergo formal academic peer review and, when accepted, are published as citable journal articles while remaining freely accessible. WikiJournal is seeking expressions of interest in a new part-time '''Administrative Officer''' position. The officer would support the project's day-to-day organizational work, including: * Setting up and administering a system for tracking contractor hours and issuing payments. * Coordinating the contracting, onboarding, timekeeping and payment of technical editors and other contractors. * Maintaining financial, contractor and administrative records. * Assisting with grant administration, budget tracking and reporting. * Following up on board action items, deadlines and recurring obligations. * Supporting recruitment and other operational tasks as needed. This is a remote, flexibly scheduled contractor role averaging approximately '''6 hours per week'''. Compensation is proposed at '''US$25 per hour''', with up to approximately '''320 hours (US$8,000) available over the year'''. Applicants may be based internationally, although appointment will depend on WikiJournal being able to establish a practical and legally appropriate contracting and payment arrangement in the applicant's country of residence. Relevant experience may include administrative organization, bookkeeping or financial administration, contractor or personnel coordination, nonprofit or grant administration, Wikimedia participation, academic publishing, and open-access work. Applicants are not expected to have experience in every area. For the complete role description and further details, see [[WikiJournal User Group/Administrative officer]]. Those interested should reply in the '''[[Talk:WikiJournal User Group#Call for interest: Administrative Officer|Call for interest: Administrative Officer]]''' discussion by '''30 September 2026''', briefly describing their relevant experience, any connection to WikiJournal or related communities, and their general availability. Expressions of interest received later may still be considered if the position has not been filled. Recommendations of potentially suitable candidates are also welcome. [[User:Mikael Häggström|Mikael Häggström]] ([[User talk:Mikael Häggström|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mikael Häggström|contribs]]) 20:00, 10 September 2026 (UTC) == Server switch - Your wiki will be read-only for a short time soon == <section begin="server-switch"/><div class="plainlinks"> [[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/Server switch|Read this message in another language]] • [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&group=page-Tech%2FServer+switch&language=&action=page&filter= {{int:please-translate}}] The [[foundation:|Wikimedia Foundation]] will switch the traffic between its data centers. This will make sure that Wikipedia and the other Wikimedia wikis can stay online even after a disaster. All traffic will switch on '''{{#time:j xg|2026-09-23|en}}'''. The switch will start at '''[https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/{{#time:U|2026-09-23T14:00|en}} {{#time:H:i e|2026-09-23T14:00}}]'''. Unfortunately, because of some limitations in [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Manual:What is MediaWiki?|MediaWiki]], all editing must stop while the switch is made. We apologize for this disruption, and we are working to minimize it in the future. A banner will be displayed on all wikis 30 minutes before this operation happens. This banner will remain visible until the end of the operation. You can contribute to the [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special%3ATranslate&group=Centralnotice-tgroup-read_only_banner&task=view&language=&filter=&action=translate translation or proofreading] of this banner text. '''You will be able to read, but not edit, all wikis for a short period of time.''' * You will not be able to edit for up to an hour on {{#time:l j xg Y|2026-09-23|en}}. * If you try to edit or save during these times, you will see an error message. We hope that no edits will be lost during these minutes, but we can't guarantee it. If you see the error message, then please wait until everything is back to normal. Then you should be able to save your edit. But, we recommend that you make a copy of your changes first, just in case. ''Other effects'': * Background jobs will be slower and some may be dropped. Red links might not be updated as quickly as normal. If you create an article that is already linked somewhere else, the link will stay red longer than usual. Some long-running scripts will have to be stopped. * We expect the code deployments to happen as any other week. However, some case-by-case code freezes could punctually happen if the operation require them afterwards. * [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/GitLab|GitLab]] will be unavailable for about 90 minutes. This project may be postponed if necessary. You can [[wikitech:Switch_Datacenter|read the schedule at wikitech.wikimedia.org]]. Any changes will be announced in the schedule. '''Please share this information with your community.'''</div><section end="server-switch"/> [[m:user:Trizek (WMF)|Trizek (WMF)]] 12:58, 15 September 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Trizek (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Non-Technical_Village_Pumps_distribution_list&oldid=30513874 --> == Your feedback wanted: Remove ''(Language link added:) and similar'' edits from Special:RecentChanges == ''(Apologies for posting in English. You can help by translating it)'' Hello, I’m Danny from [[:en:w:Wikimedia_Deutschland|Wikimedia Deutschland’s]] [[m:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects|Wikidata For Wikimedia Projects]] team.<br/> We have been investigating and examining how Wikidata’s use in the [[Special:RecentChanges]] and [[Special:Watchlist]] pages can be made to be more useful, or less ‘noisy’ (fewer edits that have little value to the reader). We are currently exploring to make a change in the volume and the type of Wikidata edits that appear in these pages, and '''we need your feedback''' to help us ensure this is a positive change for the Wikis and won’t disrupt your workflows.<br/> Language links are also known as sitelinks or interlanguage links and describe when a Wikidata item is connected to a Wiki, adding it to the language dropdown tool for other connected Wikis. [[File:Types of Lang Link changes.png|x350px|frame|A variety of "Language Link" edits as seen in the Recent Changes feed]] The request for feedback is whether you support the removal of these language link edits from the Recent Changes and Watchlist feed, or would you oppose such a change and if so, why? Please share you thoughts on the dedicated '''[[m:Talk:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Clearer_Wikidata_Edit_Summaries/Hide_Language_Link_edits|metawiki Talk page]]'''. Further information about this change: [[m:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Clearer_Wikidata_Edit_Summaries/Hide_Language_Link_edits|m:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Hide_Language_Link_edits]] Thank you for any participation or feedback you give, -- [[m:User:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)|User:Danny Benjafield (WMDE)]] 12:23, 25 September 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Danny Benjafield (WMDE)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)/MassMessage_test_list&oldid=31080985 --> == Wikidata Sitelink changes in Recent Changes and Watchlist == ''(Apologies for cross-posting in English, translating it will help spread the message)'' Editors on group 1 wikis, including Wikiquote, Wikibooks, Wikiversity, Wikivoyage, and Wikisource, will no longer see notifications on [[Special:RecentChanges|Recent Changes]] and [[Special:Watchlist|Watchlist]] when a link to ''another'' language version of a page is added, removed, or changed in its Wikidata item. This change will begin on '''October 5 at 07:00 UTC''' as a two-week trial to reduce high-volume, low-value notifications and make higher-value changes easier to identify. Editors who rely on these notifications should be aware of the change and can share feedback or concerns on the [[m:Wikidata For Wikimedia Projects/Clearer Wikidata Edit Summaries/Hide Language Link edits|project]] or [[m:Talk:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Clearer_Wikidata_Edit_Summaries/Hide_Language_Link_edits|talk page]].<br/>Please reach out if you have any questions, thank you! -- [[User:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)|Danny Benjafield (WMDE)]] ([[User_talk:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)|talk]]) sent via [[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaWiki message delivery|contribs]]) 12:42, 1 October 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Danny Benjafield (WMDE)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)/MassMessage_test_list&oldid=31106967 --> == Demote [[Wikiversity:CheckUser policy]]? == I am proposing that we demote that policy to a standard page, mostly for two reasons: # Considering the few amount of custodians and the size of this wiki, I'd say that this project is considered too small to have any CUs, and relying on the stewards would be a more logical choice. # We haven't elected two CUs in a few years. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 20:53, 1 October 2026 (UTC) :Reasonable. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 17:09, 4 October 2026 (UTC) fwsif4hr978idrf2lstkdeh5zfijq4d 2836441 2836436 2026-10-07T04:38:08Z Mu301 3705 /* Wikiversity talk:Interface administrators#My thoughts about this user group */ comment 2836441 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Wikiversity:Colloquium/Header}} <!-- MESSAGES GO BELOW --> == Add an edit count requirement for autoconfirmed? == Currently, only waiting for four days is required for a user to become autoconfirmed. I am proposing that we include a minimum edit count of 10 edits (akin to Wikipedia) especially because of [[Special:AbuseFilter/16|a private abuse filter]], and LTAs may game autoconfirmed permissions to vandalize here. Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 23:01, 23 August 2026 (UTC) : [[Wikiversity:Autoconfirmed users]] : Are you suggesting an additional requirement? i.e., 4 days + 10 edits? : How is it adjusted? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 03:57, 5 September 2026 (UTC) :: Yes. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 01:30, 6 September 2026 (UTC) :: @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]]: I said yes to your first question. As for the adjustment question, in the InitialiseSettings.php file on noc.wikimedia.org, on <code>wgAutoConfirmCount</code> is where English Wikiversity would be added as <code>'enwikiversity' => 10,</code>. Does my reply make sense? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:31, 15 September 2026 (UTC) :As a newly volunteered member, it doesn't seem unreasonable to me to require a certain number of edits to establish my bona fides. [[User:Cfm490|Cfm490]] ([[User talk:Cfm490|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Cfm490|contribs]]) 17:53, 5 September 2026 (UTC) :I agree that adding an edit count requirement is a reasonable expectation before the user can become autoconfirmed. [[User:IanVG|IanVG]] ([[User talk:IanVG|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/IanVG|contribs]]) 18:56, 6 September 2026 (UTC) :+ 1 —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 19:40, 6 September 2026 (UTC) :'''Weak support''' Generally reasonable, but I would caution that we should really make this clear for those instances where professors have students edit here and make it frictionless for them to get autoconfirmed status. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 19:42, 6 September 2026 (UTC) : {{oppose|No support}} because I cannot see the [[Special:AbuseFilter/16|abuse filter]] cited as the primary reason and I do not know what LTAs is. I guess you don’t want support from ''ordinary'' users. ‑‑[[User:Kai Burghardt|Kays]] ([[User talk:Kai Burghardt|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kai Burghardt|contribs]]) 18:18, 14 September 2026 (UTC) ::Also some readers may be interested in this: ::* [[Wikipedia/Types of user accounts]] ::[[Special:Contributions/~2026-40514-81|~2026-40514-81]] ([[User talk:~2026-40514-81|talk]]) 19:05, 14 September 2026 (UTC) ::: An LTA means a long-term abuser, and it means someone who is usually abusive. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 20:42, 14 September 2026 (UTC) :'''Strong''' {{support}}; specially to battle LTA [[User:Mbataw|Mbataw]] ([[User talk:Mbataw|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mbataw|contribs]]) 13:17, 18 September 2026 (UTC) :{{support}}, having no edit count requirement for autoconfirmed is a bad idea in general. [[User:BooksBooksBooks3|BooksBooksBooks3]] ([[User talk:BooksBooksBooks3|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/BooksBooksBooks3|contribs]]) 01:43, 19 September 2026 (UTC) :Comment: I realize that it is not easy to be an admin on wikimedia projects. I realize that many admins have to deal with some VERY unpleasant personalities. But.. :Admins are not the only users who encounter harassment on wikimedia projects, big or small. Anyone who's been here as long as I have, has come across users who are not tolerated by the "community". Not necessarily because they are spammers, trollers, paid editors, LTAs , disruptive etc, but simply because they are different. :When I "edit" without logging in, I carry no baggage. I also get encouraging prompts such as this: :* This year, Wikipedia has had fewer visitors and fewer new supporters, so '''<big>your visit today means a lot</BIG>''' :Anyway, back to the topic at hand [[Wikipedia/Types of user accounts]]. I believe the section about IP editors is outdated since wikimedia now views users who are not logged-in as anonymous, and only trusted users are allowed to see their IP address (I am not clear on the details). I wonder if anyone participating here has an interest in bringing this page uptodate? [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40514-81|~2026-40514-81]] ([[User talk:~2026-40514-81|talk]]) 04:13, 22 September 2026 (UTC) : If there's some obvious things to fix, I'd say go ahead. It looks like there were several useful anonymous contributions to that page recently. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 07:54, 22 September 2026 (UTC) :hmm [[User:Tornaiden|Tornaiden]] ([[User talk:Tornaiden|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tornaiden|contribs]]) 02:02, 27 September 2026 (UTC) {{support}} Having a reasonable (and very modest) number of edits in addition to 4 days is sensible and not overly burdensome. The benefits outweigh any inconveniences. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] ^{[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]} 04:18, 7 October 2026 (UTC) == Bartending Course on Wikiversity == I recently finished the course on [[Bartending]], and while I have experience editing on Wikipedia, this is my first Wikiversity project. If any of you have the time or interest, I could use an experienced eye to see if there's anything obviously missing from the course in terms of Wikiversity administration. I'm not sure what's active, if the course should belong in an existing school, or if there's any obvious discoverability tool I haven't implemented. Any tips are welcomed, or just a thumbs up saying it looks fine would be great. [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] recommended I post this here in case someone wanted to include the new course under News on the [[Wikiversity:Main Page|Main Page]]. Thanks! [[User:Sabbier|Sabbier]] ([[User talk:Sabbier|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sabbier|contribs]]) 01:24, 1 September 2026 (UTC) :Wow! Fantastic work- I'm so impressed! Your work gives me inspiration on how to better organize the courses I'm working on. :) [[User:IanVG|IanVG]] ([[User talk:IanVG|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/IanVG|contribs]]) 21:32, 3 September 2026 (UTC) : Awesome work. I've added this course to the [[Main Page/News|main page news]]. : We could also consider for [[Wikiversity:Featured]]. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 00:43, 5 September 2026 (UTC) ::The course [[Creating Wikiversity Courses]] is intended to provide guidance to new Wikiversity editors. I hope it is helpful and I welcome improvement suggestions. Thanks. [[User:Lbeaumont|Lbeaumont]] ([[User talk:Lbeaumont|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Lbeaumont|contribs]]) 14:08, 6 September 2026 (UTC) == Writing news here == I'm bringing up this discussion again because I think it is beneficial to the project since Wikinews is gone, thank you. [[User:BigKrow|BigKrow]] ([[User talk:BigKrow|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/BigKrow|contribs]]) 03:17, 1 September 2026 (UTC) : Given that the community consensus here was not to replicate WikiNews within Wikiversity, I suggest thinking differently e.g., in terms of specific news-related projects you are interested in that have educational objectives that satisfy Wikiversity's mission. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 00:46, 5 September 2026 (UTC) ::I wonder if you mean <u>Wikiversity:Main Page/News ?</u> ::If so I have just checked this page and I see it only contains news for 2026 and part of 2025, even though the history indicates it was created in the 2000-decade. If you go back and check all revisions there is a wealth of (historical?) information. [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40514-81|~2026-40514-81]] ([[User talk:~2026-40514-81|talk]]) 16:28, 13 September 2026 (UTC) ::: I didn't mean that page, but yes, its history could be reconstructed into a more accessible format. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 21:37, 13 September 2026 (UTC) == [[Wikiversity talk:Interface administrators#My thoughts about this user group]] == As I suggested, I would like to propose allowing permanent interface administrators on English Wikiversity. My temporary interface admin rights are about to expire soon, and I will soon create a new CfIA page (and its header). We should also have a minimum of two interface administrators. Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 16:44, 6 September 2026 (UTC) :I am also in favor of this and we did discuss it pretty recently and came to a consensus on extending IA rights and lowering the administrative overhead, but not allowing indefinite at this juncture. From my perspective, since we discussed this so recently and nothing seems to have changed much, I personally would recommend holding off for a couple of years or until/unless there is some critical new information. Again, I would continue to support indef IA rights were it to come up again and think that at least two is also a sensible proposal. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 17:32, 6 September 2026 (UTC) ::Responding to myself so that I don't derail: I would be interested/willing to be an indef IA. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 17:36, 6 September 2026 (UTC) : I made [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Interface Adminship]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:24, 6 September 2026 (UTC) :: CC to @[[User:Koavf|Koavf]]. I made a request since my IA rights are about to expire. We should also hold a separate vote to allow permanent IAs here (for this policy). [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 16:55, 7 September 2026 (UTC) : @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]], I count at least three in favor (votes below, and Koavf agreeing), so can you close this request? Thank you. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 15:22, 24 September 2026 (UTC) :: Second ping to @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 02:24, 7 October 2026 (UTC) :Temporary rights can be extended for a year. I'd like a little more time to consider permanent rights and justin's sensible suggestion of a minimum of two. Let's not rush into this. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] ^{[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]} 04:38, 7 October 2026 (UTC) === Votes === * For the record, I am creating a separate subsection for voting, whether or not we should allow permanent interface administrators. {{support}} accordingly. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:32, 15 September 2026 (UTC) * {{support}} [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 00:51, 18 September 2026 (UTC) *{{support}} ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 02:22, 7 October 2026 (UTC) == Paid part-time Administrative Officer position with WikiJournal == [[WikiJournal User Group|WikiJournal]] is an open-access, nonprofit scholarly publisher hosted on Wikiversity. It uses the wiki format to allow authors to write and develop scholarly articles directly online. Submitted articles then undergo formal academic peer review and, when accepted, are published as citable journal articles while remaining freely accessible. WikiJournal is seeking expressions of interest in a new part-time '''Administrative Officer''' position. The officer would support the project's day-to-day organizational work, including: * Setting up and administering a system for tracking contractor hours and issuing payments. * Coordinating the contracting, onboarding, timekeeping and payment of technical editors and other contractors. * Maintaining financial, contractor and administrative records. * Assisting with grant administration, budget tracking and reporting. * Following up on board action items, deadlines and recurring obligations. * Supporting recruitment and other operational tasks as needed. This is a remote, flexibly scheduled contractor role averaging approximately '''6 hours per week'''. Compensation is proposed at '''US$25 per hour''', with up to approximately '''320 hours (US$8,000) available over the year'''. Applicants may be based internationally, although appointment will depend on WikiJournal being able to establish a practical and legally appropriate contracting and payment arrangement in the applicant's country of residence. Relevant experience may include administrative organization, bookkeeping or financial administration, contractor or personnel coordination, nonprofit or grant administration, Wikimedia participation, academic publishing, and open-access work. Applicants are not expected to have experience in every area. For the complete role description and further details, see [[WikiJournal User Group/Administrative officer]]. Those interested should reply in the '''[[Talk:WikiJournal User Group#Call for interest: Administrative Officer|Call for interest: Administrative Officer]]''' discussion by '''30 September 2026''', briefly describing their relevant experience, any connection to WikiJournal or related communities, and their general availability. Expressions of interest received later may still be considered if the position has not been filled. Recommendations of potentially suitable candidates are also welcome. [[User:Mikael Häggström|Mikael Häggström]] ([[User talk:Mikael Häggström|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mikael Häggström|contribs]]) 20:00, 10 September 2026 (UTC) == Server switch - Your wiki will be read-only for a short time soon == <section begin="server-switch"/><div class="plainlinks"> [[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/Server switch|Read this message in another language]] • [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&group=page-Tech%2FServer+switch&language=&action=page&filter= {{int:please-translate}}] The [[foundation:|Wikimedia Foundation]] will switch the traffic between its data centers. This will make sure that Wikipedia and the other Wikimedia wikis can stay online even after a disaster. All traffic will switch on '''{{#time:j xg|2026-09-23|en}}'''. The switch will start at '''[https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/{{#time:U|2026-09-23T14:00|en}} {{#time:H:i e|2026-09-23T14:00}}]'''. Unfortunately, because of some limitations in [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Manual:What is MediaWiki?|MediaWiki]], all editing must stop while the switch is made. We apologize for this disruption, and we are working to minimize it in the future. A banner will be displayed on all wikis 30 minutes before this operation happens. This banner will remain visible until the end of the operation. You can contribute to the [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special%3ATranslate&group=Centralnotice-tgroup-read_only_banner&task=view&language=&filter=&action=translate translation or proofreading] of this banner text. '''You will be able to read, but not edit, all wikis for a short period of time.''' * You will not be able to edit for up to an hour on {{#time:l j xg Y|2026-09-23|en}}. * If you try to edit or save during these times, you will see an error message. We hope that no edits will be lost during these minutes, but we can't guarantee it. If you see the error message, then please wait until everything is back to normal. Then you should be able to save your edit. But, we recommend that you make a copy of your changes first, just in case. ''Other effects'': * Background jobs will be slower and some may be dropped. Red links might not be updated as quickly as normal. If you create an article that is already linked somewhere else, the link will stay red longer than usual. Some long-running scripts will have to be stopped. * We expect the code deployments to happen as any other week. However, some case-by-case code freezes could punctually happen if the operation require them afterwards. * [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/GitLab|GitLab]] will be unavailable for about 90 minutes. This project may be postponed if necessary. You can [[wikitech:Switch_Datacenter|read the schedule at wikitech.wikimedia.org]]. Any changes will be announced in the schedule. '''Please share this information with your community.'''</div><section end="server-switch"/> [[m:user:Trizek (WMF)|Trizek (WMF)]] 12:58, 15 September 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Trizek (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Non-Technical_Village_Pumps_distribution_list&oldid=30513874 --> == Your feedback wanted: Remove ''(Language link added:) and similar'' edits from Special:RecentChanges == ''(Apologies for posting in English. You can help by translating it)'' Hello, I’m Danny from [[:en:w:Wikimedia_Deutschland|Wikimedia Deutschland’s]] [[m:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects|Wikidata For Wikimedia Projects]] team.<br/> We have been investigating and examining how Wikidata’s use in the [[Special:RecentChanges]] and [[Special:Watchlist]] pages can be made to be more useful, or less ‘noisy’ (fewer edits that have little value to the reader). We are currently exploring to make a change in the volume and the type of Wikidata edits that appear in these pages, and '''we need your feedback''' to help us ensure this is a positive change for the Wikis and won’t disrupt your workflows.<br/> Language links are also known as sitelinks or interlanguage links and describe when a Wikidata item is connected to a Wiki, adding it to the language dropdown tool for other connected Wikis. [[File:Types of Lang Link changes.png|x350px|frame|A variety of "Language Link" edits as seen in the Recent Changes feed]] The request for feedback is whether you support the removal of these language link edits from the Recent Changes and Watchlist feed, or would you oppose such a change and if so, why? Please share you thoughts on the dedicated '''[[m:Talk:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Clearer_Wikidata_Edit_Summaries/Hide_Language_Link_edits|metawiki Talk page]]'''. Further information about this change: [[m:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Clearer_Wikidata_Edit_Summaries/Hide_Language_Link_edits|m:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Hide_Language_Link_edits]] Thank you for any participation or feedback you give, -- [[m:User:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)|User:Danny Benjafield (WMDE)]] 12:23, 25 September 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Danny Benjafield (WMDE)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)/MassMessage_test_list&oldid=31080985 --> == Wikidata Sitelink changes in Recent Changes and Watchlist == ''(Apologies for cross-posting in English, translating it will help spread the message)'' Editors on group 1 wikis, including Wikiquote, Wikibooks, Wikiversity, Wikivoyage, and Wikisource, will no longer see notifications on [[Special:RecentChanges|Recent Changes]] and [[Special:Watchlist|Watchlist]] when a link to ''another'' language version of a page is added, removed, or changed in its Wikidata item. This change will begin on '''October 5 at 07:00 UTC''' as a two-week trial to reduce high-volume, low-value notifications and make higher-value changes easier to identify. Editors who rely on these notifications should be aware of the change and can share feedback or concerns on the [[m:Wikidata For Wikimedia Projects/Clearer Wikidata Edit Summaries/Hide Language Link edits|project]] or [[m:Talk:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Clearer_Wikidata_Edit_Summaries/Hide_Language_Link_edits|talk page]].<br/>Please reach out if you have any questions, thank you! -- [[User:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)|Danny Benjafield (WMDE)]] ([[User_talk:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)|talk]]) sent via [[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaWiki message delivery|contribs]]) 12:42, 1 October 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Danny Benjafield (WMDE)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)/MassMessage_test_list&oldid=31106967 --> == Demote [[Wikiversity:CheckUser policy]]? == I am proposing that we demote that policy to a standard page, mostly for two reasons: # Considering the few amount of custodians and the size of this wiki, I'd say that this project is considered too small to have any CUs, and relying on the stewards would be a more logical choice. # We haven't elected two CUs in a few years. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 20:53, 1 October 2026 (UTC) :Reasonable. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 17:09, 4 October 2026 (UTC) bbqw07gygw635gt3tvodk7re827zchj 2836449 2836441 2026-10-07T05:00:43Z Mu301 3705 /* Wikiversity talk:Interface administrators#My thoughts about this user group */ Reply 2836449 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Wikiversity:Colloquium/Header}} <!-- MESSAGES GO BELOW --> == Add an edit count requirement for autoconfirmed? == Currently, only waiting for four days is required for a user to become autoconfirmed. I am proposing that we include a minimum edit count of 10 edits (akin to Wikipedia) especially because of [[Special:AbuseFilter/16|a private abuse filter]], and LTAs may game autoconfirmed permissions to vandalize here. Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 23:01, 23 August 2026 (UTC) : [[Wikiversity:Autoconfirmed users]] : Are you suggesting an additional requirement? i.e., 4 days + 10 edits? : How is it adjusted? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 03:57, 5 September 2026 (UTC) :: Yes. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 01:30, 6 September 2026 (UTC) :: @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]]: I said yes to your first question. As for the adjustment question, in the InitialiseSettings.php file on noc.wikimedia.org, on <code>wgAutoConfirmCount</code> is where English Wikiversity would be added as <code>'enwikiversity' => 10,</code>. Does my reply make sense? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:31, 15 September 2026 (UTC) :As a newly volunteered member, it doesn't seem unreasonable to me to require a certain number of edits to establish my bona fides. [[User:Cfm490|Cfm490]] ([[User talk:Cfm490|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Cfm490|contribs]]) 17:53, 5 September 2026 (UTC) :I agree that adding an edit count requirement is a reasonable expectation before the user can become autoconfirmed. [[User:IanVG|IanVG]] ([[User talk:IanVG|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/IanVG|contribs]]) 18:56, 6 September 2026 (UTC) :+ 1 —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 19:40, 6 September 2026 (UTC) :'''Weak support''' Generally reasonable, but I would caution that we should really make this clear for those instances where professors have students edit here and make it frictionless for them to get autoconfirmed status. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 19:42, 6 September 2026 (UTC) : {{oppose|No support}} because I cannot see the [[Special:AbuseFilter/16|abuse filter]] cited as the primary reason and I do not know what LTAs is. I guess you don’t want support from ''ordinary'' users. ‑‑[[User:Kai Burghardt|Kays]] ([[User talk:Kai Burghardt|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kai Burghardt|contribs]]) 18:18, 14 September 2026 (UTC) ::Also some readers may be interested in this: ::* [[Wikipedia/Types of user accounts]] ::[[Special:Contributions/~2026-40514-81|~2026-40514-81]] ([[User talk:~2026-40514-81|talk]]) 19:05, 14 September 2026 (UTC) ::: An LTA means a long-term abuser, and it means someone who is usually abusive. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 20:42, 14 September 2026 (UTC) :'''Strong''' {{support}}; specially to battle LTA [[User:Mbataw|Mbataw]] ([[User talk:Mbataw|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mbataw|contribs]]) 13:17, 18 September 2026 (UTC) :{{support}}, having no edit count requirement for autoconfirmed is a bad idea in general. [[User:BooksBooksBooks3|BooksBooksBooks3]] ([[User talk:BooksBooksBooks3|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/BooksBooksBooks3|contribs]]) 01:43, 19 September 2026 (UTC) :Comment: I realize that it is not easy to be an admin on wikimedia projects. I realize that many admins have to deal with some VERY unpleasant personalities. But.. :Admins are not the only users who encounter harassment on wikimedia projects, big or small. Anyone who's been here as long as I have, has come across users who are not tolerated by the "community". Not necessarily because they are spammers, trollers, paid editors, LTAs , disruptive etc, but simply because they are different. :When I "edit" without logging in, I carry no baggage. I also get encouraging prompts such as this: :* This year, Wikipedia has had fewer visitors and fewer new supporters, so '''<big>your visit today means a lot</BIG>''' :Anyway, back to the topic at hand [[Wikipedia/Types of user accounts]]. I believe the section about IP editors is outdated since wikimedia now views users who are not logged-in as anonymous, and only trusted users are allowed to see their IP address (I am not clear on the details). I wonder if anyone participating here has an interest in bringing this page uptodate? [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40514-81|~2026-40514-81]] ([[User talk:~2026-40514-81|talk]]) 04:13, 22 September 2026 (UTC) : If there's some obvious things to fix, I'd say go ahead. It looks like there were several useful anonymous contributions to that page recently. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 07:54, 22 September 2026 (UTC) :hmm [[User:Tornaiden|Tornaiden]] ([[User talk:Tornaiden|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tornaiden|contribs]]) 02:02, 27 September 2026 (UTC) {{support}} Having a reasonable (and very modest) number of edits in addition to 4 days is sensible and not overly burdensome. The benefits outweigh any inconveniences. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] ^{[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]} 04:18, 7 October 2026 (UTC) == Bartending Course on Wikiversity == I recently finished the course on [[Bartending]], and while I have experience editing on Wikipedia, this is my first Wikiversity project. If any of you have the time or interest, I could use an experienced eye to see if there's anything obviously missing from the course in terms of Wikiversity administration. I'm not sure what's active, if the course should belong in an existing school, or if there's any obvious discoverability tool I haven't implemented. Any tips are welcomed, or just a thumbs up saying it looks fine would be great. [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] recommended I post this here in case someone wanted to include the new course under News on the [[Wikiversity:Main Page|Main Page]]. Thanks! [[User:Sabbier|Sabbier]] ([[User talk:Sabbier|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sabbier|contribs]]) 01:24, 1 September 2026 (UTC) :Wow! Fantastic work- I'm so impressed! Your work gives me inspiration on how to better organize the courses I'm working on. :) [[User:IanVG|IanVG]] ([[User talk:IanVG|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/IanVG|contribs]]) 21:32, 3 September 2026 (UTC) : Awesome work. I've added this course to the [[Main Page/News|main page news]]. : We could also consider for [[Wikiversity:Featured]]. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 00:43, 5 September 2026 (UTC) ::The course [[Creating Wikiversity Courses]] is intended to provide guidance to new Wikiversity editors. I hope it is helpful and I welcome improvement suggestions. Thanks. [[User:Lbeaumont|Lbeaumont]] ([[User talk:Lbeaumont|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Lbeaumont|contribs]]) 14:08, 6 September 2026 (UTC) == Writing news here == I'm bringing up this discussion again because I think it is beneficial to the project since Wikinews is gone, thank you. [[User:BigKrow|BigKrow]] ([[User talk:BigKrow|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/BigKrow|contribs]]) 03:17, 1 September 2026 (UTC) : Given that the community consensus here was not to replicate WikiNews within Wikiversity, I suggest thinking differently e.g., in terms of specific news-related projects you are interested in that have educational objectives that satisfy Wikiversity's mission. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 00:46, 5 September 2026 (UTC) ::I wonder if you mean <u>Wikiversity:Main Page/News ?</u> ::If so I have just checked this page and I see it only contains news for 2026 and part of 2025, even though the history indicates it was created in the 2000-decade. If you go back and check all revisions there is a wealth of (historical?) information. [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40514-81|~2026-40514-81]] ([[User talk:~2026-40514-81|talk]]) 16:28, 13 September 2026 (UTC) ::: I didn't mean that page, but yes, its history could be reconstructed into a more accessible format. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 21:37, 13 September 2026 (UTC) == [[Wikiversity talk:Interface administrators#My thoughts about this user group]] == As I suggested, I would like to propose allowing permanent interface administrators on English Wikiversity. My temporary interface admin rights are about to expire soon, and I will soon create a new CfIA page (and its header). We should also have a minimum of two interface administrators. Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 16:44, 6 September 2026 (UTC) :I am also in favor of this and we did discuss it pretty recently and came to a consensus on extending IA rights and lowering the administrative overhead, but not allowing indefinite at this juncture. From my perspective, since we discussed this so recently and nothing seems to have changed much, I personally would recommend holding off for a couple of years or until/unless there is some critical new information. Again, I would continue to support indef IA rights were it to come up again and think that at least two is also a sensible proposal. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 17:32, 6 September 2026 (UTC) ::Responding to myself so that I don't derail: I would be interested/willing to be an indef IA. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 17:36, 6 September 2026 (UTC) : I made [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Interface Adminship]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:24, 6 September 2026 (UTC) :: CC to @[[User:Koavf|Koavf]]. I made a request since my IA rights are about to expire. We should also hold a separate vote to allow permanent IAs here (for this policy). [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 16:55, 7 September 2026 (UTC) : @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]], I count at least three in favor (votes below, and Koavf agreeing), so can you close this request? Thank you. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 15:22, 24 September 2026 (UTC) :: Second ping to @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 02:24, 7 October 2026 (UTC) :Temporary rights can be extended for a year. I'd like a little more time to consider permanent rights and justin's sensible suggestion of a minimum of two. Let's not rush into this. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] ^{[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]} 04:38, 7 October 2026 (UTC) ::Sorry, my mistake, policy is 120 days. Interface allows 1 year or indef. I don't see any reason why a nom couldn't request extending rights for another 120 days while we clarify indef and other wording of policy. I'll look closer tomorrow. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] ^{[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]} 05:00, 7 October 2026 (UTC) === Votes === * For the record, I am creating a separate subsection for voting, whether or not we should allow permanent interface administrators. {{support}} accordingly. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:32, 15 September 2026 (UTC) * {{support}} [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 00:51, 18 September 2026 (UTC) *{{support}} ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 02:22, 7 October 2026 (UTC) == Paid part-time Administrative Officer position with WikiJournal == [[WikiJournal User Group|WikiJournal]] is an open-access, nonprofit scholarly publisher hosted on Wikiversity. It uses the wiki format to allow authors to write and develop scholarly articles directly online. Submitted articles then undergo formal academic peer review and, when accepted, are published as citable journal articles while remaining freely accessible. WikiJournal is seeking expressions of interest in a new part-time '''Administrative Officer''' position. The officer would support the project's day-to-day organizational work, including: * Setting up and administering a system for tracking contractor hours and issuing payments. * Coordinating the contracting, onboarding, timekeeping and payment of technical editors and other contractors. * Maintaining financial, contractor and administrative records. * Assisting with grant administration, budget tracking and reporting. * Following up on board action items, deadlines and recurring obligations. * Supporting recruitment and other operational tasks as needed. This is a remote, flexibly scheduled contractor role averaging approximately '''6 hours per week'''. Compensation is proposed at '''US$25 per hour''', with up to approximately '''320 hours (US$8,000) available over the year'''. Applicants may be based internationally, although appointment will depend on WikiJournal being able to establish a practical and legally appropriate contracting and payment arrangement in the applicant's country of residence. Relevant experience may include administrative organization, bookkeeping or financial administration, contractor or personnel coordination, nonprofit or grant administration, Wikimedia participation, academic publishing, and open-access work. Applicants are not expected to have experience in every area. For the complete role description and further details, see [[WikiJournal User Group/Administrative officer]]. Those interested should reply in the '''[[Talk:WikiJournal User Group#Call for interest: Administrative Officer|Call for interest: Administrative Officer]]''' discussion by '''30 September 2026''', briefly describing their relevant experience, any connection to WikiJournal or related communities, and their general availability. Expressions of interest received later may still be considered if the position has not been filled. Recommendations of potentially suitable candidates are also welcome. [[User:Mikael Häggström|Mikael Häggström]] ([[User talk:Mikael Häggström|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mikael Häggström|contribs]]) 20:00, 10 September 2026 (UTC) == Server switch - Your wiki will be read-only for a short time soon == <section begin="server-switch"/><div class="plainlinks"> [[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/Server switch|Read this message in another language]] • [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&group=page-Tech%2FServer+switch&language=&action=page&filter= {{int:please-translate}}] The [[foundation:|Wikimedia Foundation]] will switch the traffic between its data centers. This will make sure that Wikipedia and the other Wikimedia wikis can stay online even after a disaster. All traffic will switch on '''{{#time:j xg|2026-09-23|en}}'''. The switch will start at '''[https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/{{#time:U|2026-09-23T14:00|en}} {{#time:H:i e|2026-09-23T14:00}}]'''. Unfortunately, because of some limitations in [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Manual:What is MediaWiki?|MediaWiki]], all editing must stop while the switch is made. We apologize for this disruption, and we are working to minimize it in the future. A banner will be displayed on all wikis 30 minutes before this operation happens. This banner will remain visible until the end of the operation. You can contribute to the [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special%3ATranslate&group=Centralnotice-tgroup-read_only_banner&task=view&language=&filter=&action=translate translation or proofreading] of this banner text. '''You will be able to read, but not edit, all wikis for a short period of time.''' * You will not be able to edit for up to an hour on {{#time:l j xg Y|2026-09-23|en}}. * If you try to edit or save during these times, you will see an error message. We hope that no edits will be lost during these minutes, but we can't guarantee it. If you see the error message, then please wait until everything is back to normal. Then you should be able to save your edit. But, we recommend that you make a copy of your changes first, just in case. ''Other effects'': * Background jobs will be slower and some may be dropped. Red links might not be updated as quickly as normal. If you create an article that is already linked somewhere else, the link will stay red longer than usual. Some long-running scripts will have to be stopped. * We expect the code deployments to happen as any other week. However, some case-by-case code freezes could punctually happen if the operation require them afterwards. * [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/GitLab|GitLab]] will be unavailable for about 90 minutes. This project may be postponed if necessary. You can [[wikitech:Switch_Datacenter|read the schedule at wikitech.wikimedia.org]]. Any changes will be announced in the schedule. '''Please share this information with your community.'''</div><section end="server-switch"/> [[m:user:Trizek (WMF)|Trizek (WMF)]] 12:58, 15 September 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Trizek (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Non-Technical_Village_Pumps_distribution_list&oldid=30513874 --> == Your feedback wanted: Remove ''(Language link added:) and similar'' edits from Special:RecentChanges == ''(Apologies for posting in English. You can help by translating it)'' Hello, I’m Danny from [[:en:w:Wikimedia_Deutschland|Wikimedia Deutschland’s]] [[m:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects|Wikidata For Wikimedia Projects]] team.<br/> We have been investigating and examining how Wikidata’s use in the [[Special:RecentChanges]] and [[Special:Watchlist]] pages can be made to be more useful, or less ‘noisy’ (fewer edits that have little value to the reader). We are currently exploring to make a change in the volume and the type of Wikidata edits that appear in these pages, and '''we need your feedback''' to help us ensure this is a positive change for the Wikis and won’t disrupt your workflows.<br/> Language links are also known as sitelinks or interlanguage links and describe when a Wikidata item is connected to a Wiki, adding it to the language dropdown tool for other connected Wikis. [[File:Types of Lang Link changes.png|x350px|frame|A variety of "Language Link" edits as seen in the Recent Changes feed]] The request for feedback is whether you support the removal of these language link edits from the Recent Changes and Watchlist feed, or would you oppose such a change and if so, why? Please share you thoughts on the dedicated '''[[m:Talk:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Clearer_Wikidata_Edit_Summaries/Hide_Language_Link_edits|metawiki Talk page]]'''. Further information about this change: [[m:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Clearer_Wikidata_Edit_Summaries/Hide_Language_Link_edits|m:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Hide_Language_Link_edits]] Thank you for any participation or feedback you give, -- [[m:User:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)|User:Danny Benjafield (WMDE)]] 12:23, 25 September 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Danny Benjafield (WMDE)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)/MassMessage_test_list&oldid=31080985 --> == Wikidata Sitelink changes in Recent Changes and Watchlist == ''(Apologies for cross-posting in English, translating it will help spread the message)'' Editors on group 1 wikis, including Wikiquote, Wikibooks, Wikiversity, Wikivoyage, and Wikisource, will no longer see notifications on [[Special:RecentChanges|Recent Changes]] and [[Special:Watchlist|Watchlist]] when a link to ''another'' language version of a page is added, removed, or changed in its Wikidata item. This change will begin on '''October 5 at 07:00 UTC''' as a two-week trial to reduce high-volume, low-value notifications and make higher-value changes easier to identify. Editors who rely on these notifications should be aware of the change and can share feedback or concerns on the [[m:Wikidata For Wikimedia Projects/Clearer Wikidata Edit Summaries/Hide Language Link edits|project]] or [[m:Talk:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Clearer_Wikidata_Edit_Summaries/Hide_Language_Link_edits|talk page]].<br/>Please reach out if you have any questions, thank you! -- [[User:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)|Danny Benjafield (WMDE)]] ([[User_talk:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)|talk]]) sent via [[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaWiki message delivery|contribs]]) 12:42, 1 October 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Danny Benjafield (WMDE)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)/MassMessage_test_list&oldid=31106967 --> == Demote [[Wikiversity:CheckUser policy]]? == I am proposing that we demote that policy to a standard page, mostly for two reasons: # Considering the few amount of custodians and the size of this wiki, I'd say that this project is considered too small to have any CUs, and relying on the stewards would be a more logical choice. # We haven't elected two CUs in a few years. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 20:53, 1 October 2026 (UTC) :Reasonable. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 17:09, 4 October 2026 (UTC) tkjbnym0qukn5xuly4r0ufgdquen7s8 2836457 2836449 2026-10-07T05:24:21Z Mu301 3705 /* Add an edit count requirement for autoconfirmed? */ missing indent 2836457 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Wikiversity:Colloquium/Header}} <!-- MESSAGES GO BELOW --> == Add an edit count requirement for autoconfirmed? == Currently, only waiting for four days is required for a user to become autoconfirmed. I am proposing that we include a minimum edit count of 10 edits (akin to Wikipedia) especially because of [[Special:AbuseFilter/16|a private abuse filter]], and LTAs may game autoconfirmed permissions to vandalize here. Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 23:01, 23 August 2026 (UTC) : [[Wikiversity:Autoconfirmed users]] : Are you suggesting an additional requirement? i.e., 4 days + 10 edits? : How is it adjusted? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 03:57, 5 September 2026 (UTC) :: Yes. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 01:30, 6 September 2026 (UTC) :: @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]]: I said yes to your first question. As for the adjustment question, in the InitialiseSettings.php file on noc.wikimedia.org, on <code>wgAutoConfirmCount</code> is where English Wikiversity would be added as <code>'enwikiversity' => 10,</code>. Does my reply make sense? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:31, 15 September 2026 (UTC) :As a newly volunteered member, it doesn't seem unreasonable to me to require a certain number of edits to establish my bona fides. [[User:Cfm490|Cfm490]] ([[User talk:Cfm490|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Cfm490|contribs]]) 17:53, 5 September 2026 (UTC) :I agree that adding an edit count requirement is a reasonable expectation before the user can become autoconfirmed. [[User:IanVG|IanVG]] ([[User talk:IanVG|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/IanVG|contribs]]) 18:56, 6 September 2026 (UTC) :+ 1 —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 19:40, 6 September 2026 (UTC) :'''Weak support''' Generally reasonable, but I would caution that we should really make this clear for those instances where professors have students edit here and make it frictionless for them to get autoconfirmed status. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 19:42, 6 September 2026 (UTC) : {{oppose|No support}} because I cannot see the [[Special:AbuseFilter/16|abuse filter]] cited as the primary reason and I do not know what LTAs is. I guess you don’t want support from ''ordinary'' users. ‑‑[[User:Kai Burghardt|Kays]] ([[User talk:Kai Burghardt|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kai Burghardt|contribs]]) 18:18, 14 September 2026 (UTC) ::Also some readers may be interested in this: ::* [[Wikipedia/Types of user accounts]] ::[[Special:Contributions/~2026-40514-81|~2026-40514-81]] ([[User talk:~2026-40514-81|talk]]) 19:05, 14 September 2026 (UTC) ::: An LTA means a long-term abuser, and it means someone who is usually abusive. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 20:42, 14 September 2026 (UTC) :'''Strong''' {{support}}; specially to battle LTA [[User:Mbataw|Mbataw]] ([[User talk:Mbataw|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mbataw|contribs]]) 13:17, 18 September 2026 (UTC) :{{support}}, having no edit count requirement for autoconfirmed is a bad idea in general. [[User:BooksBooksBooks3|BooksBooksBooks3]] ([[User talk:BooksBooksBooks3|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/BooksBooksBooks3|contribs]]) 01:43, 19 September 2026 (UTC) :Comment: I realize that it is not easy to be an admin on wikimedia projects. I realize that many admins have to deal with some VERY unpleasant personalities. But.. :Admins are not the only users who encounter harassment on wikimedia projects, big or small. Anyone who's been here as long as I have, has come across users who are not tolerated by the "community". Not necessarily because they are spammers, trollers, paid editors, LTAs , disruptive etc, but simply because they are different. :When I "edit" without logging in, I carry no baggage. I also get encouraging prompts such as this: :* This year, Wikipedia has had fewer visitors and fewer new supporters, so '''<big>your visit today means a lot</BIG>''' :Anyway, back to the topic at hand [[Wikipedia/Types of user accounts]]. I believe the section about IP editors is outdated since wikimedia now views users who are not logged-in as anonymous, and only trusted users are allowed to see their IP address (I am not clear on the details). I wonder if anyone participating here has an interest in bringing this page uptodate? [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40514-81|~2026-40514-81]] ([[User talk:~2026-40514-81|talk]]) 04:13, 22 September 2026 (UTC) : If there's some obvious things to fix, I'd say go ahead. It looks like there were several useful anonymous contributions to that page recently. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 07:54, 22 September 2026 (UTC) :hmm [[User:Tornaiden|Tornaiden]] ([[User talk:Tornaiden|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tornaiden|contribs]]) 02:02, 27 September 2026 (UTC) :{{support}} Having a reasonable (and very modest) number of edits in addition to 4 days is sensible and not overly burdensome. The benefits outweigh any inconveniences. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] ^{[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]} 04:18, 7 October 2026 (UTC) == Bartending Course on Wikiversity == I recently finished the course on [[Bartending]], and while I have experience editing on Wikipedia, this is my first Wikiversity project. If any of you have the time or interest, I could use an experienced eye to see if there's anything obviously missing from the course in terms of Wikiversity administration. I'm not sure what's active, if the course should belong in an existing school, or if there's any obvious discoverability tool I haven't implemented. Any tips are welcomed, or just a thumbs up saying it looks fine would be great. [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] recommended I post this here in case someone wanted to include the new course under News on the [[Wikiversity:Main Page|Main Page]]. Thanks! [[User:Sabbier|Sabbier]] ([[User talk:Sabbier|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sabbier|contribs]]) 01:24, 1 September 2026 (UTC) :Wow! Fantastic work- I'm so impressed! Your work gives me inspiration on how to better organize the courses I'm working on. :) [[User:IanVG|IanVG]] ([[User talk:IanVG|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/IanVG|contribs]]) 21:32, 3 September 2026 (UTC) : Awesome work. I've added this course to the [[Main Page/News|main page news]]. : We could also consider for [[Wikiversity:Featured]]. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 00:43, 5 September 2026 (UTC) ::The course [[Creating Wikiversity Courses]] is intended to provide guidance to new Wikiversity editors. I hope it is helpful and I welcome improvement suggestions. Thanks. [[User:Lbeaumont|Lbeaumont]] ([[User talk:Lbeaumont|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Lbeaumont|contribs]]) 14:08, 6 September 2026 (UTC) == Writing news here == I'm bringing up this discussion again because I think it is beneficial to the project since Wikinews is gone, thank you. [[User:BigKrow|BigKrow]] ([[User talk:BigKrow|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/BigKrow|contribs]]) 03:17, 1 September 2026 (UTC) : Given that the community consensus here was not to replicate WikiNews within Wikiversity, I suggest thinking differently e.g., in terms of specific news-related projects you are interested in that have educational objectives that satisfy Wikiversity's mission. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 00:46, 5 September 2026 (UTC) ::I wonder if you mean <u>Wikiversity:Main Page/News ?</u> ::If so I have just checked this page and I see it only contains news for 2026 and part of 2025, even though the history indicates it was created in the 2000-decade. If you go back and check all revisions there is a wealth of (historical?) information. [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40514-81|~2026-40514-81]] ([[User talk:~2026-40514-81|talk]]) 16:28, 13 September 2026 (UTC) ::: I didn't mean that page, but yes, its history could be reconstructed into a more accessible format. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 21:37, 13 September 2026 (UTC) == [[Wikiversity talk:Interface administrators#My thoughts about this user group]] == As I suggested, I would like to propose allowing permanent interface administrators on English Wikiversity. My temporary interface admin rights are about to expire soon, and I will soon create a new CfIA page (and its header). We should also have a minimum of two interface administrators. Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 16:44, 6 September 2026 (UTC) :I am also in favor of this and we did discuss it pretty recently and came to a consensus on extending IA rights and lowering the administrative overhead, but not allowing indefinite at this juncture. From my perspective, since we discussed this so recently and nothing seems to have changed much, I personally would recommend holding off for a couple of years or until/unless there is some critical new information. Again, I would continue to support indef IA rights were it to come up again and think that at least two is also a sensible proposal. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 17:32, 6 September 2026 (UTC) ::Responding to myself so that I don't derail: I would be interested/willing to be an indef IA. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 17:36, 6 September 2026 (UTC) : I made [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Interface Adminship]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:24, 6 September 2026 (UTC) :: CC to @[[User:Koavf|Koavf]]. I made a request since my IA rights are about to expire. We should also hold a separate vote to allow permanent IAs here (for this policy). [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 16:55, 7 September 2026 (UTC) : @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]], I count at least three in favor (votes below, and Koavf agreeing), so can you close this request? Thank you. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 15:22, 24 September 2026 (UTC) :: Second ping to @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 02:24, 7 October 2026 (UTC) :Temporary rights can be extended for a year. I'd like a little more time to consider permanent rights and justin's sensible suggestion of a minimum of two. Let's not rush into this. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] ^{[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]} 04:38, 7 October 2026 (UTC) ::Sorry, my mistake, policy is 120 days. Interface allows 1 year or indef. I don't see any reason why a nom couldn't request extending rights for another 120 days while we clarify indef and other wording of policy. I'll look closer tomorrow. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] ^{[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]} 05:00, 7 October 2026 (UTC) === Votes === * For the record, I am creating a separate subsection for voting, whether or not we should allow permanent interface administrators. {{support}} accordingly. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:32, 15 September 2026 (UTC) * {{support}} [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 00:51, 18 September 2026 (UTC) *{{support}} ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 02:22, 7 October 2026 (UTC) == Paid part-time Administrative Officer position with WikiJournal == [[WikiJournal User Group|WikiJournal]] is an open-access, nonprofit scholarly publisher hosted on Wikiversity. It uses the wiki format to allow authors to write and develop scholarly articles directly online. Submitted articles then undergo formal academic peer review and, when accepted, are published as citable journal articles while remaining freely accessible. WikiJournal is seeking expressions of interest in a new part-time '''Administrative Officer''' position. The officer would support the project's day-to-day organizational work, including: * Setting up and administering a system for tracking contractor hours and issuing payments. * Coordinating the contracting, onboarding, timekeeping and payment of technical editors and other contractors. * Maintaining financial, contractor and administrative records. * Assisting with grant administration, budget tracking and reporting. * Following up on board action items, deadlines and recurring obligations. * Supporting recruitment and other operational tasks as needed. This is a remote, flexibly scheduled contractor role averaging approximately '''6 hours per week'''. Compensation is proposed at '''US$25 per hour''', with up to approximately '''320 hours (US$8,000) available over the year'''. Applicants may be based internationally, although appointment will depend on WikiJournal being able to establish a practical and legally appropriate contracting and payment arrangement in the applicant's country of residence. Relevant experience may include administrative organization, bookkeeping or financial administration, contractor or personnel coordination, nonprofit or grant administration, Wikimedia participation, academic publishing, and open-access work. Applicants are not expected to have experience in every area. For the complete role description and further details, see [[WikiJournal User Group/Administrative officer]]. Those interested should reply in the '''[[Talk:WikiJournal User Group#Call for interest: Administrative Officer|Call for interest: Administrative Officer]]''' discussion by '''30 September 2026''', briefly describing their relevant experience, any connection to WikiJournal or related communities, and their general availability. Expressions of interest received later may still be considered if the position has not been filled. Recommendations of potentially suitable candidates are also welcome. [[User:Mikael Häggström|Mikael Häggström]] ([[User talk:Mikael Häggström|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mikael Häggström|contribs]]) 20:00, 10 September 2026 (UTC) == Server switch - Your wiki will be read-only for a short time soon == <section begin="server-switch"/><div class="plainlinks"> [[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/Server switch|Read this message in another language]] • [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&group=page-Tech%2FServer+switch&language=&action=page&filter= {{int:please-translate}}] The [[foundation:|Wikimedia Foundation]] will switch the traffic between its data centers. This will make sure that Wikipedia and the other Wikimedia wikis can stay online even after a disaster. All traffic will switch on '''{{#time:j xg|2026-09-23|en}}'''. The switch will start at '''[https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/{{#time:U|2026-09-23T14:00|en}} {{#time:H:i e|2026-09-23T14:00}}]'''. Unfortunately, because of some limitations in [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Manual:What is MediaWiki?|MediaWiki]], all editing must stop while the switch is made. We apologize for this disruption, and we are working to minimize it in the future. A banner will be displayed on all wikis 30 minutes before this operation happens. This banner will remain visible until the end of the operation. You can contribute to the [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special%3ATranslate&group=Centralnotice-tgroup-read_only_banner&task=view&language=&filter=&action=translate translation or proofreading] of this banner text. '''You will be able to read, but not edit, all wikis for a short period of time.''' * You will not be able to edit for up to an hour on {{#time:l j xg Y|2026-09-23|en}}. * If you try to edit or save during these times, you will see an error message. We hope that no edits will be lost during these minutes, but we can't guarantee it. If you see the error message, then please wait until everything is back to normal. Then you should be able to save your edit. But, we recommend that you make a copy of your changes first, just in case. ''Other effects'': * Background jobs will be slower and some may be dropped. Red links might not be updated as quickly as normal. If you create an article that is already linked somewhere else, the link will stay red longer than usual. Some long-running scripts will have to be stopped. * We expect the code deployments to happen as any other week. However, some case-by-case code freezes could punctually happen if the operation require them afterwards. * [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/GitLab|GitLab]] will be unavailable for about 90 minutes. This project may be postponed if necessary. You can [[wikitech:Switch_Datacenter|read the schedule at wikitech.wikimedia.org]]. Any changes will be announced in the schedule. '''Please share this information with your community.'''</div><section end="server-switch"/> [[m:user:Trizek (WMF)|Trizek (WMF)]] 12:58, 15 September 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Trizek (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Non-Technical_Village_Pumps_distribution_list&oldid=30513874 --> == Your feedback wanted: Remove ''(Language link added:) and similar'' edits from Special:RecentChanges == ''(Apologies for posting in English. You can help by translating it)'' Hello, I’m Danny from [[:en:w:Wikimedia_Deutschland|Wikimedia Deutschland’s]] [[m:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects|Wikidata For Wikimedia Projects]] team.<br/> We have been investigating and examining how Wikidata’s use in the [[Special:RecentChanges]] and [[Special:Watchlist]] pages can be made to be more useful, or less ‘noisy’ (fewer edits that have little value to the reader). We are currently exploring to make a change in the volume and the type of Wikidata edits that appear in these pages, and '''we need your feedback''' to help us ensure this is a positive change for the Wikis and won’t disrupt your workflows.<br/> Language links are also known as sitelinks or interlanguage links and describe when a Wikidata item is connected to a Wiki, adding it to the language dropdown tool for other connected Wikis. [[File:Types of Lang Link changes.png|x350px|frame|A variety of "Language Link" edits as seen in the Recent Changes feed]] The request for feedback is whether you support the removal of these language link edits from the Recent Changes and Watchlist feed, or would you oppose such a change and if so, why? Please share you thoughts on the dedicated '''[[m:Talk:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Clearer_Wikidata_Edit_Summaries/Hide_Language_Link_edits|metawiki Talk page]]'''. Further information about this change: [[m:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Clearer_Wikidata_Edit_Summaries/Hide_Language_Link_edits|m:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Hide_Language_Link_edits]] Thank you for any participation or feedback you give, -- [[m:User:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)|User:Danny Benjafield (WMDE)]] 12:23, 25 September 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Danny Benjafield (WMDE)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)/MassMessage_test_list&oldid=31080985 --> == Wikidata Sitelink changes in Recent Changes and Watchlist == ''(Apologies for cross-posting in English, translating it will help spread the message)'' Editors on group 1 wikis, including Wikiquote, Wikibooks, Wikiversity, Wikivoyage, and Wikisource, will no longer see notifications on [[Special:RecentChanges|Recent Changes]] and [[Special:Watchlist|Watchlist]] when a link to ''another'' language version of a page is added, removed, or changed in its Wikidata item. This change will begin on '''October 5 at 07:00 UTC''' as a two-week trial to reduce high-volume, low-value notifications and make higher-value changes easier to identify. Editors who rely on these notifications should be aware of the change and can share feedback or concerns on the [[m:Wikidata For Wikimedia Projects/Clearer Wikidata Edit Summaries/Hide Language Link edits|project]] or [[m:Talk:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Clearer_Wikidata_Edit_Summaries/Hide_Language_Link_edits|talk page]].<br/>Please reach out if you have any questions, thank you! -- [[User:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)|Danny Benjafield (WMDE)]] ([[User_talk:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)|talk]]) sent via [[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaWiki message delivery|contribs]]) 12:42, 1 October 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Danny Benjafield (WMDE)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)/MassMessage_test_list&oldid=31106967 --> == Demote [[Wikiversity:CheckUser policy]]? == I am proposing that we demote that policy to a standard page, mostly for two reasons: # Considering the few amount of custodians and the size of this wiki, I'd say that this project is considered too small to have any CUs, and relying on the stewards would be a more logical choice. # We haven't elected two CUs in a few years. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 20:53, 1 October 2026 (UTC) :Reasonable. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 17:09, 4 October 2026 (UTC) qek1yyf7p7vpcmwe8yhnao64p73frhb 0 5481 2836349 2806147 2026-10-06T19:16:38Z ~2026-53646-53 3112232 /* Clouds */ 2836349 wikitext text/x-wiki {{TOCright}} ==== About ==== This wiki is put together in order to aid all of those out there who may be interested in the aviation field. More will come, but at the moment I am more concerned with putting the very basics out there to get people interested in aviation. Sections about aerodynamics, flight maneuvers, and other resources will follow. The idea is to eventually create a '''free''' resource for training that may reduce the great burden that falls on the shoulders of every emerging student pilot. ---- == What, Why? == The two greatest questions that may dissuade people from or entice people into flying are the questions "what?" and "why?". === What === A '''Private Pilot License''' (or, in the [[w:United States|United States]], a ''certificate'') permits the holder to operate an [[w:aircraft|aircraft]] under [[w:visual flight rules|visual flight rules]](VFR). In most countries, a private pilot possessing an [[w:instrument rating|instrument rating]] may also conduct flights under [[w:instrument flight rules|instrument flight rules]]. Passengers may be carried and [[w:flight|flight]] in furtherance of a business is permitted; however, a private pilot may not be compensated in any way for services as a pilot and must pay at least the pro rated share of a flight's expenses. Neither passengers nor cargo may be carried for hire. For more information see: [[w:Pilot certification in the United States#Private Pilot]] ==== Practical Test Standards for Private Pilots ==== The official requirements, known as the Practical Test Standards (PTS), by the FAA to set common rules and expectations for examiners, instructors and examinees are listed below. * [http://www.faa.gov/education_research/testing/airmen/test_standards/pilot/media/FAA-S-8081-14A.pdf Private Pilot Practical Test Standards for Airplane] * [http://www.faa.gov/education_research/testing/airmen/test_standards/pilot/media/FAA-S-8081-15a.pdf Private Pilot Practical Test Standards for Rotorcraft, Helicopter, and Gyroplane] * [http://www.faa.gov/education_research/testing/airmen/test_standards/pilot/media/FAA-S-8081-17.pdf Private Pilot Practical Test Standards for Lighter-Than-Air] * [http://www.faa.gov/education_research/testing/airmen/test_standards/pilot/media/FAA-S-8081-22.pdf Private Pilot Practical Test Standards for Glider] * [http://www.faa.gov/education_research/testing/airmen/test_standards/pilot/media/FAA-S-8081-32.pdf Private Pilot Practical Test Standards for Powered Parachute and Weight Shift Control] The remainder of this page focuses specifically on the Airplane Single Engine Land (ASEL) rating. === Why? === People become pilots for many reasons. You may do it to have a goal to work at. You may do it because you need a way to commute to work faster. You may do it because it is your life long dream, or a more recently developed dream after being around or flying in an aircraft. Whatever the reason, aviation will become a way of life for you if you do. You will not regret a single penny of the money you spend, or a single second of the time you labor. It is one of the most satisfying feelings in the world to know you are a pilot. I recommend it to anyone. == Getting Started == It's not just as easy as jumping into the cockpit and fire-walling the throttle, there is some work for you to do first. == What You'll Need To Do == According to the FARs (Federal Aviation Regulations) there are some things you'll need to do to become a pilot. 1. First you will need to be at least 17 years old at the time of certification. 2. Have a current FAA third-class medical certificate. 3. Log at least 40 hours of flight. At least 20 hours of flight with an instructor. At least 10 hours of solo flight. 4. You must be able to read, speak, and write in English. This is so that pilots can communicate between each other and with the air traffic controllers. 5. Pass two knowledge tests. a) The FAA Private Pilot Airmen Knowledge written test (on which you must score at least 70%). b) An oral exam administered by an FAA Designated Flight Examiner during a portion of your checkride. There is no pass/fail score given, simply a session where the examiner ensures that you have the proper knowledge to safely conduct flight as a private pilot. There is no requirement as to what questions must be asked or how long it should take, it is up to the discretion of the examiner. Some have been rumored to do straight Question/Answer oral exams, while others conduct their oral exam more like a discussion. PLEASE NOTE: There is a new FAA approved Sport Pilot category which now permits a class of aircraft to be operated by individuals with a Sport Pilot license. This license has less stringent requirements, e.g. a valid U.S. driver's license can be used as evidence of medical eligibility (provided the individual does not have an official denial or revocation of medical eligibility on file with FAA). For more info, see www.sportpilot.org or www.faa-sport-pilot.com. == What to Start With == Before you even try to spend your money on flying, try to get an introductory lesson for a fairly inexpensive price (about $100, depending on the flight school), or a ride in an airplane from a flying friend or family member. You'll know from the beginning if this is something you want to pursue. After that, get all the information in written form you can. The ASA FAR/AIM book is an excellent resource to start studying all the regulations (found in the FAR section) as well as general procedural information found in the Airman's Information Manual (AIM) section. It is very helpful to go in to flight training with as much knowledge possible, and use that knowledge to supplement the practical training you will receive as a student. == Choosing a Flight School == In the United States, there are two types of schools: the larger more corporate flight schools, known as a "Part 141" school (a reference to the section of Federal Aviation Regulations (FAR) which dictates operation of said school), like Superior Flight School, Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University, etc, and the smaller "Part 61" flight schools, that typically are nothing much more than an instructor that calls his flight school his home business, but some large flight schools, such as Sporty's, operate under both sets of regulations. The FAR Part that the flight school operates under has nothing to do with the quality of instructor you will find there. Either school will get you to where you wish to be. However, Part 141 schools are normally designed for "streamlined" training, that is, creating a lot of pilots in not a lot of time. These types of schools are typically more beneficial for those seeking to become professional pilots, due to slightly lower minimum requirements in terms of hours, and are usually structured as an "aviation immersion", where you walk, talk, eat and sleep aviation. A Part 141 school is overseen by the FAA very closely, ensuring that the pilots, instructors, aircraft, and owner/operators all meet the standards as outlined in 14CFR 141. Part 141 schools are generally much larger then a Part 61 operation, and are required to have an FAA approved curriculum. Part 141 flight schools typically require an up-front payment (or a loan, subject to credit approval) for the entire course before lessons begin. Part 61 operations can be owned by one or two instructors, and are typically small. Typically, instruction is scheduled and paid for one lesson at a time, and one hour per lesson. Keep in mind, though there are schools that operate under part 61, it does NOT have to be an official "school" to teach you how to fly. Your neighbor the flight instructor could instruct you under part 61 regardless of a school affiliation. However, there are regulations that pertain to the aircraft used for flight instruction, which your instructor needs to be aware of if he is using a privately owned aircraft. Both are good, but again, you must keep your goals in mind. A Part 61 school will be fine for renting and learning to fly a Supercub[[[w:The New Piper Aircraft]]], but it may not be the best choice on the road to becoming an ATP[[[w:Airline Transport Pilot License]]], as the overall costs will be higher. However, whether you conduct your training under Part 61 or 141, you can reach the same level, and attain the same certificate without limitations. Talk to graduates from your local schools, and see who they'd recommend. Remember, pilots want safe pilots flying with them, and if they don't think a certain instructor trains competent pilots, heed their warnings, you want to be the very safest pilot in the air. == Flight School For Dummies == === Follow Through === Remember during your training this one thing: "I CAN DO IT." Regardless of how tough it may seem along the way, you will always regret it if you decide half-way through that you did not have what it takes. Your own drive is probably the greatest of your allies. === Cost === A question often asked of private pilots is, "What does it cost to get your license." It can be expensive, but remember: you're flying from the very beginning. Flight school can cost a lot. The average flight training costs about $8,000 dollars, though I know people who have gotten it for less than $4000. Most flight schools charge by the hour-- both for the airplane, and the instructor. Airplane [http://www.elephantcarhire.com/ rental] can range anywhere from $70 per hour (for a Piper J-3 Cub or similar aircraft) to $170 per hour (for a brand-new Cessna 172 with all the latest avionics). There are, of course, many aircraft whose rental prices fall in between these numbers. Beware of flight schools that quote "dry" prices. If a certain flight school is quoting prices that seem much lower than the cost at surrounding flight schools, they're probably not including the price of Avgas. Avgas in the United States costs twice as much as automotive gasoline, and the average training aircraft burns about 8-12 gallons per hour of it. Most flight schools will try to steer you into training in a Cessna 172. However, most schools have a smaller and cheaper aircraft like a Cessna 152. They will most likely be glad to train you in it, but only if you ask. The smaller planes usually have payload restrictions as well, so if you are heavier or larger than average this may not be an option. Rental prices are associated with a specific airplane, not a specific ''type'' of an airplane. One airfield can have two of the same type of aircraft with different prices, reflecting how new each aircraft is and how advanced their avionics are. Flight schools will charge anywhere from $30 to $60 per hour for the instructor. Aviation is furthermore plagued by price-gouging. You will most likely, before your first solo flight, have to purchase a headset. The very cheapest airplane headsets, which are every bit as flimsy as the $10 headphones sold at the local drug store, cost over $100. A ''good'' headset like the one your flight instructor is likely to let you borrow until you solo will run you about $200-350. There are also newer style noise canceling headsets that make things a little quieter. These, however, cost upwards of $500 and are probably not necessary for the new student pilot but it's something to consider. The minimum requirements to obtain your Private Pilot Single Engine Land license is: * Be 17 years of age or older * Be able to read, speak, write and understand the English language * Valid 3rd Class Medical Certificate Required * Minimum 40 hours total flight time * Minimum 20 hours flight instruction * Pass a written examination * Pass a practical examination In order to pass the written examination, some students take ground school courses taught by the local training center. Others study using one of the popular video courses offered by companies such as King or Sporty's. Either choice will cost roughly $250. While the minimum requirements are lower, the current average student in the US will need between 60 and 80 hours of flight time to get the private pilot certificate. Again, the quality of the training and your own commitment are going to play a role in this. If you cannot afford to fly every day for a month, your price is going to increase due to the extra time it will take you to get back in the habit every week when you do fly. The best and cheapest way to get your certificate is to do it all at once. That way, you can feel your progress and have a more intuitive grasp of how the plane flies. This is crucial to the training of a successful pilot. There are organizations that offer scholarships to people wishing to become pilots. As well, there are companies that specialize in loans for those interested in learning to fly, so that you can have the money available to complete your training in a timely manner. Someone at your flight school may be able to help you with these different options. The expense does not end with the acquisition of your license. You will eventually have to buy insurance, which most insurance companies require to be paid annually. If you do not fly regularly, you will lose some of your skills, so you must regularly rent an airplane to maintain proficiency. If you're trying for your commercial license, you must eventually rent ever more expensive airplanes that have retractable gear ($150-$300 per hour) and twin engines ($200/hour minimum). If you think owning an airplane will save you any money, think again. While an average training airplane may only cost as much as a new sports car to purchase, there are many other costs to consider. Expensive routine maintenance costs as well as unexpected maintenance, tie-down or hangar rent, aircraft insurance, annual inspections, and countless other costs associated with ownership quickly add up. The weekend warrior who flies occasionally will quickly realize his expenses quickly exceed what he paid when renting. More about ownership will be touched on later. === The framework of regulations === You are going to move in an environment where safety is the main factor: the world of aeronautics. For this reason the rules and regulations are created so that they can be adapted to the world of aeronautics today to guarantee the safety of those who, at present, take part. The great majority of countries that take part in aeronautical activities move in a framework of regulations always for the reasons of security. We are interested in the regulations that affect the Private Pilot and the 'insight flying. (VFR Visual Flight Rules.) The organizations that are active at different levels, [World, European, National and Regional] produce the text and carry out the regulations and controls that apply to them. All that are active in aeronautics, and in particular the users, depend on such organizations. We are going to take and look at these frameworks of regulations that you will move in to get the title of Private Pilot and In sight flight VFR. We are interested, right away, in the aspect of the regulations that affect us closely. You are going to need to know the rules of navigation. We are talking about the license and the privileges it offers, the rules of pilot training. In particular certain qualifications and the medical condition of the trainee pilot. We will look at what is an 'aircraft'. The term is generic and designates all apparatus that can take off and move in the air: airplanes, microlights, helicopters, hang gliders, balloons, and so on. = Basic Aerodynamics = [[File:Aeroforces.svg|thumb|700px|The four forces of [[w:flight|flight]].]] <br style="clear: both;" /> Aerodynamics is the study of fluids in motion. You may not think of it, but air is in fact a fluid. To be a competent pilot you must have at least a basic knowledge of aerodynamics. An airplane in flight has four external forces acting on it at all times: lift opposes weight, and thrust opposes drag. If lift and weight are equal the aircraft will stay at a constant altitude. If thrust and drag are equal the aircraft will stay at the same speed. === Lift === Anytime air flows over the wing of an airplane it produces lift. The curved shape of the wing causes high pressure areas in front of and below the wing, and low pressure areas above and behind the wing. This basically causes the air to "push" upwards on the bottom of the wing more than it pushes down on the top. The wing also produces lift by deflecting air downwards. Since every action has an equal and opposite reaction, the air being pushed down causes the wind to be pushed up. A common misconception about how planes fly uses Bernoulli's principle. It says that top of the wing is curved, therefore the air takes the air longer to get over the top of the wing than to get under the bottom of the wing. Bernoulli's principle states that at a given volume, a fluid flowing faster has a lower pressure than a fluid flowing slower. So the faster flowing air on top of the wing creates a low pressure area, thus lifting the wing. This is untrue, as molecules of air don't know how long it "should" take them to transit the wing. The molecules on top don't know that they need to speed up to keep pace with a molecule on the bottom. A high pressure center is created at the wing's leading edge causing a relative low pressure area above. Air molecules accelerate into this low pressure area, rather than causing it by their acceleration. While differential pressure does play a role in lift, studies at NASA's Glenn Research Center have concluded that the primary reason for the lifting force is the downward ''bending'' of the air that is manipulated by the airfoil. === Weight === The force that opposes lift, caused by the gravitational attraction between the earth and the aircraft. === Thrust === Thrust is a reaction force described by Newton's Second and Third Laws. When a system expels or accelerates mass in one direction the accelerated mass will cause a proportional but opposite force on that system. Airplanes create thrust by "throwing" air backwards. Propeller driven airplanes have curved blades just like on a fan, that blow air towards the back of the plane. Jet airplanes force the expanding gases from combustion out the back of the engine. In both cases the air being pushed backwards equally and oppositely pushes the plane forward. === Drag === Drag is the force that opposes thrust. There are two types of drag at work on an airplane in flight: parasite and induced drag. Parasite drag is caused by anything on the airplane that interferes with smooth airflow around it. Wheels on non-retractable gear plane, wing struts, opening a window and sticking your hand out are all major examples of parasite drag. Even the skin of the plane causes parasite drag, due to friction slowing down the airflow extremely close to the skin of the craft. Parasite drag increases as airspeed increases. The second type of drag is induced drag.Induced drag is a byproduct of lift.As the amount of lift needed to maintain level flight increases so does induced drag.Wing tip vorticies are an example of a cause of induced drag.As speed is increased induced drag is decreased but parasite drag is increased.Where parasite and induced drag lines meet on a chart is where the aircraft will fly most efficiently or the best lift/drag ratio. = Standard Day = <!--standard day is a term usually used to describe 15 degrees celsius and a pressure of 29.92 inches of mercury, it has more significance to performance than weather i think :P--> == Weather == == Winds == Wind can best be described as a mass of air traveling in a given direction. For the purposes of pilots, wind plays a role: in navigation, in fuel consumption, and in safety. == Temperature == Standard temperature is 15 degrees C (59 degrees F). Standard pressure is 29.92 Hg. == Clouds == Clouds occur when water vapor in the air condenses. The water vapor will condense, the surface temperature has reached to dew point. Air temperature usually decreases with altitude. On a dry day temperature decreases faster for a given gain of altitude. When the humidity is high, on the other hand, temperature will decrease less for a given increase in altitude. The rate at which temperature normally decreases with altitude is called the adiabatic lapse rate. The normal (adiabatic) lapse rate is about 2 degrees Celsius per 1000ft (3.6 degrees Fahrenheit per 1000ft). Since temperature decreases with altitude, rising air will form a cloud when the air temperature is equal to its dew point. There are many types of clouds that are useful for pilots to learn, because they can indicate weather conditions. = Systems and Aircraft Components = In this segment I will cover the systems for a 1967 Cessna 150. I chose this aircraft because it is a fairly common training aircraft, and it has fairly simple systems. More complex aircraft require more study when it comes to systems. == Pitot-Static == This system consists of a pitot-tube, and a static port. These components measure air pressure, and are necessary for the operation of the altimeter, airspeed indicator, and vertical speed indicator. The pitot tube measures impact air pressure, it is mounted in some area where the airflow is not turbulent to reduce instrument error. Usually the pitot-tube is located under the pilot side wing, the left wing. As the aircraft moves faster through the air, the air pressure at the pitot-tube opening increases. If an airplane sits still on the ground and is pointed into the wind, the airspeed indicator will indicate the wind speed; this is good because an airplane's performance depends on airspeed, not groundspeed. A static port is used to measure the atmospheric pressure around the aircraft. The static port is located in front of the left door on many general aviation aircraft. As the altitude of the airplane increases the pressure decreases at a relatively linear rate, meaning that the static port is useful for measuring altitude, and vertical speed. === Instrument errors === Icing, or other obstructions can block either the static-port or pitot-tube. Specific instrument errors and how to recognize them are detailed in"From the Ground Up". The procedures used to deal with faulty components are spelled out in the aircraft's Pilot Information Handbook(POH). Airplanes are usually equipped with a backup static port inside the cabin of the aircraft. == Powerplant == The powerplant is the source of thrust for an aircraft. On general aviation aircraft it is usually a four stroke reciprocating petroleum burning engine, similar to a car. === Fuel === The fuel system consists of the storage tanks, pumps and lines used to deliver fuel, and some kind of instrument for mixing the fuel with air. Before the fuel can enter the cylinder for combustion, it must be mixed with air in the correct proportion. Fuel is mixed with air in a carburetor, or is introduced into the system unmixed by fuel injectors. Aviation gasoline is a low-lead product containing tetraethyl lead. This compound is supplied worldwide by a single company. The continued availability of low-lead avgas containing this compound is unlikely over the next couple of decades. For this reason, many light sport aircraft have engines designed to burn conventional automobile gasoline. The increasing use of ethanol in automobile gasoline may impact its use in any aircraft engines that are not designed or modified for its use. Turbine and jet engines use a kerosene-based fuel that is under no immediate danger of being discontinued. === Ignition === The electricity used to generate the spark at the beginning of the power stroke comes from magnetos. The use of magnetos allows the ignition system to be completely independent on the rest of the electrical system, i.e. the battery and alternator. === Lubrication === The lubrication system reduces friction, helps cool the engine, and helps clean the engine. General aviation powerplants usually run at higher temperatures than automotive engines, so a higher viscosity oil is used. Usually aircraft checklists will require that oil pressure be within the green limit soon after the engine starts, this is because low pressure could indicate that oil is not circulating. === Cooling === Usually a general aviation powerplant is air cooled. The engine cylinders are horizontally opposed to allow for more air surrounding each cylinder. Each cylinder has many fins attached to it, to increase surface area. Sometimes baffles are used to direct airflow through the engine compartment. == Electrical == == Flight Control Surfaces == In many light aircraft, typically used for the purpose of training, the aircraft consists of various flight control surfaces. These include:''ailerons'', ''rudder'', ''elevator'' and ''flaps''. ''Ailerons'' are used for primary directional control and are usually located on the trailing edge of each wing tip.Using the control column or "stick" one aileron is deflected up while the other is deflected down causing one wing to rise while the other is lowered , resulting in the turn. ''Rudder'' is mainly used to prevent the undesirable effect of drag that is created during a turn or to "coordinate the turn".It is used to assist in the turn under normal circumstances but can be used to turn ,or stop a turn , on its own(for example at times when the ailerons are mostly ineffective such as in a spin). The rudder is located on the vertical stabilizer at the tail of the aircraft.Rudder is normally manipulated by depressing the foot pedals located in the aircraft. ''Elevator'' controls the vertical direction of an aircraft(climbing or descending).It is located on the horizontal stabilizer of the aircraft at the tail section and is also controlled by use of the control column or"stick".Back pressure on the control column deflects the elevator upwards changing the flightpath of the aircraft upwards.The opposite is true when forward pressure is applied to the control column. ''Flaps'' are not considered a "true" control surface because they do not control the direction an aircraft is traveling(up ,down,left or right).However,they do control the rate or speed and angle at which an aircraft climbs or descends.Flaps change the cross sectional shape of the wing or camber by deflecting them downwards in increments(usually three or four),this usually permits the aircraft to fly at slower speeds and also increases forward visibility.Flaps are primarily used during approach and landing ,but can also be used to reduce takeoff roll.They are located on the inboard section of the wing on the trailing edge and are usually manipulated by an electrical switch or mechanical lever in the aircraft. Flight controls produce many complex reactions when introduced to an airflow so it is recommended that a good understanding of Theory of Flight and Flight Aerodynamics be attained before trying to understand them fully. = In The Cockpit Basics = The basic thing to remember in the cockpit is this: "THINK!" Being impulsive will get you nowhere-in fact, it will get you killed – know what and how to do what ever needs to be done. If you don't, ask someone. They will be certain to help. == Checklists == Aviation is very procedural. Every action you will undertake in the aircraft will have a checklist tied to it somewhere. Many of the checklists are simple, and can be memorized, but this is not always a good practice. Memories can be faulty, and in aviation a faulty memory can be a death sentence. Use your checklists. === Preflight === Here is an example of a checklist for a [[w:Cessna 150|1967 Cessna 150]] (which is the aircraft we will use as an example most often in this tutorial) This checklist should not be used as a replacement for your instructor's checklist. It should only be used as an example. The general idea behind any checklist is to establish a standardized, and methodical routine for some operation. Checklists provide peace of mind for pilots because they aren't wondering if they remembered to check something as they are flying. '''PREFLIGHT CHECKLIST''' '''(1)Remove Control Locks and Tiedown Ropes''' ''This is the first portion. Here we approach the aircraft, and begin our systematic search for problems that will make the aircraft unsafe. We unrope the aircraft, and remove the control locks so that the aircraft is free and able to move.'' '''(2)Master - - On''' ''By turning on the master switch, we have given the aircraft instruments, gyroscopes, and other electrically driven systems life.'' '''(3)Flaps - - Down''' ''We lower the flaps so that we may later inspect their integrity.'' '''(4)Fuel Gauge - - Check''' ''The fuel gauges only work when the master is on'' '''(5)Master - - Off''' ''By turning the master off, we insure battery life. Without it, the engine will not be able to start.'' '''(6)Ignition (MAGS) - - Off''' ''This is to make sure that the magnetos, which control the engine sparkplugs are off. If they were on, and you move the prop, the engine might turn over and kill you'' '''(7)Throttle - - Closed (Pulled Out)''' ''This is to make sure that if even if the magnetos were not grounded, and the engine were to start, it will not be able to run because there would be little or no fuel running into the engine.'' '''(8)Mixture - - Lean (Pulled Out)''' ''Similar to above, this ensures that even if the throttle has some fuel running through it, the fuel-air mixture in the cylinders will be excessively lean, and the engine will be unable to continue running.'' '''(9)Sample Fuel (Check for Water & Sediment) - - Left Wing''' ''By draining fuel into a small clear container, we ensure that there is no water or debris in the fuel. Unclean fuel could lead to engine damage, or, in a bad case, to engine failure.'' Water in the engine would cause the engine to stop because water will not combust. '''(10)Inspect Left Side of Fuselage for Damage''' ''Here we are looking for wrinkles, or anything that might impede the integrity of the airflow. If the aircraft is not streamlined, it will not fly very well.'' '''(11)Inspect Leading Edge of Horizontal & Vertical Stabilizer for Damage''' ''Again, check for wrinkles, and any sort of damage. If our vertical stabilizer was broken, maintaining a level attitude would be hard.'' '''(12)Inspect Skin on Tail Surfaces for Damage''' ''Smooth airflow is the key. Rough airflow will get you killed.'' '''(13)Check Stabilizers, Elevator, and Rudder for excessive travel''' ''If they seem to go to far up or down, there is probably a problem. The push rods that control their movement may be damaged.'' '''(14)Check that Hinge Bolts are fastened & Cotter Pins are in Place on Tail''' '''Surfaces''' ''This is to make sure that the aircraft's tail is actually fastened in place, and not just hanging there.'' '''(15)Inspect Right Side of Fuselage for Damage''' ''Yet again we are looking for wrinkles, or anything that might impede the integrity of the airflow. Again, if the aircraft is not streamlined, it will not fly very well.'' '''(16)Drain Fuel (Check for Water & Sediment) - - Right Wing''' ''Same purpose as the above check.'' '''(17)Check Flaps for excessive travel, bolts are fastened, and Control Rod is attached and is not bent''' ''If the flaps are not properly attached, asymmetrical flap position, and or the flaps going up through the wing could result. Those are not too favorable outcomes.'' '''(18)Check Ailerons for excessive travel, hinges are attached and not Cracked, Cotter Pins are attached to hinge ends''' ''The ailerons control roll, if they are broken, it will be more difficult to control the aircraft. Make sure they will function.'' '''(19)Remove all Ice Formation from Aileron''' ''This is incredibly important. Ice changes the surface of the aileron, and may make it less effective. It may also limit the movement of the aileron.'' '''(20)Check that Lead Weights are attached to Aileron''' ''These weight the aileron in order to ensure a return to their original, "neutral" position.'' '''(21)Shake Right Wing Up and Down - - Check for tightness and unusual''' '''Sounds''' '''(22)Check Wing Struts - - Check for tightness and unusual sounds''' '''(23)Inspect Right Wing for Damage - - Check for Wrinkles''' '''(24)Inspect Main Landing Gear for Damage''' '''(25)Inspect Main Landing Gear Tire for proper inflation, cuts, condition ''' '''of tread, or foreign objects (screws or nails in tire)''' '''(26)Inspect Brake Pads for wear''' '''(27)Inspect Brake Line for leaks ''' '''(28)Check that Wheel is fastened to Landing Gear (Cotter Pin is in Place)''' '''(29)Check Oil Level (4 ½ Quarts Minimum to 6 Quarts Maximum)''' '''(30)Check Oil Breather for blockage''' '''(31)Drain Fuel from Fuel Strainer''' '''(32)Check Inside the Cowling (Nose of Aircraft) for loose Wiring, ''' '''Oil Leaks, Fuel Leaks, All Engine Accessories are installed and installed''' '''correctly''' '''(33)Check that Cowling is fastened correctly - - All Screws are attached ''' '''(34)Check Propeller & Spinner - - Check for Damage and Security''' '''(35)Check Engine Baffle - - Check for Damage and Security''' '''(36)Check Engine Baffle Seals - - Check for Damage and Security''' '''(37)Check Engine Exhaust Pipes - - Check for Damage and Security''' '''(38)Check Carburetor Air Filter - - Clean''' '''(39)Inspect Nose Gear for Damage and Proper Inflation (2 inch spread on Nose Strut)''' '''(40)Inspect Nose Gear Shimmy Dampener for Damage''' '''(41)Check that all Bolts and Nuts are attached to nose fork assembly''' '''(42)Inspect Nose Gear Tire for proper inflation, cuts, condition of Tread,''' '''or''' '''foreign objects (screws or nails in tire)''' '''(43)Check that Wheel is fastened to Nose Gear - - Bolt and Nut Attached''' '''(44)Check Condition of Steering Rod Boots''' '''(45)Check Static Port for Damage and Obstructions''' '''(46)Check Radio Cooling Vent for Damage and Obstructions''' '''(47)Check Pitot Tube for Damage and Obstructions''' '''(48)Check Fuel Overflow Tube for Damage and Obstructions''' '''(49)Check Stall Warning Port for Damage and Obstructions''' '''(50)Check Wing Struts - - Check for tightness and unusual sounds''' '''(51)Inspect Left Wing for Damage – Check for Wrinkles''' '''(52)Shake Left Wing Up and Down - - Check for tightness and unusual sounds''' '''(53)Check Ailerons for excessive travel, hinges are attached and not''' '''cracked,''' '''Cotter Pins are attached to hinge ends, Control Rod attached''' '''(54)Remove All Ice Formation from Aileron''' '''(55)Check that Lead Weights are attached to Aileron''' '''(56)Check Flaps for excessive travel, bolts are fastened, and Control Rod''' '''is''' '''attached and is not bent''' '''(57)Inspect Main Landing Gear for Damage ''' '''(58)Inspect Main Landing Gear Tire for Proper inflation, cuts, condition''' '''of''' '''tread, or foreign objects (screws or nails in tire)''' '''(59)Inspect Brake Pads for wear''' '''(60)Inspect Brake Line for leaks''' '''(61)Check that Wheel is fastened to Landing Gear (Cotter Pin is in place)''' '''(62)Check Left Fuel Tank''' '''(63)Check Right Fuel Tank''' '''(64)Check Top of Wings for Damage''' '''(65)Remove all Ice Formation From the Top and Bottom of All Surfaces ''' '''(66)Check Navigation Lights, Landing Lights, Strobe Lights, Pulse Light''' '''System, and the Beacon for Damage and Proper Illumination''' '''(67)Check Antennas for Damage''' '''(68)Remove all Debris under Propeller (rocks etc.)''' '''(69)Fold up Step Ladder and put it in the bed of the truck''' As complicated as this may seem, it is barely anything. The checklists that needed to be completed to launch the Apollo Spacecraft would take days to complete. This only takes 45 minutes or so. Once you become more accustomed to your aircraft you will establish a natural flow in the preflight inspection you will be able to complete the preflight without a checklist and it should take no longer than 15 to 20 minutes. === Post-flight === Here is an example of a post-flight checklist for the same aircraft[[[w:Cessna 150]]] as above. '''After Landing''': (1)Wing Flaps - - Up (2)Carburetor Heat - - Cold (3)Transponder - - Off '''Securing Airplane''': (1)Brake - - Set (2)CLOSE FLIGHT PLAN (3)Comm Radio - - Tune to 121.5 (Make sure ELT is not activated) (4)Radios - - (COMM, VOR, ADF, GPS, DME & INTERCOM) - - Off (5)Radio Master - - Off (6)Strobe & Landing Lights - - Off (7)Pulse Lights - - Off (8)Mixture - - Idle Cut-Off (Pull Full Out) (9)Ignition (Mags) - - Off (10)Master Switch - - Off (11)Nav. & Beacon Lights - - Off (12)Control Lock - - Install = Take Off = The basic point behind take off is simple. Get the airplane in the air without crashing into anything! There are a couple of standard ways to do this: == Standard == The standard way to take off is fairly simple. Advance the throttle to full, and start off down the runway. Once your speed has sufficiently built (this should be your Vr speed) you pull back gently on the yoke or stick, and raise the nose gear off of the runway. The airplane should, at this point, fly itself off the runway and into the air. Let the airspeed build to the Vx (best angle of climb) until you have cleared any obstacles then accelerate to Vy (best rate of climb). == Short Field == == Cross Wind == == To Clear a Fifty Foot Obstacle == == Soft Field == Sometimes you want to get the airplane airborne at the lowest possible airspeed, using the shortest possible takeoff roll. For example, gooey mud on the runway will cause tremendous amounts of friction on the wheels. The sooner you become airborne, the sooner you are free of that friction and the better you will be able to accelerate. Additional reasons for using soft-field procedure will be given below. The procedure is as follows: * Extend the flaps as recommended by the manufacturer; in the absence of a specific recommendation, extend the flaps so that they just match a fully down-deflected aileron. The idea is to get the most coefficient of lift without undue drag. * At the beginning of the takeoff roll, pull the yoke fully backward. Early in the takeoff roll, the nose will rise. Allow it to rise to the pitch attitude that corresponds to the stalling angle of attack, or slightly less. This is typically about 15 degrees nose up. * To maintain this pitch attitude as the aircraft accelerates, you will have to gradually let the yoke move forward. You will become airborne at a very low airspeed --- roughly the stalling speed. If you were to maintain the liftoff attitude, a typical airplane will accelerate poorly while climbing poorly, but that’s not what we want. (A lower-powered airplane might get into a situation where it can neither accelerate nor climb.) Instead, gradually lower the nose, so that you fly parallel to the ground, remaining one foot above the ground. As the aircraft accelerates in ground effect, the required angle of attack will decrease, so you will see the pitch attitude get lower and lower. There are two ways of completing the maneuver. If the field is unobstructed, remain in ground effect until the pitch attitude (and angle of attack) have decreased to their normal takeoff values. Then climb while accelerating to VY just as in the normal takeoff . If, however, there are obstacles, it is better to remain in ground effect until the speed approaches VX, then raise the nose and climb out while maintaining VX as in the obstructed-field takeoff. You may be surprised at how well soft-field procedure works. Just after liftoff, the airspeed is extremely low. In ordinary conditions of flight, your airplane might well have a negative rate of climb at that airspeed --- yet in this case it not only maintains altitude, but accelerates. The special ingredient in this case is ground effect: a wing produces very little induced drag while it is in ground effect (that is, roughly, within one wingspan or less off the ground). Just after liftoff using this procedure, * there is no rolling friction because the wheels are not touching the ground; * there is very little induced drag because you are in ground effect; and * there is very little parasite drag because you are moving slowly; and * no power is being used for climb because you are moving horizontally. The engine is producing full power, so if none of it goes into drag and none of it goes into climb, the airplane will accelerate like crazy. There are many situations where this procedure is useful. * If the runway is covered with mud, tall grass, sand, or snow, there can be troublesome amounts of friction against the wheels. Soft-field procedure allows you to transfer the airplane’s weight from the wheels to the wings as early as possible, decreasing friction and improving acceleration. * If the runway is rough and bumpy, the problem is not so much friction, but rather damage from hitting a bump at high speed. The sooner you lift off, the less harm to the airplane. Remember, the force involved in hitting a bump goes like the square of the groundspeed. Suppose the runway is perfectly smooth and firm, but very short --- and suppose it is surrounded by open fields with lots of bumps but no serious obstacles. You can become airborne over the runway, and then accelerate in ground effect over the fields. Suppose you are attempting an ordinary takeoff from an ordinary field, but due to a gust (or perhaps even a lapse in pilot technique) you become airborne at a too-low airspeed. The best strategy is to accelerate in ground effect; you don’t want to re-contact the runway (especially if there is a crosswind) and you don’t want to try climbing at the too-low airspeed. In all cases you must be careful to remain in ground effect until you have accelerated to a proper climb speed. If you try to climb at the liftoff speed you will have a big problem: in many cases, you will be unable to climb out of ground effect. That is, as soon as you climb to a height where ground effect is no longer significant, the induced drag will become so large that you will be unable to climb or accelerate. '''Import Considerations''' * Brief the Passengers If you have passengers aboard who haven’t seen a soft-field takeoff before, give them the courtesy of an explanation. Otherwise, they may find the procedure extremely disturbing. Just tell them you will lift off at a low airspeed and they fly horizontally for a few moments while you accelerate to the optimal climb speed. Tell them that (a) this is standard procedure for getting best performance, and (b) it minimizes jolts to the passengers. * Maneuver by Reference to the Edge Line Whereas in a normal takeoff you can guide the airplane by looking out the front, in a soft-field takeoff the nose will block your view during most of the maneuver. Therefore you must use the edge of the runway as your reference. Practice this skill during taxi. You will need this skill for landings and for soft-field takeoffs, but those aren’t the best times to be learning it. ref:http://www.av8n.com/how/htm/takeoff.html = Landings = == Standard == == Short Field == == Soft Field == == Cross Wind == == Go – Arounds (Balked) == A go-around can be needed for any number of reasons, but most involve either an unsafe runway to land on or a poor approach to where the pilot is not in a position to make a safe landing. Once the pilot decides to go-around or Air Traffic Control (ATC) has instructed the pilot to go-around, the pilot will apply full power and stop the descent to the runway. After the pilot has done this, (s)he will raise the landing gear (if applicable) and raise the flaps (upon reaching a safe airspeed). In a normal situation, the pilot will begin a climb to the traffic pattern altitude and make a normal pattern for another attempt to land. = Steep Turns = Steep turns are a basic maneuver that all pilots know how to accomplish. The bank angle for private pilots is 45 degrees to the left and right. Airspeed, altitude and the 45 degree bank angle must be maintained for this maneuver to be completed properly. The student should choose a point that allows them to know when a 360 degree turn has occurred. This is a visual maneuver and should be done looking only outside the aircraft at all times. For commercial pilot standards, a 50 degree bank must be maintained. For specifics on tolerances, refer to the FAA PTS Private Pilot or Commercial PDF or handbook. = Slow Flight = [[File:LiftCurve.svg|frame|none|A common curve of lift for general aviation aircraft.]] The purpose of slow flight is to demonstrate positive aircraft control at slow airspeeds. Most light single engined aircraft such as Piper's or Cessna's can slow to 45-50 knots for the slow flight maneuver. Different flap settings can be used, as well as power settings. Turns will be demonstrated that should use no more than 5 degrees of bank. If more than 5 degrees is used, aircraft control can be lost and a stall can occur. ---- == Maneuvering == == Power Off Stalls == Practicing power off stalls teaches the student to recognize and avoid stall situations that might be encountered during engine failure. If a stall should occur, the student learns how to recover quickly. A stall is a condition in aerodynamics and aviation where the angle between the wing's chord line and the relative wind, defined as the angle of attack, exceeds the critical angle of attack. This angle is typically 17 to 20 degrees for many subsonic airfoils. The critical angle of attack is the angle of attack on the lift coefficient versus angle-of-attack curve at which the maximum lift coefficient occurs, and it defines the boundary between the wing's linear and nonlinear regimes. Flow separation begins to occur at this point, decreasing lift, increasing drag, and changing the wing's pitching moment. A fixed-wing aircraft during a stall may experience buffeting, a change in pitching moment (nose up or nose down depending on tailplane configuration), and changes in most stability derivatives. Most aircraft are designed to have a gradual stall with characteristics that will warn the pilot and give the pilot time to react. For example an aircraft that does not buffet before the stall may have a stick shaker installed to simulate the feel of a buffet by vibrating the stick fore and aft. The critical angle of attack can at 1&nbsp;g only be attained at low airspeed. Attempts to increase the angle of attack at higher airspeeds merely cause the aircraft to climb. Consequently at 1&nbsp;g, stalling occurs only when the aircraft is flying slowly. Because of the reduced airflow at low airspeeds aileron control of roll becomes less effective, whereas the tendency for the ailerons to generate adverse yaw increases. Any yaw will increase the lift from the advancing wing and will cause the aircraft roll. Pitch and roll damping decrease due to lower dynamic pressures above and below the wings and turbulence in the airflow. Increasing the angle of attack between an airfoil and the airflow causes the lift and drag produced to increase. This can continue until a point is reached where maximum lift is generated and this is known as the stall or stall angle. Any further increase in angle does not produce a corresponding increase in lift but will in fact lead to a sudden reduction in lift, a change in pitching moment or a wing drop. This is due to boundary layer separation occurring on the upper surface of the airfoil, and therefore the critical angle of attack is dependent not only on the geometry of the configuration, but on the Reynolds number and surface roughness. Depending on the aircraft's design, a stall can expose extremely adverse properties of balance and control. The ease with which a particular craft will recover from a stall depends on the dynamics of the aircraft itself and the skill of the pilot. If the stall persists a high rate of descent will occur and a spin may also develop. Typically, a practice stall is performed at high altitudes (more than 3,000 feet AGL) so the student will feel comfortable and have plenty of time to recover. A power off stall is most likely to occur during landing approach, so it is a vital skill to master. It is also very easy for most students to learn. ref:[[:en:Stall (flight)]] == Power On Stalls == Practicing power-on stalls teaches the student to recognize and avoid stall situations that might be encountered during a climb at low altitude; especially during take off. Since this is a power on stall, recovery is quick and easy because you have the assistance of the engine. Do not consider this maneuver simple or uncomplicated as many different factors are affecting the aircraft at this time, especially if you are at a low altitude. The recovery process is as follows: 1. As the aircraft becomes stalled and loss of the flight control surfaces occurs, or the nose drops, add full power, and use the right rudder to compensate for the torque from the engine. Remember to ALWAYS keep the turn and slip indicator "ball" in the center to stay coordinated. 2. As power is applied simultaniously lower the nose of the aircraft to the horizon or just slightly below to break the stall 3. Let your airspeed build to Vx and maintain altitude or establish a positive rate of climb 4. Once satisfied with the recovery, level off and complete your checklists. A power-on stall is most likely to be encountered during take-off. Due to the low altitude, it is vital that you recover quickly. Typically, stall practice is performed at altitudes at 3,000 feet AGL or more so the student will feel comfortable and have plenty of time to recover. A power on stall is most likely to occur during takeoff, so it is a vital skill to master. This maneuver will take time to master and practice of stalls to stay sharp is important. Remember to check your FAA PTS Private Pilot maneuvers for the minimum altitude, heading and airspeed tolerances. == Spins == Airplanes, especially older ones, are prone to spin whenever they are stalled while in uncoordinated flight. A ''spin'' is an aggravated stall in which the airplane rotates about a vertical axis while descending towards the ground, usually very rapidly. In a slip or skid, one wing receives more airflow than the other, and therefore, if the critical angle of attack is reached, it will happen on one wing before the other. The first wing to stall will drop, its angle of attack will increase (worsening the stall), and its drag will increase. At the same time, the angle of attack on the other wing decreases, along with drag. As a result, the airplane will bank and yaw towards the first wing to stall. If this is corrected immediately by pressing the rudder in the opposite direction of the bank, a normal stall will occur, and a spin is averted. On the other hand, if incorrect action (ie, use of the ailerons) is taken, the aileron increases the angle of attack on the stalled wing even further, and worsens the stall on that wing even more. Incorrect action, or lack of action, then leads to entry into a spin. When you enter a spin, the airplane will point at the ground and rotate about its longitudinal axis, and in most aircraft you will lose altitude 'very quickly'. The spin rate, and descent rate will increase until the spin is fully developed, after which the spin rate and descent rate will stabilize. Airspeed will remain at or below stall speed. If you enter a spin accidentally in the traffic pattern (where spins are most commonly entered into accidentally), you will likely not have time to recover. It is therefore essential to remain in coordinated flight while in the traffic pattern. In particular, don't use the rudder pedals to speed up the turn to final, as there are many dead pilots who made that their last mistake. It is better to overshoot the turn to final than to put yourself and your passengers at risk for a low-altitude spin. ---- '''Spinning on purpose''' Practicing spins teaches the student to recognize and avoid spin situations that might be encountered during takeoff, landing, or normal flight. Typically, spin practice is performed at high altitudes, so the student will feel comfortable and have plenty of time to recover. A spin is most likely to occur during the early part of the takeoff or during the turn from base to final, so recognizing a spin situation and avoiding it is a vital skill to master. Spins are usually practiced as power-on stalls with full rudder deflection in the desired direction of rotation. '''CAUTION:''' Many aircraft are only tested for recovery from one-turn spins, which are not fully developed. Allowing a prolonged spin may result in an unrecoverable condition for these aircraft. To recover from an established spin, the pilot sets the throttle to idle, Ailerons are placed in the straight and level position (You NEVER NEVER NEVER turn the ailerons!), and presses the opposite rudder all the way to the floor (to counter the rotation). Then, the pilot briskly applies forward pressure to the stick (to break the stall). The acronym P.A.R.E. assists with the memorization of this procedure: * '''P'''ower idle * '''A'''ilerons neutral * '''R'''udder in opposite direction of spin * '''E'''levator forward. Once the spin is broken (This happens quickly), the pilot pulls back on the stick and increases power until the aircraft resumes level flight. Spins are easy to recover from if you can remember the procedure, but many students find them to be quite a scary experience at first. As you build confidence though, the nervousness will fade. == Getting More Complex == ==== Ground Reference Maneuvers ==== Ground reference maneuvers are designed to demostrate more precise control of the aircraft and especially to deal with wind correction. These maneuvers are typically performed at a lower altitude than much of the rest of your training, 600 to 1000 feet AGL (above ground level). Refer to the FAA PTS Private Pilot manuevers for specifics requirements and tolerances on each maneuver. ===== Rectangular Course ===== The airplane is flown an equal distance from the four sides of a rectangle. Altitude and airspeed should remain constant throughout the maneuver. When flying the maneuver, the pilot must adjust for wind, crabbing into the wind as appropriate to fly the desired ground track. Points should be chosen that allow the student pilot to visualize a rectangle in their mind. These points can be anything from trees, ponds, turns in roads, large rocks etc. Remember to NOT choose any object or structure that is occupied by persons on the ground. Remember the FAA requires you to stay at least 500 feet away from any object on the ground in a "non-congested area." (More on this topic later). As with all maneuvers, make sure your pre-maneuvers checklist is completed, clearing turns accomplished, and wind direction determined. All maneuvers should be started on downwind, or as close to downwind as possible, depending on the area you are doing your flight training in. ===== S-Turns ===== This maneuver is typically done while flying over a road, turning back and forth across the road like a slalom skier. The goal is to cross the road at a right angle, then fly a clean half circle to turn around and fly back across the road. The half circles should all be the same distance from the road. Make sure you choose markers to judge your distance to keep it the same on both sides of the road. Large canals or rivers that are straight for long sections also work well. If you live in a agricultural area, or have one that is only a short distance away, these are the best places to perform this maneuver. The technicality of this maneuver is in the turns. The bank of the aircraft will vary based on the wind strength and direction. For example, you enter on downwind, crossing the chosen road 90 degrees to it at 800 feet. You turn left (which is recommended as the student can see out of the aircraft easier on a left turn due to the fact he is sitting in the left seat), and as you start to bank, it will slowly increase until you reach 90 degrees off the initial heading you started the maneuver downwind at. At this point, the wind will be "pushing" you away from the road. To solve this, the bank angle will have to be increased through the turn to keep the aircraft a certain distance from the road you chose. As you come back around, if done properly, you should be wings level, at the same altitude and airspeed over the road heading 180 degrees opposite the heading you started the maneuver at. Now a turn is started the opposite direction to the right. Notice that because you are into the wind and not downwind, your "ground speed" will be slower. Less bank will be needed as you want to get some distance from the road to match what you did on your previous turn. As you pass through 90 degrees, the rate that you take out your bank will vary; depending on wind strength. As you turn back to 180 degrees to your original heading, you should be wings level, 800 feet, and same airspeed that you started the maneuver at. ===== Turns Around A Point ===== Turns around a point is just turning a circle centered around a point on the ground such as an intersection of two roads. Altitude and distance from the point should remain constant. As with the other maneuvers, wind complicates the maneuver. The bank of the aircraft will vary based on where the aircraft is in relation to the wind. More bank is required when turning into the wind and less when flying away. This is so the distance around the point chosen will be maintained, otherwise a oval pattern will occur. ==== Navigation ==== ===== Pilotage ===== ===== Dead Reckoning ===== ===== Diversion ===== ===== Lost Procedures ===== = Disclaimer = I take no responsibility for any of the data posted on this Wiki. This information may be a helpful training aide, but it cannot take the place of actual instructional with a Certified Flight Instructor (CFI). Thanks, and happy landings. Some of this information was contributed by a FAA CFI. This information is for a basic understanding only and in no way should be used as training purposes unless your own CFI approves of this information. Remember flight training is a very serious task and should be taken as such by any readers here. rwlfv1x1zbh67ohzk8p58ebh4g2dd0f 0 10072 2836356 2810273 2026-10-06T21:37:24Z Percy James92 3027633 Fixed gramer 2836356 wikitext text/x-wiki {{mathematics}} A '''convolution''' between two signals, <math>x(t)</math> and <math>y(t)</math>, is an operation defined as follows: :<math>x(t)*y(t)=\int_{-\infty}^{+\infty} x(\tau)y(t-\tau)d\tau</math> The process of convolution is very useful in the time domain analysis of systems, because we can fully describe a system by its [[w:Impulse_response|impulse response]]. Let's consider the following system which operates on an input as <math>O\{\}</math>, having been characterized its impulse response by <math>o(t)</math>: :<math>x(t) \longrightarrow \begin{array}{ |c| }\hline O \{ \} \\ \hline\end{array} \longrightarrow y(t)</math> :<math>y(t)=O[x(t)]</math> :<math>y(t)=x(t)*o(t)</math> Put into other words, the output of a system in an instant <math>t</math> can be written as a linear combination of past and future instants of the input and its impulse response: :<math>y(t)=\int_{-\infty}^{+\infty} x(\tau)o(t-\tau)d\tau</math> ==Discrete Convolution== In discrete time there is no continuous time <math>x(t)</math> but finite samples <math>x[n]</math>. So the integral can be rewritten as a sum: :<math>(x*y)[m]=\sum_{n=-\infty}^\infty x[m-n]*y[n]</math> To understand the convolution of finite length signals better, let's look at an example with the signals <math>x=[1, 2, 3]</math> and <math>y=[6, 9]</math>. <pre> [ 1] * [6 9] = ? [ 6 12 18 0] // [1 2 3] * 6 [ 0 9 18 27] // [1 2 3] * 9 ------------- [ 6 21 36 27] // sum of the above </pre> Note that the length of the output signal has the length <math>N + M - 1</math> where <math>M</math> is the length of <math>x</math> and <math>N</math> the length of <math>y</math>. [[Category:Electronic engineering]] 2kxsvmi6ee1tdqql0i22w5dt99c10ek 14 57525 2836310 2836249 2026-10-06T12:08:52Z MathXplore 2888076 Reverted edit by [[Special:Contributions/Kad Kadhirvel Polymath|Kad Kadhirvel Polymath]] ([[User_talk:Kad Kadhirvel Polymath|talk]]) to last version by [[User:HenkvD|HenkvD]] using [[Wikiversity:Rollback|rollback]] 407876 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Category:Pure Mathematics]] hrxf916dmkhkapqhc97n43iiog9kzqt 11 83540 2836337 839765 2026-10-06T17:38:24Z NDGGGGGG 3112222 2836337 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Adapting 6767676776 drizzzzy AHHHHH!!!!!!6767676776 drizzzzy AHHHHH!!!!!!6767676776 drizzzzy AHHHHH!!!!!!6767676776 drizzzzy AHHHHH!!!!!!6767676776 drizzzzy AHHHHH!!!!!!6767676776 drizzzzy AHHHHH!!!!!!6767676776 drizzzzy AHHHHH!!!!!!6767676776 drizzzzy AHHHHH!!!!!!6767676776 drizzzzy AHHHHH!!!!!!6767676776 drizzzzy AHHHHH!!!!!!6767676776 drizzzzy AHHHHH!!!!!!6767676776 drizzzzy AHHHHH!!!!!!6767676776 drizzzzy AHHHHH!!!!!!6767676776 drizzzzy AHHHHH!!!!!!6767676776 drizzzzy AHHHHH!!!!!!6767676776 drizzzzy AHHHHH!!!!!!6767676776 drizzzzy AHHHHH!!!!!!6767676776 drizzzzy AHHHHH!!!!!!6767676776 drizzzzy AHHHHH!!!!!!to Wikiversity== I imported this from Wikipedia, but think it would some more adaption for use at Wikiversity. Might be easier in the meantime to use a more simple {{tl|note}}? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 02:18, 12 July 2009 (UTC) :Nope, I'm not sure. --[[User:Katarighe|Katarighe]] 00:24, 2 December 2011 (UTC) kow9xfoy59867a1dqb9wsv1ctw5gi5w 2836339 2836337 2026-10-06T17:39:19Z NDG 3006541 Reverted edit by [[Special:Contributions/NDGGGGGG|NDGGGGGG]] ([[User_talk:NDGGGGGG|talk]]) to last version by [[User:Cyfraw|Cyfraw]] using [[Wikiversity:Rollback|rollback]] 839765 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Adapting to Wikiversity== I imported this from Wikipedia, but think it would some more adaption for use at Wikiversity. Might be easier in the meantime to use a more simple {{tl|note}}? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 02:18, 12 July 2009 (UTC) :Nope, I'm not sure. --[[User:Katarighe|Katarighe]] 00:24, 2 December 2011 (UTC) n3roe1b2k3bexcv53kc8mpcpkwh890p 0 96387 2836354 2835464 2026-10-06T20:59:31Z Jtneill 10242 /* Style (20%) */ + anchor 2836354 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Book chapter — Guidelines}} <div style="text-align: center;">''Collaborative online book chapter authoring'' <!-- ---------------------------------- ---> <!-- Count down --> <!-- ---------------------------------- ---><!-- {{countdown |year = 2026 |month = 10 |day = 12 |hour = 0 |event = this assessment is due }} --><!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Assessment/In development}} --> {{/Contents/}}</div> {{TOCright}} ==Overview== * Weight: 50% * Due {{/Due}} * Tasks ** Author an online [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapter]] (up to 4,000 words) that explains key psychological theory and research about a unique, specific motivation or emotion topic. ** Develop the chapter by building on the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] plan and addressing feedback. ** Contribute to the development of other book chapters (social contribution). * Follow the [[#Instructions|instructions]] and address the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]]. ==Purpose== The purpose of the book chapter is to explain and critically evaluate what psychological science says about a specific motivation or emotion topic, and to demonstrate how this knowledge can be applied to understanding and improving human behaviour in everyday life. ==Marking and feedback== * Submissions will be marked according to the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]] and [https://docs.google.com/document/d/15NXyApC5i6svEcJAnXv9QeRA-cbojy1m8lKReZgBH60/edit?usp=sharing marking rubric]. * Marks will be provided via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} within approximately 3 weeks and prior to the exam. * Up to 5 bonus marks will be awarded in exceptional circumstances where social contributions are above and beyond those required for HD-level (see [https://docs.google.com/document/d/15NXyApC5i6svEcJAnXv9QeRA-cbojy1m8lKReZgBH60 rubric]). * Written feedback about how well the chapter addresses the marking criteria will be available via the topic's Wikiversity discussion page. * Follow up with the [[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|unit convener]] if you have any questions. ==Extensions and late submissions== * Apply for extension using the unit's online Extension Application Form (see {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}) with appropriate documentary evidence. * Submissions will be accepted up to 3 days late (-10% per day). * If you don't submit this assessment it is unlikely that you will pass the unit. ==Learning outcomes== How the unit's [[Motivation and emotion/About/Learning outcomes|learning outcomes]] are addressed by this assessment exercise: {| border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing="0" background:transparent style="width:90%; margin: auto; vertical-align:top;" |- | style="width:40%;" | '''Learning outcome''' | style="width:60%;" | '''Assessment task''' |- | style="vertical-align:top;" | Integrate theories and current research towards explaining the role of motivation and emotions in human behaviour. | style="vertical-align:top;" | Use the most relevant theories and peer-reviewed research to explain a specific motivation or emotion topic. |- | style="vertical-align:top;" | Critically apply knowledge of motivation or emotion to an indepth understanding of a specific topic in this field. | style="vertical-align:top;" | Explain how psychological science can be applied to a specific motivation or emotion topic. Use figures, examples, and/or other interactive learning features to illustrate how this knowledge can apply to understanding human behaviour in everyday life. |} ==Graduate attributes== How the unit's [[Motivation and emotion/About/Graduate attributes|graduate attributes]] are addressed by this assessment exercise: {| border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing="0" background:transparent style="width:90%; margin: auto;" |- ! style="width:20%;" | Category ! style="width:20%;" | Graduate attribute ! style="width:60%;" | Assessment task |- | rowspan="4" style="vertical-align:top;" | '''Be professional''' | style="vertical-align:top;" | Communicate effectively | style="vertical-align:top;" | Review scholarly knowledge in an open, online environment and address feedback. |- | style="vertical-align:top;" | Display initiative and drive | style="vertical-align:top;" | Produce an online book chapter about a novel motivation or emotion topic. |- | style="vertical-align:top;" | Up-to-date knowledge and skills | style="vertical-align:top;" | Utilise the most relevant psychological theory and research to address a practical question. |- | style="vertical-align:top;" | Solve problems via thinking | style="vertical-align:top;" | Use critical thinking to explain how psychological science can address real-world problems. |- | rowspan="3" style="vertical-align:top;" | '''Be a global citizen''' | style="vertical-align:top;" | Informed and balanced | style="vertical-align:top;" | Provide a balanced, critical chapter which is accessible to a lay audience. |- | style="vertical-align:top;" | Communicate diversely | style="vertical-align:top;" | Collaborate with peers to communicate knowledge openly with a global audience. |- | style="vertical-align:top;" | Creative use of technology | style="vertical-align:top;" | Learn how to collaborate using wiki technology. |- | rowspan="2" style="vertical-align:top;" | '''Be a lifelong learner''' | style="vertical-align:top;" | Engage in new ideas | style="vertical-align:top;" | Engage in a collaborative learning culture by incorporating feedback and suggestions. |- | style="vertical-align:top;" | Evaluate and adopt new technology | style="vertical-align:top;" | Experience project work in a collaborative, online editing environment. |} ==Instructions== The book chapter should communicate your understanding of the topic based on the best available psychological theory and research. Explain and apply the most relevant evidence in a clear, engaging, and accessible way. The aim is to demonstrate your ability to synthesise and critically evaluate psychological science in order to understand and respond to a specific motivation or emotion phenomenon. The following instructions should be used to guide the development of the book chapter. ===Theme=== * Chapters should fit the book theme which is "understanding and improving our motivational and emotional lives using psychological science" ===Audience=== * The target audience is a general (non-topic-expert) reader interested in personal growth and development based on knowledge in psychological science (theory and research). This is a [[w:science communication|science communication]] exercise. ===Wikiversity=== * Present the chapter as a single page on the [[Main Page|English Wikiversity]] website. A link to the chapter should appear in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|table of contents]] along with the lead author's Wikiversity user name ===Topic=== * The title and sub-title must be approved by the [[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|unit convener]] ===Collaboration and feedback=== * Chapters should be independently developed and written primarily by the lead author, but collaboration is strongly encouraged (e.g., by incorporating useful edits and feedback from others) * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|Generative AI]] may be used with appropriate acknowledgement * Lead authors are encouraged to seek feedback about the chapter during the drafting process (e.g., start a {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion thread<!-- (use the chapter title and subtitle in the subject line and include a clickable hyperlink to the chapter in the message)-->) * Feedback is usually best placed on the chapter's wiki discussion page * Feedback on the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] (chapter plan) will be provided by the [[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|unit convener]] ===Length (word count)=== {{Anchor|Wordcount}}{{Anchor|Word count}} * There is no minimum length * Maximum 4,000 words ** There is no additional 10% allowance ** Words beyond the maximum will not be considered for marking purposes ** If the chapter exceeds the maximum word count, see [[/Word count|these suggestions]] for strategies to reduce the length while retaining the key content * What to count: ** Count everything from top to bottom of the editable page (in view mode, not edit mode) including the title, subtitle, headings, text, citations, tables, figures, references, see also, and external links ** Don't count menu text across the top and down the left, or categories at the bottom * How to count: ** '''Wikiversity search:''' Copy the page name text which appears at the top of the Wikiversity page (e.g., ''Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-concept and motivation''). Paste this text into the Wikiversity search bar at the top of the page and select the second option, '''Search for pages containing [your title]'''. The first result should be your book chapter. The search result provides information about the chapter, including its word count. ** '''Google Chrome extension:''' [https://chromewebstore.google.com/detail/word-counter/cbjddaobmdfhbfgdgjocbhklpmclcboe Word Counter]. This extension is an easy, reliable method for counting words on a Wikiversity page. '''Cons:''' UC recently blocked this extension on UC devices. ** '''Website:''' Paste the URL into [https://hsuper.tools/web-page-word-counter Webpage Word Counter]. '''Cons:''' Overcounts by approximately 100 words because it includes top and side menus and other page elements. ** '''Word processor:''' Cut and paste the page content into a word processor. Copy starting at the title and finishing with the last external link. ===Submission=== * Submit the chapter URL (website address), your Wikiversity user name, and a PDF of the chapter via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} ==Marking criteria== [[File:Balanced scales.svg|right|125px]] Book chapters will be marked against the following criteria. ===Overview (5%)=== * Scenario: Provide an engaging scenario or case study in a feature box, with an illustrative figure * Problem statement: Easy to read and understand outline of the key concepts and explanation of practical/real-world problem to be solved * Focus questions: Establish [[/Focus questions|focus questions]] which align with the sub-title and subsequent heading structure ===Theory (20%)=== * Clearly explain the theoretical framework for understanding the topic * Select the most relevant psychological theories/models that apply to the problem. Depending on the topic, this may involve focusing on a single theory or comparing and contrasting two or more theories. * Use at least the best dozen or so peer-reviewed theory references about the topic (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Journals|list of motivation and emotion journals]]) * Clearly explain and apply the theory(ies) * Include illustrative examples, such as case studies * Demonstrate a critical perspective ===Research (25%)=== * Clearly explain how key, peer-reviewed research findings apply to the problem * Use at least the best dozen or so peer-reviewed research references about the topic (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Journals|list of motivation and emotion journals]]) * Include relevant major reviews (such as systematic reviews and meta-analyses) * [[w:Critical thinking|Critical analyse]] the key research findings, including limitations and implications ===Integration (10%)=== * Integrate discussion of theory and review of relevant research * Use research to critically inform interpretation and application of the theory(ies) ===Conclusion (5%)=== * Clear and concise communication of key points and take-home messages * Aligned with the subtitle and focus questions, with implications for the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/Theme|book theme]] ===Style (20%)=== * Overall ** Present and illustrate the problem and knowledge in an interesting way, using a logical structure, clear layout, correct spelling and grammar, and [[APA style]] ** [[/Readability|Readable]] for a layperson interested in psychological science ** Address the [[#Theme|book theme]] by providing practical, academically sound, self-improvement information ** Address an international audience (i.e., avoid an overly local or national perspective) ** Use default wiki style for paragraph alignment, font colour, type, and size, and heading styles ** Use Australian spelling (e.g., hypothesise, behaviour, fulfilment) rather than American spelling (e.g., hypothesize, behavior, fulfillment) ** Correct grammar (e.g., see [[/Writing tips|writing tips]]) * Structure ** Use a logical heading structure that aligns with the focus questions ** Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] throughout, including for headings and sub-headings ** Use the default heading style (e.g., do not add italics and/or bold) ** Sub-headings are optional *** Avoid having sections with a single sub-heading — each section should contain 0 or 2+ sub-headings. *** If sub-headings are used, provides at least 1 introductory paragraph before branching into sub-sections. * Sentences ** [[w:Narration#Narrative point of view|Narrative point of view]][https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/]: In the main text, use [[w:Narration#Third-person|3rd person perspective]] (e.g., "it", "they"). Where [[w:Aside|aside]]s are used, such as examples, case studies, and feature boxes, [[w:First-person narrative|1st person perspective]] (e.g., "I" and "we") and/or [[w:Narration#Second-person|2nd person perspective]] (e.g., "you") can work well. * Paragraphs ** A well-constructed paragraph is generally 3 to 5 sentences (opening sentence, body sentences, and a concluding/linking sentence). Avoid one-sentence paragraphs and overly long paragraphs. ** Paragraphs flow logically * Use APA style (as much as reasonably possible), paying particular attention to: ** citations ** references (especially capitalisation, italicisation, and providing hyperlinked dois) ** table and figure captions ** quotes (include page numbers) * <span id="Citations">Citations</span> ** Claims need citations using APA style or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing_sources|wiki citation style]]. Only use one style throughout the chapter — don't mix and match. For most psychology students, APA style will be the choice. ** Maximum of 3 citations per point (i.e., avoid 4 or more citations together). * References ** List all cited academic references in APA style or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing_sources|wiki citation style]]. Only use one style. ** Non-academic sources are not used in references. They can be included in the external links section. ===Learning features (5%)=== * Embed interactive learning features such as scenarios/case studies/examples, feature boxes, figures, quizzes, links to relevant Wikipedia and Wikipedia pages, as well as links to key resources via the "See also" and "External links" sections * Case studies ** Include 1 or more examples, scenarios, or case studies ** They can be true (if so, include citations) or fictional ** Use these examples to enhance understanding of theory, research, focus questions, and/or take-home messages ** Present in a feature box and include a figure ** Consider using a "progressive case study" (i.e., a case study presented in separate parts which describe, for example, the problem, attempt at change, and resolution/outcomes). ** Examples of chapters which make effective use of case studies: *** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Emotional abuse|emotional abuse]] (2019) *** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Food and fear|food and fear]] (2019) *** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Opioid system and human emotion|opioid system and human emotion]] (2019) *** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Social support and emotion|social support and emotion]] (2019) * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|Feature boxes]] ** Use to highlight key information, but avoid overuse ** There are various ways of creating coloured boxes, but the [[Template:RoundBoxTop|RoundBox]] template is a good option. * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Figures|Figures]] ** Include relevant, accompanying figures (e.g., photos, drawings, diagrams) to facilitate readers' understanding of the concepts ** Figures are accompanied by explanatory captions and be cited at least once in the main text ** For more information, see [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Figures|How to use figures]]). * [[Help:Links|Links]] ** In-text (embedded) links: Key words and concepts are [[Making links|linked]] to Wikipedia articles and/or related book chapters. Provide in-text wiki links the ''first time'' that key concepts are mentioned. For example: *** [[w:Emotion|emotion]] involves physiological, subjective feeling, motivational, and socially expressive aspects. The syntax for creating this link is <nowiki>[[w:Emotion|emotion]]</nowiki>). It is also possible to link to a section on this same page e.g., &lt;nowiki&gt;[[#Overview|Overview]]&lt;nowiki&gt; will link to the Overview section. *** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Fitspiration and body image|This chapter]] provides an excellent example of embedded links to Wikiversity pages. ** See also *** Provide interwiki links to key related Wikiversity book chapters and/or Wikipedia articles *** Include source in parentheses ** External links *** Provide at least three links to high quality, relevant external resources *** Include author and/or source in parentheses ** Published academic sources belong in References * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|Tables]] ** Use accompanying tables to help organise information and communicate concepts to readers ** Tables are accompanied by explanatory APA style captions and are cited in the body text * [[Help:Quiz|Quizzes]] ** Quiz questions or reflection questions encourage reader engagement ** Focus on core concepts (esp. take-home messages) rather than trivia ** Consider incorporating throughout the chapter {{anchor|Socialcontribution}} {{anchor|Social contribution}} ===Social contribution (10%)=== * '''Actions''': Logged contributions which enhance the quality of other book chapters. Useful actions include: ** '''Edits''': Direct edits which improve past or current chapters (e.g., fix errors, enhance clarity) or flag potential improvements by adding [[Template:Clarification templates|clarification templates]]. [[/Search for chapters to improve|Search for chapters to improve]]. ** '''Comments''': Feedback provided on book chapter [[Help:Talk page|talk page]]s ** '''Media uploads''': Upload free-to-use educational images to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] ** '''{{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion posts''' * '''Evidence''': ** Provide a [[mw:Help:Lists|numbered list]] with summaries of contributions on your [[Help:User page|Wikiversity user page]], and '''direct links''' that show each change or contribution.<!-- To receive credit, contributions must be publicly logged (i.e., log in to Wikiversity so that the edit is recorded with your user name and time-stamp). Summarise each edit on your user page (in a section called "Social contributions") --> ** More info: [[/Summarising social contributions|summarising social contributions]] * '''Marking''' ** Marking of social contributions will be based on a combination of: *** '''Quantity''': **** Breadth: number of chapters contributed to **** Channels: range of communication channels used *** '''Quality''': **** Depth/extent/thoroughness **** Insightfulness **** Practical value *** '''Timeliness''' — there is generally: **** Greater value in earlier contributions **** Lesser value in last-minute contributions ** Marks will be allocated to each clearly evidenced contribution as follows: *** Minor <= 0.25 *** Moderate 0.50 *** Major 1.00 *** Very significant > 1.00 * '''Bonus marks''' ** Up to 5 bonus marks (out of 100 for the book chapter) will be awarded in exceptional circumstances where social contributions are above and beyond those required for HD-level. ** Approximately 5% of students receive social contribution bonus marks. ** This could include extensive copyediting of multiple chapters and/or regular feedback or support on multiple chapter discussion pages. It may also involve substantial activity on the UCLearn discussion forum. ==Marking rubric== {{Notice|1=[https://docs.google.com/document/d/1yQd1-IekznJNLwhef-yEBaxKtRR6dAVESWXoTa-ti3c/edit?usp=sharing Marking rubric]}} ==Examples== Examples of high quality [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/AI use, cognitive load, and motivation|AI use, cognitive load, and motivation]] - How does generative AI reduce cognitive effort, and what are the motivational consequences? (2025) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Autonomy and intrinsic motivation in self-determination theory|Autonomy and intrinsic motivation in self-determination theory]]: How does autonomy influence intrinsic motivation according to SDT? (2025) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Disappointment|Disappointment]]: What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? (2022) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Illicit drug taking at music festivals|Illicit drug taking at music festivals]]: What motivates young people to take illicit drugs at music festivals? (2016) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Organisational change motivation|Organisational change motivation]]: How can leaders build a culture of agility, adaptability, and resilience to deal with a constantly changing workplace? (2019) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Phobias|Phobias]]: What are phobias and how can they be dealt with? (2019) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Transactive goal dynamics theory and motivation|Transactive goal dynamics theory and motivation]]: What is transactive goal dynamics theory and how does it impact motivation? (2025) Note that as of 2025, chapters no longer include multimedia presentations. For more examples, see the {{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}}s in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|lists of previous book chapters]]<!-- and the [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Top|top chapters of 2022]] -->. ==Licensing== Contributions to Wikiversity are made under a [http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ Creative Commons 4.0 Share-alike] (CC-BY-SA 4.0) license which is irrevocable. This license gives permission for others to edit and re-use, with appropriate acknowledgement. For more information, see the [[wmf:Terms of use|Wikimedia Foundation's Terms of use]]. If you do not wish to contribute your work under this license, discuss [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Alternative|alternative assessment options]] with the unit convener. ==See also== * [[/FAQ/]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Book|Previous chapters]] * Marking and feedback ** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Feedback|General feedback]] ** [[Template:MEBF|Feedback template]] ** [https://docs.google.com/document/d/15NXyApC5i6svEcJAnXv9QeRA-cbojy1m8lKReZgBH60/edit?usp=sharing Marking rubric] * [[#Socialcontribution|Social contributions]] ** [[/Search for chapters to improve/]] ** [[/Summarising social contributions/]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorials]] <!-- ** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Topic selection|Tutorial 01: Topic selection]] --> ** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2: Wiki editing]] ** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Functionalist theory and self-tracking#Google Scholar|Tutorial 5: Google Scholar]] ** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Measuring emotion#Topic development feedback|Tutorial 8: Topic development feedback]] * Wikiversity ** [[/Feature boxes/]] ** [[/Figures/]] ** [[How to find free-to-use images|Find free images]] ** [[/Tables/]] * [[/Writing tips/]] ** [[/How to handle a lack of information/|Handling a lack of information]] ** [[/Readability|Readability]] ** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|Using generative AI]] ** [[/Word count|Word count]] {{Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Navigation}} [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter| ]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion guidelines]] llw2hbdudqcfzbth1o6xwvmyco18cxn 2836355 2836354 2026-10-06T21:07:00Z Jtneill 10242 /* Learning features (5%) */ 2836355 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Book chapter — Guidelines}} <div style="text-align: center;">''Collaborative online book chapter authoring'' <!-- ---------------------------------- ---> <!-- Count down --> <!-- ---------------------------------- ---><!-- {{countdown |year = 2026 |month = 10 |day = 12 |hour = 0 |event = this assessment is due }} --><!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Assessment/In development}} --> {{/Contents/}}</div> {{TOCright}} ==Overview== * Weight: 50% * Due {{/Due}} * Tasks ** Author an online [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapter]] (up to 4,000 words) that explains key psychological theory and research about a unique, specific motivation or emotion topic. ** Develop the chapter by building on the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] plan and addressing feedback. ** Contribute to the development of other book chapters (social contribution). * Follow the [[#Instructions|instructions]] and address the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]]. ==Purpose== The purpose of the book chapter is to explain and critically evaluate what psychological science says about a specific motivation or emotion topic, and to demonstrate how this knowledge can be applied to understanding and improving human behaviour in everyday life. ==Marking and feedback== * Submissions will be marked according to the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]] and [https://docs.google.com/document/d/15NXyApC5i6svEcJAnXv9QeRA-cbojy1m8lKReZgBH60/edit?usp=sharing marking rubric]. * Marks will be provided via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} within approximately 3 weeks and prior to the exam. * Up to 5 bonus marks will be awarded in exceptional circumstances where social contributions are above and beyond those required for HD-level (see [https://docs.google.com/document/d/15NXyApC5i6svEcJAnXv9QeRA-cbojy1m8lKReZgBH60 rubric]). * Written feedback about how well the chapter addresses the marking criteria will be available via the topic's Wikiversity discussion page. * Follow up with the [[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|unit convener]] if you have any questions. ==Extensions and late submissions== * Apply for extension using the unit's online Extension Application Form (see {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}) with appropriate documentary evidence. * Submissions will be accepted up to 3 days late (-10% per day). * If you don't submit this assessment it is unlikely that you will pass the unit. ==Learning outcomes== How the unit's [[Motivation and emotion/About/Learning outcomes|learning outcomes]] are addressed by this assessment exercise: {| border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing="0" background:transparent style="width:90%; margin: auto; vertical-align:top;" |- | style="width:40%;" | '''Learning outcome''' | style="width:60%;" | '''Assessment task''' |- | style="vertical-align:top;" | Integrate theories and current research towards explaining the role of motivation and emotions in human behaviour. | style="vertical-align:top;" | Use the most relevant theories and peer-reviewed research to explain a specific motivation or emotion topic. |- | style="vertical-align:top;" | Critically apply knowledge of motivation or emotion to an indepth understanding of a specific topic in this field. | style="vertical-align:top;" | Explain how psychological science can be applied to a specific motivation or emotion topic. Use figures, examples, and/or other interactive learning features to illustrate how this knowledge can apply to understanding human behaviour in everyday life. |} ==Graduate attributes== How the unit's [[Motivation and emotion/About/Graduate attributes|graduate attributes]] are addressed by this assessment exercise: {| border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing="0" background:transparent style="width:90%; margin: auto;" |- ! style="width:20%;" | Category ! style="width:20%;" | Graduate attribute ! style="width:60%;" | Assessment task |- | rowspan="4" style="vertical-align:top;" | '''Be professional''' | style="vertical-align:top;" | Communicate effectively | style="vertical-align:top;" | Review scholarly knowledge in an open, online environment and address feedback. |- | style="vertical-align:top;" | Display initiative and drive | style="vertical-align:top;" | Produce an online book chapter about a novel motivation or emotion topic. |- | style="vertical-align:top;" | Up-to-date knowledge and skills | style="vertical-align:top;" | Utilise the most relevant psychological theory and research to address a practical question. |- | style="vertical-align:top;" | Solve problems via thinking | style="vertical-align:top;" | Use critical thinking to explain how psychological science can address real-world problems. |- | rowspan="3" style="vertical-align:top;" | '''Be a global citizen''' | style="vertical-align:top;" | Informed and balanced | style="vertical-align:top;" | Provide a balanced, critical chapter which is accessible to a lay audience. |- | style="vertical-align:top;" | Communicate diversely | style="vertical-align:top;" | Collaborate with peers to communicate knowledge openly with a global audience. |- | style="vertical-align:top;" | Creative use of technology | style="vertical-align:top;" | Learn how to collaborate using wiki technology. |- | rowspan="2" style="vertical-align:top;" | '''Be a lifelong learner''' | style="vertical-align:top;" | Engage in new ideas | style="vertical-align:top;" | Engage in a collaborative learning culture by incorporating feedback and suggestions. |- | style="vertical-align:top;" | Evaluate and adopt new technology | style="vertical-align:top;" | Experience project work in a collaborative, online editing environment. |} ==Instructions== The book chapter should communicate your understanding of the topic based on the best available psychological theory and research. Explain and apply the most relevant evidence in a clear, engaging, and accessible way. The aim is to demonstrate your ability to synthesise and critically evaluate psychological science in order to understand and respond to a specific motivation or emotion phenomenon. The following instructions should be used to guide the development of the book chapter. ===Theme=== * Chapters should fit the book theme which is "understanding and improving our motivational and emotional lives using psychological science" ===Audience=== * The target audience is a general (non-topic-expert) reader interested in personal growth and development based on knowledge in psychological science (theory and research). This is a [[w:science communication|science communication]] exercise. ===Wikiversity=== * Present the chapter as a single page on the [[Main Page|English Wikiversity]] website. A link to the chapter should appear in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|table of contents]] along with the lead author's Wikiversity user name ===Topic=== * The title and sub-title must be approved by the [[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|unit convener]] ===Collaboration and feedback=== * Chapters should be independently developed and written primarily by the lead author, but collaboration is strongly encouraged (e.g., by incorporating useful edits and feedback from others) * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|Generative AI]] may be used with appropriate acknowledgement * Lead authors are encouraged to seek feedback about the chapter during the drafting process (e.g., start a {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion thread<!-- (use the chapter title and subtitle in the subject line and include a clickable hyperlink to the chapter in the message)-->) * Feedback is usually best placed on the chapter's wiki discussion page * Feedback on the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] (chapter plan) will be provided by the [[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|unit convener]] ===Length (word count)=== {{Anchor|Wordcount}}{{Anchor|Word count}} * There is no minimum length * Maximum 4,000 words ** There is no additional 10% allowance ** Words beyond the maximum will not be considered for marking purposes ** If the chapter exceeds the maximum word count, see [[/Word count|these suggestions]] for strategies to reduce the length while retaining the key content * What to count: ** Count everything from top to bottom of the editable page (in view mode, not edit mode) including the title, subtitle, headings, text, citations, tables, figures, references, see also, and external links ** Don't count menu text across the top and down the left, or categories at the bottom * How to count: ** '''Wikiversity search:''' Copy the page name text which appears at the top of the Wikiversity page (e.g., ''Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-concept and motivation''). Paste this text into the Wikiversity search bar at the top of the page and select the second option, '''Search for pages containing [your title]'''. The first result should be your book chapter. The search result provides information about the chapter, including its word count. ** '''Google Chrome extension:''' [https://chromewebstore.google.com/detail/word-counter/cbjddaobmdfhbfgdgjocbhklpmclcboe Word Counter]. This extension is an easy, reliable method for counting words on a Wikiversity page. '''Cons:''' UC recently blocked this extension on UC devices. ** '''Website:''' Paste the URL into [https://hsuper.tools/web-page-word-counter Webpage Word Counter]. '''Cons:''' Overcounts by approximately 100 words because it includes top and side menus and other page elements. ** '''Word processor:''' Cut and paste the page content into a word processor. Copy starting at the title and finishing with the last external link. ===Submission=== * Submit the chapter URL (website address), your Wikiversity user name, and a PDF of the chapter via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} ==Marking criteria== [[File:Balanced scales.svg|right|125px]] Book chapters will be marked against the following criteria. ===Overview (5%)=== * Scenario: Provide an engaging scenario or case study in a feature box, with an illustrative figure * Problem statement: Easy to read and understand outline of the key concepts and explanation of practical/real-world problem to be solved * Focus questions: Establish [[/Focus questions|focus questions]] which align with the sub-title and subsequent heading structure ===Theory (20%)=== * Clearly explain the theoretical framework for understanding the topic * Select the most relevant psychological theories/models that apply to the problem. Depending on the topic, this may involve focusing on a single theory or comparing and contrasting two or more theories. * Use at least the best dozen or so peer-reviewed theory references about the topic (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Journals|list of motivation and emotion journals]]) * Clearly explain and apply the theory(ies) * Include illustrative examples, such as case studies * Demonstrate a critical perspective ===Research (25%)=== * Clearly explain how key, peer-reviewed research findings apply to the problem * Use at least the best dozen or so peer-reviewed research references about the topic (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Journals|list of motivation and emotion journals]]) * Include relevant major reviews (such as systematic reviews and meta-analyses) * [[w:Critical thinking|Critical analyse]] the key research findings, including limitations and implications ===Integration (10%)=== * Integrate discussion of theory and review of relevant research * Use research to critically inform interpretation and application of the theory(ies) ===Conclusion (5%)=== * Clear and concise communication of key points and take-home messages * Aligned with the subtitle and focus questions, with implications for the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/Theme|book theme]] ===Style (20%)=== * Overall ** Present and illustrate the problem and knowledge in an interesting way, using a logical structure, clear layout, correct spelling and grammar, and [[APA style]] ** [[/Readability|Readable]] for a layperson interested in psychological science ** Address the [[#Theme|book theme]] by providing practical, academically sound, self-improvement information ** Address an international audience (i.e., avoid an overly local or national perspective) ** Use default wiki style for paragraph alignment, font colour, type, and size, and heading styles ** Use Australian spelling (e.g., hypothesise, behaviour, fulfilment) rather than American spelling (e.g., hypothesize, behavior, fulfillment) ** Correct grammar (e.g., see [[/Writing tips|writing tips]]) * Structure ** Use a logical heading structure that aligns with the focus questions ** Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] throughout, including for headings and sub-headings ** Use the default heading style (e.g., do not add italics and/or bold) ** Sub-headings are optional *** Avoid having sections with a single sub-heading — each section should contain 0 or 2+ sub-headings. *** If sub-headings are used, provides at least 1 introductory paragraph before branching into sub-sections. * Sentences ** [[w:Narration#Narrative point of view|Narrative point of view]][https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/]: In the main text, use [[w:Narration#Third-person|3rd person perspective]] (e.g., "it", "they"). Where [[w:Aside|aside]]s are used, such as examples, case studies, and feature boxes, [[w:First-person narrative|1st person perspective]] (e.g., "I" and "we") and/or [[w:Narration#Second-person|2nd person perspective]] (e.g., "you") can work well. * Paragraphs ** A well-constructed paragraph is generally 3 to 5 sentences (opening sentence, body sentences, and a concluding/linking sentence). Avoid one-sentence paragraphs and overly long paragraphs. ** Paragraphs flow logically * Use APA style (as much as reasonably possible), paying particular attention to: ** citations ** references (especially capitalisation, italicisation, and providing hyperlinked dois) ** table and figure captions ** quotes (include page numbers) * <span id="Citations">Citations</span> ** Claims need citations using APA style or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing_sources|wiki citation style]]. Only use one style throughout the chapter — don't mix and match. For most psychology students, APA style will be the choice. ** Maximum of 3 citations per point (i.e., avoid 4 or more citations together). * References ** List all cited academic references in APA style or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing_sources|wiki citation style]]. Only use one style. ** Non-academic sources are not used in references. They can be included in the external links section. ===Learning features (5%)=== * Embed interactive learning features such as scenarios/case studies/examples, feature boxes, figures, quizzes, links to relevant Wikiversity book chapters and Wikipedia pages, as well as links to key resources via the "See also" and "External links" sections * Case studies ** Include 1 or more examples, scenarios, or case studies ** They can be true (if so, include citations) or fictional ** Use these examples to enhance understanding of theory, research, focus questions, and/or take-home messages ** Present in a feature box and include a figure ** Consider using a "progressive case study" (i.e., a case study presented in separate parts which describe, for example, the problem, attempt at change, and resolution/outcomes). ** Examples of chapters which make effective use of case studies: *** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Emotional abuse|emotional abuse]] (2019) *** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Food and fear|food and fear]] (2019) *** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Opioid system and human emotion|opioid system and human emotion]] (2019) *** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Social support and emotion|social support and emotion]] (2019) * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|Feature boxes]] ** Use to highlight key information, but avoid overuse ** There are various ways of creating coloured boxes, but the [[Template:RoundBoxTop|RoundBox]] template is a good option. * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Figures|Figures]] ** Include relevant, accompanying figures (e.g., photos, drawings, diagrams) to facilitate readers' understanding of the concepts ** Figures are accompanied by explanatory captions and be cited at least once in the main text ** For more information, see [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Figures|How to use figures]]). * [[Help:Links|Links]] ** In-text (embedded) links: Key words and concepts are [[Making links|linked]] to Wikipedia articles and/or related book chapters. Provide in-text wiki links the ''first time'' that key concepts are mentioned. For example: *** [[w:Emotion|emotion]] involves physiological, subjective feeling, motivational, and socially expressive aspects. The syntax for creating this link is <nowiki>[[w:Emotion|emotion]]</nowiki>). It is also possible to link to a section on this same page e.g., &lt;nowiki&gt;[[#Overview|Overview]]&lt;nowiki&gt; will link to the Overview section. *** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Fitspiration and body image|This chapter]] provides an excellent example of embedded links to Wikiversity pages. ** See also *** Provide interwiki links to key related Wikiversity book chapters and/or Wikipedia articles *** Include source in parentheses ** External links *** Provide at least three links to high quality, relevant external resources *** Include author and/or source in parentheses ** Published academic sources belong in References * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|Tables]] ** Use accompanying tables to help organise information and communicate concepts to readers ** Tables are accompanied by explanatory APA style captions and are cited in the body text * [[Help:Quiz|Quizzes]] ** Quiz questions or reflection questions encourage reader engagement ** Focus on core concepts (esp. take-home messages) rather than trivia ** Consider incorporating throughout the chapter {{anchor|Socialcontribution}} {{anchor|Social contribution}} ===Social contribution (10%)=== * '''Actions''': Logged contributions which enhance the quality of other book chapters. Useful actions include: ** '''Edits''': Direct edits which improve past or current chapters (e.g., fix errors, enhance clarity) or flag potential improvements by adding [[Template:Clarification templates|clarification templates]]. [[/Search for chapters to improve|Search for chapters to improve]]. ** '''Comments''': Feedback provided on book chapter [[Help:Talk page|talk page]]s ** '''Media uploads''': Upload free-to-use educational images to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] ** '''{{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion posts''' * '''Evidence''': ** Provide a [[mw:Help:Lists|numbered list]] with summaries of contributions on your [[Help:User page|Wikiversity user page]], and '''direct links''' that show each change or contribution.<!-- To receive credit, contributions must be publicly logged (i.e., log in to Wikiversity so that the edit is recorded with your user name and time-stamp). Summarise each edit on your user page (in a section called "Social contributions") --> ** More info: [[/Summarising social contributions|summarising social contributions]] * '''Marking''' ** Marking of social contributions will be based on a combination of: *** '''Quantity''': **** Breadth: number of chapters contributed to **** Channels: range of communication channels used *** '''Quality''': **** Depth/extent/thoroughness **** Insightfulness **** Practical value *** '''Timeliness''' — there is generally: **** Greater value in earlier contributions **** Lesser value in last-minute contributions ** Marks will be allocated to each clearly evidenced contribution as follows: *** Minor <= 0.25 *** Moderate 0.50 *** Major 1.00 *** Very significant > 1.00 * '''Bonus marks''' ** Up to 5 bonus marks (out of 100 for the book chapter) will be awarded in exceptional circumstances where social contributions are above and beyond those required for HD-level. ** Approximately 5% of students receive social contribution bonus marks. ** This could include extensive copyediting of multiple chapters and/or regular feedback or support on multiple chapter discussion pages. It may also involve substantial activity on the UCLearn discussion forum. ==Marking rubric== {{Notice|1=[https://docs.google.com/document/d/1yQd1-IekznJNLwhef-yEBaxKtRR6dAVESWXoTa-ti3c/edit?usp=sharing Marking rubric]}} ==Examples== Examples of high quality [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/AI use, cognitive load, and motivation|AI use, cognitive load, and motivation]] - How does generative AI reduce cognitive effort, and what are the motivational consequences? (2025) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Autonomy and intrinsic motivation in self-determination theory|Autonomy and intrinsic motivation in self-determination theory]]: How does autonomy influence intrinsic motivation according to SDT? (2025) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Disappointment|Disappointment]]: What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? (2022) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Illicit drug taking at music festivals|Illicit drug taking at music festivals]]: What motivates young people to take illicit drugs at music festivals? (2016) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Organisational change motivation|Organisational change motivation]]: How can leaders build a culture of agility, adaptability, and resilience to deal with a constantly changing workplace? (2019) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Phobias|Phobias]]: What are phobias and how can they be dealt with? (2019) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Transactive goal dynamics theory and motivation|Transactive goal dynamics theory and motivation]]: What is transactive goal dynamics theory and how does it impact motivation? (2025) Note that as of 2025, chapters no longer include multimedia presentations. For more examples, see the {{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}}s in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|lists of previous book chapters]]<!-- and the [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Top|top chapters of 2022]] -->. ==Licensing== Contributions to Wikiversity are made under a [http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ Creative Commons 4.0 Share-alike] (CC-BY-SA 4.0) license which is irrevocable. This license gives permission for others to edit and re-use, with appropriate acknowledgement. For more information, see the [[wmf:Terms of use|Wikimedia Foundation's Terms of use]]. If you do not wish to contribute your work under this license, discuss [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Alternative|alternative assessment options]] with the unit convener. ==See also== * [[/FAQ/]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Book|Previous chapters]] * Marking and feedback ** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Feedback|General feedback]] ** [[Template:MEBF|Feedback template]] ** [https://docs.google.com/document/d/15NXyApC5i6svEcJAnXv9QeRA-cbojy1m8lKReZgBH60/edit?usp=sharing Marking rubric] * [[#Socialcontribution|Social contributions]] ** [[/Search for chapters to improve/]] ** [[/Summarising social contributions/]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorials]] <!-- ** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Topic selection|Tutorial 01: Topic selection]] --> ** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2: Wiki editing]] ** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Functionalist theory and self-tracking#Google Scholar|Tutorial 5: Google Scholar]] ** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Measuring emotion#Topic development feedback|Tutorial 8: Topic development feedback]] * Wikiversity ** [[/Feature boxes/]] ** [[/Figures/]] ** [[How to find free-to-use images|Find free images]] ** [[/Tables/]] * [[/Writing tips/]] ** [[/How to handle a lack of information/|Handling a lack of information]] ** [[/Readability|Readability]] ** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|Using generative AI]] ** [[/Word count|Word count]] {{Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Navigation}} [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter| ]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion guidelines]] pij0624o1y9lpdebv5xbn6no9f95075 0 104029 2836350 2110334 2026-10-06T19:21:46Z The Citer 3110681 Added phylogeny! 2836350 wikitext text/x-wiki The tetrapods are a superclass of [[animals]] that are descended from a salamander-like amphibians. <ref> http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/2.0_Hackolution#Transformers </ref> Living decendants of primordial tetrapods include [[mammals]], birds, reptiles and modern amphibians. <ref> http://species.wikimedia.org/wiki/Tetrapoda </ref> ==Phylogeny== {{clade| style=width:auto;font-size:100%;line-height:100% |label1='''Tetrapoda''' |1={{clade |1=stem tetrapods |state1=double |2={{clade |1={{clade |label1=Temnospondyli |1={{clade |1=basal temnospondyls |state1=double |label2=Dissorophoidea |2={{clade |1={{clade |1=†Amphibamidae [[File:Carnegie Institution of Washington publication (1902-) (19915735993).jpg|Carnegie_Institution_of_Washington_publication_(1902-)_(19915735993)|70x60px]] |2='''Frogs''' [[File:The tailless batrachians of Europe (Page 194) (Pelobates fuscus).jpg|45 px]] }} |2={{clade |1=†Branchiosauridae [[File:Branchiosaurus_BW.jpg|70 px]] |2='''Salamanders''' [[File:Salamandra salamandra (white background).jpg|70 px]] }} }} }} |2={{clade |label1=Lepospondyli |1={{clade |1=†Lysorophia [[File:Lysorophus.jpg|70 px]] |2={{clade |1=†Microsauria [[File:Hyloplesion.jpg|70 px]] |2='''Caecilians''' [[File:Syphonops annulatus cropped.jpg|70 px]] }} }} }} }} |2={{clade |label1=Reptiliomorpha |1={{clade |1=†Seymouriamorpha [[File:Karpinskiosaurus1DB.jpg|70 px]] |2={{clade |1= †Diadectomorpha [[File:Diadectes1DB (flipped).jpg|70 px]] |label2='''Amniota''' |2={{Clade |1=Sauropsida [[File:Blue_jay_in_PP_(30960).jpg|70x60px]] |2=Synapsida [[File:Dhole(Asiatic wild dog).jpg|Dhole(Asiatic_wild_dog)|60px]] }} }} }} }} }} }}}} ==References== <references/> [[Category:Eukaryote phylogeny]] 871bn5mnpx23evu9j7axz9ilu6eyt8u 1 128774 2836323 896798 2026-10-06T14:50:04Z Aisy aqasha 3112214 /* The Difference Between Data and Information */ new section 2836323 wikitext text/x-wiki There is a subtle difference between data and information. Data is raw, unformatted, possibly even unreadable, and generally cannot be used directly. Information is data processed in some way to become readable and therefore 'useful'. == The Difference Between Data and Information == Data and information are closely related, but they have different meanings and purposes. Data refers to raw facts, figures, observations, or symbols that have been collected but have not yet been processed or organized into a meaningful form. For example, a teacher may record students’ names, ages, attendance, and examination marks. These individual values are considered data because they simply represent facts without providing a clear conclusion by themselves. Information, however, is data that has been processed, organized, analyzed, or interpreted so that it becomes meaningful and useful to the person receiving it. For instance, when the teacher calculates the students’ average marks, identifies the highest and lowest scores, or compares the performance of different students, the results become information because they can help the teacher understand the students’ academic performance and make better decisions. Data can sometimes be difficult to understand when it is presented in its original form, while information is usually presented in a clear and organized manner, such as through tables, charts, reports, or summaries. Another important difference is that data acts as the input for information, while information is the meaningful output produced after data has been processed. In simple terms, data answers the question of “what has been collected,” whereas information helps explain “what the data means.” Therefore, processing data is important because it transforms basic facts into useful information that can support understanding, decision-making, planning, and problem-solving. [[User:Aisy aqasha|Aisy aqasha]] ([[User talk:Aisy aqasha|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Aisy aqasha|contribs]]) 14:50, 6 October 2026 (UTC) dm208ew1n2rtk47bwy9vtj09dmdlns5 0 139384 2836548 2836177 2026-10-07T11:40:49Z Young1lim 21186 /* Adder */ 2836548 wikitext text/x-wiki == Adder == * Binary Adder Architecture Exploration ( [[Media:Adder.20131113.pdf|pdf]] ) {| class="wikitable" |- ! Adder type !! Overview !! Analysis !! VHDL Level Design !! CMOS Level Design |- | '''1. Ripple Carry Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.RCA.20250522.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:Adder.rca.20140313.pdf|pdf]] || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1D.RCA.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]] |- | '''2. Carry Lookahead Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2A.CLA.20260722.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2B.CLA.20261007.pdf|B]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2C.CLA.20261007.pdf|C]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2D.CLA.20260720.pdf|D]] || || [[Media:Adder.cla.20140313.pdf|pdf]]|| |- | '''3. Carry Save Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSave.20151209.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''4. Carry Select Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSelA.20191002.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''5. Carry Skip Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5A.CSkip.20250405.pdf|A]]|| || || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5D.CSkip.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]] |- || '''6. Carry Chain Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6A.CCA.20211109.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6C.CCA.VHDL.20211109.pdf|pdf]], [[Media:Adder.cca.20140313.pdf|pdf]] || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6D.CCA.CMOS.20211109.pdf|pdf]] |- || '''7. Kogge-Stone Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.KSA.20140315.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:Adder.ksa.20140409.pdf|pdf]]|| |- || '''8. Prefix Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.PFA.20140314.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''9.1 Variable Block Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.VBA.20221110.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1B.VBA.20230911.pdf|B]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20240622.pdf|C]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20250218.pdf|D]]|| || || |- || '''9.2 Multi-Level Variable Block Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.VBA-Multi.20221031.pdf|A]]|| || || |} </br> === Adder Architectures Suitable for FPGA === * FPGA Carry-Chain Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.FPGA-CCA.20210421.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Carry Select Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.B.FPGA-CarrySelect.20210522.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Variable Block Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.C.FPGA-VariableBlock.20220125.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Carry Lookahead Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.D.FPGA-CLookahead.20210304.pdf|pdf]]) * Carry-Skip Adder </br> == Barrel Shifter == * Barrel Shifter Architecture Exploration ([[Media:Bshift.20131105.pdf|bshfit.vhdl]], [[Media:Bshift.makefile.20131109.pdf|bshfit.makefile]]) </br> '''Mux Based Barrel Shifter''' * Analysis ([[Media:Arith.BShfiter.20151207.pdf|pdf]]) * Implementation </br> == Multiplier == === Array Multipliers === * Analysis ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Mult.20151209.pdf|pdf]]) </br> === Tree Mulltipliers === * Lattice Multiplication ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.LatticeMult.20170204.pdf|pdf]]) * Wallace Tree ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.WallaceTree.20170204.pdf|pdf]]) * Dadda Tree ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.DaddaTree.20170701.pdf|pdf]]) </br> === Booth Multipliers === * [[Media:RNS4.BoothEncode.20161005.pdf|Booth Encoding Note]] * Booth Multiplier Note ([[Media:BoothMult.20160929.pdf|H1.pdf]]) </br> == Divider == * Binary Divider ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Divider.20131217.pdf|pdf]])</br> </br> </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] [[Category:Digital Circuit Design]] [[Category:FPGA]] 7aqdspmwssw15fmt360aznkez2mxwlo 2836549 2836548 2026-10-07T11:42:09Z Young1lim 21186 /* Adder */ 2836549 wikitext text/x-wiki == Adder == * Binary Adder Architecture Exploration ( [[Media:Adder.20131113.pdf|pdf]] ) {| class="wikitable" |- ! Adder type !! Overview !! Analysis !! VHDL Level Design !! CMOS Level Design |- | '''1. Ripple Carry Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.RCA.20250522.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:Adder.rca.20140313.pdf|pdf]] || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1D.RCA.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]] |- | '''2. Carry Lookahead Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2A.CLA.20260722.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2B.CLA.20261007-1.pdf|B]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2C.CLA.20261007.pdf|C]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2D.CLA.20260720.pdf|D]] || || [[Media:Adder.cla.20140313.pdf|pdf]]|| |- | '''3. Carry Save Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSave.20151209.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''4. Carry Select Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSelA.20191002.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''5. Carry Skip Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5A.CSkip.20250405.pdf|A]]|| || || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5D.CSkip.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]] |- || '''6. Carry Chain Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6A.CCA.20211109.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6C.CCA.VHDL.20211109.pdf|pdf]], [[Media:Adder.cca.20140313.pdf|pdf]] || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6D.CCA.CMOS.20211109.pdf|pdf]] |- || '''7. Kogge-Stone Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.KSA.20140315.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:Adder.ksa.20140409.pdf|pdf]]|| |- || '''8. Prefix Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.PFA.20140314.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''9.1 Variable Block Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.VBA.20221110.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1B.VBA.20230911.pdf|B]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20240622.pdf|C]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20250218.pdf|D]]|| || || |- || '''9.2 Multi-Level Variable Block Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.VBA-Multi.20221031.pdf|A]]|| || || |} </br> === Adder Architectures Suitable for FPGA === * FPGA Carry-Chain Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.FPGA-CCA.20210421.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Carry Select Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.B.FPGA-CarrySelect.20210522.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Variable Block Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.C.FPGA-VariableBlock.20220125.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Carry Lookahead Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.D.FPGA-CLookahead.20210304.pdf|pdf]]) * Carry-Skip Adder </br> == Barrel Shifter == * Barrel Shifter Architecture Exploration ([[Media:Bshift.20131105.pdf|bshfit.vhdl]], [[Media:Bshift.makefile.20131109.pdf|bshfit.makefile]]) </br> '''Mux Based Barrel Shifter''' * Analysis ([[Media:Arith.BShfiter.20151207.pdf|pdf]]) * Implementation </br> == Multiplier == === Array Multipliers === * Analysis ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Mult.20151209.pdf|pdf]]) </br> === Tree Mulltipliers === * Lattice Multiplication ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.LatticeMult.20170204.pdf|pdf]]) * Wallace Tree ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.WallaceTree.20170204.pdf|pdf]]) * Dadda Tree ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.DaddaTree.20170701.pdf|pdf]]) </br> === Booth Multipliers === * [[Media:RNS4.BoothEncode.20161005.pdf|Booth Encoding Note]] * Booth Multiplier Note ([[Media:BoothMult.20160929.pdf|H1.pdf]]) </br> == Divider == * Binary Divider ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Divider.20131217.pdf|pdf]])</br> </br> </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] [[Category:Digital Circuit Design]] [[Category:FPGA]] iii44kw5ifr4oxz0jsggmxpqct2mdeg 2836551 2836549 2026-10-07T11:43:13Z Young1lim 21186 /* Adder */ 2836551 wikitext text/x-wiki == Adder == * Binary Adder Architecture Exploration ( [[Media:Adder.20131113.pdf|pdf]] ) {| class="wikitable" |- ! Adder type !! Overview !! Analysis !! VHDL Level Design !! CMOS Level Design |- | '''1. Ripple Carry Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.RCA.20250522.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:Adder.rca.20140313.pdf|pdf]] || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1D.RCA.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]] |- | '''2. Carry Lookahead Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2A.CLA.20260722.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2B.CLA.20261007.pdf|B]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2C.CLA.20261007.pdf|C]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2D.CLA.20260720.pdf|D]] || || [[Media:Adder.cla.20140313.pdf|pdf]]|| |- | '''3. Carry Save Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSave.20151209.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''4. Carry Select Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSelA.20191002.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''5. Carry Skip Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5A.CSkip.20250405.pdf|A]]|| || || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5D.CSkip.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]] |- || '''6. Carry Chain Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6A.CCA.20211109.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6C.CCA.VHDL.20211109.pdf|pdf]], [[Media:Adder.cca.20140313.pdf|pdf]] || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6D.CCA.CMOS.20211109.pdf|pdf]] |- || '''7. Kogge-Stone Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.KSA.20140315.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:Adder.ksa.20140409.pdf|pdf]]|| |- || '''8. Prefix Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.PFA.20140314.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''9.1 Variable Block Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.VBA.20221110.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1B.VBA.20230911.pdf|B]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20240622.pdf|C]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20250218.pdf|D]]|| || || |- || '''9.2 Multi-Level Variable Block Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.VBA-Multi.20221031.pdf|A]]|| || || |} </br> === Adder Architectures Suitable for FPGA === * FPGA Carry-Chain Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.FPGA-CCA.20210421.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Carry Select Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.B.FPGA-CarrySelect.20210522.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Variable Block Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.C.FPGA-VariableBlock.20220125.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Carry Lookahead Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.D.FPGA-CLookahead.20210304.pdf|pdf]]) * Carry-Skip Adder </br> == Barrel Shifter == * Barrel Shifter Architecture Exploration ([[Media:Bshift.20131105.pdf|bshfit.vhdl]], [[Media:Bshift.makefile.20131109.pdf|bshfit.makefile]]) </br> '''Mux Based Barrel Shifter''' * Analysis ([[Media:Arith.BShfiter.20151207.pdf|pdf]]) * Implementation </br> == Multiplier == === Array Multipliers === * Analysis ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Mult.20151209.pdf|pdf]]) </br> === Tree Mulltipliers === * Lattice Multiplication ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.LatticeMult.20170204.pdf|pdf]]) * Wallace Tree ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.WallaceTree.20170204.pdf|pdf]]) * Dadda Tree ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.DaddaTree.20170701.pdf|pdf]]) </br> === Booth Multipliers === * [[Media:RNS4.BoothEncode.20161005.pdf|Booth Encoding Note]] * Booth Multiplier Note ([[Media:BoothMult.20160929.pdf|H1.pdf]]) </br> == Divider == * Binary Divider ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Divider.20131217.pdf|pdf]])</br> </br> </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] [[Category:Digital Circuit Design]] [[Category:FPGA]] 7aqdspmwssw15fmt360aznkez2mxwlo 0 217156 2836343 2006400 2026-10-06T17:57:49Z Dewoller 735400 I'm revisiting this data set in preparation for use more widely. 2836343 wikitext text/x-wiki == Description == This health care administration dataset contains line data (i.e. not aggregate) for 10% of patients that have used the Medical Benefits Scheme (MBS) or the Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme (PBS). It covers MBS services from 1984 to 2014 and PBS prescriptions from 2003 to 2014. The sample is of ''patients'', not claims: for each of the 2,985,511 sampled people, every MBS and PBS claim is included. That is 765 million MBS records and 229 million PBS records, linked by a common patient ID. These schemes are at the core of Australia's universal healthcare system (i.e. Medicare) and are primarily administrative in nature. The MBS data is generated by financial reimbursement claims from General Practitioners, Specialists, Allied Health, Hospitals and other health services, and the PBS data from pharmacies and other health services. The Australian Government Department of Health is the data custodian for both of the original datasets. On top of the original release, the database adds: * MBS item and PBS drug reference tables, including the full ATC hierarchy, PBS prices and pack sizes, and MBS item history * chronic-disease and defined-daily-dose (DDD) mappings * per-patient summaries * population denominators * small random subsets for developing queries Together these make the dataset ready for drug-utilisation, health-service-use and cost analyses. == Source == Original dataset: Australian Government Department of Health, ''Linkable de-identified 10% sample of Medicare Benefits Schedule (MBS) and Pharmaceutical Benefits Schedule (PBS)'', data.gov.au dataset a8e3c0bc-44ac-4e9a-8b3c-b779438ddb10, CC-BY 4.0. [[user:dewoller|Dennis Wollersheim]] imported the dataset, along with related reference tables, into a PostgreSQL database and set up this resource to document it. Contact him via [[Special:EmailUser/dewoller|email]] or via his [[User_talk:Dewoller|talk page]] for more information. [[File:PBS_MBS_Structure.png|100x100px|thumb|right|Structure]] == Tools == * [[/Useful SQL Queries/]] == Database details == {| class="wikitable" |- ! Area !! Table Name !! Number of Records !! Description |- | rowspan="3" | Core || mbs || 765,031,264 || Main Medical Benefits Schedule (MBS) table: one row per MBS item claim line |- | pbs || 229,007,463 || Main Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme (PBS) table: one row per dispensed prescription |- | patient || 2,985,511 || Patients |- | rowspan="9" | MBS reference || mbs_imap || 12,474 || Every MBS item ever used, mapped to its current item, with start/end dates, category, group, subgroup and BTOS |- | mbs_desc || 16,438 || Item descriptor text, every historical version |- | mbs_desc_latest || 12,474 || Current descriptor text, one row per item |- | mbs_reuse_imap || 63 || Item numbers reused for different services over time, with date ranges |- | btos || 16 || Broad Type of Service |- | mbs_cat || 9 || MBS categories |- | cat_group || 93 || Category → group mapping |- | mbs_group || 94 || MBS groups |- | mbs_subgroup || 252 || MBS subgroups |- | Provider || spr_rsp || 261 || Provider specialty |- | rowspan="7" | PBS reference || pbs_item || 7,614 || PBS item code → drug name, form and strength, ATC code |- | pbs_item_manufacturer || 15,837 || PBS item × manufacturer: brand, pack size, max quantity, repeats, prices |- | pbs_atc || 6,692 || Full ATC hierarchy (levels 1–5), with chronic-disease category |- | drg_typ_cd || 23 || PBS drug type |- | mjr_spclty_grp_cd || 4 || Specialty group of prescriber |- | ptnt_ctgry_drvd_cd || 9 || Patient category |- | undr_cprscrptn_typ_cd || 4 || PBS claim level (co-payment) |- | rowspan="6" | Enrichment || chronic_disease || 23 || Chronic-disease categories, linked to ATC codes through pbs_atc |- | item_master || 209 || DDD conversion factors and pack details for opioid and benzodiazepine PBS items |- | ddd.ddd_who || 2,440 || WHO defined daily doses by ATC and route |- | ddd.ddd_full || 4,868 || WHO defined daily doses, all ATC codes and routes |- | opioids.atc, opioids.generictype || 22, 22 || Opioid ATC codes grouped into generic types |- | australian_demographics || 116 || Australian population by single year of age and sex, 2006 and 2011 (ABS) |- | rowspan="2" | Summaries || mbs_person_summary || 2,918,339 || One row per patient with MBS records |- | pbs_person_summary || 2,273,525 || One row per patient with PBS records |- | rowspan="3" | Subsets || patient_r, mbs_r, pbs_r || 15,074 / 3,861,773 / 1,153,590 || Random ~0.5% of patients with all their records |- | patient_rr, mbs_rr, pbs_rr || 157 / 39,827 / 16,909 || Random ~0.005% of patients with all their records |- | vw_pbs_interval_rr || (view) || PBS supply intervals for the rr subset |} == Individual Table Details == There are 3 major tables: PBS, MBS and Patient. PBS is drug prescription data, MBS is medical procedure data, and Patient holds the data about individual patients. All three link on '''pin'''. === PBS Table === Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme. One row per dispensed prescription, 2003–2014. {| class="wikitable" |- ! Field Name !! Data !! Description |- | pk || integer || Primary key |- | pin || character varying(11) || Patient ID (raw file: <code>ptnt_id</code>) |- | [http://meteor.aihw.gov.au/content/index.phtml/itemId/602767 spply_dt] || date || Date of supply |- | [http://meteor.aihw.gov.au/content/index.phtml/itemId/600778 pbs_code] || character varying(6) || PBS item code, e.g. <code>08214H</code> (raw file: <code>itm_cd</code>). Joins to pbs_item. |- | [http://meteor.aihw.gov.au/content/index.phtml/itemId/601876 pbs_rgltn24_adjst_qty] || integer || Quantity of PBS item supplied, Regulation 24 adjusted. For some items, 1 indicates the entire packet/box/bottle is supplied. |- | [http://meteor.aihw.gov.au/content/index.phtml/itemId/601909 bnft_amt] || double precision || Benefit paid by the Commonwealth, AUD dollars |- | [http://meteor.aihw.gov.au/content/index.phtml/itemId/603362 ptnt_cntrbtn_amt] || double precision || Contribution paid by the patient, AUD dollars |- | [http://meteor.aihw.gov.au/content/index.phtml/itemId/604005 srt_rpt_ind] || character varying(4) || Repeat ("R") or original (blank) script |- | [http://meteor.aihw.gov.au/content/index.phtml/itemId/601746 rgltn24_ind] || boolean || Regulation 24: script and all repeats filled at once |- | [http://meteor.aihw.gov.au/content/index.phtml/itemId/600297 drg_typ_cd] || character varying(2) || Drug type (see [[#Code sets|Code sets]]) |- | [http://meteor.aihw.gov.au/content/index.phtml/itemId/600681 mjr_spclty_grp_cd] || character varying(4) || Specialty group of prescriber |- | [http://meteor.aihw.gov.au/content/index.phtml/itemId/603902 undr_cprscrptn_typ_cd] || character varying(32) || PBS claim level (co-payment); populated from 2012 |- | prscrptn_cnt || integer || Number of prescriptions supplied (derived; usually 1) |- | [http://meteor.aihw.gov.au/content/index.phtml/itemId/604103 ptnt_ctgry_drvd_cd] || character varying(2) || Patient category |- | [http://meteor.aihw.gov.au/content/index.phtml/itemId/616597 ptnt_state] || character varying(3) || Patient state group: NSW, VIC, QLD, SA, WA, UNK |- | age_at_supply || smallint || ''Added:'' patient age at date of supply |} === MBS Table === Medical Benefits Schedule. One row per MBS item claim line, 1984–2014. {| class="wikitable" |- ! Field Name !! Data !! Description |- | pk || integer || Primary key |- | pin || character(11) || Patient ID |- | [http://meteor.aihw.gov.au/content/index.phtml/itemId/603319 date_of_service] || date || Date of service (raw file: <code>DOS</code>) |- | [http://meteor.aihw.gov.au/content/index.phtml/itemId/603302 pinstate] || character(1) || Patient state group, 1–5 |- | [http://meteor.aihw.gov.au/content/index.phtml/itemId/601809 spr] || character(9) || Servicing provider ID (encrypted) |- | spr_rsp || character(4) || Servicing provider specialty; joins to spr_rsp (9999 = Unknown) |- | [http://meteor.aihw.gov.au/content/index.phtml/itemId/601956 sprprac] || character(1) || Servicing provider practice location identifier |- | [http://meteor.aihw.gov.au/content/index.phtml/itemId/603532 sprstate] || character(1) || Servicing provider state group, 1–5 |- | [http://meteor.aihw.gov.au/content/index.phtml/itemId/603936 rpr] || character varying(9) || Referring provider ID (encrypted); null for non-referred services |- | [http://meteor.aihw.gov.au/content/index.phtml/itemId/604060 rprprac] || character(1) || Referring provider practice location identifier |- | rprstate || character(1) || Referring provider state group, 1–5; 0 = no referrer |- | [http://meteor.aihw.gov.au/content/index.phtml/itemId/603645 item] || character(5) || MBS item number, zero-padded (e.g. <code>00023</code>); joins to mbs_imap |- | [http://meteor.aihw.gov.au/content/index.phtml/itemId/610294 numserv] || integer || Number of services claimed; negative = reversal |- | [http://meteor.aihw.gov.au/content/index.phtml/itemId/601800 mdv_numserv] || smallint || Number of services, counting bulk billing incentive and modifier items |- | [http://meteor.aihw.gov.au/content/index.phtml/itemId/600470 benpaid] || money || Benefit paid by the Commonwealth, '''in cents''' (<code>$3,655.00</code> = $36.55) |- | [http://meteor.aihw.gov.au/content/index.phtml/itemId/601591 feecharged] || real || Fee charged by the provider, '''in cents''' |- | [http://meteor.aihw.gov.au/content/index.phtml/itemId/601728 schedfee] || real || MBS schedule fee, '''in cents''' |- | [http://meteor.aihw.gov.au/content/index.phtml/itemId/604388 billtypecd] || character(1) || D = direct/bulk billed, P = patient billed |- | [http://meteor.aihw.gov.au/content/index.phtml/itemId/604401 inhospital] || character(1) || Y = service provided in hospital, N = not |- | sample_weight || real || Sampling weight (about 10); multiply for national estimates |- | age_at_supply || smallint || ''Added:'' patient age at date of service |} === Patient Table === Patient details. {| class="wikitable" |- ! Field Name !! Data !! Description |- | pin || character varying(11) || Patient ID |- | yob || integer || Patient's year of birth (YYYY) |- | sex || character varying(4) || F (1,495,803) or M (1,489,708) |- | last_mbs || date || ''Added:'' date of last MBS service |- | last_pbs || date || ''Added:'' date of last PBS supply |} == Code sets == === State groups === MBS uses numeric codes and PBS uses names for the same five state groups. {| class="wikitable" ! MBS code !! PBS ptnt_state !! States |- | 1 || NSW || NSW + ACT |- | 2 || VIC || VIC + TAS |- | 3 || SA || SA + NT |- | 4 || QLD || QLD |- | 5 || WA || WA |} === PBS codes === {| class="wikitable" ! Field !! Codes |- | drg_typ_cd || GE General; HS/HB Highly specialised (private/public hospital); CA Highly specialised (community access); IN/IP Chemotherapy (private/public hospital); CT Chemotherapy support; TY/TZ Herceptin (private/public hospital); DT Dental; OT Optometrical; EP Extemporaneous; PL Palliative care; MD Methadone; IF IVF; GH Growth hormone; DB Prescriber bag; ST Stoma; PQ Paraplegic/quadriplegic; R1 Repatriation; SY/SZ Special authority; UK Unknown |- | mjr_spclty_grp_cd || 01 General Practitioner; 02 Specialist; 03 Allied Health; 04 Dental Practitioner |- | ptnt_ctgry_drvd_cd || G1 General safety net; G2 General non-safety net; C0 Concessional safety net; C1 Concessional non-safety net; R0/R1 Repatriation (DVA) safety net / non-safety net; DB Prescriber bag; OC Stoma; OP Paraplegic/quadriplegic |- | undr_cprscrptn_typ_cd || blank / 0 / C Above co-payment; U Under co-payment; E Under co-payment electronic |} === MBS Broad Type of Service (btos) === {| class="wikitable" ! btos_order !! Code !! Name |- | 101 || A || Non-referred attendances GP/VR GP |- | 102 || M || Non-referred attendances - Enhanced Primary Care |- | 103 || B || Non-referred attendances - Other |- | 110 || O || Non-referred attendances - Practice Nurse Items |- | 150 || P || Other Allied Health |- | 200 || C || Specialist attendances |- | 300 || D || Obstetrics |- | 400 || E || Anaesthetics |- | 501 || N || Pathology Collection Items |- | 502 || F || Pathology Tests |- | 600 || G || Diagnostic Imaging |- | 700 || H || Operations |- | 800 || I || Assistance at Operations |- | 900 || J || Optometry |- | 1000 || K || Radiotherapy and Therapeutic Nuclear Medicine |- | 1100 || L || Other MBS services |} MBS categories (mbs_cat): 1 Professional Attendances; 2 Diagnostic Procedures and Investigations; 3 Therapeutic Procedures; 4 Oral and Maxillofacial Services; 5 Diagnostic Imaging Services; 6 Pathology Services; 7 Cleft Lip and Cleft Palate Services; 8 Miscellaneous Services; 9 Dental Services. == Drug enrichment tables == === pbs_item and pbs_item_manufacturer === Built from the monthly PBS Schedule, 2003–2016, so item codes that have since left the Schedule still resolve. <code>pbs_item</code> has one row per PBS code: <code>pbs_code</code>, <code>drug_name</code>, <code>form_strength</code>, <code>atc_code</code>, and <code>inuse</code> (Y = appears in the claims). <code>pbs_item_manufacturer</code> has one row per PBS code × manufacturer. Its columns are: * product: <code>brand_name</code>, <code>pack_size</code>, <code>maximum_quantity</code>, <code>number_of_repeats</code>, <code>restriction_flag</code> * prices, in dollars: <code>commonwealth_price_to_pharmacist</code>, <code>commonwealth_dispensed_price_for_maximum_quantity</code>, <code>brand_premium</code>, <code>therapeutic_group_premium</code>, <code>maximum_recordable_value_for_safety_net</code> === pbs_atc and chronic_disease === <code>pbs_atc</code> holds every ATC code from level 1 (e.g. <code>A</code>, Alimentary tract and metabolism) to level 5 (e.g. <code>A01AA01</code>, sodium fluoride), so drugs can be grouped at any level with <code>left(atc_code, n)</code>. 2,372 ATC codes carry a <code>chronic_disease_id</code>, mapping medicines to 23 chronic-disease categories: {| class="wikitable" ! ID !! Category !! ID !! Category |- | ACI || Acid related disorders || HYP || Hyperlipidemia |- | BON || Bone diseases (osteoporosis) || INT || Intestinal inflammatory diseases |- | CAN || Cancer || IRO || Iron deficiency anemia |- | CAR || Cardiovascular diseases (incl. hypertension) || MIG || Migraines |- | DEM || Dementia || PAI || Pain |- | DIA || Diabetes mellitus || PAR || Parkinson's disease |- | EPI || Epilepsy || PD || Psychological disorders (sleep disorder, depression) |- | GLA || Glaucoma || PSY || Psychoses |- | GOU || Gout, hyperuricemia || RES || Respiratory illness (asthma, COPD) |- | HIV || HIV || RHE || Rheumatologic conditions |- | THY || Thyroid disorders || TUB || Tuberculosis |- | VIT || Vitamin D || || |} === Defined daily doses === * <code>ddd.ddd_who</code> and <code>ddd.ddd_full</code>: WHO defined daily doses by ATC code and administration route (O oral, P parenteral, R rectal, etc.). * <code>item_master</code>: per-PBS-item factors for converting quantity supplied into DDDs and days of supply. The columns are <code>standard_pack_size</code>, <code>ddd_mg_factor</code>, <code>unit_wt</code>, <code>units</code> and <code>days_multiplier</code>. It covers 209 opioid and benzodiazepine items, and <code>type_code</code> links to <code>opioids.generictype</code>. * <code>opioids.generictype</code>: 1 Oxycodone and oxycodone+naloxone, 2 Tramadol, 3 Fentanyl, 4 Morphine, 5 Paracetamol+codeine, 6 Methadone, 7 Buprenorphine, 8 Hydromorphone, 9 Tapentadol, 10 Benzodiazepines, 11 Other. <code>opioids.atc</code> maps ATC codes to these types. === australian_demographics === ABS Australian population by single year of age (0–115) and sex, for 2006 and 2011: <code>age</code>, <code>male_2006</code>, <code>female_2006</code>, <code>male_2011</code>, <code>female_2011</code>. Use it as a denominator for age/sex-standardised rates. == Patient summaries == {| class="wikitable" ! Table !! Fields |- | mbs_person_summary || pin, nrecords, firstcontact, lastcontact, nstate (number of state groups), totalfeecharged, totalschedfee, totalbenpaid (all in cents), totalnumserv, lengthcontact (days) |- | pbs_person_summary || pin, nrecords, firstcontact, lastcontact, nstate, n_pbs_code (distinct items), total_bnft_amt, total_ptnt_cntrbtn_amt (dollars), total_prscrptn_cnt, lengthcontact (days) |} == Derived data extracts == Due to dataset size, there are subsets useful for testing queries. Each holds a random sample of patients with ''all'' their MBS and PBS records, and has the same columns as the full table. Note: the pk column is not the same between tables. {| class="wikitable" |- ! Subset suffix !! Patients !! MBS rows !! PBS rows !! Description |- | *_r || 15,074 || 3,861,773 || 1,153,590 || A random ~0.5% sample from the patient table, with matching PBS and MBS records |- | *_rr || 157 || 39,827 || 16,909 || A random ~0.005% sample from the patient table, with matching PBS and MBS records |} <code>vw_pbs_interval_rr</code> is a view over <code>pbs_rr</code>. It gives each supply's <code>pin</code>, <code>pbs_code</code>, <code>spply_dt</code>, <code>qty</code>, an estimated <code>drug_duration</code> (quantity ÷ 2 days) and an <code>end_date</code>. == Raw files == The original release is a set of bzip2-compressed CSV files, one per year, with a header row. Dates are <code>DDMONYYYY</code> (e.g. <code>20MAR1984</code>). * MBS: <code>mbssample10pctYYYY.bz2</code> (1984–1995) and <code>MBS_SAMPLE_10PCT_YYYY.bz2</code> (1996–2014). Columns: PIN, DOS, PINSTATE, SPR, SPR_RSP, SPRPRAC, SPRSTATE, RPR, RPRPRAC, RPRSTATE, ITEM, NUMSERV, MDV_NUMSERV, BENPAID, FEECHARGED, SCHEDFEE, BILLTYPECD, INHOSPITAL, SAMPLEWEIGHT. * PBS: <code>PBS_SAMPLE_10PCT_YYYY.CSV.bz2</code> (2003–2014). Columns: ptnt_id, spply_dt, itm_cd, pbs_rgltn24_adjst_qty, bnft_amt, ptnt_cntrbtn_amt, srt_rpt_ind, rgltn24_ind, drg_typ_cd, mjr_spclty_grp_cd, undr_cprscrptn_typ_cd, prscrptn_cnt, ptnt_ctgry_drvd_cd, ptnt_state. * Patient: PIN, YOB, SEX. * MBS Online reference files (July 2016, tab-delimited, Windows-1252): MBSONLINE_IMAP, MBSONLINE_DESC, MBSONLINE_REUSE_IMAP. === Records per year === {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:right" ! Year !! MBS !! PBS |- | 1984 || 10,488,918 || — |- | 1985 || 12,028,418 || — |- | 1986 || 12,618,594 || — |- | 1987 || 13,320,915 || — |- | 1988 || 14,290,058 || — |- | 1989 || 14,632,106 || — |- | 1990 || 14,547,627 || — |- | 1991 || 15,114,925 || — |- | 1992 || 16,985,722 || — |- | 1993 || 17,851,221 || — |- | 1994 || 18,681,019 || — |- | 1995 || 19,439,277 || — |- | 1996 || 19,935,740 || — |- | 1997 || 20,264,420 || — |- | 1998 || 20,659,241 || — |- | 1999 || 20,964,914 || — |- | 2000 || 21,369,311 || — |- | 2001 || 22,039,055 || — |- | 2002 || 22,329,165 || — |- | 2003 || 22,454,508 || 15,633,393 |- | 2004 || 28,042,953 || 16,471,697 |- | 2005 || 29,783,933 || 16,214,171 |- | 2006 || 31,007,739 || 16,071,938 |- | 2007 || 33,086,345 || 16,435,304 |- | 2008 || 34,999,846 || 17,182,811 |- | 2009 || 37,559,085 || 17,701,120 |- | 2010 || 41,038,001 || 18,312,638 |- | 2011 || 42,875,349 || 18,842,674 |- | 2012 || 44,119,779 || 23,473,539 |- | 2013 || 45,336,253 || 25,895,471 |- | 2014 || 47,166,827 || 26,772,707 |- ! Total !! 765,031,264 !! 229,007,463 |} == Data notes == * '''MBS money is in cents; PBS money is in dollars.''' For example, MBS item 00023 (standard GP consultation) in 2014 has schedfee = 3630, i.e. $36.30. * '''Reversals:''' MBS rows with negative numserv are reversals and adjustments. Sum them rather than filtering them out. * '''National estimates:''' multiply by sample_weight (about 10). * '''Dates''' carry a random offset of up to ±14 days, so very short intervals between events are approximate. * '''Year of birth only''', no date of birth. 12,769 patients have yob before 1900, and 29,072 have yob 2015, so cap or exclude these when computing age. * '''Under co-payment PBS scripts''' (bnft_amt = 0, undr_cprscrptn_typ_cd U/E/C) are present from 2012 only. PBS volume steps up about 25% that year, so exclude them for trends across 2012. * '''MBS volume steps up 25% from 2003 to 2004''' (22.5M to 28.0M lines). * '''No DVA patients''' (ptnt_ctgry_drvd_cd R0/R1) appear in the PBS data. * '''Very low-volume items''' were removed from the release. * '''Item codes are text.''' MBS items are 5 characters, zero-padded, and PBS items 6 characters. pin keeps leading zeros. * '''MBS item meanings change over time.''' Map through mbs_imap (item → mapped_item, with start/end dates) and mbs_reuse_imap. * '''spr_rsp = 9999 (Unknown)''' dominates the 1980s. == Publications using this dataset == * Hajati F, Atlantis E, Bell KJL, Girosi F (2018). Patterns and trends of potentially inappropriate high-density lipoprotein cholesterol testing in Australian adults at high risk of cardiovascular disease from 2008 to 2014: analysis of linked individual patient data from the Australian Medicare Benefits Schedule and Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme. ''BMJ Open''. {{doi|10.1136/bmjopen-2017-019041}} * Purkiss S, Keegel T, Wollersheim D, Vally H (2018). The efficacy of surgical parathyroidectomy assessed using Australian administrative pharmaceutical data and quasi-experimental design. ''International Journal of Population Data Science''. {{doi|10.23889/ijpds.v3i2.573}} * Fiorini S, Hajati F, Barla A, Girosi F (2019). Predicting diabetes second-line therapy initiation in the Australian population via time span-guided neural attention network. ''PLOS ONE''. {{doi|10.1371/journal.pone.0211844}} * Purkiss S, Keegel T, Vally H, Wollersheim D (2019). Estimates of age-specific death rates and mortality risk using administrative pharmaceutical data. ''International Journal of Population Data Science''. {{doi|10.23889/ijpds.v4i3.1165}} * Purkiss S, Keegel T, Vally H, Wollersheim D (2019). Estimates of mortality rates in people with diabetes and cardiovascular disease using administrative pharmaceutical data. ''International Journal of Population Data Science''. {{doi|10.23889/ijpds.v4i3.1166}} * Purkiss S, Keegel T, Vally H, Wollersheim D (2019). Incidence of drug-treated chronic diseases using administrative pharmaceutical data. ''International Journal of Population Data Science''. {{doi|10.23889/ijpds.v4i3.1168}} * Purkiss S, Keegel T, Vally H, Wollersheim D (2019). Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors use in pregnancy: a risk assessment study using administrative pharmaceutical data. ''International Journal of Population Data Science''. {{doi|10.23889/ijpds.v4i3.1167}} * Purkiss SF, Keegel T, Vally H, Wollersheim D (2020). Comparison of Australian chronic disease prevalence estimates using administrative pharmaceutical dispensing data with international and community survey data. ''International Journal of Population Data Science''. {{doi|10.23889/ijpds.v5i1.1347}} * Purkiss SF, Keegel T, Vally H, Wollersheim D (2021). Estimates of age specific death rates in people with diabetes and associated multimorbidity using Australian administrative pharmaceutical data. ''International Journal of Population Data Science''. {{doi|10.23889/ijpds.v6i1.1414}} * Purkiss SF, Keegel T, Vally H, Wollersheim D (2021). Estimates of drug treated diabetes incidence and prevalence using Australian administrative pharmaceutical data. ''International Journal of Population Data Science''. {{doi|10.23889/ijpds.v6i1.1398}} * Tran L, Chi L, Bonti A, Abdelrazek M, Chen YPP (2021). Mortality Prediction of Patients With Cardiovascular Disease Using Medical Claims Data Under Artificial Intelligence Architectures: Validation Study. ''JMIR Medical Informatics''. {{doi|10.2196/25000}} jnf0rsy5n1jc4xxejsab4cwazy2pkzm 6 226338 2836344 1787112 2026-10-06T18:00:24Z Dewoller 735400 /* Summary */ addded permissions 2836344 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=Structure of the PBS and MBS dataset |Source={{own}} |Date=2017 |Author=[[User:Dewoller]] |Permission=Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.2 or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation; with no Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover Texts. }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} i6iqr58t08fiq7ekqkmllqe2o5fh3rx 10 230688 2836335 2799140 2026-10-06T16:36:03Z CommonsDelinker 9184 Removing [[:c:File:Safavid_Flag.svg|Safavid_Flag.svg]], it has been deleted from Commons by [[:c:User:Jameslwoodward|Jameslwoodward]] because: per [[:c:Commons:Deletion requests/Files uploaded by ConflictFan|]]. 2836335 wikitext text/x-wiki {{ {{{1<noinclude>|country showdata</noinclude>}}} | alias = Iran | flag alias = Flag of Iran.svg | flag alias-1502 = | flag alias-1576 = | flag alias-1665 = Flag of Persia (1665).svg | flag alias-1736 = Nadir Shah Flag.svg | flag alias-1760 = Zand Dynasty flag.svg | border-1760 = | flag alias-1796 = Qajar Naval Ensign.svg | flag alias-1849 = Amir Kabir Flag.svg | flag alias-1907 = Flag of Persia (1907).svg | flag alias-1910 = Flag of Persia (1910-1925).svg | flag alias-1925 = State Flag of Iran (1925).svg | flag alias-1964 = State Flag of Iran (1964).svg | flag alias-air force = Flag of the Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force.svg | flag alias-army = Flag of the Islamic Republic of Iran Army Ground Forces.svg | link alias-army = Islamic Republic of Iran Army Ground Forces | link alias-naval = Islamic Republic of Iran Navy | link alias-air force = Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force | size = {{{size|}}} | name = {{{name|}}} | altlink = {{{altlink|}}} | variant = {{{variant|}}} <noinclude> | var1 = 1502 | var2 = 1576 | var3 = 1665 | var4 = 1736 | var5 = 1760 | var6 = 1796 | var7 = 1849 | var8 = 1907 | var9 = 1910 | var10 = 1925 | var11 = 1964 | redir1 = IRN | redir2 = IRI </noinclude> | related1 = Persia | related2 = Pahlavi dynasty | related3 = Qajar dynasty }} tqzw6vm9srl1qo8ouhxz9nbh25wkm1a 2836341 2836335 2026-10-06T17:44:04Z CommonsDelinker 9184 Removing [[:c:File:Nadir_Shah_Flag.svg|Nadir_Shah_Flag.svg]], it has been deleted from Commons by [[:c:User:Jameslwoodward|Jameslwoodward]] because: per [[:c:Commons:Deletion requests/Files uploaded by ConflictFan|]]. 2836341 wikitext text/x-wiki {{ {{{1<noinclude>|country showdata</noinclude>}}} | alias = Iran | flag alias = Flag of Iran.svg | flag alias-1502 = | flag alias-1576 = | flag alias-1665 = Flag of Persia (1665).svg | flag alias-1736 = | flag alias-1760 = Zand Dynasty flag.svg | border-1760 = | flag alias-1796 = Qajar Naval Ensign.svg | flag alias-1849 = Amir Kabir Flag.svg | flag alias-1907 = Flag of Persia (1907).svg | flag alias-1910 = Flag of Persia (1910-1925).svg | flag alias-1925 = State Flag of Iran (1925).svg | flag alias-1964 = State Flag of Iran (1964).svg | flag alias-air force = Flag of the Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force.svg | flag alias-army = Flag of the Islamic Republic of Iran Army Ground Forces.svg | link alias-army = Islamic Republic of Iran Army Ground Forces | link alias-naval = Islamic Republic of Iran Navy | link alias-air force = Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force | size = {{{size|}}} | name = {{{name|}}} | altlink = {{{altlink|}}} | variant = {{{variant|}}} <noinclude> | var1 = 1502 | var2 = 1576 | var3 = 1665 | var4 = 1736 | var5 = 1760 | var6 = 1796 | var7 = 1849 | var8 = 1907 | var9 = 1910 | var10 = 1925 | var11 = 1964 | redir1 = IRN | redir2 = IRI </noinclude> | related1 = Persia | related2 = Pahlavi dynasty | related3 = Qajar dynasty }} m2xf84krgymo7vklwq2wkgv6c4fp9ru 10 230694 2836334 2799141 2026-10-06T16:36:00Z CommonsDelinker 9184 Removing [[:c:File:Safavid_Flag.svg|Safavid_Flag.svg]], it has been deleted from Commons by [[:c:User:Jameslwoodward|Jameslwoodward]] because: per [[:c:Commons:Deletion requests/Files uploaded by ConflictFan|]]. 2836334 wikitext text/x-wiki {{ {{{1<noinclude>|country showdata</noinclude>}}} | alias = Pahlavi dynasty | flag alias = Flag of Iran (1925).svg | flag alias-1502 = | flag alias-1576 = | flag alias-1665 = Flag of Persia (1665).svg | flag alias-1736 = Nadir Shah Flag.svg | flag alias-1760 = Zand Dynasty flag.svg | border-1760 = | flag alias-1796 = Qajar Naval Ensign.svg | flag alias-1849 = Amir Kabir Flag.svg | flag alias-1907 = Flag of Persia (1907).svg | flag alias-1910 = Flag of Persia (1910-1925).svg | flag alias-1933 = State Flag of Iran (1925).svg | flag alias-air force =State Flag of Iran (1925).svg | flag alias-army = State Flag of Iran (1925).svg | link alias-army = Persian Army | flag alias-naval= Naval Ensign of Iran (1933–1964).svg | link alias-naval = Persian Navy | link alias-air force =Persian Air Force | size = {{{size|}}} | name = {{{name|}}} | altlink = {{{altlink|}}} | variant = {{{variant|}}} <noinclude> | var1 = 1502 | var2 = 1576 | var3 = 1665 | var4 = 1736 | var5 = 1760 | var6 = 1796 | var7 = 1849 | var8 = 1907 | var9 = 1910 | var10 = 1933 </noinclude> | related1 = Iran | related2 = Pahlavi dynasty | related3 = Qajar dynasty }} f9ow4tdmm3tki8caul4jy6hxvyx7d21 2836342 2836334 2026-10-06T17:44:20Z CommonsDelinker 9184 Removing [[:c:File:Nadir_Shah_Flag.svg|Nadir_Shah_Flag.svg]], it has been deleted from Commons by [[:c:User:Jameslwoodward|Jameslwoodward]] because: per [[:c:Commons:Deletion requests/Files uploaded by ConflictFan|]]. 2836342 wikitext text/x-wiki {{ {{{1<noinclude>|country showdata</noinclude>}}} | alias = Pahlavi dynasty | flag alias = Flag of Iran (1925).svg | flag alias-1502 = | flag alias-1576 = | flag alias-1665 = Flag of Persia (1665).svg | flag alias-1736 = | flag alias-1760 = Zand Dynasty flag.svg | border-1760 = | flag alias-1796 = Qajar Naval Ensign.svg | flag alias-1849 = Amir Kabir Flag.svg | flag alias-1907 = Flag of Persia (1907).svg | flag alias-1910 = Flag of Persia (1910-1925).svg | flag alias-1933 = State Flag of Iran (1925).svg | flag alias-air force =State Flag of Iran (1925).svg | flag alias-army = State Flag of Iran (1925).svg | link alias-army = Persian Army | flag alias-naval= Naval Ensign of Iran (1933–1964).svg | link alias-naval = Persian Navy | link alias-air force =Persian Air Force | size = {{{size|}}} | name = {{{name|}}} | altlink = {{{altlink|}}} | variant = {{{variant|}}} <noinclude> | var1 = 1502 | var2 = 1576 | var3 = 1665 | var4 = 1736 | var5 = 1760 | var6 = 1796 | var7 = 1849 | var8 = 1907 | var9 = 1910 | var10 = 1933 </noinclude> | related1 = Iran | related2 = Pahlavi dynasty | related3 = Qajar dynasty }} 7gihq1fxr981jr6935ndspdowkvhne2 0 235177 2836348 2836292 2026-10-06T19:00:49Z The Citer 3110681 Mesozoic section is done. 2836348 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Image:Clavelina lepadiformis (Müller, 1776) - Banyuls-sur-Mer - 04.83.jpg|thumb|300px|right|An Acanthocephalan, ''Clavelina lepadiformis, a tunicate'', which are non-vertebrate chordates.]] *Chordata *Name Meaning: Cord *English Common Name: Chordates *Major distinguishing characteristics: Hollow dorsal nervous chord *Approximate number of species described: about 100,000+ ==Natural History== Chordates occur in most habitats on Earth. Their natural history is as varied as they are diverse. They range from sedentary tunicates, to birds with near global migratory routes. They eat everything from organic particles suspended in water, to blue whales (the largest animal living). Most are ectothermic (relying on the environment to regulate their body temperature), but many are endothermic (with internal temperature regulation). They are such a diverse group, it's not really possible to put together a simple expression of their natural history. In fact, it should be detailed. Let's look at it in full detail: ===Tunicates=== [[File:Catellocaula.jpg|right|thumb|150px]] Undisputed fossils of tunicates are rare. The well-preserved Miaolingian fossil, ''Megasiphon thylakos'', shows that the tunicate basic body design had already been established 500 million years ago.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.techexplorist.com/500-million-year-old-fossil-reveals-amazing-secrets-tunicate-origins/63818/ |title=A 500 million-year-old fossil reveals the amazing secrets of tunicate origins |first=Vidya |last=Nagalwade |date=7 July 2023 |website=Tech Explorist}}</ref> ===Ancient Vertebrates=== [[File:Haikouichthys cropped.jpg|right|thumb|150px]] Vertebrates originated during the Cambrian explosion at the start of the Paleozoic, which saw a rise in animal diversity. The earliest known vertebrates belong to the Chengjiang biota<ref name="Shu1999">{{cite journal |last1=Shu |first1=D-G. |last2=Luo |first2=H-L. |last3=Conway Morris |first3=S. |author3-link=Simon Conway Morris |last4=Zhang |first4=X-L. |last5=Hu |first5=S-X. |last6=Chen |first6=L. |last7=Han |first7=J. |last8=Zhu |first8=M. |last9=Li |first9=Y. |last10=Chen |first10=L-Z. |display-authors=5 |title=Lower Cambrian vertebrates from south China |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |volume=402 |issue=6757 |year=1999 |pages=42–46 |doi=10.1038/46965 |bibcode=1999Natur.402...42S |s2cid=4402854 }}</ref> and lived about 518 million years ago.<ref name="Yang2018"/> These include ''Haikouichthys'', ''Myllokunmingia'',<ref name="Shu1999"/> ''Zhongjianichthys'',<ref name="Shu 2003">{{cite journal |last=Shu |first=D. |date=2003 |title=A paleontological perspective of vertebrate origin |journal=[[Chinese Science Bulletin]] |volume=48 |issue=8 |pages=725–735 |doi=10.1360/03wd0026|doi-broken-date=1 July 2025 }}</ref> and probably even ''Yunnanozoon''.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chen |first1=J.-Y. |last2=Huang |first2=D.-Y. |last3=Li |first3=C.-W. |year=1999 |title=An early Cambrian craniate-like chordate |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |volume=402 |issue=6761|pages=518–522 |doi=10.1038/990080 |bibcode=1999Natur.402..518C |s2cid=24895681 }}</ref> ===Older Vertebrates=== [[File:Acanthostega BW.jpg|right|thumb|150px]] The first jawed vertebrates may have appeared in the late Ordovician (~445 mya) or Silurian, and became common in the Devonian period, and by the middle of the Devonian, a lineage of bony fishes, the sarcopterygians, with both gills and air-breathing lungs adapted to life in swampy pools, used their muscular paired fins to propel themselves on land.<ref name="Carroll 1977">{{cite book |title=Patterns of Evolution, as Illustrated by the Fossil Record |last=Carroll |first=Robert L. |editor-last=Hallam |editor-first=Anthony |editor-link=Anthony Hallam |year=1977 |publisher=[[Elsevier]] |isbn=978-0-444-41142-6 |pages=405–420 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q7GjDIyyWegC&q=Amphibian+evolution&pg=PA405 |access-date=15 October 2020 |archive-date=14 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414082736/https://books.google.com/books?id=q7GjDIyyWegC&q=Amphibian+evolution&pg=PA405 |url-status=live }}</ref> The fins, already possessing bones and joints, evolved into the two pairs of walking legs of the first [[tetrapods]]<ref name="NarkiewiczNarkiewicz2015">{{cite journal |last1=Narkiewicz |first1=Katarzyna |last2=Narkiewicz |first2=Marek |title=The age of the oldest tetrapod tracks from Zachełmie, Poland |journal=[[Lethaia]] |volume=48 |issue=1 |date=January 2015 |pages=10–12 |doi=10.1111/let.12083 |bibcode=2015Letha..48...10N }}</ref> in the [[Wikipedia:Famennian|Famennian]] stage of the [[Wikipedia:Devonian|Devonian]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Long |first1=John A. |last2=Niedźwiedzki |first2=Grzegorz |last3=Garvey |first3=Jillian |last4=Clement |first4=Alice M. |last5=Camens |first5=Aaron B. |last6=Eury |first6=Craig A. |last7=Eason |first7=John |last8=Ahlberg |first8=Per E. |date=May 2025 |title=Earliest amniote tracks recalibrate the timeline of tetrapod evolution |journal=Nature|volume=641 |issue=8065 |pages=1193–1200 |doi=10.1038/s41586-025-08884-5|pmid=40369062 |pmc=12119326 |bibcode=2025Natur.641.1193L }}</ref> A group of tetrapods, called the amniotes, with membranes around the embryo allowing it to survive on dry land, branched from amphibious tetrapods in the Carboniferous.<ref name="benton2014">{{Cite book |edition=4th|publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-118-40764-6 |last=Benton|first=Michael |title=Vertebrate Palaeontology |date=2014 |pages=119, 148}}</ref> ===Dinosaurian Mesozoic=== [[File:Hyperodapedon BW2 white background.jpg|thumb|150px]] At the onset of the Mesozoic, all larger vertebrate groups were devastated after the Permian-Triassic extinction event, but saw the emergence of many new vertebrate groups that are still around today, and this time has been described as the origin of modern ecosystems. On the continents, the ancestors of modern amphibians, turtles, crocodilians, lizards, and [[mammals]] appeared, as well as dinosaurs, which gave rise to birds later in the Mesozoic. In the seas, various groups of marine reptiles evolved, as did new groups of fish. However, the Mesozoic did not last forever, because at the end of the Mesozoic, [[Wikipedia:Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event|another extinction event]] extirpated dinosaurs (other than birds) and many other vertebrate groups.<ref name="Fortey 1999">{{cite book |last=Fortey |first=Richard |author-link=Richard Fortey |title=[[Life: A Natural History of the First Four Billion Years of Life on Earth]] |publisher=[[Vintage Books]] |year=1999 |pages=238–260 |isbn=978-0-375-70261-7}}</ref> ==Taxonomy== Partly because of their ready availability to study, the chordates have a rather complicated taxonomy and is frequently revised. The list below is one version that should give an overview of the diversity within the Phylum. Phylum Chordata *Group Cephalochordata **Family Pikaiidae (an extinct group considered to be among the earliest chordates, it isn't readily placed within the hierarchy) **Class Leptocardii ***Order Amphioxiformes (lancets) *Group Olfactores **Subphylum Tunicata (tunicates, filter-feeding chordates) ***Class Ascidiacea ***Class Thaliacea ***Class Larvacea *Clade Craniata **Class Myxini (hagfishes) **Class Hyperoartia (lampreys) **Class Vertebrata (vertebrates, including humans) ==Phylogeny== {{clade |label1='''Chordata''' |1={{clade|style=font-size:70%; line-height:100% |1=Cephalochordata (lancelets) [[File:Branchiostoma lanceolatum (Amphioxus lanceolatus).png|70px]] |label2=Olfactores |2={{clade |1=Tunicata [[File:202210_Vase_tunicates.svg|30px]] |label2=Vertebrata/Craniata |2={{clade |1=†Myllokunmingiida <span style="{{MirrorH}}">[[File:Haikouichthys (Transparent).png|50px]]</span> |2={{clade |1={{clade |1=†Anaspidomorphi [[File:Estonian Museum of Natural History - Birkenia.png|40px]] |2={{clade |1=†Conodonta <span style="{{MirrorH}}">[[File:Conodonta.png|70px]]</span> |label2=Cyclostomi |2={{clade |1=Myxini (hagfish) [[File:Myxine glutinosa Gervais.jpg|50 px]] |2=Hyperoartia (lampreys) [[File:Flussneunauge.jpg|50 px]] }} }} }} |label2=Pan-Gnathostomata |2={{clade |1=†Pteraspidomorphi [[File:Astraspis desiderata.png|30px]] |2={{clade |1=†Thelodonti <span style="{{MirrorH}}">[[File:Sphenonectris turnerae - MUSE.jpg|40px]]</span> |2={{clade |1=†Galeaspida <span style="{{MirrorH}}">[[File:A Galeaspid.jpg|40px]]</span> |2={{clade |1=†Pituriaspida <span style="{{MirrorH}}">[[File:Pituriaspida.gif|40px]]</span> |2={{clade |1=†Osteostraci <span style="{{MirrorH}}">[[File:Tremataspis NT small.jpg|50px]]</span> |label2=Gnathostomata |2={{clade |state1=double |1=†"Placodermi" (paraphyletic) [[File:Dunkleosteus terrelli 2024 reconstruction.jpg|70 px]] |2={{clade |1={{clade |state1=double |1=†"Acanthodii" (paraphyletic) [[File:Acanthodes BW.jpg|60 px]] |label2=Chondrichthyes |2={{clade |1=Holocephali [[File:Chimaera monstrosa1.jpg|50px]] |label2=Elasmobranchii |2={{clade |1=Selachii (sharks) <span style="{{MirrorH}}">[[File:White shark (Duane Raver).png|50 px]]</span> |2=Batoidea (rays) [[File:Sawfish logo.png|50px]] }} }} }} |label2=Osteichthyes |2={{clade |label1=Actinopterygii |1={{clade |1=Cladistia [[File:Polypterus endlicherii MHNT ICHT 1995 8.jpg|50px]] |label2=Actinopteri |2={{clade |1=Chondrostei <span style="{{MirrorH}}">[[File:Atlantic sturgeon.jpg|50px]]</span> |label2=Neopterygii |2={{clade |1=Holostei [[File:Alligator gar fish (white background).jpg|50px]] |2=Teleostei [[File:Common carp (white background).jpg|45 px]] }} }} }} |label2=Sarcopterygii |2={{clade |1=Actinistia (coelacanths) [[File:Coelacanth flipped.png|45 px]] |label2=Rhipidistia |2={{clade |1=Dipnoi (lungfish) <span style="{{MirrorH}}">[[File:Chinle fish Arganodus cropped cropped.png|50 px]]</span> |label2=Tetrapoda |2={{clade |1=Amphibia [[File:Salamandra salamandra (white background).jpg|50 px]] |label2=Amniota |2={{clade |1=Reptillia <span style="{{MirrorH}}">[[File:Deinosuchus_riograndensis.png|50px]]</span> |2=Mammilia [[File:Ruskea_rotta.png|40 px]] }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} ==Anatomy== Chordates have a notochord, a rod of cartilage inside of the body. They also have dorsal neural tube, which develops into a spinal cord in most subgroups. Additionally, chordates have pharyngeal slits along part of the throat. The slits may only be present in the embryonic animal, and develop to form gills in fish. All chordates have an anus, and a post-anal tail, which is a body part that extends past the tail at the posterior end of the animal. Though all have bilateral symmetry, the form of some chordates is not alike at first glance. In general form, the tunicates, for instance, appear somewhat blob-like, especially compared to many tetrapods (amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals). ==The Fossil Record== Chordates have a long and diverse fossil history. The earliest known chordate fossil is 525 million years old, from the Cambrian from China. Fossil chordates have been found on all continents. Many have bony skeletons and fossilize well. Chordate fossils include representatives of very well known groups, including dinosaurs, fish, reptiles, birds, and mammals. ==Quiz== * [[/Chordata Quiz/]] ==References and Further Reading== *[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chordate Chordate] on Wikipedia *[http://tolweb.org/Chordata/2499 Chordata] on Tree of Life *[http://eol.org/pages/694/overview Chordata] on Encyclopedia of Life [[Category:Animals]] [[Category:Taxonomy]] [[Category:Biology]] [[Category:Zoology]] 3x4tcvjhwsbcgp3q3qngech0a9hz848 0 235179 2836351 2593556 2026-10-06T19:24:50Z The Citer 3110681 /* Taxonomy */ 2836351 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:LightRefractsOf comb-rows of ctenophore Mertensia ovum.jpg|thumb|300px|right|''Mertensia'', a Ctenophore.]] * Ctenophora * Name Meaning: Comb bearer * English Common Name: Comb jellies, Ctenophores * Major distinguishing characteristics: Eight "comb rows" of fused cilia * Approximate number of species described: about 100 modern species == Natural History == All species are marine and almost all are free-swimming. They are found around the world, and grow up to 2 meters (6 feet) in length. Comb-jellies are difficult to study because most species are extremely soft-bodied and don't survive capture intact. A few coastal species are a bit tougher, and are regularly displayed in aquaria. Most of what we know about them comes from these species. All adult ctenophores are predators. The juveniles of two species are parasites, otherwise they too are predators. Some are bioluminescent. ==Taxonomy== The Phylum Ctenophora is divided into two living classes: * Class Tentaculata (ctenophores with cilia) * Class Nuda (ctenophores without cilia) ==Anatomy== Ctenophora are the largest animals to move by the use of cilia. The cilia are present in lines, called combs. A few deep-sea ctenophorans lack combs. Like cnidarians, their bodies consist mostly of mesoglea, a non-living substance. Unlike the cnidarians, their body wall contains two layers of cells instead of one. Their internal anatomy consists of a mouth, pharynx, stomach, and an internal set of canals. ==The Fossil Record== Having a soft body, the fossil record of the Ctenophora is spotty and limited. The earliest known is 520 million years old. They are present in the Burgess Shale. ==Quiz== * [[/Ctenophora Quiz/]] ==References and Further Reading== * [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ctenophora Ctenophora] at Wikipedia * [http://eol.org/pages/69/overview Ctenophora] at the Encyclopedia of Life * [http://tolweb.org/Ctenophora/2462 Ctenophora] at the Tree of Life [[Category:Animals]] [[Category:Taxonomy]] [[Category:Biology]] [[Category:Zoology]] 8mkeenrcbv7mc7tiq2113agy8z0gp0f 2 257397 2836317 2486441 2026-10-06T12:34:15Z Alexey Vazhnov 291007 I do not contribute into any Wikiversity project because of Title Case rule: [[Wikiversity:Naming conventions#Casing]] 2836317 wikitext text/x-wiki {{softredirect|w:en:User:Alexey Vazhnov}} {{Babel|ru|en-2|pl-1}} r1tw596wgjj3ei4ga44kzxkf5lakmmr 0 264334 2836353 2828630 2026-10-06T20:07:56Z Scogdill 1331941 /* Phonograph, Gramophone, etc. */ 2836353 wikitext text/x-wiki = Victorian Things and Everyday Objects = Because they were published in newspaper accounts of elite weddings — sometimes in detail — lists of wedding gifts give us an sense of the objects that filled people's houses, that were thought important for entertaining and appropriate for a new couple setting up their own houses. Some couples received a lot of books, while some received almost none, unless we count a single Bible or prayer book. Some couples received a lot of art, both made by the giver and, apparently, purchased. Brand names occur for some things, like some kinds of china and furniture. The most common wedding gifts were boxes, candlesticks, walking sticks, umbrellas, fans, paper knives, ink stands and individual pieces of [[Social Victorians/Victorian Things#Tableware and Place Settings|table ware]], and some couples received a great many of these. Many couples also received a lot of the implements of [[Social Victorians/Victorian Things#Paper and Writing Tools|writing and manuscript culture]]. It is hard to imagine what one would do with a half dozen inkstands — perhaps every room that a guest might use would have one. [[File:Queen Victoria's Bathing Machine. - panoramio.jpg|alt=Small wooden building on wheels with steps|thumb|Queen Victoria's Bathing Machine]] [[File:Queen Victoria's Bathing Machine in its new home on the sea shore - panoramio.jpg|thumb|Queen Victoria's Bathing Machine, side view]] == Bathing Machines == Bathing machines were little wooden shacks or houses, usually on wheels, which allowed modest people a place to change to their swimming costumes and get into the water without being seen. The houses were lined up on the beach, and the users would go to their house, or the one they had rented, and enter it through a door facing the water. Inside were hooks for hanging clothing on and benches attached to the walls to sit on. When the users had changed and hung their clothing up on the hooks out of the reach of the water, the house could be rolled into the surf far enough that the users could swim out the front door and play in the water without having to stand, visible, in their swimming suits. [[Social Victorians/People/Queen Victoria|Queen Victoria]]'s restored bathing machine (right) is near Osborne House, in Cowes, on the Isle of Wight. The first time she ever went into the sea was in 1847 on the Isle of Wight, in Osborne. She described it in her entry in her journal for 30 July 1847:<blockquote>drove down to the beach with my maid & went into the bathing machines, where I undressed & bathed in the sea (for the 1st time in my life), a very nice bathing woman attended me. I thought it delightful till I put my head under water, when I thought I should be stifled.<ref>Qtd. in Laurence Shafe. ''Art History Revealed''. 2018–2019. art@shafe.uk. https://www.shafe.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/p12-The-Summer-Exhibition.pdf.</ref></blockquote>For much of the century women used the bathing machines and men swam nude, or at least it was common enough for men to swim nude that it would not have been shocking. There were swimming costumes for both men and women, however, which were knee-length dresses and shorts for the women, and a sleeveless top and shorts for the men. Likely to have been made of wool, they were heavy and bulky and probably itchy as well, but they covered much of the body and still were a great deal less cloth and structure than people's normal clothing. Larry Simons says, "Finally, it's worthy of mention that in the 1997 film Mrs Brown (also called Her Majesty, Mrs Brown in the USA), there is one scene in which Queen Victoria (played by Dame Judi Dench) goes for a swim and actually USES a bathing machine (http://us.imdb.com/Title?0119280)."<ref>"More on bathing machines," ''Savoynet''.</ref> Lewis Carroll mentions a bathing machine in "The Hunting of the Snark" and in ''Alice's Adventures Underground'', in the chapter called "Pool of Tears":<blockquote>"In that case, I can go back by railway." (Alice had been to the seaside once in her life, and had come to the general conclusion that, wherever you go to on the English coast, you find a number of bathing-machines in the sea, some children digging in the sand with wooden spades, then a row of lodging houses, and behind them, a railway station).</blockquote> J. L. Speranza points out these citations and says, "For more on bathing-machines, see Chapter 2, Note 6, of ''Alice's Adventures Underground'' in ''The Annotated Alice''; and ''The English Seaside'' by H. G. Stokes, 1947, pages 17-25."<ref>"something between a large bathing-machine," ''Savoynet''.</ref> In Gilbert and Sullivan's ''Iolanthe'', the Lord Chancellor describes something as being in size "'something between a large bathing-machine / and a very small second-class carriage." == Bicycles == === "Delightful Cycling Breakfast Parties" === On 29 July 1895 ''The Album'' published this look by at women cyclists in Battersea Park in London Max Pemberton. It suggests that the [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Hon. Algernon Bourke]]'s experiment with a White's restaurant in the park was associated with these women stopping for breakfast and riding their bicycles in the park. It also suggests that Pemberton's informant was Bourke himself.<blockquote>The society reporter has assured us that the knell of the society reporter season was heard a week or two ago, and he has taken the opportunity to indulge in a retrospect. While he finds much that deserves the epithet "brilliant" and much that he styles "fascinating" in the social events of the last three months, the best of his eulogy is reserved for the practices of the lady cyclist and the astonishing assent with which her apocalypse has been received. He tells us with fit rapture that of all the things for which the season of the year 1895 will be remembered, none will linger so long in the memory as the delightful cycling breakfast parties in Battersea Park. For [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Mr. Algernon Bourke]], who bought a piece of ground from the County Council and promoted these "functions," he can discover no satisfying words of praise. Every morning, says he, we have looked for such pretty and graceful riders as Lady Norreys, Lady Wolverton, Miss Mabel Duncombe, Mrs. Willie Grenfell, Lady Féo Sturt, and scores of others, and have not been disappointed. The Surreysider has stood aghast at this invasion of his park. The cleverness and the daring of the performers have almost silenced the brutalities of the gamin and have converted the clamorous coster to Conservatism. Now consuming strawberries and cream at daintily decked tables, now skimming round the track with the agility of a hired fairy, always picturesquely dressed the lady cyclist has won over the East End. She has stretched out her hand across the water, and 'Enery 'Awkins has kissed it. It remains only for Archdeacons to bless and for Archbishops-on tandems-to consummate the happy union. All this is very pleasing but many of those who are content to reserve their judgment in matters of this sort may well cry ''il n'y a que le matin en toutes choses''. Before we make up our minds whether this boom in lady cyclists is to last, we must look on the other side of the picture. And this other side is not always pleasing. There was tried at a North London police court some few weeks ago a case which had not quite the charm and the content of these pretty breakfast parties in Battersea Park. If I am remembering it rightly, one lady cyclist ran down another, and in the [Col. 1c–2a] course of the explanations which ensued, a good deal of hair was torn out, while words were exchanged which no self-respecting paper would publish. It was declared upon oath that the ignorant wayfarers who watched the various rounds fought, and constituted themselves referees and sponge holders, were not in favour of the rational dress. "You ought to be ashamed of yourself" was the remark of one bystander. Another feelingly asked an elderly, if pugnacious, rider what she meant by putting "them things" on. And as a lady cyclist declared with tears in court, she and her kind were still doomed to meet with considerable insult whenever and wherever the rational dress was displayed on the Queen's highroad. Such hostility must be set down to a very shabby ignorance. None the less is it a factor in the answer to the question, What is the future of the lady cyclist? Will she go on conquering prejudice in remote villages, or will she, having aired her graces in Battersea Park for a couple of seasons, forget her bicycle and return to her horse? I am inclined to think that she will do both. While it must be admitted that the exhibition promoted by [[Social Victorians/London Clubs#White's|White's Club]] and by Mr. Algernon Bourke is a mere craze, and will be swept ultimately into the limbo whereto all crazes go, it is impossible to deny that young ladies who read in distant hamlets of these doings will imitate them and add to the army of lady riders. And here we may hope to find solidity for the movement. That a woman can derive considerable pleasure from a modern bicycle, there is no possible doubt. The exercise is good for her; the costume is becoming. When once example has conquered prejudice, and the milliner has conquered both — the bicycle should flourish exceedingly. Already the world has thrust forth a vanity which has buzzed into his ears — the man's to wit. The verdict of the Bachelors is, that no girl could look so "fetching" as on a bicycle. If the greater majority are held back now by the traditions of a gloomy past, they will be held back no longer when all Belgravia rides and all the [[Social Victorians/London Clubs#Albany|Albany]] goes out to see. And that such a time is at hand, the season has proved in its life and is proving in its death. I say, proving in its death, but a word must be added to this. In a few weeks, the craze which has been London's, will be known at Eastbourne, at Scarborough, at Cromer, at Southsea. Nor is it idle to hope that when the first fury has passed, and people no longer ride because it is the thing, there will remain a host of lady cyclists who will have found a new joy and a new pastime in one of the most delightful exercises that the century has introduced to us.<ref>Pemberton, Max. "The Season of the Lady Cyclist." "Games." ''The Album: A Journal of Photographs of Men, Women, and Events of the Day'' 29 July 1895 (Vol. II). ''Google Books'' (retrieved July 2025) https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Album/4lI2AQAAMAAJ. p. 160.</ref></blockquote> == Brand Names == * [[Social Victorians/Victorian Things#Popular Medicinal Products|Bayer aspirin]] * [[Social Victorians/Victorian Things#Popular Medicinal Products|Coca Cola]] * [[Social Victorians/Victorian Things#Encyclopaedia Britannica|Encyclopaedia Britannica]] * [[Social Victorians/Victorian Things#Popular Medicinal Products|Heroin]] * House of Worth * [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Liberty Fabrics|Liberty Fabrics]] * Macassar Oil * Pepsi Cola * Vaseline: "the word 'vaseline' was introduced as a proprietary term by R. A. Chesebrough" in 1872. According to Morris Rosenblum, "It is found in British publications in 1874 and 1876." (Baring-Gould I 450, n. 13). * Virot hat, from Madame Virot's in Paris, milliner to Empress Eugenie<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2025-06-30|title=Madame Virot|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Madame_Virot&oldid=1298040198|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> == Candles, Fireplaces and Smoking == * Candlesticks were very common as wedding gifts * Some couples received suites des cheminéess or garnitures des cheminées * Match boxes * Cigarette or cigar lighter * Cigar Case * Tobacco pouch == Dictionaries, Encyclopedias and Other Reference Works == === Dictionary of Slang === John Stephen Farmer. ''Slang and Its Analogues Past and Present: A Dictionary, Historical and Comparative, of the Heterodox Speech of All Classes of Society for More Than Three Hundred Years. With Synonyms in English, French, German, Italian, Etc''. Poulter, 1890. Vol. 1: ''Google Books'': https://books.google.com/books?id=A8xfcjboymkC. [Google Books incorrectly has ''Haterodox'' in the title.] === Encyclopaedia Britannica === It has been published in the United States since 1901, although the spelling has remained British.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|date=2023-01-08|title=Encyclopædia Britannica|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica&oldid=1132316500|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica.</ref> ==== The 9th Edition ==== Here is a copy of the 9th edition at the ''Internet Archive'': [[iarchive:encyclopaedia-britannica-9ed-1875/I|https://archive.org/details/encyclopaedia-britannica-9ed-1875/]]. If the people who attended the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's 1897 fancy-dress ball]] did any research on the figures from the past or from art or mythology or the arts, the 9th edition of the Britannica offers an example of what kinds of information would have been available to them. (The idea of them doing personal research like this is unlikely — more likely might be that they or their costumier studied what art and portraits were available at the galleries they frequented.) In a sense, the Britannica represents higher level popular knowledge. The 9th edition of the Britannica (1875–1889) — the "Scholar's Edition" — was the first edition written by men (almost exclusively) who were experts in their field and who could write well.<ref name=":7" /> [[Social Victorians/People/George Bernard Shaw|George Bernard Shaw]] said he read the 9th edition except for the articles about science.<ref>Kogan, Herman. ''The Great EB: The Story of the Encyclopædia Britannica''. The University of Chicago Press, 1958. Cited in https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica.</ref> Some notable people who contributed articles (with the abbreviations used for authorship attribution) include the following:<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.1902encyclopedia.com/contributors.html|title=Important Contributors to Encyclopaedia Britannica, 9th Edition (1875-89) and 10th Edition (1902-03)|website=www.1902encyclopedia.com|access-date=2023-01-11}}</ref> * Grant Allen (G.A.): "Mimicry" * Amelia Blandford Edwards (A.B.E.): "Mummy" * James George Frazer (J.G.F<small>R</small>.): "Pericles," "Taboo," "Totemism" * Thomas Henry Huxley (T.H.H.): "'''Actinozoa'''," "'''Animal''' Kingdom," "'''Biology'''," "Evolution: Evolution in Biology" * Prince Peter Alexeivitch, Prince Kropotkine (P.A.K.): "Moscow", "Nova Zembla [Novaya Zemlya]," "Odessa," "Siberia" * Andrew Lang (A.L.): "'''Apparitions'''," "Family," "Molière" * Thomas Babington, Lord Macaulay (M.): "Francis '''Atterbury'''," "John '''Bunyan'''," "Samuel Johnson," "Oliver Goldsmith," "William Pitt [the Younger]" * Clements Robert Markham (C.R.M.): "Geography (Historical Geography)" * James Clerk Maxwell (J.C.M.): "'''Atom'''," "Ether" * William Minto (W.M.): "'''Byron'''," "'''Chaucer'''," "'''Dickens'''," "Poe," "Wordsworth" * William Morris (W.M<small>O</small>.) and John Henry Middleton (J.H.M.): "Mural Decoration" * Emilia F. S. Pattison, Lady Dilke (E.F.S.P.): "Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres" * Lord Rayleigh (R.): "Optics, Geometrical" and "Wave Theory of Light" * William Michael Rossetti (W.M.R.): "Bartolemé Esteban Murillo," "Percy Bysshe Shelley" * George Edward Bateman Saintsbury (G.S<small>A</small>.): "Pierre '''Corneille'''," "Daniel '''Defoe'''," "Clément Marot," "Michel de Montaigne," "Jean Racine," "Jean-Jacques Rousseau," "François Marie Arouet de Voltaire" * Eleanor Mildred Sidgwick (Mrs. Henry Sidgwick) (E.M.S.): "Spiritualism" * Robert Louis Stevenson (R.L.S.): "Pierre Jean de '''Béranger'''" * Algernon Charles Swinburne (A.C.S.): "John Keats" *John Addington Symonds (J.A.S.): "Renaissance" *William Thompson, Lord Kelvin (W.T<small>H</small>.): "'''Ether'''," "Elasticity," "Heat" [I can't find the byline, but the article ends with tables and a "Mathematical Appendix," so it's a little difficult to tell where it actually ends] *Alfred Russell Wallace (A.R.W.): "'''Acclimatisation'''," "'''Distribution''' (Biology) - Introduction. Distribution of Animal Life" The 25 volumes had<blockquote>thick boards and high-quality leather bindings, premier paper, and a production which took full advantage of the technological advances in printing in the years between the 1850s and 1870s. Great use was made of the new ability to print large graphic illustrations on the same pages as the text, as opposed to limiting illustrations to separate copperplates. Although this technology had first been used in a primitive fashion the 7th edition, and to a much lesser extent in the 8th, in the 9th edition there were thousands of quality illustrations set into the text pages, in addition to the plates.<ref>"Ninth edition, 1875–1889." {{Cite journal|date=2022-11-10|title=History of the Encyclopædia Britannica|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica&oldid=1121066541|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Encyclopædia_Britannica#Ninth edition, 1875–1889.</ref></blockquote> The 11th edition (1911) continued the tradition of recruiting writers who had expertise and is also known for the quality of the writing.<ref name=":7" /> Until the ''Wikisource'' project on the ''Britannica'' is finished, perhaps the best online source is at the ''Internet Archive'': * Index volume here: * List of contributors for the 9th edition: https://archive.org/details/encyclopaedia-britannica-9ed-1875/Index%20193479114.23/page/491/mode/1up Perhaps 500,000 pirated copies of this edition — "10,000 sets sold by Britannica and 45,000 authorized sets made in the US by Little, Brown in Boston and Schribners' Sons in NY"<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2023-01-08|title=Encyclopædia Britannica|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica&oldid=1132316500|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}} [[wikipedia:Encyclopædia_Britannica|https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica#Edition summary]].</ref> — were made in the US. ==== The 10th Edition ==== The 10th edition (1902–1903) was the first managed and owned by Americans. It is "an eleven-volume supplement (including one each of maps and an index) to the 9th, numbered as volumes 25–35."<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2023-01-08|title=Encyclopædia Britannica|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica&oldid=1132316500|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}} [[wikipedia:Encyclopædia_Britannica|https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica#1901–1973]].</ref> The supplement revised the articles to be more current at the beginning of the 20th century, may have increased the coverage of North America in deference to its American readers. John Muir wrote the article on Yosemite for the 10th edition. == Drugs == Depending upon when, of course, drugs that were not regulated and products that were generally available that would not be now: *Arsenic *Laudanum *Cocaine *Coca wine *Heroin According to [[Social Victorians/People/Waite|A. E. Waite]], [[Social Victorians/People/Less-Famous People Involved in Spiritualism#Walter Moseley|Walter Moseley]]'s "health had been seriously damaged by the use of drugs for occult purposes" (Howe 85 39, n. 3). Possibly [[Social Victorians/People/William Butler Yeats|W. B. Yeats]] had injections of ground-up "monkey glands" in order to increase his masculinity (is this true?). Baring-Gould speaks of Sherlock Holmes, as always, as if he were a biographical rather than fictional character: <blockquote> Dr. Kohki Naganuma has questioned ("Sherlock Holmes and Cocaine") Holmes' use of cocaine by hypodermic injection at this time since "Karl Ludwig Schleich, of Berlin, [was] the first surgeon to use cocaine solution in hypodermic injection [in 1891].] But Dr. Julian Wolff has replied ("A Narcotic Monograph") that "although Schleich is usually given credit for priority in the use of cocaine by injection, actually the credit should go to a great American surgeon. The first such use of cocaine was not in 1891 by Schleich, as is generally supposed, but in 1884, by Dr. William S. Halsted. … 1884 was early enough so that it was no anachronism for Holmes to be taking cocaine injections when Watson said he was." It should be pointed out that, at this time, there was no popular prejudice against drug-takers. As Mr. Michael Harrison has written (In the Footsteps of Sherlock Homes): "In Holmes' day, not only was the purchase of most 'Schedule IV' drugs legal; Madeleine Smith and Mrs. Maybrick bought their arsenic; De Quincey and Dickens and Robert Louis Stevenson, their laudanum; with no more trouble than that with which they purchased their tooth-powder. No 'Dangerous Drug Act' had been passed, in its original form when Holmes bought and took his cocaine in doses that Watson's description of the typical cocaine-addition syndromes indicate to have been heavy ones. (Holmes probably purchased his supplies from either John Taylor, Chemist, at the corner of George Street and Baker Street — east side — or of Curtis and Company, No. 44, on the west side) …." (Baring-Gould I 610, n. 1; all editorial marks are ''sic).'' </blockquote> === Popular Medicinal Products === [[File:Bayer Heroin bottle.jpg|thumb|Bottle of heroin produced by Friedr. Bayer & Co.]] ==== Beecham's Pills ==== The 1909 ''Secret Remedies: What They Cost and What They Contain'' says that a box of Beecham's Pills, "advertised to be worth a guinea, is sold for 1s. 1 1/2 d., and the prime cost of the ingredients of the 56 pills it contains is about half a farthing. ... The pills had an average weight of 11/4 grains, and analysis showed them to consist of aloes, ginger and soap ; no other medicinal ingredient was found." It lists the ingredients for each pill thus: :Aloes... ... ... ... ... 0.5 grain. :Powdered ginger... ..... 0.55 " :Powdered soap... ... ... 0.18 " Liz Calvert Smith says that "aloes are 'a bitter purgative drug, condensed from the juice of the leaves of various species of Aloes'" (Smith 2003). ==== Coca wine ==== Coca wine, developed in the mid-19th century, contained cocaine and wine.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|date=2022-04-08|title=Coca wine|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Coca_wine&oldid=1081528920|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coca_wine.</ref> It seems to have been produced by local pharmacists from a standard formula. As the US began prohibition, the wine in the mixture had to be replaced. One Georgia pharmacist replaced the wine with a sugar syrup, making the original recipe for Coca Cola.<ref name=":5" /> Lindsey Fitzharris says that one brand of coca wine, Vin Mariani (the same formulation used by the pharmacist in Georgia), "was enjoyed by Jules Verne, Alexander Dumas & Arthur Conan Doyle" and Thomas Edison, and that it "contained 6 mg of cocaine per fluid ounce."<ref>Fitzharris, Lindsey @DrLindseyFitz. ''Twitter'' 27 December 2022 11:07 a.m. https://twitter.com/DrLindseyFitz/status/1607785196987752448 (accessed December 2022).</ref> ==== Heroin ==== Although C. R. Alder Wright synthesized what we now call heroin in 1874, nothing was done with the invention beyond one test on animals.<ref name=":6">"History." {{Cite journal|date=2022-12-22|title=Heroin|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Heroin&oldid=1128826316|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}} [[wikipedia:Heroin|https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heroin#History]].</ref> Felix Hoffmann, who was working for pharmaceutical company Friedr. Bayer & Co. in Germany, re-invented the chemical independently, 11 days after he had synthesized aspirin for the first time, 21 August 1897.<ref name=":6" /> Bayer lost trademark rights to heroin and aspirin after Germany's defeat in World War I.<ref name=":6" /> == Electricity and Gas == The newspapers reported as people had electricity installed in their houses. Richard D'Oyly Carte is said to have had the first house in London to have electricity and an elevator, and the Savoy Theatre, which he built, was the first public building to be lit only with electricity. The Savoy Hotel was the first to be lit with electricity and the first to have electric elevators. Electric lights were used for the coronation of King Edward VII; Queen Consort Alexandra's coronation dress had silver threads in the weft, making it quite a statement under the electric lights in Westminster Abbey. === 1840s–1850s === The "moniker" ''city of light''<blockquote>had taken on new meaning in the 1840s and ’50s when the boulevards were lit up at night and the city flourished, as Charles Baudelaire wrote, “in the light of the gas lamps, illuminated . . . and as if drunk on it.” Gaslight allowed for the emergence of a truly nocturnal city. At sunset, twenty thousand lampposts ignited automatically, fed from fuel lines connected to subterranean gas mains. Scores of lamplighters lit another three thousand streetlights manually. These new lights could illuminate a far larger area than before — a boon to safety that also transformed Parisians’ sense of their city’s potential, enhancing the culture of spectacle for which it was already famous, and leaving giddy visitors with an impression of ineffable modernity. The capital, wrote Joachim Schloer, became “like an island of light against the surrounding darkness.”<ref name=":10">Smee, Sebastian. ''Paris in Ruins: Love, War, and the Birth of Impressionism''. W. W. Norton, 2024.</ref>{{rp|33–34 of 667}}</blockquote> === 1860s === '''1860 April 24''', [[Social Victorians/People/Eugenie of France|Eugénie]] hosted a masked costume ball, "the highlight of the social season":<blockquote>The banquet hall boasted a huge fountain, upon which shone the new invention of electric light, "so adjusted as to give the watery spray as it rose and fell the appearance of frosted silver," one correspondent reported in awe. "The scene was most beautiful, and called vividly to mind those abodes only read of in the Arabian Nights." ... "Too much praise cannot be attributed to her Majesty,… who planned so magnificent an entertainment," was the general consensus. "It was worthy of an Empress."<ref name=":32">Goldstone, Nancy. ''The Rebel Empresses: Elisabeth of Austria and Eugénie of France, Power and Glamour in the Struggle for Europe''. Little, Brown, 2025.</ref>{{rp|412 of 909}}</blockquote> === 1870s === Under Bismarck's seige of Paris 1870–1871, in late November and December of 1870,<blockquote>Supplies of gas had been summarily cut off. The light that had illuminated Second Empire Paris, transforming social life in the process, had been in short supply for over a month. Earlier in the siege, Thomas Gibson Bowles, the founding editor of ''Vanity Fair'', had noticed the “astonishing” effect that halving the supply of gas to the streetlamps had had on the atmosphere. “It has changed the aspect of the town,” he wrote, “and no less striking is the influence it exerts in driving people home at an early hour. ... [/] Temperatures were now consistently below freezing. After two heavy snowfalls, the city was blanketed in snow from December 12 until early January. With Christmas approaching, Paris was still resisting, but the optimism of autumn had guttered out. Hungry, sapped of its glamour and pride, the city was bracing for a winter that would prove the coldest in living memory.<ref name=":10" /> (276–278 of 667)</blockquote> === 1880s === Electricity<blockquote>would have been theoretically possible [in England] at any time after 1880 but in practice it was most unlikely, for the original legislation was most restrictive and the first supply companies found it practically impossible to function. Only later in the eighties / were the restrictions removed. (Baring-Gould II 566–67, n. 19)</blockquote>'''1887''', Queen Victoria's Golden Jubilee:<blockquote>Now London was like an enchanted city, flickering with gaslight, oil light, limelight, electric light, candelabra, and fairy lights. So many lamps illuminated the city that in some parts it was brighter than day. A Mr. Breidenbach of Bond Street arranged for jets of violet-scented perfume to be sprayed fifty feet into the air, then lit up by electric lamps.<ref>Baird, Julia. ''Victoria the Queen, an Intimate Biography of the Woman Who Ruled an Empire''. Random House, 2016. Apple Books: https://books.apple.com/us/book/victoria-the-queen/id953835024.</ref>{{rp|762 of 1203}}</blockquote> === 1890s === ==== 1894 ==== Electricity was available in Hampstead (Baring-Gould II 567, n. 19). ==== 1897 ==== For Queen Victoria's Diamond Jubilee:<blockquote>The Queen came up from Windsor on 21 June 1897, and stayed the night at Buckingham Palace. £250,000 had been spent on London street decorations, ... mingling thousands of tiny gas jets – a novelty when the Queen was young – with the totally newfangled electric light bulbs.<ref name=":14" />{{rp|974 of 1204}}</blockquote>In her journal, Queen Victoria says about the procession from Windsor to Buckingham Palace [? confirm from and to where],<blockquote>Before leaving I touched an electric button, by which I started a message which was telegraphed throughout the whole Empire. It was the following: [975–976] 'From my heart I thank my beloved people, May God bless them!'<ref name=":14" />{{rp|975–976 of 1204}}</blockquote> == Food == === Punch === Punch was a drink served cold or at room temperature in glasses, often colored or flavored by the citrus fruits currently in season. In 1889, Mrs. Beeton says of punch, <blockquote>Punch is a beverage made of various spirituous liquors or wine, hot water, the acid juice of fruits, and sugar. It is considered to be very intoxicating; but this is probably because the spirit being partly sheathed by the mucilaginous juice and the sugar, its strength does not appear to the taste so great as it really is. Punch, which was almost universally drunk among the middle classes about fifty or sixty years ago, has almost disappeared from our domestic tables, being superseded by wine. There are many different varieties of punch. It is sometimes kept cold in bottles, and makes a most agreeable summer drink. In Scotland, instead of the Madeira or sherry generally used in its manufacture, whiskey is substituted, and then its insiduous properties are more than usually felt. Where fresh lemons cannot be had for punch or similar beverages, crystallised citric acid and a few drops of the essence of lemon will be very nearly the same thing. In the composition of "Regent's punch," champagne, brandy and veritable Martinique are required; "Norfolk punch" requires Seville oranges; "milk punch" may be extemporised by adding a little hot milk to lemonade, and then straining it through a jelly-bag. Then there are "Wine punch," Tea-punch" [sic] and "French punch," made with lemons, spirits, tea and wine, in fantastic proportions. But of all the compounds of these materials, perhaps for a summer drink, the North-American "mint julep" is the most inviting. Captain Marryat gives the following recipe for its preparation: — "Put into a tumbler about a dozen sprigs of the tender shoots of mint; upon them put a spoonful of white sugar, and equal proportions of peach and common brandy, so as to fill up one third, or, perhaps, a little less; then take rasped or pounded ice, and fill up the tumbler. Epicures rub the lips of the tumbler with a piece of fresh pineapple; and the tumbler itself if very often encrusted outside with stalactites of ice. As the ice melts, you drink." The Virginians, says Captain Marryat, claim the merit of having invented this superb compound; but, from a passage in the "Comus" of Milton, he claims it for his own country. (Beeton 1889 1220-21)</blockquote> === Biscuits === Mrs. Beeton covers biscuits in her ''Book of Household Management'' and provides a page of illustrations (1109). Biscuits are both sweet and savory, depending on the recipe, what Americans might call both cookies and crackers. == Grooming and Hygiene == * Macassar Oil * Button hook * Scent bottle * Shoe horn == Household Goods == * [[Social Victorians/Victorian Things#Paper and Writing Tools|Paper and Writing Tools]] * String box * Suite de cheminée (or fireplace suite); Garniture de Cheminée === Doily === A simple and well-supported etymology traces the ''doily'' to "a 17th-century London draper" whose "cheap and genteel" "woolen stuff" was eventually used for "'a small ornamental napkin used at dessert', known as a 'doily-napkin.'"<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2025-01-11|title=Doily|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Doily&oldid=1268677585|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> On 22 January 1895, the New Zealand ''Bruce Herald'' reprinted this folk etymology from the ''New York Recorder''. It is useful for its recording of the variant spelling, versions of which appear in British newspaper at the end of the 19th century as well.<blockquote>The word doyley, now a familiar one with ladies, is derived from the name of Robert D'Oyley, one of the followers of William the Norman. He received a grant of valuable lands on the condition of a yearly tender of a tablecloth of three shillings' value at the feast of St. Michael. Agreeably to the fashion of the time the ladies of the D'Oyley household were accustomed to embroider and ornament the quit-rent tablecloths; hence these cloths, becoming curiosities and accumulating in the course of years, were at length brought into use as napkins at the royal table and called doyleys.<ref>"Origin of the Word Doyley." ''Bruce Herald'', Volume XXVI, Issue 2617, 22 January 1895, p. 3. https://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/newspapers/BH18950122.2.20.</ref></blockquote>Lady Helen Stewart received several "d'Oyleys" on her [[Social Victorians/Stewart-Stavordale Wedding 1902-01-25|1902 wedding to Lord Stavordale]]. === Tableware and Place Settings === ==== Serving Dishes and Implements ==== Many of the individual pieces given to couples at their wedding are serving dishes. * Salver * Asparagus tongs * Sauce boat * Muffineer * Epergne ==== Table Service ==== * Salt cellar * Pepper castor * Breakfast service * Tea service * Dinner service * Dessert service ==== Flatware and Silverware ==== * Apostle spoons (appear in some list of gifts to the bride) ==== Tea Service ==== * Sugar bowl, sugar sifter, sugar castor * Five o'clock tea set * Lemon-squeezer === Vitrine === A vitrine or vitrine case is a display case made of glass. According to the ''Oxford English Dictionary''<blockquote>OED's earliest evidence for ''vitrine'' is from 1880, in the writing of Charlotte Schreiber, translator, businesswoman, and collector.<ref>“Vitrine, N.” ''Oxford English Dictionary'', Oxford UP, December 2024, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1093/OED/1091506473</nowiki>.</ref></blockquote>Lady Helen Stewart received 2 vitrines plus a vitrine table for her [[Social Victorians/Stewart-Stavordale Wedding 1902-01-25|1902 wedding to Lord Stavordale]]. == Mail == <blockquote>In downtown London, in Holmes' and Watson's day, there were as many as twelve postal deliveries a day, and in Baker Street there were six. There were no Sunday deliveries, however — if one wanted to send a message on the Sabbath, he found it necessary to hire a commissionaire or some other special messenger.<ref name=":11">Baring-Gould I.</ref>{{rp|349, n. 17}}</blockquote> == Money == The denominations: * Penny * Shilling * Pound In "A Case of Identity," Sherlock Holmes says to Miss Mary Sutherland, "I believe that a single lady can get on very nicely upon an income of about sixty pounds." Baring-Gould says that this is a "highly revealing statement on the cost of living in Britain in the 1880's. A single lady could then get on very nicely upon an income of about sixty pounds -- about $300 -- a year."<ref name=":11" />{{rp|407 and n. 13}} John Watson appears to have had his practice in the [[Social Victorians/Places#Paddington|Paddington district]]:<blockquote>It is impossible to say in which of Paddington's many streets Watson lived; he could have lived in Eastbourne Terrace, which runs alongside the west wall of Paddington Station, and connects Praed Street with Bishop's Bridge Road. ... It is far more likely that Watson lived across Praed Street, in Spring Street or London Street or even in Norfolk Square, which is separated from Praed Street only by a block of houses. He would thus be near neough to the Station to be known to the staff, which sufficiently removed from the traffic of Praed Street to enjoy a certain amount of quiet. His rent would have been (for a three-storeyed house in, say Spring Street) about £60 [$300] per annum; a four-storeyed house in nearby Norfolk Square would have been about £80 [$400]; both figures exclusive of rates."<ref>Baring-Gould II.</ref>{{rp|153-54, n. 2}} [quoting Michael Harrison; ellipsis mine, interpolations his]</blockquote>Resources for understanding Victorian finances * Inflation Calculator<ref>Bank of England. Internet Archive: https://web.archive.org/web/20090324044204/http://www.bankofengland.co.uk/education/inflation/calculator/flash/index.htm (retrieved October 2020).</ref> == Newspapers == [[Social Victorians/Newspapers|Newspapers]] and magazines are on their own page, with places to find them and some of the people in the industry. == Ostrich Plumes and Prince of Wales's Feathers == For much of the late 18th and 19th centuries, white ostrich plumes were central to fashion at court, and '''at a certain point in the 19th century''' they became required for women being presented to the monarch and for their sponsors. Separately, a secondary heraldic emblem of the Prince of Wales has been a specific arrangement of 3 ostrich feathers in a gold coronet<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2022-11-07|title=Prince of Wales's feathers|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Prince_of_Wales%27s_feathers&oldid=1120556015|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_of_Wales's_feathers.</ref> since King Edward III (1312–1377<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2022-12-14|title=Edward III of England|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Edward_III_of_England&oldid=1127343221|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_III_of_England.</ref>). Although they were both called Prince of Wales's feathers, the fashionable plumes worn at court by women and this official part of the Prince of Wales's heraldry have a complex relationship, especially in the 18th century. In her "'Falling into Feathers': Jews and the Trans-Atlantic Ostrich Feather Trade," Sarah Abrevaya Stein says that the ostrich-feather industry<blockquote> was shaped by — and in turn influenced — imperial policy and social realities in the Russian and British empires; the complex social and economic constitution of colonial Africa; the growing importance of global, trans-Atlantic, and colonial trade; and the whims and politics of women's fashion. And it was fostered primarily by Jews, who were instrumental in nurturing the popularity and exchange of this commodity over oceans, political boundaries, and cultural and linguistic divides.<ref name=":4">Stein, Sarah Abrevaya. "'Falling into Feathers': Jews and the Trans-Atlantic Ostrich Feather Trade." ''The Journal of Modern History'' December 2007 (Vol. 79, No. 4): 772–812. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/521065 (accessed December 2022). Stable url: https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/521065.</ref> (774)</blockquote> It appears that the fashion for wearing plumes in headdresses was imported from France in the last half of the 18th century, before the French revolution, when so much of what people wore signified political allegiance. Miriam Handley refers to an image from 1786 of George, Prince of Wales and "eight well-known aristocratic ladies, seven of whom wear the feather .... The image alludes to Gay’s ''The Beggar’s Opera'', III. xvii and uses the feather to imply the sexual relationship between the Prince and the women."<ref name=":8">Handley, Miriam. "Flying the Feather: George, Prince of Wales and the Performance of Masculinity on the Late-Eighteenth-Century Stage." ''European Drama and Performance Studies'', n° 10, 2018 – 1, ''Masculinité et théâtre'': 29–49. DOI: [https://classiques-garnier.com/european-drama-and-performance-studies-2018-1-n-10-masculinite-et-theatre-flying-the-feather.html 10.15122/isbn.978-2-406-07790-9.p.0029].</ref> (30, n. 4) One link, then, between the Prince of Wales and aristocratic women is the implication that women who wore the feather were "his." The ostrich plume was eventually used in political cartoons and comic theatre in the 18th century to associate the Prince of Wales and fashionable women with complexities in the performance of masculinity, appropriation by women for social status, power and political opposition, and freedom and enslavement. Handley says, "as the image of [a double-gendered] Chevalier suggests, the feather in the late 1770s was seen as the crowning touch to an extravagant head-dress. Plays and caricatures derived much comedy from these head-dresses, which were worn first by Macaronis returning from their European Grand Tours, ... and subsequently by fashionable aristocratic women in the early 1770s."<ref name=":8" /> (35) The "popular women's fashion" of white ostrich plumes spread widely among the fashionable in Europe and North America:<blockquote>A variety of feathers, including those of the ostrich, adorned the hats and clothes of elite European and American women from at least the second half of the eighteenth century, when Marie Antoinette introduced a minor ostrich feather craze among elite women by wearing towering plumes atop her hats. The thirst for feathers endured among members of the aristocracy throughout the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. But ostrich feathers were not widely employed by the fashion world until the 1880s. This was a decade in which women were gaining ever more opportunity and desire to consume ....<ref name=":4" /> (778)</blockquote> === Late 18th and Early 19th Centuries === Women wore plumes at the court of Charlotte, Queen Consort of George III. The January 1810 ''La Belle Assemblée'' reports that the Duchess of Leeds headdress was a "Caledonian cap of crimson velvet, diamonds, and ostrich feathers."<ref name=":0">Qtd. in Rachel Knowles. "Drawing Room Presentations — A Regency History Guide." ''Regency History'' 27 October 2021<nowiki/>https://www.regencyhistory.net/2021/10/drawing-room-presentations-regency.html (accessed November 2022).</ref> Charles Lamb's 1809 ''Book Explaining the Ranks and Dignities of British Society''. says, "Feathers are not reckoned a necessary part of a court dress; but young ladies very seldom go without them, and they are supposed to be under dressed if they do."<ref name=":0" /> The ''Lady’s Magazine'' mentions the headdress worn by the Countess of Carlisle in January 1809: "Head-dress, ruby turban, jewels, and feathers."<ref name=":1">Candice Hern. "Court Dresses, Overview." ''Regency World'' https://candicehern.com/regencyworld/court-dresses-overview/ (accessed November 2022).</ref> Every illustration on "Court Dresses, Overview" in Candice Hern's blog ''Regency World'' — and they are all tinted fashion plates — shows a woman wearing plumes. Most of the plumes on this page are white, but one plate from March 1806 shows plumes dyed to match the dress, and most of the drawings show a few feathers (perhaps 3) but one plate from July 1820 has a positive efflorescence of plumes in the headdress.<ref name=":1" /> === Victorian Era === The three white plumes so like the Prince of Wales's feathers were not universal in early June 1853 at the first Queen's drawing room of the year.<ref>"Her Majesty's Drawing-Room." ''The Court Journal'' 4 June 1853, Saturday: 354, Col. 1a – 363, Col. 3c; 366, Col. 2a – 372, Col. 1a. ''Google Books'' [https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Court_Journal/JKhUGEnNVTwC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=three+white+ostrich+plumes+at+court&pg=PA371&printsec=frontcover https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Court_Journal/JKhUGEnNVTwC] (accessed December 2022).</ref> Many but not all of the women present did wear white plumes, and not all the plumes were white. What was first fashionable and then de rigueur at court evolved and then reified by the end of the 19th century. First published in 1893, Lady Colin Campbell's ''Manners and Rules of Good Society'' (1911 edition) says that<blockquote> It was compulsory for both Married and Unmarried Ladies to Wear Plumes. The married lady’s Court plume consisted of three white feathers. An unmarried lady’s of two white feathers. The three white feathers should be mounted as a Prince of Wales plume and worn towards the left hand side of the head. Colored feathers may not be worn. In deep mourning, white feathers must be worn, black feathers are inadmissible. White veils or lace lappets must be worn with the feathers. The veils should not be longer than 45 inches.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.edwardianpromenade.com/etiquette/the-court-presentation/|title=The Court Presentation|last=Holl|first=Evangeline|date=2007-12-07|website=Edwardian Promenade|language=en-US|access-date=2022-12-18}} https://www.edwardianpromenade.com/etiquette/the-court-presentation/.</ref></blockquote> In ''Plumes: Ostrich Feathers, Jews, and a Lost World of Global Commerce'', Sarah Abrevaya Stein says, "Ostrich feathers were valuable commodities at the beginning of the twentieth century, their value per pound almost equal to that of diamonds."<ref name=":2">Qtd in {{Cite web|url=https://www.cityoflondon.gov.uk/things-to-do/history-and-heritage/london-metropolitan-archives/collections/cityoflondon.gov.uk/things-to-do/history-and-heritage/london-metropolitan-archives/collections/ostrich-feather-trade|title=Ostrich feather trade|website=City of London|language=en|access-date=2022-12-22}} https://www.cityoflondon.gov.uk/things-to-do/history-and-heritage/london-metropolitan-archives/collections/ostrich-feather-trade.</ref> Stein says, "Ostrich feathers could be found wherever there were arbiters of style: a consignment of £20,000 worth of the plumes was even lost" when ''Titanic'' sank.<ref name=":4" /> (780) When ostrich feathers first became popular in the west, the birds were hunted and killed for their plumage, but by the end of the 19th century they were farmed and the plumes plucked. The labor force was in some cases highly skilled and specialized: <blockquote>London acquired the monopoly on European ostrich feather auctions in 1876, just as the feather market — and London's merchant house economy — was expanding. ... At about the same time, London was absorbing roughly 15,000 Eastern European Jewish immigrants: men, women, girls, and boys who furnished a bountiful labor market to the feather trade. ... Due in great part to this influx of immigrants, Jews quickly proved well represented in all tiers of the supply side of Britain's feather industry. Jewish girls and women were the principal unskilled, semiskilled, and skilled workers to staff the hundreds of feather manufactories that dotted London's East End, and Jewish men were well represented among ostrich feather dealers and manufacturers in the British capital, constituting, in 1883, 57 percent and 43 percent of these occupational niches, respectively.<ref name=":4" /> </blockquote> The labor force associated with ostrich plumes was largely "immigrant Jewish women and girls who had experience in the needle trades. Workers suffered poor wages and were often subject to the abuse of their rights by employers."<ref name=":3" /> Before the 20th century, this industry was "concentrated in a one-mile radius from the City of London into the East End. In particular, around the Barbican, Aldersgate, London Wall, Jewin Street, Cripplegate, Bartholomew Close, and the Fenchurch Street area."<ref name=":3" /> === Post-Edwardian Era === Besides people working in the ostrich-feather industry itself, milliners also needed the skills for working with the plumes. From the immediately post-Edwardian era, this book addresses not the plumes worn at court but attached to the hats of the fashionable:<blockquote>Prince of Wales feathers ... consist of three small ostrich feathers, one placed high in the center and the other two placed just below, so that the flues of the two lowest feathers will cover the stem of the one at the top. They are frequently referred to as the Prince de Galles. The Prince of Wales tips are used for trimming hats for the mature woman and are quite frequently separated and used to encircle the crown of a wide-brimmed hat for a younger woman. In case they are used in this manner the wire items should be cut off and the back of the feather sewed firmly to the hat. Small feathers that are attached to the side crown of the hat should be sewed on with silk floss matching the feather in color. Sew over the stem but not through it, so that, / after the entire hat is trimmed, each feather may be twisted and turned to its proper position.<ref>Cné, Orna. "Flowers and Feathers." "Natural and Man-Made Feathers." Children and Misses' {{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ak08AQAAMAAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=RA5-PA28&dq=Prince+of+Wales+plumes+women+headdress&hl=en|title=Woman's Institute Reference Library ... V. A7-A9|last=millinery|first=Woman's Institute of Domestic Arts and Sciences Department of|date=1916|publisher=International textbook Company|language=en}} 1916. Google Books [https://www.google.com/books/edition/Woman_s_Institute_Reference_Library_V_A7/Ak08AQAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=Prince+of+Wales+plumes+women+headdress&pg=RA5-PA28&printsec=frontcover https://www.google.com/books/edition/Woman_s_Institute_Reference_Library_V_A7/Ak08AQAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=Prince+of+Wales+plumes+women+headdress&pg=RA5-PA28].</ref>{{rp|28–29}}</blockquote> === The Crash === The market for ostrich plumes rose and fell several times: two years in which the plumes were not fashionable were 1885 and 1913.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url=https://www.cityoflondon.gov.uk/things-to-do/history-and-heritage/london-metropolitan-archives/collections/cityoflondon.gov.uk/things-to-do/history-and-heritage/london-metropolitan-archives/collections/ostrich-feather-trade|title=Ostrich feather trade|website=City of London|language=en|access-date=2022-12-22}} https://www.cityoflondon.gov.uk/things-to-do/history-and-heritage/london-metropolitan-archives/collections/ostrich-feather-trade,</ref> The fashion for prior years had used plumes and feathers of other birds to "excess," as the 6 January 1886 ''Pall Mall Gazette'' put it.<ref name=":2" /> The Plumage League was founded in 1885, "a predecessor of the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds."<ref name=":3" /> Stein says,<blockquote>1913 proved a peak year for feather sales, but their popularity was not to endure long: feathers would soon be rejected by consumers on both sides of the Atlantic. This shift in taste was at one aesthetic, political, and economic. It was prompted by several related factors: the success of the antiplumage and bird protection movement; an emerging sense of austerity in women's fashion catalyzed, in part, by the outbreak of the First World War; and the extensive oversupply of ostrich plumes.<ref name=":4" /> (802)</blockquote> === Questions about Ostrich Plumes and the Prince of Wales's Feathers === # At some point, women being presented at court were expected to wear a headdress with 3 white ostrich-feather plumes. When did this occur? # At some point, did the court style of the feathered headdress became associated with the Prince of Wales' heraldic badge of the three ostrich-feather plumes? == Paper and Writing Tools == * Writing set * Paper cutter or knife * Pen knife * Paper cases, containers or cabinets * Ink bottle * Inkstand * Pen wiper * Blotting book * Paper weight * Paper clip (given one at a time) == Phonograph, Gramophone, etc. == In "England in 1903, ''gramophone'' distinctly meant the Berliner-Gramophon & Typewriter disc machine, while cyclinder [sic] machines were known as ''phonographs'' or ''graphophones''." (Baring-Gould II 745, n. 15). Bram Stoker's 1897 ''Dracula'' has a phonograph that Dr. Seward speaks into, inscribing his patient notes onto wax cylinders, which Dracula himself throws into the fire. The ''Aberdeen Weekly Journal'' says "Stanley has been offered £3000 to speak about half-a-column of matter into a phonograph."<ref>''Aberdeen Press and Journal'' 15 January 1890, Wednesday: 6 [of 8], Col. 4b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000032%2F18900115&page=6&article=097&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''The Aberdeen Weekly Journal'', p. 6.</ref> (This is the Stanley of Livingstone and Stanley?) See also [[Social Victorians/Victorian Things#Electrophone|Electrophone]]. == Photography == *Daguerrotype *Frames for photographs were common wedding gifts, and in the lists of gifts, reporters are likely to use the term ''photo'' as well as ''photograph frame''. *Many of the photographs of Queen Victoria have completely black or completely white areas because getting the right exposure that would clarify the detail in both the black and the white at the same time must have been very difficult. She wore black, sometimes with small touches of white, forcing even professional photographers like Bassanno to choose to expose one correctly but not the other. And possibly the photographic technology at the time contributed to the difficulty. === Photographers === Important society photographers at the end of the 19th century included * [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball/Photographs#Lafayette, Ltd.|Lafayette, Ltd.]], the firm headed by James Stack Lauder and that set up a studio in the garden of Devonshire House in London at the 2 July 1897 fancy-dress ball and photographed the guests, although some guests had [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball/Photographs#Photographers Represented in the Album|photographic portraits taken by other photographers]] either before or after the ball. * Alexander Bassanno Many of these society photographers made and sold cartes de visite and, later, [[Social Victorians/Victorian Things#Cabinet Card|cabinet cards]] of celebrities, "professional beauties," and so on. === Carte de Visite === Most popular between the early 1850s and the 1870s, the carte de visite was patented in 1854 but begun to be used in 1851.<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|date=2026-01-05|title=Carte de visite|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carte_de_visite&oldid=1331321671|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> They were the size of a "formal visiting card[,] about 4½ x 2½ inches (11.4 x 6.3 cm) and had a photograph ("an albumen print from a collodion negative") pasted onto the card.<ref name=":12" /> They quickly spread world wide. They were popular put into albums for display. People collected images of celebrities and traded their own images with friends and colleagues. They were replaced in the 1870s by tintypes and cabinet cards. === Cabinet Card === Cabinet cards replaced cartes de visite, were larger (4¹⁄₄ by 6¹⁄₂ inches) and at the beginning were mostly used in landscape mode.<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|date=2025-02-05|title=Cabinet card|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cabinet_card&oldid=1274098118|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> Their larger size were better for displaying in cabinets. In the U.S. photographer Matthew Brady called his photographs of the Civil War in this format ''Imperial Carte-de-Visite''.<ref name=":13" /> They lasted until the 1920s and saw several important changes in photographic technologies.<blockquote>Some cabinet card images from the 1890s have the appearance of a black-and-white photograph in contrast to the distinctive sepia toning notable in the albumen print process. These photographs have a neutral image tone and were most likely produced on a matte collodion, gelatin or gelatin bromide paper.<ref name=":13" /></blockquote>The larger format made undesirable elements in photographs more obvious, and so photographers began at this time to hire artists to retouch the negatives to improve how the subjects of the photographs looked. The decline of cabinet cards is really due to the desire for more candid shots and the introduction of the Kodak Box Brownie, which made getting pictures much easier for amateur photographers.<ref name=":13" /> Also see [[Social Victorians/Victorian Things#Visits and Calls|Visits and Calls]], below. == Police Business == Francis Galton gave a paper "to the British Association … on Finger-prints and the Detection of Crime in India. Galton's method was examined by a committee appointed by Asquith in 1894. … Finger-prints as a means of detecting criminals were first used by Sir William Herschel of the I.C.S. in the district of Hooghli, in Bengal. They were recognized as superior to Bertillon's anthropometry, and were recommended for all India in a report of 1896." (Baring-Gould II 425, n. 9, quoting Vernon Rendall). Fingerprinting was adopted by Scotland Yard ikn 1901 (Baring-Gould II 425, n. 9). == Retailers == * [[Social Victorians/Victorian Things#Edouard Henry Dreyfous|Edouard Henry Dreyfous]] * [[Social Victorians/People/Dressmakers and Costumiers#Worth, of Paris|Worth, of Paris]] === Edouard Henry Dreyfous === A "retailer of fine antique furniture and objets d’art with establishments in London (Mayfair), Paris and New York[, Dreyfous] was active in the late 19th century, from 1880, through early in the 20th century."<ref name=":9">"A Very Fine and Rare french 19th Century Louis XV Style Etched Glass, Ormolu and Porcelain (Probably by Sèvres) Encrier Inkwell by E''douard Henry Dreyfous''." Jan's & Co., Inc.: Fine French Antiques & Ojects d'Art. 17 June 2025 https://www.jansantiques.com/Lot/jac2520.php.</ref> Born in France, "Dreyfous called London his home and sold fine furnishings and objets d'art."<ref name=":9" /> He held a Royal Warrant (in the early 20th century at least), and his "main clientele were some of the richest, most affluent and influential people from around the world, including Royalty," like Queen Alexandra and Queen Mary.<ref name=":9" /> Three gifts identified as having come from Dreyfous were given to [[Social Victorians/Stewart-Stavordale Wedding 1902-01-25|Lady Helen Stewart at her 1902 marriage to Lord Stavordale]], a green leather blotter apparently bought from Dreyfous as well as 2 trays. == Sequins and Spangles == Sequins have holes in the center and spangles at the top; paillettes are large and flat. Sequins themselves have a long history and were probably mass-produced by the end of the 19th century. The silver ones like the ones used in the Duchess of Devonshire's costume in 1897 were useful in garments worn only once because they would have tarnished, turning black and dull. Sequins in one form or another have been used to decorate clothing, especially for the elite, for millennia (dating back to the Egyptians, discovered during and popularized by the opening of King Tutenkhamen's tomb in 1922<ref>Spivack, Emily. "A History of Sequins from King Tut to the King of Pop." ''Smithsonian Magazine'' 28 December 2012. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/a-history-of-sequins-from-king-tut-to-the-king-of-pop-8035/ (accessed December 2022).</ref>). == Telephone and Telegraph == "The telegram rate to France of twopence a word was introduced in 1889 and continued until 1920, when it changed to twopence halfpenny; the rate to Switzerland at the time was threepence a word (it dropped to twopence halfpenny in 1909 but reverted to threepence in 1926)." (Baring-Gould II 658, n. 6, quoting Kaser). In 1892 the ''Louth and North Lincolnshire Advertiser'' says,<blockquote>It is now possible to cable to New York and obtain an answer back in four minutes.<ref>"Facts and Fancies." ''Louth and North Lincolnshire Advertiser'' 9 July 1892, Saturday: 3 [of 8], Col. 6c [of 6]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000313/18920709/038/0003. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote> === Telephone === '''1878 January 14''': Alexander Graham Bell himself demonstrated the telephone for Queen Victoria:<blockquote>After dinner,’ she told her journal on 14 January 1878, ‘we went to the Council Room & saw the Telephone. A Professor Bell explained the whole process, which is most extraordinary. It had been put in communication with Osborne Cottage, & we talked with Sir Thomas & Mary Biddulph, also heard some singing quite plainly. But it is rather faint, & one must hold the tube close to one’s ear.’ The nervous inventor, Alexander Graham Bell, did not impress her, however. ‘The man, who was very pompous, kept calling Arthur Lord Connaught! [her son the Duke of Connaught] which amused us very much.’ A telephone line from Cowes to the post room at Osborne was installed in 1885.<ref name=":14">Wilson, A. N. ''Victoria: A Life''. Penguin, 2014. Apple Books: https://books.apple.com/us/book/victoria/id828766078.</ref>{{rp|688–689 of 1204}}</blockquote> '''1892''': Similar to the way in which a telephone was used in one of Gilbert and Sullivan's productions, the Royal Society used a telephone in 1892, at one of their "conversaziones," which is what they called it when women were taking part:<blockquote>The ladies' conversazione was held at the Royal Society on Wednesday, the 15th, when the President and Lady Kelvin received a large and distinguished company, including the Earl of Ducie, Lord Cottesloe, Sir John Conroy, Prof. and Mrs. Sidgwick, the Master of Pembroke, Mr. Bryce, M.P., Sir Bernhard Samuelson, M.P., and Lord Basing. A great attraction was the Telephonic Company's installation, by which the sounds of "Salammbo" were conveyed from the Paris Opera.<ref>"The Royal Society's Conversazione." "Miscellaneous." ''Reading Mercury'' 25 June 1892, Saturday: 8 [of 8], Col. 1b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000369/18920625/083/0008. Print title: ''Reading Mercury, Oxford Gazette, Newbury Herald, and Berks County Paper'', p. 8.</ref></blockquote> === Electrophone === '''1896 May 11, Monday''':<blockquote>An electrophone has been installed at Marlborough House, whereby the Prince of Wales and family on Monday listened to the Drury Lane opera and selections from other pieces in various London theatres.<ref>"Latest Home News by the 'Carthage.'" ''Civil & Military Gazette'' (Lahore) 12 May 1896, Tuesday: 4 [of 18], Col. 1b [of 4]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0003221/18960512/036/0004. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote> == Typewriter == === Typewriter Manufacturers === *Berliner-Gramophon & Typewriter *Remington === Writers and Their Typewriters === ==== [[Social Victorians/People/William Butler Yeats|W. B. Yeats]] ==== Yeats wrote "The Second Coming" on a typewriter? In these comments, a ''typewriter'' is a person, not a machine: *letter WBY to Lady Gregory, 10 April 1902, from 18 Woburn Bldgs: "I am working at my novel — dictating to a typewriter. I dictated 2000 words in an hour and ten minutes yesterday — and go on again tomorrow. This dictation is really a discovery" (Wade 370). *letter WBY to Lady Gregory, 3 April 1905, from 8 Cavendish Row, Dublin: "You will be sorry to hear that I have just dictated a rough draft of a new Grania second act to Moore's typewriter" (Wade 368). ==== Arthur Conan Doyle and Sherlock Holmes ==== *"I think of writing another little monograph some of these days on the typewriter and its relation to crime. It is a subject to which I have devoted some little attention. I have here four letters which purport to come from the missing man. They are all typewritten. In each case, not only are the 'e's' slurred and the 'r's' tailless, but you will observe, if you care to use my magnifying lens, that the fourteen other characteristics to which I have alluded are there as well" (in "A Case of Identity," Baring-Gould I 414). *"'And now I will show you what is really a very interesting study, Mr. Windibank,' Homes continued. 'I think of writing another little monograph some of these days on the typewriter and its relation to crime. It is a subject to which I have devoted some little attention. I have here four letters which purport to come from the missing man. They are all typewritten. In each case, not only are the "e's" slurred and the "r's" tailless, but you will observe, if you care to use my magnifying lens, that the fourteen other characteristics to which I have alluded are there as well.'" (Baring-Gould I 414) [September 1891] *G. Lestrade sends Holmes a typescript of a statement dictated to the police, "taken down, just as he made it, by our shorthand man. We had three copies typewritten, one of which I enclose" (in "The Cardboard Box," January 1893, in Baring-Gould II 204). *Laura Lyons in Arthur Conan Doyle's 1902 "The Hound of the Baskervilles" has "a typewriting business," and when Watson visits her, she is "sitting before a Remington typewriter" (Baring-Gould II 74). "'In … the ''Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology'' (November-December, 1947) there appears a review of an article in the Police Journal, the title of which is "Identification of Typewriting," reputedly by one George McLean,' Mr. Archibald Hart wrote in 'The Effects of Trades Upon Hands.' 'Is it not apparent that some hoarder of the only existent copies of all of Holmes' brochures is now releasing them one by one under false authorships? 'McLean' urges us to note the peculiarities of each typed character, the vertical and horizontal alignment, the side impressions of each character, and the shortening of the serifs in P, D, B, and H, and the diacritic in the letter T.'" (Baring-Gould I 415, n. 28). ==== Teddy Roosevelt ==== Teddy Roosevelt was the first U.S. President to use a typewriter. ==== Victorian Fiction with Typewriters ==== From a discussion on the Victoria listserv, January 2021; my thanks to the contributors to the thread "Victorian Fiction about Typewriters or Typed Letters." * Allen, Grant. ''Miss Cayley's Adventures''. ** “The Adventure of the Urbane Old Gentlemen” (16.91, August 1898): 201–212. ** “The Adventure of the Unprofessional Detective” (17.98, February 1899): 191–201. ** “The Adventure of the Cross-Eyed Q.C.” (16.96, December 1898): 688–698. * Allen, Grant. ''The Type-Writer Girl''. (1897) * Bangs, John Kendrick. ''The Enchanted Typewriter''. (Harper & Brothers, 1899) * Burnett, Frances Hodgson. ''The Shuttle''. (1906 * Cape, Bernard. "Poor Lucy Rivers" (1906 collection, periodical publication earlier) * Doyle, Arthur Conan. "The Adventure of A Case of Identity." * Gallon, Tom. ''The Girl Behind the Keys''. Hutchinson & Co. (1903. * Gissing, George. ''The Odd Women'' * Bram Stoker, ''Dracula'' (1897) ==== Secondary Sources on Typewriters ==== * Gardey, Delphine (2001). ''Le dactylographe et l’expéditionnaire: Histoire des employés de bureau, 1890–1930. Histoire et Société: Modernités''. Ed by Louis Bergeron and Patrice Bourdelais. Paris: Berlin, 2001. * Keep, Christopher. “The Introduction of the Sholes & Glidden Type-Writer, 1874.″ BRANCH (http://www.branchcollective.org/?ps_articles=christopher-keep-the-introduction-of-the-sholes-glidden-type-writer-1874). * Price, Leah, and Pamela Thurschwell, eds. ''Literary Secretaries / Secretarial Culture''. Routledge, 2005. * Thurschwell, Pamela. Chapter on typewriters. ''Literature, Technology and Magical Thinking, 1880–1920''. Cambridge University Press, 2001. * Wanggren, Lena. "Typewriters and Typists: Secretarial Agency at the Fin de Siècle," Chapter 3 in her ''Gender, Technology and the New Woman'' (Edinburgh University Press). * Young, Arlene. “The Rise of the Victorian Working Lady: The New-Style Nurse and the Typewriter, 1840-1900″ BRANCH (http://www.branchcollective.org/?ps_articles=arlene-young-the-rise-of-the-victorian-working-lady-the-new-style-nurse-and-the-typewriter-1840-1900) == Visiting and Calls == === Calling Cards === From Victoriana.com Study Center, "Fashions in Calling Cards (for Gentlemen) from Harper's Bazaar (C.1868)": <blockquote> "Visiting cards for the coming season are of unglazed card board, large and almost square. Tinted cards, especially buff, are fashionable. The lettering is in old English text, or in script. The expense of fifty cards is $3.50. One corner of the card is turned down to denote the object of the visit. In different cities a different signification is attached to these broken cards. We give the custom of New York society. On the left hand upper corner the word Visite is engraved on the reverse side. This corner is turned downed, displaying the word on the front of the card to signify that an ordinary call is made. On the right hand corner is Felicitation, to be used when making a visit of congratulation on some happy event, such as a marriage, or the birth of a child. On the left lower side is Conge, or Good-by. The remaining corner is marked Condolence." (http://www.victoriana.com/library/ccard.html) </blockquote> E-bay had some silver cases, with chain handle, for carrying visiting cards. === Visiting and Calls === Also see [[Social Victorians/Victorian Things#Cartes de Visite|Cartes de Visite]] in [[Social Victorians/Victorian Things#Photography|Photography]]. Judge Brack's early calls on the Tesmans in ''Hedda Gabler'' are daring and aggressive. According to Sally Mitchell, "morning calls" occurred between 3:00 and 5:00 P.M. "Morning," used in an expression like morning dress or morning coat, meant something like "daytime," the opposite of evening. Unless the calls were to acknowledge some event like a wedding, when they were likely to be no more than fifteen minutes, calls typically ran twenty minutes to half an hour. Judge Brack arrives early in the morning, as early as 7:30, even after a death in the family, which seems clearly indecent. Food was not likely to be served. '''???''' says it is proper to make morning calls no earlier than 11:00 A.M., though for many morning calls properly began at noon. Mrs. Beeton discusses calls, as well. Daniel Poole says,<blockquote>If you were not well acquainted with the callee, you made your call between three and four o'clock. If you were somewhat better acquainted, between four and five, and a good friend received you between five and six. ... Certainly, no one but a great intimate would presume to actually call in the ''real'' morning, i.e., before one o'clock. (68-69)</blockquote> == Works Cited == *Simons, Larry. "More on Bathing Machines." Posting to Savoynet 22 December 2002. *Speranza, J. L. "Something between a Large Bathing-machine." Posting to Savoynet 22 December 2002. == References == {{reflist}} 8fwka17v2s3irvvrh7yqo0cllel8zam 0 285380 2836545 2835985 2026-10-07T11:37:47Z Young1lim 21186 /* Applications */ 2836545 wikitext text/x-wiki === Introduction === * Overview ([[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.B.20170901.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.C.20170904.pdf |C.pdf]]) * Number System ([[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.A.20171023.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.B.20170909.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.C.20170914.pdf |C.pdf]]) * Memory System ([[Media:C01.Intro2.Memory.1.A.20170907.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro3.Memory.1.B.20170909.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro3.Memory.1.C.20170914.pdf |C.pdf]]) === Handling Repetition === * Control ([[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.B.20170918.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.C.20170926.pdf |C.pdf]]) * Loop ([[Media:C02.Repeat2.Loop.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat2.Loop.1.B.20170918.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Handling a Big Work === * Function Overview ([[Media:C03.Func1.Overview.1.A.20171030.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func1.Oerview.1.B.20161022.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Functions & Variables ([[Media:C03.Func2.Variable.1.A.20161222.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func2.Variable.1.B.20161222.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Functions & Pointers ([[Media:C03.Func3.Pointer.1.A.20161122.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func3.Pointer.1.B.20161122.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Functions & Recursions ([[Media:C03.Func4.Recursion.1.A.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func4.Recursion.1.B.20161214.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Handling Series of Data === ==== Background ==== * Background ([[Media:C04.Series0.Background.1.A.20180727.pdf |A.pdf]]) ==== Basics ==== * Pointers ([[Media:C04.S1.Pointer.1A.20240524.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series2.Pointer.1.B.20161115.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Arrays ([[Media:C04.S2.Array.1A.20240514.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series1.Array.1.B.20161115.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Array Pointers ([[Media:C04.S3.ArrayPointer.1A.20240208.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series3.ArrayPointer.1.B.20181203.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Multi-dimensional Arrays ([[Media:C04.Series4.MultiDim.1.A.20221130.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series4.MultiDim.1.B.1111.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Array Access Methods ([[Media:C04.Series4.ArrayAccess.1.A.20190511.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series3.ArrayPointer.1.B.20181203.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Structures ([[Media:C04.Series3.Structure.1.A.20171204.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series2.Structure.1.B.20161130.pdf |B.pdf]]) ==== Examples ==== * Spreadsheet Example Programs :: Example 1 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.1.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.1.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]]) :: Example 2 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.2.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.2.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]]) :: Example 3 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.3.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.3.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]]) :: Bubble Sort ([[Media:C04.Series7.BubbleSort.1.A.20171211.pdf |A.pdf]]) ==== Applications ==== * Address-of and de-reference operators ([[Media:C04.SA0.PtrOperator.1A.20261006.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Pointers ([[Media:C04.SA1.AppPointer.1A.20241121.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Arrays ([[Media:C04.SA2.AppArray.1A.20240715.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Array Pointers ([[Media:C04.SA3.AppArrayPointer.1A.20240210.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Multi-dimensional Arrays ([[Media:C04.Series4App.MultiDim.1.A.20210719.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Array Access Methods ([[Media:C04.Series9.AppArrAcess.1.A.20190511.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Structures ([[Media:C04.Series6.AppStruct.1.A.20190423.pdf |A.pdf]]) === Handling Various Kinds of Data === * Types ([[Media:C05.Data1.Type.1.A.20180217.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data1.Type.1.B.20161212.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Typecasts ([[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.A.20180217.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.B.20161216.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Operators ([[Media:C05.Data3.Operators.1.A.20161219.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data3.Operators.1.B.20161216.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Files ([[Media:C05.Data4.File.1.A.20161124.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data4.File.1.B.20161212.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Handling Low Level Operations === * Bitwise Operations ([[Media:BitOp.1.B.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:BitOp.1.B.20161203.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Bit Field ([[Media:BitField.1.A.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:BitField.1.B.20161202.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Union ([[Media:Union.1.A.20161221.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Union.1.B.20161111.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Accessing IO Registers ([[Media:IO.1.A.20141215.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:IO.1.B.20161217.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Declarations === * Type Specifiers and Qualifiers ([[Media:C07.Spec1.Type.1.A.20171004.pdf |pdf]]) * Storage Class Specifiers ([[Media:C07.Spec2.Storage.1.A.20171009.pdf |pdf]]) * Scope === Class Notes === * TOC ([[Media:TOC.20171007.pdf |TOC.pdf]]) * Day01 ([[Media:Day01.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day01.B.20171209.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day01.C.20171211.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (1) Standard Library * Day02 ([[Media:Day02.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day02.B.20171209.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day02.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (2) Basic Elements * Day03 ([[Media:Day03.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day03.B.20170908.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day03.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (3) Numbers * Day04 ([[Media:Day04.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day04.B.20170915.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day04.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structured Programming (1) Flowcharts * Day05 ([[Media:Day05.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day05.B.20170915.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day05.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structured Programming (2) Conditions and Loops * Day06 ([[Media:Day06.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day06.B.20170923.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day06.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Program Control * Day07 ([[Media:Day07.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day07.B.20170926.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day07.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (1) Definitions * Day08 ([[Media:Day08.A.20171028.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day08.B.20171016.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day08.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (2) Storage Class and Scope * Day09 ([[Media:Day09.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day09.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day09.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (3) Recursion * Day10 ([[Media:Day10.A.20171209.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day10.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day10.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Arrays (1) Definitions * Day11 ([[Media:Day11.A.20171024.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day11.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day11.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Arrays (2) Applications * Day12 ([[Media:Day12.A.20171024.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day12.B.20171020.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day12.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Pointers (1) Definitions * Day13 ([[Media:Day13.A.20171025.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day13.B.20171024.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day13.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Pointers (2) Applications * Day14 ([[Media:Day14.A.20171226.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day14.B.20171101.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day14.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C String (1) * Day15 ([[Media:Day15.A.20171209.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day15.B.20171124.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day15.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C String (2) * Day16 ([[Media:Day16.A.20171208.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day16.B.20171114.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day16.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C Formatted IO * Day17 ([[Media:Day17.A.20171031.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day17.B.20171111.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day17.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structure (1) Definitions * Day18 ([[Media:Day18.A.20171206.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day18.B.20171128.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day18.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structure (2) Applications * Day19 ([[Media:Day19.A.20171205.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day19.B.20171121.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day19.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Union, Bitwise Operators, Enum * Day20 ([[Media:Day20.A.20171205.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day20.B.20171201.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day20.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Linked List * Day21 ([[Media:Day21.A.20171206.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day21.B.20171208.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day21.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... File Processing * Day22 ([[Media:Day22.A.20171212.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day22.B.20171213.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day22.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Preprocessing <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> </br> See also https://cprogramex.wordpress.com/ == '''Old Materials '''== until 201201 * Intro.Overview.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Overview.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]]) * Intro.Memory.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Memory.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]]) * Intro.Number.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Number.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]]) * Repeat.Control.1.A ([[Media:C.Repeat.Control.1.A.20120109.pdf |pdf]]) * Repeat.Loop.1.A ([[Media:C.Repeat.Loop.1.A.20120113.pdf |pdf]]) * Work.Function.1.A ([[Media:C.Work.Function.1.A.20120117.pdf |pdf]]) * Work.Scope.1.A ([[Media:C.Work.Scope.1.A.20120117.pdf |pdf]]) * Series.Array.1.A ([[Media:Series.Array.1.A.20110718.pdf |pdf]]) * Series.Pointer.1.A ([[Media:Series.Pointer.1.A.20110719.pdf |pdf]]) * Series.Structure.1.A ([[Media:Series.Structure.1.A.20110805.pdf |pdf]]) * Data.Type.1.A ([[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.A.20130813.pdf |pdf]]) * Data.TypeCast.1.A ([[Media:Data.TypeCast.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Data.Operators.1.A ([[Media:Data.Operators.1.A.20110712.pdf |pdf]]) <br> until 201107 * Intro.1.A ([[Media:Intro.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Control.1.A ([[Media:Control.1.A.20110706.pdf |pdf]]) * Iteration.1.A ([[Media:Iteration.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Function.1.A ([[Media:Function.1.A.20110705.pdf |pdf]]) * Variable.1.A ([[Media:Variable.1.A.20110708.pdf |pdf]]) * Operators.1.A ([[Media:Operators.1.A.20110712.pdf |pdf]]) * Pointer.1.A ([[Media:Pointer.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Pointer.2.A ([[Media:Pointer.2.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Array.1.A ([[Media:Array.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Type.1.A ([[Media:Type.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Structure.1.A ([[Media:Structure.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) go to [ [[C programming in plain view]] ] [[Category:C programming language]] </br> 5v9mjoabv8d1j4qde40o1h81b3tog1o 2836546 2836545 2026-10-07T11:39:44Z Young1lim 21186 /* Applications */ 2836546 wikitext text/x-wiki === Introduction === * Overview ([[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.B.20170901.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.C.20170904.pdf |C.pdf]]) * Number System ([[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.A.20171023.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.B.20170909.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.C.20170914.pdf |C.pdf]]) * Memory System ([[Media:C01.Intro2.Memory.1.A.20170907.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro3.Memory.1.B.20170909.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro3.Memory.1.C.20170914.pdf |C.pdf]]) === Handling Repetition === * Control ([[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.B.20170918.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.C.20170926.pdf |C.pdf]]) * Loop ([[Media:C02.Repeat2.Loop.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat2.Loop.1.B.20170918.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Handling a Big Work === * Function Overview ([[Media:C03.Func1.Overview.1.A.20171030.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func1.Oerview.1.B.20161022.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Functions & Variables ([[Media:C03.Func2.Variable.1.A.20161222.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func2.Variable.1.B.20161222.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Functions & Pointers ([[Media:C03.Func3.Pointer.1.A.20161122.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func3.Pointer.1.B.20161122.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Functions & Recursions ([[Media:C03.Func4.Recursion.1.A.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func4.Recursion.1.B.20161214.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Handling Series of Data === ==== Background ==== * Background ([[Media:C04.Series0.Background.1.A.20180727.pdf |A.pdf]]) ==== Basics ==== * Pointers ([[Media:C04.S1.Pointer.1A.20240524.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series2.Pointer.1.B.20161115.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Arrays ([[Media:C04.S2.Array.1A.20240514.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series1.Array.1.B.20161115.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Array Pointers ([[Media:C04.S3.ArrayPointer.1A.20240208.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series3.ArrayPointer.1.B.20181203.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Multi-dimensional Arrays ([[Media:C04.Series4.MultiDim.1.A.20221130.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series4.MultiDim.1.B.1111.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Array Access Methods ([[Media:C04.Series4.ArrayAccess.1.A.20190511.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series3.ArrayPointer.1.B.20181203.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Structures ([[Media:C04.Series3.Structure.1.A.20171204.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series2.Structure.1.B.20161130.pdf |B.pdf]]) ==== Examples ==== * Spreadsheet Example Programs :: Example 1 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.1.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.1.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]]) :: Example 2 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.2.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.2.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]]) :: Example 3 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.3.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.3.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]]) :: Bubble Sort ([[Media:C04.Series7.BubbleSort.1.A.20171211.pdf |A.pdf]]) ==== Applications ==== * Address-of and de-reference operators ([[Media:C04.SA0.PtrOperator.1A.20261007.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Pointers ([[Media:C04.SA1.AppPointer.1A.20241121.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Arrays ([[Media:C04.SA2.AppArray.1A.20240715.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Array Pointers ([[Media:C04.SA3.AppArrayPointer.1A.20240210.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Multi-dimensional Arrays ([[Media:C04.Series4App.MultiDim.1.A.20210719.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Array Access Methods ([[Media:C04.Series9.AppArrAcess.1.A.20190511.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Structures ([[Media:C04.Series6.AppStruct.1.A.20190423.pdf |A.pdf]]) === Handling Various Kinds of Data === * Types ([[Media:C05.Data1.Type.1.A.20180217.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data1.Type.1.B.20161212.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Typecasts ([[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.A.20180217.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.B.20161216.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Operators ([[Media:C05.Data3.Operators.1.A.20161219.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data3.Operators.1.B.20161216.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Files ([[Media:C05.Data4.File.1.A.20161124.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data4.File.1.B.20161212.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Handling Low Level Operations === * Bitwise Operations ([[Media:BitOp.1.B.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:BitOp.1.B.20161203.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Bit Field ([[Media:BitField.1.A.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:BitField.1.B.20161202.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Union ([[Media:Union.1.A.20161221.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Union.1.B.20161111.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Accessing IO Registers ([[Media:IO.1.A.20141215.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:IO.1.B.20161217.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Declarations === * Type Specifiers and Qualifiers ([[Media:C07.Spec1.Type.1.A.20171004.pdf |pdf]]) * Storage Class Specifiers ([[Media:C07.Spec2.Storage.1.A.20171009.pdf |pdf]]) * Scope === Class Notes === * TOC ([[Media:TOC.20171007.pdf |TOC.pdf]]) * Day01 ([[Media:Day01.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day01.B.20171209.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day01.C.20171211.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (1) Standard Library * Day02 ([[Media:Day02.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day02.B.20171209.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day02.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (2) Basic Elements * Day03 ([[Media:Day03.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day03.B.20170908.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day03.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (3) Numbers * Day04 ([[Media:Day04.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day04.B.20170915.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day04.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structured Programming (1) Flowcharts * Day05 ([[Media:Day05.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day05.B.20170915.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day05.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structured Programming (2) Conditions and Loops * Day06 ([[Media:Day06.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day06.B.20170923.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day06.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Program Control * Day07 ([[Media:Day07.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day07.B.20170926.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day07.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (1) Definitions * Day08 ([[Media:Day08.A.20171028.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day08.B.20171016.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day08.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (2) Storage Class and Scope * Day09 ([[Media:Day09.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day09.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day09.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (3) Recursion * Day10 ([[Media:Day10.A.20171209.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day10.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day10.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Arrays (1) Definitions * Day11 ([[Media:Day11.A.20171024.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day11.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day11.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Arrays (2) Applications * Day12 ([[Media:Day12.A.20171024.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day12.B.20171020.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day12.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Pointers (1) Definitions * Day13 ([[Media:Day13.A.20171025.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day13.B.20171024.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day13.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Pointers (2) Applications * Day14 ([[Media:Day14.A.20171226.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day14.B.20171101.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day14.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C String (1) * Day15 ([[Media:Day15.A.20171209.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day15.B.20171124.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day15.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C String (2) * Day16 ([[Media:Day16.A.20171208.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day16.B.20171114.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day16.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C Formatted IO * Day17 ([[Media:Day17.A.20171031.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day17.B.20171111.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day17.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structure (1) Definitions * Day18 ([[Media:Day18.A.20171206.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day18.B.20171128.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day18.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structure (2) Applications * Day19 ([[Media:Day19.A.20171205.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day19.B.20171121.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day19.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Union, Bitwise Operators, Enum * Day20 ([[Media:Day20.A.20171205.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day20.B.20171201.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day20.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Linked List * Day21 ([[Media:Day21.A.20171206.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day21.B.20171208.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day21.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... File Processing * Day22 ([[Media:Day22.A.20171212.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day22.B.20171213.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day22.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Preprocessing <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> </br> See also https://cprogramex.wordpress.com/ == '''Old Materials '''== until 201201 * Intro.Overview.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Overview.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]]) * Intro.Memory.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Memory.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]]) * Intro.Number.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Number.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]]) * Repeat.Control.1.A ([[Media:C.Repeat.Control.1.A.20120109.pdf |pdf]]) * Repeat.Loop.1.A ([[Media:C.Repeat.Loop.1.A.20120113.pdf |pdf]]) * Work.Function.1.A ([[Media:C.Work.Function.1.A.20120117.pdf |pdf]]) * Work.Scope.1.A ([[Media:C.Work.Scope.1.A.20120117.pdf |pdf]]) * Series.Array.1.A ([[Media:Series.Array.1.A.20110718.pdf |pdf]]) * Series.Pointer.1.A ([[Media:Series.Pointer.1.A.20110719.pdf |pdf]]) * Series.Structure.1.A ([[Media:Series.Structure.1.A.20110805.pdf |pdf]]) * Data.Type.1.A ([[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.A.20130813.pdf |pdf]]) * Data.TypeCast.1.A ([[Media:Data.TypeCast.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Data.Operators.1.A ([[Media:Data.Operators.1.A.20110712.pdf |pdf]]) <br> until 201107 * Intro.1.A ([[Media:Intro.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Control.1.A ([[Media:Control.1.A.20110706.pdf |pdf]]) * Iteration.1.A ([[Media:Iteration.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Function.1.A ([[Media:Function.1.A.20110705.pdf |pdf]]) * Variable.1.A ([[Media:Variable.1.A.20110708.pdf |pdf]]) * Operators.1.A ([[Media:Operators.1.A.20110712.pdf |pdf]]) * Pointer.1.A ([[Media:Pointer.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Pointer.2.A ([[Media:Pointer.2.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Array.1.A ([[Media:Array.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Type.1.A ([[Media:Type.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Structure.1.A ([[Media:Structure.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) go to [ [[C programming in plain view]] ] [[Category:C programming language]] </br> rm7kd7ewi7v3gvx2ze2f2u2vp438jyz 2836553 2836546 2026-10-07T11:46:24Z Young1lim 21186 /* Applications */ 2836553 wikitext text/x-wiki === Introduction === * Overview ([[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.B.20170901.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.C.20170904.pdf |C.pdf]]) * Number System ([[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.A.20171023.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.B.20170909.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.C.20170914.pdf |C.pdf]]) * Memory System ([[Media:C01.Intro2.Memory.1.A.20170907.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro3.Memory.1.B.20170909.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro3.Memory.1.C.20170914.pdf |C.pdf]]) === Handling Repetition === * Control ([[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.B.20170918.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.C.20170926.pdf |C.pdf]]) * Loop ([[Media:C02.Repeat2.Loop.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat2.Loop.1.B.20170918.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Handling a Big Work === * Function Overview ([[Media:C03.Func1.Overview.1.A.20171030.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func1.Oerview.1.B.20161022.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Functions & Variables ([[Media:C03.Func2.Variable.1.A.20161222.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func2.Variable.1.B.20161222.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Functions & Pointers ([[Media:C03.Func3.Pointer.1.A.20161122.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func3.Pointer.1.B.20161122.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Functions & Recursions ([[Media:C03.Func4.Recursion.1.A.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func4.Recursion.1.B.20161214.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Handling Series of Data === ==== Background ==== * Background ([[Media:C04.Series0.Background.1.A.20180727.pdf |A.pdf]]) ==== Basics ==== * Pointers ([[Media:C04.S1.Pointer.1A.20240524.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series2.Pointer.1.B.20161115.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Arrays ([[Media:C04.S2.Array.1A.20240514.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series1.Array.1.B.20161115.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Array Pointers ([[Media:C04.S3.ArrayPointer.1A.20240208.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series3.ArrayPointer.1.B.20181203.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Multi-dimensional Arrays ([[Media:C04.Series4.MultiDim.1.A.20221130.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series4.MultiDim.1.B.1111.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Array Access Methods ([[Media:C04.Series4.ArrayAccess.1.A.20190511.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series3.ArrayPointer.1.B.20181203.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Structures ([[Media:C04.Series3.Structure.1.A.20171204.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series2.Structure.1.B.20161130.pdf |B.pdf]]) ==== Examples ==== * Spreadsheet Example Programs :: Example 1 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.1.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.1.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]]) :: Example 2 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.2.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.2.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]]) :: Example 3 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.3.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.3.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]]) :: Bubble Sort ([[Media:C04.Series7.BubbleSort.1.A.20171211.pdf |A.pdf]]) ==== Applications ==== * Address-of and de-reference operators ([[Media:C04.SA0.PtrOperator.1A.20261007-1.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Pointers ([[Media:C04.SA1.AppPointer.1A.20241121.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Arrays ([[Media:C04.SA2.AppArray.1A.20240715.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Array Pointers ([[Media:C04.SA3.AppArrayPointer.1A.20240210.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Multi-dimensional Arrays ([[Media:C04.Series4App.MultiDim.1.A.20210719.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Array Access Methods ([[Media:C04.Series9.AppArrAcess.1.A.20190511.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Structures ([[Media:C04.Series6.AppStruct.1.A.20190423.pdf |A.pdf]]) === Handling Various Kinds of Data === * Types ([[Media:C05.Data1.Type.1.A.20180217.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data1.Type.1.B.20161212.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Typecasts ([[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.A.20180217.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.B.20161216.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Operators ([[Media:C05.Data3.Operators.1.A.20161219.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data3.Operators.1.B.20161216.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Files ([[Media:C05.Data4.File.1.A.20161124.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data4.File.1.B.20161212.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Handling Low Level Operations === * Bitwise Operations ([[Media:BitOp.1.B.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:BitOp.1.B.20161203.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Bit Field ([[Media:BitField.1.A.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:BitField.1.B.20161202.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Union ([[Media:Union.1.A.20161221.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Union.1.B.20161111.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Accessing IO Registers ([[Media:IO.1.A.20141215.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:IO.1.B.20161217.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Declarations === * Type Specifiers and Qualifiers ([[Media:C07.Spec1.Type.1.A.20171004.pdf |pdf]]) * Storage Class Specifiers ([[Media:C07.Spec2.Storage.1.A.20171009.pdf |pdf]]) * Scope === Class Notes === * TOC ([[Media:TOC.20171007.pdf |TOC.pdf]]) * Day01 ([[Media:Day01.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day01.B.20171209.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day01.C.20171211.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (1) Standard Library * Day02 ([[Media:Day02.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day02.B.20171209.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day02.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (2) Basic Elements * Day03 ([[Media:Day03.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day03.B.20170908.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day03.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (3) Numbers * Day04 ([[Media:Day04.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day04.B.20170915.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day04.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structured Programming (1) Flowcharts * Day05 ([[Media:Day05.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day05.B.20170915.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day05.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structured Programming (2) Conditions and Loops * Day06 ([[Media:Day06.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day06.B.20170923.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day06.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Program Control * Day07 ([[Media:Day07.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day07.B.20170926.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day07.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (1) Definitions * Day08 ([[Media:Day08.A.20171028.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day08.B.20171016.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day08.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (2) Storage Class and Scope * Day09 ([[Media:Day09.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day09.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day09.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (3) Recursion * Day10 ([[Media:Day10.A.20171209.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day10.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day10.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Arrays (1) Definitions * Day11 ([[Media:Day11.A.20171024.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day11.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day11.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Arrays (2) Applications * Day12 ([[Media:Day12.A.20171024.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day12.B.20171020.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day12.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Pointers (1) Definitions * Day13 ([[Media:Day13.A.20171025.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day13.B.20171024.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day13.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Pointers (2) Applications * Day14 ([[Media:Day14.A.20171226.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day14.B.20171101.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day14.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C String (1) * Day15 ([[Media:Day15.A.20171209.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day15.B.20171124.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day15.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C String (2) * Day16 ([[Media:Day16.A.20171208.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day16.B.20171114.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day16.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C Formatted IO * Day17 ([[Media:Day17.A.20171031.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day17.B.20171111.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day17.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structure (1) Definitions * Day18 ([[Media:Day18.A.20171206.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day18.B.20171128.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day18.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structure (2) Applications * Day19 ([[Media:Day19.A.20171205.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day19.B.20171121.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day19.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Union, Bitwise Operators, Enum * Day20 ([[Media:Day20.A.20171205.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day20.B.20171201.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day20.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Linked List * Day21 ([[Media:Day21.A.20171206.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day21.B.20171208.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day21.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... File Processing * Day22 ([[Media:Day22.A.20171212.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day22.B.20171213.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day22.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Preprocessing <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> </br> See also https://cprogramex.wordpress.com/ == '''Old Materials '''== until 201201 * Intro.Overview.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Overview.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]]) * Intro.Memory.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Memory.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]]) * Intro.Number.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Number.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]]) * Repeat.Control.1.A ([[Media:C.Repeat.Control.1.A.20120109.pdf |pdf]]) * Repeat.Loop.1.A ([[Media:C.Repeat.Loop.1.A.20120113.pdf |pdf]]) * Work.Function.1.A ([[Media:C.Work.Function.1.A.20120117.pdf |pdf]]) * Work.Scope.1.A ([[Media:C.Work.Scope.1.A.20120117.pdf |pdf]]) * Series.Array.1.A ([[Media:Series.Array.1.A.20110718.pdf |pdf]]) * Series.Pointer.1.A ([[Media:Series.Pointer.1.A.20110719.pdf |pdf]]) * Series.Structure.1.A ([[Media:Series.Structure.1.A.20110805.pdf |pdf]]) * Data.Type.1.A ([[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.A.20130813.pdf |pdf]]) * Data.TypeCast.1.A ([[Media:Data.TypeCast.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Data.Operators.1.A ([[Media:Data.Operators.1.A.20110712.pdf |pdf]]) <br> until 201107 * Intro.1.A ([[Media:Intro.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Control.1.A ([[Media:Control.1.A.20110706.pdf |pdf]]) * Iteration.1.A ([[Media:Iteration.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Function.1.A ([[Media:Function.1.A.20110705.pdf |pdf]]) * Variable.1.A ([[Media:Variable.1.A.20110708.pdf |pdf]]) * Operators.1.A ([[Media:Operators.1.A.20110712.pdf |pdf]]) * Pointer.1.A ([[Media:Pointer.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Pointer.2.A ([[Media:Pointer.2.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Array.1.A ([[Media:Array.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Type.1.A ([[Media:Type.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Structure.1.A ([[Media:Structure.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) go to [ [[C programming in plain view]] ] [[Category:C programming language]] </br> ma2l821e8sqawfry7g6gw3oiskjarkh 2 304065 2836332 2818907 2026-10-06T16:11:26Z Dc.samizdat 2856930 /* A symmetrical arrangement of eleven 11-cells */ 2836332 wikitext text/x-wiki = A symmetrical arrangement of eleven 11-cells = {{align|center|David Brooks Christie}} {{align|center|dc@samizdat.org}} {{align|center|Draft in progress}} {{align|center|March 2024 - October 2026}} <blockquote>[[W:Branko Grünbaum|Grünbaum]] and [[W:H.S.M. Coxeter|Coxeter]] independently discovered the [[W:11-cell|11-cell]] ₅{3,5,3}₅, a regular 4-polytope with cells that are the [[W:hemi-icosahedron|hemi-icosahedron]] {3,5}₅, a hexad non-orientable polyhedron. The 11-cell is described as an abstract 4-polytope, because its cells do not have a direct realization in Euclidean 3-space. However, we find that the 11-cell has a realization in Euclidean 4-space inscribed in the [[120-cell|120-cell]], the largest regular convex 4-polytope, which contains inscribed instances of all the convex regular 4-polytopes. The 11-cell contains 11 hemi-icosahedra and 11 regular 5-cells. The 120-cell contains 120 dodecahedra and 120 regular 5-cells. We find that the 120-cell also contains: a non-uniform icosahedral polyhedron that is a realization of the abstract hemi-icosahedron; real 11-point 11-cells made from 11 of it; and a compound of eleven real 11-cells. We also find a quasi-regular compound of the compound of eleven 11-cells and [[w:Schoute|Schoute]]'s compound of five 24-cells (the 600-cell). We describe the real 11-point 11-cell 4-polytope; its compound of eleven 11-cells; the quasi-regular compound; and their relation to the regular polytopes.</blockquote> == Introduction == [[W:Branko Grünbaum|Branko Grünbaum]] discovered the 11-cell around 1970,{{Sfn|Grünbaum|1976|loc=''Regularity of Graphs, Complexes and Designs''}} about a decade before [[W:H.S.M. Coxeter|H.S.M. Coxeter]] extracted hemi-icosahedral hexads from the permutations of eleven numbers, with observations on the perfection of Todd's cyclic pentads and other symmetries he had been studying.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1984|loc=''A Symmetrical Arrangement of Eleven Hemi-Icosahedra''}} Grünbaum started with the hemi-icosahedral hexad, and the impetus for his discovery of the 11-cell was simply the impulse to build with them. Like a child building with blocks, he fit them together, three around each edge, until the arrangement closed up into a 3-sphere and surprise, ''eleven'' of them. [[File:120-cell.gif|thumb|360px|The picture on the cover of the box of 4-dimensional building blocks.{{Sfn|Hise|2011|loc=File:120-cell.gif|ps=; "Created by Jason Hise with Maya and Macromedia Fireworks. A 3D projection of a 120-cell performing a [[W:SO(4)#Geometry of 4D rotations|simple rotation]]."}} Only the 120-cell's own edges are shown. The complex interior parts of the 120-cell, all its inscribed 600-cells, 24-cells, 8-cells, 16-cells, 5-cells and 11-cells, are completely invisible in this view, as none of their edges are rendered at all. The child must imagine them.]] The 4-dimensional regular polytopes are the most wonderful set of child's building blocks. The simplest two 4-polytopes are the 5-point 4-[[W:Simplex|simplex]] (called the [[5-cell]], because it is built from 5 tetrahedra), and the 8-point 4-[[W:Orthoplex|orthoplex]] (called the [[16-cell]], because it is built from 16 tetrahedra). As building blocks they could not be more different. The 16-cell is the basic building block of everything 4-dimensional. Every other regular convex 4-polytope (''except'' the 5-cell) can be built as a compound of 16-cells, including first of all the [[w:Tesseract|16-point (8-cell) tesseract]], the 4-hypercube, which is a compound of two 16-cells in [[W:Demihypercube|exact dimensional analogy]] to the way a cube is a compound of two tetrahedra. The regular 5-cell, on the other hand, is not found within any of the other regular convex 4-polytopes, except in the largest and most complex one, the 600-point [[120-cell|120-cell]], the biggest thing you can build from this set of building blocks (the picture on the cover of the box, which is built from everything in the box). The 5-cell has a fundamental relationship to all the other 4-polytopes, but not one as simple as compounding, so it is not immediately useful to children trying to learn to build with 4-dimensional building blocks. But the 16-cell is our very starting point, and the most frequently used tool in the box. Nevertheless, to build the 11-cell, we start with the 5-cell. The 5-cell and 11-cell are both self-reciprocal (their own duals). They are the only 4-polytopes where every cell shares a face with every other cell. The 5-cell is a tetrahedron surrounded by 4 other tetrahedra, in five different ways. The 11-cell is a hemi-icosahedron surrounded by 10 other hemi-icosahedra, in eleven different ways. The 5-cell has 5 vertices that form 5 tetrahedral cells, and a total of 10 triangular faces and 10 edges. The 11-cell has 11 vertices that form 11 hemi-icosahedral cells, each with 6 verticies 10 triangular faces and 15 edges, and a total of 55 triangular faces and 55 edges. == 5-cells and hemi-icosahedra in the 11-cell == [[File:Symmetrical_5-set_Venn_diagram.svg|thumb|The 5-point (10-face) regular 5-cell (the regular 4-simplex). Grünbaum's rotationally symmetrical 5-set Venn diagram{{Sfn|Grünbaum|1975|loc=''Rotationally symmetrical 5-set Venn diagram'', Fig 1 (e)|ps=; partitions the individual elements of the 5-cell.}} is an illustration of the 5-cell labeling each of its <math>2^5</math> elements.{{Sfn|Cmglee: Grunbaum's 5-point Venn Diagram|2019|ps=; each individual element of the 5-cell is labelled; image includes the Python code to render it, optimising for maximum area of the smallest regions.}}]] [[File:Hemi-icosahedron.png|thumb|The 6-point (10 face) [[W:hemi-icosahedron|hemi-icosahedron]], an abstraction of the regular icosahedron, has half as many faces, edges and vertices. Each element of the abstract polyhedron represents two or more real elements found in different places in a concrete realization of the 11-cell.{{Sfn|Ruen: Hemi-icosahedron|2007}}]] The most apparent relationship between the pentad 5-cell and the hexad hemi-icosahedron is that they both have 10 triangular faces. When we find a facet congruence between a 4-polytope and a 3-polytope we suspect a dimensional analogy. In the exceptional case of 5-cell and icosahedron, which share the same symmetry group <math>A_5</math>, we fully expect a dimensional analogy.{{Efn|There is an exceptional inter-dimensional duality between the regular icosahedron and the 5-cell because they share <math>A_5</math> symmetry. See this question asked on [https://math.stackexchange.com/questions/4235783/the-rotational-symmetry-groups-of-the-5-cell-and-the-icosahedron-are-isomorphi math.stackexchange.com 2021].}} Another clue that the hemi-icosahedron has something to do with dimensional analogy comes from its realization as the 6-point 5-simplex. Yet another real hexad is the 6-point 3-orthoplex; thus as a hexad the hemi-icosahedron is related by dimensional analogy to the 4-simplex (5-cell) from above, and to the 4-orthoplex (16-cell) from below, while those two simplest 4-polytope building blocks are only related to each other indirectly by dimensional analogies, having no chord congruences in 4-space. The cell of the 11-cell has only been at the party 5 minutes, and it is already inter-dimensionally ''involved'' with the two earliest arrivals, the 4-simplex (5-cell) and 4-orthoplex (16-cell), who are famously stand-offish with each other. Interesting! The cell of the 11-cell is an abstract hexad hemi-icosahedron with 5 central planes, most handsomely illustrated by Séquin.{{Sfn|Séquin|2012|loc=A 10-Dimensional Jewel}}{{Sfn|Séquin & Lanier|2007|p=3|loc=Figure 4: (b,c) two views of the hemi-icosahedron projected into 3D space|ps=; Séquin et. al. have a lovely colored illustration of the hemi-icosahedron, subdivided into 10 triangular faces by 5 central planes of its icosahedral symmetry, revealing rings of polytopes nestled in its interior. Their illustration cannot be directly included here, because it has not been uploaded to [[W:Wikimedia Commons|Wikimedia Commons]] under an open-source copyright license, but you can view it online by clicking through this citation to their paper, which is available on the web.}}{{Sfn|Séquin & Hamlin|2007|loc=Figure 2. 57-Cell: (a) vertex figure|ps=; The 6-point [[W:Hemi-isosahedron|hemi-isosahedron]] is the vertex figure of the 11-cell's dual 4-polytope the 57-point [[W:57-cell|57-cell]].}} The 11 hemi-icosahedral cells have 10 triangle faces each, and each cell is face-bonded to the other 10 cells. The 5-cell's 5 tetrahedral cells have 10 faces and 10 edges altogether, and each cell is face-bonded to the other 4 cells. If 11-cell faces correspond to 5-cell faces, then 3 of each 5-cell's 5 vertices are a hemi-icosahedron face, and its other 2 vertices must be some 11-cell edge lying opposite the face. Coxeter determined that the 11-cell does indeed have an edge opposite each face, that does not belong to the same hemi-icosahedral cell as its opposing face. He found that the 10 edges opposite each hemi-icosahedron's 10 faces are the 10 edges of a single 5-cell, which does not share any vertices, edges or faces with the hemi-icosahedron. For each cell of the 11-point 11-cell, there is exactly one 5-point 5-cell that is completely disjoint from the 6-point hemi-icosahedron cell.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1984|p=110|loc=§6. The Petrie polygon [of the 11-cell]|ps=; "We may reasonably call this edge and face ''opposites''. It is easy to find the face opposite to a given edge by looking at the faces to which a given edge belongs. ... Conversely, given a face, we can find the opposite edge by seeing which vertices belong to neither of the hemi-icosahedra which share that face. The ten edges opposite to the ten faces of one hemi-icosahedron are the edges of the complementary <math>a_4</math> [4-simplex], that is, the joins of all pairs of the five vertices [of the 11-cell] not belonging to the given hemi-icosahedron."}} There are 11 disjoint 5-cell 4-polytopes inscribed in each 11-cell, which also contains 11 hemi-icosahedral cells, 55 faces, 55 edges and 11 vertices. The real 11-cell is more complex than the abstract 11-cell representing it, because the real hemi-icosahedron is more complex and harder to find than the abstract hemi-icosahedron. Seeing the real 11-cell will be easier once we have identified the real hemi-icosahedron, and seen exactly where the 11-cell's real elements reside in the other 4-polytopes within the 120-cell with which the 11-cell intermingles. The 5-cell has 10 faces, and the 11-cell has 10 faces in each of its hemi-icosahedral cells, but that is not how their faces correspond. Each hemi-icosahedron is face-bonded to the other 10 hemi-icosahedra, and to 10 of the 11 5-cells, and there is exactly one 5-cell with which it does not share a face.{{Efn|As Coxeter observes (in the previous citation), that unrepresented 5-point 5-cell is the other 5 vertices of the 11-point 11-cell that are not vertices of this 6-point hemi-icosahedron: the hemi-icosahedron's disjoint complement.}} Each 5-cell has 10 faces which belong to 10 distinct hemi-icosahedra of the 11-cell, and there is just one hemi-icosahedron with which it does not share a face. In the abstract 11-cell each face represents two conflated icosahedron faces, two actual faces in different places, so the 11-cell's 55 faces represent 110 actual faces: the faces of 11 completely disjoint 5-cells. Each hemi-icosahedron vertex represents conflated icosahedral vertices: multiple actual vertices separated by a small distance which has been reduced to a point at the coarse scale of the abstraction.{{Efn|We shall see that this small eliminated distance is in fact the length of a 120-cell edge, the shortest chordal distance found in the 120-cell.}} Seemingly adjacent hemi-icosahedron faces do not actually meet at an edge; there is a polygon separating them, which has been abstracted to an edge. The 10 hemi-icosahedron faces are 5-cell faces from 10 distinct 5-cells, and they do not actually touch each other: the 120 5-cells in the 120-cell are completely disjoint. In the 5-cell each face bonds two tetrahedral cells together, and in the 11-cell each face bonds two pairs of tetrahedral cells together, because each 11-cell face represents two actual 5-cell faces in different places. Each duplex 11-cell face bonds tetrahedra in two 5-cells in different places, without binding the 5-cells together (they are completely disjoint). One actual 5-cell face is one half of a duplex 11-cell face, so 110 5-cell faces are 55 duplex 11-cell faces. The 11-cell's 11 abstract vertices represent all 55 distinct vertices of the 11 disjoint 5-cells, so they must be abstract conflations of at least 5 vertices. Therefore for any of this to be possible, the 11-cell must not be alone; 11-cells must be sharing vertices, not disjoint as the 5-cells are. == The real hemi-icosahedron == [[File:120-Cell showing the individual 8 concentric hulls and in combination.svg|thumb|400px|right| Orthogonal projections of the 120-cell by Moxness{{Sfn|Moxness: 8 concentric hulls|2022|loc=Hull #8 (lower right)|ps=; "Orthogonal projection of the 120-cell using any 3 of these Cartesian coordinate dimensions forms an outer hull of a Chamfered dodecahedron of Norm=√8. Hulls 1, 2, & 7 are each overlapping pairs of Dodecahedrons. Hull 3 is a pair of Icosidodecahedrons. Hulls 4 & 5 are each pairs of Truncated icosahedrons. Hulls 6 & 8 are Rhombicosidodecahedrons."}} using 3 of its 4 Cartesian coordinate dimensions to render 8 polyhedral hulls which are 3D sections through distinct hyperplanes starting with a dodecahedron cell. Hull #8 with 60 vertices (lower right) is a central section of the 120-cell, the 8th and largest section starting with a cell.{{Efn|1=Although the 8 hulls are illustrated as the same size, in the 120-cell they have increasing size as numbered, and occur nested inside each other like Russian dolls. Only Hull #8 is a central section of the same radius as the 120-cell itself, analogous to the equator. Sections 1-7 occur in pairs on opposite sides of the central section, and are analogous to lines of latitude. Section 1 is simply a dodecahedral cell. The "Combined hulls" is for illustrative purposes only; no such compound polyhedron exists in the 120-cell.}}]] We shall see in subsequent sections that the 11-cell is not in fact alone, but first let us see if we can find an existing illustration of the realization of the abstract hemi-icosahedron, as an actual polyhedron that occurs in the 120-cell. Moxness developed software which uses Hamilton's [[w:Quaternion|quaternion]]s to render the polyhedra which are found in the interior of ''n''-dimensional polytopes.{{Sfn|Moxness: Quaternion graphics software|2023|ps= ; describes the theory and implementation of quaternion-based polytope graphics software.}} [[w:William_Rowan_Hamilton|Hamilton]] was the first wise child to discover a 4-dimensional building block, [[w:History_of_quaternions#Hamilton's_discovery|in his flash of genius on Broom bridge]] in 1843, though he didn't think of his quaternion formula {{math|1=''i''² = ''j''² = ''k''² = ''ijk'' = −1}} as the [[W:Tesseract|16-point (8-cell) tesseract]] 4-polytope. He did not realize then that he had discovered the 4-hypercube polytope and [[W:Tesseractic honeycomb|its Euclidean honeycomb]], the (w, x, y, z) Cartesian [[w:Euclidean_geometry#19th_century|coordinates of Euclidean 4-space]]. Moxness built his software out of Hamilton's quaternions, as quite a lot of graphics software is built, because [[w:Quaternions_and_spatial_rotation|quaternions make rotations]] and projections in 3D or 4D space as simple as matrix multiplications.{{Sfn|Mebius|1994|p=1|loc="''[[W:Quaternion algebra|Quaternion algebra]]'' is the tool ''par excellence'' for the treatment of three- and four- dimensional (3D and 4D) rotations. Obviously only 3D and by implication 2D rotations have an everyday practical meaning, but the [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space|theory of 4D rotations]] turns out to offer the easiest road to the representation of 3D rotations by quaternions."}} The quaternions are 4-hypercube building blocks, analogous to the 3-hypercube wooden blocks everyone built with as a child (only they fit together even better, because they are [[w:8-cell#Radial_equilateral_symmetry|radially equilateral]] like the cuboctahedron and the [[24-cell]], but we digress). Moxness used his software to render illustrations of polyhedra inside the 120-cell, some of which he published. Notice his "Hull # = 8 with 60 vertices", lower right in his illustration of the 120-cell sections starting with a cell. It is a real icosahedron that occurs in the 120-cell, and we shall see that the abstract hemi-icosahedron represents it. Moxness's 60-point Hull #8 is a concrete realization of the 6-point hemi-icosahedron in spherical 3-space <math>S^3</math>, embedded in Euclidean 4-space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>. Its 12 little pentagon faces are 120-cell faces. It also has 20 triangle faces like any icosahedron, separated from each other by rectangles, but beware: those triangles are not the 5-cell faces. They are smaller equilateral triangles, of edge length <math>1</math> in a {{radic|2}}-radius 120-cell, where the 5-cell face triangles have edge length {{radic|5}}.{{Efn|The 41.4° chord of edge length 1 in a {{radic|2}}-radius 120-cell occurs only in the 120-cell; it is not the edge of any smaller regular 4-polytope inscribed in the 120-cell. The equilateral triangle faces of Moxness's Hull #8 rhombicosidodecahedron are not the 5-cell faces of edge length <small><math>\sqrt{5} \approx 2.236</math> </small>(104.5°), not the 16-cell faces of edge length <small><math>2</math></small> (90°), not the 24-cell faces of edge length <small><math>\sqrt{2} \approx 1.414</math></small> (60°), and not the 600-cell faces of edge length <small><math>\sqrt{2}/\phi \approx 0.874</math></small> (36°).|name=Moxness 60-point triangle faces}} [[File:Irregular great hexagons of the 120-cell radius √2.png|thumb|Every 6 edges of the 120-cell that lie on a great circle join with 5-cell edges to form two opposing irregular great hexagons (truncated triangles). The 120-cell contains 1200 of its own edges and 1200 5-cell edges, in 200 irregular {12} dodecagon central planes. The 5-cell ''faces'' do not lie in central planes.]] Edges of the larger 5-cell face triangles of length {{radic|5}} can also be found in Hull #8, but they are invisible chords below the surface of Moxness's 60-point polyhedron. To see them, notice that six 120-cell edges (little pentagon edges) lie on a great circle, alternating with six rectangle diagonals. Also lying on this irregular {12} great circle are six 5-cell edges, invisible chords joining every other 120-cell edge and running under the 120-cell edge between them. The six long chords and six short edges form two opposing irregular {6} great hexagons (truncated triangles) of alternating 5-cell edges and 120-cell edges, as illustrated. The irregular great {12} lies on a great circle of Moxness's Hull #8, and also on a great circle of the 120-cell, because Hull #8 is the ''central'' cell-first section of the 120-cell.{{Efn|The cell-first central section of the 600-cell (and of the 24-cell) is a cuboctahedron with 24-cell edges. The 120-cell is the regular compound of 5 600-cells (and of 25 24-cells), so Moxness's Hull #8, as the cell-first central section of the 120-cell, is the regular compound of 5 cuboctahedra. Their 24-cell edges, like the 5-cell edges, are invisible chords of Hull #8 that lie below its surface, on the same irregular {12} great circles. Each 24-cell edge chord spans one 120-cell edge chord (one little pentagon edge) and one rectangle face diagonal chord. Six 24-cell edge chords form a regular great {6} hexagon, inscribed in the irregular great {12} dodecagon.|name=compound of 5 cuboctahedra}} There are 10 great dodecagon central planes and 60 5-cell edges in Moxness's Hull #8, and 200 great dodecagon central planes and 1200 5-cell edges in the 120-cell. [[File:Central cell-first section of the 120-cell with 5-cell face triangle.png|thumb|Orthogonal projection of the cell-first central section of the 120-cell, Hull #8 rendered by Moxness, with one of 20 inscribed 5-cell faces (black chords) drawn under portions of three of its ten great circle {12} dodecagons (green).{{Efn|The point of view in this rendering is not quite right to best illustrate that a rhombicosidodecahedron triangle face lies over the center of a 5-cell face parallel to it, such that it would be perfectly inscribed in the center of the larger black triangle in an orthogonal view.}}]] But the 5-cell ''faces'' do not lie in those central planes. We can locate them in the 60-point polyhedron where they lie parallel to and under each small face triangle of edge length <math>1</math>. Truncating at a triangle face of Moxness's Hull #8 exposes a deeper 5-cell triangle face.{{Efn|Each face triangle of edge length <math>1</math> is surrounded by 3 rectangles, and beyond each rectangle by another face triangle. The distant vertices of those 3 surrounding triangles form a {{radic|5}} triangle, a 5-cell face.}} There are 20 such 5-cell faces inscribed in the Hull #8 polyhedron, all completely disjoint. We find 60 vertices, 60 edges and 20 faces of various 5-cells in each Hull #8 polyhedron, but no whole tetrahedral cells of the 5-cells.{{Efn|The fourth vertex of each 5-cell tetrahedron lies opposite the small face triangle of edge length <math>1</math> that lies over the 5-cell face. Since Moxness's Hull #8 polyhedron has opposing triangle faces (like any icosahedron), the fourth vertex of the 5-cell tetrahedron lies over the center of the opposing face, outside the Hull #8 polyhedron. This is a vertex of some other Hull #8 polyhedron in the 120-cell. Each tetrahedral cell of a 5-cell spans four Hull #8 polyhedra, with one face inscribed in each, and one vertex outside of each.}} [[File:Nonuniform_rhombicosidodecahedron_as_rectified_rhombic_triacontahedron_max.png|thumb|Moxness's 60-point Hull #8 is a nonuniform [[W:Rhombicosidodecahedron|rhombicosidodecahedron]] similar to the one from the catalog shown here,{{Sfn|Piesk: Rhombicosidodecahedron|2018}} but a slightly shallower truncation of the icosahedron with smaller red pentagons and narrower rhombs. Rhombicosidodecahedra are also made by truncating the [[W:Rhombic triacontahedron|rhombic triacontahedron]], which is the unique 30-sided polyhedron with only one kind of face, the dual of the 30-point icosidodecahedron. The 120-cell contains 60 of Moxness's Hull #8 rhombicosidodecahedron. Each occupies a central hyperplane, and so is analogous to an equator dividing the sphere in half.]] Moxness's Hull #8 is a nonuniform form of an Archimedean solid, the 60-point [[W:Rhombicosidodecahedron|rhombicosidodecahedron]] from [[W:Johannes Kepler|Kepler's]] 1619 [[W:Harmonices Mundi|''Harmonices Mundi'']], which has the same 120 edges, 20 triangular faces and 12 pentagon faces, but with 30 squares between them instead of 30 rectangles. Without the squares ''or'' the rectangles it would be the 30-point [[W:icosidodecahedron|icosidodecahedron]], which has the same relationship to Moxness's Hull #8 that the 6-point hemi-icosahedron does: they are both abstractions of it by conflation of its 60 points, 2-into-1 (icosidodecahedron) and 10-into-1 (hemi-icosahedron), in what [[w:Alicia_Boole_Stott|Alicia Boole Stott]] named a ''contraction'' operation.{{Efn|The regular 5-point 5-cell can be another abstraction of Moxness's 60-point Hull #8, 12-vertices-into-1. None of these contractions of Moxness's Hull #8 is an instance of her operation actually described by Boole Stott, since she did not apply her expansion and contraction operations to uniform polytopes with more than one edge length, but she did explicitly describe contractions of the semi-regular Archimedean rhomibicosidodecahedron.}} Moxness was not the first person to find rhombicosidodecahedra in the 120-cell. Alicia Boole Stott identified the 6th section of the 120-cell beginning with a cell as the semi-regular rhombicosidodecahedron that is her ''e₂ expansion'' of the icosahedron (or equivalently of its dual polyhedron the dodecahedron).{{Sfn|Boole Stott|1910|loc=§Examples of the e₂ expansion|p=7}} But that 6th section rhombicosidodecahedron identified by Boole Stott is not Moxness's Hull #8, it is the semi-regular Archimedean solid (Moxness's Hull #6), with a single edge length and square faces. Moxness's Hull #8, with its two distinct edge lengths and rectangular faces, is Coxeter's 8₃, the 8th section of {5,3,3} beginning with a cell, which is missing from the sections illustrated by Boole Stott.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|p=258-259|loc=§13.9 Sections and Projections: Historical remarks|ps=; "Alicia Boole Stott (1860-1940) ... also constructed the sections i₃ of {5, 3, 3}, exhibiting the nets in her Plate V. “Diagrams VIII-XIV” refer to the sections 1₃-7₃; but 8₃ is missing. Incidentally, Diagram XIII (our 6₃) is a rhombicosidodecahedron, the Archimedean solid."}} Coxeter was the first to describe the central section 8₃, and he gave its coordinates, but he did not identify it as an irregular rhombicosidodecahedron. His table entry for its description is empty (characteristically, since it is not a regular or semi-regular polyhedron), so he gives us no indication that he actually visualized it. Although Moxness was not the first to compute the 60-point 8₃ section, he may have been the first person to ''see'' it. The 30-point icosidodecahedron is the quasi-regular product of 5-point pentagon and 6-point hexagon, recalling Coxeter's original discovery of the 11-cell in pentads and hexads, and also the two child's building blocks: one so useless the 5-point (pentad) 5-cell, and the other so useful the 8-point 16-cell with its four orthogonal 6-point (hexad) octahedron central sections, which can be compounded into everything larger. Some children building with the 30-point icosidodecahedron notice that it occurs as the central section 4₀ of the 120-point 600-cell. It is less often noticed that Moxness's Hull #8 rhombicosidodecahedron is the central section 8₃ of the 600-point 120-cell. It occupies a flat 3-dimensional hyperplane that bisects the 120-cell, and since there are 120 dodecahedral cells, there are 60 such central hyperplanes, each perpendicular to an axis that connects the centers of two antipodal cells. The 60 central hyperplanes, each containing an instance of Moxness's Hull #8, are rotated with respect to each other. They intersect, with 6 rhombicosidodecahedra sharing each vertex and 3 sharing each edge, but each little pentagon face (120-cell face) belongs to just one rhombicosidodecahedron. The 60 central sections lie in isoclinic hyperplanes, that is, the rhombicosidodecahedra are rotated symmetrically with respect to each other, by two equal angles.{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|p=7|loc=§6 Angles between two Planes in 4-Space|ps=; "In four (and higher) dimensions, we need two angles to fix the relative position between two planes. (More generally, ''k'' angles are defined between ''k''-dimensional subspaces.)"}} Each pair of rhombicosidodecahedra intersect in a central plane containing an irregular {12} dodecagon, unless they are completely orthogonal and intersect only at the center of the 4-polytope. Each of the 120 dodecahedral cells lies in the closed, curved 3-dimensional space of the 3-sphere as the 1st and smallest section beginning with a cell (section 1₃), the innermost of a series of concentric polyhedral hulls of increasing size, which nest like Russian dolls around it. Moxness's Hull #8 rhombicosidodecahedron is the 8th and largest concentric hull beginning with a cell (section 8₃), a central section of the 120-cell that bisects the 3-sphere the way an equator bisects an ordinary sphere.{{Efn|The 120-cell's curved 3-space surface is a honeycomb of 120 dodecahedron cells. In this 3-space a dodecahedron cell lies inside at the center of each section 8₃ rhombicosidodecahedron, face-bonded to 12 other dodecahedron cells which surround it, also inside the rhombicosidodecahedron. We find the opposite pentagon faces of those 12 surrounding cells on the surface of the section 8₃ rhombicosidodecahedron. These twelve dodecahedra surrounding one dodecahedron partially fill the volume of the rhombicosidodecahedron, leaving 30 concavities in its surface at the rectangle faces, and 12 deeper concavities between them at the triangle faces. 30 more dodecahedra fit into the rectangle concavities, lying half inside and half outside the rhombicosidodecahedron. The diagonal of each rectangle face is a long diameter of a dodecahedron cell. 12 more dodecahedra fit into the triangle face concavities, lying ....|name=dodecahedral cells in the section 8 rhombicosidodecahedron}} Such a central polyhedron is the dimensional analog of an equatorial great circle polygon. Its 60 vertices lie in the same 3-dimensional hyperplane, a flat 3-dimensional section sliced through the center of the 120-cell. There are 60 distinct stacks of 15 parallel section ''n''₃ hyperplanes in the 120-cell, one stack spindled on each axis that connects a dodecahedron cell-center to its antipodal dodecahedron cell-center. Each central section 8₃ has ''two'' disjoint sets of smaller sections nested within it, that lie in opposite directions from the 120-cell's center along its 4th dimension axis. The largest-radius central slice lies in the center of the stack, and the smaller non-central section hyperplanes occur in parallel pairs on either side of the central slice. The 120-cell therefore contains 120 instances of each kind of non-central section 1₃ through 7₃, and 60 instances of the central section 8₃.{{Efn|A central section is concave on its inside and also on its outside: it has two insides. It may be helpful to imagine the central 60-point section as two mirror-image 60-point polyhedra whose points are coincident, but which are convex in opposite directions: the inside of one is the outside of the other. Each has seven smaller polyhedra nested within itself, but their two volumes are disjoint.}} [[File:Tensegrity Icosahedron.png|thumb|[[WikiJournal Preprints/Kinematics of the cuboctahedron#Elastic-edge transformation|Tensegrity icosahedron]] structure.{{Sfn|Burkhardt|1994}} First built by [[W:Kenneth Snelson|Kenneth Snelson]] in 1949. Geometrically a [[w:Jessen's_icosahedron|Jessen's icosahedron]] with 6 reflex ''long'' edge struts, and 24 ''short'' edge tension cables around 8 equilateral triangle faces. 3 pairs of parallel struts lie in 3 orthogonal central planes.]] We have come far enough with our pentad building blocks, usually so useless to children less wise than Todd or Coxeter, to see that the 60 Moxness's Hull #8 rhombicosidodecahedra are real polyhedra which the abstract hemi-icosahedra represent in some manner, but we have not yet identified 11 real face-bonded cells, at 11 distinct locations in the 120-cell, as an 11-cell. The abstract hemi-icosahedron's 10 faces correspond to actual 5-cell faces inscribed in real rhombicosidodecahedra, and its 15 edges correspond to 5-cell edges (of length {{radic|5}} in a {{radic|2}}-radius 120-cell) that occur as chords lurking under the surface of the rhombicosidodecahedra. [[File:Buckminster-Fuller-holding-a-geodesic-tensegrity-sphere.png|thumb|200px|Buckminster Fuller holding a 3-dimensional geodesic tensegrity 2-sphere, an infinitesimally mobile rigid polytope consisting of tension cable edges and disjoint compression strut chords.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Álvarez Elipe|first=Dolores|title=Ensegrities and Tensioned Structures|journal=Journal of Architectural Environment & Structural Engineering Research|date=July 2020|volume=3|issue=3|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/343652287_Ensegrities_and_Tensioned_Structures}}</ref>]] A rhombicosidodecahedron is constructed from a regular icosahedron by truncating its vertices, making them into pentagon faces. The regular icosahedron frames all the regular and semi-regular polyhedra by expansion and contraction operations, as Alicia Boole Stott discovered before 1910,{{Sfn|Polo-Blanco: ''Theory and history of geometric models of Alicia Boole Stott''|2007|loc=§5.3.2 1910 paper on semi-regular polytopes|pp=152-158|ps=; summarizes Boole Stott's method and results from {{Sfn|Boole Stott|1910|loc=''Geometrical deduction of semiregular from regular polytopes and space fillings''|pp=12-45|ps=; presents two cyclical sequences of regular and semi-regular 4-polytopes linked by expansion-contraction operations to their embedded 3-polytopes, comprising a large trans-dimensional polytope family that includes 6 regular 4-polytopes and their 3-polytope dimensional analogues, and 45 Archimedean 4-polytopes and their 13 Archimedean 3-polytope analogues.}}, including her tables of expansion-contraction dimensional analogies and a few of her illustrations.}} and those wise young friends Coxeter & Petrie, building together with polyhedral blocks, rediscovered before 1938.{{Sfn|Coxeter, du Val, Flather & Petrie|1938|p=4|ps=; "Just as a tetrahedron can be inscribed in a cube, so a cube can be inscribed in a dodecahedron. By reciprocation, this leads to an octahedron circumscribed about an icosahedron. In fact, each of the twelve vertices of the icosahedron divides an edge of the octahedron according to the "[[W:Golden section|golden section]]". Given the icosahedron, the circumscribed octahedron can be chosen in five ways, giving a [[W:Compound of five octahedra|compound of five octahedra]], which comes under our definition of [[W:Stellated icosahedron|stellated icosahedron]]. (The reciprocal compound, of five cubes whose vertices belong to a dodecahedron, is a stellated [[W:Triacontahedron|triacontahedron]].) Another stellated icosahedron can at once be deduced, by stellating each octahedron into a [[W:Stella octangula|stella octangula]], thus forming a [[W:Compound of ten tetrahedra|compound of ten tetrahedra]]. Further, we can choose one tetrahedron from each stella octangula, so as to derive a [[W:Compound of five tetrahedra|compound of five tetrahedra]], which still has all the rotation symmetry of the icosahedron (i.e. the icosahedral group), although it has lost the reflections. By reflecting this figure in any plane of symmetry of the icosahedron, we obtain the complementary set of five tetrahedra. These two sets of five tetrahedra are enantiomorphous, i.e. not directly congruent, but related like a pair of shoes. [Such] a figure which possesses no plane of symmetry (so that it is enantiomorphous to its mirror-image) is said to be ''[[W:Chiral|chiral]]''."}} Before we can move on to locating the 11 discrete hemi-icosahedral cells of the 11-cell in the 120-cell, it is important that we take notice of one more icosahedral symmetry of the hidden {{radic|5}} chords lurking below the surface of Moxness's Hull #8 rhombicosidodecahedron. The 12 little pentagon faces (120-cell faces) are connected to each other in parallel pairs, by 10 sets of six disjoint {{radic|5}} chords (5-cell edges). Each six-chord set is the six reflex edges of a 12-point non-convex polyhedron called the [[w:Jessen's_icosahedron|Jessen's icosahedron]], which is to say that the six disjoint chords are the parallel-orthogonal strut chords of a [[WikiJournal Preprints/Kinematics of the cuboctahedron#Elastic-edge transformation|tensegrity icosahedron]]. The six chords of each set are disjoint (they don't touch or form 5-cell faces), and they are symmetrically arranged as 3 parallel pairs, {{radic|3}} apart, which lie in 3 orthogonal {12} central planes.{{Efn|The Jessen's icosahedron has 8 equilateral triangle faces, which are not rhombicosidodecahedron triangle faces or 5-cell triangle faces, they are 24-cell triangle faces. Each 120-cell pentagon face lies at one end of 20 5-cell edges, from 20 distinct Jessen's icosahedra and five disjoint 5-cells: four at each pentagon vertex from each 5-cell.}} Five disjoint instances of the Jessen's icosahedron may be inscribed in each Moxness's Hull #8 rhombicosidodecahedron, their struts propping the rhombicosidodecahedron and the 120-cell itself open like a tensegrity structure.{{Efn|Moxness's Hull #8 rhombicosidodecahedron is a compound of five disjoint Jessen's icosahedra, because the 60 {{radic|5}} chords meet two-at-a-vertex and form 10 distinct Jessen's icosahedra: five disjoint Jessen's, in two different ways. The dimensionally analogous construction is the [[120-cell#Compound of five 600-cells|120-cell as a compound of five disjoint 600-cells]], in two different ways.}} But here we find ourselves far out in the 3-sphere system, almost to the [[W:Borromean_rings|Borromean rings]] of the giant 600-cell. We shall have to go back and orient ourselves at the origin again, and work our way patiently outwards, before in ''[[#The perfection of Fuller's cyclic design|§The perfection of Fuller's cyclic design]]'' we approach that rare child Bucky Fuller's orthogonal 12-point tensegrity icosahedron, an [[WikiJournal Preprints/Kinematics of the cuboctahedron|in-folded cuboctahedron]], the unique pyritohedral fish swimming deep in the 3-sphere ocean. == Eleven == Each pair of rhombicosidodecahedra that are not completely orthogonal intersect in a central plane containing an irregular {12} dodecagon. Ten irregular great dodecagons occur in each 60-point (central section 8₃) rhombicosidodecahedron, with 2 dodecagons crossing orthogonally at each vertex. Each rhombicosidodecahedron shares a {12} central plane with ten other rhombicosidodecahedra. ''Groups of 11 rhombicosidodecahedra share central planes pairwise.'' Here, at last, we find eleven of something, a group which must comprise an 11-cell. There are eleven {12} central planes in the group, with one of the eleven absent from each rhombicosidodecahedron. {|class="wikitable floatright" width=450 !colspan=2|Perspective views{{Efn|1=These images are ''non-orthogonal'' orthographic projections of the chords described in the caption. Those chords do not lie in a plane parallel to the projection plane, so they appear foreshortened.{{Efn|name=orthogonal triacontagram projections}} Consecutive chords of the helical Petrie polygon slant toward and away from the viewer. Any three consecutive chords, but no four, are edges of the same cell, in the 4-polytope whose edges are the chord.{{Efn|name=Petrie polygon of a honeycomb}}}} of a compound of six disjoint 5-cells in dual position |- ![[W:Triacontagon#Triacontagram|{30/12}{{=}}6{5/2} compound]] ![[W:Triacontagon#Triacontagram|{30/8}{{=}}2{15/4} compound]]{{Efn|name=orthogonal triacontagram projections|1=The {30/''n''} triacontagrams can each be seen as an ''orthogonal projection'' of the 120-cell showing all instances of the {30/''n''} chord. Each chord lies orthogonal to the line of sight, in a plane parallel to the projection plane. The diameter of the image is the diameter of the 120-cell. For example, the {30/8}=2{15/4} triacontagram is an orthogonal projection showing the 120-cell's 1200 {30/8} chords, the edges of 120 5-cells. Each edge of the triacontagram covers 40 5-cell edges, and each vertex covers 20 120-cell vertices. This projection can also be viewed as a compound of six 5-cells and their 30 unique vertices. But viewed that way, only 30 of the 60 5-cell edges are visible. Two edges meet at each vertex, but the other two are invisible. They are visible in the orthogonal view, the {30/4}=2{15} projection.}} |- valign=top |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,2).svg|240px]]<BR>The 6{5/2} compound of six 5-cells. The six disjoint pentagrams in this view are six disjoint 5-cells.{{Efn|name=5-cell edges do not intersect is S³}} The 120-cell, with 120 disjoint 5-cells, is a compound of 20 of these compounds. All edges are 5-cell edges, but only five of each 5-cell's ten edges are shown. The other five edges, connecting the points of the six 5-cell pentagrams, are shown in the 6{5} projection below, the orthogonal view:<BR>[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,1).svg|240px]]These two views look straight down the orthogonal axes of a [[w:Duocylinder|duocylinder]], from inside the curved 3-dimensional space of the 120-cell's surface. They are like looking down a column of 5-cells stacked on top of one another in curved 3-space, but the column is actually circular: it is bent into a torus in the fourth dimension. |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,4).svg|240px]]<BR>The 2{15/4} rotation circuits of the 5-cell isoclinic rotation. In this view, all edges are 75.5° chords of length {{radic|3}}, the 180° complement chord of the 5-cell edges of length {{radic|5}}.{{Efn|These are not 15-gons of 5-cell edges. There are no skew {15} polygons of 5-cell edges in the 120-cell. The 120 5-cells are completely disjoint, so the largest circuit along 5-cell edges is a skew {5}. Each vertex in the 120-cell is {{radic|5}} away from four and only four other vertices. No {{radic|5}} chords connect disjoint 5-cells; they are connected by several other chords. The skew {15} polygons are the discrete continuous spiral paths of moving vertices during an isoclinic rotation, and their edges are {{radic|3}} chords connecting 5-cells, not 5-cell edges.}} Each skew {15} polygon is the spiral chord-path of half the 30 vertices during the isoclinic rotation. The twined vertex orbits lie skew in 4-space; they form a circular double helix of two 15-gon spiral isoclines, winding through all four dimensions. These two completely orthogonal views look straight down an axis of a double helix cylinder, from inside the curved 3-dimensional space of the 120-cell's surface. Since the duocylinder is bent into a [[w:Clifford_torus|Clifford torus]] in the fourth dimension, the sightline axis in curved 3-space is a geodesic great circle in 4-space.<BR>[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,2).svg|240px]] |- ![[W:Triacontagon#Triacontagram|{30/6}{{=}}6{5} compound]] ![[W:Triacontagon#Triacontagram|{30/4}{{=}}2{15/2} compound]] |- |colspan=2|Images by Tom Ruen in [[W:Triacontagon#Triacontagram|Triacontagram compounds and stars]].{{Sfn|Ruen: Triacontagon|2011|loc=§Triacontagram compounds and stars}} |} Each shared {12} central plane contains six disjoint 5-cell edges, from six completely disjoint 5-cells. Each rhombicosidodecahedron contains 60 5-cell edges, which form 20 disjoint 5-cell faces within the rhombicosidodecahedron, under and parallel to its own 20 smaller triangle faces. Four 5-cell edges meet at each vertex at the 5-cell's tetrahedral vertex figure. Two 5-cell edges of a face within the rhombicosidodecahedron meet two edges belonging to other faces of the 5-cell: edges and faces outside the rhombicosidodecahedron, in some neighboring rhombicosidodecahedron.{{Efn|name=orthogonal triacontagram projections}} Each 5-cell face is shared by two tetrahedral cells of one 5-cell. It has its three 104.5° {{radic|5}} edges in three distinct {12} central planes, and is parallel to a fourth {12} central plane. In each rhombicosidodecahedron there are ten sets of five parallel planes: a {12} central plane, a pair of 5-cell faces on either side of it (from disjoint 5-cells), and a pair of rhombicosidodecahedron triangle faces. Each rhombicosidodecahedron is sliced into five parallel planes, ten distinct ways. There is no face sharing between 5-cells: the 120 5-cells in the 120-cell are completely disjoint. 5-cells never share any elements, but they are related to each other positionally, in groups of six, in the '''characteristic rotation of the regular 5-cell'''. That rigid isoclinic rotation takes the six 5-cells within each group to each other's positions, and back to their original positions, in a circuit of 15 rotational displacements.{{Sfn|Mamone, Pileio & Levitt|2010|loc=§4.5 Regular Convex 4-Polytopes, Table 2, Symmetry operations|pp=1438-1439|ps=; in symmetry group 𝛢₄ the operation [15]𝑹_q3,q3 is the 15 distinct rotational displacements which comprise the class of pentadecagram isoclinic rotations of the 5-cell; in symmetry group 𝛨₄ the operation [1200]𝑹_q3,q13 is the 1200 distinct rotational displacements which comprise the class of pentadecagram isoclinic rotations of the 120-cell.}} Each displacement takes every 104.5° 5-cell edge of length {{radic|5}} to an edge 75.5° and {{radic|3}} away in another 5-cell in the group of six 5-cells. The 30 vertices of the six 5-cells rotate along 15-chord helical-circular isocline paths from 5-cell to 5-cell, before closing their circuits and returning the moving 5-cells to their original locations and orientations.{{Efn|In an [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]], each point anywhere in the 4-polytope moves an equal distance in four orthogonal directions at once, on a [[W:8-cell#Radial equilateral symmetry|4-dimensional diagonal]]. The point is displaced a total [[W:Pythagorean distance|Pythagorean distance]] equal to the square root of four times the square of that distance. The orthogonal distance equals half the total Pythagorean distance. For example, when the {{radic|2}}-radius 5-cell rotates isoclinically 104.5° in the invariant central planes of its 104.5° edges of length {{radic|5}}, each vertex is displaced to another vertex 75.5° and {{radic|3}} away, moving {{radic|3/4}} in four orthogonal directions at once.|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} The six rotationally related 5-cells form a stellated compound, a non-convex 4-polytope with 30 star points.{{Efn|name=compound of six 5-cells}} The star compound, and the rotation of the 5-cell within it, are here illustrated by orthogonal projections from four different perspective viewpoints. To help us visualize the 4-polytopes within the 120-cell, we can examine 2-dimensional orthographic projections from various points of view. Such images filtered to include only chords of a single length are especially revealing, because they pick out the edges of a particular 4-polytope, or the isocline chords of its rotational orbits, the chords which link 4-polytopes together. No view of a single chord from a single point of view is sufficient by itself, but if we visualize various chords from various perspectives, we may imagine the 4-dimensional rotational geometry of interrelated objects within the 120-cell. The star compound as a whole has ten {12} central planes, like a rhombicosidodecahedron. Each {12} central plane contains one edge from each of the six 5-cells. Each {12} central plane is shared by two rhombicosidodecahedra in the group of eleven, and by six 5-cells in the group of six. == The eleventh chord == [[File:Major chord 11 of 135.5° in the 120-cell.png|thumb|The 120-cell contains 200 irregular {12} central planes containing 1200 135.5° {30/11} chords, six in each plane (shown in blue). They lie parallel to six 104.5° {30/8} chords (the 5-cell edges, shown in red), to which they are joined by 15.5° {30/1} 120-cell edges, and by 120° {30/10} great triangle edges (only one of the four great triangles is shown, in green).]] In addition to six 104.5° {30/8} 5-cell edge chords of length {{radic|5}}, the {12} central plane contains six 135.5° {30/11} chords of length <math>\phi^2</math>, parallel to the {{radic|5}} chords. The {30/11} chord spans an arc of five shorter chords: * 15.5° {30/1} + 44.5° {30/4} + 15.5° {30/1} + 44.5° {30/4} + 15.5° {30/1} = 135.5° {30/11) * 15.5° {30/1} + 104.5° (30/8) + 15.5° {30/1} = 135.5° {30/11) * 15.5° {30/1} + 120° (30/10) = 135.5° {30/11) and its chord length is the linear sum of five shorter chords: * 1/𝜙^2 {30/1} + 1/𝜙^2 {30/1} + 1/𝜙 {30/2} + 1/𝜙 {30/2} + 1/𝜙 {30/2} = 𝜙^2 {30/11) Two distinct chords are always related to each other in two different ways: by their degrees-of-arc-difference, and by their linear difference chord. The 135.5° {30/11) chord is ''two'' 15.5° (30/1) 120-cell edge-arcs longer than the 104.5° (30/8) 5-cell edge chord. But the <math>\phi^2</math> {30/11} chord ''length'' is just ''one'' {30/1} 120-cell edge chord length longer than the {{radic|5}} {30/8} 5-cell edge chord.{{Efn|In a <small><math>\sqrt{2}</math></small>-radius 120-cell, the 15.5° {30/1} 120-cell edge chord has length <small><math>\phi^{-2}</math></small>. The 25.2° {30/2} pentagon face diagonal chord of length <small><math>\phi^{-1}</math></small> is <small><math>\phi</math></small> times the {30/1} edge length. The 41.1° 5-cell isocline chord of length <small><math>\sqrt{1}</math></small> is <small><math>\phi^2</math></small> times the {30/1} edge length. The 69.8° chord of length <small><math>\phi</math></small> is <small><math>\phi^3</math></small> times the {30/1} edge length. The 135.5° {30/11} 11-cell edge chord of length <small><math>\phi^2</math></small> is <small><math>\phi^4</math></small> times the {30/1} edge length.}} The {30/11} chord can be bisected into two shorter 120-cell chords in three different ways: * 15.5° {30/1} 120-cell edge + 104.5° {30/8} 5-cell edge = {30/11} chord * 25.2° {30/2} 120-cell pentagon face diagonal + 90° {30/15} 16-cell edge = {30/11} chord * 41.4° {30/1}+{30/2} chord + 69.8° {30/2}+{30/1}+{30/2} chord = {30/11} chord [[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-11.svg|thumb|The [[W:Triacontagon#Triacontagram|{30/11} regular triacontagram]] of the 11-cell rotation.{{Sfn|Ruen: Triacontagon|2011|loc=§Triacontagram compounds and stars}} In this 2-dimensional projection of a 30-edge 4-dimensional helix ring, the 30 chords pictured lie in 30 distinct central planes, and no two planes are orthogonal.]] The last of those bisections trisects the {30/11} chord into three distinct shorter chords: * 15.5° {30/1} + 25.2° {30/2} + 44.5° {30/4} chord = 135.5° {30/11} chord The {30/11} chords do not form triangle faces within the rhombicosidodecahedron the way the {30/8} chords do, but they do meet at a tetrahedral vertex figure. Groups of 11 rhombicosidodecahedra (an 11-cell) share central planes pairwise, including all the chords in the {12} central plane. When 11 things, all pairwise-adjacent to each other, are arranged in any circuit of 30 positions, there exists another pairwise circuit of 30 positions through every eleventh position, whether the things are 11 vertices, 11 rhombicosidodecahedra, or 11 [[w:Aardvark|aardvarks]] (although it might be unwieldy in practice to so arrange 11 live aardvarks, e.g. by tying them together pairwise with cords in both circuits). This intrinsic property of the [[w:Rational_number|rational number]] 30/11 is responsible for the existence of the {30/11} regular triacontagram (see illustration). The 11 rhombicosidodecahedra of the 11-cell are linked by a regular {30/11} triacontagram of 30 chords which runs through them. Each successive chord of the 30 in the triacontagram is shared by a distinct pair of rhombicosidodecahedra in the 11-cell group. An isoclinic rotation characteristic of the 11-cell takes the rhombicosidodecahedra in each 11-cell to each other's positions, pair by pair, in a circuit of 30 rotational displacements. It takes every {12} central plane to a Clifford parallel {12} central plane that is 44.5° away in two completely orthogonal angles. One 135.5° {30/11} chord separates each of the 12 vertex pairs. In this '''characteristic rotation of the 11-cell''' in its edge planes, the invariant planes are {12} central planes, the edges of the 11-cell are {30/11} chords, and the isocline chords of the vertex orbits are also {30/11} 11-cell edges, because the triacontagram is regular.{{Efn|In the 120-cell there are three ''regular isoclinic rotations'' in which the rotation edge and the isocline chord are the same chord. These rotations are each described by a [[W:Triacontagon#Triacontagram|regular triacontagram]]: the {30/7} rotation characteristic of the 16-cell in great square invariant planes, the {30/11} rotation characteristic of the 11-cell, and the {30/13} rotation.}} The 44.5° {30/4} chord of length <small><math>\sqrt{3}/\phi</math></small>, the 180° complement of the {30/11} chord, is the orthogonal distance between nearest parallel {30/11} chords.{{Efn|In its characteristic isoclinic rotation, a 4-polytope rotates an equal arc distance in each invariant {12} edge plane in each rotational displacement. In the 11-cell, every invariant plane rotates 44.5° (like a wheel), and tilts sideways 44.5° (like a coin flipping) in the completely orthogonal invariant plane, to occupy another invariant plane in the group of eleven. Each pair of original and destination {12} central planes are Clifford parallel and intersect only at one point (the center of the 4-polytope), but six other {12} central planes intersect them both. Two parallel {30/11} chords in each of the six spanning {12} central planes separate two vertex pairs in the original and destination planes, and these are the isocline chords over which the two vertices move in the rotation. None of the six spanning {12} central planes are contained in either the original or destination rhombicosidodecahedron. A total of ten {12} central planes span each original and destination rhombicosidodecahedron; they comprise a third rhombicosidodecahedron which does not belong to the group of eleven. The edges of an 11-cell and the isocline chords of an 11-cell are disjoint sets of {30/11} chords.}} The 60 vertices of each rhombicosidodecahedron rotate in parallel, on non-intersecting 30-chord spiral orbital paths, from rhombicosidodecahedron to rhombicosidodecahedron, before closing their circuits and returning the moving rhombicosidodecahedron to its original location and orientation. In this isoclinic rotation of a rigid 120-cell, the 60 rhombicosidodecahedra do this concurrently. Each of the 600 vertices moves on a 4-dimensionally-curved helical isocline, over a skew regular polygram of 30 {30/11} chords, in which a {30/11} chord connects every eleventh vertex of a {30} triacontagram. In the course of a complete revolution (the 30 rotational displacements of this isoclinic rotation), an 11-cell visits the positions of three 11-cells (including itself) 10 times each (in 10 different orientations), and returns to its original position and orientation.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1984|loc=§9. Eleven disjoint decagons}} At each step it occupies the same distinct group of 11 rhombicosidodecahedra sharing planes pairwise, and its 11 vertex positions are those of a distinct 11-cell in the group of eleven 11-cells. A group of 4-polytopes related by an isoclinic rotation is contained in a larger compound 4-polytope which subsumes them. This group of eleven 11-cells related by an isoclinic rotation is not a compound of eleven disjoint 11-cells (since they share vertices), but it is a compound of eleven non-disjoint 11-cells, in the same sense that a 24-cell is a compound of three non-disjoint 8-cell tesseracts. Consider the incidence of these 30-chord {30/11} triacontagram rotation paths, and their intersections. Each rhombicosidodecahedron has 60 vertices and 60 {30/11} chords, which rotate concurrently on Clifford parallel triacontagrams. The 120-cell has only 600 vertices and 1200 {30/11} chords, so at most 20 triacontagrams can be disjoint; some must intersect. But the 11 vertices of an individual 11-cell must be linked by disjoint 30-position {30/11} triacontagram helices, such that their rotation paths never intersect.{{Efn|The isoclines on which a 4-polytope's vertices rotate in parallel never intersect. Isoclinic rotation is a concurrent motion of Clifford parallel (disjoint) elements over Clifford parallel (non-intersecting) circles.}} Each 11-cell has two disjoint triacontagram helicies, its left and right isoclinic rotations, in each of its four discrete fibrations. The 120-cell has 60 distinct {30/11} triacontagram helices, which are 11 disjoint {30/11} triacontagram helices in 11 distinct ways. {{Sfn|Steinbach|2000|loc=''Sections Beyond Golden''; Figure 5. Optimal sections and proportions|p=37|ps=; the regular polygons {5}, {7}, {9} and {11} with their diagonals define respectively: {5} the golden bisection proportional to 𝜙; {7} an analogous trisection; {9} an analogous quadrasection; {11} an analogous pentasection.}} == Compounds in the 120-cell == [[120-cell#Geometry|The 120-cell is the maximally complex regular 4-polytope]], containing inscribed instances of every regular 1-, 2-, 3-, and 4-polytope, except for regular polygons of more than {15} sides. The 120-cell is the convex hull of a regular [[120-cell#Relationships among interior polytopes|compound of each of the other 5 regular convex 4-polytopes]]. {{Regular convex 4-polytopes|columns=7|wiki=W:|radius={{radic|2}}|instance=1}} === How many building blocks, how many ways === The 120-cell is the convex hull of a compound of 75 disjoint 16-cells, of 25 disjoint 24-cells, of 5 disjoint 600-cells, and of 120 disjoint regular 5-cells. Children building the 120-cell up from their 16-cell building blocks will soon learn to protect their sanity by thinking of these nesting 4-polytopes by their alternate names, as ''n''-points symmetrically distributed on the 3-sphere, as synonyms for their conventional names, as ''n''-cells tiling the 3-sphere. They are the 8-point (16-cell), the 16-point (8-cell) tesseract, the 24-point (24-cell), the 120-point (600-cell), and the 600-point (120-cell). The 8-point (16-cell), not the 5-point (5-cell), is the smallest building block, which compounds to everything else. The 8-point compounds by 2 into the 16-point, and by 3 into the 24-point; what could be simpler? The 16-point compounds into the 24-point by 3 ''non-disjoint instances'' of itself which share pairs of vertices. (We can think of non-disjoint instances as overlapping instances, except that disjoint instances overlap in space too, they just don't have overlapping vertex sets.) The 24-point compounds by 5 disjoint instances of itself in the 120-point, and the 120-point compounds by 5 disjoint instances of itself in the 600-point. So far, our children are happily building, and their castle makes sense to them. Then things get hairy. The 24-point also compounds by <math>5^2</math> non-disjoint instances in the 120-point; it compounds into 5 disjoint instances of itself, 10 (not 5) different ways. Whichever way the child builds it, the resulting 120-point, magically, contains 25 distinct 24-points, not just 5 (or 10). This means that 15 disjoint 8-point building blocks will construct a 120-point, which then magically contains 75 distinct 8-points. [[File:Ortho solid 016-uniform polychoron p33-t0.png|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 600-point [[W:Great grand stellated 120-cell|great grand stellated 120-cell]] <small><math>\{\tfrac{5}{2},3,3\}</math></small>,{{Sfn|Ruen: Great grand stellated 120-cell|2007}} discovered by [[W:Ludwig Schläfli|Ludwig Schläfli]]. Named by [[W:John Horton Conway|John Horton Conway]], extending the naming system by [[W:Arthur Cayley|Arthur Cayley]] for the [[W:Kepler-Poinsot polyhedron#Characteristics|Kepler-Poinsot solids]], and the only one containing all three modifiers in the name.]] The 600-point is 5 disjoint 120-points, just 2 different ways (not 5 or 10 ways). So it is 10 non-disjoint 120-points. This means the 8-point building block compounds by 3 times <math>5^2</math> (75) disjoint instances of itself into the 600-point, which then magically contains <math>3^2</math> times <math>5^2</math> (225) distinct instances of the 24-point, and <math>3^3</math> times <math>5^2</math> (675) distinct instances of the original 8-point. They will be rare wise children who figure all this out for themselves, and even wiser who can see ''why'' it is so. [[W:Pieter Hendrik Schoute|Schoute]] was the first to see that the 120-point (600-cell) is a compound of 5 24-point (24-cells) ''10 different ways'', and after he saw it a hundred years lapsed until Denney, Hooker, Johnson, Robinson, Butler & Claiborne proved his result, and showed why.{{Sfn|Denney, Hooker, Johnson, Robinson, Butler & Claiborne|2020|loc=''The geometry of H4 polytopes''|ps=; This hexad of scholars from New Orleans, Louisiana extracted the truth from the permutations of the 120-point 600-cell as perspicaciously as Coxeter did from the permutations of the 11-point 11-cell.}} So much for the compounds of 16-cells. The 120-cell is also the convex hull of the compound of 120 disjoint regular 5-cells. That stellated compound (without its convex hull of 120-cell edges) is the [[w:Great_grand_stellated_120-cell|great grand stellated 120-cell]], the final regular [[W:Stellation|stellation]] of the 120-cell, the only [[W:Schläfli-Hess polychoron|regular star 4-polytope]] to have the 120-cell for its convex hull. The edges of the great grand stellated 120-cell are <math>\phi^6</math> as long as those of its 120-cell [[W:Stellation core|stellation core]] deep inside. The compound of 120 regular 5-cells can be seen to be equivalent to the compound of 5 disjoint 600-cells, as follows. Beginning with a single 120-point (600-cell), expand each vertex into a regular 5-cell, by adding 4 new equidistant vertices, such that the 5 vertices form a regular 5-cell inscribed in the 3-sphere. The 120 5-cells are disjoint, and the 600 vertices form 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells): a 120-cell. === Building the building blocks themselves === We have built every regular 4-polytope except the 5-cell out of 16-cells, but we haven't made the 16-cell (or the 5-cell) out of anything. So far, we have just accepted them both a priori, like [[W:Euclid's postulates|Euclid's postulates]], and proceeded to build with them. But it turns out that while they are the two atomic regular 4-polytopes, they are not indivisible, and can be built up as honeycombs of identical smaller ''irregular'' 4-polytopes. They are not a priori miracles; like everything else fundamental in nature, including Euclid's postulates, at root they are an expression of a distinct [[w:Symmetry_group|symmetry group]]. Every regular convex ''n''-polytope can be subdivided into instances of its characteristic [[W:Orthoscheme|Schläfli orthoscheme]] that meet at its center. An ''n''-orthoscheme (not an ''n''-[[w:Orthoplex|orthoplex]]!) is an ''irregular'' ''n''-[[w:Simplex_(geometry)|simplex]] with faces that are various right triangles instead of congruent equilateral triangles. A characteristic ''n''-orthoscheme possesses the complete symmetry of its ''n''-polytope without any redundancy, because it contains one of each of the polytope's characteristic root elements. It is the gene for the polytope, which can be replicated to construct the polytope.{{Efn|A [[W:Schläfli orthoscheme|Schläfli orthoscheme]] is a [[W:Chiral|chiral]] irregular [[W:Simplex|simplex]] with [[W:Right triangle|right triangle]] faces that is characteristic of some polytope because it will exactly fill that polytope with the reflections of itself in its own [[W:facet (geometry)|facet]]s (its ''mirror walls''). Every regular polytope can be partitioned radially by its planes of symmetry (Coxeter's "reflecting circles") into instances of its [[W:Orthoscheme#Characteristic simplex of the general regular polytope|characteristic orthoscheme]] surrounding its center. The characteristic orthoscheme and its chiral mirror image can be replicated rotationally to generate its regular 4-polytope because it is the complete [[W:gene|gene]] for it, containing all of its elements and capturing all of its symmetry without any redundancy. It has the shape described by the same [[W:Coxeter-Dynkin diagram|Coxeter-Dynkin diagram]] as the regular polytope without the ''generating point'' ring that triggers the reflections.|name=Characteristic orthoscheme}} The regular 4-simplex (5-cell) is subdivided into 120 instances of its [[5-cell#Orthoschemes|characteristic 4-orthoscheme]] (an irregular 5-cell) by all of its <math>A_4</math> planes of symmetry at once intersecting at its center, so its symmetry is of order 120. The 120-cell is the convex hull of the regular compound of 120 disjoint regular 5-cells, so it can be subdivided into <small><math>120\times 120 = 14400</math></small> of these 4-orthoschemes, so that is the symmetry order of the 120-cell. The regular 4-orthoplex (16-cell) is subdivided into 384 instances of its [[16-cell#Tetrahedral constructions|characteristic 4-orthoscheme]] (another irregular 5-cell) by all of its <math>B_4</math> planes of symmetry at once intersecting at its center, so its symmetry is of order 384. The 120-cell is the convex hull of the regular compound of 75 disjoint 16-cells (which have 2-fold reflective symmetry), so its symmetry is of order <small><math>75\times 384 / 2 = 14400</math></small>. The regular 24-point (24-cell) is subdivided into 1152 instances of its [[24-cell#Characteristic orthoscheme|characteristic 4-orthoscheme]] (yet another irregular 5-cell) by all of its <math>F_4</math> planes of symmetry at once intersecting at its center, so its symmetry is of order 1152. The 120-cell is the convex hull of the regular compound of 25 disjoint 24-cells (which have 2-fold reflective symmetry), so its symmetry is of order <small><math>25\times 1152 / 2 = 14400</math></small>. The regular 120-point (600-cell) is subdivided into 14400 instances of its [[600-cell#Characteristic orthoscheme|characteristic 4-orthoscheme]] (yet another irregular 5-cell) by all of its <math>H_4</math> planes of symmetry at once intersecting at its center, so its symmetry is of order 14400. The regular 600-point (120-cell) is the convex hull of the regular compound of 5 disjoint 600-cells (which have 5-fold reflective symmetry), so its symmetry is of order <small><math>5 \times 14400 / 5 = 14400</math></small>. === Building with sticks === [[File:15 major chords.png|thumb|300px|The 15 major chords {30/1} ... {30/15} join vertex pairs which are 1 to 15 edges apart on a skew {30} [[w:Petrie_polygon|Petrie polygon]] of the 120-cell.{{Efn|Drawing the fan of major chords with #1 and #11 at a different origin than all the others was an artistic choice, since all the chords are incident at every vertex. We could just as well have fanned all the chords from the same origin vertex, but this arrangement notices the important parallel relationship between #8 and #11, and calls attention to the 11-cell's maverick edge chord.|name=fan of 15 major chords}} The 15 minor chords (not shown) fall between two major chords, and their length is the sum of two other major chords; e.g. the 41.4° minor chord of length {30/1}+{30/2} falls between the 36° {30/3} and 44.5° {30/4} chords.]] We have seen how all the regular convex 4-polytopes except the 5-cell, including the largest one on the cover of the box, can be built from a box containing 675 16-cell building blocks, provided we can arrange the blocks on top of one another in 4-space, as interpenetrating objects. An alternate box, containing 120 regular 5-cell building blocks, builds the great grand stellated 120-cell (the picture on ''its'' cover), by the same method. In these boxes, the atomic building part is one of the two smallest regular 4-polytopes (5-cell or 16-cell), each generated by its characteristic isoclinic rotation as an expression of its symmetry group (<math>A_4</math> or <math>B_4</math>). All the regular convex 4-polytopes, including the largest one on the cover of the box, can also be built from a box containing a certain number of building sticks and rubber joints, provided we can connect the sticks together in 4-space with the rubber joints. In this box, the atomic building parts are 1-dimensional edges and chords of just 15 distinct arc-lengths. The regular 4-polytopes do not contain a vast variety of stick lengths, but only 30 of them: only 15 unique pairs of 180° complementary chords. The 15 ''major chords'' {30/1} ... {30/15} suffice to construct all the regular 4-polytopes. The 15 ''minor chords'' occur only in the 120-cell, not in any smaller regular 4-polytope; they emerge as a consequence of building the largest 4-polytope on the cover of the box from major chords. In polytope geometry, each chord of a polytope is both is a distinct 1-dimensional object, a chord of the unit-radius sphere of a distinct length <math>l</math>, and a distinct rational number <math>h</math>, a unique flavor. If the polytope is regular, it is a noteworthy distinctive flavor. The chord's length <math>l</math> is a square root, related to the rational number <math>h = k/d</math> and to the polygon <small><math>\{k/d\}</math></small> it represents, by a formula discovered by Steinbach.{{Sfn|Steinbach|1997|loc=''Golden Fields''; §1. The Diagonal Product Formula|pp=22-24|ps=; The product of two diagonals is a sum of a sequence of diagonals (in the fan, every other one) centered on the longer of the two, for all regular polygons. We may express products and quotients of diagonals <math>d_k</math> of an <math>n</math>-gon (with edge <math>d_0=1</math>) as linear combinations of diagonals.}} The chord length <math>l</math> is related to the number of sides of the regular polygon <small><math>\{k\}</math></small>, and to the winding number or density of the polygram (its denominator <math>d</math>).{{Sfn|Kappraff & Adamson|2004}} The largest <math>k</math> of any major chord in the 120-cell is 30, and the polygrams <small><math>\{30/d\}</math></small> represent all the skew Petrie polygons and characteristic isoclinic rotations of the regular 4-polytopes. == Concentric 120-cells == The 8-point 16-cell, not the 5-point 5-cell, is the smallest regular 4-polytope which compounds to every larger regular 4-polytope. The 5-point 5-cell is also an atomic building block, but one that compounds to nothing else regular except the leviathan 120-cell polytope: the picture on the cover of the box, that is built from everything in the box. In the [[User:Dc.samizdat/A symmetrical arrangement of eleven 11-cells#Build with the blocks|sequence of 4-polytope compounds]], we actually start with the 16-cell at the small end, and the 5-cell emerges only at the large end. To build with the 16-cell blocks, we simply put them on top of each other as interpenetrating compounds. We can build every other regular 4-polytope from them by that method, except the individual regular 5-cell. We can also try to build with the 5-cell that way, as when we tried to build a 4-polytope of 11 hemi-icosahedral cells from 11 5-cells, but that was rather hard going. We somehow found 5-cell edges and faces lurking inside hemi-icosahedral rhombicosidodecahedra, and 11 rhombicosidodecahedra sharing central planes pairwise, and even the edges and characteristic rotation of the 11-cell, but we didn't quite get all the way to a discrete 11-cell 4-polytope made from 11 5-cells. That's because ''compounding'' isn't the easiest method for building with the 5-cell. The 5-cell is the last building block hierarchically, not the first, and the most natural way to build with it is in reverse, by ''subdividing'' it, to find all the parts inscribed inside it. When we've taken the 5-cell apart, all the ways we possibly can, into certain ''irregular'' 4-polytopes found within it, we will have a new set of irregular 4-polytope building blocks, which compound to the 5-cells and everything else, including the 11-cells. Subdividing a polytope is done by a geometric operation called ''[[w:Truncation_(geometry)|truncation]]''. There are myriad ways to truncate a 5-cell, each corresponding to a distinct ''depth'' of truncation at a particular point on an edge, or a line on a face, or a face on a cell, where a piece of the 5-cell is cut off. The simplest truncations, such as [[w:Rectification_(geometry)|cutting off each vertex at the midedge of each incident edge]], have been very well-studied; but how should we proceed? Let us see what happens when we [[w:Truncated_5-cell|truncate the 5-cells]] found in the 120-cell, by the simplest kinds of truncation. These three semi-regular 10-cells are closely related truncations of the regular 5-cell: * The 30-point 10-cell [[w:Bitruncated_5-cell|bitruncated 5-cell]] is the convex hull, and the convex common core, of a stellated compound of six 5-cells. * The 20-point 10-cell [[w:Truncated_5-cell|truncated 5-cell]] is the convex hull, and the convex common core, of a stellated compound of four 5-cells. * The 10-point 10-cell [[w:Rectified_5-cell|rectified 5-cell]] is the convex hull, and the convex common core, of a stellated compound of two 5-cells. In the following sections, we explore the effect of performing these truncations on the 120-cell's 120 5-cells. We begin by identifying some promising truncation points on the 120-cell's 5-cell edge chords at which to cut. If we cut off the 120-cell's 600 vertices at some point on its 1200 5-cell edges, we create new vertices on the edges of the 120 5-cells, which lie on a smaller 3-sphere than the 120-cell. How many vertices does the smaller 4-polytope thus created have? That is, how many distinct 5-cell edge truncation points occur in the 120-cell? As many as 1200, the number of 5-cell edges, or perhaps 2400, if each edge is truncated at both ends. But also perhaps fewer; for example, if the 120-cell contains pairs of 5-cells with intersecting edges, and the edges intersect at the point on each edge where we make our cut. [[File:Great_(12)_chords_of_radius_√2.png|thumb|400px|Chords of the radius {{radic|2}} 120-cell in one of its 200 irregular {12} dodecagon central planes. The {{radic|2}} chords form two regular {6} hexagons (black).{{Efn|name=compound of 5 cuboctahedra}} The 120-cell edges form two irregular {6} hexagons (red truncated triangles) with the {{radic|5}} chords. The {6} intersection points (black) of the {{radic|5}} chords form a smaller red regular hexagon of radius {{radic|1}} (inscribed in the red circle).]]In the irregular {12} central plane chord diagram, we see six truncation points on the six 104.5° 5-cell edges of length {{Radic|5}}, where two co-planar 5-cell edges intersect, directly under the midpoint of a 44.5° chord (and under the intersection point of two 60° chords). The six truncation points lie on a red circle that is a circumference of the smaller 4-polytope created by this truncation. They form a red regular hexagon inscribed in the red circle. The edge length of this regular hexagon is {{radic|1}}. The two intersection points on the {{Radic|5}} chord divide it into its golden sections. The center section of the chord is <small><math>1</math></small>. The center section plus either of the smaller sections is <small><math>\phi = \tfrac{\sqrt{5} + 1}{2} \approx 1.618</math></small>, the larger golden section. Each of the two smaller sections is <small><math>\Phi = \phi - 1 = \tfrac{1}{\phi} \approx 0.618</math></small>, the smaller golden section.{{Efn|The bitruncated {30/8} chord of the 120-cell of radius <small><math>\sqrt{2}</math></small> provides a "proof by geometric picture" of the golden ratio formulas. First, consider a 120-cell of radius <small><math>2\sqrt{2}</math></small> in which the {30/8} chord is <small><math>2\sqrt{5}</math></small> and the center section of the chord is <small><math>2</math></small>. Divide the lengths of its golden sections by <small><math>2</math></small> to get their radius <small><math>\sqrt{2}</math></small> lengths. The left section of the chord is: :<small><math>\tfrac{\sqrt{5} - 1}{2} \approx 0.618</math></small> The center section plus the right section is: :<small><math>\tfrac{1 + \sqrt{5}}{2} \approx 1.618</math></small> }} The smaller golden sections <small><math>\Phi \approx 0.618</math></small> of the 5-cell edge are the same length as the 120-cell's 25.2° pentagon face diagonal chords. No 25.2° chords appear in the {12} central plane diagram, because they do not lie in {12} central planes. Each 104.5° 5-cell edge chord of length {{Radic|5}} has ''two'' points of intersection with other 5-cell edges, exactly 60° apart, the ''arc'' of a 24-cell edge chord, but with ''length'' {{radic|1}}. The center segment of the 5-cell edge, between the two intersection points, is a 24-cell edge in the smaller 4-polytope, and the red hexagon is a [[24-cell#Great hexagons|24-cell's great hexagon]] in the smaller 4-polytope. Nine other of its great hexagons, in other planes, each intersect with an antipodal pair of these {6} vertices. The dihedral angles between hexagon planes in a 24-cell are 60°, and four great hexagons intersect at each vertex. The 1200 5-cell edges, with two intersection points each, are reduced to 600 distinct vertices, so the smaller 4-polytope is a smaller 120-cell. The larger 120-cell, of radius {{radic|2}}, is concentric to a smaller instance of itself, of radius {{radic|1}}. Each 120-cell contains 225 distinct (25 disjoint) inscribed 24-cells. The smaller 24-cells are the [[w:Inscribed_sphere|insphere]] duals of the larger 24-cells. The vertices of the smaller 120-cell are located at the octahedral cell centers of the 24-cells in the larger 120-cell. Four 5-cell edges meet in 600 tetrahedral vertex figures. Four orthogonally intersecting 5-cell edges of the larger 120-cell meet in cubic vertex figures of 24-cells in the smaller 120-cell. Two disjoint 5-cell tetrahedral vertex figures are inscribed in alternate positions in each 24-cell cubic vertex figure. The 24-cell edges of the smaller 120-cell are the 5-cell edges of the larger 120-cell, truncated at both ends. The distance between the two points of intersection on a {{radic|5}} chord is {{radic|1}}, the same length as the 41.4° chord. But the actual 41.4° chords of the 120-cell do not appear in this diagram at all, because they do not lie in the 200 irregular {12} dodecagon central planes. === Bitruncating the 5-cells === The smaller concentric 120-cell can be built from 5-cell building blocks, by applying a specific kind of truncation operation to the blocks of the larger 120-cell called [[w:Bitruncation|''bitruncation'']]. This reveals a smaller irregular 4-polytope inside each 5-cell called the [[w:Bitruncated_5-cell|bitruncated 5-cell]]. The smaller unit-radius 120-cell is the convex hull of a compound of 20 disjoint (and 60 distinct) bitruncated 5-cells, bitruncated from the 120 disjoint 5-cells of the larger {{Radic|2}}-radius 120-cell. Bitruncation of the 120 disjoint 5-cells is the same truncation of the 120-cell described in the previous section, at the two golden section truncation points on each 104.5° 5-cell edge where two co-planar 5-cell edges intersect. [[File:Truncatedtetrahedron.gif|thumb|A 12-point [[w:Truncated_tetrahedron|truncated tetrahedron]] cell of the 30-point 10-cell [[w:Bitruncated_5-cell|bitruncated 5-cell]].{{Sfn|Cyp: Truncated tetrahedron|2005}} Its edges are 41.4° chords of length 1 in a {{radic|2}}-radius 120-cell (or length {{radic|1/2}} in a unit-radius 120-cell). The 120-cell contains 20 disjoint (60 distinct) bitruncated 5-cells, containing 600 distinct truncated tetrahedra.]] The bitruncated 5-cell is a 30-vertex convex 4-polytope with 10 [[W:Truncated tetrahedron|truncated tetrahedron]] cells that have faces of two kinds: 4 triangle faces opposite 4 hexagon faces. The bitruncated 5-cell has 60 edges of the same length, 20 triangle faces, and 20 hexagon faces. Its 20 hexagon face planes are not [[24-cell#Great hexagons|24-cell central plane hexagons]]; they intersect each other at their edges, not at their long diameters. Its edges are not 60° 24-cell edge chords (the {{radic|2}} or 1 radius chords), but shorter 41.4° chords (of length 1 or {{radic|1/2}}), which do not appear at all in the diagram above, because they do not lie in the {12} central planes. The long diameter of the hexagon faces is not a 180° 120-cell long diameter chord (of length 2{{radic|2}} or 2) but a 90° 16-cell edge chord (of length 2 or {{radic|2}}). Consequently, three 16-cell tetrahedron cells (from three disjoint 16-cells) are inscribed in each truncated tetrahedron, at the three vertices of each face triangle. The truncated tetrahedron cell is a truncation of a tetrahedron of the same size as the tetrahedral cells of the 120-cell's 5-cells. The four smaller tetrahedra truncated from the corners of the larger tetrahedron have edges which are 25.2° chords (of length 1/𝜙 or {{radic|0.19}}). The truncated tetrahedron edges (of length 1 or {{radic|1/2}}) are equal in length to the 41.4° center sections of the 104.5° 5-cell edge chords (of length {{radic|5}} or {{radic|5/2}}). The shorter diagonal of the hexagon faces is the 75.5° chord (of length {{radic|3}} or {{radic|1.5}}), which is the 180° complement of the 104.5° 5-cell edge chord. The dimensions of the truncated tetrahedron cell suggest that it was cut directly from a 5-cell tetrahedron cell, simply by cutting off the tetrahedron corners, but remarkably, that is not the case. The edges of the bitruncated 5-cell are not actually center sections of 5-cell edges, although they are exactly that length, because the edges of the bitruncated 5-cell do not lie in the same {12} central planes as the 5-cell edges. They are not colinear with 5-cell edges in any way, and only intersect 5-cell edges at vertices (the 5-cell edges' intersection points). Bitruncation of the 5-cells does ''not'' simply truncate each tetrahedron cell in place. By creating new edges which connect the intersection points of 5-cell edges, bitruncation does create 600 truncated tetrahedron cells perfectly sized to fit within the 600 original tetrahedron cells, but at new locations, not centered on an original 5-cell tetrahedron cell. These new locations lie on a smaller 3-sphere than the original locations. [[File:Bitruncated_5-cell_net.png|thumb|Net of the bitruncated 5-cell honeycomb. 10 truncated tetrahedron cells alternately colored red and yellow.{{Sfn|Ruen: Net of the bitruncated 5-cell|2007}}]] The 3-dimensional surface of each bitruncated 5-cell is a honeycomb of 10 truncated tetrahedron cells. The truncated tetrahedra are joined face-to-face in a 3-sphere-filling honeycomb (like the cells of any 4-polytope), at both their hexagon and triangle faces. Each hexagonal face of a cell is joined in complementary orientation to the neighboring cell. Three cells meet at each edge, which is shared by two hexagons and one triangle. Four cells meet at each vertex in a [[w:Tetragonal_disphenoid|tetragonal disphenoid]] vertex figure. The 30-point bitruncated 5-cell is the convex common core (spatial [[w:Intersection|intersection]]) of six 5-point 5-cells in dual position. These six 5-cells are completely disjoint: they share no vertices, but their edges intersect orthogonally, at two points on each edge. Four 5-cell edges, from four of the six 5-cells, cross orthogonally in 30 places, the two intersection points on 60 5-cell edges: the 30 vertices of a bitruncated 5-cell. The six 5-cells are three dual pairs (in two different ways) of the self-dual 5-cell: six pairs of duals reciprocated at their common midsphere. Each dual pair intersects at just one of the two intersection points on each edge.{{Sfn|Klitzing|2025|loc=''sted'' (Stellated Decachoron)|ps=; [https://bendwavy.org/klitzing/incmats/sted.htm ''sted''] is the compound of two [https://bendwavy.org/klitzing/incmats/pen.htm ''pen'' (Pentachoron)] in dual position. Their intersection core ("Admiral of the fleet") is [https://bendwavy.org/klitzing/incmats/deca.htm ''deca'' (decachoron aka bitruncated pentachoron)].}} We have seen these six 5-cells before, illustrated in ''[[User:Dc.samizdat/A symmetrical arrangement of eleven 11-cells#Eleven|§Eleven]]'' above; they are the compound of six completely disjoint 5-cells visited during each 5-cell's characteristic isoclinic rotation of period 15.{{Efn|1=The 5-cell edges of the six disjoint pentagrams in the {30/12}=6{5/2} triacontagram illustration do not appear to intersect, as the 5-cell edge chords of the bitruncated 5-cell compound are said to intersect. The {30/12}=6{5/2} projection is a perspective view from inside the curved 3-dimensional space of the 120-cell's surface, looking straight down a cylindrical column of six stacked 5-cells. None of the 5-cell edges intersect in that curved 3-space, except where they meet at the 30 120-cell vertices. The 60 5-cell edges do intersect orthogonally in 4-space, in groups of four, at 30 points which lie on a smaller 3-sphere than the 120-cell. None of those 4-space intersections are visible in these projections of points and lines on the 120-cell's 3-sphere surface.|name=5-cell edges do not intersect is S³}} The six 5-cell compound is a stellated 4-polytope with 30 star-points, inscribed in the 120-cell.{{Efn|The stellated compound of six 5-cells in dual position is three pairs of 5-cells reciprocated at their common midsphere. It is composed of dual pairs of the [[W:Compound of five tetrahedra|compound of five tetrahedra]], which form the [[W:Compound of ten tetrahedra|compound of ten tetrahedra]]; its 30 tetrahedral cells are three such dual pairs. In the compound of five tetrahedra the edges of the tetrahedra do not intersect. In the compound of ten tetrahedra they intersect orthogonally, but not at their midpoints. Each edge has two points of intersection on it. The compound of ten tetrahedra is five pairs of dual tetrahedra reciprocated at their common midsphere. It is inscribed in a dodecahedron (its convex hull). Its ''stellation core'' is an icosahedron, but its ''common core'' where the tetrahedron edges intersect is a dodecahedron, the tetrahedrons' convex spatial intersection. The stellated compound of six 5-cells has the analogous property: it is inscribed in a bitruncated 5-cell (its convex hull), and its common core is a smaller bitruncated 5-cell. (Its stellation core is a [[W:Truncated 5-cell#Disphenoidal 30-cell|disphenoidal 30-cell]], its dual polytope.)|name=compound of six 5-cells}} It is 1/20th of the 600-point [[User:Dc.samizdat/A symmetrical arrangement of eleven 11-cells#How many building blocks, how many ways|great grand stellated 120-cell]], the compound of 120 5-cells. The convex hull of its 30 star-points is a bitruncated 5-cell. In this stellated compound of six 5-cells in dual position, the bitruncated 5-cell occurs in two places and two sizes: as both the convex hull, and the convex common core, of the six 5-cells. Inscribed in the larger 120-cell of radius {{radic|2}}, the convex hull of every six 5-cell compound is a bitruncated 5-cell with 60 edges of length 1. The convex common core of every six 5-cell compound is a bitruncated 5-cell with 60 edges of length {{radic|1/2}}, inscribed in the smaller 120-cell of radius 1. In the 120-cell, 120 disjoint 5-cell building blocks combine in dual position groups of six related by the 5-cell's isoclinic rotation, to make 60 bitruncated 5-cells inscribed in the self-dual 5-cells' midsphere (at their edge intersections), and also 60 larger bitruncated 5-cells inscribed in the 120-cell, with each of the 600 vertices shared by three bitruncated 5-cells. The 120-cell is the convex hull of a compound of 20 disjoint (60 distinct) 30-point bitruncated 5-cells, generated by the characteristic rotation of its 120 completely disjoint 5-cells.{{Sfn|Klitzing|2025|loc= ''teppix'' (tripesic hexacosachoron)|ps=; ''[https://bendwavy.org/klitzing/incmats/teppix.htm teppix]'' is a compound of 60 [https://bendwavy.org/klitzing/incmats/deca.htm ''deca'' (decachoron aka bitruncated pentachoron)] with 3 ''deca'' sharing each vertex.}}{{Efn|In the 120-cell, 600 tetrahedron cells of 120 completely disjoint 5-cells intersect at two truncation points on each edge. Those 2400 truncation points are the vertices of 200 disjoint (and 600 distinct) truncated tetrahedra, which are the cells of 20 disjoint (and 60 distinct) bitruncated 5-cells. The 60 bitruncated 5-cells share vertices, but not edges, faces or cells. Each bitruncated 5-cell finds its 30 vertices at the 30 intersection points of 4 orthogonal 5-cell edges, belonging to 6 disjoint 5-cells, in the original 120-cell. Each bitruncated 5-cell vertex lies on an edge of 4 disjoint original 5-cells. Each bitruncated 5-cell edge touches intersection points on all 6 disjoint original 5-cells, and is shared by 3 truncated tetrahedra of just one bitruncated 5-cell.}} In [[User:Dc.samizdat/A symmetrical arrangement of eleven 11-cells#Concentric 120-cells|the previous section]] we saw that the six 5-cell edges in each central plane intersect at the {6} vertices of the red hexagon, a great hexagon of a 24-cell. Each 5-cell edge, truncated at both ends at those intersection points, is a 24-cell edge of one of the 24-cells inscribed in a smaller 120-cell: the 600 intersection points. In this section we have seen how that truncation of 5-cell edges at both ends is the bitruncation of the 5-cell, and those 5-cell edges, truncated at both ends, are the same length as edges of bitruncated 5-cells inscribed in the original 120-cell. Bitruncating the {{radic|2}}-radius 120-cell's 120 5-cells reveals a smaller unit-radius 120-cell. The 24-cell edges of the smaller 120-cell are 5-cell edges of a larger-radius-by-{{radic|2}} 120-cell, truncated at both ends. Both 120-cells have 24-point 24-cells and 30-point bitruncated 5-cells inscribed in them. The 60° edge length of the 24-cells equals the radius; it is {{radic|2}} times the 41.4° edge length of the bitruncated 5-cells. The 60° 24-cell edges lie in the {12} central planes with the 5-cell edges and the 120-cell edges; but the 41.4° bitruncated 5-cell edges do not. The 120-cell contains 25 disjoint (225 distinct) 24-cells, and 20 disjoint (60 distinct) bitruncated 5-cells. Although regular 5-cells do not combine to form any regular 4-polytope smaller than the 120-cell, the 5-cells do combine to form semi-regular bitruncated 5-cells which are subsumed in the 120-cell.{{Efn|Although only major chords occur in regular 4-polytopes smaller than the 120-cell, minor chords do occur in semi-regular 4-polytopes smaller than the 120-cell. Truncating the 5-cell creates minor chords, such as the 41.1° edges of the bitruncated 5-cell.}} The 41.4° edge of the 30-point bitruncated 5-cell is also the triangle face edge we found in the 60-point central [[User:Dc.samizdat/A symmetrical arrangement of eleven 11-cells#The real hemi-icosahedron|section 8₃ (Moxness's Hull #8) rhombicosidodecahedron]]. There are 60 distinct section 8₃ rhombicosidodecahedra and 600 distinct truncated tetrahedron cells of 60 distinct (20 disjoint) bitruncated 5-cells, and they share triangle faces, but little else. The truncated tetrahedron cells cannot be inscribed in the rhombicosidodecahedra, and the only chords they share are the 41.4° triangle edge and the 75.5° chord (the 180° complement of the 104.5° 5-cell edge chord). The section 8₃ rhombicosidodecahedron's 20 triangle faces lie over the centers of 20 larger-by-√2 5-cell faces, parallel to them and to a {12} central plane. The 5-cell faces are inscribed in the rhombicosidodecahedron, but are not edge-bound to each other; the 20 faces belong to 10 completely disjoint 5-cells. The 5-cell edges (but not the 5-cell faces) lie in {12} central planes; the 5-cell faces, the bitruncated 5-cell edges and their triangle and hexagon faces do not. Each section 8₃ rhombicosidodecahedron is the intersection of ten {12} central planes, shared pairwise with ten other rhombicosidodecahedra; 11 rhombicosidodecahedra share ten {12} central planes pairwise, as cells of a 4-polytope share face planes pairwise. Each truncated tetrahedron cell of a bitruncated 5-cell shares none of the {12} central planes; it is the intersection of 6 great rectangles, with two parallel 41.1° edges lying in each, alternating with two parallel 138.6° chords (its hexagon face diameters). Each bitruncated 5-cell is the intersection of 30 great rectangle {4} central planes. A truncated tetrahedron is face-bonded to the outside of each triangle face of a rhombicosidodecahedron. Three of its hexagon faces stand on the long edge of a rectangle face, perpendicular to the rectangle. We find the 25.2° chord as the edge of the non-central section 6₃ (Moxness's Hull #6) rhombicosidodecahedron. Those 120 semi-regular rhombicosidodecahedra have only that single edge (of length 1/𝜙 in a {{radic|2}}-radius 120-cell, or 1/𝜙{{radic|2}} in a unit-radius 120-cell). This edge length is in the golden ratio to the 41.4° edge of the 30-point bitruncated 5-cells, which is also the triangle face edge of the central section 8₃ (Moxness's Hull #8) rhombicosidodecahedron. The 120 semi-regular section 6₃ rhombicosidodecahedra share their smaller edges with 720 pentagonal prisms, 1200 hexagonal prisms and 600 truncated tetrahedron cells, in a semi-regular honeycomb of the 120-cell discovered by Alicia Boole Stott and described in her 1910 paper.{{Sfn|Boole Stott|1910|loc=Table of Polytopes in S₄|ps=; <math>e_2e_3C_{120}\ RID\ P_5\ P_6\ tT</math>}} These truncated tetrahedra are 1/𝜙 smaller than the 600 cells of the bitruncated 5-cells. The 60 distinct section 8₃ rhombicosidodecahedra (Moxness's Hull #8) share pentagon faces. Each of the 120 dodecahedron cells lies just inside 12 distinct rhombicosidodecahedra which share its volume. Each rhombicosidodecahedron includes a ball of 13 dodecahedron cells, 12 around one at the center of the rhombicosidodecahedron, within its volume. The remainder of the rhombicosidodecahedron is filled by 30 dodecahedron cell fragments that fit into the concavities of the 13 cell ball of dodecahedra. These fragments have triangle and rectangle faces. === Rectifying the 16-cells === Bitruncation is not the only way to truncate a regular polytope, or even the simplest way. The simplest method of truncation is [[w:Rectification_(geometry)|''rectification'']], complete truncation at the midpoint of each edge. Moreover, the 5-cell is not the only 120-cell building block we can truncate. We saw how bitruncation of the {{radic|2}}-radius 120-cell's 5-cells reveals the smaller unit-radius 120-cell, as the convex hull of a compound of 20 disjoint (60 distinct) bitruncated 5-cells. In the next paragraph we describe how rectification of the {{radic|2}}-radius 120-cell's 16-cells also reveals the smaller unit-radius 120-cell, as the convex hull of a compound of 25 disjoint (225 distinct) 24-cells. Those two operations on the 120-cell are equivalent. They are the same truncation of the 120-cell, which bitruncates 5-cells into bitruncated 5-cells, and also rectifies 16-cells into 24-cells. This single truncation of the 120-cell captures the distant relationship of 5-cell building blocks to 16-cell building blocks. Rectifying a {{radic|2}}-radius 16-cell of edge 2 creates a unit-radius 24-cell of unit edge, which is the compound of three unit-radius 16-cells. Rectifying one of those inscribed unit-radius 16-cells of edge {{radic|2}} creates a smaller 24-cell of radius and edge {{radic|1/2}}, which is the [[24-cell#Relationships among interior polytopes|common core (intersection]]) of the unit 24-cell and its three inscribed 16-cells. Like the 120-cell itself, the 24-cell is concentric to a smaller instance of itself of {{radic|1/2}} its radius. The common core of each of the 24-cells inscribed in the 120-cell is the corresponding 24-cell in the smaller 120-cell. === Rectifying the 5-cells === In the previous section we bitruncated the 5-cells and rectified the 16-cells, as one combined truncation operation that yields a smaller 120-cell of {{radic|1/2}} the radius. We can also rectify the 5-cells; but that is another distinct truncation operation, that yields a smaller 4-polytope of {{radic|3/8}} the radius. [[File:Great (12) chords of rectified 5-cell.png|thumb|400px|5-cell edge chords of the radius {{radic|2}} 120-cell in one of its 200 irregular {12} dodecagon central planes. The {6} bitruncation points (two on each of the 104.5° {{radic|5}} 5-cell edges) lie on a smaller 120-cell of radius 1 (the red circle); they are bitruncated 5-cell vertices. The {6} rectification points (at the midpoints of the 5-cell edges) lie on a still smaller 1200-point 4-polytope of radius {{radic|0.75}} ≈ 0.866 (the magenta circle); they are rectified 5-cell vertices.]] Rectifying the 5-cell creates the 10-point 10-cell semi-regular [[W:Rectified 5-cell|rectified 5-cell]], with 5 tetrahedral cells and 5 octahedral cells. It has 30 edges and 30 equilateral triangle faces. The 3-dimensional surface of the rectified 5-cell is an alternating [[W:Tetrahedral-octahedral honeycomb|tetrahedral-octahedral honeycomb]] of just 5 tetrahedra and 5 octahedra, tessellating the 3-sphere. Its vertex figure is the cuboctahedron. The rectified 5-cell is a [[w:Blind_polytope|Blind polytope]], because it is convex with only regular facets. It is a bistratic lace tower which has exactly three vertex layers with the same Coxeter symmetry, aligned on top of each other.{{Sfn|Klitzing|2025|loc=''[https://bendwavy.org/klitzing/incmats/rap.htm rap (rectified pentachoron)]''}} If the 120 5-cells in a radius {{radic|2}} 120-cell are rectified, the rectified 5-cells lie on a smaller 4-polytope of radius {{radic|3/4}} (the magenta circle in the diagram), inscribed at the 1200 midedges of the 5-cells.{{Efn|{{radic|3/4}} ≈ 0.866 is the long radius of the {{radic|2}}-edge regular tetrahedron (the ''unit-radius'' 16-cell's cell). Those four tetrahedron radii are not orthogonal, and they radiate symmetrically compressed into 3 dimensions (not 4). The four orthogonal {{radic|3/4}} ≈ 0.866 displacements summing to a 120° degree displacement in the unit-radius 24-cell's characteristic isoclinic rotation{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} are not as easy to visualize as radii, but they can be imagined as successive orthogonal steps in a path extending in all 4 dimensions, along the orthogonal edges of the [[24-cell#Characteristic orthoscheme|24-cell's 4-orthoscheme]]. In an actual left (or right) isoclinic rotation the four orthogonal {{radic|3/4}} ≈ 0.866 steps of each 120° displacement are concurrent, not successive, so they ''are'' actually symmetrical radii in 4 dimensions. In fact they are four orthogonal [[24-cell#Characteristic orthoscheme|mid-edge radii of a unit-radius 24-cell]] centered at the rotating vertex. Finally, in 2 dimensional units, {{radic|3/4}} ≈ 0.866 is the ''area'' of the equilateral triangle face of the unit-edge, unit-radius 24-cell.|name=root 3/4}} This smaller 4-polytope is not a smaller 120-cell; it is the convex hull of a 1200-point compound of two 120-cells. The rectified 5-cell does not occur inscribed in the 120-cell; it only occurs in this compound of two 120-cells, 240 regular 5-cells, and 120 rectified 5-cells. The rectified 5-cell with its 80.4° edge chord does not occur anywhere in a single 120-cell, so the rectified 5-cell's edges are not the edges of any polytope found in the 120-cell. The rectified 5-cell's significance to the 120-cell is well-hidden, but we shall see that it has an indirect role as a building block of the 11-cells in the 120-cell. Each 10-point rectified 5-cell is the convex hull of a stellated compound of two completely orthogonal 5-point 5-cells: five pairs of antipodal vertices. Their edges intersect at the midedge, and they are ''not'' in dual position (not reciprocated at their common 3-sphere). In this stellated compound of two completely orthogonal 5-cells (which does not occur in the 120-cell), the rectified 5-cell occurs in two places and two sizes: as both the convex hull of the vertices, and the convex common core of the midedge intersections. The edge length of the rectified 5-cells in the smaller 1200-point 4-polytope of radius {{radic|3/4}} is {{radic|5/4}}. The edge length of a unit-radius rectified 5-cell is {{radic|5/3}}. The rectified 5-cell is characterized by the ratio between its edge and its radius, {{radic|5}} to {{radic|3}}, the way the regular 5-cell is characterized by the ratio {{radic|5}} to {{radic|2}}. In the 120-cell of radius {{radic|2}}, the 104.5° {{radic|5}} chord is the 5-cell edge, and the 75.5° {{radic|3}} chord is the distance between two parallel 5-cell edges (belonging to two disjoint 5-cells). The 104.5° and 75.5° chords are 180° complements, so they form great rectangles in the {12} central planes of the 120-cell (the red rectangles in the diagram). In the 1200-point compound of two 120-cells of radius {{radic|3}} where 120 rectified 5-cells occur, the {{radic|3}} chord is the ''radius'' (not the 75.5° chord), and the {{radic|5}} chord is the ''rectified'' 5-cell edge of arc 80.4° (not the 104.5° regular 5-cell edge). === Truncating the 5-cells === [[File:Great (12) chords of unit thirds radius.png|thumb|400px|Truncating the 120-cell's 5-cells at ''one-third'' of their edge length produces a smaller 120-cell of ''one-half'' the radius, with vertices at {6} one-third intersection points of the 120° {{Radic|6}} chords (''not'' of the 104.5° {{Radic|5}} 5-cell edge chords). The green {6} hexagon is a 24-cell great hexagon in the resulting smaller-by-one-half 1200-point 4-polytopes. Because there are {12} such intersection points in each {12} central plane, there are two chiral ways to perform this truncation, which produce disjoint 1200-point 4-polytopes.]] A third simple way to truncate the 5-cell is at one-third of its edge length. This truncation of the 5-cell creates a 20-point, 10-cell semi-regular 4-polytope, known somewhat ambiguously as ''the'' [[w:Truncated_5-cell|truncated 5-cell]], with 5 truncated tetrahedron cells (like the bitruncated 5-cell's), and 5 regular tetrahedron cells (like the rectified 5-cell's). The 3-dimensional surface of the truncated 5-cell is an alternating honeycomb of 5 truncated tetrahedra and 5 regular tetrahedra. It resembles the smaller rectified 5-cell with truncated tetrahedra instead of octahedra, or the larger bitruncated 5-cell with half its truncated tetrahedra replaced by regular tetrahedra. When the regular 5-cell is truncated at ''one-third'' of its edge length, the radius and edge length of the the resulting truncated 5-cell are ''one-half'' the regular 5-cell's radius and edge length. When the 120 5-cells in a 120-cell of radius 2 are truncated at one-third of their edge length, the truncated 5-cells lie on a smaller 120-cell of radius 1. The edge length of the unit-radius truncated 5-cell is {{radic|5/8}}, one-half the unit-radius 5-cell's edge length of {{radic|5/2}}. The rectified 5-cell is characterized by the ratio between its edge and its radius, {{radic|5}} to {{radic|8}}, the way the regular 5-cell is characterized by the ratio {{radic|5}} to {{radic|2}}, and the rectified 5-cell is characterized by the ratio {{radic|5}} to {{radic|3}}. The 20-point truncated 5-cell is the convex common core of a stellated compound of four 5-cells (the four 5-cells' spatial intersection). The convex common core has half the radius of the convex hull of the compound. The four 5-cells are orthogonal (aligned on the four orthogonal axes), but none of their 20 vertices are antipodal. The 5-cells are ''not'' in dual position (not reciprocated at their common 3-sphere). The 5-cell edges do ''not'' intersect, but truncating the 120-cell's 5-cell edge chords at their one-third points truncates the 120-cell's other chords similarly. It is the 120-cell's 120° chords (of length {{Radic|6}} in a {{Radic|2}}-radius 120-cell, or {{Radic|3}} in a unit-radius 120-cell) which intersect each other at their one-third points. Four edges (one from each 5-cell) intersect orthogonally at just ''one'' of the two one-third intersection points on each of the 2400 120° chords that join vertices of two disjoint 5-cells. There are two chiral ways to perform this truncation of the 120-cell; they use the alternate intersection points on each edge, and produce disjoint 600-point 120-cells. The 52.25° edge chord of the truncated 5-cell (one-half the 5-cell's 104.5° edge chord) is not among the [[120-cell#Chords|chords of the 120-cell]], so the truncated 5-cell does not occur inscribed in the 120-cell; it occurs only in a compound of four 120-cells, and 480 regular 5-cells, and 120 truncated 5-cells. In the stellated compound of four orthogonal 5-cells (which does not occur in the 120-cell), the truncated 5-cell occurs in two places and two sizes: as both the convex hull of the 20 vertices, and the convex common core (of half the radius of the convex hull) of the 20 intersection points of four orthogonal 120° chords. == The perfection of Fuller's cyclic design == [[File:Jessen's unit-inscribed-cube dimensions.png|thumb|400px|Jessen's icosahedron on the 2-sphere of diameter {{radic|5}} has an inscribed unit-cube. It has 4 orthogonal axes (not shown) through the equilateral face centers (the inscribed cube's vertices), 6 non-orthogonal {{radic|5}} long diameter axes, and 3 orthogonal parallel pairs of {{radic|4}} reflex edges, {{radic|1}} apart.]] This section is not an historical digression, but a deep dive to the heart of the matter, like Coxeter on Todd's perfect pentads. In this case the heart is found in the [[Kinematics of the cuboctahedron|kinematics of the cuboctahedron]],{{Sfn|Christie|2022|loc=''[[Kinematics of the cuboctahedron|Kinematics of the cuboctahedron]]''}} first described by [[W:Buckminster Fuller|Buckminster Fuller]].{{Sfn|Christie: On Fuller's use of language|2024|loc=''[[W:User:Dc.samizdat#Bucky Fuller and the languages of geometry|Bucky Fuller and the languages of geometry]]''}} After inventing the rigid geodesic dome, Fuller studied a family of domes which have no continuous compression skeleton, but only disjoint rigid beams joined by tension cables. Fuller called these envelopes ''tension integrity structures'', because they possess independent tension and compression elements, but no elements which do both. One of the simplest [[w:Tensegrity|tensegrity]] structures is the [[w:Tensegrity#Tensegrity_icosahedra|tensegrity icosahedron]], first described by [[W:Kenneth Snelson|Kenneth Snelson]], a master student of Fuller's.{{Efn|Fuller failed to credit [[W:Kenneth Snelson|Snelson]] for the first ascent of the tensegrity icosahedron, a sad lapse for a great educator, as if Coxeter had not gracefully acknowleged Grünbaum. Snelson taught it to Fuller, his teacher, at a Black Mountain College summer session<ref>{{Citation|year=1949|title=R. Buckminster Fuller|publisher=Museum and Arts Center, 1948-1949|place=Black Mountain College|url=https://www.blackmountaincollege.org/buckminster-fuller}}</ref> where Fuller taught the geodesic domes he had invented, and the nascent principles of tension integrity geodesics he was exploring. It would have burnished Fuller's own reputation to gratefully acknowledge his exceptionally quick student's discovery. No doubt Fuller was about to discover the tensegrity icosahedron himself, but Snelson saw it first.<ref>{{Citation|last=Snelson|first=Kenneth|author-link=W:Kenneth Snelson|publisher=Stanford University|title=Bucky Conversations: Conversations on the Life and Work of an Enigmatic Genius|year=2003|url=https://searchworks.stanford.edu/view/mf245gr4637|postscript=; Ken Snelson, at a symposium on Fuller's legacy, acknowledged that Fuller led him up to the tensegrity icosahedron. Snelson said that he then conceived it on his own, built the first physical model, and presented it to Fuller.}}</ref>|name=Snelson and Fuller}} A tensegrity icosahedron is an icosahedral geodesic sphere whose 6 orthogonal reflex compression struts float gently in space, linked only by 24 tension cables which frame equilateral faces of the icosahedron, the whole 2-sphere expanding and contracting symmetrically with ''infinitesimal mobility'', a spring-like symmetrical motion leveraged from whatever tiny amount of elasticity remains in the steel struts and cables. The polyhedron that is the basis for this flexible structure is the Jessen's icosahedron, that we found 10 of in Moxness's Hull #8 rhombicosidodecahedron, the real cell of the 11-cell. The Jessen's was named by [[w:Adrien_Douady|Douady]] the ''six-beaked shaddock'' because it resembles the fish whose normal affect is with their mouth 90° open, but a [[W:Cubist|cubist]] shadfish with mouths on all six sides. At the limits, the gender neutral shad can open their six beaks all the way, until they become flat squares and they becomes a cuboctahedron, or they can shut them all tight like a turtle retracting into their octahedron shell. The six mouths always move in unison. This is [[Kinematics of the cuboctahedron#Jitterbug transformations|Fuller's ''jitterbug'' transformation]] of the 12-point ''vector equilibrium'', his name for the unstable [[Kinematics of the cuboctahedron|kinematically flexing cuboctahedron]]. Fuller found that its always-symmetric transformation through 4 distinct forms of the same 12-vertex polyhedron was a closed cycle with two equilibrium points, one stable and the other unstable. The shad's normal 90° open visage is the stable point, the shape the [[Kinematics_of_the_cuboctahedron#Elastic-edge transformation|elastic tensegrity icosahedron]] rests in and strives to return to. The widest-open square-faced cuboctahedron is the unstable inflection point, where the shad gets to decide non-deterministically (that is, without being compelled one way or the other) whether or not to do their ''really'' odd trick -- where they flip their 6 jaws 90 degrees in their 6 faces and shut their 6 beaks on the opposite axis of their squares than the one they opened them on -- or whether they will just shut them all the same way again. Interestingly, the regular icosahedron is one of the shad's guises too, just slightly more gaping than their normal visage. Fuller made a meal of the shad, finding all the insightful things to say about the kinematics of the only fish who can make their edge length exactly the same size as their radius, when they open their mouths all the way. Fuller built physical models of the 12-point vector equilibrium, and even gave demonstrations to audiences of the flexible shad, opening and closing their mouths in spherical synchrony, their 4 pairs of opposite equilateral triangles spiraling toward and away from each other in parallel, always opposed like the two triangles inscribed in a hexagon, counter-rotating like dual [[W:Propellor|tri-propellors]] as they dance toward each other until their edges meet in an octahedron (a hexad), then backing away again while still rotating in the same directions. All this was overlaid with Fuller's own deep commentary, in physical language anyone can understand. Bucky flew the shad through the inflection points in its [[W:Spinor|spinor]] orbit, explaining its [[W:Möbius_loop|Möbius loop]] with vivid apt similes like trimming a submarine's ballast tanks, stalling an airplane at apogee, and nature's abhorrence of the unstable equilibrium point.{{Sfn|Fuller|1975|ps=; In this film Fuller carefully folds a model of the cuboctahedron made of rigid struts with flexible joints through the entire transformation cycle; he also shows how a rigid regular icosahedron can be rotated inside an inscribing "vector edge cube" (a cube with an octahedron inscribed in it), keeping the 12 vertices on the surface of the cube (and on the edges of the octahedron inscribed in the cube) at all times.}} Earlier, we noticed 10 Jessen's inscribed in each 60-point rhombicosidodecahedron central section of the 120-cell (each real hemi-icosahedron). Each rhombicosidodecahedron is a compound of 5 disjoint Jessen's, in two different ways, just the way the 120-cell is a compound of 5 disjoint 600-cells, in two different ways. In the rhombicosidodecahedron each regular icosahedron vertex has been replaced by the five vertices of a little pentagon face (a 120-cell face), and the regular icosahedron has been replaced by 5 disjoint (10 distinct) Jessen's icosahedra.{{Efn|name=compound of 5 cuboctahedra}} The 3 pairs of parallel 5-cell edges in each Jessen's lie a bit uncertainly, infinitesimally mobile and [[Kinematics of the cuboctahedron#Elastic-edge transformation|behaving like the struts of a tensegrity icosahedron]], so we can push any parallel pair of them apart or together infinitesimally, making each Jessen's icosahedron expand or contract infinitesimally. All 600 Jessen's, all 60 rhombicosidodecahedra, and the 120-cell itself expand or contract infinitesimally, together.{{Efn|name=tensegrity 120-cell}} Expansion and contraction are Boole Stott's operators of dimensional analogy, and that infinitesimal mobility is the infinite calculus of an inter-dimensional symmetry. The Jessen's unique element set is its 6 long reflex edges, which occur in 3 parallel opposing pairs. Each pair lies in its own central plane, and the 3 central planes are the orthogonal central planes of the octahedron, the orthonormal (x,y), (y,z), and (x,z) planes of a Cartesian basis frame. The 6 reflex edges are all disjoint from one another, but each pair of them forms a merely conceptual great rectangle with the pair of invisible exterior chords that lies in the same central plane. These three great rectangles are storied elements in topology, the [[w:Borromean_rings|Borromean rings]]. They are three rectangular chain links that pass through each other and would not be separated even if all the other cables in the tensegrity icosahedron were cut; it would fall flat but not apart, provided of course that it had those 6 invisible exterior chords as still uncut cables. [[File:Jessen's √2 radius dimensions.png|thumb|400px|Moxness's 60-point section 8₃ rhombicosidodecahedron is a compound of 5 of this 12-point Jessen's icosahedron, shown here in a {{radic|2}}-radius 3-sphere with {{radic|5}} reflex edges. It has an inscribed {{radic|1.5}} green cube, and its 8 equilateral triangle faces are 24-cell faces. This is a ''vertex figure'' of the 120-cell. The center point is also a vertex of the 120-cell.]] As a matter of convenience in this paper, we have used {{radic|2}}-radius metrics for 3-sphere polytopes, so e.g. the 5-cell edge is {{radic|5}}, where in unit-radius coordinates it would be {{Radic|5/2}}. Here we give two illustrations of the Jessen's using two different metrics: the 2-sphere Jessen's has a {{radic|5}} diameter, and the 3-sphere Jessen's has a {{radic|2}} radius. This reveals a curiously cyclic way in which our 2-sphere and 3-sphere metrics correspond. In the embedding into 4-space the characteristic root factors of the Jessen's seem to have moved around. In particular, the {{radic|5}} chord has moved to the former {{radic|4}} chord. We might have expected to find the 6-point hemi-icosahedron's 5-cell triangular faces identified with the Jessen's 8 equilateral triangle faces somehow, but they are not the same size, so that is not the way the two polytopes are identified. The {{radic|5}} reflex edges of the Jessen's are the 5-cell edges. A 5-cell face has its three {{radic|5}} edges in three different Jessen's icosahedra. The Jessen's is not a cell, but one of the 120-cell's vertex figures, like the [[600-cell#Icosahedra|120 regular icosahedron vertex figures in the 600-cell]]. That is why we find 600 Jessen's, of course. The center point in this Jessen's illustration is another ''vertex'' of the 120-cell, not the empty center of a cell.{{Efn|The 13 vertices of the illustration which include its center point lie in the curved 3-space of the 3-sphere, on the 120-cell's surface. In 4-space, this object is an [[W:Icosahedral pyramid|icosahedral pyramid]] with a Jessen's icosahedron as its base, and the apical center vertex as its apex. The center point in the illustration is a vertex of the 120-cell, and the center of the curved Jessen's, and the apex of the icosahedral pyramid, but it is not the center point in 4-space of a flat 3-dimensional Jessen's icosahedron. The center point of the base Jessen's icosahedron is a point inside the 120-cell, not a 120-cell vertex on its surface. It lies in the same 3-dimensional flat-slice hyperplane as the 12 vertices of the base Jessen's icosahedron, directly below the 13th 120-cell vertex.}} Each Jessen's includes the central apex vertex, {{radic|2}} radii, {{radic|2}} edges and {{radic|5}} chords of a vertex figure around the 120-cell vertex at its center. The {{radic|2}} face edges are 24-cell edges (also tesseract edges), and the inscribed green cube is the 24-cell's cube vertex figure. The 8 {{radic|2}} face triangles occur in 8 distinct 24-cells that meet at the apex vertex.{{Efn|Eight 24-cells meet at each vertex of a [[24-cell#Radially equilateral honeycomb|honeycomb of 24-cells]]: each one meets its opposite at that shared vertex, and the six others at a shared octahedral cell.{{Efn|In the 600-cell, which contains [[600-cell#Twenty-five 24-cells|25 24-cells]], 5 24-cells meet at each vertex. Each pair of 24-cells at the vertex meets at one of 200 distinct great hexagon central planes. Each 24-cell shares one of its great hexagons with 16 other 24-cells, and is completely disjoint from 8 other 24-cells. In the 120-cell, which contains 10 600-cells (5 disjoint 600-cells two different ways) and 225 24-cells (25 disjoint 24-cells), 8 24-cells meet at each vertex. Each 24-cell shares one of its great hexagons with 16 other 24-cells, and is completely disjoint from 208 other 24-cells. But since in the 120-cell the great hexagons lie in pairs in one of 200 {12} central planes (containing 400 great hexagons), each 24-cell shares one of its {12} central ''planes'' with .. other 24-cells.}}}} This Jessen's vertex figure includes 5-cell edges and 24-cell edges (which are also tesseract edges), so it is descriptive of the relationship between those regular 4-polytopes, but it does not include any 120-cell edges or 600-cell edges, so it has nothing to say, by itself, about the <math>H_4</math> polytopes. It is only a tiny fraction of the 120-cell's full vertex figure, which is a staggeringly complex star: 600 chords of 30 distinct lengths meet at each of the 600 vertices. The {{radic|5}} chords are 5-cell edges, connecting vertices in different 24-cells. The 3 pairs of parallel 5-cell edges in each Jessen's lie in 3 orthogonal planes embedded in 4-space, so somewhere there must be a 4th pair of parallel 5-cell edges orthogonal to all of them, in fact three more orthogonal pairs, since 6 orthogonal planes (not just 4) intersect at a point in 4-space. The Jessen's situation is that it lies completely orthogonal to another Jessen's, the vertex figure of the antipodal vertex, and its 3 orthogonal planes (xy, yz, zx) lie completely orthogonal to its antipodal Jessen's planes (wz, wx, wy).{{Efn|name=Six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} These 6 pairs of parallel 5-cell edges form a 24-point 4-polytope, composed of two completely orthogonal 12-point Jessen's, inscribed in two completely orthogonal rhombicosidodecahedra. This 24-point 4-polytope is not a 24-cell: the 24-cell is not a compound of two 12-point Jessen's. But it turns out that two completely orthogonal 12-point Jessen's indirectly define a 24-point 24-cell. We shall see that their 4-space intersection is a 24-cell. This finding, of two completely orthogonal 12-point Jessen's isomorphic to a 24-cell, brings Fuller's study of [[w:Tesseract#Radial_equilateral_symmetry|radially equilateral]] vector equilibrium polytopes to its completion in the 24-cell. Fuller began with the hexagon, the 6-point vector equilibrium in 2 dimensions, the only polygon with its radius equal to its edge length. He studied the cuboctahedron, the 12-point vector equilibrium in 3 dimensions, the only polyhedron with its radius equal to its edge length, in all its flexible guises. He discovered its stable equilibrium as the the Jessen's shadfish, with its cube of 6 open mouths and 90° dihedral angles between all its faces, the geometric center of [[WikiJournal Preprints/Kinematics of the cuboctahedron|the cuboctahedron's kinematic transformation]] through the regular polyhedra: tetrahedron, octahedron, Jessen's, regular icosahedron, and cuboctahedron. Fuller's study of kinematic Euclidean geometry did not reach the 4-polytopes, and the ultimate 24-point vector equilibrium in 4 dimensions, the 24-cell, the unique <math>F_4</math> symmetry found only in 4 dimensions. But Fuller led us up to it, through the kinematics of infinitesimal mobility, and that route to it is our clue to the infinite calculus of dimensional expansion and contraction. We observe this geometry, of two completely orthogonal 12-point Jessen's isomorphic to a 24-cell, only in the 120-cell. The 600-cell contains 12-point Jessen's, but no completely orthogonal pairs of them. The 24-cell individually, and the 25 24-cells in the 600-cell, are not occupied by a pair of 12-point Jessen's. The 24-point 24-cell is not, in fact, a compound of two 12-point Jessen's. While the 120-cell's ratio of disjoint 12-point Jessen's to disjoint 24-point 24-cells is <math>50/25 = 2/1</math>, the ratio of distinct 12-point Jessen's to distinct 24-point 24-cells is <math>600/225 = 8/3 </math>. We observe another geometry, of 24-cells in dual positions, only in the 120-cell. No two 24-cells in the 600-cell are in dual positions, but in the 120-cell with 225 distinct 24-cells (25 disjoint 24-cells), every 24-cell is in dual position to other 24-cells. The 24-cell is self-dual, and when two 24-cells of the same radius are in dual position, they are completely disjoint with respect to vertices, but they intersect at the midpoints of their 96 orthogonal edges. Since four orthogonal lines intersect at a point in 4-space, in addition to the midedge radius and the two intersecting edges there is a third intersecting edge through each point of contact: ''three'' 24-cells lie in dual positions to each other, with their orthogonal edges intersecting. Three ''pairs'' of 24-cells lie in orthogonal dual positions to each other, sharing no vertices, but the same 96 midedge points. We also observe this geometry, of 24-cells in dual positions, in the irregular {12} dodecagon central planes, which have two inscribed great {6} hexagons, offset from each other irregularly by a 15.5° arc on one side (a 120-cell edge chord) and a 44.5° arc on the other side. The 600-cell and the 24-cell contain only great {6} hexagon planes. The two inscribed great {6} hexagons in each {12} central plane belong to a pair of 24-cells in dual position. We observe inscribed 5-cells only in the 120-cell. The 600-cell has <math>5^2 = 25</math> distinct 24-cells inscribed in 120 vertices, and is a regular compound of <math>5</math> disjoint 24-cells in 10 different ways, but it has no inscribed 5-point 5-cells joining corresponding vertices of 5 of its 25 24-cells.{{Efn|The 600-cell does have inscribed 5-point great pentagons joining corresponding vertices of 5 of its 25 24-cells. The 600-cell has 2-dimensional pentads, but only the 120-cell has 4-dimensional pentads.}} The 120-cell has <math>5^2 \times 3^2 = 225</math> distinct 24-cells inscribed in 600 vertices, and is a regular compound of <math>5^2 = 25</math> disjoint 24-point 24-cells in 10 different ways, and it has 120 inscribed 5-cells joining corresponding vertices of 5 of its 225 24-cells. [[File:Great 5-cell √5 digons rectangle.png|thumb|400px|Three {{radic|5}} x {{radic|3}} rectangles (red) are found in 200 central planes of the radius {{radic|2}} 120-cell, and in its 600 Jessen's icosahedra, where 3 orthogonal rectangles comprise each 12-point Jessen's. Each central plane intersects {12} vertices in an irregular great dodecagon. These are the same 200 dodecagon central planes illustrated above, which also contain 6 120-cell edges (solid red), which form two opposing ''irregular'' great hexagons (truncated triangles) with the {{radic|5}} chords. The {12} central planes also contain four {{radic|6}} great triangles (green), inscribed in two {{radic|2}} ''regular'' great hexagons. 1200 smaller {{radic|5}} 5-cell ''face'' triangles (blue) occupy 600 other, non-central planes.]] The Jessen's eight {{radic|6}} triangle faces lie in eight great {6} hexagons in eight {12} central planes of the 120-cell. The Jessen's {{radic|5}} chords lie in great {4} rectangles ({{radic|5}} by {{radic|3}}) in orthogonal central planes of the Jessen's. These are ''also'' {12} central planes of the 120-cell. We can pick out the {{radic|5}} by {{radic|3}} rectangles in the {12} central plane chord diagrams (bounded by red dashed lines). The Jessen's vertex figure is bounded by eight {12} face planes, and divided by six orthogonal {12} central planes, and all 14 planes are {12} central planes of the 120-cell. The 5-cells' ''face'' planes are ''not'' central planes of the 120-cell. Recall that 10 distinct Jessen's are inscribed in each rhombicosidodecahedron, as two chiral sets of 5 completely disjoint Jessen's, such that two {{radic|5}} 5-cell edges meet at each vertex of the rhombicosidodecahedron. These are two of the four 5-cell edges that meet at each vertex of the 5-cell: edges of a 5-cell face, 20 of which are disjointly inscribed in each rhombicosidodecahedron. In each Jessen's the 6 {{radic|5}} reflex edges are disjoint, and in each rhombicosidodecahedron only two edges meet at each vertex, but in the 120-cell each {{radic|5}} chord meets three others, that lie in three other Jessen's. Each 5-cell face triangle has each edge in a distinct Jessen's, but the face triangle lies in just one rhombicosidodecahedron. The 1200 5-cell face triangles lie in opposing pairs, in one of 600 ''non-central'' hexagon ''face'' planes. Each of the 60 rhombicosidodecahedra is a compound of 10 Jessen's (5 disjoint Jessen's in two different ways), just the way the 120-cell is a compound of 10 600-cells (5 disjoint 600-cells in two different ways), and the 120-cell's dodecahedron cell is a compound of 10 600-cell tetrahedron cells (5 disjoint tetrahedra in two different ways). The 600 Jessen's in the 120-cell occur in bundles of 8 disjoint Jessen's, in 4 completely orthogonal pairs, each pair aligned with one of the four axes of the Cartesian coordinate system. Collectively they comprise 3 disjoint 24-cells in orthogonal dual position. They are [[24-cell#Clifford parallel polytopes|Clifford parallel 4-polytopes]], 3 completely disjoint 24-cells 90° apart, and two sets of 4 completely disjoint Jessen's 15.5° apart. Opposite triangle faces in a Jessen's occupy opposing positions in opposite great hexagons. In contrast, the two completely orthogonal Jessen's are completely disjoint, with completely orthogonal bounding planes that intersect only at one point, the center of the 120-cell. The corresponding {{radic|6}} triangle faces of two completely orthogonal Jessen's occupy completely orthogonal {12} central planes that share no vertices. If we look again at a single Jessen's, without considering its completely orthogonal twin, we see that it has 3 orthogonal axes, each the rotation axis of a plane of rotation that one of its Borromean rectangles lies in. Because this 12-point (tensegrity icosahedron) Jessen's lies in 4-space, it also has a 4th axis, and by symmetry that axis too must be orthogonal to 4 vertices in the shape of a Borromean rectangle: 4 additional vertices. We see that the 12-point (vertex figure) Jessen's is part of a 16-point (8-cell) tesseract containing 4 orthogonal Borromean rings (not just 3), which should not be surprising since we already found it was part of a 24-point (24-cell) 4-polytope, which contains 3 16-point (8-cell) tesseracts. Each 12-point (6 {{radic|5}} reflex edge) Jessen's is one of 10 concentric Jessen's in a rhombicosidodecahedron, two sets of 5 disjoint Jessen's rotated with respect to each other isoclinically by 12° x 12° = 15.5°, with a total of 60 disjoint {{radic|5}} edges. Each 12-point (24 {{radic|6}} edge) Jessen's is one of 8 concentric Jessen's in two 24-cells in dual positions, rotated with respect to each other isoclinically by 41.4° x 41.4° = 90°, with a total of 192 {{radic|6}} edges.{{Efn|There are 96 {{radic|6}} chords in each 24-cell, linking every other vertex under its 96 {{radic|2}} edges.}} The 24-point 24-cell has 4 Hopf fibrations of 4 hexagonal great circle fibers, so it is a complex of 16 great hexagons, generally not orthogonal to each other, but containing 3 sets of 4 orthogonal great hexagons. Three Borromean link great rectangles are inscribed in each great hexagon, and three tesseracts are inscribed in each 24-cell. Four of the 6 orthogonal [[w:Borromean_rings|Borromean link]] great rectangles in each completely orthogonal pair of Jessen's are inscribed in each tesseract. == Conclusion == Thus we see what the 11-cell really is: an unexpected seventh regular convex 4-polytope falling between the 600-cell and 120-cell, a quasi-regular compound of 600-cell and 5-cell (an icosahedron-tetrahedron analogue), as the 24-cell is an unexpected sixth regular convex polytope falling between the 8-cell and 600-cell, a quasi-regular compound of 8-cell and 16-cell (a cube-octahedron analogue). Like the 5-cell, the 11-cell is a far-side 4-polytope with its long edges spanning the near and far halves of the 3-sphere. Unlike the 5-cell, the 11-cell's left and right rotational instances are not the same object: they have distinct cell polyhedra, which are duals. The 11-cell is a real regular convex 4-polytope, not just an [[W:abstract polytope|abstract 4-polytope]], but not just a singleton regular convex 4-polytope, and not just a single kind of cell honeycomb on the 3-sphere.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1970|loc=''Twisted Honeycombs''}} Though it is all those things singly, it never occurs singly, but its multiple instances in the 120-cell compound to all those things, and significantly more. The 11-cell (singular) is the 11-vertex (17 cell) non-uniform Blind 4-polytope, with 11 non-uniform [[W:Rhombicosidodecahedron|rhombicosidodecahedron]] cells. The abstract regular 11-point (11-cell) has a realization in Euclidean 4-space as this convex 4-polytope, with regular facets and regular triangle faces. The 11-cell (plural) is subsumed in the 120-cell, as all the regular convex 4-polytopes are. The compound of eleven 11-cells (the ..-cell) and Schoute's compound of five 24-cells (the 600-cell) is the quasi-regular 137-point (..-cell) 4-polytope, an object of further study. The 11-cells' realization in the 120-cell as 600 12-point (Legendre vertex figures) captures precisely the geometric relationship between the regular 5-cell and 16-cell (4-simplex and 4-orthoplex), which are both inscribed in the 11-point (17-cell), 137-point (..-cell) and 600-point (120-cell), but are so distantly related to each other that they are not found together anywhere else. More generally, the 11-cells capture the geometric relationship between the regular ''n''-polytopes of different ''n''. The symmetry groups of all the regular 4-polytopes are expressed in the 11-cells, paired in a special way with their analogous 3-symmetry groups. It is not simple to state exactly what relates 3-symmetry groups to 4-symmetry groups (there is Dechant's induction theorem),{{Sfn|Dechant|2021|loc=''Clifford Spinors and Root System Induction: H4 and the Grand Antiprism''}} but the 11-cells seem to be the expression of their dimensional analogies. == Build with the blocks == <blockquote>"The best of truths is of no use unless it has become one's most personal inner experience."{{Sfn|Duveneck|1978|loc=Carl Jung, quoted in ''Life on Two Levels''|p=ii|ps=.{{Sfn|Jung|1961|ps=: "The best of truths is of no use unless it has become one's most personal inner experience. It is the duty of everyone who takes a solitary path to share with society what he finds on his journey of discovery."}}}}</blockquote> <blockquote>"Even the very wise cannot see all ends."{{Sfn|Tolkien|1954|loc=Gandalf}}</blockquote> No doubt this entire essay is too discursive, and mathematically educated writers reach their findings more directly. I have told my story this way, still in a less halting and circuitous manner than it came to me, because it is important to show how I came by my understanding of these objects, and I am not a mathematician. I have been a child building with blocks, and my only guides have been the wiser children who built with the blocks before me, and told me how they did it; that, and my own nearly physical experience building with them, in my imagination. I am at pains to show how that can be done, even by as mathematically illiterate a child as I am. {{Regular convex 4-polytopes|columns=7|wiki=W:|radius={{radic|2}}|instance=2}} {{Regular convex 4-polytopes|columns=7|wiki=W:|radius=1}} == Acknowledgements == ... == Notes == {{Notelist}} == Citations == {{Reflist}} == References == {{Refbegin}} * {{Cite web| url = https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9sM44p385Ws| title = Vector Equilibrium | first = R. Buckminster | last = Fuller | author-link=W:Buckminster Fuller | year = 1975 | work= Everything I Know Sessions | place = Philadelphia}} * {{Citation|last=Christie|first=David Brooks|author-link=User:Dc.samizdat|year=2024|title=Bucky Fuller and the languages of geometry|title-link=User:Dc.samizdat#Bucky Fuller and the languages of geometry|journal=Wikiversity|ref={{SfnRef|Christie: On Fuller's use of language|2024}}}} * {{Citation|author-last=Moxness|author-first=J.G.|year=2022|author-link=W:User:Jgmoxness|title=120-Cell showing the individual 8 concentric hulls and in combination|title-link=Wikimedia:File:120-Cell showing the individual 8 concentric hulls and in combination.svg|journal=Wikimedia Commons|ref={{SfnRef|Moxness: 8 concentric hulls|2022|loc=Hull #8 (lower right)}}}} * {{Citation|author-last=Moxness|author-first=J.G.|year=2023|author-link=W:User:Jgmoxness|title=Archimedean and Catalan solid hulls with their Weyl orbit definitions|title-link=Wikimedia:File:Archimedean and Catalan solid hulls with their Weyl orbit definitions.svg|journal=Wikimedia Commons|ref={{SfnRef|Moxness: Archimedean and Catalan hulls|2023|loc=Hull #1 Archimedean Name A3 110 Truncated Tetrahedron A (upper left)}}}} * {{Citation|author-last=Moxness|author-first=J.G.|year=2023|author-link=W:User:Jgmoxness|title=3D & 4D Solids using Quaternion Weyl Orbits from Coxeter-Dynkin Geometric Group Theory|journal=PowerPoint|url=https://theoryofeverything.org/TOE/JGM/Quaternion%20Coxeter-Dynkin%20Geometric%20Group%20Theory-2b.pdf|ref={{SfnRef|Moxness: Quaternion graphics software|2023}}}} === 11-cell === * {{Citation | last=Grünbaum | first=Branko | author-link=W:Branko Grünbaum | year=1976 | title=Regularity of Graphs, Complexes and Designs | journal=Colloques Internationaux C.N.R.S. | publisher=Orsay | volume=260 | pages=191-197 | url=https://faculty.washington.edu/moishe/branko/BG111.Regularity%20of%20graphs,etc.pdf | ref=}} * {{Citation | last=Grünbaum | first=Branko | author-link=W:Branko Grünbaum | year=1975 | title=Venn Diagrams and Independent Families of Sets | journal=Mathematics Magazine | volume=48 | issue=1 | url=https://maa.org/sites/default/files/pdf/upload_library/22/Ford/BrankoGrunbaum.pdf | doi=10.1080/0025570X.1975.11976431 }} * {{Citation | last=Coxeter | first=H.S.M. | author-link=W:Harold Scott MacDonald Coxeter | year=1984 | title=A Symmetrical Arrangement of Eleven Hemi-Icosahedra | journal=Annals of Discrete Mathematics (20): Convexity and graph theory | series=North-Holland Mathematics Studies | publisher=North-Holland | volume=87 | pages=103-114 | doi=10.1016/S0304-0208(08)72814-7 | url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0304020808728147 }} *{{citation | last1 = Séquin | first1 = Carlo H. | author1-link = W:Carlo H. 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Coxeter|Coxeter]] independently discovered the [[W:11-cell|11-cell]] ₅{3,5,3}₅, a regular 4-polytope with cells that are the [[W:hemi-icosahedron|hemi-icosahedron]] {3,5}₅, a hexad non-orientable polyhedron. The 11-cell is described as an abstract 4-polytope, because its cells do not have a direct realization in Euclidean 3-space. However, we find that the 11-cell has a realization in Euclidean 4-space inscribed in the [[120-cell|120-cell]], the largest regular convex 4-polytope, which contains inscribed instances of all the convex regular 4-polytopes. The 11-cell contains 11 hemi-icosahedra and 11 regular 5-cells. The 120-cell contains 120 dodecahedra and 120 regular 5-cells. We find that the 120-cell also contains: a non-uniform icosahedral polyhedron that is a realization of the abstract hemi-icosahedron; real 11-point 11-cells made from 11 of it; and a compound of eleven real 11-cells. We also find a quasi-regular compound of the compound of eleven 11-cells and [[w:Schoute|Schoute]]'s compound of five 24-cells (the 600-cell). We describe the real 11-point 11-cell 4-polytope; its compound of eleven 11-cells; the quasi-regular compound; and their relation to the regular polytopes.</blockquote> == Introduction == [[W:Branko Grünbaum|Branko Grünbaum]] discovered the 11-cell around 1970,{{Sfn|Grünbaum|1976|loc=''Regularity of Graphs, Complexes and Designs''}} about a decade before [[W:H.S.M. Coxeter|H.S.M. Coxeter]] extracted hemi-icosahedral hexads from the permutations of eleven numbers, with observations on the perfection of Todd's cyclic pentads and other symmetries he had been studying.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1984|loc=''A Symmetrical Arrangement of Eleven Hemi-Icosahedra''}} Grünbaum started with the hemi-icosahedral hexad, and the impetus for his discovery of the 11-cell was simply the impulse to build with them. Like a child building with blocks, he fit them together, three around each edge, until the arrangement closed up into a 3-sphere and surprise, ''eleven'' of them. [[File:120-cell.gif|thumb|360px|The picture on the cover of the box of 4-dimensional building blocks.{{Sfn|Hise|2011|loc=File:120-cell.gif|ps=; "Created by Jason Hise with Maya and Macromedia Fireworks. A 3D projection of a 120-cell performing a [[W:SO(4)#Geometry of 4D rotations|simple rotation]]."}} Only the 120-cell's own edges are shown. The complex interior parts of the 120-cell, all its inscribed 600-cells, 24-cells, 8-cells, 16-cells, 5-cells and 11-cells, are completely invisible in this view, as none of their edges are rendered at all. The child must imagine them.]] The 4-dimensional regular polytopes are the most wonderful set of child's building blocks. The simplest two 4-polytopes are the 5-point 4-[[W:Simplex|simplex]] (called the [[5-cell]], because it is built from 5 tetrahedra), and the 8-point 4-[[W:Orthoplex|orthoplex]] (called the [[16-cell]], because it is built from 16 tetrahedra). As building blocks they could not be more different. The 16-cell is the basic building block of everything 4-dimensional. Every other regular convex 4-polytope (''except'' the 5-cell) can be built as a compound of 16-cells, including first of all the [[w:Tesseract|16-point (8-cell) tesseract]], the 4-hypercube, which is a compound of two 16-cells in [[W:Demihypercube|exact dimensional analogy]] to the way a cube is a compound of two tetrahedra. The regular 5-cell, on the other hand, is not found within any of the other regular convex 4-polytopes, except in the largest and most complex one, the 600-point [[120-cell|120-cell]], the biggest thing you can build from this set of building blocks (the picture on the cover of the box, which is built from everything in the box). The 5-cell has a fundamental relationship to all the other 4-polytopes, but not one as simple as compounding, so it is not immediately useful to children trying to learn to build with 4-dimensional building blocks. But the 16-cell is our very starting point, and the most frequently used tool in the box. Nevertheless, to build the 11-cell, we start with the 5-cell. The 5-cell and 11-cell are both self-reciprocal (their own duals). They are the only 4-polytopes where every cell shares a face with every other cell. The 5-cell is a tetrahedron surrounded by 4 other tetrahedra, in five different ways. The 11-cell is a hemi-icosahedron surrounded by 10 other hemi-icosahedra, in eleven different ways. The 5-cell has 5 vertices that form 5 tetrahedral cells, and a total of 10 triangular faces and 10 edges. The 11-cell has 11 vertices that form 11 hemi-icosahedral cells, each with 6 verticies 10 triangular faces and 15 edges, and a total of 55 triangular faces and 55 edges. == 5-cells and hemi-icosahedra in the 11-cell == [[File:Symmetrical_5-set_Venn_diagram.svg|thumb|The 5-point (10-face) regular 5-cell (the regular 4-simplex). Grünbaum's rotationally symmetrical 5-set Venn diagram{{Sfn|Grünbaum|1975|loc=''Rotationally symmetrical 5-set Venn diagram'', Fig 1 (e)|ps=; partitions the individual elements of the 5-cell.}} is an illustration of the 5-cell labeling each of its <math>2^5</math> elements.{{Sfn|Cmglee: Grunbaum's 5-point Venn Diagram|2019|ps=; each individual element of the 5-cell is labelled; image includes the Python code to render it, optimising for maximum area of the smallest regions.}}]] [[File:Hemi-icosahedron.png|thumb|The 6-point (10 face) [[W:hemi-icosahedron|hemi-icosahedron]], an abstraction of the regular icosahedron, has half as many faces, edges and vertices. Each element of the abstract polyhedron represents two or more real elements found in different places in a concrete realization of the 11-cell.{{Sfn|Ruen: Hemi-icosahedron|2007}}]] The most apparent relationship between the pentad 5-cell and the hexad hemi-icosahedron is that they both have 10 triangular faces. When we find a facet congruence between a 4-polytope and a 3-polytope we suspect a dimensional analogy. In the exceptional case of 5-cell and icosahedron, which share the same symmetry group <math>A_5</math>, we fully expect a dimensional analogy.{{Efn|There is an exceptional inter-dimensional duality between the regular icosahedron and the 5-cell because they share <math>A_5</math> symmetry. See this question asked on [https://math.stackexchange.com/questions/4235783/the-rotational-symmetry-groups-of-the-5-cell-and-the-icosahedron-are-isomorphi math.stackexchange.com 2021].}} Another clue that the hemi-icosahedron has something to do with dimensional analogy comes from its realization as the 6-point 5-simplex. Yet another real hexad is the 6-point 3-orthoplex; thus as a hexad the hemi-icosahedron is related by dimensional analogy to the 4-simplex (5-cell) from above, and to the 4-orthoplex (16-cell) from below, while those two simplest 4-polytope building blocks are only related to each other indirectly by dimensional analogies, having no chord congruences in 4-space. The cell of the 11-cell has only been at the party 5 minutes, and it is already inter-dimensionally ''involved'' with the two earliest arrivals, the 4-simplex (5-cell) and 4-orthoplex (16-cell), who are famously stand-offish with each other. Interesting! The cell of the 11-cell is an abstract hexad hemi-icosahedron with 5 central planes, most handsomely illustrated by Séquin.{{Sfn|Séquin|2012|loc=A 10-Dimensional Jewel}}{{Sfn|Séquin & Lanier|2007|p=3|loc=Figure 4: (b,c) two views of the hemi-icosahedron projected into 3D space|ps=; Séquin et. al. have a lovely colored illustration of the hemi-icosahedron, subdivided into 10 triangular faces by 5 central planes of its icosahedral symmetry. Their illustration cannot be directly included here, because it has not been uploaded to [[W:Wikimedia Commons|Wikimedia Commons]] under an open-source copyright license, but you can view it online by clicking through this citation to their paper, which is available on the web.}}{{Sfn|Séquin & Hamlin|2007|loc=Figure 2. 57-Cell: (a) vertex figure|ps=; The 6-point [[W:Hemi-isosahedron|hemi-isosahedron]] is the vertex figure of the 11-cell's dual 4-polytope the 57-point [[W:57-cell|57-cell]].}} The 11 hemi-icosahedral cells have 10 triangle faces each, and each cell is face-bonded to the other 10 cells. The 5-cell's 5 tetrahedral cells have 10 faces and 10 edges altogether, and each cell is face-bonded to the other 4 cells. If 11-cell faces correspond to 5-cell faces, then 3 of each 5-cell's 5 vertices are a hemi-icosahedron face, and its other 2 vertices must be some 11-cell edge lying opposite the face. Coxeter determined that the 11-cell does indeed have an edge opposite each face, that does not belong to the same hemi-icosahedral cell as its opposing face. He found that the 10 edges opposite each hemi-icosahedron's 10 faces are the 10 edges of a single 5-cell, which does not share any vertices, edges or faces with the hemi-icosahedron. For each cell of the 11-point 11-cell, there is exactly one 5-point 5-cell that is completely disjoint from the 6-point hemi-icosahedron cell.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1984|p=110|loc=§6. The Petrie polygon [of the 11-cell]|ps=; "We may reasonably call this edge and face ''opposites''. It is easy to find the face opposite to a given edge by looking at the faces to which a given edge belongs. ... Conversely, given a face, we can find the opposite edge by seeing which vertices belong to neither of the hemi-icosahedra which share that face. The ten edges opposite to the ten faces of one hemi-icosahedron are the edges of the complementary <math>a_4</math> [4-simplex], that is, the joins of all pairs of the five vertices [of the 11-cell] not belonging to the given hemi-icosahedron."}} There are 11 disjoint 5-cell 4-polytopes inscribed in each 11-cell, which also contains 11 hemi-icosahedral cells, 55 faces, 55 edges and 11 vertices. The real 11-cell is more complex than the abstract 11-cell representing it, because the real hemi-icosahedron is more complex and harder to find than the abstract hemi-icosahedron. Seeing the real 11-cell will be easier once we have identified the real hemi-icosahedron, and seen exactly where the 11-cell's real elements reside in the other 4-polytopes within the 120-cell with which the 11-cell intermingles. The 5-cell has 10 faces, and the 11-cell has 10 faces in each of its hemi-icosahedral cells, but that is not how their faces correspond. Each hemi-icosahedron is face-bonded to the other 10 hemi-icosahedra, and to 10 of the 11 5-cells, and there is exactly one 5-cell with which it does not share a face.{{Efn|As Coxeter observes (in the previous citation), that unrepresented 5-point 5-cell is the other 5 vertices of the 11-point 11-cell that are not vertices of this 6-point hemi-icosahedron: the hemi-icosahedron's disjoint complement.}} Each 5-cell has 10 faces which belong to 10 distinct hemi-icosahedra of the 11-cell, and there is just one hemi-icosahedron with which it does not share a face. In the abstract 11-cell each face represents two conflated icosahedron faces, two actual faces in different places, so the 11-cell's 55 faces represent 110 actual faces: the faces of 11 completely disjoint 5-cells. Each hemi-icosahedron vertex represents conflated icosahedral vertices: multiple actual vertices separated by a small distance which has been reduced to a point at the coarse scale of the abstraction.{{Efn|We shall see that this small eliminated distance is in fact the length of a 120-cell edge, the shortest chordal distance found in the 120-cell.}} Seemingly adjacent hemi-icosahedron faces do not actually meet at an edge; there is a polygon separating them, which has been abstracted to an edge. The 10 hemi-icosahedron faces are 5-cell faces from 10 distinct 5-cells, and they do not actually touch each other: the 120 5-cells in the 120-cell are completely disjoint. In the 5-cell each face bonds two tetrahedral cells together, and in the 11-cell each face bonds two pairs of tetrahedral cells together, because each 11-cell face represents two actual 5-cell faces in different places. Each duplex 11-cell face bonds tetrahedra in two 5-cells in different places, without binding the 5-cells together (they are completely disjoint). One actual 5-cell face is one half of a duplex 11-cell face, so 110 5-cell faces are 55 duplex 11-cell faces. The 11-cell's 11 abstract vertices represent all 55 distinct vertices of the 11 disjoint 5-cells, so they must be abstract conflations of at least 5 vertices. Therefore for any of this to be possible, the 11-cell must not be alone; 11-cells must be sharing vertices, not disjoint as the 5-cells are. == The real hemi-icosahedron == [[File:120-Cell showing the individual 8 concentric hulls and in combination.svg|thumb|400px|right| Orthogonal projections of the 120-cell by Moxness{{Sfn|Moxness: 8 concentric hulls|2022|loc=Hull #8 (lower right)|ps=; "Orthogonal projection of the 120-cell using any 3 of these Cartesian coordinate dimensions forms an outer hull of a Chamfered dodecahedron of Norm=√8. Hulls 1, 2, & 7 are each overlapping pairs of Dodecahedrons. Hull 3 is a pair of Icosidodecahedrons. Hulls 4 & 5 are each pairs of Truncated icosahedrons. Hulls 6 & 8 are Rhombicosidodecahedrons."}} using 3 of its 4 Cartesian coordinate dimensions to render 8 polyhedral hulls which are 3D sections through distinct hyperplanes starting with a dodecahedron cell. Hull #8 with 60 vertices (lower right) is a central section of the 120-cell, the 8th and largest section starting with a cell.{{Efn|1=Although the 8 hulls are illustrated as the same size, in the 120-cell they have increasing size as numbered, and occur nested inside each other like Russian dolls. Only Hull #8 is a central section of the same radius as the 120-cell itself, analogous to the equator. Sections 1-7 occur in pairs on opposite sides of the central section, and are analogous to lines of latitude. Section 1 is simply a dodecahedral cell. The "Combined hulls" is for illustrative purposes only; no such compound polyhedron exists in the 120-cell.}}]] We shall see in subsequent sections that the 11-cell is not in fact alone, but first let us see if we can find an existing illustration of the realization of the abstract hemi-icosahedron, as an actual polyhedron that occurs in the 120-cell. Moxness developed software which uses Hamilton's [[w:Quaternion|quaternion]]s to render the polyhedra which are found in the interior of ''n''-dimensional polytopes.{{Sfn|Moxness: Quaternion graphics software|2023|ps= ; describes the theory and implementation of quaternion-based polytope graphics software.}} [[w:William_Rowan_Hamilton|Hamilton]] was the first wise child to discover a 4-dimensional building block, [[w:History_of_quaternions#Hamilton's_discovery|in his flash of genius on Broom bridge]] in 1843, though he didn't think of his quaternion formula {{math|1=''i''² = ''j''² = ''k''² = ''ijk'' = −1}} as the [[W:Tesseract|16-point (8-cell) tesseract]] 4-polytope. He did not realize then that he had discovered the 4-hypercube polytope and [[W:Tesseractic honeycomb|its Euclidean honeycomb]], the (w, x, y, z) Cartesian [[w:Euclidean_geometry#19th_century|coordinates of Euclidean 4-space]]. Moxness built his software out of Hamilton's quaternions, as quite a lot of graphics software is built, because [[w:Quaternions_and_spatial_rotation|quaternions make rotations]] and projections in 3D or 4D space as simple as matrix multiplications.{{Sfn|Mebius|1994|p=1|loc="''[[W:Quaternion algebra|Quaternion algebra]]'' is the tool ''par excellence'' for the treatment of three- and four- dimensional (3D and 4D) rotations. Obviously only 3D and by implication 2D rotations have an everyday practical meaning, but the [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space|theory of 4D rotations]] turns out to offer the easiest road to the representation of 3D rotations by quaternions."}} The quaternions are 4-hypercube building blocks, analogous to the 3-hypercube wooden blocks everyone built with as a child (only they fit together even better, because they are [[w:8-cell#Radial_equilateral_symmetry|radially equilateral]] like the cuboctahedron and the [[24-cell]], but we digress). Moxness used his software to render illustrations of polyhedra inside the 120-cell, some of which he published. Notice his "Hull # = 8 with 60 vertices", lower right in his illustration of the 120-cell sections starting with a cell. It is a real icosahedron that occurs in the 120-cell, and we shall see that the abstract hemi-icosahedron represents it. Moxness's 60-point Hull #8 is a concrete realization of the 6-point hemi-icosahedron in spherical 3-space <math>S^3</math>, embedded in Euclidean 4-space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>. Its 12 little pentagon faces are 120-cell faces. It also has 20 triangle faces like any icosahedron, separated from each other by rectangles, but beware: those triangles are not the 5-cell faces. They are smaller equilateral triangles, of edge length <math>1</math> in a {{radic|2}}-radius 120-cell, where the 5-cell face triangles have edge length {{radic|5}}.{{Efn|The 41.4° chord of edge length 1 in a {{radic|2}}-radius 120-cell occurs only in the 120-cell; it is not the edge of any smaller regular 4-polytope inscribed in the 120-cell. The equilateral triangle faces of Moxness's Hull #8 rhombicosidodecahedron are not the 5-cell faces of edge length <small><math>\sqrt{5} \approx 2.236</math> </small>(104.5°), not the 16-cell faces of edge length <small><math>2</math></small> (90°), not the 24-cell faces of edge length <small><math>\sqrt{2} \approx 1.414</math></small> (60°), and not the 600-cell faces of edge length <small><math>\sqrt{2}/\phi \approx 0.874</math></small> (36°).|name=Moxness 60-point triangle faces}} [[File:Irregular great hexagons of the 120-cell radius √2.png|thumb|Every 6 edges of the 120-cell that lie on a great circle join with 5-cell edges to form two opposing irregular great hexagons (truncated triangles). The 120-cell contains 1200 of its own edges and 1200 5-cell edges, in 200 irregular {12} dodecagon central planes. The 5-cell ''faces'' do not lie in central planes.]] Edges of the larger 5-cell face triangles of length {{radic|5}} can also be found in Hull #8, but they are invisible chords below the surface of Moxness's 60-point polyhedron. To see them, notice that six 120-cell edges (little pentagon edges) lie on a great circle, alternating with six rectangle diagonals. Also lying on this irregular {12} great circle are six 5-cell edges, invisible chords joining every other 120-cell edge and running under the 120-cell edge between them. The six long chords and six short edges form two opposing irregular {6} great hexagons (truncated triangles) of alternating 5-cell edges and 120-cell edges, as illustrated. The irregular great {12} lies on a great circle of Moxness's Hull #8, and also on a great circle of the 120-cell, because Hull #8 is the ''central'' cell-first section of the 120-cell.{{Efn|The cell-first central section of the 600-cell (and of the 24-cell) is a cuboctahedron with 24-cell edges. The 120-cell is the regular compound of 5 600-cells (and of 25 24-cells), so Moxness's Hull #8, as the cell-first central section of the 120-cell, is the regular compound of 5 cuboctahedra. Their 24-cell edges, like the 5-cell edges, are invisible chords of Hull #8 that lie below its surface, on the same irregular {12} great circles. Each 24-cell edge chord spans one 120-cell edge chord (one little pentagon edge) and one rectangle face diagonal chord. Six 24-cell edge chords form a regular great {6} hexagon, inscribed in the irregular great {12} dodecagon.|name=compound of 5 cuboctahedra}} There are 10 great dodecagon central planes and 60 5-cell edges in Moxness's Hull #8, and 200 great dodecagon central planes and 1200 5-cell edges in the 120-cell. [[File:Central cell-first section of the 120-cell with 5-cell face triangle.png|thumb|Orthogonal projection of the cell-first central section of the 120-cell, Hull #8 rendered by Moxness, with one of 20 inscribed 5-cell faces (black chords) drawn under portions of three of its ten great circle {12} dodecagons (green).{{Efn|The point of view in this rendering is not quite right to best illustrate that a rhombicosidodecahedron triangle face lies over the center of a 5-cell face parallel to it, such that it would be perfectly inscribed in the center of the larger black triangle in an orthogonal view.}}]] But the 5-cell ''faces'' do not lie in those central planes. We can locate them in the 60-point polyhedron where they lie parallel to and under each small face triangle of edge length <math>1</math>. Truncating at a triangle face of Moxness's Hull #8 exposes a deeper 5-cell triangle face.{{Efn|Each face triangle of edge length <math>1</math> is surrounded by 3 rectangles, and beyond each rectangle by another face triangle. The distant vertices of those 3 surrounding triangles form a {{radic|5}} triangle, a 5-cell face.}} There are 20 such 5-cell faces inscribed in the Hull #8 polyhedron, all completely disjoint. We find 60 vertices, 60 edges and 20 faces of various 5-cells in each Hull #8 polyhedron, but no whole tetrahedral cells of the 5-cells.{{Efn|The fourth vertex of each 5-cell tetrahedron lies opposite the small face triangle of edge length <math>1</math> that lies over the 5-cell face. Since Moxness's Hull #8 polyhedron has opposing triangle faces (like any icosahedron), the fourth vertex of the 5-cell tetrahedron lies over the center of the opposing face, outside the Hull #8 polyhedron. This is a vertex of some other Hull #8 polyhedron in the 120-cell. Each tetrahedral cell of a 5-cell spans four Hull #8 polyhedra, with one face inscribed in each, and one vertex outside of each.}} [[File:Nonuniform_rhombicosidodecahedron_as_rectified_rhombic_triacontahedron_max.png|thumb|Moxness's 60-point Hull #8 is a nonuniform [[W:Rhombicosidodecahedron|rhombicosidodecahedron]] similar to the one from the catalog shown here,{{Sfn|Piesk: Rhombicosidodecahedron|2018}} but a slightly shallower truncation of the icosahedron with smaller red pentagons and narrower rhombs. Rhombicosidodecahedra are also made by truncating the [[W:Rhombic triacontahedron|rhombic triacontahedron]], which is the unique 30-sided polyhedron with only one kind of face, the dual of the 30-point icosidodecahedron. The 120-cell contains 60 of Moxness's Hull #8 rhombicosidodecahedron. Each occupies a central hyperplane, and so is analogous to an equator dividing the sphere in half.]] Moxness's Hull #8 is a nonuniform form of an Archimedean solid, the 60-point [[W:Rhombicosidodecahedron|rhombicosidodecahedron]] from [[W:Johannes Kepler|Kepler's]] 1619 [[W:Harmonices Mundi|''Harmonices Mundi'']], which has the same 120 edges, 20 triangular faces and 12 pentagon faces, but with 30 squares between them instead of 30 rectangles. Without the squares ''or'' the rectangles it would be the 30-point [[W:icosidodecahedron|icosidodecahedron]], which has the same relationship to Moxness's Hull #8 that the 6-point hemi-icosahedron does: they are both abstractions of it by conflation of its 60 points, 2-into-1 (icosidodecahedron) and 10-into-1 (hemi-icosahedron), in what [[w:Alicia_Boole_Stott|Alicia Boole Stott]] named a ''contraction'' operation.{{Efn|The regular 5-point 5-cell can be another abstraction of Moxness's 60-point Hull #8, 12-vertices-into-1. None of these contractions of Moxness's Hull #8 is an instance of her operation actually described by Boole Stott, since she did not apply her expansion and contraction operations to uniform polytopes with more than one edge length, but she did explicitly describe contractions of the semi-regular Archimedean rhomibicosidodecahedron.}} Moxness was not the first person to find rhombicosidodecahedra in the 120-cell. Alicia Boole Stott identified the 6th section of the 120-cell beginning with a cell as the semi-regular rhombicosidodecahedron that is her ''e₂ expansion'' of the icosahedron (or equivalently of its dual polyhedron the dodecahedron).{{Sfn|Boole Stott|1910|loc=§Examples of the e₂ expansion|p=7}} But that 6th section rhombicosidodecahedron identified by Boole Stott is not Moxness's Hull #8, it is the semi-regular Archimedean solid (Moxness's Hull #6), with a single edge length and square faces. Moxness's Hull #8, with its two distinct edge lengths and rectangular faces, is Coxeter's 8₃, the 8th section of {5,3,3} beginning with a cell, which is missing from the sections illustrated by Boole Stott.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|p=258-259|loc=§13.9 Sections and Projections: Historical remarks|ps=; "Alicia Boole Stott (1860-1940) ... also constructed the sections i₃ of {5, 3, 3}, exhibiting the nets in her Plate V. “Diagrams VIII-XIV” refer to the sections 1₃-7₃; but 8₃ is missing. Incidentally, Diagram XIII (our 6₃) is a rhombicosidodecahedron, the Archimedean solid."}} Coxeter was the first to describe the central section 8₃, and he gave its coordinates, but he did not identify it as an irregular rhombicosidodecahedron. His table entry for its description is empty (characteristically, since it is not a regular or semi-regular polyhedron), so he gives us no indication that he actually visualized it. Although Moxness was not the first to compute the 60-point 8₃ section, he may have been the first person to ''see'' it. The 30-point icosidodecahedron is the quasi-regular product of 5-point pentagon and 6-point hexagon, recalling Coxeter's original discovery of the 11-cell in pentads and hexads, and also the two child's building blocks: one so useless the 5-point (pentad) 5-cell, and the other so useful the 8-point 16-cell with its four orthogonal 6-point (hexad) octahedron central sections, which can be compounded into everything larger. Some children building with the 30-point icosidodecahedron notice that it occurs as the central section 4₀ of the 120-point 600-cell. It is less often noticed that Moxness's Hull #8 rhombicosidodecahedron is the central section 8₃ of the 600-point 120-cell. It occupies a flat 3-dimensional hyperplane that bisects the 120-cell, and since there are 120 dodecahedral cells, there are 60 such central hyperplanes, each perpendicular to an axis that connects the centers of two antipodal cells. The 60 central hyperplanes, each containing an instance of Moxness's Hull #8, are rotated with respect to each other. They intersect, with 6 rhombicosidodecahedra sharing each vertex and 3 sharing each edge, but each little pentagon face (120-cell face) belongs to just one rhombicosidodecahedron. The 60 central sections lie in isoclinic hyperplanes, that is, the rhombicosidodecahedra are rotated symmetrically with respect to each other, by two equal angles.{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|p=7|loc=§6 Angles between two Planes in 4-Space|ps=; "In four (and higher) dimensions, we need two angles to fix the relative position between two planes. (More generally, ''k'' angles are defined between ''k''-dimensional subspaces.)"}} Each pair of rhombicosidodecahedra intersect in a central plane containing an irregular {12} dodecagon, unless they are completely orthogonal and intersect only at the center of the 4-polytope. Each of the 120 dodecahedral cells lies in the closed, curved 3-dimensional space of the 3-sphere as the 1st and smallest section beginning with a cell (section 1₃), the innermost of a series of concentric polyhedral hulls of increasing size, which nest like Russian dolls around it. Moxness's Hull #8 rhombicosidodecahedron is the 8th and largest concentric hull beginning with a cell (section 8₃), a central section of the 120-cell that bisects the 3-sphere the way an equator bisects an ordinary sphere.{{Efn|The 120-cell's curved 3-space surface is a honeycomb of 120 dodecahedron cells. In this 3-space a dodecahedron cell lies inside at the center of each section 8₃ rhombicosidodecahedron, face-bonded to 12 other dodecahedron cells which surround it, also inside the rhombicosidodecahedron. We find the opposite pentagon faces of those 12 surrounding cells on the surface of the section 8₃ rhombicosidodecahedron. These twelve dodecahedra surrounding one dodecahedron partially fill the volume of the rhombicosidodecahedron, leaving 30 concavities in its surface at the rectangle faces, and 12 deeper concavities between them at the triangle faces. 30 more dodecahedra fit into the rectangle concavities, lying half inside and half outside the rhombicosidodecahedron. The diagonal of each rectangle face is a long diameter of a dodecahedron cell. 12 more dodecahedra fit into the triangle face concavities, lying ....|name=dodecahedral cells in the section 8 rhombicosidodecahedron}} Such a central polyhedron is the dimensional analog of an equatorial great circle polygon. Its 60 vertices lie in the same 3-dimensional hyperplane, a flat 3-dimensional section sliced through the center of the 120-cell. There are 60 distinct stacks of 15 parallel section ''n''₃ hyperplanes in the 120-cell, one stack spindled on each axis that connects a dodecahedron cell-center to its antipodal dodecahedron cell-center. Each central section 8₃ has ''two'' disjoint sets of smaller sections nested within it, that lie in opposite directions from the 120-cell's center along its 4th dimension axis. The largest-radius central slice lies in the center of the stack, and the smaller non-central section hyperplanes occur in parallel pairs on either side of the central slice. The 120-cell therefore contains 120 instances of each kind of non-central section 1₃ through 7₃, and 60 instances of the central section 8₃.{{Efn|A central section is concave on its inside and also on its outside: it has two insides. It may be helpful to imagine the central 60-point section as two mirror-image 60-point polyhedra whose points are coincident, but which are convex in opposite directions: the inside of one is the outside of the other. Each has seven smaller polyhedra nested within itself, but their two volumes are disjoint.}} [[File:Tensegrity Icosahedron.png|thumb|[[WikiJournal Preprints/Kinematics of the cuboctahedron#Elastic-edge transformation|Tensegrity icosahedron]] structure.{{Sfn|Burkhardt|1994}} First built by [[W:Kenneth Snelson|Kenneth Snelson]] in 1949. Geometrically a [[w:Jessen's_icosahedron|Jessen's icosahedron]] with 6 reflex ''long'' edge struts, and 24 ''short'' edge tension cables around 8 equilateral triangle faces. 3 pairs of parallel struts lie in 3 orthogonal central planes.]] We have come far enough with our pentad building blocks, usually so useless to children less wise than Todd or Coxeter, to see that the 60 Moxness's Hull #8 rhombicosidodecahedra are real polyhedra which the abstract hemi-icosahedra represent in some manner, but we have not yet identified 11 real face-bonded cells, at 11 distinct locations in the 120-cell, as an 11-cell. The abstract hemi-icosahedron's 10 faces correspond to actual 5-cell faces inscribed in real rhombicosidodecahedra, and its 15 edges correspond to 5-cell edges (of length {{radic|5}} in a {{radic|2}}-radius 120-cell) that occur as chords lurking under the surface of the rhombicosidodecahedra. [[File:Buckminster-Fuller-holding-a-geodesic-tensegrity-sphere.png|thumb|200px|Buckminster Fuller holding a 3-dimensional geodesic tensegrity 2-sphere, an infinitesimally mobile rigid polytope consisting of tension cable edges and disjoint compression strut chords.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Álvarez Elipe|first=Dolores|title=Ensegrities and Tensioned Structures|journal=Journal of Architectural Environment & Structural Engineering Research|date=July 2020|volume=3|issue=3|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/343652287_Ensegrities_and_Tensioned_Structures}}</ref>]] A rhombicosidodecahedron is constructed from a regular icosahedron by truncating its vertices, making them into pentagon faces. The regular icosahedron frames all the regular and semi-regular polyhedra by expansion and contraction operations, as Alicia Boole Stott discovered before 1910,{{Sfn|Polo-Blanco: ''Theory and history of geometric models of Alicia Boole Stott''|2007|loc=§5.3.2 1910 paper on semi-regular polytopes|pp=152-158|ps=; summarizes Boole Stott's method and results from {{Sfn|Boole Stott|1910|loc=''Geometrical deduction of semiregular from regular polytopes and space fillings''|pp=12-45|ps=; presents two cyclical sequences of regular and semi-regular 4-polytopes linked by expansion-contraction operations to their embedded 3-polytopes, comprising a large trans-dimensional polytope family that includes 6 regular 4-polytopes and their 3-polytope dimensional analogues, and 45 Archimedean 4-polytopes and their 13 Archimedean 3-polytope analogues.}}, including her tables of expansion-contraction dimensional analogies and a few of her illustrations.}} and those wise young friends Coxeter & Petrie, building together with polyhedral blocks, rediscovered before 1938.{{Sfn|Coxeter, du Val, Flather & Petrie|1938|p=4|ps=; "Just as a tetrahedron can be inscribed in a cube, so a cube can be inscribed in a dodecahedron. By reciprocation, this leads to an octahedron circumscribed about an icosahedron. In fact, each of the twelve vertices of the icosahedron divides an edge of the octahedron according to the "[[W:Golden section|golden section]]". Given the icosahedron, the circumscribed octahedron can be chosen in five ways, giving a [[W:Compound of five octahedra|compound of five octahedra]], which comes under our definition of [[W:Stellated icosahedron|stellated icosahedron]]. (The reciprocal compound, of five cubes whose vertices belong to a dodecahedron, is a stellated [[W:Triacontahedron|triacontahedron]].) Another stellated icosahedron can at once be deduced, by stellating each octahedron into a [[W:Stella octangula|stella octangula]], thus forming a [[W:Compound of ten tetrahedra|compound of ten tetrahedra]]. Further, we can choose one tetrahedron from each stella octangula, so as to derive a [[W:Compound of five tetrahedra|compound of five tetrahedra]], which still has all the rotation symmetry of the icosahedron (i.e. the icosahedral group), although it has lost the reflections. By reflecting this figure in any plane of symmetry of the icosahedron, we obtain the complementary set of five tetrahedra. These two sets of five tetrahedra are enantiomorphous, i.e. not directly congruent, but related like a pair of shoes. [Such] a figure which possesses no plane of symmetry (so that it is enantiomorphous to its mirror-image) is said to be ''[[W:Chiral|chiral]]''."}} Before we can move on to locating the 11 discrete hemi-icosahedral cells of the 11-cell in the 120-cell, it is important that we take notice of one more icosahedral symmetry of the hidden {{radic|5}} chords lurking below the surface of Moxness's Hull #8 rhombicosidodecahedron. The 12 little pentagon faces (120-cell faces) are connected to each other in parallel pairs, by 10 sets of six disjoint {{radic|5}} chords (5-cell edges). Each six-chord set is the six reflex edges of a 12-point non-convex polyhedron called the [[w:Jessen's_icosahedron|Jessen's icosahedron]], which is to say that the six disjoint chords are the parallel-orthogonal strut chords of a [[WikiJournal Preprints/Kinematics of the cuboctahedron#Elastic-edge transformation|tensegrity icosahedron]]. The six chords of each set are disjoint (they don't touch or form 5-cell faces), and they are symmetrically arranged as 3 parallel pairs, {{radic|3}} apart, which lie in 3 orthogonal {12} central planes.{{Efn|The Jessen's icosahedron has 8 equilateral triangle faces, which are not rhombicosidodecahedron triangle faces or 5-cell triangle faces, they are 24-cell triangle faces. Each 120-cell pentagon face lies at one end of 20 5-cell edges, from 20 distinct Jessen's icosahedra and five disjoint 5-cells: four at each pentagon vertex from each 5-cell.}} Five disjoint instances of the Jessen's icosahedron may be inscribed in each Moxness's Hull #8 rhombicosidodecahedron, their struts propping the rhombicosidodecahedron and the 120-cell itself open like a tensegrity structure.{{Efn|Moxness's Hull #8 rhombicosidodecahedron is a compound of five disjoint Jessen's icosahedra, because the 60 {{radic|5}} chords meet two-at-a-vertex and form 10 distinct Jessen's icosahedra: five disjoint Jessen's, in two different ways. The dimensionally analogous construction is the [[120-cell#Compound of five 600-cells|120-cell as a compound of five disjoint 600-cells]], in two different ways.}} But here we find ourselves far out in the 3-sphere system, almost to the [[W:Borromean_rings|Borromean rings]] of the giant 600-cell. We shall have to go back and orient ourselves at the origin again, and work our way patiently outwards, before in ''[[#The perfection of Fuller's cyclic design|§The perfection of Fuller's cyclic design]]'' we approach that rare child Bucky Fuller's orthogonal 12-point tensegrity icosahedron, an [[WikiJournal Preprints/Kinematics of the cuboctahedron|in-folded cuboctahedron]], the unique pyritohedral fish swimming deep in the 3-sphere ocean. == Eleven == Each pair of rhombicosidodecahedra that are not completely orthogonal intersect in a central plane containing an irregular {12} dodecagon. Ten irregular great dodecagons occur in each 60-point (central section 8₃) rhombicosidodecahedron, with 2 dodecagons crossing orthogonally at each vertex. Each rhombicosidodecahedron shares a {12} central plane with ten other rhombicosidodecahedra. ''Groups of 11 rhombicosidodecahedra share central planes pairwise.'' Here, at last, we find eleven of something, a group which must comprise an 11-cell. There are eleven {12} central planes in the group, with one of the eleven absent from each rhombicosidodecahedron. {|class="wikitable floatright" width=450 !colspan=2|Perspective views{{Efn|1=These images are ''non-orthogonal'' orthographic projections of the chords described in the caption. Those chords do not lie in a plane parallel to the projection plane, so they appear foreshortened.{{Efn|name=orthogonal triacontagram projections}} Consecutive chords of the helical Petrie polygon slant toward and away from the viewer. Any three consecutive chords, but no four, are edges of the same cell, in the 4-polytope whose edges are the chord.{{Efn|name=Petrie polygon of a honeycomb}}}} of a compound of six disjoint 5-cells in dual position |- ![[W:Triacontagon#Triacontagram|{30/12}{{=}}6{5/2} compound]] ![[W:Triacontagon#Triacontagram|{30/8}{{=}}2{15/4} compound]]{{Efn|name=orthogonal triacontagram projections|1=The {30/''n''} triacontagrams can each be seen as an ''orthogonal projection'' of the 120-cell showing all instances of the {30/''n''} chord. Each chord lies orthogonal to the line of sight, in a plane parallel to the projection plane. The diameter of the image is the diameter of the 120-cell. For example, the {30/8}=2{15/4} triacontagram is an orthogonal projection showing the 120-cell's 1200 {30/8} chords, the edges of 120 5-cells. Each edge of the triacontagram covers 40 5-cell edges, and each vertex covers 20 120-cell vertices. This projection can also be viewed as a compound of six 5-cells and their 30 unique vertices. But viewed that way, only 30 of the 60 5-cell edges are visible. Two edges meet at each vertex, but the other two are invisible. They are visible in the orthogonal view, the {30/4}=2{15} projection.}} |- valign=top |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,2).svg|240px]]<BR>The 6{5/2} compound of six 5-cells. The six disjoint pentagrams in this view are six disjoint 5-cells.{{Efn|name=5-cell edges do not intersect is S³}} The 120-cell, with 120 disjoint 5-cells, is a compound of 20 of these compounds. All edges are 5-cell edges, but only five of each 5-cell's ten edges are shown. The other five edges, connecting the points of the six 5-cell pentagrams, are shown in the 6{5} projection below, the orthogonal view:<BR>[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,1).svg|240px]]These two views look straight down the orthogonal axes of a [[w:Duocylinder|duocylinder]], from inside the curved 3-dimensional space of the 120-cell's surface. They are like looking down a column of 5-cells stacked on top of one another in curved 3-space, but the column is actually circular: it is bent into a torus in the fourth dimension. |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,4).svg|240px]]<BR>The 2{15/4} rotation circuits of the 5-cell isoclinic rotation. In this view, all edges are 75.5° chords of length {{radic|3}}, the 180° complement chord of the 5-cell edges of length {{radic|5}}.{{Efn|These are not 15-gons of 5-cell edges. There are no skew {15} polygons of 5-cell edges in the 120-cell. The 120 5-cells are completely disjoint, so the largest circuit along 5-cell edges is a skew {5}. Each vertex in the 120-cell is {{radic|5}} away from four and only four other vertices. No {{radic|5}} chords connect disjoint 5-cells; they are connected by several other chords. The skew {15} polygons are the discrete continuous spiral paths of moving vertices during an isoclinic rotation, and their edges are {{radic|3}} chords connecting 5-cells, not 5-cell edges.}} Each skew {15} polygon is the spiral chord-path of half the 30 vertices during the isoclinic rotation. The twined vertex orbits lie skew in 4-space; they form a circular double helix of two 15-gon spiral isoclines, winding through all four dimensions. These two completely orthogonal views look straight down an axis of a double helix cylinder, from inside the curved 3-dimensional space of the 120-cell's surface. Since the duocylinder is bent into a [[w:Clifford_torus|Clifford torus]] in the fourth dimension, the sightline axis in curved 3-space is a geodesic great circle in 4-space.<BR>[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,2).svg|240px]] |- ![[W:Triacontagon#Triacontagram|{30/6}{{=}}6{5} compound]] ![[W:Triacontagon#Triacontagram|{30/4}{{=}}2{15/2} compound]] |- |colspan=2|Images by Tom Ruen in [[W:Triacontagon#Triacontagram|Triacontagram compounds and stars]].{{Sfn|Ruen: Triacontagon|2011|loc=§Triacontagram compounds and stars}} |} Each shared {12} central plane contains six disjoint 5-cell edges, from six completely disjoint 5-cells. Each rhombicosidodecahedron contains 60 5-cell edges, which form 20 disjoint 5-cell faces within the rhombicosidodecahedron, under and parallel to its own 20 smaller triangle faces. Four 5-cell edges meet at each vertex at the 5-cell's tetrahedral vertex figure. Two 5-cell edges of a face within the rhombicosidodecahedron meet two edges belonging to other faces of the 5-cell: edges and faces outside the rhombicosidodecahedron, in some neighboring rhombicosidodecahedron.{{Efn|name=orthogonal triacontagram projections}} Each 5-cell face is shared by two tetrahedral cells of one 5-cell. It has its three 104.5° {{radic|5}} edges in three distinct {12} central planes, and is parallel to a fourth {12} central plane. In each rhombicosidodecahedron there are ten sets of five parallel planes: a {12} central plane, a pair of 5-cell faces on either side of it (from disjoint 5-cells), and a pair of rhombicosidodecahedron triangle faces. Each rhombicosidodecahedron is sliced into five parallel planes, ten distinct ways. There is no face sharing between 5-cells: the 120 5-cells in the 120-cell are completely disjoint. 5-cells never share any elements, but they are related to each other positionally, in groups of six, in the '''characteristic rotation of the regular 5-cell'''. That rigid isoclinic rotation takes the six 5-cells within each group to each other's positions, and back to their original positions, in a circuit of 15 rotational displacements.{{Sfn|Mamone, Pileio & Levitt|2010|loc=§4.5 Regular Convex 4-Polytopes, Table 2, Symmetry operations|pp=1438-1439|ps=; in symmetry group 𝛢₄ the operation [15]𝑹_q3,q3 is the 15 distinct rotational displacements which comprise the class of pentadecagram isoclinic rotations of the 5-cell; in symmetry group 𝛨₄ the operation [1200]𝑹_q3,q13 is the 1200 distinct rotational displacements which comprise the class of pentadecagram isoclinic rotations of the 120-cell.}} Each displacement takes every 104.5° 5-cell edge of length {{radic|5}} to an edge 75.5° and {{radic|3}} away in another 5-cell in the group of six 5-cells. The 30 vertices of the six 5-cells rotate along 15-chord helical-circular isocline paths from 5-cell to 5-cell, before closing their circuits and returning the moving 5-cells to their original locations and orientations.{{Efn|In an [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]], each point anywhere in the 4-polytope moves an equal distance in four orthogonal directions at once, on a [[W:8-cell#Radial equilateral symmetry|4-dimensional diagonal]]. The point is displaced a total [[W:Pythagorean distance|Pythagorean distance]] equal to the square root of four times the square of that distance. The orthogonal distance equals half the total Pythagorean distance. For example, when the {{radic|2}}-radius 5-cell rotates isoclinically 104.5° in the invariant central planes of its 104.5° edges of length {{radic|5}}, each vertex is displaced to another vertex 75.5° and {{radic|3}} away, moving {{radic|3/4}} in four orthogonal directions at once.|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} The six rotationally related 5-cells form a stellated compound, a non-convex 4-polytope with 30 star points.{{Efn|name=compound of six 5-cells}} The star compound, and the rotation of the 5-cell within it, are here illustrated by orthogonal projections from four different perspective viewpoints. To help us visualize the 4-polytopes within the 120-cell, we can examine 2-dimensional orthographic projections from various points of view. Such images filtered to include only chords of a single length are especially revealing, because they pick out the edges of a particular 4-polytope, or the isocline chords of its rotational orbits, the chords which link 4-polytopes together. No view of a single chord from a single point of view is sufficient by itself, but if we visualize various chords from various perspectives, we may imagine the 4-dimensional rotational geometry of interrelated objects within the 120-cell. The star compound as a whole has ten {12} central planes, like a rhombicosidodecahedron. Each {12} central plane contains one edge from each of the six 5-cells. Each {12} central plane is shared by two rhombicosidodecahedra in the group of eleven, and by six 5-cells in the group of six. == The eleventh chord == [[File:Major chord 11 of 135.5° in the 120-cell.png|thumb|The 120-cell contains 200 irregular {12} central planes containing 1200 135.5° {30/11} chords, six in each plane (shown in blue). They lie parallel to six 104.5° {30/8} chords (the 5-cell edges, shown in red), to which they are joined by 15.5° {30/1} 120-cell edges, and by 120° {30/10} great triangle edges (only one of the four great triangles is shown, in green).]] In addition to six 104.5° {30/8} 5-cell edge chords of length {{radic|5}}, the {12} central plane contains six 135.5° {30/11} chords of length <math>\phi^2</math>, parallel to the {{radic|5}} chords. The {30/11} chord spans an arc of five shorter chords: * 15.5° {30/1} + 44.5° {30/4} + 15.5° {30/1} + 44.5° {30/4} + 15.5° {30/1} = 135.5° {30/11) * 15.5° {30/1} + 104.5° (30/8) + 15.5° {30/1} = 135.5° {30/11) * 15.5° {30/1} + 120° (30/10) = 135.5° {30/11) and its chord length is the linear sum of five shorter chords: * 1/𝜙^2 {30/1} + 1/𝜙^2 {30/1} + 1/𝜙 {30/2} + 1/𝜙 {30/2} + 1/𝜙 {30/2} = 𝜙^2 {30/11) Two distinct chords are always related to each other in two different ways: by their degrees-of-arc-difference, and by their linear difference chord. The 135.5° {30/11) chord is ''two'' 15.5° (30/1) 120-cell edge-arcs longer than the 104.5° (30/8) 5-cell edge chord. But the <math>\phi^2</math> {30/11} chord ''length'' is just ''one'' {30/1} 120-cell edge chord length longer than the {{radic|5}} {30/8} 5-cell edge chord.{{Efn|In a <small><math>\sqrt{2}</math></small>-radius 120-cell, the 15.5° {30/1} 120-cell edge chord has length <small><math>\phi^{-2}</math></small>. The 25.2° {30/2} pentagon face diagonal chord of length <small><math>\phi^{-1}</math></small> is <small><math>\phi</math></small> times the {30/1} edge length. The 41.1° 5-cell isocline chord of length <small><math>\sqrt{1}</math></small> is <small><math>\phi^2</math></small> times the {30/1} edge length. The 69.8° chord of length <small><math>\phi</math></small> is <small><math>\phi^3</math></small> times the {30/1} edge length. The 135.5° {30/11} 11-cell edge chord of length <small><math>\phi^2</math></small> is <small><math>\phi^4</math></small> times the {30/1} edge length.}} The {30/11} chord can be bisected into two shorter 120-cell chords in three different ways: * 15.5° {30/1} 120-cell edge + 104.5° {30/8} 5-cell edge = {30/11} chord * 25.2° {30/2} 120-cell pentagon face diagonal + 90° {30/15} 16-cell edge = {30/11} chord * 41.4° {30/1}+{30/2} chord + 69.8° {30/2}+{30/1}+{30/2} chord = {30/11} chord [[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-11.svg|thumb|The [[W:Triacontagon#Triacontagram|{30/11} regular triacontagram]] of the 11-cell rotation.{{Sfn|Ruen: Triacontagon|2011|loc=§Triacontagram compounds and stars}} In this 2-dimensional projection of a 30-edge 4-dimensional helix ring, the 30 chords pictured lie in 30 distinct central planes, and no two planes are orthogonal.]] The last of those bisections trisects the {30/11} chord into three distinct shorter chords: * 15.5° {30/1} + 25.2° {30/2} + 44.5° {30/4} chord = 135.5° {30/11} chord The {30/11} chords do not form triangle faces within the rhombicosidodecahedron the way the {30/8} chords do, but they do meet at a tetrahedral vertex figure. Groups of 11 rhombicosidodecahedra (an 11-cell) share central planes pairwise, including all the chords in the {12} central plane. When 11 things, all pairwise-adjacent to each other, are arranged in any circuit of 30 positions, there exists another pairwise circuit of 30 positions through every eleventh position, whether the things are 11 vertices, 11 rhombicosidodecahedra, or 11 [[w:Aardvark|aardvarks]] (although it might be unwieldy in practice to so arrange 11 live aardvarks, e.g. by tying them together pairwise with cords in both circuits). This intrinsic property of the [[w:Rational_number|rational number]] 30/11 is responsible for the existence of the {30/11} regular triacontagram (see illustration). The 11 rhombicosidodecahedra of the 11-cell are linked by a regular {30/11} triacontagram of 30 chords which runs through them. Each successive chord of the 30 in the triacontagram is shared by a distinct pair of rhombicosidodecahedra in the 11-cell group. An isoclinic rotation characteristic of the 11-cell takes the rhombicosidodecahedra in each 11-cell to each other's positions, pair by pair, in a circuit of 30 rotational displacements. It takes every {12} central plane to a Clifford parallel {12} central plane that is 44.5° away in two completely orthogonal angles. One 135.5° {30/11} chord separates each of the 12 vertex pairs. In this '''characteristic rotation of the 11-cell''' in its edge planes, the invariant planes are {12} central planes, the edges of the 11-cell are {30/11} chords, and the isocline chords of the vertex orbits are also {30/11} 11-cell edges, because the triacontagram is regular.{{Efn|In the 120-cell there are three ''regular isoclinic rotations'' in which the rotation edge and the isocline chord are the same chord. These rotations are each described by a [[W:Triacontagon#Triacontagram|regular triacontagram]]: the {30/7} rotation characteristic of the 16-cell in great square invariant planes, the {30/11} rotation characteristic of the 11-cell, and the {30/13} rotation.}} The 44.5° {30/4} chord of length <small><math>\sqrt{3}/\phi</math></small>, the 180° complement of the {30/11} chord, is the orthogonal distance between nearest parallel {30/11} chords.{{Efn|In its characteristic isoclinic rotation, a 4-polytope rotates an equal arc distance in each invariant {12} edge plane in each rotational displacement. In the 11-cell, every invariant plane rotates 44.5° (like a wheel), and tilts sideways 44.5° (like a coin flipping) in the completely orthogonal invariant plane, to occupy another invariant plane in the group of eleven. Each pair of original and destination {12} central planes are Clifford parallel and intersect only at one point (the center of the 4-polytope), but six other {12} central planes intersect them both. Two parallel {30/11} chords in each of the six spanning {12} central planes separate two vertex pairs in the original and destination planes, and these are the isocline chords over which the two vertices move in the rotation. None of the six spanning {12} central planes are contained in either the original or destination rhombicosidodecahedron. A total of ten {12} central planes span each original and destination rhombicosidodecahedron; they comprise a third rhombicosidodecahedron which does not belong to the group of eleven. The edges of an 11-cell and the isocline chords of an 11-cell are disjoint sets of {30/11} chords.}} The 60 vertices of each rhombicosidodecahedron rotate in parallel, on non-intersecting 30-chord spiral orbital paths, from rhombicosidodecahedron to rhombicosidodecahedron, before closing their circuits and returning the moving rhombicosidodecahedron to its original location and orientation. In this isoclinic rotation of a rigid 120-cell, the 60 rhombicosidodecahedra do this concurrently. Each of the 600 vertices moves on a 4-dimensionally-curved helical isocline, over a skew regular polygram of 30 {30/11} chords, in which a {30/11} chord connects every eleventh vertex of a {30} triacontagram. In the course of a complete revolution (the 30 rotational displacements of this isoclinic rotation), an 11-cell visits the positions of three 11-cells (including itself) 10 times each (in 10 different orientations), and returns to its original position and orientation.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1984|loc=§9. Eleven disjoint decagons}} At each step it occupies the same distinct group of 11 rhombicosidodecahedra sharing planes pairwise, and its 11 vertex positions are those of a distinct 11-cell in the group of eleven 11-cells. A group of 4-polytopes related by an isoclinic rotation is contained in a larger compound 4-polytope which subsumes them. This group of eleven 11-cells related by an isoclinic rotation is not a compound of eleven disjoint 11-cells (since they share vertices), but it is a compound of eleven non-disjoint 11-cells, in the same sense that a 24-cell is a compound of three non-disjoint 8-cell tesseracts. Consider the incidence of these 30-chord {30/11} triacontagram rotation paths, and their intersections. Each rhombicosidodecahedron has 60 vertices and 60 {30/11} chords, which rotate concurrently on Clifford parallel triacontagrams. The 120-cell has only 600 vertices and 1200 {30/11} chords, so at most 20 triacontagrams can be disjoint; some must intersect. But the 11 vertices of an individual 11-cell must be linked by disjoint 30-position {30/11} triacontagram helices, such that their rotation paths never intersect.{{Efn|The isoclines on which a 4-polytope's vertices rotate in parallel never intersect. Isoclinic rotation is a concurrent motion of Clifford parallel (disjoint) elements over Clifford parallel (non-intersecting) circles.}} Each 11-cell has two disjoint triacontagram helicies, its left and right isoclinic rotations, in each of its four discrete fibrations. The 120-cell has 60 distinct {30/11} triacontagram helices, which are 11 disjoint {30/11} triacontagram helices in 11 distinct ways. {{Sfn|Steinbach|2000|loc=''Sections Beyond Golden''; Figure 5. Optimal sections and proportions|p=37|ps=; the regular polygons {5}, {7}, {9} and {11} with their diagonals define respectively: {5} the golden bisection proportional to 𝜙; {7} an analogous trisection; {9} an analogous quadrasection; {11} an analogous pentasection.}} == Compounds in the 120-cell == [[120-cell#Geometry|The 120-cell is the maximally complex regular 4-polytope]], containing inscribed instances of every regular 1-, 2-, 3-, and 4-polytope, except for regular polygons of more than {15} sides. The 120-cell is the convex hull of a regular [[120-cell#Relationships among interior polytopes|compound of each of the other 5 regular convex 4-polytopes]]. {{Regular convex 4-polytopes|columns=7|wiki=W:|radius={{radic|2}}|instance=1}} === How many building blocks, how many ways === The 120-cell is the convex hull of a compound of 75 disjoint 16-cells, of 25 disjoint 24-cells, of 5 disjoint 600-cells, and of 120 disjoint regular 5-cells. Children building the 120-cell up from their 16-cell building blocks will soon learn to protect their sanity by thinking of these nesting 4-polytopes by their alternate names, as ''n''-points symmetrically distributed on the 3-sphere, as synonyms for their conventional names, as ''n''-cells tiling the 3-sphere. They are the 8-point (16-cell), the 16-point (8-cell) tesseract, the 24-point (24-cell), the 120-point (600-cell), and the 600-point (120-cell). The 8-point (16-cell), not the 5-point (5-cell), is the smallest building block, which compounds to everything else. The 8-point compounds by 2 into the 16-point, and by 3 into the 24-point; what could be simpler? The 16-point compounds into the 24-point by 3 ''non-disjoint instances'' of itself which share pairs of vertices. (We can think of non-disjoint instances as overlapping instances, except that disjoint instances overlap in space too, they just don't have overlapping vertex sets.) The 24-point compounds by 5 disjoint instances of itself in the 120-point, and the 120-point compounds by 5 disjoint instances of itself in the 600-point. So far, our children are happily building, and their castle makes sense to them. Then things get hairy. The 24-point also compounds by <math>5^2</math> non-disjoint instances in the 120-point; it compounds into 5 disjoint instances of itself, 10 (not 5) different ways. Whichever way the child builds it, the resulting 120-point, magically, contains 25 distinct 24-points, not just 5 (or 10). This means that 15 disjoint 8-point building blocks will construct a 120-point, which then magically contains 75 distinct 8-points. [[File:Ortho solid 016-uniform polychoron p33-t0.png|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 600-point [[W:Great grand stellated 120-cell|great grand stellated 120-cell]] <small><math>\{\tfrac{5}{2},3,3\}</math></small>,{{Sfn|Ruen: Great grand stellated 120-cell|2007}} discovered by [[W:Ludwig Schläfli|Ludwig Schläfli]]. Named by [[W:John Horton Conway|John Horton Conway]], extending the naming system by [[W:Arthur Cayley|Arthur Cayley]] for the [[W:Kepler-Poinsot polyhedron#Characteristics|Kepler-Poinsot solids]], and the only one containing all three modifiers in the name.]] The 600-point is 5 disjoint 120-points, just 2 different ways (not 5 or 10 ways). So it is 10 non-disjoint 120-points. This means the 8-point building block compounds by 3 times <math>5^2</math> (75) disjoint instances of itself into the 600-point, which then magically contains <math>3^2</math> times <math>5^2</math> (225) distinct instances of the 24-point, and <math>3^3</math> times <math>5^2</math> (675) distinct instances of the original 8-point. They will be rare wise children who figure all this out for themselves, and even wiser who can see ''why'' it is so. [[W:Pieter Hendrik Schoute|Schoute]] was the first to see that the 120-point (600-cell) is a compound of 5 24-point (24-cells) ''10 different ways'', and after he saw it a hundred years lapsed until Denney, Hooker, Johnson, Robinson, Butler & Claiborne proved his result, and showed why.{{Sfn|Denney, Hooker, Johnson, Robinson, Butler & Claiborne|2020|loc=''The geometry of H4 polytopes''|ps=; This hexad of scholars from New Orleans, Louisiana extracted the truth from the permutations of the 120-point 600-cell as perspicaciously as Coxeter did from the permutations of the 11-point 11-cell.}} So much for the compounds of 16-cells. The 120-cell is also the convex hull of the compound of 120 disjoint regular 5-cells. That stellated compound (without its convex hull of 120-cell edges) is the [[w:Great_grand_stellated_120-cell|great grand stellated 120-cell]], the final regular [[W:Stellation|stellation]] of the 120-cell, the only [[W:Schläfli-Hess polychoron|regular star 4-polytope]] to have the 120-cell for its convex hull. The edges of the great grand stellated 120-cell are <math>\phi^6</math> as long as those of its 120-cell [[W:Stellation core|stellation core]] deep inside. The compound of 120 regular 5-cells can be seen to be equivalent to the compound of 5 disjoint 600-cells, as follows. Beginning with a single 120-point (600-cell), expand each vertex into a regular 5-cell, by adding 4 new equidistant vertices, such that the 5 vertices form a regular 5-cell inscribed in the 3-sphere. The 120 5-cells are disjoint, and the 600 vertices form 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells): a 120-cell. === Building the building blocks themselves === We have built every regular 4-polytope except the 5-cell out of 16-cells, but we haven't made the 16-cell (or the 5-cell) out of anything. So far, we have just accepted them both a priori, like [[W:Euclid's postulates|Euclid's postulates]], and proceeded to build with them. But it turns out that while they are the two atomic regular 4-polytopes, they are not indivisible, and can be built up as honeycombs of identical smaller ''irregular'' 4-polytopes. They are not a priori miracles; like everything else fundamental in nature, including Euclid's postulates, at root they are an expression of a distinct [[w:Symmetry_group|symmetry group]]. Every regular convex ''n''-polytope can be subdivided into instances of its characteristic [[W:Orthoscheme|Schläfli orthoscheme]] that meet at its center. An ''n''-orthoscheme (not an ''n''-[[w:Orthoplex|orthoplex]]!) is an ''irregular'' ''n''-[[w:Simplex_(geometry)|simplex]] with faces that are various right triangles instead of congruent equilateral triangles. A characteristic ''n''-orthoscheme possesses the complete symmetry of its ''n''-polytope without any redundancy, because it contains one of each of the polytope's characteristic root elements. It is the gene for the polytope, which can be replicated to construct the polytope.{{Efn|A [[W:Schläfli orthoscheme|Schläfli orthoscheme]] is a [[W:Chiral|chiral]] irregular [[W:Simplex|simplex]] with [[W:Right triangle|right triangle]] faces that is characteristic of some polytope because it will exactly fill that polytope with the reflections of itself in its own [[W:facet (geometry)|facet]]s (its ''mirror walls''). Every regular polytope can be partitioned radially by its planes of symmetry (Coxeter's "reflecting circles") into instances of its [[W:Orthoscheme#Characteristic simplex of the general regular polytope|characteristic orthoscheme]] surrounding its center. The characteristic orthoscheme and its chiral mirror image can be replicated rotationally to generate its regular 4-polytope because it is the complete [[W:gene|gene]] for it, containing all of its elements and capturing all of its symmetry without any redundancy. It has the shape described by the same [[W:Coxeter-Dynkin diagram|Coxeter-Dynkin diagram]] as the regular polytope without the ''generating point'' ring that triggers the reflections.|name=Characteristic orthoscheme}} The regular 4-simplex (5-cell) is subdivided into 120 instances of its [[5-cell#Orthoschemes|characteristic 4-orthoscheme]] (an irregular 5-cell) by all of its <math>A_4</math> planes of symmetry at once intersecting at its center, so its symmetry is of order 120. The 120-cell is the convex hull of the regular compound of 120 disjoint regular 5-cells, so it can be subdivided into <small><math>120\times 120 = 14400</math></small> of these 4-orthoschemes, so that is the symmetry order of the 120-cell. The regular 4-orthoplex (16-cell) is subdivided into 384 instances of its [[16-cell#Tetrahedral constructions|characteristic 4-orthoscheme]] (another irregular 5-cell) by all of its <math>B_4</math> planes of symmetry at once intersecting at its center, so its symmetry is of order 384. The 120-cell is the convex hull of the regular compound of 75 disjoint 16-cells (which have 2-fold reflective symmetry), so its symmetry is of order <small><math>75\times 384 / 2 = 14400</math></small>. The regular 24-point (24-cell) is subdivided into 1152 instances of its [[24-cell#Characteristic orthoscheme|characteristic 4-orthoscheme]] (yet another irregular 5-cell) by all of its <math>F_4</math> planes of symmetry at once intersecting at its center, so its symmetry is of order 1152. The 120-cell is the convex hull of the regular compound of 25 disjoint 24-cells (which have 2-fold reflective symmetry), so its symmetry is of order <small><math>25\times 1152 / 2 = 14400</math></small>. The regular 120-point (600-cell) is subdivided into 14400 instances of its [[600-cell#Characteristic orthoscheme|characteristic 4-orthoscheme]] (yet another irregular 5-cell) by all of its <math>H_4</math> planes of symmetry at once intersecting at its center, so its symmetry is of order 14400. The regular 600-point (120-cell) is the convex hull of the regular compound of 5 disjoint 600-cells (which have 5-fold reflective symmetry), so its symmetry is of order <small><math>5 \times 14400 / 5 = 14400</math></small>. === Building with sticks === [[File:15 major chords.png|thumb|300px|The 15 major chords {30/1} ... {30/15} join vertex pairs which are 1 to 15 edges apart on a skew {30} [[w:Petrie_polygon|Petrie polygon]] of the 120-cell.{{Efn|Drawing the fan of major chords with #1 and #11 at a different origin than all the others was an artistic choice, since all the chords are incident at every vertex. We could just as well have fanned all the chords from the same origin vertex, but this arrangement notices the important parallel relationship between #8 and #11, and calls attention to the 11-cell's maverick edge chord.|name=fan of 15 major chords}} The 15 minor chords (not shown) fall between two major chords, and their length is the sum of two other major chords; e.g. the 41.4° minor chord of length {30/1}+{30/2} falls between the 36° {30/3} and 44.5° {30/4} chords.]] We have seen how all the regular convex 4-polytopes except the 5-cell, including the largest one on the cover of the box, can be built from a box containing 675 16-cell building blocks, provided we can arrange the blocks on top of one another in 4-space, as interpenetrating objects. An alternate box, containing 120 regular 5-cell building blocks, builds the great grand stellated 120-cell (the picture on ''its'' cover), by the same method. In these boxes, the atomic building part is one of the two smallest regular 4-polytopes (5-cell or 16-cell), each generated by its characteristic isoclinic rotation as an expression of its symmetry group (<math>A_4</math> or <math>B_4</math>). All the regular convex 4-polytopes, including the largest one on the cover of the box, can also be built from a box containing a certain number of building sticks and rubber joints, provided we can connect the sticks together in 4-space with the rubber joints. In this box, the atomic building parts are 1-dimensional edges and chords of just 15 distinct arc-lengths. The regular 4-polytopes do not contain a vast variety of stick lengths, but only 30 of them: only 15 unique pairs of 180° complementary chords. The 15 ''major chords'' {30/1} ... {30/15} suffice to construct all the regular 4-polytopes. The 15 ''minor chords'' occur only in the 120-cell, not in any smaller regular 4-polytope; they emerge as a consequence of building the largest 4-polytope on the cover of the box from major chords. In polytope geometry, each chord of a polytope is both is a distinct 1-dimensional object, a chord of the unit-radius sphere of a distinct length <math>l</math>, and a distinct rational number <math>h</math>, a unique flavor. If the polytope is regular, it is a noteworthy distinctive flavor. The chord's length <math>l</math> is a square root, related to the rational number <math>h = k/d</math> and to the polygon <small><math>\{k/d\}</math></small> it represents, by a formula discovered by Steinbach.{{Sfn|Steinbach|1997|loc=''Golden Fields''; §1. The Diagonal Product Formula|pp=22-24|ps=; The product of two diagonals is a sum of a sequence of diagonals (in the fan, every other one) centered on the longer of the two, for all regular polygons. We may express products and quotients of diagonals <math>d_k</math> of an <math>n</math>-gon (with edge <math>d_0=1</math>) as linear combinations of diagonals.}} The chord length <math>l</math> is related to the number of sides of the regular polygon <small><math>\{k\}</math></small>, and to the winding number or density of the polygram (its denominator <math>d</math>).{{Sfn|Kappraff & Adamson|2004}} The largest <math>k</math> of any major chord in the 120-cell is 30, and the polygrams <small><math>\{30/d\}</math></small> represent all the skew Petrie polygons and characteristic isoclinic rotations of the regular 4-polytopes. == Concentric 120-cells == The 8-point 16-cell, not the 5-point 5-cell, is the smallest regular 4-polytope which compounds to every larger regular 4-polytope. The 5-point 5-cell is also an atomic building block, but one that compounds to nothing else regular except the leviathan 120-cell polytope: the picture on the cover of the box, that is built from everything in the box. In the [[User:Dc.samizdat/A symmetrical arrangement of eleven 11-cells#Build with the blocks|sequence of 4-polytope compounds]], we actually start with the 16-cell at the small end, and the 5-cell emerges only at the large end. To build with the 16-cell blocks, we simply put them on top of each other as interpenetrating compounds. We can build every other regular 4-polytope from them by that method, except the individual regular 5-cell. We can also try to build with the 5-cell that way, as when we tried to build a 4-polytope of 11 hemi-icosahedral cells from 11 5-cells, but that was rather hard going. We somehow found 5-cell edges and faces lurking inside hemi-icosahedral rhombicosidodecahedra, and 11 rhombicosidodecahedra sharing central planes pairwise, and even the edges and characteristic rotation of the 11-cell, but we didn't quite get all the way to a discrete 11-cell 4-polytope made from 11 5-cells. That's because ''compounding'' isn't the easiest method for building with the 5-cell. The 5-cell is the last building block hierarchically, not the first, and the most natural way to build with it is in reverse, by ''subdividing'' it, to find all the parts inscribed inside it. When we've taken the 5-cell apart, all the ways we possibly can, into certain ''irregular'' 4-polytopes found within it, we will have a new set of irregular 4-polytope building blocks, which compound to the 5-cells and everything else, including the 11-cells. Subdividing a polytope is done by a geometric operation called ''[[w:Truncation_(geometry)|truncation]]''. There are myriad ways to truncate a 5-cell, each corresponding to a distinct ''depth'' of truncation at a particular point on an edge, or a line on a face, or a face on a cell, where a piece of the 5-cell is cut off. The simplest truncations, such as [[w:Rectification_(geometry)|cutting off each vertex at the midedge of each incident edge]], have been very well-studied; but how should we proceed? Let us see what happens when we [[w:Truncated_5-cell|truncate the 5-cells]] found in the 120-cell, by the simplest kinds of truncation. These three semi-regular 10-cells are closely related truncations of the regular 5-cell: * The 30-point 10-cell [[w:Bitruncated_5-cell|bitruncated 5-cell]] is the convex hull, and the convex common core, of a stellated compound of six 5-cells. * The 20-point 10-cell [[w:Truncated_5-cell|truncated 5-cell]] is the convex hull, and the convex common core, of a stellated compound of four 5-cells. * The 10-point 10-cell [[w:Rectified_5-cell|rectified 5-cell]] is the convex hull, and the convex common core, of a stellated compound of two 5-cells. In the following sections, we explore the effect of performing these truncations on the 120-cell's 120 5-cells. We begin by identifying some promising truncation points on the 120-cell's 5-cell edge chords at which to cut. If we cut off the 120-cell's 600 vertices at some point on its 1200 5-cell edges, we create new vertices on the edges of the 120 5-cells, which lie on a smaller 3-sphere than the 120-cell. How many vertices does the smaller 4-polytope thus created have? That is, how many distinct 5-cell edge truncation points occur in the 120-cell? As many as 1200, the number of 5-cell edges, or perhaps 2400, if each edge is truncated at both ends. But also perhaps fewer; for example, if the 120-cell contains pairs of 5-cells with intersecting edges, and the edges intersect at the point on each edge where we make our cut. [[File:Great_(12)_chords_of_radius_√2.png|thumb|400px|Chords of the radius {{radic|2}} 120-cell in one of its 200 irregular {12} dodecagon central planes. The {{radic|2}} chords form two regular {6} hexagons (black).{{Efn|name=compound of 5 cuboctahedra}} The 120-cell edges form two irregular {6} hexagons (red truncated triangles) with the {{radic|5}} chords. The {6} intersection points (black) of the {{radic|5}} chords form a smaller red regular hexagon of radius {{radic|1}} (inscribed in the red circle).]]In the irregular {12} central plane chord diagram, we see six truncation points on the six 104.5° 5-cell edges of length {{Radic|5}}, where two co-planar 5-cell edges intersect, directly under the midpoint of a 44.5° chord (and under the intersection point of two 60° chords). The six truncation points lie on a red circle that is a circumference of the smaller 4-polytope created by this truncation. They form a red regular hexagon inscribed in the red circle. The edge length of this regular hexagon is {{radic|1}}. The two intersection points on the {{Radic|5}} chord divide it into its golden sections. The center section of the chord is <small><math>1</math></small>. The center section plus either of the smaller sections is <small><math>\phi = \tfrac{\sqrt{5} + 1}{2} \approx 1.618</math></small>, the larger golden section. Each of the two smaller sections is <small><math>\Phi = \phi - 1 = \tfrac{1}{\phi} \approx 0.618</math></small>, the smaller golden section.{{Efn|The bitruncated {30/8} chord of the 120-cell of radius <small><math>\sqrt{2}</math></small> provides a "proof by geometric picture" of the golden ratio formulas. First, consider a 120-cell of radius <small><math>2\sqrt{2}</math></small> in which the {30/8} chord is <small><math>2\sqrt{5}</math></small> and the center section of the chord is <small><math>2</math></small>. Divide the lengths of its golden sections by <small><math>2</math></small> to get their radius <small><math>\sqrt{2}</math></small> lengths. The left section of the chord is: :<small><math>\tfrac{\sqrt{5} - 1}{2} \approx 0.618</math></small> The center section plus the right section is: :<small><math>\tfrac{1 + \sqrt{5}}{2} \approx 1.618</math></small> }} The smaller golden sections <small><math>\Phi \approx 0.618</math></small> of the 5-cell edge are the same length as the 120-cell's 25.2° pentagon face diagonal chords. No 25.2° chords appear in the {12} central plane diagram, because they do not lie in {12} central planes. Each 104.5° 5-cell edge chord of length {{Radic|5}} has ''two'' points of intersection with other 5-cell edges, exactly 60° apart, the ''arc'' of a 24-cell edge chord, but with ''length'' {{radic|1}}. The center segment of the 5-cell edge, between the two intersection points, is a 24-cell edge in the smaller 4-polytope, and the red hexagon is a [[24-cell#Great hexagons|24-cell's great hexagon]] in the smaller 4-polytope. Nine other of its great hexagons, in other planes, each intersect with an antipodal pair of these {6} vertices. The dihedral angles between hexagon planes in a 24-cell are 60°, and four great hexagons intersect at each vertex. The 1200 5-cell edges, with two intersection points each, are reduced to 600 distinct vertices, so the smaller 4-polytope is a smaller 120-cell. The larger 120-cell, of radius {{radic|2}}, is concentric to a smaller instance of itself, of radius {{radic|1}}. Each 120-cell contains 225 distinct (25 disjoint) inscribed 24-cells. The smaller 24-cells are the [[w:Inscribed_sphere|insphere]] duals of the larger 24-cells. The vertices of the smaller 120-cell are located at the octahedral cell centers of the 24-cells in the larger 120-cell. Four 5-cell edges meet in 600 tetrahedral vertex figures. Four orthogonally intersecting 5-cell edges of the larger 120-cell meet in cubic vertex figures of 24-cells in the smaller 120-cell. Two disjoint 5-cell tetrahedral vertex figures are inscribed in alternate positions in each 24-cell cubic vertex figure. The 24-cell edges of the smaller 120-cell are the 5-cell edges of the larger 120-cell, truncated at both ends. The distance between the two points of intersection on a {{radic|5}} chord is {{radic|1}}, the same length as the 41.4° chord. But the actual 41.4° chords of the 120-cell do not appear in this diagram at all, because they do not lie in the 200 irregular {12} dodecagon central planes. === Bitruncating the 5-cells === The smaller concentric 120-cell can be built from 5-cell building blocks, by applying a specific kind of truncation operation to the blocks of the larger 120-cell called [[w:Bitruncation|''bitruncation'']]. This reveals a smaller irregular 4-polytope inside each 5-cell called the [[w:Bitruncated_5-cell|bitruncated 5-cell]]. The smaller unit-radius 120-cell is the convex hull of a compound of 20 disjoint (and 60 distinct) bitruncated 5-cells, bitruncated from the 120 disjoint 5-cells of the larger {{Radic|2}}-radius 120-cell. Bitruncation of the 120 disjoint 5-cells is the same truncation of the 120-cell described in the previous section, at the two golden section truncation points on each 104.5° 5-cell edge where two co-planar 5-cell edges intersect. [[File:Truncatedtetrahedron.gif|thumb|A 12-point [[w:Truncated_tetrahedron|truncated tetrahedron]] cell of the 30-point 10-cell [[w:Bitruncated_5-cell|bitruncated 5-cell]].{{Sfn|Cyp: Truncated tetrahedron|2005}} Its edges are 41.4° chords of length 1 in a {{radic|2}}-radius 120-cell (or length {{radic|1/2}} in a unit-radius 120-cell). The 120-cell contains 20 disjoint (60 distinct) bitruncated 5-cells, containing 600 distinct truncated tetrahedra.]] The bitruncated 5-cell is a 30-vertex convex 4-polytope with 10 [[W:Truncated tetrahedron|truncated tetrahedron]] cells that have faces of two kinds: 4 triangle faces opposite 4 hexagon faces. The bitruncated 5-cell has 60 edges of the same length, 20 triangle faces, and 20 hexagon faces. Its 20 hexagon face planes are not [[24-cell#Great hexagons|24-cell central plane hexagons]]; they intersect each other at their edges, not at their long diameters. Its edges are not 60° 24-cell edge chords (the {{radic|2}} or 1 radius chords), but shorter 41.4° chords (of length 1 or {{radic|1/2}}), which do not appear at all in the diagram above, because they do not lie in the {12} central planes. The long diameter of the hexagon faces is not a 180° 120-cell long diameter chord (of length 2{{radic|2}} or 2) but a 90° 16-cell edge chord (of length 2 or {{radic|2}}). Consequently, three 16-cell tetrahedron cells (from three disjoint 16-cells) are inscribed in each truncated tetrahedron, at the three vertices of each face triangle. The truncated tetrahedron cell is a truncation of a tetrahedron of the same size as the tetrahedral cells of the 120-cell's 5-cells. The four smaller tetrahedra truncated from the corners of the larger tetrahedron have edges which are 25.2° chords (of length 1/𝜙 or {{radic|0.19}}). The truncated tetrahedron edges (of length 1 or {{radic|1/2}}) are equal in length to the 41.4° center sections of the 104.5° 5-cell edge chords (of length {{radic|5}} or {{radic|5/2}}). The shorter diagonal of the hexagon faces is the 75.5° chord (of length {{radic|3}} or {{radic|1.5}}), which is the 180° complement of the 104.5° 5-cell edge chord. The dimensions of the truncated tetrahedron cell suggest that it was cut directly from a 5-cell tetrahedron cell, simply by cutting off the tetrahedron corners, but remarkably, that is not the case. The edges of the bitruncated 5-cell are not actually center sections of 5-cell edges, although they are exactly that length, because the edges of the bitruncated 5-cell do not lie in the same {12} central planes as the 5-cell edges. They are not colinear with 5-cell edges in any way, and only intersect 5-cell edges at vertices (the 5-cell edges' intersection points). Bitruncation of the 5-cells does ''not'' simply truncate each tetrahedron cell in place. By creating new edges which connect the intersection points of 5-cell edges, bitruncation does create 600 truncated tetrahedron cells perfectly sized to fit within the 600 original tetrahedron cells, but at new locations, not centered on an original 5-cell tetrahedron cell. These new locations lie on a smaller 3-sphere than the original locations. [[File:Bitruncated_5-cell_net.png|thumb|Net of the bitruncated 5-cell honeycomb. 10 truncated tetrahedron cells alternately colored red and yellow.{{Sfn|Ruen: Net of the bitruncated 5-cell|2007}}]] The 3-dimensional surface of each bitruncated 5-cell is a honeycomb of 10 truncated tetrahedron cells. The truncated tetrahedra are joined face-to-face in a 3-sphere-filling honeycomb (like the cells of any 4-polytope), at both their hexagon and triangle faces. Each hexagonal face of a cell is joined in complementary orientation to the neighboring cell. Three cells meet at each edge, which is shared by two hexagons and one triangle. Four cells meet at each vertex in a [[w:Tetragonal_disphenoid|tetragonal disphenoid]] vertex figure. The 30-point bitruncated 5-cell is the convex common core (spatial [[w:Intersection|intersection]]) of six 5-point 5-cells in dual position. These six 5-cells are completely disjoint: they share no vertices, but their edges intersect orthogonally, at two points on each edge. Four 5-cell edges, from four of the six 5-cells, cross orthogonally in 30 places, the two intersection points on 60 5-cell edges: the 30 vertices of a bitruncated 5-cell. The six 5-cells are three dual pairs (in two different ways) of the self-dual 5-cell: six pairs of duals reciprocated at their common midsphere. Each dual pair intersects at just one of the two intersection points on each edge.{{Sfn|Klitzing|2025|loc=''sted'' (Stellated Decachoron)|ps=; [https://bendwavy.org/klitzing/incmats/sted.htm ''sted''] is the compound of two [https://bendwavy.org/klitzing/incmats/pen.htm ''pen'' (Pentachoron)] in dual position. Their intersection core ("Admiral of the fleet") is [https://bendwavy.org/klitzing/incmats/deca.htm ''deca'' (decachoron aka bitruncated pentachoron)].}} We have seen these six 5-cells before, illustrated in ''[[User:Dc.samizdat/A symmetrical arrangement of eleven 11-cells#Eleven|§Eleven]]'' above; they are the compound of six completely disjoint 5-cells visited during each 5-cell's characteristic isoclinic rotation of period 15.{{Efn|1=The 5-cell edges of the six disjoint pentagrams in the {30/12}=6{5/2} triacontagram illustration do not appear to intersect, as the 5-cell edge chords of the bitruncated 5-cell compound are said to intersect. The {30/12}=6{5/2} projection is a perspective view from inside the curved 3-dimensional space of the 120-cell's surface, looking straight down a cylindrical column of six stacked 5-cells. None of the 5-cell edges intersect in that curved 3-space, except where they meet at the 30 120-cell vertices. The 60 5-cell edges do intersect orthogonally in 4-space, in groups of four, at 30 points which lie on a smaller 3-sphere than the 120-cell. None of those 4-space intersections are visible in these projections of points and lines on the 120-cell's 3-sphere surface.|name=5-cell edges do not intersect is S³}} The six 5-cell compound is a stellated 4-polytope with 30 star-points, inscribed in the 120-cell.{{Efn|The stellated compound of six 5-cells in dual position is three pairs of 5-cells reciprocated at their common midsphere. It is composed of dual pairs of the [[W:Compound of five tetrahedra|compound of five tetrahedra]], which form the [[W:Compound of ten tetrahedra|compound of ten tetrahedra]]; its 30 tetrahedral cells are three such dual pairs. In the compound of five tetrahedra the edges of the tetrahedra do not intersect. In the compound of ten tetrahedra they intersect orthogonally, but not at their midpoints. Each edge has two points of intersection on it. The compound of ten tetrahedra is five pairs of dual tetrahedra reciprocated at their common midsphere. It is inscribed in a dodecahedron (its convex hull). Its ''stellation core'' is an icosahedron, but its ''common core'' where the tetrahedron edges intersect is a dodecahedron, the tetrahedrons' convex spatial intersection. The stellated compound of six 5-cells has the analogous property: it is inscribed in a bitruncated 5-cell (its convex hull), and its common core is a smaller bitruncated 5-cell. (Its stellation core is a [[W:Truncated 5-cell#Disphenoidal 30-cell|disphenoidal 30-cell]], its dual polytope.)|name=compound of six 5-cells}} It is 1/20th of the 600-point [[User:Dc.samizdat/A symmetrical arrangement of eleven 11-cells#How many building blocks, how many ways|great grand stellated 120-cell]], the compound of 120 5-cells. The convex hull of its 30 star-points is a bitruncated 5-cell. In this stellated compound of six 5-cells in dual position, the bitruncated 5-cell occurs in two places and two sizes: as both the convex hull, and the convex common core, of the six 5-cells. Inscribed in the larger 120-cell of radius {{radic|2}}, the convex hull of every six 5-cell compound is a bitruncated 5-cell with 60 edges of length 1. The convex common core of every six 5-cell compound is a bitruncated 5-cell with 60 edges of length {{radic|1/2}}, inscribed in the smaller 120-cell of radius 1. In the 120-cell, 120 disjoint 5-cell building blocks combine in dual position groups of six related by the 5-cell's isoclinic rotation, to make 60 bitruncated 5-cells inscribed in the self-dual 5-cells' midsphere (at their edge intersections), and also 60 larger bitruncated 5-cells inscribed in the 120-cell, with each of the 600 vertices shared by three bitruncated 5-cells. The 120-cell is the convex hull of a compound of 20 disjoint (60 distinct) 30-point bitruncated 5-cells, generated by the characteristic rotation of its 120 completely disjoint 5-cells.{{Sfn|Klitzing|2025|loc= ''teppix'' (tripesic hexacosachoron)|ps=; ''[https://bendwavy.org/klitzing/incmats/teppix.htm teppix]'' is a compound of 60 [https://bendwavy.org/klitzing/incmats/deca.htm ''deca'' (decachoron aka bitruncated pentachoron)] with 3 ''deca'' sharing each vertex.}}{{Efn|In the 120-cell, 600 tetrahedron cells of 120 completely disjoint 5-cells intersect at two truncation points on each edge. Those 2400 truncation points are the vertices of 200 disjoint (and 600 distinct) truncated tetrahedra, which are the cells of 20 disjoint (and 60 distinct) bitruncated 5-cells. The 60 bitruncated 5-cells share vertices, but not edges, faces or cells. Each bitruncated 5-cell finds its 30 vertices at the 30 intersection points of 4 orthogonal 5-cell edges, belonging to 6 disjoint 5-cells, in the original 120-cell. Each bitruncated 5-cell vertex lies on an edge of 4 disjoint original 5-cells. Each bitruncated 5-cell edge touches intersection points on all 6 disjoint original 5-cells, and is shared by 3 truncated tetrahedra of just one bitruncated 5-cell.}} In [[User:Dc.samizdat/A symmetrical arrangement of eleven 11-cells#Concentric 120-cells|the previous section]] we saw that the six 5-cell edges in each central plane intersect at the {6} vertices of the red hexagon, a great hexagon of a 24-cell. Each 5-cell edge, truncated at both ends at those intersection points, is a 24-cell edge of one of the 24-cells inscribed in a smaller 120-cell: the 600 intersection points. In this section we have seen how that truncation of 5-cell edges at both ends is the bitruncation of the 5-cell, and those 5-cell edges, truncated at both ends, are the same length as edges of bitruncated 5-cells inscribed in the original 120-cell. Bitruncating the {{radic|2}}-radius 120-cell's 120 5-cells reveals a smaller unit-radius 120-cell. The 24-cell edges of the smaller 120-cell are 5-cell edges of a larger-radius-by-{{radic|2}} 120-cell, truncated at both ends. Both 120-cells have 24-point 24-cells and 30-point bitruncated 5-cells inscribed in them. The 60° edge length of the 24-cells equals the radius; it is {{radic|2}} times the 41.4° edge length of the bitruncated 5-cells. The 60° 24-cell edges lie in the {12} central planes with the 5-cell edges and the 120-cell edges; but the 41.4° bitruncated 5-cell edges do not. The 120-cell contains 25 disjoint (225 distinct) 24-cells, and 20 disjoint (60 distinct) bitruncated 5-cells. Although regular 5-cells do not combine to form any regular 4-polytope smaller than the 120-cell, the 5-cells do combine to form semi-regular bitruncated 5-cells which are subsumed in the 120-cell.{{Efn|Although only major chords occur in regular 4-polytopes smaller than the 120-cell, minor chords do occur in semi-regular 4-polytopes smaller than the 120-cell. Truncating the 5-cell creates minor chords, such as the 41.1° edges of the bitruncated 5-cell.}} The 41.4° edge of the 30-point bitruncated 5-cell is also the triangle face edge we found in the 60-point central [[User:Dc.samizdat/A symmetrical arrangement of eleven 11-cells#The real hemi-icosahedron|section 8₃ (Moxness's Hull #8) rhombicosidodecahedron]]. There are 60 distinct section 8₃ rhombicosidodecahedra and 600 distinct truncated tetrahedron cells of 60 distinct (20 disjoint) bitruncated 5-cells, and they share triangle faces, but little else. The truncated tetrahedron cells cannot be inscribed in the rhombicosidodecahedra, and the only chords they share are the 41.4° triangle edge and the 75.5° chord (the 180° complement of the 104.5° 5-cell edge chord). The section 8₃ rhombicosidodecahedron's 20 triangle faces lie over the centers of 20 larger-by-√2 5-cell faces, parallel to them and to a {12} central plane. The 5-cell faces are inscribed in the rhombicosidodecahedron, but are not edge-bound to each other; the 20 faces belong to 10 completely disjoint 5-cells. The 5-cell edges (but not the 5-cell faces) lie in {12} central planes; the 5-cell faces, the bitruncated 5-cell edges and their triangle and hexagon faces do not. Each section 8₃ rhombicosidodecahedron is the intersection of ten {12} central planes, shared pairwise with ten other rhombicosidodecahedra; 11 rhombicosidodecahedra share ten {12} central planes pairwise, as cells of a 4-polytope share face planes pairwise. Each truncated tetrahedron cell of a bitruncated 5-cell shares none of the {12} central planes; it is the intersection of 6 great rectangles, with two parallel 41.1° edges lying in each, alternating with two parallel 138.6° chords (its hexagon face diameters). Each bitruncated 5-cell is the intersection of 30 great rectangle {4} central planes. A truncated tetrahedron is face-bonded to the outside of each triangle face of a rhombicosidodecahedron. Three of its hexagon faces stand on the long edge of a rectangle face, perpendicular to the rectangle. We find the 25.2° chord as the edge of the non-central section 6₃ (Moxness's Hull #6) rhombicosidodecahedron. Those 120 semi-regular rhombicosidodecahedra have only that single edge (of length 1/𝜙 in a {{radic|2}}-radius 120-cell, or 1/𝜙{{radic|2}} in a unit-radius 120-cell). This edge length is in the golden ratio to the 41.4° edge of the 30-point bitruncated 5-cells, which is also the triangle face edge of the central section 8₃ (Moxness's Hull #8) rhombicosidodecahedron. The 120 semi-regular section 6₃ rhombicosidodecahedra share their smaller edges with 720 pentagonal prisms, 1200 hexagonal prisms and 600 truncated tetrahedron cells, in a semi-regular honeycomb of the 120-cell discovered by Alicia Boole Stott and described in her 1910 paper.{{Sfn|Boole Stott|1910|loc=Table of Polytopes in S₄|ps=; <math>e_2e_3C_{120}\ RID\ P_5\ P_6\ tT</math>}} These truncated tetrahedra are 1/𝜙 smaller than the 600 cells of the bitruncated 5-cells. The 60 distinct section 8₃ rhombicosidodecahedra (Moxness's Hull #8) share pentagon faces. Each of the 120 dodecahedron cells lies just inside 12 distinct rhombicosidodecahedra which share its volume. Each rhombicosidodecahedron includes a ball of 13 dodecahedron cells, 12 around one at the center of the rhombicosidodecahedron, within its volume. The remainder of the rhombicosidodecahedron is filled by 30 dodecahedron cell fragments that fit into the concavities of the 13 cell ball of dodecahedra. These fragments have triangle and rectangle faces. === Rectifying the 16-cells === Bitruncation is not the only way to truncate a regular polytope, or even the simplest way. The simplest method of truncation is [[w:Rectification_(geometry)|''rectification'']], complete truncation at the midpoint of each edge. Moreover, the 5-cell is not the only 120-cell building block we can truncate. We saw how bitruncation of the {{radic|2}}-radius 120-cell's 5-cells reveals the smaller unit-radius 120-cell, as the convex hull of a compound of 20 disjoint (60 distinct) bitruncated 5-cells. In the next paragraph we describe how rectification of the {{radic|2}}-radius 120-cell's 16-cells also reveals the smaller unit-radius 120-cell, as the convex hull of a compound of 25 disjoint (225 distinct) 24-cells. Those two operations on the 120-cell are equivalent. They are the same truncation of the 120-cell, which bitruncates 5-cells into bitruncated 5-cells, and also rectifies 16-cells into 24-cells. This single truncation of the 120-cell captures the distant relationship of 5-cell building blocks to 16-cell building blocks. Rectifying a {{radic|2}}-radius 16-cell of edge 2 creates a unit-radius 24-cell of unit edge, which is the compound of three unit-radius 16-cells. Rectifying one of those inscribed unit-radius 16-cells of edge {{radic|2}} creates a smaller 24-cell of radius and edge {{radic|1/2}}, which is the [[24-cell#Relationships among interior polytopes|common core (intersection]]) of the unit 24-cell and its three inscribed 16-cells. Like the 120-cell itself, the 24-cell is concentric to a smaller instance of itself of {{radic|1/2}} its radius. The common core of each of the 24-cells inscribed in the 120-cell is the corresponding 24-cell in the smaller 120-cell. === Rectifying the 5-cells === In the previous section we bitruncated the 5-cells and rectified the 16-cells, as one combined truncation operation that yields a smaller 120-cell of {{radic|1/2}} the radius. We can also rectify the 5-cells; but that is another distinct truncation operation, that yields a smaller 4-polytope of {{radic|3/8}} the radius. [[File:Great (12) chords of rectified 5-cell.png|thumb|400px|5-cell edge chords of the radius {{radic|2}} 120-cell in one of its 200 irregular {12} dodecagon central planes. The {6} bitruncation points (two on each of the 104.5° {{radic|5}} 5-cell edges) lie on a smaller 120-cell of radius 1 (the red circle); they are bitruncated 5-cell vertices. The {6} rectification points (at the midpoints of the 5-cell edges) lie on a still smaller 1200-point 4-polytope of radius {{radic|0.75}} ≈ 0.866 (the magenta circle); they are rectified 5-cell vertices.]] Rectifying the 5-cell creates the 10-point 10-cell semi-regular [[W:Rectified 5-cell|rectified 5-cell]], with 5 tetrahedral cells and 5 octahedral cells. It has 30 edges and 30 equilateral triangle faces. The 3-dimensional surface of the rectified 5-cell is an alternating [[W:Tetrahedral-octahedral honeycomb|tetrahedral-octahedral honeycomb]] of just 5 tetrahedra and 5 octahedra, tessellating the 3-sphere. Its vertex figure is the cuboctahedron. The rectified 5-cell is a [[w:Blind_polytope|Blind polytope]], because it is convex with only regular facets. It is a bistratic lace tower which has exactly three vertex layers with the same Coxeter symmetry, aligned on top of each other.{{Sfn|Klitzing|2025|loc=''[https://bendwavy.org/klitzing/incmats/rap.htm rap (rectified pentachoron)]''}} If the 120 5-cells in a radius {{radic|2}} 120-cell are rectified, the rectified 5-cells lie on a smaller 4-polytope of radius {{radic|3/4}} (the magenta circle in the diagram), inscribed at the 1200 midedges of the 5-cells.{{Efn|{{radic|3/4}} ≈ 0.866 is the long radius of the {{radic|2}}-edge regular tetrahedron (the ''unit-radius'' 16-cell's cell). Those four tetrahedron radii are not orthogonal, and they radiate symmetrically compressed into 3 dimensions (not 4). The four orthogonal {{radic|3/4}} ≈ 0.866 displacements summing to a 120° degree displacement in the unit-radius 24-cell's characteristic isoclinic rotation{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} are not as easy to visualize as radii, but they can be imagined as successive orthogonal steps in a path extending in all 4 dimensions, along the orthogonal edges of the [[24-cell#Characteristic orthoscheme|24-cell's 4-orthoscheme]]. In an actual left (or right) isoclinic rotation the four orthogonal {{radic|3/4}} ≈ 0.866 steps of each 120° displacement are concurrent, not successive, so they ''are'' actually symmetrical radii in 4 dimensions. In fact they are four orthogonal [[24-cell#Characteristic orthoscheme|mid-edge radii of a unit-radius 24-cell]] centered at the rotating vertex. Finally, in 2 dimensional units, {{radic|3/4}} ≈ 0.866 is the ''area'' of the equilateral triangle face of the unit-edge, unit-radius 24-cell.|name=root 3/4}} This smaller 4-polytope is not a smaller 120-cell; it is the convex hull of a 1200-point compound of two 120-cells. The rectified 5-cell does not occur inscribed in the 120-cell; it only occurs in this compound of two 120-cells, 240 regular 5-cells, and 120 rectified 5-cells. The rectified 5-cell with its 80.4° edge chord does not occur anywhere in a single 120-cell, so the rectified 5-cell's edges are not the edges of any polytope found in the 120-cell. The rectified 5-cell's significance to the 120-cell is well-hidden, but we shall see that it has an indirect role as a building block of the 11-cells in the 120-cell. Each 10-point rectified 5-cell is the convex hull of a stellated compound of two completely orthogonal 5-point 5-cells: five pairs of antipodal vertices. Their edges intersect at the midedge, and they are ''not'' in dual position (not reciprocated at their common 3-sphere). In this stellated compound of two completely orthogonal 5-cells (which does not occur in the 120-cell), the rectified 5-cell occurs in two places and two sizes: as both the convex hull of the vertices, and the convex common core of the midedge intersections. The edge length of the rectified 5-cells in the smaller 1200-point 4-polytope of radius {{radic|3/4}} is {{radic|5/4}}. The edge length of a unit-radius rectified 5-cell is {{radic|5/3}}. The rectified 5-cell is characterized by the ratio between its edge and its radius, {{radic|5}} to {{radic|3}}, the way the regular 5-cell is characterized by the ratio {{radic|5}} to {{radic|2}}. In the 120-cell of radius {{radic|2}}, the 104.5° {{radic|5}} chord is the 5-cell edge, and the 75.5° {{radic|3}} chord is the distance between two parallel 5-cell edges (belonging to two disjoint 5-cells). The 104.5° and 75.5° chords are 180° complements, so they form great rectangles in the {12} central planes of the 120-cell (the red rectangles in the diagram). In the 1200-point compound of two 120-cells of radius {{radic|3}} where 120 rectified 5-cells occur, the {{radic|3}} chord is the ''radius'' (not the 75.5° chord), and the {{radic|5}} chord is the ''rectified'' 5-cell edge of arc 80.4° (not the 104.5° regular 5-cell edge). === Truncating the 5-cells === [[File:Great (12) chords of unit thirds radius.png|thumb|400px|Truncating the 120-cell's 5-cells at ''one-third'' of their edge length produces a smaller 120-cell of ''one-half'' the radius, with vertices at {6} one-third intersection points of the 120° {{Radic|6}} chords (''not'' of the 104.5° {{Radic|5}} 5-cell edge chords). The green {6} hexagon is a 24-cell great hexagon in the resulting smaller-by-one-half 1200-point 4-polytopes. Because there are {12} such intersection points in each {12} central plane, there are two chiral ways to perform this truncation, which produce disjoint 1200-point 4-polytopes.]] A third simple way to truncate the 5-cell is at one-third of its edge length. This truncation of the 5-cell creates a 20-point, 10-cell semi-regular 4-polytope, known somewhat ambiguously as ''the'' [[w:Truncated_5-cell|truncated 5-cell]], with 5 truncated tetrahedron cells (like the bitruncated 5-cell's), and 5 regular tetrahedron cells (like the rectified 5-cell's). The 3-dimensional surface of the truncated 5-cell is an alternating honeycomb of 5 truncated tetrahedra and 5 regular tetrahedra. It resembles the smaller rectified 5-cell with truncated tetrahedra instead of octahedra, or the larger bitruncated 5-cell with half its truncated tetrahedra replaced by regular tetrahedra. When the regular 5-cell is truncated at ''one-third'' of its edge length, the radius and edge length of the the resulting truncated 5-cell are ''one-half'' the regular 5-cell's radius and edge length. When the 120 5-cells in a 120-cell of radius 2 are truncated at one-third of their edge length, the truncated 5-cells lie on a smaller 120-cell of radius 1. The edge length of the unit-radius truncated 5-cell is {{radic|5/8}}, one-half the unit-radius 5-cell's edge length of {{radic|5/2}}. The rectified 5-cell is characterized by the ratio between its edge and its radius, {{radic|5}} to {{radic|8}}, the way the regular 5-cell is characterized by the ratio {{radic|5}} to {{radic|2}}, and the rectified 5-cell is characterized by the ratio {{radic|5}} to {{radic|3}}. The 20-point truncated 5-cell is the convex common core of a stellated compound of four 5-cells (the four 5-cells' spatial intersection). The convex common core has half the radius of the convex hull of the compound. The four 5-cells are orthogonal (aligned on the four orthogonal axes), but none of their 20 vertices are antipodal. The 5-cells are ''not'' in dual position (not reciprocated at their common 3-sphere). The 5-cell edges do ''not'' intersect, but truncating the 120-cell's 5-cell edge chords at their one-third points truncates the 120-cell's other chords similarly. It is the 120-cell's 120° chords (of length {{Radic|6}} in a {{Radic|2}}-radius 120-cell, or {{Radic|3}} in a unit-radius 120-cell) which intersect each other at their one-third points. Four edges (one from each 5-cell) intersect orthogonally at just ''one'' of the two one-third intersection points on each of the 2400 120° chords that join vertices of two disjoint 5-cells. There are two chiral ways to perform this truncation of the 120-cell; they use the alternate intersection points on each edge, and produce disjoint 600-point 120-cells. The 52.25° edge chord of the truncated 5-cell (one-half the 5-cell's 104.5° edge chord) is not among the [[120-cell#Chords|chords of the 120-cell]], so the truncated 5-cell does not occur inscribed in the 120-cell; it occurs only in a compound of four 120-cells, and 480 regular 5-cells, and 120 truncated 5-cells. In the stellated compound of four orthogonal 5-cells (which does not occur in the 120-cell), the truncated 5-cell occurs in two places and two sizes: as both the convex hull of the 20 vertices, and the convex common core (of half the radius of the convex hull) of the 20 intersection points of four orthogonal 120° chords. == The perfection of Fuller's cyclic design == [[File:Jessen's unit-inscribed-cube dimensions.png|thumb|400px|Jessen's icosahedron on the 2-sphere of diameter {{radic|5}} has an inscribed unit-cube. It has 4 orthogonal axes (not shown) through the equilateral face centers (the inscribed cube's vertices), 6 non-orthogonal {{radic|5}} long diameter axes, and 3 orthogonal parallel pairs of {{radic|4}} reflex edges, {{radic|1}} apart.]] This section is not an historical digression, but a deep dive to the heart of the matter, like Coxeter on Todd's perfect pentads. In this case the heart is found in the [[Kinematics of the cuboctahedron|kinematics of the cuboctahedron]],{{Sfn|Christie|2022|loc=''[[Kinematics of the cuboctahedron|Kinematics of the cuboctahedron]]''}} first described by [[W:Buckminster Fuller|Buckminster Fuller]].{{Sfn|Christie: On Fuller's use of language|2024|loc=''[[W:User:Dc.samizdat#Bucky Fuller and the languages of geometry|Bucky Fuller and the languages of geometry]]''}} After inventing the rigid geodesic dome, Fuller studied a family of domes which have no continuous compression skeleton, but only disjoint rigid beams joined by tension cables. Fuller called these envelopes ''tension integrity structures'', because they possess independent tension and compression elements, but no elements which do both. One of the simplest [[w:Tensegrity|tensegrity]] structures is the [[w:Tensegrity#Tensegrity_icosahedra|tensegrity icosahedron]], first described by [[W:Kenneth Snelson|Kenneth Snelson]], a master student of Fuller's.{{Efn|Fuller failed to credit [[W:Kenneth Snelson|Snelson]] for the first ascent of the tensegrity icosahedron, a sad lapse for a great educator, as if Coxeter had not gracefully acknowleged Grünbaum. Snelson taught it to Fuller, his teacher, at a Black Mountain College summer session<ref>{{Citation|year=1949|title=R. Buckminster Fuller|publisher=Museum and Arts Center, 1948-1949|place=Black Mountain College|url=https://www.blackmountaincollege.org/buckminster-fuller}}</ref> where Fuller taught the geodesic domes he had invented, and the nascent principles of tension integrity geodesics he was exploring. It would have burnished Fuller's own reputation to gratefully acknowledge his exceptionally quick student's discovery. No doubt Fuller was about to discover the tensegrity icosahedron himself, but Snelson saw it first.<ref>{{Citation|last=Snelson|first=Kenneth|author-link=W:Kenneth Snelson|publisher=Stanford University|title=Bucky Conversations: Conversations on the Life and Work of an Enigmatic Genius|year=2003|url=https://searchworks.stanford.edu/view/mf245gr4637|postscript=; Ken Snelson, at a symposium on Fuller's legacy, acknowledged that Fuller led him up to the tensegrity icosahedron. Snelson said that he then conceived it on his own, built the first physical model, and presented it to Fuller.}}</ref>|name=Snelson and Fuller}} A tensegrity icosahedron is an icosahedral geodesic sphere whose 6 orthogonal reflex compression struts float gently in space, linked only by 24 tension cables which frame equilateral faces of the icosahedron, the whole 2-sphere expanding and contracting symmetrically with ''infinitesimal mobility'', a spring-like symmetrical motion leveraged from whatever tiny amount of elasticity remains in the steel struts and cables. The polyhedron that is the basis for this flexible structure is the Jessen's icosahedron, that we found 10 of in Moxness's Hull #8 rhombicosidodecahedron, the real cell of the 11-cell. The Jessen's was named by [[w:Adrien_Douady|Douady]] the ''six-beaked shaddock'' because it resembles the fish whose normal affect is with their mouth 90° open, but a [[W:Cubist|cubist]] shadfish with mouths on all six sides. At the limits, the gender neutral shad can open their six beaks all the way, until they become flat squares and they becomes a cuboctahedron, or they can shut them all tight like a turtle retracting into their octahedron shell. The six mouths always move in unison. This is [[Kinematics of the cuboctahedron#Jitterbug transformations|Fuller's ''jitterbug'' transformation]] of the 12-point ''vector equilibrium'', his name for the unstable [[Kinematics of the cuboctahedron|kinematically flexing cuboctahedron]]. Fuller found that its always-symmetric transformation through 4 distinct forms of the same 12-vertex polyhedron was a closed cycle with two equilibrium points, one stable and the other unstable. The shad's normal 90° open visage is the stable point, the shape the [[Kinematics_of_the_cuboctahedron#Elastic-edge transformation|elastic tensegrity icosahedron]] rests in and strives to return to. The widest-open square-faced cuboctahedron is the unstable inflection point, where the shad gets to decide non-deterministically (that is, without being compelled one way or the other) whether or not to do their ''really'' odd trick -- where they flip their 6 jaws 90 degrees in their 6 faces and shut their 6 beaks on the opposite axis of their squares than the one they opened them on -- or whether they will just shut them all the same way again. Interestingly, the regular icosahedron is one of the shad's guises too, just slightly more gaping than their normal visage. Fuller made a meal of the shad, finding all the insightful things to say about the kinematics of the only fish who can make their edge length exactly the same size as their radius, when they open their mouths all the way. Fuller built physical models of the 12-point vector equilibrium, and even gave demonstrations to audiences of the flexible shad, opening and closing their mouths in spherical synchrony, their 4 pairs of opposite equilateral triangles spiraling toward and away from each other in parallel, always opposed like the two triangles inscribed in a hexagon, counter-rotating like dual [[W:Propellor|tri-propellors]] as they dance toward each other until their edges meet in an octahedron (a hexad), then backing away again while still rotating in the same directions. All this was overlaid with Fuller's own deep commentary, in physical language anyone can understand. Bucky flew the shad through the inflection points in its [[W:Spinor|spinor]] orbit, explaining its [[W:Möbius_loop|Möbius loop]] with vivid apt similes like trimming a submarine's ballast tanks, stalling an airplane at apogee, and nature's abhorrence of the unstable equilibrium point.{{Sfn|Fuller|1975|ps=; In this film Fuller carefully folds a model of the cuboctahedron made of rigid struts with flexible joints through the entire transformation cycle; he also shows how a rigid regular icosahedron can be rotated inside an inscribing "vector edge cube" (a cube with an octahedron inscribed in it), keeping the 12 vertices on the surface of the cube (and on the edges of the octahedron inscribed in the cube) at all times.}} Earlier, we noticed 10 Jessen's inscribed in each 60-point rhombicosidodecahedron central section of the 120-cell (each real hemi-icosahedron). Each rhombicosidodecahedron is a compound of 5 disjoint Jessen's, in two different ways, just the way the 120-cell is a compound of 5 disjoint 600-cells, in two different ways. In the rhombicosidodecahedron each regular icosahedron vertex has been replaced by the five vertices of a little pentagon face (a 120-cell face), and the regular icosahedron has been replaced by 5 disjoint (10 distinct) Jessen's icosahedra.{{Efn|name=compound of 5 cuboctahedra}} The 3 pairs of parallel 5-cell edges in each Jessen's lie a bit uncertainly, infinitesimally mobile and [[Kinematics of the cuboctahedron#Elastic-edge transformation|behaving like the struts of a tensegrity icosahedron]], so we can push any parallel pair of them apart or together infinitesimally, making each Jessen's icosahedron expand or contract infinitesimally. All 600 Jessen's, all 60 rhombicosidodecahedra, and the 120-cell itself expand or contract infinitesimally, together.{{Efn|name=tensegrity 120-cell}} Expansion and contraction are Boole Stott's operators of dimensional analogy, and that infinitesimal mobility is the infinite calculus of an inter-dimensional symmetry. The Jessen's unique element set is its 6 long reflex edges, which occur in 3 parallel opposing pairs. Each pair lies in its own central plane, and the 3 central planes are the orthogonal central planes of the octahedron, the orthonormal (x,y), (y,z), and (x,z) planes of a Cartesian basis frame. The 6 reflex edges are all disjoint from one another, but each pair of them forms a merely conceptual great rectangle with the pair of invisible exterior chords that lies in the same central plane. These three great rectangles are storied elements in topology, the [[w:Borromean_rings|Borromean rings]]. They are three rectangular chain links that pass through each other and would not be separated even if all the other cables in the tensegrity icosahedron were cut; it would fall flat but not apart, provided of course that it had those 6 invisible exterior chords as still uncut cables. [[File:Jessen's √2 radius dimensions.png|thumb|400px|Moxness's 60-point section 8₃ rhombicosidodecahedron is a compound of 5 of this 12-point Jessen's icosahedron, shown here in a {{radic|2}}-radius 3-sphere with {{radic|5}} reflex edges. It has an inscribed {{radic|1.5}} green cube, and its 8 equilateral triangle faces are 24-cell faces. This is a ''vertex figure'' of the 120-cell. The center point is also a vertex of the 120-cell.]] As a matter of convenience in this paper, we have used {{radic|2}}-radius metrics for 3-sphere polytopes, so e.g. the 5-cell edge is {{radic|5}}, where in unit-radius coordinates it would be {{Radic|5/2}}. Here we give two illustrations of the Jessen's using two different metrics: the 2-sphere Jessen's has a {{radic|5}} diameter, and the 3-sphere Jessen's has a {{radic|2}} radius. This reveals a curiously cyclic way in which our 2-sphere and 3-sphere metrics correspond. In the embedding into 4-space the characteristic root factors of the Jessen's seem to have moved around. In particular, the {{radic|5}} chord has moved to the former {{radic|4}} chord. We might have expected to find the 6-point hemi-icosahedron's 5-cell triangular faces identified with the Jessen's 8 equilateral triangle faces somehow, but they are not the same size, so that is not the way the two polytopes are identified. The {{radic|5}} reflex edges of the Jessen's are the 5-cell edges. A 5-cell face has its three {{radic|5}} edges in three different Jessen's icosahedra. The Jessen's is not a cell, but one of the 120-cell's vertex figures, like the [[600-cell#Icosahedra|120 regular icosahedron vertex figures in the 600-cell]]. That is why we find 600 Jessen's, of course. The center point in this Jessen's illustration is another ''vertex'' of the 120-cell, not the empty center of a cell.{{Efn|The 13 vertices of the illustration which include its center point lie in the curved 3-space of the 3-sphere, on the 120-cell's surface. In 4-space, this object is an [[W:Icosahedral pyramid|icosahedral pyramid]] with a Jessen's icosahedron as its base, and the apical center vertex as its apex. The center point in the illustration is a vertex of the 120-cell, and the center of the curved Jessen's, and the apex of the icosahedral pyramid, but it is not the center point in 4-space of a flat 3-dimensional Jessen's icosahedron. The center point of the base Jessen's icosahedron is a point inside the 120-cell, not a 120-cell vertex on its surface. It lies in the same 3-dimensional flat-slice hyperplane as the 12 vertices of the base Jessen's icosahedron, directly below the 13th 120-cell vertex.}} Each Jessen's includes the central apex vertex, {{radic|2}} radii, {{radic|2}} edges and {{radic|5}} chords of a vertex figure around the 120-cell vertex at its center. The {{radic|2}} face edges are 24-cell edges (also tesseract edges), and the inscribed green cube is the 24-cell's cube vertex figure. The 8 {{radic|2}} face triangles occur in 8 distinct 24-cells that meet at the apex vertex.{{Efn|Eight 24-cells meet at each vertex of a [[24-cell#Radially equilateral honeycomb|honeycomb of 24-cells]]: each one meets its opposite at that shared vertex, and the six others at a shared octahedral cell.{{Efn|In the 600-cell, which contains [[600-cell#Twenty-five 24-cells|25 24-cells]], 5 24-cells meet at each vertex. Each pair of 24-cells at the vertex meets at one of 200 distinct great hexagon central planes. Each 24-cell shares one of its great hexagons with 16 other 24-cells, and is completely disjoint from 8 other 24-cells. In the 120-cell, which contains 10 600-cells (5 disjoint 600-cells two different ways) and 225 24-cells (25 disjoint 24-cells), 8 24-cells meet at each vertex. Each 24-cell shares one of its great hexagons with 16 other 24-cells, and is completely disjoint from 208 other 24-cells. But since in the 120-cell the great hexagons lie in pairs in one of 200 {12} central planes (containing 400 great hexagons), each 24-cell shares one of its {12} central ''planes'' with .. other 24-cells.}}}} This Jessen's vertex figure includes 5-cell edges and 24-cell edges (which are also tesseract edges), so it is descriptive of the relationship between those regular 4-polytopes, but it does not include any 120-cell edges or 600-cell edges, so it has nothing to say, by itself, about the <math>H_4</math> polytopes. It is only a tiny fraction of the 120-cell's full vertex figure, which is a staggeringly complex star: 600 chords of 30 distinct lengths meet at each of the 600 vertices. The {{radic|5}} chords are 5-cell edges, connecting vertices in different 24-cells. The 3 pairs of parallel 5-cell edges in each Jessen's lie in 3 orthogonal planes embedded in 4-space, so somewhere there must be a 4th pair of parallel 5-cell edges orthogonal to all of them, in fact three more orthogonal pairs, since 6 orthogonal planes (not just 4) intersect at a point in 4-space. The Jessen's situation is that it lies completely orthogonal to another Jessen's, the vertex figure of the antipodal vertex, and its 3 orthogonal planes (xy, yz, zx) lie completely orthogonal to its antipodal Jessen's planes (wz, wx, wy).{{Efn|name=Six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} These 6 pairs of parallel 5-cell edges form a 24-point 4-polytope, composed of two completely orthogonal 12-point Jessen's, inscribed in two completely orthogonal rhombicosidodecahedra. This 24-point 4-polytope is not a 24-cell: the 24-cell is not a compound of two 12-point Jessen's. But it turns out that two completely orthogonal 12-point Jessen's indirectly define a 24-point 24-cell. We shall see that their 4-space intersection is a 24-cell. This finding, of two completely orthogonal 12-point Jessen's isomorphic to a 24-cell, brings Fuller's study of [[w:Tesseract#Radial_equilateral_symmetry|radially equilateral]] vector equilibrium polytopes to its completion in the 24-cell. Fuller began with the hexagon, the 6-point vector equilibrium in 2 dimensions, the only polygon with its radius equal to its edge length. He studied the cuboctahedron, the 12-point vector equilibrium in 3 dimensions, the only polyhedron with its radius equal to its edge length, in all its flexible guises. He discovered its stable equilibrium as the the Jessen's shadfish, with its cube of 6 open mouths and 90° dihedral angles between all its faces, the geometric center of [[WikiJournal Preprints/Kinematics of the cuboctahedron|the cuboctahedron's kinematic transformation]] through the regular polyhedra: tetrahedron, octahedron, Jessen's, regular icosahedron, and cuboctahedron. Fuller's study of kinematic Euclidean geometry did not reach the 4-polytopes, and the ultimate 24-point vector equilibrium in 4 dimensions, the 24-cell, the unique <math>F_4</math> symmetry found only in 4 dimensions. But Fuller led us up to it, through the kinematics of infinitesimal mobility, and that route to it is our clue to the infinite calculus of dimensional expansion and contraction. We observe this geometry, of two completely orthogonal 12-point Jessen's isomorphic to a 24-cell, only in the 120-cell. The 600-cell contains 12-point Jessen's, but no completely orthogonal pairs of them. The 24-cell individually, and the 25 24-cells in the 600-cell, are not occupied by a pair of 12-point Jessen's. The 24-point 24-cell is not, in fact, a compound of two 12-point Jessen's. While the 120-cell's ratio of disjoint 12-point Jessen's to disjoint 24-point 24-cells is <math>50/25 = 2/1</math>, the ratio of distinct 12-point Jessen's to distinct 24-point 24-cells is <math>600/225 = 8/3 </math>. We observe another geometry, of 24-cells in dual positions, only in the 120-cell. No two 24-cells in the 600-cell are in dual positions, but in the 120-cell with 225 distinct 24-cells (25 disjoint 24-cells), every 24-cell is in dual position to other 24-cells. The 24-cell is self-dual, and when two 24-cells of the same radius are in dual position, they are completely disjoint with respect to vertices, but they intersect at the midpoints of their 96 orthogonal edges. Since four orthogonal lines intersect at a point in 4-space, in addition to the midedge radius and the two intersecting edges there is a third intersecting edge through each point of contact: ''three'' 24-cells lie in dual positions to each other, with their orthogonal edges intersecting. Three ''pairs'' of 24-cells lie in orthogonal dual positions to each other, sharing no vertices, but the same 96 midedge points. We also observe this geometry, of 24-cells in dual positions, in the irregular {12} dodecagon central planes, which have two inscribed great {6} hexagons, offset from each other irregularly by a 15.5° arc on one side (a 120-cell edge chord) and a 44.5° arc on the other side. The 600-cell and the 24-cell contain only great {6} hexagon planes. The two inscribed great {6} hexagons in each {12} central plane belong to a pair of 24-cells in dual position. We observe inscribed 5-cells only in the 120-cell. The 600-cell has <math>5^2 = 25</math> distinct 24-cells inscribed in 120 vertices, and is a regular compound of <math>5</math> disjoint 24-cells in 10 different ways, but it has no inscribed 5-point 5-cells joining corresponding vertices of 5 of its 25 24-cells.{{Efn|The 600-cell does have inscribed 5-point great pentagons joining corresponding vertices of 5 of its 25 24-cells. The 600-cell has 2-dimensional pentads, but only the 120-cell has 4-dimensional pentads.}} The 120-cell has <math>5^2 \times 3^2 = 225</math> distinct 24-cells inscribed in 600 vertices, and is a regular compound of <math>5^2 = 25</math> disjoint 24-point 24-cells in 10 different ways, and it has 120 inscribed 5-cells joining corresponding vertices of 5 of its 225 24-cells. [[File:Great 5-cell √5 digons rectangle.png|thumb|400px|Three {{radic|5}} x {{radic|3}} rectangles (red) are found in 200 central planes of the radius {{radic|2}} 120-cell, and in its 600 Jessen's icosahedra, where 3 orthogonal rectangles comprise each 12-point Jessen's. Each central plane intersects {12} vertices in an irregular great dodecagon. These are the same 200 dodecagon central planes illustrated above, which also contain 6 120-cell edges (solid red), which form two opposing ''irregular'' great hexagons (truncated triangles) with the {{radic|5}} chords. The {12} central planes also contain four {{radic|6}} great triangles (green), inscribed in two {{radic|2}} ''regular'' great hexagons. 1200 smaller {{radic|5}} 5-cell ''face'' triangles (blue) occupy 600 other, non-central planes.]] The Jessen's eight {{radic|6}} triangle faces lie in eight great {6} hexagons in eight {12} central planes of the 120-cell. The Jessen's {{radic|5}} chords lie in great {4} rectangles ({{radic|5}} by {{radic|3}}) in orthogonal central planes of the Jessen's. These are ''also'' {12} central planes of the 120-cell. We can pick out the {{radic|5}} by {{radic|3}} rectangles in the {12} central plane chord diagrams (bounded by red dashed lines). The Jessen's vertex figure is bounded by eight {12} face planes, and divided by six orthogonal {12} central planes, and all 14 planes are {12} central planes of the 120-cell. The 5-cells' ''face'' planes are ''not'' central planes of the 120-cell. Recall that 10 distinct Jessen's are inscribed in each rhombicosidodecahedron, as two chiral sets of 5 completely disjoint Jessen's, such that two {{radic|5}} 5-cell edges meet at each vertex of the rhombicosidodecahedron. These are two of the four 5-cell edges that meet at each vertex of the 5-cell: edges of a 5-cell face, 20 of which are disjointly inscribed in each rhombicosidodecahedron. In each Jessen's the 6 {{radic|5}} reflex edges are disjoint, and in each rhombicosidodecahedron only two edges meet at each vertex, but in the 120-cell each {{radic|5}} chord meets three others, that lie in three other Jessen's. Each 5-cell face triangle has each edge in a distinct Jessen's, but the face triangle lies in just one rhombicosidodecahedron. The 1200 5-cell face triangles lie in opposing pairs, in one of 600 ''non-central'' hexagon ''face'' planes. Each of the 60 rhombicosidodecahedra is a compound of 10 Jessen's (5 disjoint Jessen's in two different ways), just the way the 120-cell is a compound of 10 600-cells (5 disjoint 600-cells in two different ways), and the 120-cell's dodecahedron cell is a compound of 10 600-cell tetrahedron cells (5 disjoint tetrahedra in two different ways). The 600 Jessen's in the 120-cell occur in bundles of 8 disjoint Jessen's, in 4 completely orthogonal pairs, each pair aligned with one of the four axes of the Cartesian coordinate system. Collectively they comprise 3 disjoint 24-cells in orthogonal dual position. They are [[24-cell#Clifford parallel polytopes|Clifford parallel 4-polytopes]], 3 completely disjoint 24-cells 90° apart, and two sets of 4 completely disjoint Jessen's 15.5° apart. Opposite triangle faces in a Jessen's occupy opposing positions in opposite great hexagons. In contrast, the two completely orthogonal Jessen's are completely disjoint, with completely orthogonal bounding planes that intersect only at one point, the center of the 120-cell. The corresponding {{radic|6}} triangle faces of two completely orthogonal Jessen's occupy completely orthogonal {12} central planes that share no vertices. If we look again at a single Jessen's, without considering its completely orthogonal twin, we see that it has 3 orthogonal axes, each the rotation axis of a plane of rotation that one of its Borromean rectangles lies in. Because this 12-point (tensegrity icosahedron) Jessen's lies in 4-space, it also has a 4th axis, and by symmetry that axis too must be orthogonal to 4 vertices in the shape of a Borromean rectangle: 4 additional vertices. We see that the 12-point (vertex figure) Jessen's is part of a 16-point (8-cell) tesseract containing 4 orthogonal Borromean rings (not just 3), which should not be surprising since we already found it was part of a 24-point (24-cell) 4-polytope, which contains 3 16-point (8-cell) tesseracts. Each 12-point (6 {{radic|5}} reflex edge) Jessen's is one of 10 concentric Jessen's in a rhombicosidodecahedron, two sets of 5 disjoint Jessen's rotated with respect to each other isoclinically by 12° x 12° = 15.5°, with a total of 60 disjoint {{radic|5}} edges. Each 12-point (24 {{radic|6}} edge) Jessen's is one of 8 concentric Jessen's in two 24-cells in dual positions, rotated with respect to each other isoclinically by 41.4° x 41.4° = 90°, with a total of 192 {{radic|6}} edges.{{Efn|There are 96 {{radic|6}} chords in each 24-cell, linking every other vertex under its 96 {{radic|2}} edges.}} The 24-point 24-cell has 4 Hopf fibrations of 4 hexagonal great circle fibers, so it is a complex of 16 great hexagons, generally not orthogonal to each other, but containing 3 sets of 4 orthogonal great hexagons. Three Borromean link great rectangles are inscribed in each great hexagon, and three tesseracts are inscribed in each 24-cell. Four of the 6 orthogonal [[w:Borromean_rings|Borromean link]] great rectangles in each completely orthogonal pair of Jessen's are inscribed in each tesseract. == Conclusion == Thus we see what the 11-cell really is: an unexpected seventh regular convex 4-polytope falling between the 600-cell and 120-cell, a quasi-regular compound of 600-cell and 5-cell (an icosahedron-tetrahedron analogue), as the 24-cell is an unexpected sixth regular convex polytope falling between the 8-cell and 600-cell, a quasi-regular compound of 8-cell and 16-cell (a cube-octahedron analogue). Like the 5-cell, the 11-cell is a far-side 4-polytope with its long edges spanning the near and far halves of the 3-sphere. Unlike the 5-cell, the 11-cell's left and right rotational instances are not the same object: they have distinct cell polyhedra, which are duals. The 11-cell is a real regular convex 4-polytope, not just an [[W:abstract polytope|abstract 4-polytope]], but not just a singleton regular convex 4-polytope, and not just a single kind of cell honeycomb on the 3-sphere.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1970|loc=''Twisted Honeycombs''}} Though it is all those things singly, it never occurs singly, but its multiple instances in the 120-cell compound to all those things, and significantly more. The 11-cell (singular) is the 11-vertex (17 cell) non-uniform Blind 4-polytope, with 11 non-uniform [[W:Rhombicosidodecahedron|rhombicosidodecahedron]] cells. The abstract regular 11-point (11-cell) has a realization in Euclidean 4-space as this convex 4-polytope, with regular facets and regular triangle faces. The 11-cell (plural) is subsumed in the 120-cell, as all the regular convex 4-polytopes are. The compound of eleven 11-cells (the ..-cell) and Schoute's compound of five 24-cells (the 600-cell) is the quasi-regular 137-point (..-cell) 4-polytope, an object of further study. The 11-cells' realization in the 120-cell as 600 12-point (Legendre vertex figures) captures precisely the geometric relationship between the regular 5-cell and 16-cell (4-simplex and 4-orthoplex), which are both inscribed in the 11-point (17-cell), 137-point (..-cell) and 600-point (120-cell), but are so distantly related to each other that they are not found together anywhere else. More generally, the 11-cells capture the geometric relationship between the regular ''n''-polytopes of different ''n''. The symmetry groups of all the regular 4-polytopes are expressed in the 11-cells, paired in a special way with their analogous 3-symmetry groups. It is not simple to state exactly what relates 3-symmetry groups to 4-symmetry groups (there is Dechant's induction theorem),{{Sfn|Dechant|2021|loc=''Clifford Spinors and Root System Induction: H4 and the Grand Antiprism''}} but the 11-cells seem to be the expression of their dimensional analogies. == Build with the blocks == <blockquote>"The best of truths is of no use unless it has become one's most personal inner experience."{{Sfn|Duveneck|1978|loc=Carl Jung, quoted in ''Life on Two Levels''|p=ii|ps=.{{Sfn|Jung|1961|ps=: "The best of truths is of no use unless it has become one's most personal inner experience. It is the duty of everyone who takes a solitary path to share with society what he finds on his journey of discovery."}}}}</blockquote> <blockquote>"Even the very wise cannot see all ends."{{Sfn|Tolkien|1954|loc=Gandalf}}</blockquote> No doubt this entire essay is too discursive, and mathematically educated writers reach their findings more directly. I have told my story this way, still in a less halting and circuitous manner than it came to me, because it is important to show how I came by my understanding of these objects, and I am not a mathematician. I have been a child building with blocks, and my only guides have been the wiser children who built with the blocks before me, and told me how they did it; that, and my own nearly physical experience building with them, in my imagination. I am at pains to show how that can be done, even by as mathematically illiterate a child as I am. {{Regular convex 4-polytopes|columns=7|wiki=W:|radius={{radic|2}}|instance=2}} {{Regular convex 4-polytopes|columns=7|wiki=W:|radius=1}} == Acknowledgements == ... == Notes == {{Notelist}} == Citations == {{Reflist}} == References == {{Refbegin}} * {{Cite web| url = https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9sM44p385Ws| title = Vector Equilibrium | first = R. 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Gregory|editor-link4=W:User:Jgmoxness|year=2024|ref={{SfnRef|Ruen & Goucher et al. eds. 600-cell|2024}}}} * {{Citation|title=120-cell|title-link=120-cell|journal=Polyscheme|publisher=Wikiversity|editor-last1=Ruen|editor-first1=Tom|editor-link1=W:User:Tomruen|editor-last2=Goucher|editor-first2=A.P.|editor-link2=W:User:Cloudswrest|editor-last3=Christie|editor-first3=David Brooks|editor-link3=W:User:Dc.samizdat|editor-last4=Moxness|editor-first4=J. Gregory|editor-link4=W:User:Jgmoxness|year=2024|ref={{SfnRef|Ruen & Goucher et al. eds. 120-cell|2024}}}} * {{Cite book|last=Sandperl|first=Ira|author-link=W:Ira Sandperl|title=A Little Kinder|year=1974|publisher=Science and Behavior Books|place=Palo Alto, CA|isbn=0-8314-0035-8|lccn=73-93870|url=https://www.allinoneboat.org/a-little-kinder-an-old-friend-moves-on/|ref={{SfnRef|Sandperl|1974}}}} * {{Cite book|last=Tolkien|first=J.R.R.|title=The Lord of the Rings|orig-date=1954|volume=The Fellowship of the Ring|chapter=The Shadow of the Past|page=69|edition=2nd|date=1967|publisher=Houghton Mifflin|place=Boston|author-link=W:J.R.R.Tolkien|title-link=W:The Lord of the Rings|ref={{SfnRef|Tolkien|1954}}}} {{Refend}} l42jfah4mk1ojzg6z6omspbv93g0utm 0 307192 2836481 2831671 2026-10-07T08:39:32Z U3275940 3106402 2836481 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Hygiene motivation:<br>What motivates maintenance of personal hygiene?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} ;Scenario [[File:Hand washing man.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Washing hands became a more frequent hygiene behaviour during the COVID-19 pandemic.]] You became increasingly aware of your own hygiene when the COVID-19 pandemic took over our lives in 2020. In the beginning, you were motivated by the fear of infection and desire to protect your loved ones. You washed your hands more frequently, used hand sanitiser after touching surfaces in public, cleaned your phone, and became more aware of how germs are passed on from person to person. As time passed, these hygiene behaviours became less about COVID-19, and more about feeling clean, easing the anxiety of spreading germs and keeping up with the standards of our society as encouraged during the pandemic. Even though the threat of COVID-19 has decreased immensely, you continue to wash your hands when you arrive home, sanitise after using public transport, and avoid sharing personal items when someone is sick. This displays how emotions and societal expectations can initially motivate our behaviour, while repetition, personal values and habit formations can maintain these behaviours over the course of our lives. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Personal hygiene is a fundamental feature of day-to-day life that influences one’s health, interactions with others, and overall wellbeing. While hygiene behaviours such as handwashing, bathing, and brushing teeth are seen as routine habits, people are motivated to engage in these behaviours for different reasons. The Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) explains that hygiene behaviours can prevent disease, influence social acceptance, and bring personal comfort. Understanding the motivating factors behind the maintenance of personal hygiene is vital in encouraging long-term health behaviours and developing successful health promotion interventions. Personal hygiene is motivated by a range of factors which can assist in gaining an understanding of the reasons people engage and maintain hygiene behaviours. The health belief model can support the understanding of motivation related to the maintenance of personal hygiene.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} '''Focus questions''' # What are the core motivators for personal hygiene? # How did the COVID-19 pandemic influence motivation to maintain personal hygiene? # How do societal expectations influence one’s motivation to maintain personal hygiene? # Are theoretical perspectives contributing to our understanding of motivation towards personal hygiene? # Do emotions motivate people to maintain hygiene behaviours? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Core motivators of personal hygiene == Personal hygiene can be motivated by a range of factors. The core motivators for personal hygiene are explored below. === Societal expectations === * Norms, peer pressure, and group identity can shape hygiene behaviours (Laursen & Faur, 2022). * Some hygiene behaviours are engaged with purely due to conformity or fear of judgement from others as opposed to a healthy practice (Pilli et al., 2024). * Example using a family scenario, where one child is encouraged to shower daily, and the other every second day. Are people more motivated to engage in personal hygiene when encouraged by those close to them? === Education and understanding of hygiene practices === [[File:Wash-your-hands-poster-english-508.pdf|thumb|297x297px|'''Figure 2.''' Public health messaging to promote proper hand washing hygiene in schools. ]] * Knowledge of the spread of disease through public health messaging (see Figure 2) or learning can influence motivation and engagement with behaviours (Bloomfield & Ackerley, 2023). * Understanding the reasons behind hygiene practices and their effectiveness can motivate individuals to engage with them, especially to avoid contracting a disease. * During COVID-19, which will be discussed later in this chapter, health messaging provided explanations as to why washing your hands for 20 seconds with warm water and soap was a vital hygiene behaviour to avoid contracting the illness (World Health Organisation, 2025). === Habit formation === * Hygiene practices can become second nature through repetition and reinforcement (Singh et al., 2024). * Brushing teeth, showering, and changing clothes are all personal hygiene behaviours that are second nature to many individuals. * What contributes to formation of habits? === Emotions === * Disgust and fear of illness can be drivers for hygiene behaviour in the same way depression and executive dysfunction can act as barriers (Ghassemi et al., 2023). * Explore levels of fear, including for self and loved ones. * Explore depression and executive dysfunction specific barriers to personal hygiene. === COVID-19 as a catalyst for personal hygiene === COVID-19 was a global pandemic that took over the world in 2020. From lockdowns to masks, hygiene behaviours changed drastically for individuals across the globe (World Health Organisation, 2025). * Increased hygiene engagement ** Handwashing as a more regular practice, sanitiser stations in public spaces, mask hygiene (see Figure 3), disinfecting and cleaning of surfaces after use (World Health Organisation, 2025). [[File:A woman wearing a protective face mask.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 3.''' Woman wearing mask on public transport during COVID-19 pandemic.]] * Risk perception and emotions ** Perceived threat or vulnerability to COVID-19 for self or loved ones increased practicing of hygiene behaviours. Motivational influence of fear and uncertainty (Miller et al., 2020). * Compliance and conformity ** Government mandates (quarantine, isolation, etc.) and collective responsibility of community increased motivation to engage in behaviours. Conforming to the majority, where most people engaged in COVID-19 protocols and influenced others to do the same (Miller et al., 2020). * Normalisation post-pandemic ** In 2026, many hygiene practices that increased in the pandemic have not reduced, and are the new 'normal'. Social distancing has become second nature to the extent where people judge those who stand too close to others. Wearing a mask when sick or feeling vulnerable has become a more common practice, and hand sanitiser is available in more public spaces than before the pandemic (Ali et al., 2023). == Theoretical perspectives == What can assist in understanding the motivation of hygiene from a theoretical perspective? === Health belief model === * People decide whether to engage or perform a health behaviour based on cognitive evaluations, as explored below (Alyafei & Easton-Carr, 2024). ** Perceived susceptibility ** Perceived severity ** Perceived benefits ** Perceived barriers ** Cues to action ** Self-efficacy *How can this relate to maintenance of personal hygiene? *How does this help us to understand why people are motivated to engage with personal hygiene behaviours? === Theory of planned behaviour === * Behaviour is driven by intention, intention is shaped by three core components (see Figure 4): ** Attitude toward the behaviour (is hygiene beneficial or not?) ** Subjective norms (conformity in relation to motivation) ** Perceived behavioural control (will it be performed successfully, involves access to resources etc.) *Provide an example of this model using the scenario of COVID-19 in overview [[File:Theory of planned behaviour.png|thumb|327x327px|'''Figure 4.''' Theory of planned behaviour diagram.]] * These components combine into behavioural intention and can help predict if someone will actually engage in hygiene behaviours (Bosnjak et al., 2020). {{Robelbox|title=Quiz|theme=6}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> <quiz display=simple> {'''Which theory involves three core components?''' |type="()"} + Theory of planned behaviour - Health belief model </quiz> </div> {{Robelbox/close}} == Cultural and economic context == Recognising standards of hygiene cross-culturally is important to be able to understand how and why people keep up with personal hygiene. === Cross-cultural norms === * Personal hygiene expectations and standards can differ between cultures. * Hand washing, oral care, and even spitting can be expected at one rate in one culture and a completely different rate in the next. * Understanding the definition or standard of hygiene in certain cultures can assist in the understanding of motivational factors behind the behaviour (Eriksson et al., 2021). === Economic constraints === * Access to water, sanitation, and hygiene products can influence individual's engagement and maintenance of hygiene behaviours. * Individuals in developing countries may be motivated to engage in hygiene behaviours, but are unable to due to a lack of resources such as hot water, clean clothes, or menstruation products (Rossouw & Ross, 2021). [[File:Washing hands kids.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 5.''' School children utilising an outdoor tap to wash their hands. ]] * Figure 5 displays an example hygiene practices in countries without adequate infrastructure. == Conclusion == * There are a variety of motivating factors for personal hygiene, with societal expectations and emotions being highly influential. * COVID-19 allowed individuals to understand the benefits of some hygiene practices, with routines that were popular during the pandemic remaining in 2026. * Personal hygiene can differ across socio-cultural backgrounds, and core motivators may look different cross-culturally. * Theoretical perspectives such as the health belief model and theory of planned behaviour can deepen the understanding behind motivation and maintenance of personal hygiene. == See also == {{ic|Rename links as shown in Tutorial 2}} * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Disgust and hygiene]] (Book chapter, 2024) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Conformity and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[wikipedia:Public_health_mitigation_of_COVID-19|Public health mitigation of COVID-19]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Ali, A. S., Mekonen, Y., & Tesfahun, T. (2023). Hygiene behavior and COVID-19 pandemic: Opportunities of COVID-19-Imposed changes in hygiene behavior. ''INQUIRY: The Journal of Health Care Organization, Provision, and Financing, 60''(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/00469580231218421 Alyafei, A., & Carr, R. E. (2024). The health belief model of behavior change. StatPearls Publishing. National Library of Medicine. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK606120/ Bloomfield, S. F., & Ackerley, L. (2023). Developing better understanding of hygiene is key to developing hygiene behaviour change in home and everyday life settings. ''Perspect Public Health, 144''(6), 175791392311637–175791392311637. https://doi.org/10.1177/17579139231163734 Bosnjak, M., Ajzen, I., & Schmidt, P. (2020). The theory of planned behavior: Selected recent advances and applications. Europe’s Journal of Psychology, 16(3), 352–356. NCBI. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.v16i3.3107 Eriksson, K., Dickins, T. E., & Strimling, P. (2021). Hygiene norms across 56 nations are predicted by self-control values and disease threat. Current Research in Ecological and Social Psychology, 2(1), 100013. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cresp.2021.100013 Ghassemi, E., Astrid Hasund Thorseth, Karine Le Roch, Heath, T., & White, S. (2023). Mapping the association between mental health and people’s perceived and actual ability to practice hygiene-related behaviours in humanitarian and pandemic crises: A scoping review. ''PLOS ONE, 18''(12). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0286494 Laursen, B., & Faur, S. (2022). What does it mean to be susceptible to influence? A brief primer on peer conformity and developmental changes that affect it. ''International Journal of Behavioral Development, 46''(3), 222–237. https://doi.org/10.1177/01650254221084103 Miller, G. J., Hartman, T. K., Levita, L., Martinez, A. P., Mason, L., McBride, O., McKay, R., Murphy, J., Shevlin, M., Stocks, T. V. A., Bennett, K. M., & Bentall, R. P. (2020). Capability, opportunity, and motivation to enact hygienic practices in the early stages of the COVID‐19 outbreak in the United Kingdom. British Journal of Health Psychology, 25(4), 856–864. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjhp.12426 Pilli, L., Veldwijk, J., Swait, J. D., Donkers, B., & de Bekker-Grob, E. W. (2024). Sources and processes of social influence on health-related choices: A systematic review based on a social-interdependent choice paradigm. ''Social Science & Medicine, 361''(1). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2024.117360 Rossouw, L., & Ross, H. (2021). Understanding period poverty: Socio-economic inequalities in menstrual hygiene management in eight low- and middle-income countries. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(5), 2571. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18052571 Singh, B., Murphy, A., Maher, C., & Smith, A. E. (2024). Time to form a habit: A systematic review and meta-analysis of health behaviour habit formation and its determinants. ''Healthcare, 12''(23), 2488. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare12232488 World Health Organization. (2025). ''Coronavirus disease (COVID-19).'' https://www.who.int/health-topics/coronavirus#tab=tab_1 }} ==External links== * [https://www.beyondblue.org.au/ Support if you are experiencing anxiety or depression] (Beyond Blue) * [https://open.spotify.com/show/5HG094bpiecqetNsvz0ELs Tips for good hygiene podcast] (Spotify - Sandra Keyes) * [https://hygieneforhealth.org.au/importance/ Why is hygiene so important?] (Hygiene for Health) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Anxiety]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Disgust]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]] r5xy8i644ns3usxbu1jv9l5b5ie8dqh 2836482 2836481 2026-10-07T08:41:30Z U3275940 3106402 Focus questions 2836482 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Hygiene motivation:<br>What motivates maintenance of personal hygiene?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} ;Scenario [[File:Hand washing man.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Washing hands became a more frequent hygiene behaviour during the COVID-19 pandemic.]] You became increasingly aware of your own hygiene when the COVID-19 pandemic took over our lives in 2020. In the beginning, you were motivated by the fear of infection and desire to protect your loved ones. You washed your hands more frequently, used hand sanitiser after touching surfaces in public, cleaned your phone, and became more aware of how germs are passed on from person to person. As time passed, these hygiene behaviours became less about COVID-19, and more about feeling clean, easing the anxiety of spreading germs and keeping up with the standards of our society as encouraged during the pandemic. Even though the threat of COVID-19 has decreased immensely, you continue to wash your hands when you arrive home, sanitise after using public transport, and avoid sharing personal items when someone is sick. This displays how emotions and societal expectations can initially motivate our behaviour, while repetition, personal values and habit formations can maintain these behaviours over the course of our lives. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Personal hygiene is a fundamental feature of day-to-day life that influences one’s health, interactions with others, and overall wellbeing. While hygiene behaviours such as handwashing, bathing, and brushing teeth are seen as routine habits, people are motivated to engage in these behaviours for different reasons. The Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) explains that hygiene behaviours can prevent disease, influence social acceptance, and bring personal comfort. Understanding the motivating factors behind the maintenance of personal hygiene is vital in encouraging long-term health behaviours and developing successful health promotion interventions. Personal hygiene is motivated by a range of factors which can assist in gaining an understanding of the reasons people engage and maintain hygiene behaviours. The health belief model can support the understanding of motivation related to the maintenance of personal hygiene.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} '''Focus questions''' # What are the core motivators for personal hygiene? # How did the COVID-19 pandemic influence motivation to maintain personal hygiene? # How can the health belief model explain motivation to maintain personal hygiene behaviours? # What differences in the motivation and maintenance of personal hygiene can be seen across varying economic and cultural contexts? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Core motivators of personal hygiene == Personal hygiene can be motivated by a range of factors. The core motivators for personal hygiene are explored below. === Societal expectations === * Norms, peer pressure, and group identity can shape hygiene behaviours (Laursen & Faur, 2022). * Some hygiene behaviours are engaged with purely due to conformity or fear of judgement from others as opposed to a healthy practice (Pilli et al., 2024). * Example using a family scenario, where one child is encouraged to shower daily, and the other every second day. Are people more motivated to engage in personal hygiene when encouraged by those close to them? === Education and understanding of hygiene practices === [[File:Wash-your-hands-poster-english-508.pdf|thumb|297x297px|'''Figure 2.''' Public health messaging to promote proper hand washing hygiene in schools. ]] * Knowledge of the spread of disease through public health messaging (see Figure 2) or learning can influence motivation and engagement with behaviours (Bloomfield & Ackerley, 2023). * Understanding the reasons behind hygiene practices and their effectiveness can motivate individuals to engage with them, especially to avoid contracting a disease. * During COVID-19, which will be discussed later in this chapter, health messaging provided explanations as to why washing your hands for 20 seconds with warm water and soap was a vital hygiene behaviour to avoid contracting the illness (World Health Organisation, 2025). === Habit formation === * Hygiene practices can become second nature through repetition and reinforcement (Singh et al., 2024). * Brushing teeth, showering, and changing clothes are all personal hygiene behaviours that are second nature to many individuals. * What contributes to formation of habits? === Emotions === * Disgust and fear of illness can be drivers for hygiene behaviour in the same way depression and executive dysfunction can act as barriers (Ghassemi et al., 2023). * Explore levels of fear, including for self and loved ones. * Explore depression and executive dysfunction specific barriers to personal hygiene. === COVID-19 as a catalyst for personal hygiene === COVID-19 was a global pandemic that took over the world in 2020. From lockdowns to masks, hygiene behaviours changed drastically for individuals across the globe (World Health Organisation, 2025). * Increased hygiene engagement ** Handwashing as a more regular practice, sanitiser stations in public spaces, mask hygiene (see Figure 3), disinfecting and cleaning of surfaces after use (World Health Organisation, 2025). [[File:A woman wearing a protective face mask.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 3.''' Woman wearing mask on public transport during COVID-19 pandemic.]] * Risk perception and emotions ** Perceived threat or vulnerability to COVID-19 for self or loved ones increased practicing of hygiene behaviours. Motivational influence of fear and uncertainty (Miller et al., 2020). * Compliance and conformity ** Government mandates (quarantine, isolation, etc.) and collective responsibility of community increased motivation to engage in behaviours. Conforming to the majority, where most people engaged in COVID-19 protocols and influenced others to do the same (Miller et al., 2020). * Normalisation post-pandemic ** In 2026, many hygiene practices that increased in the pandemic have not reduced, and are the new 'normal'. Social distancing has become second nature to the extent where people judge those who stand too close to others. Wearing a mask when sick or feeling vulnerable has become a more common practice, and hand sanitiser is available in more public spaces than before the pandemic (Ali et al., 2023). == Theoretical perspectives == What can assist in understanding the motivation of hygiene from a theoretical perspective? === Health belief model === * People decide whether to engage or perform a health behaviour based on cognitive evaluations, as explored below (Alyafei & Easton-Carr, 2024). ** Perceived susceptibility ** Perceived severity ** Perceived benefits ** Perceived barriers ** Cues to action ** Self-efficacy *How can this relate to maintenance of personal hygiene? *How does this help us to understand why people are motivated to engage with personal hygiene behaviours? === Theory of planned behaviour === * Behaviour is driven by intention, intention is shaped by three core components (see Figure 4): ** Attitude toward the behaviour (is hygiene beneficial or not?) ** Subjective norms (conformity in relation to motivation) ** Perceived behavioural control (will it be performed successfully, involves access to resources etc.) *Provide an example of this model using the scenario of COVID-19 in overview [[File:Theory of planned behaviour.png|thumb|327x327px|'''Figure 4.''' Theory of planned behaviour diagram.]] * These components combine into behavioural intention and can help predict if someone will actually engage in hygiene behaviours (Bosnjak et al., 2020). {{Robelbox|title=Quiz|theme=6}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> <quiz display=simple> {'''Which theory involves three core components?''' |type="()"} + Theory of planned behaviour - Health belief model </quiz> </div> {{Robelbox/close}} == Cultural and economic context == Recognising standards of hygiene cross-culturally is important to be able to understand how and why people keep up with personal hygiene. === Cross-cultural norms === * Personal hygiene expectations and standards can differ between cultures. * Hand washing, oral care, and even spitting can be expected at one rate in one culture and a completely different rate in the next. * Understanding the definition or standard of hygiene in certain cultures can assist in the understanding of motivational factors behind the behaviour (Eriksson et al., 2021). === Economic constraints === * Access to water, sanitation, and hygiene products can influence individual's engagement and maintenance of hygiene behaviours. * Individuals in developing countries may be motivated to engage in hygiene behaviours, but are unable to due to a lack of resources such as hot water, clean clothes, or menstruation products (Rossouw & Ross, 2021). [[File:Washing hands kids.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 5.''' School children utilising an outdoor tap to wash their hands. ]] * Figure 5 displays an example hygiene practices in countries without adequate infrastructure. == Conclusion == * There are a variety of motivating factors for personal hygiene, with societal expectations and emotions being highly influential. * COVID-19 allowed individuals to understand the benefits of some hygiene practices, with routines that were popular during the pandemic remaining in 2026. * Personal hygiene can differ across socio-cultural backgrounds, and core motivators may look different cross-culturally. * Theoretical perspectives such as the health belief model and theory of planned behaviour can deepen the understanding behind motivation and maintenance of personal hygiene. == See also == {{ic|Rename links as shown in Tutorial 2}} * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Disgust and hygiene]] (Book chapter, 2024) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Conformity and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[wikipedia:Public_health_mitigation_of_COVID-19|Public health mitigation of COVID-19]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Ali, A. S., Mekonen, Y., & Tesfahun, T. (2023). Hygiene behavior and COVID-19 pandemic: Opportunities of COVID-19-Imposed changes in hygiene behavior. ''INQUIRY: The Journal of Health Care Organization, Provision, and Financing, 60''(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/00469580231218421 Alyafei, A., & Carr, R. E. (2024). The health belief model of behavior change. StatPearls Publishing. National Library of Medicine. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK606120/ Bloomfield, S. F., & Ackerley, L. (2023). Developing better understanding of hygiene is key to developing hygiene behaviour change in home and everyday life settings. ''Perspect Public Health, 144''(6), 175791392311637–175791392311637. https://doi.org/10.1177/17579139231163734 Bosnjak, M., Ajzen, I., & Schmidt, P. (2020). The theory of planned behavior: Selected recent advances and applications. Europe’s Journal of Psychology, 16(3), 352–356. NCBI. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.v16i3.3107 Eriksson, K., Dickins, T. E., & Strimling, P. (2021). Hygiene norms across 56 nations are predicted by self-control values and disease threat. Current Research in Ecological and Social Psychology, 2(1), 100013. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cresp.2021.100013 Ghassemi, E., Astrid Hasund Thorseth, Karine Le Roch, Heath, T., & White, S. (2023). Mapping the association between mental health and people’s perceived and actual ability to practice hygiene-related behaviours in humanitarian and pandemic crises: A scoping review. ''PLOS ONE, 18''(12). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0286494 Laursen, B., & Faur, S. (2022). What does it mean to be susceptible to influence? A brief primer on peer conformity and developmental changes that affect it. ''International Journal of Behavioral Development, 46''(3), 222–237. https://doi.org/10.1177/01650254221084103 Miller, G. J., Hartman, T. K., Levita, L., Martinez, A. P., Mason, L., McBride, O., McKay, R., Murphy, J., Shevlin, M., Stocks, T. V. A., Bennett, K. M., & Bentall, R. P. (2020). Capability, opportunity, and motivation to enact hygienic practices in the early stages of the COVID‐19 outbreak in the United Kingdom. British Journal of Health Psychology, 25(4), 856–864. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjhp.12426 Pilli, L., Veldwijk, J., Swait, J. D., Donkers, B., & de Bekker-Grob, E. W. (2024). Sources and processes of social influence on health-related choices: A systematic review based on a social-interdependent choice paradigm. ''Social Science & Medicine, 361''(1). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2024.117360 Rossouw, L., & Ross, H. (2021). Understanding period poverty: Socio-economic inequalities in menstrual hygiene management in eight low- and middle-income countries. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(5), 2571. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18052571 Singh, B., Murphy, A., Maher, C., & Smith, A. E. (2024). Time to form a habit: A systematic review and meta-analysis of health behaviour habit formation and its determinants. ''Healthcare, 12''(23), 2488. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare12232488 World Health Organization. (2025). ''Coronavirus disease (COVID-19).'' https://www.who.int/health-topics/coronavirus#tab=tab_1 }} ==External links== * [https://www.beyondblue.org.au/ Support if you are experiencing anxiety or depression] (Beyond Blue) * [https://open.spotify.com/show/5HG094bpiecqetNsvz0ELs Tips for good hygiene podcast] (Spotify - Sandra Keyes) * [https://hygieneforhealth.org.au/importance/ Why is hygiene so important?] (Hygiene for Health) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Anxiety]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Disgust]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]] hd48lz2qio1yuuxlni6mh9k59wz2czf 2836484 2836482 2026-10-07T08:52:30Z U3275940 3106402 Hygiene describe 2836484 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Hygiene motivation:<br>What motivates maintenance of personal hygiene?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} ;Scenario [[File:Hand washing man.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Washing hands became a more frequent hygiene behaviour during the COVID-19 pandemic.]] You became increasingly aware of your own hygiene when the COVID-19 pandemic took over our lives in 2020. In the beginning, you were motivated by the fear of infection and desire to protect your loved ones. You washed your hands more frequently, used hand sanitiser after touching surfaces in public, cleaned your phone, and became more aware of how germs are passed on from person to person. As time passed, these hygiene behaviours became less about COVID-19, and more about feeling clean, easing the anxiety of spreading germs and keeping up with the standards of our society as encouraged during the pandemic. Even though the threat of COVID-19 has decreased immensely, you continue to wash your hands when you arrive home, sanitise after using public transport, and avoid sharing personal items when someone is sick. This displays how emotions and societal expectations can initially motivate our behaviour, while repetition, personal values and habit formations can maintain these behaviours over the course of our lives. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Personal hygiene is a fundamental feature of day-to-day life that influences one’s health, interactions with others, and overall wellbeing. While hygiene behaviours such as handwashing, bathing, and brushing teeth are seen as routine habits, people are motivated to engage in these behaviours for different reasons. [https://www.cdc.gov/hygiene/about/index.html The Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)] explains that hygiene behaviours can prevent disease, influence social acceptance, and bring personal comfort. Understanding the motivating factors behind the maintenance of personal hygiene is vital in encouraging long-term health behaviours and developing successful health promotion interventions. Personal hygiene is motivated by a range of factors which can assist in gaining an understanding of the reasons people engage and maintain hygiene behaviours. The health belief model can support the understanding of motivation related to the maintenance of personal hygiene.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} '''Focus questions''' # What are the core motivators for personal hygiene? # How did the COVID-19 pandemic influence motivation to maintain personal hygiene? # How can the health belief model explain motivation to maintain personal hygiene behaviours? # What differences in the motivation and maintenance of personal hygiene can be seen across varying economic and cultural contexts? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What is personal hygiene? == [https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/personal-hygiene Health Direct] describes good personal hygiene as keeping your body clean and looking after your health through daily habits. There are many kinds of personal hygiene behaviours that people engage with. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Hygiene practice !Behaviour |- |Oral hygiene |Keeping teeth clean by brushing with toothpaste for two minutes twice daily, flossing daily, and using mouthwash. |- |Hand hygiene |Washing hands with warm water and soap for 20 seconds prior to eating, after using the toilet, etc. |- |Body hygiene |Washing body daily using soap and warm water to remove sweat, oils, and dirt from body. |- |Menstrual hygiene |Changing sanitary items regularly, washing hands before and after use, disposing of correctly. |- |Personal grooming |Washing clothing regularly, trimming fingernails, washing and keeping hair clean, not sharing personal items with others. |- |Symptom etiquette |Covering mouth when coughing or sneezing to prevent the spread of germs. |} == Core motivators of personal hygiene == Personal hygiene can be motivated by a range of factors. The core motivators for personal hygiene are explored below. === Societal expectations === * Norms, peer pressure, and group identity can shape hygiene behaviours (Laursen & Faur, 2022). * Some hygiene behaviours are engaged with purely due to conformity or fear of judgement from others as opposed to a healthy practice (Pilli et al., 2024). * Example using a family scenario, where one child is encouraged to shower daily, and the other every second day. Are people more motivated to engage in personal hygiene when encouraged by those close to them? === Education and understanding of hygiene practices === [[File:Wash-your-hands-poster-english-508.pdf|thumb|297x297px|'''Figure 2.''' Public health messaging to promote proper hand washing hygiene in schools. ]] * Knowledge of the spread of disease through public health messaging (see Figure 2) or learning can influence motivation and engagement with behaviours (Bloomfield & Ackerley, 2023). * Understanding the reasons behind hygiene practices and their effectiveness can motivate individuals to engage with them, especially to avoid contracting a disease. * During COVID-19, which will be discussed later in this chapter, health messaging provided explanations as to why washing your hands for 20 seconds with warm water and soap was a vital hygiene behaviour to avoid contracting the illness (World Health Organisation, 2025). === Habit formation === * Hygiene practices can become second nature through repetition and reinforcement (Singh et al., 2024). * Brushing teeth, showering, and changing clothes are all personal hygiene behaviours that are second nature to many individuals. * What contributes to formation of habits? === Emotions === * Disgust and fear of illness can be drivers for hygiene behaviour in the same way depression and executive dysfunction can act as barriers (Ghassemi et al., 2023). * Explore levels of fear, including for self and loved ones. * Explore depression and executive dysfunction specific barriers to personal hygiene. === COVID-19 as a catalyst for personal hygiene === COVID-19 was a global pandemic that took over the world in 2020. From lockdowns to masks, hygiene behaviours changed drastically for individuals across the globe (World Health Organisation, 2025). * Increased hygiene engagement ** Handwashing as a more regular practice, sanitiser stations in public spaces, mask hygiene (see Figure 3), disinfecting and cleaning of surfaces after use (World Health Organisation, 2025). [[File:A woman wearing a protective face mask.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 3.''' Woman wearing mask on public transport during COVID-19 pandemic.]] * Risk perception and emotions ** Perceived threat or vulnerability to COVID-19 for self or loved ones increased practicing of hygiene behaviours. Motivational influence of fear and uncertainty (Miller et al., 2020). * Compliance and conformity ** Government mandates (quarantine, isolation, etc.) and collective responsibility of community increased motivation to engage in behaviours. Conforming to the majority, where most people engaged in COVID-19 protocols and influenced others to do the same (Miller et al., 2020). * Normalisation post-pandemic ** In 2026, many hygiene practices that increased in the pandemic have not reduced, and are the new 'normal'. Social distancing has become second nature to the extent where people judge those who stand too close to others. Wearing a mask when sick or feeling vulnerable has become a more common practice, and hand sanitiser is available in more public spaces than before the pandemic (Ali et al., 2023). == Theoretical perspectives == What can assist in understanding the motivation of hygiene from a theoretical perspective? === Health belief model === * People decide whether to engage or perform a health behaviour based on cognitive evaluations, as explored below (Alyafei & Easton-Carr, 2024). ** Perceived susceptibility ** Perceived severity ** Perceived benefits ** Perceived barriers ** Cues to action ** Self-efficacy *How can this relate to maintenance of personal hygiene? *How does this help us to understand why people are motivated to engage with personal hygiene behaviours? === Theory of planned behaviour === * Behaviour is driven by intention, intention is shaped by three core components (see Figure 4): ** Attitude toward the behaviour (is hygiene beneficial or not?) ** Subjective norms (conformity in relation to motivation) ** Perceived behavioural control (will it be performed successfully, involves access to resources etc.) *Provide an example of this model using the scenario of COVID-19 in overview [[File:Theory of planned behaviour.png|thumb|327x327px|'''Figure 4.''' Theory of planned behaviour diagram.]] * These components combine into behavioural intention and can help predict if someone will actually engage in hygiene behaviours (Bosnjak et al., 2020). {{Robelbox|title=Quiz|theme=6}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> <quiz display=simple> {'''Which theory involves three core components?''' |type="()"} + Theory of planned behaviour - Health belief model </quiz> </div> {{Robelbox/close}} == Cultural and economic context == Recognising standards of hygiene cross-culturally is important to be able to understand how and why people keep up with personal hygiene. === Cross-cultural norms === * Personal hygiene expectations and standards can differ between cultures. * Hand washing, oral care, and even spitting can be expected at one rate in one culture and a completely different rate in the next. * Understanding the definition or standard of hygiene in certain cultures can assist in the understanding of motivational factors behind the behaviour (Eriksson et al., 2021). === Economic constraints === * Access to water, sanitation, and hygiene products can influence individual's engagement and maintenance of hygiene behaviours. * Individuals in developing countries may be motivated to engage in hygiene behaviours, but are unable to due to a lack of resources such as hot water, clean clothes, or menstruation products (Rossouw & Ross, 2021). [[File:Washing hands kids.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 5.''' School children utilising an outdoor tap to wash their hands. ]] * Figure 5 displays an example hygiene practices in countries without adequate infrastructure. == Conclusion == * There are a variety of motivating factors for personal hygiene, with societal expectations and emotions being highly influential. * COVID-19 allowed individuals to understand the benefits of some hygiene practices, with routines that were popular during the pandemic remaining in 2026. * Personal hygiene can differ across socio-cultural backgrounds, and core motivators may look different cross-culturally. * Theoretical perspectives such as the health belief model and theory of planned behaviour can deepen the understanding behind motivation and maintenance of personal hygiene. == See also == {{ic|Rename links as shown in Tutorial 2}} * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Disgust and hygiene]] (Book chapter, 2024) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Conformity and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[wikipedia:Public_health_mitigation_of_COVID-19|Public health mitigation of COVID-19]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Ali, A. S., Mekonen, Y., & Tesfahun, T. (2023). Hygiene behavior and COVID-19 pandemic: Opportunities of COVID-19-Imposed changes in hygiene behavior. ''INQUIRY: The Journal of Health Care Organization, Provision, and Financing, 60''(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/00469580231218421 Alyafei, A., & Carr, R. E. (2024). The health belief model of behavior change. StatPearls Publishing. National Library of Medicine. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK606120/ Bloomfield, S. F., & Ackerley, L. (2023). Developing better understanding of hygiene is key to developing hygiene behaviour change in home and everyday life settings. ''Perspect Public Health, 144''(6), 175791392311637–175791392311637. https://doi.org/10.1177/17579139231163734 Bosnjak, M., Ajzen, I., & Schmidt, P. (2020). The theory of planned behavior: Selected recent advances and applications. Europe’s Journal of Psychology, 16(3), 352–356. NCBI. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.v16i3.3107 Eriksson, K., Dickins, T. E., & Strimling, P. (2021). Hygiene norms across 56 nations are predicted by self-control values and disease threat. Current Research in Ecological and Social Psychology, 2(1), 100013. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cresp.2021.100013 Ghassemi, E., Astrid Hasund Thorseth, Karine Le Roch, Heath, T., & White, S. (2023). Mapping the association between mental health and people’s perceived and actual ability to practice hygiene-related behaviours in humanitarian and pandemic crises: A scoping review. ''PLOS ONE, 18''(12). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0286494 Laursen, B., & Faur, S. (2022). What does it mean to be susceptible to influence? A brief primer on peer conformity and developmental changes that affect it. ''International Journal of Behavioral Development, 46''(3), 222–237. https://doi.org/10.1177/01650254221084103 Miller, G. J., Hartman, T. K., Levita, L., Martinez, A. P., Mason, L., McBride, O., McKay, R., Murphy, J., Shevlin, M., Stocks, T. V. A., Bennett, K. M., & Bentall, R. P. (2020). Capability, opportunity, and motivation to enact hygienic practices in the early stages of the COVID‐19 outbreak in the United Kingdom. British Journal of Health Psychology, 25(4), 856–864. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjhp.12426 Pilli, L., Veldwijk, J., Swait, J. D., Donkers, B., & de Bekker-Grob, E. W. (2024). Sources and processes of social influence on health-related choices: A systematic review based on a social-interdependent choice paradigm. ''Social Science & Medicine, 361''(1). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2024.117360 Rossouw, L., & Ross, H. (2021). Understanding period poverty: Socio-economic inequalities in menstrual hygiene management in eight low- and middle-income countries. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(5), 2571. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18052571 Singh, B., Murphy, A., Maher, C., & Smith, A. E. (2024). Time to form a habit: A systematic review and meta-analysis of health behaviour habit formation and its determinants. ''Healthcare, 12''(23), 2488. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare12232488 World Health Organization. (2025). ''Coronavirus disease (COVID-19).'' https://www.who.int/health-topics/coronavirus#tab=tab_1 }} ==External links== * [https://www.beyondblue.org.au/ Support if you are experiencing anxiety or depression] (Beyond Blue) * [https://open.spotify.com/show/5HG094bpiecqetNsvz0ELs Tips for good hygiene podcast] (Spotify - Sandra Keyes) * [https://hygieneforhealth.org.au/importance/ Why is hygiene so important?] (Hygiene for Health) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Anxiety]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Disgust]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]] sbkag0sil2qo8kk0qmw797rjddvc5ex 2836485 2836484 2026-10-07T08:55:36Z U3275940 3106402 /* Theoretical perspectives */ 2836485 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Hygiene motivation:<br>What motivates maintenance of personal hygiene?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} ;Scenario [[File:Hand washing man.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Washing hands became a more frequent hygiene behaviour during the COVID-19 pandemic.]] You became increasingly aware of your own hygiene when the COVID-19 pandemic took over our lives in 2020. In the beginning, you were motivated by the fear of infection and desire to protect your loved ones. You washed your hands more frequently, used hand sanitiser after touching surfaces in public, cleaned your phone, and became more aware of how germs are passed on from person to person. As time passed, these hygiene behaviours became less about COVID-19, and more about feeling clean, easing the anxiety of spreading germs and keeping up with the standards of our society as encouraged during the pandemic. Even though the threat of COVID-19 has decreased immensely, you continue to wash your hands when you arrive home, sanitise after using public transport, and avoid sharing personal items when someone is sick. This displays how emotions and societal expectations can initially motivate our behaviour, while repetition, personal values and habit formations can maintain these behaviours over the course of our lives. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Personal hygiene is a fundamental feature of day-to-day life that influences one’s health, interactions with others, and overall wellbeing. While hygiene behaviours such as handwashing, bathing, and brushing teeth are seen as routine habits, people are motivated to engage in these behaviours for different reasons. [https://www.cdc.gov/hygiene/about/index.html The Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)] explains that hygiene behaviours can prevent disease, influence social acceptance, and bring personal comfort. Understanding the motivating factors behind the maintenance of personal hygiene is vital in encouraging long-term health behaviours and developing successful health promotion interventions. Personal hygiene is motivated by a range of factors which can assist in gaining an understanding of the reasons people engage and maintain hygiene behaviours. The health belief model can support the understanding of motivation related to the maintenance of personal hygiene.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} '''Focus questions''' # What are the core motivators for personal hygiene? # How did the COVID-19 pandemic influence motivation to maintain personal hygiene? # How can the health belief model explain motivation to maintain personal hygiene behaviours? # What differences in the motivation and maintenance of personal hygiene can be seen across varying economic and cultural contexts? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What is personal hygiene? == [https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/personal-hygiene Health Direct] describes good personal hygiene as keeping your body clean and looking after your health through daily habits. There are many kinds of personal hygiene behaviours that people engage with. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Hygiene practice !Behaviour |- |Oral hygiene |Keeping teeth clean by brushing with toothpaste for two minutes twice daily, flossing daily, and using mouthwash. |- |Hand hygiene |Washing hands with warm water and soap for 20 seconds prior to eating, after using the toilet, etc. |- |Body hygiene |Washing body daily using soap and warm water to remove sweat, oils, and dirt from body. |- |Menstrual hygiene |Changing sanitary items regularly, washing hands before and after use, disposing of correctly. |- |Personal grooming |Washing clothing regularly, trimming fingernails, washing and keeping hair clean, not sharing personal items with others. |- |Symptom etiquette |Covering mouth when coughing or sneezing to prevent the spread of germs. |} == Core motivators of personal hygiene == Personal hygiene can be motivated by a range of factors. The core motivators for personal hygiene are explored below. === Societal expectations === * Norms, peer pressure, and group identity can shape hygiene behaviours (Laursen & Faur, 2022). * Some hygiene behaviours are engaged with purely due to conformity or fear of judgement from others as opposed to a healthy practice (Pilli et al., 2024). * Example using a family scenario, where one child is encouraged to shower daily, and the other every second day. Are people more motivated to engage in personal hygiene when encouraged by those close to them? === Education and understanding of hygiene practices === [[File:Wash-your-hands-poster-english-508.pdf|thumb|297x297px|'''Figure 2.''' Public health messaging to promote proper hand washing hygiene in schools. ]] * Knowledge of the spread of disease through public health messaging (see Figure 2) or learning can influence motivation and engagement with behaviours (Bloomfield & Ackerley, 2023). * Understanding the reasons behind hygiene practices and their effectiveness can motivate individuals to engage with them, especially to avoid contracting a disease. * During COVID-19, which will be discussed later in this chapter, health messaging provided explanations as to why washing your hands for 20 seconds with warm water and soap was a vital hygiene behaviour to avoid contracting the illness (World Health Organisation, 2025). === Habit formation === * Hygiene practices can become second nature through repetition and reinforcement (Singh et al., 2024). * Brushing teeth, showering, and changing clothes are all personal hygiene behaviours that are second nature to many individuals. * What contributes to formation of habits? === Emotions === * Disgust and fear of illness can be drivers for hygiene behaviour in the same way depression and executive dysfunction can act as barriers (Ghassemi et al., 2023). * Explore levels of fear, including for self and loved ones. * Explore depression and executive dysfunction specific barriers to personal hygiene. === COVID-19 as a catalyst for personal hygiene === COVID-19 was a global pandemic that took over the world in 2020. From lockdowns to masks, hygiene behaviours changed drastically for individuals across the globe (World Health Organisation, 2025). * Increased hygiene engagement ** Handwashing as a more regular practice, sanitiser stations in public spaces, mask hygiene (see Figure 3), disinfecting and cleaning of surfaces after use (World Health Organisation, 2025). [[File:A woman wearing a protective face mask.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 3.''' Woman wearing mask on public transport during COVID-19 pandemic.]] * Risk perception and emotions ** Perceived threat or vulnerability to COVID-19 for self or loved ones increased practicing of hygiene behaviours. Motivational influence of fear and uncertainty (Miller et al., 2020). * Compliance and conformity ** Government mandates (quarantine, isolation, etc.) and collective responsibility of community increased motivation to engage in behaviours. Conforming to the majority, where most people engaged in COVID-19 protocols and influenced others to do the same (Miller et al., 2020). * Normalisation post-pandemic ** In 2026, many hygiene practices that increased in the pandemic have not reduced, and are the new 'normal'. Social distancing has become second nature to the extent where people judge those who stand too close to others. Wearing a mask when sick or feeling vulnerable has become a more common practice, and hand sanitiser is available in more public spaces than before the pandemic (Ali et al., 2023). == Understanding personal hygiene motivation according to the health belief model == What can assist in understanding the motivation of hygiene from a theoretical perspective? === Health belief model === * People decide whether to engage or perform a health behaviour based on cognitive evaluations, as explored below (Alyafei & Easton-Carr, 2024). ** Perceived susceptibility ** Perceived severity ** Perceived benefits ** Perceived barriers ** Cues to action ** Self-efficacy *How can this relate to maintenance of personal hygiene? *How does this help us to understand why people are motivated to engage with personal hygiene behaviours? == Cultural and economic context == Recognising standards of hygiene cross-culturally is important to be able to understand how and why people keep up with personal hygiene. === Cross-cultural norms === * Personal hygiene expectations and standards can differ between cultures. * Hand washing, oral care, and even spitting can be expected at one rate in one culture and a completely different rate in the next. * Understanding the definition or standard of hygiene in certain cultures can assist in the understanding of motivational factors behind the behaviour (Eriksson et al., 2021). === Economic constraints === * Access to water, sanitation, and hygiene products can influence individual's engagement and maintenance of hygiene behaviours. * Individuals in developing countries may be motivated to engage in hygiene behaviours, but are unable to due to a lack of resources such as hot water, clean clothes, or menstruation products (Rossouw & Ross, 2021). [[File:Washing hands kids.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 5.''' School children utilising an outdoor tap to wash their hands. ]] * Figure 5 displays an example hygiene practices in countries without adequate infrastructure. == Conclusion == * There are a variety of motivating factors for personal hygiene, with societal expectations and emotions being highly influential. * COVID-19 allowed individuals to understand the benefits of some hygiene practices, with routines that were popular during the pandemic remaining in 2026. * Personal hygiene can differ across socio-cultural backgrounds, and core motivators may look different cross-culturally. * Theoretical perspectives such as the health belief model and theory of planned behaviour can deepen the understanding behind motivation and maintenance of personal hygiene. == See also == {{ic|Rename links as shown in Tutorial 2}} * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Disgust and hygiene]] (Book chapter, 2024) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Conformity and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[wikipedia:Public_health_mitigation_of_COVID-19|Public health mitigation of COVID-19]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Ali, A. S., Mekonen, Y., & Tesfahun, T. (2023). Hygiene behavior and COVID-19 pandemic: Opportunities of COVID-19-Imposed changes in hygiene behavior. ''INQUIRY: The Journal of Health Care Organization, Provision, and Financing, 60''(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/00469580231218421 Alyafei, A., & Carr, R. E. (2024). The health belief model of behavior change. StatPearls Publishing. National Library of Medicine. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK606120/ Bloomfield, S. F., & Ackerley, L. (2023). Developing better understanding of hygiene is key to developing hygiene behaviour change in home and everyday life settings. ''Perspect Public Health, 144''(6), 175791392311637–175791392311637. https://doi.org/10.1177/17579139231163734 Bosnjak, M., Ajzen, I., & Schmidt, P. (2020). The theory of planned behavior: Selected recent advances and applications. Europe’s Journal of Psychology, 16(3), 352–356. NCBI. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.v16i3.3107 Eriksson, K., Dickins, T. E., & Strimling, P. (2021). Hygiene norms across 56 nations are predicted by self-control values and disease threat. Current Research in Ecological and Social Psychology, 2(1), 100013. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cresp.2021.100013 Ghassemi, E., Astrid Hasund Thorseth, Karine Le Roch, Heath, T., & White, S. (2023). Mapping the association between mental health and people’s perceived and actual ability to practice hygiene-related behaviours in humanitarian and pandemic crises: A scoping review. ''PLOS ONE, 18''(12). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0286494 Laursen, B., & Faur, S. (2022). What does it mean to be susceptible to influence? A brief primer on peer conformity and developmental changes that affect it. ''International Journal of Behavioral Development, 46''(3), 222–237. https://doi.org/10.1177/01650254221084103 Miller, G. J., Hartman, T. K., Levita, L., Martinez, A. P., Mason, L., McBride, O., McKay, R., Murphy, J., Shevlin, M., Stocks, T. V. A., Bennett, K. M., & Bentall, R. P. (2020). Capability, opportunity, and motivation to enact hygienic practices in the early stages of the COVID‐19 outbreak in the United Kingdom. British Journal of Health Psychology, 25(4), 856–864. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjhp.12426 Pilli, L., Veldwijk, J., Swait, J. D., Donkers, B., & de Bekker-Grob, E. W. (2024). Sources and processes of social influence on health-related choices: A systematic review based on a social-interdependent choice paradigm. ''Social Science & Medicine, 361''(1). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2024.117360 Rossouw, L., & Ross, H. (2021). Understanding period poverty: Socio-economic inequalities in menstrual hygiene management in eight low- and middle-income countries. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(5), 2571. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18052571 Singh, B., Murphy, A., Maher, C., & Smith, A. E. (2024). Time to form a habit: A systematic review and meta-analysis of health behaviour habit formation and its determinants. ''Healthcare, 12''(23), 2488. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare12232488 World Health Organization. (2025). ''Coronavirus disease (COVID-19).'' https://www.who.int/health-topics/coronavirus#tab=tab_1 }} ==External links== * [https://www.beyondblue.org.au/ Support if you are experiencing anxiety or depression] (Beyond Blue) * [https://open.spotify.com/show/5HG094bpiecqetNsvz0ELs Tips for good hygiene podcast] (Spotify - Sandra Keyes) * [https://hygieneforhealth.org.au/importance/ Why is hygiene so important?] (Hygiene for Health) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Anxiety]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Disgust]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]] 7qobvx4pp80ftweobf72x687pe3ozku 2836494 2836485 2026-10-07T09:12:45Z U3275940 3106402 2836494 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Hygiene motivation:<br>What motivates maintenance of personal hygiene?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} ;Scenario [[File:Hand washing man.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Washing hands became a more frequent hygiene behaviour during the COVID-19 pandemic.]] You became increasingly aware of your own hygiene when the COVID-19 pandemic took over our lives in 2020. In the beginning, you were motivated by the fear of infection and desire to protect your loved ones. You washed your hands more frequently, used hand sanitiser after touching surfaces in public, cleaned your phone, and became more aware of how germs are passed on from person to person. As time passed, these hygiene behaviours became less about COVID-19, and more about feeling clean, easing the anxiety of spreading germs and keeping up with the standards of our society as encouraged during the pandemic. Even though the threat of COVID-19 has decreased immensely, you continue to wash your hands when you arrive home, sanitise after using public transport, and avoid sharing personal items when someone is sick. This displays how emotions and societal expectations can initially motivate our behaviour, while repetition, personal values and habit formations can maintain these behaviours over the course of our lives. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Personal hygiene is a fundamental feature of day-to-day life that influences one’s health, interactions with others, and overall wellbeing. While hygiene behaviours such as handwashing, bathing, and brushing teeth are seen as routine habits, people are motivated to engage in these behaviours for different reasons. [https://www.cdc.gov/hygiene/about/index.html The Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)] explains that hygiene behaviours can prevent disease, influence social acceptance, and bring personal comfort. Understanding the motivating factors behind the maintenance of personal hygiene is vital in encouraging long-term health behaviours and developing successful health promotion interventions. Personal hygiene is motivated by a range of factors which can assist in gaining an understanding of the reasons people engage and maintain hygiene behaviours. The health belief model can support the understanding of motivation related to the maintenance of personal hygiene.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} '''Focus questions''' # What are the core motivators for personal hygiene? # How did the COVID-19 pandemic influence motivation to maintain personal hygiene? # How can the health belief model explain motivation to maintain personal hygiene behaviours? # What differences in the motivation and maintenance of personal hygiene can be seen across varying economic and cultural contexts? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What is personal hygiene? == [https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/personal-hygiene Health Direct] describes good personal hygiene as keeping your body clean and looking after your health through daily habits. There are many kinds of personal hygiene behaviours that people engage with. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Hygiene practice !Behaviour |- |Oral hygiene |Keeping teeth clean by brushing with toothpaste for two minutes twice daily, flossing daily, and using mouthwash. |- |Hand hygiene |Washing hands with warm water and soap for 20 seconds prior to eating, after using the toilet, etc. |- |Body hygiene |Washing body daily using soap and warm water to remove sweat, oils, and dirt from body. |- |Menstrual hygiene |Changing sanitary items regularly, washing hands before and after use, disposing of correctly. |- |Personal grooming |Washing clothing regularly, trimming fingernails, washing and keeping hair clean, not sharing personal items with others. |- |Symptom etiquette |Covering mouth when coughing or sneezing to prevent the spread of germs. |} == Core motivators of personal hygiene == Personal hygiene can be motivated by a range of factors. The core motivators for personal hygiene are explored below. === Societal expectations === * Norms, peer pressure, and group identity can shape hygiene behaviours (Laursen & Faur, 2022). * Some hygiene behaviours are engaged with purely due to conformity or fear of judgement from others as opposed to a healthy practice (Pilli et al., 2024). * Example using a family scenario, where one child is encouraged to shower daily, and the other every second day. Are people more motivated to engage in personal hygiene when encouraged by those close to them? === Education and understanding of hygiene practices === [[File:Wash-your-hands-poster-english-508.pdf|thumb|297x297px|'''Figure 2.''' Public health messaging to promote proper hand washing hygiene in schools. ]] * Knowledge of the spread of disease through public health messaging (see Figure 2) or learning can influence motivation and engagement with behaviours (Bloomfield & Ackerley, 2023). * Understanding the reasons behind hygiene practices and their effectiveness can motivate individuals to engage with them, especially to avoid contracting a disease. * During COVID-19, which will be discussed later in this chapter, health messaging provided explanations as to why washing your hands for 20 seconds with warm water and soap was a vital hygiene behaviour to avoid contracting the illness (World Health Organisation, 2025). === Habit formation === * Hygiene practices can become second nature through repetition and reinforcement (Singh et al., 2024). * Brushing teeth, showering, and changing clothes are all personal hygiene behaviours that are second nature to many individuals. * What contributes to formation of habits? === Emotions === * Disgust and fear of illness can be drivers for hygiene behaviour in the same way depression and executive dysfunction can act as barriers (Ghassemi et al., 2023). * Explore levels of fear, including for self and loved ones. * Explore depression and executive dysfunction specific barriers to personal hygiene. === COVID-19 as a catalyst for personal hygiene === COVID-19 was a global pandemic that took over the world in 2020. From lockdowns to masks, hygiene behaviours changed drastically for individuals across the globe (World Health Organisation, 2025). * Increased hygiene engagement ** Handwashing as a more regular practice, sanitiser stations in public spaces, mask hygiene (see Figure 3), disinfecting and cleaning of surfaces after use (World Health Organisation, 2025). [[File:A woman wearing a protective face mask.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 3.''' Woman wearing mask on public transport during COVID-19 pandemic.]] * Risk perception and emotions ** Perceived threat or vulnerability to COVID-19 for self or loved ones increased practicing of hygiene behaviours. Motivational influence of fear and uncertainty (Miller et al., 2020). * Compliance and conformity ** Government mandates (quarantine, isolation, etc.) and collective responsibility of community increased motivation to engage in behaviours. Conforming to the majority, where most people engaged in COVID-19 protocols and influenced others to do the same (Miller et al., 2020). * Normalisation post-pandemic ** In 2026, many hygiene practices that increased in the pandemic have not reduced, and are the new 'normal'. Social distancing has become second nature to the extent where people judge those who stand too close to others. Wearing a mask when sick or feeling vulnerable has become a more common practice, and hand sanitiser is available in more public spaces than before the pandemic (Ali et al., 2023). == Understanding personal hygiene motivation according to the health belief model == What can assist in understanding the motivation of hygiene from a theoretical perspective? === Health belief model === * People decide whether to engage or perform a health behaviour based on cognitive evaluations, as explored below (Alyafei & Easton-Carr, 2024). ** Perceived susceptibility ** Perceived severity ** Perceived benefits ** Perceived barriers ** Cues to action ** Self-efficacy *How can this relate to maintenance of personal hygiene? *How does this help us to understand why people are motivated to engage with personal hygiene behaviours? {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} == Cultural and economic context == Recognising standards of hygiene cross-culturally is important to be able to understand how and why people keep up with personal hygiene. === Cross-cultural norms === * Personal hygiene expectations and standards can differ between cultures. * Hand washing, oral care, and even spitting can be expected at one rate in one culture and a completely different rate in the next. * Understanding the definition or standard of hygiene in certain cultures can assist in the understanding of motivational factors behind the behaviour (Eriksson et al., 2021). === Economic constraints === * Access to water, sanitation, and hygiene products can influence individual's engagement and maintenance of hygiene behaviours. * Individuals in developing countries may be motivated to engage in hygiene behaviours, but are unable to due to a lack of resources such as hot water, clean clothes, or menstruation products (Rossouw & Ross, 2021). [[File:Washing hands kids.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 5.''' School children utilising an outdoor tap to wash their hands. ]] * Figure 5 displays an example hygiene practices in countries without adequate infrastructure. == Conclusion == * There are a variety of motivating factors for personal hygiene, with societal expectations and emotions being highly influential. * COVID-19 allowed individuals to understand the benefits of some hygiene practices, with routines that were popular during the pandemic remaining in 2026. * Personal hygiene can differ across socio-cultural backgrounds, and core motivators may look different cross-culturally. * Theoretical perspectives such as the health belief model and theory of planned behaviour can deepen the understanding behind motivation and maintenance of personal hygiene. == See also == {{ic|Rename links as shown in Tutorial 2}} * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Disgust and hygiene]] (Book chapter, 2024) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Conformity and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[wikipedia:Public_health_mitigation_of_COVID-19|Public health mitigation of COVID-19]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Ali, A. S., Mekonen, Y., & Tesfahun, T. (2023). Hygiene behavior and COVID-19 pandemic: Opportunities of COVID-19-Imposed changes in hygiene behavior. ''INQUIRY: The Journal of Health Care Organization, Provision, and Financing, 60''(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/00469580231218421 Alyafei, A., & Carr, R. E. (2024). The health belief model of behavior change. StatPearls Publishing. National Library of Medicine. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK606120/ Bloomfield, S. F., & Ackerley, L. (2023). Developing better understanding of hygiene is key to developing hygiene behaviour change in home and everyday life settings. ''Perspect Public Health, 144''(6), 175791392311637–175791392311637. https://doi.org/10.1177/17579139231163734 Bosnjak, M., Ajzen, I., & Schmidt, P. (2020). The theory of planned behavior: Selected recent advances and applications. Europe’s Journal of Psychology, 16(3), 352–356. NCBI. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.v16i3.3107 Eriksson, K., Dickins, T. E., & Strimling, P. (2021). Hygiene norms across 56 nations are predicted by self-control values and disease threat. Current Research in Ecological and Social Psychology, 2(1), 100013. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cresp.2021.100013 Ghassemi, E., Astrid Hasund Thorseth, Karine Le Roch, Heath, T., & White, S. (2023). Mapping the association between mental health and people’s perceived and actual ability to practice hygiene-related behaviours in humanitarian and pandemic crises: A scoping review. ''PLOS ONE, 18''(12). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0286494 Laursen, B., & Faur, S. (2022). What does it mean to be susceptible to influence? A brief primer on peer conformity and developmental changes that affect it. ''International Journal of Behavioral Development, 46''(3), 222–237. https://doi.org/10.1177/01650254221084103 Miller, G. J., Hartman, T. K., Levita, L., Martinez, A. P., Mason, L., McBride, O., McKay, R., Murphy, J., Shevlin, M., Stocks, T. V. A., Bennett, K. M., & Bentall, R. P. (2020). Capability, opportunity, and motivation to enact hygienic practices in the early stages of the COVID‐19 outbreak in the United Kingdom. British Journal of Health Psychology, 25(4), 856–864. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjhp.12426 Pilli, L., Veldwijk, J., Swait, J. D., Donkers, B., & de Bekker-Grob, E. W. (2024). Sources and processes of social influence on health-related choices: A systematic review based on a social-interdependent choice paradigm. ''Social Science & Medicine, 361''(1). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2024.117360 Rossouw, L., & Ross, H. (2021). Understanding period poverty: Socio-economic inequalities in menstrual hygiene management in eight low- and middle-income countries. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(5), 2571. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18052571 Singh, B., Murphy, A., Maher, C., & Smith, A. E. (2024). Time to form a habit: A systematic review and meta-analysis of health behaviour habit formation and its determinants. ''Healthcare, 12''(23), 2488. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare12232488 World Health Organization. (2025). ''Coronavirus disease (COVID-19).'' https://www.who.int/health-topics/coronavirus#tab=tab_1 }} ==External links== * [https://www.beyondblue.org.au/ Support if you are experiencing anxiety or depression] (Beyond Blue) * [https://open.spotify.com/show/5HG094bpiecqetNsvz0ELs Tips for good hygiene podcast] (Spotify - Sandra Keyes) * [https://hygieneforhealth.org.au/importance/ Why is hygiene so important?] (Hygiene for Health) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Anxiety]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Disgust]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]] b1emdy6ay10geolxk3yud1oemgtt5mw 2836496 2836494 2026-10-07T09:13:53Z U3275940 3106402 2836496 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Hygiene motivation:<br>What motivates maintenance of personal hygiene?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} ;Scenario [[File:Hand washing man.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Washing hands became a more frequent hygiene behaviour during the COVID-19 pandemic.]] You became increasingly aware of your own hygiene when the COVID-19 pandemic took over our lives in 2020. In the beginning, you were motivated by the fear of infection and desire to protect your loved ones. You washed your hands more frequently, used hand sanitiser after touching surfaces in public, cleaned your phone, and became more aware of how germs are passed on from person to person. As time passed, these hygiene behaviours became less about COVID-19, and more about feeling clean, easing the anxiety of spreading germs and keeping up with the standards of our society as encouraged during the pandemic. Even though the threat of COVID-19 has decreased immensely, you continue to wash your hands when you arrive home, sanitise after using public transport, and avoid sharing personal items when someone is sick. This displays how emotions and societal expectations can initially motivate our behaviour, while repetition, personal values and habit formations can maintain these behaviours over the course of our lives. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Personal hygiene is a fundamental feature of day-to-day life that influences one’s health, interactions with others, and overall wellbeing. While hygiene behaviours such as handwashing, bathing, and brushing teeth are seen as routine habits, people are motivated to engage in these behaviours for different reasons. [https://www.cdc.gov/hygiene/about/index.html The Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)] explains that hygiene behaviours can prevent disease, influence social acceptance, and bring personal comfort. Understanding the motivating factors behind the maintenance of personal hygiene is vital in encouraging long-term health behaviours and developing successful health promotion interventions. Personal hygiene is motivated by a range of factors which can assist in gaining an understanding of the reasons people engage and maintain hygiene behaviours. The health belief model can support the understanding of motivation related to the maintenance of personal hygiene.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} '''Focus questions''' # What are the core motivators for personal hygiene? # How did the COVID-19 pandemic influence motivation to maintain personal hygiene? # How can the health belief model explain motivation to maintain personal hygiene behaviours? # What differences in the motivation and maintenance of personal hygiene can be seen across varying economic and cultural contexts? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What is personal hygiene? == [https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/personal-hygiene Health Direct] describes good personal hygiene as keeping your body clean and looking after your health through daily habits. There are many kinds of personal hygiene behaviours that people engage with. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Hygiene practice !Behaviour |- |Oral hygiene |Keeping teeth clean by brushing with toothpaste for two minutes twice daily, flossing daily, and using mouthwash. |- |Hand hygiene |Washing hands with warm water and soap for 20 seconds prior to eating, after using the toilet, etc. |- |Body hygiene |Washing body daily using soap and warm water to remove sweat, oils, and dirt from body. |- |Menstrual hygiene |Changing sanitary items regularly, washing hands before and after use, disposing of correctly. |- |Personal grooming |Washing clothing regularly, trimming fingernails, washing and keeping hair clean, not sharing personal items with others. |- |Symptom etiquette |Covering mouth when coughing or sneezing to prevent the spread of germs. |} == Core motivators of personal hygiene == Personal hygiene can be motivated by a range of factors. The core motivators for personal hygiene are explored below. === Societal expectations === * Norms, peer pressure, and group identity can shape hygiene behaviours (Laursen & Faur, 2022). * Some hygiene behaviours are engaged with purely due to conformity or fear of judgement from others as opposed to a healthy practice (Pilli et al., 2024). * Example using a family scenario, where one child is encouraged to shower daily, and the other every second day. Are people more motivated to engage in personal hygiene when encouraged by those close to them? === Education and understanding of hygiene practices === [[File:Wash-your-hands-poster-english-508.pdf|thumb|297x297px|'''Figure 2.''' Public health messaging to promote proper hand washing hygiene in schools. ]] * Knowledge of the spread of disease through public health messaging (see Figure 2) or learning can influence motivation and engagement with behaviours (Bloomfield & Ackerley, 2023). * Understanding the reasons behind hygiene practices and their effectiveness can motivate individuals to engage with them, especially to avoid contracting a disease. * During COVID-19, which will be discussed later in this chapter, health messaging provided explanations as to why washing your hands for 20 seconds with warm water and soap was a vital hygiene behaviour to avoid contracting the illness (World Health Organisation, 2025). === Habit formation === * Hygiene practices can become second nature through repetition and reinforcement (Singh et al., 2024). * Brushing teeth, showering, and changing clothes are all personal hygiene behaviours that are second nature to many individuals. * What contributes to formation of habits? === Emotions === * Disgust and fear of illness can be drivers for hygiene behaviour in the same way depression and executive dysfunction can act as barriers (Ghassemi et al., 2023). * Explore levels of fear, including for self and loved ones. * Explore depression and executive dysfunction specific barriers to personal hygiene. === COVID-19 as a catalyst for personal hygiene === COVID-19 was a global pandemic that took over the world in 2020. From lockdowns to masks, hygiene behaviours changed drastically for individuals across the globe (World Health Organisation, 2025). * Increased hygiene engagement ** Handwashing as a more regular practice, sanitiser stations in public spaces, mask hygiene (see Figure 3), disinfecting and cleaning of surfaces after use (World Health Organisation, 2025). [[File:A woman wearing a protective face mask.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 3.''' Woman wearing mask on public transport during COVID-19 pandemic.]] * Risk perception and emotions ** Perceived threat or vulnerability to COVID-19 for self or loved ones increased practicing of hygiene behaviours. Motivational influence of fear and uncertainty (Miller et al., 2020). * Compliance and conformity ** Government mandates (quarantine, isolation, etc.) and collective responsibility of community increased motivation to engage in behaviours. Conforming to the majority, where most people engaged in COVID-19 protocols and influenced others to do the same (Miller et al., 2020). * Normalisation post-pandemic ** In 2026, many hygiene practices that increased in the pandemic have not reduced, and are the new 'normal'. Social distancing has become second nature to the extent where people judge those who stand too close to others. Wearing a mask when sick or feeling vulnerable has become a more common practice, and hand sanitiser is available in more public spaces than before the pandemic (Ali et al., 2023). == Understanding personal hygiene motivation according to the health belief model == What can assist in understanding the motivation of hygiene from a theoretical perspective? === Health belief model === * People decide whether to engage or perform a health behaviour based on cognitive evaluations, as explored below (Alyafei & Easton-Carr, 2024). ** Perceived susceptibility ** Perceived severity ** Perceived benefits ** Perceived barriers ** Cues to action ** Self-efficacy *How can this relate to maintenance of personal hygiene? *How does this help us to understand why people are motivated to engage with personal hygiene behaviours? {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Cultural and economic context == Recognising standards of hygiene cross-culturally is important to be able to understand how and why people keep up with personal hygiene. === Cross-cultural norms === * Personal hygiene expectations and standards can differ between cultures. * Hand washing, oral care, and even spitting can be expected at one rate in one culture and a completely different rate in the next. * Understanding the definition or standard of hygiene in certain cultures can assist in the understanding of motivational factors behind the behaviour (Eriksson et al., 2021). === Economic constraints === * Access to water, sanitation, and hygiene products can influence individual's engagement and maintenance of hygiene behaviours. * Individuals in developing countries may be motivated to engage in hygiene behaviours, but are unable to due to a lack of resources such as hot water, clean clothes, or menstruation products (Rossouw & Ross, 2021). [[File:Washing hands kids.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 5.''' School children utilising an outdoor tap to wash their hands. ]] * Figure 5 displays an example hygiene practices in countries without adequate infrastructure. == Conclusion == * There are a variety of motivating factors for personal hygiene, with societal expectations and emotions being highly influential. * COVID-19 allowed individuals to understand the benefits of some hygiene practices, with routines that were popular during the pandemic remaining in 2026. * Personal hygiene can differ across socio-cultural backgrounds, and core motivators may look different cross-culturally. * Theoretical perspectives such as the health belief model and theory of planned behaviour can deepen the understanding behind motivation and maintenance of personal hygiene. == See also == {{ic|Rename links as shown in Tutorial 2}} * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Disgust and hygiene]] (Book chapter, 2024) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Conformity and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[wikipedia:Public_health_mitigation_of_COVID-19|Public health mitigation of COVID-19]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Ali, A. S., Mekonen, Y., & Tesfahun, T. (2023). Hygiene behavior and COVID-19 pandemic: Opportunities of COVID-19-Imposed changes in hygiene behavior. ''INQUIRY: The Journal of Health Care Organization, Provision, and Financing, 60''(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/00469580231218421 Alyafei, A., & Carr, R. E. (2024). The health belief model of behavior change. StatPearls Publishing. National Library of Medicine. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK606120/ Bloomfield, S. F., & Ackerley, L. (2023). Developing better understanding of hygiene is key to developing hygiene behaviour change in home and everyday life settings. ''Perspect Public Health, 144''(6), 175791392311637–175791392311637. https://doi.org/10.1177/17579139231163734 Bosnjak, M., Ajzen, I., & Schmidt, P. (2020). The theory of planned behavior: Selected recent advances and applications. Europe’s Journal of Psychology, 16(3), 352–356. NCBI. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.v16i3.3107 Eriksson, K., Dickins, T. E., & Strimling, P. (2021). Hygiene norms across 56 nations are predicted by self-control values and disease threat. Current Research in Ecological and Social Psychology, 2(1), 100013. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cresp.2021.100013 Ghassemi, E., Astrid Hasund Thorseth, Karine Le Roch, Heath, T., & White, S. (2023). Mapping the association between mental health and people’s perceived and actual ability to practice hygiene-related behaviours in humanitarian and pandemic crises: A scoping review. ''PLOS ONE, 18''(12). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0286494 Laursen, B., & Faur, S. (2022). What does it mean to be susceptible to influence? A brief primer on peer conformity and developmental changes that affect it. ''International Journal of Behavioral Development, 46''(3), 222–237. https://doi.org/10.1177/01650254221084103 Miller, G. J., Hartman, T. K., Levita, L., Martinez, A. P., Mason, L., McBride, O., McKay, R., Murphy, J., Shevlin, M., Stocks, T. V. A., Bennett, K. M., & Bentall, R. P. (2020). Capability, opportunity, and motivation to enact hygienic practices in the early stages of the COVID‐19 outbreak in the United Kingdom. British Journal of Health Psychology, 25(4), 856–864. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjhp.12426 Pilli, L., Veldwijk, J., Swait, J. D., Donkers, B., & de Bekker-Grob, E. W. (2024). Sources and processes of social influence on health-related choices: A systematic review based on a social-interdependent choice paradigm. ''Social Science & Medicine, 361''(1). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2024.117360 Rossouw, L., & Ross, H. (2021). Understanding period poverty: Socio-economic inequalities in menstrual hygiene management in eight low- and middle-income countries. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(5), 2571. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18052571 Singh, B., Murphy, A., Maher, C., & Smith, A. E. (2024). Time to form a habit: A systematic review and meta-analysis of health behaviour habit formation and its determinants. ''Healthcare, 12''(23), 2488. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare12232488 World Health Organization. (2025). ''Coronavirus disease (COVID-19).'' https://www.who.int/health-topics/coronavirus#tab=tab_1 }} ==External links== * [https://www.beyondblue.org.au/ Support if you are experiencing anxiety or depression] (Beyond Blue) * [https://open.spotify.com/show/5HG094bpiecqetNsvz0ELs Tips for good hygiene podcast] (Spotify - Sandra Keyes) * [https://hygieneforhealth.org.au/importance/ Why is hygiene so important?] (Hygiene for Health) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Anxiety]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Disgust]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]] 8q7sis26tpnxnmmcz9312bvjvb9tvtt 2836498 2836496 2026-10-07T09:15:27Z U3275940 3106402 /* Understanding personal hygiene motivation according to the health belief model */ 2836498 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Hygiene motivation:<br>What motivates maintenance of personal hygiene?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} ;Scenario [[File:Hand washing man.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Washing hands became a more frequent hygiene behaviour during the COVID-19 pandemic.]] You became increasingly aware of your own hygiene when the COVID-19 pandemic took over our lives in 2020. In the beginning, you were motivated by the fear of infection and desire to protect your loved ones. You washed your hands more frequently, used hand sanitiser after touching surfaces in public, cleaned your phone, and became more aware of how germs are passed on from person to person. As time passed, these hygiene behaviours became less about COVID-19, and more about feeling clean, easing the anxiety of spreading germs and keeping up with the standards of our society as encouraged during the pandemic. Even though the threat of COVID-19 has decreased immensely, you continue to wash your hands when you arrive home, sanitise after using public transport, and avoid sharing personal items when someone is sick. This displays how emotions and societal expectations can initially motivate our behaviour, while repetition, personal values and habit formations can maintain these behaviours over the course of our lives. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Personal hygiene is a fundamental feature of day-to-day life that influences one’s health, interactions with others, and overall wellbeing. While hygiene behaviours such as handwashing, bathing, and brushing teeth are seen as routine habits, people are motivated to engage in these behaviours for different reasons. [https://www.cdc.gov/hygiene/about/index.html The Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)] explains that hygiene behaviours can prevent disease, influence social acceptance, and bring personal comfort. Understanding the motivating factors behind the maintenance of personal hygiene is vital in encouraging long-term health behaviours and developing successful health promotion interventions. Personal hygiene is motivated by a range of factors which can assist in gaining an understanding of the reasons people engage and maintain hygiene behaviours. The health belief model can support the understanding of motivation related to the maintenance of personal hygiene.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} '''Focus questions''' # What are the core motivators for personal hygiene? # How did the COVID-19 pandemic influence motivation to maintain personal hygiene? # How can the health belief model explain motivation to maintain personal hygiene behaviours? # What differences in the motivation and maintenance of personal hygiene can be seen across varying economic and cultural contexts? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What is personal hygiene? == [https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/personal-hygiene Health Direct] describes good personal hygiene as keeping your body clean and looking after your health through daily habits. There are many kinds of personal hygiene behaviours that people engage with. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Hygiene practice !Behaviour |- |Oral hygiene |Keeping teeth clean by brushing with toothpaste for two minutes twice daily, flossing daily, and using mouthwash. |- |Hand hygiene |Washing hands with warm water and soap for 20 seconds prior to eating, after using the toilet, etc. |- |Body hygiene |Washing body daily using soap and warm water to remove sweat, oils, and dirt from body. |- |Menstrual hygiene |Changing sanitary items regularly, washing hands before and after use, disposing of correctly. |- |Personal grooming |Washing clothing regularly, trimming fingernails, washing and keeping hair clean, not sharing personal items with others. |- |Symptom etiquette |Covering mouth when coughing or sneezing to prevent the spread of germs. |} == Core motivators of personal hygiene == Personal hygiene can be motivated by a range of factors. The core motivators for personal hygiene are explored below. === Societal expectations === * Norms, peer pressure, and group identity can shape hygiene behaviours (Laursen & Faur, 2022). * Some hygiene behaviours are engaged with purely due to conformity or fear of judgement from others as opposed to a healthy practice (Pilli et al., 2024). * Example using a family scenario, where one child is encouraged to shower daily, and the other every second day. Are people more motivated to engage in personal hygiene when encouraged by those close to them? === Education and understanding of hygiene practices === [[File:Wash-your-hands-poster-english-508.pdf|thumb|297x297px|'''Figure 2.''' Public health messaging to promote proper hand washing hygiene in schools. ]] * Knowledge of the spread of disease through public health messaging (see Figure 2) or learning can influence motivation and engagement with behaviours (Bloomfield & Ackerley, 2023). * Understanding the reasons behind hygiene practices and their effectiveness can motivate individuals to engage with them, especially to avoid contracting a disease. * During COVID-19, which will be discussed later in this chapter, health messaging provided explanations as to why washing your hands for 20 seconds with warm water and soap was a vital hygiene behaviour to avoid contracting the illness (World Health Organisation, 2025). === Habit formation === * Hygiene practices can become second nature through repetition and reinforcement (Singh et al., 2024). * Brushing teeth, showering, and changing clothes are all personal hygiene behaviours that are second nature to many individuals. * What contributes to formation of habits? === Emotions === * Disgust and fear of illness can be drivers for hygiene behaviour in the same way depression and executive dysfunction can act as barriers (Ghassemi et al., 2023). * Explore levels of fear, including for self and loved ones. * Explore depression and executive dysfunction specific barriers to personal hygiene. === COVID-19 as a catalyst for personal hygiene === COVID-19 was a global pandemic that took over the world in 2020. From lockdowns to masks, hygiene behaviours changed drastically for individuals across the globe (World Health Organisation, 2025). * Increased hygiene engagement ** Handwashing as a more regular practice, sanitiser stations in public spaces, mask hygiene (see Figure 3), disinfecting and cleaning of surfaces after use (World Health Organisation, 2025). [[File:A woman wearing a protective face mask.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 3.''' Woman wearing mask on public transport during COVID-19 pandemic.]] * Risk perception and emotions ** Perceived threat or vulnerability to COVID-19 for self or loved ones increased practicing of hygiene behaviours. Motivational influence of fear and uncertainty (Miller et al., 2020). * Compliance and conformity ** Government mandates (quarantine, isolation, etc.) and collective responsibility of community increased motivation to engage in behaviours. Conforming to the majority, where most people engaged in COVID-19 protocols and influenced others to do the same (Miller et al., 2020). * Normalisation post-pandemic ** In 2026, many hygiene practices that increased in the pandemic have not reduced, and are the new 'normal'. Social distancing has become second nature to the extent where people judge those who stand too close to others. Wearing a mask when sick or feeling vulnerable has become a more common practice, and hand sanitiser is available in more public spaces than before the pandemic (Ali et al., 2023). == Understanding personal hygiene motivation according to the health belief model == What can assist in understanding the motivation of hygiene from a theoretical perspective? === Health belief model === * People decide whether to engage or perform a health behaviour based on cognitive evaluations, as explored below (Alyafei & Easton-Carr, 2024). ** Perceived susceptibility ** Perceived severity ** Perceived benefits ** Perceived barriers ** Cues to action ** Self-efficacy *How can this relate to maintenance of personal hygiene? *How does this help us to understand why people are motivated to engage with personal hygiene behaviours? {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}Case study Joel is a 19-year-old university student who lives in on-campus accommodation with three other students. While he understands that it is a good idea to wash his hands, he often skips the practice after taking the bus, touching shared surfaces, and before eating. He thinks it really cannot make all that much of a difference and can sometimes be inconvenient when he is in a rush. Because he is young and has good health, he believes he is unlikely to become ill. Recently, several students in the on-campus accommodation have become sick with COVID-19. One of Joel’s peers missed a week of classes and found it challenging to catch up due to the illness. Joel realised how easily infections can spread in shared spaces, becoming increasingly concerned. Due to the spread of COVID-19, the university launched a health promotion campaign surrounding hand hygiene. Posters around the campus explained how germs are spread from person to person and outlined the role of handwashing in preventing illness. Along with this, hand sanitiser stations were installed at the entrances to all buildings on campus, including the lobby of campus accommodations. Joel began to utilise the hand sanitiser provided on campus as he entered and exited buildings, especially after using public transport. After a few weeks, Joel noticed that he felt more confident about protecting himself and those he lived with from illness, becoming stricter about maintaining the practice of washing his hands before eating and after being in tight shared spaces, such as public transport. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Cultural and economic context == Recognising standards of hygiene cross-culturally is important to be able to understand how and why people keep up with personal hygiene. === Cross-cultural norms === * Personal hygiene expectations and standards can differ between cultures. * Hand washing, oral care, and even spitting can be expected at one rate in one culture and a completely different rate in the next. * Understanding the definition or standard of hygiene in certain cultures can assist in the understanding of motivational factors behind the behaviour (Eriksson et al., 2021). === Economic constraints === * Access to water, sanitation, and hygiene products can influence individual's engagement and maintenance of hygiene behaviours. * Individuals in developing countries may be motivated to engage in hygiene behaviours, but are unable to due to a lack of resources such as hot water, clean clothes, or menstruation products (Rossouw & Ross, 2021). [[File:Washing hands kids.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 5.''' School children utilising an outdoor tap to wash their hands. ]] * Figure 5 displays an example hygiene practices in countries without adequate infrastructure. == Conclusion == * There are a variety of motivating factors for personal hygiene, with societal expectations and emotions being highly influential. * COVID-19 allowed individuals to understand the benefits of some hygiene practices, with routines that were popular during the pandemic remaining in 2026. * Personal hygiene can differ across socio-cultural backgrounds, and core motivators may look different cross-culturally. * Theoretical perspectives such as the health belief model and theory of planned behaviour can deepen the understanding behind motivation and maintenance of personal hygiene. == See also == {{ic|Rename links as shown in Tutorial 2}} * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Disgust and hygiene]] (Book chapter, 2024) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Conformity and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[wikipedia:Public_health_mitigation_of_COVID-19|Public health mitigation of COVID-19]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Ali, A. S., Mekonen, Y., & Tesfahun, T. (2023). Hygiene behavior and COVID-19 pandemic: Opportunities of COVID-19-Imposed changes in hygiene behavior. ''INQUIRY: The Journal of Health Care Organization, Provision, and Financing, 60''(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/00469580231218421 Alyafei, A., & Carr, R. E. (2024). The health belief model of behavior change. StatPearls Publishing. National Library of Medicine. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK606120/ Bloomfield, S. F., & Ackerley, L. (2023). Developing better understanding of hygiene is key to developing hygiene behaviour change in home and everyday life settings. ''Perspect Public Health, 144''(6), 175791392311637–175791392311637. https://doi.org/10.1177/17579139231163734 Bosnjak, M., Ajzen, I., & Schmidt, P. (2020). The theory of planned behavior: Selected recent advances and applications. Europe’s Journal of Psychology, 16(3), 352–356. NCBI. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.v16i3.3107 Eriksson, K., Dickins, T. E., & Strimling, P. (2021). Hygiene norms across 56 nations are predicted by self-control values and disease threat. Current Research in Ecological and Social Psychology, 2(1), 100013. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cresp.2021.100013 Ghassemi, E., Astrid Hasund Thorseth, Karine Le Roch, Heath, T., & White, S. (2023). Mapping the association between mental health and people’s perceived and actual ability to practice hygiene-related behaviours in humanitarian and pandemic crises: A scoping review. ''PLOS ONE, 18''(12). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0286494 Laursen, B., & Faur, S. (2022). What does it mean to be susceptible to influence? A brief primer on peer conformity and developmental changes that affect it. ''International Journal of Behavioral Development, 46''(3), 222–237. https://doi.org/10.1177/01650254221084103 Miller, G. J., Hartman, T. K., Levita, L., Martinez, A. P., Mason, L., McBride, O., McKay, R., Murphy, J., Shevlin, M., Stocks, T. V. A., Bennett, K. M., & Bentall, R. P. (2020). Capability, opportunity, and motivation to enact hygienic practices in the early stages of the COVID‐19 outbreak in the United Kingdom. British Journal of Health Psychology, 25(4), 856–864. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjhp.12426 Pilli, L., Veldwijk, J., Swait, J. D., Donkers, B., & de Bekker-Grob, E. W. (2024). Sources and processes of social influence on health-related choices: A systematic review based on a social-interdependent choice paradigm. ''Social Science & Medicine, 361''(1). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2024.117360 Rossouw, L., & Ross, H. (2021). Understanding period poverty: Socio-economic inequalities in menstrual hygiene management in eight low- and middle-income countries. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(5), 2571. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18052571 Singh, B., Murphy, A., Maher, C., & Smith, A. E. (2024). Time to form a habit: A systematic review and meta-analysis of health behaviour habit formation and its determinants. ''Healthcare, 12''(23), 2488. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare12232488 World Health Organization. (2025). ''Coronavirus disease (COVID-19).'' https://www.who.int/health-topics/coronavirus#tab=tab_1 }} ==External links== * [https://www.beyondblue.org.au/ Support if you are experiencing anxiety or depression] (Beyond Blue) * [https://open.spotify.com/show/5HG094bpiecqetNsvz0ELs Tips for good hygiene podcast] (Spotify - Sandra Keyes) * [https://hygieneforhealth.org.au/importance/ Why is hygiene so important?] (Hygiene for Health) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Anxiety]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Disgust]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]] iv6ck212nwt9knsifermxrqrhyyr7ty 2836499 2836498 2026-10-07T09:15:45Z U3275940 3106402 /* Understanding personal hygiene motivation according to the health belief model */ 2836499 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Hygiene motivation:<br>What motivates maintenance of personal hygiene?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} ;Scenario [[File:Hand washing man.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Washing hands became a more frequent hygiene behaviour during the COVID-19 pandemic.]] You became increasingly aware of your own hygiene when the COVID-19 pandemic took over our lives in 2020. In the beginning, you were motivated by the fear of infection and desire to protect your loved ones. You washed your hands more frequently, used hand sanitiser after touching surfaces in public, cleaned your phone, and became more aware of how germs are passed on from person to person. As time passed, these hygiene behaviours became less about COVID-19, and more about feeling clean, easing the anxiety of spreading germs and keeping up with the standards of our society as encouraged during the pandemic. Even though the threat of COVID-19 has decreased immensely, you continue to wash your hands when you arrive home, sanitise after using public transport, and avoid sharing personal items when someone is sick. This displays how emotions and societal expectations can initially motivate our behaviour, while repetition, personal values and habit formations can maintain these behaviours over the course of our lives. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Personal hygiene is a fundamental feature of day-to-day life that influences one’s health, interactions with others, and overall wellbeing. While hygiene behaviours such as handwashing, bathing, and brushing teeth are seen as routine habits, people are motivated to engage in these behaviours for different reasons. [https://www.cdc.gov/hygiene/about/index.html The Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)] explains that hygiene behaviours can prevent disease, influence social acceptance, and bring personal comfort. Understanding the motivating factors behind the maintenance of personal hygiene is vital in encouraging long-term health behaviours and developing successful health promotion interventions. Personal hygiene is motivated by a range of factors which can assist in gaining an understanding of the reasons people engage and maintain hygiene behaviours. The health belief model can support the understanding of motivation related to the maintenance of personal hygiene.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} '''Focus questions''' # What are the core motivators for personal hygiene? # How did the COVID-19 pandemic influence motivation to maintain personal hygiene? # How can the health belief model explain motivation to maintain personal hygiene behaviours? # What differences in the motivation and maintenance of personal hygiene can be seen across varying economic and cultural contexts? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What is personal hygiene? == [https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/personal-hygiene Health Direct] describes good personal hygiene as keeping your body clean and looking after your health through daily habits. There are many kinds of personal hygiene behaviours that people engage with. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Hygiene practice !Behaviour |- |Oral hygiene |Keeping teeth clean by brushing with toothpaste for two minutes twice daily, flossing daily, and using mouthwash. |- |Hand hygiene |Washing hands with warm water and soap for 20 seconds prior to eating, after using the toilet, etc. |- |Body hygiene |Washing body daily using soap and warm water to remove sweat, oils, and dirt from body. |- |Menstrual hygiene |Changing sanitary items regularly, washing hands before and after use, disposing of correctly. |- |Personal grooming |Washing clothing regularly, trimming fingernails, washing and keeping hair clean, not sharing personal items with others. |- |Symptom etiquette |Covering mouth when coughing or sneezing to prevent the spread of germs. |} == Core motivators of personal hygiene == Personal hygiene can be motivated by a range of factors. The core motivators for personal hygiene are explored below. === Societal expectations === * Norms, peer pressure, and group identity can shape hygiene behaviours (Laursen & Faur, 2022). * Some hygiene behaviours are engaged with purely due to conformity or fear of judgement from others as opposed to a healthy practice (Pilli et al., 2024). * Example using a family scenario, where one child is encouraged to shower daily, and the other every second day. Are people more motivated to engage in personal hygiene when encouraged by those close to them? === Education and understanding of hygiene practices === [[File:Wash-your-hands-poster-english-508.pdf|thumb|297x297px|'''Figure 2.''' Public health messaging to promote proper hand washing hygiene in schools. ]] * Knowledge of the spread of disease through public health messaging (see Figure 2) or learning can influence motivation and engagement with behaviours (Bloomfield & Ackerley, 2023). * Understanding the reasons behind hygiene practices and their effectiveness can motivate individuals to engage with them, especially to avoid contracting a disease. * During COVID-19, which will be discussed later in this chapter, health messaging provided explanations as to why washing your hands for 20 seconds with warm water and soap was a vital hygiene behaviour to avoid contracting the illness (World Health Organisation, 2025). === Habit formation === * Hygiene practices can become second nature through repetition and reinforcement (Singh et al., 2024). * Brushing teeth, showering, and changing clothes are all personal hygiene behaviours that are second nature to many individuals. * What contributes to formation of habits? === Emotions === * Disgust and fear of illness can be drivers for hygiene behaviour in the same way depression and executive dysfunction can act as barriers (Ghassemi et al., 2023). * Explore levels of fear, including for self and loved ones. * Explore depression and executive dysfunction specific barriers to personal hygiene. === COVID-19 as a catalyst for personal hygiene === COVID-19 was a global pandemic that took over the world in 2020. From lockdowns to masks, hygiene behaviours changed drastically for individuals across the globe (World Health Organisation, 2025). * Increased hygiene engagement ** Handwashing as a more regular practice, sanitiser stations in public spaces, mask hygiene (see Figure 3), disinfecting and cleaning of surfaces after use (World Health Organisation, 2025). [[File:A woman wearing a protective face mask.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 3.''' Woman wearing mask on public transport during COVID-19 pandemic.]] * Risk perception and emotions ** Perceived threat or vulnerability to COVID-19 for self or loved ones increased practicing of hygiene behaviours. Motivational influence of fear and uncertainty (Miller et al., 2020). * Compliance and conformity ** Government mandates (quarantine, isolation, etc.) and collective responsibility of community increased motivation to engage in behaviours. Conforming to the majority, where most people engaged in COVID-19 protocols and influenced others to do the same (Miller et al., 2020). * Normalisation post-pandemic ** In 2026, many hygiene practices that increased in the pandemic have not reduced, and are the new 'normal'. Social distancing has become second nature to the extent where people judge those who stand too close to others. Wearing a mask when sick or feeling vulnerable has become a more common practice, and hand sanitiser is available in more public spaces than before the pandemic (Ali et al., 2023). == Understanding personal hygiene motivation according to the health belief model == What can assist in understanding the motivation of hygiene from a theoretical perspective? === Health belief model === * People decide whether to engage or perform a health behaviour based on cognitive evaluations, as explored below (Alyafei & Easton-Carr, 2024). ** Perceived susceptibility ** Perceived severity ** Perceived benefits ** Perceived barriers ** Cues to action ** Self-efficacy *How can this relate to maintenance of personal hygiene? *How does this help us to understand why people are motivated to engage with personal hygiene behaviours? {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Case study''' Joel is a 19-year-old university student who lives in on-campus accommodation with three other students. While he understands that it is a good idea to wash his hands, he often skips the practice after taking the bus, touching shared surfaces, and before eating. He thinks it really cannot make all that much of a difference and can sometimes be inconvenient when he is in a rush. Because he is young and has good health, he believes he is unlikely to become ill. Recently, several students in the on-campus accommodation have become sick with COVID-19. One of Joel’s peers missed a week of classes and found it challenging to catch up due to the illness. Joel realised how easily infections can spread in shared spaces, becoming increasingly concerned. Due to the spread of COVID-19, the university launched a health promotion campaign surrounding hand hygiene. Posters around the campus explained how germs are spread from person to person and outlined the role of handwashing in preventing illness. Along with this, hand sanitiser stations were installed at the entrances to all buildings on campus, including the lobby of campus accommodations. Joel began to utilise the hand sanitiser provided on campus as he entered and exited buildings, especially after using public transport. After a few weeks, Joel noticed that he felt more confident about protecting himself and those he lived with from illness, becoming stricter about maintaining the practice of washing his hands before eating and after being in tight shared spaces, such as public transport. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Cultural and economic context == Recognising standards of hygiene cross-culturally is important to be able to understand how and why people keep up with personal hygiene. === Cross-cultural norms === * Personal hygiene expectations and standards can differ between cultures. * Hand washing, oral care, and even spitting can be expected at one rate in one culture and a completely different rate in the next. * Understanding the definition or standard of hygiene in certain cultures can assist in the understanding of motivational factors behind the behaviour (Eriksson et al., 2021). === Economic constraints === * Access to water, sanitation, and hygiene products can influence individual's engagement and maintenance of hygiene behaviours. * Individuals in developing countries may be motivated to engage in hygiene behaviours, but are unable to due to a lack of resources such as hot water, clean clothes, or menstruation products (Rossouw & Ross, 2021). [[File:Washing hands kids.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 5.''' School children utilising an outdoor tap to wash their hands. ]] * Figure 5 displays an example hygiene practices in countries without adequate infrastructure. == Conclusion == * There are a variety of motivating factors for personal hygiene, with societal expectations and emotions being highly influential. * COVID-19 allowed individuals to understand the benefits of some hygiene practices, with routines that were popular during the pandemic remaining in 2026. * Personal hygiene can differ across socio-cultural backgrounds, and core motivators may look different cross-culturally. * Theoretical perspectives such as the health belief model and theory of planned behaviour can deepen the understanding behind motivation and maintenance of personal hygiene. == See also == {{ic|Rename links as shown in Tutorial 2}} * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Disgust and hygiene]] (Book chapter, 2024) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Conformity and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[wikipedia:Public_health_mitigation_of_COVID-19|Public health mitigation of COVID-19]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Ali, A. S., Mekonen, Y., & Tesfahun, T. (2023). Hygiene behavior and COVID-19 pandemic: Opportunities of COVID-19-Imposed changes in hygiene behavior. ''INQUIRY: The Journal of Health Care Organization, Provision, and Financing, 60''(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/00469580231218421 Alyafei, A., & Carr, R. E. (2024). The health belief model of behavior change. StatPearls Publishing. National Library of Medicine. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK606120/ Bloomfield, S. F., & Ackerley, L. (2023). Developing better understanding of hygiene is key to developing hygiene behaviour change in home and everyday life settings. ''Perspect Public Health, 144''(6), 175791392311637–175791392311637. https://doi.org/10.1177/17579139231163734 Bosnjak, M., Ajzen, I., & Schmidt, P. (2020). The theory of planned behavior: Selected recent advances and applications. Europe’s Journal of Psychology, 16(3), 352–356. NCBI. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.v16i3.3107 Eriksson, K., Dickins, T. E., & Strimling, P. (2021). Hygiene norms across 56 nations are predicted by self-control values and disease threat. Current Research in Ecological and Social Psychology, 2(1), 100013. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cresp.2021.100013 Ghassemi, E., Astrid Hasund Thorseth, Karine Le Roch, Heath, T., & White, S. (2023). Mapping the association between mental health and people’s perceived and actual ability to practice hygiene-related behaviours in humanitarian and pandemic crises: A scoping review. ''PLOS ONE, 18''(12). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0286494 Laursen, B., & Faur, S. (2022). What does it mean to be susceptible to influence? A brief primer on peer conformity and developmental changes that affect it. ''International Journal of Behavioral Development, 46''(3), 222–237. https://doi.org/10.1177/01650254221084103 Miller, G. J., Hartman, T. K., Levita, L., Martinez, A. P., Mason, L., McBride, O., McKay, R., Murphy, J., Shevlin, M., Stocks, T. V. A., Bennett, K. M., & Bentall, R. P. (2020). Capability, opportunity, and motivation to enact hygienic practices in the early stages of the COVID‐19 outbreak in the United Kingdom. British Journal of Health Psychology, 25(4), 856–864. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjhp.12426 Pilli, L., Veldwijk, J., Swait, J. D., Donkers, B., & de Bekker-Grob, E. W. (2024). Sources and processes of social influence on health-related choices: A systematic review based on a social-interdependent choice paradigm. ''Social Science & Medicine, 361''(1). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2024.117360 Rossouw, L., & Ross, H. (2021). Understanding period poverty: Socio-economic inequalities in menstrual hygiene management in eight low- and middle-income countries. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(5), 2571. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18052571 Singh, B., Murphy, A., Maher, C., & Smith, A. E. (2024). Time to form a habit: A systematic review and meta-analysis of health behaviour habit formation and its determinants. ''Healthcare, 12''(23), 2488. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare12232488 World Health Organization. (2025). ''Coronavirus disease (COVID-19).'' https://www.who.int/health-topics/coronavirus#tab=tab_1 }} ==External links== * [https://www.beyondblue.org.au/ Support if you are experiencing anxiety or depression] (Beyond Blue) * [https://open.spotify.com/show/5HG094bpiecqetNsvz0ELs Tips for good hygiene podcast] (Spotify - Sandra Keyes) * [https://hygieneforhealth.org.au/importance/ Why is hygiene so important?] (Hygiene for Health) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Anxiety]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Disgust]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]] r9o13z75w7l3kxljp0osqp4lec4ze8g 2836504 2836499 2026-10-07T09:38:32Z U3275940 3106402 /* Understanding personal hygiene motivation according to the health belief model */ 2836504 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Hygiene motivation:<br>What motivates maintenance of personal hygiene?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} ;Scenario [[File:Hand washing man.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Washing hands became a more frequent hygiene behaviour during the COVID-19 pandemic.]] You became increasingly aware of your own hygiene when the COVID-19 pandemic took over our lives in 2020. In the beginning, you were motivated by the fear of infection and desire to protect your loved ones. You washed your hands more frequently, used hand sanitiser after touching surfaces in public, cleaned your phone, and became more aware of how germs are passed on from person to person. As time passed, these hygiene behaviours became less about COVID-19, and more about feeling clean, easing the anxiety of spreading germs and keeping up with the standards of our society as encouraged during the pandemic. Even though the threat of COVID-19 has decreased immensely, you continue to wash your hands when you arrive home, sanitise after using public transport, and avoid sharing personal items when someone is sick. This displays how emotions and societal expectations can initially motivate our behaviour, while repetition, personal values and habit formations can maintain these behaviours over the course of our lives. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Personal hygiene is a fundamental feature of day-to-day life that influences one’s health, interactions with others, and overall wellbeing. While hygiene behaviours such as handwashing, bathing, and brushing teeth are seen as routine habits, people are motivated to engage in these behaviours for different reasons. [https://www.cdc.gov/hygiene/about/index.html The Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)] explains that hygiene behaviours can prevent disease, influence social acceptance, and bring personal comfort. Understanding the motivating factors behind the maintenance of personal hygiene is vital in encouraging long-term health behaviours and developing successful health promotion interventions. Personal hygiene is motivated by a range of factors which can assist in gaining an understanding of the reasons people engage and maintain hygiene behaviours. The health belief model can support the understanding of motivation related to the maintenance of personal hygiene.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} '''Focus questions''' # What are the core motivators for personal hygiene? # How did the COVID-19 pandemic influence motivation to maintain personal hygiene? # How can the health belief model explain motivation to maintain personal hygiene behaviours? # What differences in the motivation and maintenance of personal hygiene can be seen across varying economic and cultural contexts? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What is personal hygiene? == [https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/personal-hygiene Health Direct] describes good personal hygiene as keeping your body clean and looking after your health through daily habits. There are many kinds of personal hygiene behaviours that people engage with. {| |+'''Table 1.''' Personal hygiene behaviours !Hygiene practice !Behaviour |- |Oral hygiene |Keeping teeth clean by brushing with toothpaste for two minutes twice daily, flossing daily, and using mouthwash. |- |Hand hygiene |Washing hands with warm water and soap for 20 seconds prior to eating, after using the toilet, etc. |- |Body hygiene |Washing body daily using soap and warm water to remove sweat, oils, and dirt from body. |- |Menstrual hygiene |Changing sanitary items regularly, washing hands before and after use, disposing of correctly. |- |Personal grooming |Washing clothing regularly, trimming fingernails, washing and keeping hair clean, not sharing personal items with others. |- |Symptom etiquette |Covering mouth when coughing or sneezing to prevent the spread of germs. |} == Core motivators of personal hygiene == Personal hygiene can be motivated by a range of factors. The core motivators for personal hygiene are explored below. === Societal expectations === * Norms, peer pressure, and group identity can shape hygiene behaviours (Laursen & Faur, 2022). * Some hygiene behaviours are engaged with purely due to conformity or fear of judgement from others as opposed to a healthy practice (Pilli et al., 2024). * Example using a family scenario, where one child is encouraged to shower daily, and the other every second day. Are people more motivated to engage in personal hygiene when encouraged by those close to them? === Education and understanding of hygiene practices === [[File:Wash-your-hands-poster-english-508.pdf|thumb|297x297px|'''Figure 2.''' Public health messaging to promote proper hand washing hygiene in schools. ]] * Knowledge of the spread of disease through public health messaging (see Figure 2) or learning can influence motivation and engagement with behaviours (Bloomfield & Ackerley, 2023). * Understanding the reasons behind hygiene practices and their effectiveness can motivate individuals to engage with them, especially to avoid contracting a disease. * During COVID-19, which will be discussed later in this chapter, health messaging provided explanations as to why washing your hands for 20 seconds with warm water and soap was a vital hygiene behaviour to avoid contracting the illness (World Health Organisation, 2025). === Habit formation === * Hygiene practices can become second nature through repetition and reinforcement (Singh et al., 2024). * Brushing teeth, showering, and changing clothes are all personal hygiene behaviours that are second nature to many individuals. * What contributes to formation of habits? === Emotions === * Disgust and fear of illness can be drivers for hygiene behaviour in the same way depression and executive dysfunction can act as barriers (Ghassemi et al., 2023). * Explore levels of fear, including for self and loved ones. * Explore depression and executive dysfunction specific barriers to personal hygiene. === COVID-19 as a catalyst for personal hygiene === COVID-19 was a global pandemic that took over the world in 2020. From lockdowns to masks, hygiene behaviours changed drastically for individuals across the globe (World Health Organisation, 2025). * Increased hygiene engagement ** Handwashing as a more regular practice, sanitiser stations in public spaces, mask hygiene (see Figure 3), disinfecting and cleaning of surfaces after use (World Health Organisation, 2025). [[File:A woman wearing a protective face mask.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 3.''' Woman wearing mask on public transport during COVID-19 pandemic.]] * Risk perception and emotions ** Perceived threat or vulnerability to COVID-19 for self or loved ones increased practicing of hygiene behaviours. Motivational influence of fear and uncertainty (Miller et al., 2020). * Compliance and conformity ** Government mandates (quarantine, isolation, etc.) and collective responsibility of community increased motivation to engage in behaviours. Conforming to the majority, where most people engaged in COVID-19 protocols and influenced others to do the same (Miller et al., 2020). * Normalisation post-pandemic ** In 2026, many hygiene practices that increased in the pandemic have not reduced, and are the new 'normal'. Social distancing has become second nature to the extent where people judge those who stand too close to others. Wearing a mask when sick or feeling vulnerable has become a more common practice, and hand sanitiser is available in more public spaces than before the pandemic (Ali et al., 2023). == Understanding personal hygiene motivation according to the health belief model == The health belief model is a psychological framework used to explain and predict health-related behaviours. The model was first developed in the 1950s by social psychologists working in the [https://www.usphs.gov/ United States Public Health Service], proposing that an individual's willingness to change their behaviour depends on their perceptions (Alyafei & Easton-Carr, 2024). The health belief model can provide context into why people may maintain their personal hygiene behaviours through cognitive evaluations related to benefits and risks in engaging in hygiene behaviours (Kamal et al., 2017). '''Cognitive evaluations''' The health belief model relies on six core constructs, or cognitive evaluations, which can influence a person's perspective when deciding what behaviours to engage with. These constructs are defined in Table 2. {| |+'''Table 2.''' Health belief model core constructs |Perceived susceptibility | |- |Perceived severity | |- |Perceived benefits | |- |Perceived barriers | |- |Cues to action | |- |Self-efficacy | |} * People decide whether to engage or perform a health behaviour based on cognitive evaluations, as explored below (Alyafei & Easton-Carr, 2024). ** Perceived susceptibility ** Perceived severity ** Perceived benefits ** Perceived barriers ** Cues to action ** Self-efficacy *How can this relate to maintenance of personal hygiene? *How does this help us to understand why people are motivated to engage with personal hygiene behaviours? {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Case study''' Joel is a 19-year-old university student who lives in on-campus accommodation with three other students. While he understands that it is a good idea to wash his hands, he often skips the practice after taking the bus, touching shared surfaces, and before eating. He thinks it really cannot make all that much of a difference and can sometimes be inconvenient when he is in a rush. Because he is young and has good health, he believes he is unlikely to become ill. Recently, several students in the on-campus accommodation have become sick with COVID-19. One of Joel’s peers missed a week of classes and found it challenging to catch up due to the illness. Joel realised how easily infections can spread in shared spaces, becoming increasingly concerned. Due to the spread of COVID-19, the university launched a health promotion campaign surrounding hand hygiene. Posters around the campus explained how germs are spread from person to person and outlined the role of handwashing in preventing illness. Along with this, hand sanitiser stations were installed at the entrances to all buildings on campus, including the lobby of campus accommodations. Joel began to utilise the hand sanitiser provided on campus as he entered and exited buildings, especially after using public transport. After a few weeks, Joel noticed that he felt more confident about protecting himself and those he lived with from illness, becoming stricter about maintaining the practice of washing his hands before eating and after being in tight shared spaces, such as public transport. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Cultural and economic context == Recognising standards of hygiene cross-culturally is important to be able to understand how and why people keep up with personal hygiene. === Cross-cultural norms === * Personal hygiene expectations and standards can differ between cultures. * Hand washing, oral care, and even spitting can be expected at one rate in one culture and a completely different rate in the next. * Understanding the definition or standard of hygiene in certain cultures can assist in the understanding of motivational factors behind the behaviour (Eriksson et al., 2021). === Economic constraints === * Access to water, sanitation, and hygiene products can influence individual's engagement and maintenance of hygiene behaviours. * Individuals in developing countries may be motivated to engage in hygiene behaviours, but are unable to due to a lack of resources such as hot water, clean clothes, or menstruation products (Rossouw & Ross, 2021). [[File:Washing hands kids.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 5.''' School children utilising an outdoor tap to wash their hands. ]] * Figure 5 displays an example hygiene practices in countries without adequate infrastructure. == Conclusion == * There are a variety of motivating factors for personal hygiene, with societal expectations and emotions being highly influential. * COVID-19 allowed individuals to understand the benefits of some hygiene practices, with routines that were popular during the pandemic remaining in 2026. * Personal hygiene can differ across socio-cultural backgrounds, and core motivators may look different cross-culturally. * Theoretical perspectives such as the health belief model and theory of planned behaviour can deepen the understanding behind motivation and maintenance of personal hygiene. == See also == {{ic|Rename links as shown in Tutorial 2}} * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Disgust and hygiene]] (Book chapter, 2024) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Conformity and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[wikipedia:Public_health_mitigation_of_COVID-19|Public health mitigation of COVID-19]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Ali, A. S., Mekonen, Y., & Tesfahun, T. (2023). Hygiene behavior and COVID-19 pandemic: Opportunities of COVID-19-Imposed changes in hygiene behavior. ''INQUIRY: The Journal of Health Care Organization, Provision, and Financing, 60''(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/00469580231218421 Alyafei, A., & Carr, R. E. (2024). The health belief model of behavior change. StatPearls Publishing. National Library of Medicine. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK606120/ Bloomfield, S. F., & Ackerley, L. (2023). Developing better understanding of hygiene is key to developing hygiene behaviour change in home and everyday life settings. ''Perspect Public Health, 144''(6), 175791392311637–175791392311637. https://doi.org/10.1177/17579139231163734 Bosnjak, M., Ajzen, I., & Schmidt, P. (2020). The theory of planned behavior: Selected recent advances and applications. Europe’s Journal of Psychology, 16(3), 352–356. NCBI. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.v16i3.3107 Eriksson, K., Dickins, T. E., & Strimling, P. (2021). Hygiene norms across 56 nations are predicted by self-control values and disease threat. Current Research in Ecological and Social Psychology, 2(1), 100013. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cresp.2021.100013 Ghassemi, E., Astrid Hasund Thorseth, Karine Le Roch, Heath, T., & White, S. (2023). Mapping the association between mental health and people’s perceived and actual ability to practice hygiene-related behaviours in humanitarian and pandemic crises: A scoping review. ''PLOS ONE, 18''(12). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0286494 Laursen, B., & Faur, S. (2022). What does it mean to be susceptible to influence? A brief primer on peer conformity and developmental changes that affect it. ''International Journal of Behavioral Development, 46''(3), 222–237. https://doi.org/10.1177/01650254221084103 Miller, G. J., Hartman, T. K., Levita, L., Martinez, A. P., Mason, L., McBride, O., McKay, R., Murphy, J., Shevlin, M., Stocks, T. V. A., Bennett, K. M., & Bentall, R. P. (2020). Capability, opportunity, and motivation to enact hygienic practices in the early stages of the COVID‐19 outbreak in the United Kingdom. British Journal of Health Psychology, 25(4), 856–864. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjhp.12426 Pilli, L., Veldwijk, J., Swait, J. D., Donkers, B., & de Bekker-Grob, E. W. (2024). Sources and processes of social influence on health-related choices: A systematic review based on a social-interdependent choice paradigm. ''Social Science & Medicine, 361''(1). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2024.117360 Rossouw, L., & Ross, H. (2021). Understanding period poverty: Socio-economic inequalities in menstrual hygiene management in eight low- and middle-income countries. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(5), 2571. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18052571 Singh, B., Murphy, A., Maher, C., & Smith, A. E. (2024). Time to form a habit: A systematic review and meta-analysis of health behaviour habit formation and its determinants. ''Healthcare, 12''(23), 2488. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare12232488 World Health Organization. (2025). ''Coronavirus disease (COVID-19).'' https://www.who.int/health-topics/coronavirus#tab=tab_1 }} ==External links== * [https://www.beyondblue.org.au/ Support if you are experiencing anxiety or depression] (Beyond Blue) * [https://open.spotify.com/show/5HG094bpiecqetNsvz0ELs Tips for good hygiene podcast] (Spotify - Sandra Keyes) * [https://hygieneforhealth.org.au/importance/ Why is hygiene so important?] (Hygiene for Health) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Anxiety]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Disgust]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]] e9p2sxzk2c0dproa9l6uqyfpzgyql0i 2836508 2836504 2026-10-07T09:45:53Z U3275940 3106402 /* Understanding personal hygiene motivation according to the health belief model */ 2836508 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Hygiene motivation:<br>What motivates maintenance of personal hygiene?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} ;Scenario [[File:Hand washing man.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Washing hands became a more frequent hygiene behaviour during the COVID-19 pandemic.]] You became increasingly aware of your own hygiene when the COVID-19 pandemic took over our lives in 2020. In the beginning, you were motivated by the fear of infection and desire to protect your loved ones. You washed your hands more frequently, used hand sanitiser after touching surfaces in public, cleaned your phone, and became more aware of how germs are passed on from person to person. As time passed, these hygiene behaviours became less about COVID-19, and more about feeling clean, easing the anxiety of spreading germs and keeping up with the standards of our society as encouraged during the pandemic. Even though the threat of COVID-19 has decreased immensely, you continue to wash your hands when you arrive home, sanitise after using public transport, and avoid sharing personal items when someone is sick. This displays how emotions and societal expectations can initially motivate our behaviour, while repetition, personal values and habit formations can maintain these behaviours over the course of our lives. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Personal hygiene is a fundamental feature of day-to-day life that influences one’s health, interactions with others, and overall wellbeing. While hygiene behaviours such as handwashing, bathing, and brushing teeth are seen as routine habits, people are motivated to engage in these behaviours for different reasons. [https://www.cdc.gov/hygiene/about/index.html The Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)] explains that hygiene behaviours can prevent disease, influence social acceptance, and bring personal comfort. Understanding the motivating factors behind the maintenance of personal hygiene is vital in encouraging long-term health behaviours and developing successful health promotion interventions. Personal hygiene is motivated by a range of factors which can assist in gaining an understanding of the reasons people engage and maintain hygiene behaviours. The health belief model can support the understanding of motivation related to the maintenance of personal hygiene.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} '''Focus questions''' # What are the core motivators for personal hygiene? # How did the COVID-19 pandemic influence motivation to maintain personal hygiene? # How can the health belief model explain motivation to maintain personal hygiene behaviours? # What differences in the motivation and maintenance of personal hygiene can be seen across varying economic and cultural contexts? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What is personal hygiene? == [https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/personal-hygiene Health Direct] describes good personal hygiene as keeping your body clean and looking after your health through daily habits. There are many kinds of personal hygiene behaviours that people engage with. {| class="wikitable" |+'''Table 1.''' Personal hygiene behaviours !Hygiene practice !Behaviour |- |Oral hygiene |Keeping teeth clean by brushing with toothpaste for two minutes twice daily, flossing daily, and using mouthwash. |- |Hand hygiene |Washing hands with warm water and soap for 20 seconds prior to eating, after using the toilet, etc. |- |Body hygiene |Washing body daily using soap and warm water to remove sweat, oils, and dirt from body. |- |Menstrual hygiene |Changing sanitary items regularly, washing hands before and after use, disposing of correctly. |- |Personal grooming |Washing clothing regularly, trimming fingernails, washing and keeping hair clean, not sharing personal items with others. |- |Symptom etiquette |Covering mouth when coughing or sneezing to prevent the spread of germs. |} == Core motivators of personal hygiene == Personal hygiene can be motivated by a range of factors. The core motivators for personal hygiene are explored below. === Societal expectations === * Norms, peer pressure, and group identity can shape hygiene behaviours (Laursen & Faur, 2022). * Some hygiene behaviours are engaged with purely due to conformity or fear of judgement from others as opposed to a healthy practice (Pilli et al., 2024). * Example using a family scenario, where one child is encouraged to shower daily, and the other every second day. Are people more motivated to engage in personal hygiene when encouraged by those close to them? === Education and understanding of hygiene practices === [[File:Wash-your-hands-poster-english-508.pdf|thumb|297x297px|'''Figure 2.''' Public health messaging to promote proper hand washing hygiene in schools. ]] * Knowledge of the spread of disease through public health messaging (see Figure 2) or learning can influence motivation and engagement with behaviours (Bloomfield & Ackerley, 2023). * Understanding the reasons behind hygiene practices and their effectiveness can motivate individuals to engage with them, especially to avoid contracting a disease. * During COVID-19, which will be discussed later in this chapter, health messaging provided explanations as to why washing your hands for 20 seconds with warm water and soap was a vital hygiene behaviour to avoid contracting the illness (World Health Organisation, 2025). === Habit formation === * Hygiene practices can become second nature through repetition and reinforcement (Singh et al., 2024). * Brushing teeth, showering, and changing clothes are all personal hygiene behaviours that are second nature to many individuals. * What contributes to formation of habits? === Emotions === * Disgust and fear of illness can be drivers for hygiene behaviour in the same way depression and executive dysfunction can act as barriers (Ghassemi et al., 2023). * Explore levels of fear, including for self and loved ones. * Explore depression and executive dysfunction specific barriers to personal hygiene. === COVID-19 as a catalyst for personal hygiene === COVID-19 was a global pandemic that took over the world in 2020. From lockdowns to masks, hygiene behaviours changed drastically for individuals across the globe (World Health Organisation, 2025). * Increased hygiene engagement ** Handwashing as a more regular practice, sanitiser stations in public spaces, mask hygiene (see Figure 3), disinfecting and cleaning of surfaces after use (World Health Organisation, 2025). [[File:A woman wearing a protective face mask.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 3.''' Woman wearing mask on public transport during COVID-19 pandemic.]] * Risk perception and emotions ** Perceived threat or vulnerability to COVID-19 for self or loved ones increased practicing of hygiene behaviours. Motivational influence of fear and uncertainty (Miller et al., 2020). * Compliance and conformity ** Government mandates (quarantine, isolation, etc.) and collective responsibility of community increased motivation to engage in behaviours. Conforming to the majority, where most people engaged in COVID-19 protocols and influenced others to do the same (Miller et al., 2020). * Normalisation post-pandemic ** In 2026, many hygiene practices that increased in the pandemic have not reduced, and are the new 'normal'. Social distancing has become second nature to the extent where people judge those who stand too close to others. Wearing a mask when sick or feeling vulnerable has become a more common practice, and hand sanitiser is available in more public spaces than before the pandemic (Ali et al., 2023). == Understanding personal hygiene motivation according to the health belief model == The health belief model is a psychological framework used to explain and predict health-related behaviours. The model was first developed in the 1950s by social psychologists working in the [https://www.usphs.gov/ United States Public Health Service], proposing that an individual's willingness to change their behaviour depends on their perceptions (Alyafei & Easton-Carr, 2024). The health belief model can provide context into why people may maintain their personal hygiene behaviours through cognitive evaluations related to benefits and risks in engaging in hygiene behaviours (Kamal et al., 2017). '''Cognitive evaluations''' The health belief model relies on six core constructs, or cognitive evaluations, which can influence a person's perspective when deciding what behaviours to engage with. These constructs are defined in Table 2. {| class="wikitable" |+'''Table 2.''' Health belief model core constructs |Perceived susceptibility |Assessment of the risk |- |Perceived severity |Assessment of the danger of a condition and what the emotional, physical, and social consequences may be |- |Perceived benefits |Belief in the effectiveness of an action to reduce the perceived severity |- |Perceived barriers |Tangible and psychological obstacles in taking action |- |Cues to action |External and/or internal triggers that encourage people to change their behaviour |- |Self-efficacy |Confidence in the ability to perform the behaviour successfully |} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Case study''' Joel is a 19-year-old university student who lives in on-campus accommodation with three other students. While he understands that it is a good idea to wash his hands, he often skips the practice after taking the bus, touching shared surfaces, and before eating. He thinks it really cannot make all that much of a difference and can sometimes be inconvenient when he is in a rush. Because he is young and has good health, he believes he is unlikely to become ill. Recently, several students in the on-campus accommodation have become sick with COVID-19. One of Joel’s peers missed a week of classes and found it challenging to catch up due to the illness. Joel realised how easily infections can spread in shared spaces, becoming increasingly concerned. Due to the spread of COVID-19, the university launched a health promotion campaign surrounding hand hygiene. Posters around the campus explained how germs are spread from person to person and outlined the role of handwashing in preventing illness. Along with this, hand sanitiser stations were installed at the entrances to all buildings on campus, including the lobby of campus accommodations. Joel began to utilise the hand sanitiser provided on campus as he entered and exited buildings, especially after using public transport. After a few weeks, Joel noticed that he felt more confident about protecting himself and those he lived with from illness, becoming stricter about maintaining the practice of washing his hands before eating and after being in tight shared spaces, such as public transport. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Cultural and economic context == Recognising standards of hygiene cross-culturally is important to be able to understand how and why people keep up with personal hygiene. === Cross-cultural norms === * Personal hygiene expectations and standards can differ between cultures. * Hand washing, oral care, and even spitting can be expected at one rate in one culture and a completely different rate in the next. * Understanding the definition or standard of hygiene in certain cultures can assist in the understanding of motivational factors behind the behaviour (Eriksson et al., 2021). === Economic constraints === * Access to water, sanitation, and hygiene products can influence individual's engagement and maintenance of hygiene behaviours. * Individuals in developing countries may be motivated to engage in hygiene behaviours, but are unable to due to a lack of resources such as hot water, clean clothes, or menstruation products (Rossouw & Ross, 2021). [[File:Washing hands kids.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 5.''' School children utilising an outdoor tap to wash their hands. ]] * Figure 5 displays an example hygiene practices in countries without adequate infrastructure. == Conclusion == * There are a variety of motivating factors for personal hygiene, with societal expectations and emotions being highly influential. * COVID-19 allowed individuals to understand the benefits of some hygiene practices, with routines that were popular during the pandemic remaining in 2026. * Personal hygiene can differ across socio-cultural backgrounds, and core motivators may look different cross-culturally. * Theoretical perspectives such as the health belief model and theory of planned behaviour can deepen the understanding behind motivation and maintenance of personal hygiene. == See also == {{ic|Rename links as shown in Tutorial 2}} * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Disgust and hygiene]] (Book chapter, 2024) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Conformity and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[wikipedia:Public_health_mitigation_of_COVID-19|Public health mitigation of COVID-19]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Ali, A. S., Mekonen, Y., & Tesfahun, T. (2023). Hygiene behavior and COVID-19 pandemic: Opportunities of COVID-19-Imposed changes in hygiene behavior. ''INQUIRY: The Journal of Health Care Organization, Provision, and Financing, 60''(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/00469580231218421 Alyafei, A., & Carr, R. E. (2024). The health belief model of behavior change. StatPearls Publishing. National Library of Medicine. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK606120/ Bloomfield, S. F., & Ackerley, L. (2023). Developing better understanding of hygiene is key to developing hygiene behaviour change in home and everyday life settings. ''Perspect Public Health, 144''(6), 175791392311637–175791392311637. https://doi.org/10.1177/17579139231163734 Bosnjak, M., Ajzen, I., & Schmidt, P. (2020). The theory of planned behavior: Selected recent advances and applications. Europe’s Journal of Psychology, 16(3), 352–356. NCBI. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.v16i3.3107 Eriksson, K., Dickins, T. E., & Strimling, P. (2021). Hygiene norms across 56 nations are predicted by self-control values and disease threat. Current Research in Ecological and Social Psychology, 2(1), 100013. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cresp.2021.100013 Ghassemi, E., Astrid Hasund Thorseth, Karine Le Roch, Heath, T., & White, S. (2023). Mapping the association between mental health and people’s perceived and actual ability to practice hygiene-related behaviours in humanitarian and pandemic crises: A scoping review. ''PLOS ONE, 18''(12). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0286494 Laursen, B., & Faur, S. (2022). What does it mean to be susceptible to influence? A brief primer on peer conformity and developmental changes that affect it. ''International Journal of Behavioral Development, 46''(3), 222–237. https://doi.org/10.1177/01650254221084103 Miller, G. J., Hartman, T. K., Levita, L., Martinez, A. P., Mason, L., McBride, O., McKay, R., Murphy, J., Shevlin, M., Stocks, T. V. A., Bennett, K. M., & Bentall, R. P. (2020). Capability, opportunity, and motivation to enact hygienic practices in the early stages of the COVID‐19 outbreak in the United Kingdom. British Journal of Health Psychology, 25(4), 856–864. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjhp.12426 Pilli, L., Veldwijk, J., Swait, J. D., Donkers, B., & de Bekker-Grob, E. W. (2024). Sources and processes of social influence on health-related choices: A systematic review based on a social-interdependent choice paradigm. ''Social Science & Medicine, 361''(1). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2024.117360 Rossouw, L., & Ross, H. (2021). Understanding period poverty: Socio-economic inequalities in menstrual hygiene management in eight low- and middle-income countries. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(5), 2571. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18052571 Singh, B., Murphy, A., Maher, C., & Smith, A. E. (2024). Time to form a habit: A systematic review and meta-analysis of health behaviour habit formation and its determinants. ''Healthcare, 12''(23), 2488. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare12232488 World Health Organization. (2025). ''Coronavirus disease (COVID-19).'' https://www.who.int/health-topics/coronavirus#tab=tab_1 }} ==External links== * [https://www.beyondblue.org.au/ Support if you are experiencing anxiety or depression] (Beyond Blue) * [https://open.spotify.com/show/5HG094bpiecqetNsvz0ELs Tips for good hygiene podcast] (Spotify - Sandra Keyes) * [https://hygieneforhealth.org.au/importance/ Why is hygiene so important?] (Hygiene for Health) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Anxiety]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Disgust]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]] l5753ooydpz2r8gmbldxm2awh7fgjbp 2836510 2836508 2026-10-07T09:49:59Z U3275940 3106402 /* Core motivators of personal hygiene */ 2836510 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Hygiene motivation:<br>What motivates maintenance of personal hygiene?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} ;Scenario [[File:Hand washing man.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Washing hands became a more frequent hygiene behaviour during the COVID-19 pandemic.]] You became increasingly aware of your own hygiene when the COVID-19 pandemic took over our lives in 2020. In the beginning, you were motivated by the fear of infection and desire to protect your loved ones. You washed your hands more frequently, used hand sanitiser after touching surfaces in public, cleaned your phone, and became more aware of how germs are passed on from person to person. As time passed, these hygiene behaviours became less about COVID-19, and more about feeling clean, easing the anxiety of spreading germs and keeping up with the standards of our society as encouraged during the pandemic. Even though the threat of COVID-19 has decreased immensely, you continue to wash your hands when you arrive home, sanitise after using public transport, and avoid sharing personal items when someone is sick. This displays how emotions and societal expectations can initially motivate our behaviour, while repetition, personal values and habit formations can maintain these behaviours over the course of our lives. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Personal hygiene is a fundamental feature of day-to-day life that influences one’s health, interactions with others, and overall wellbeing. While hygiene behaviours such as handwashing, bathing, and brushing teeth are seen as routine habits, people are motivated to engage in these behaviours for different reasons. [https://www.cdc.gov/hygiene/about/index.html The Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)] explains that hygiene behaviours can prevent disease, influence social acceptance, and bring personal comfort. Understanding the motivating factors behind the maintenance of personal hygiene is vital in encouraging long-term health behaviours and developing successful health promotion interventions. Personal hygiene is motivated by a range of factors which can assist in gaining an understanding of the reasons people engage and maintain hygiene behaviours. The health belief model can support the understanding of motivation related to the maintenance of personal hygiene.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} '''Focus questions''' # What are the core motivators for personal hygiene? # How did the COVID-19 pandemic influence motivation to maintain personal hygiene? # How can the health belief model explain motivation to maintain personal hygiene behaviours? # What differences in the motivation and maintenance of personal hygiene can be seen across varying economic and cultural contexts? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What is personal hygiene? == [https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/personal-hygiene Health Direct] describes good personal hygiene as keeping your body clean and looking after your health through daily habits. There are many kinds of personal hygiene behaviours that people engage with. {| class="wikitable" |+'''Table 1.''' Personal hygiene behaviours !Hygiene practice !Behaviour |- |Oral hygiene |Keeping teeth clean by brushing with toothpaste for two minutes twice daily, flossing daily, and using mouthwash. |- |Hand hygiene |Washing hands with warm water and soap for 20 seconds prior to eating, after using the toilet, etc. |- |Body hygiene |Washing body daily using soap and warm water to remove sweat, oils, and dirt from body. |- |Menstrual hygiene |Changing sanitary items regularly, washing hands before and after use, disposing of correctly. |- |Personal grooming |Washing clothing regularly, trimming fingernails, washing and keeping hair clean, not sharing personal items with others. |- |Symptom etiquette |Covering mouth when coughing or sneezing to prevent the spread of germs. |} == Case study of Joel == The provided case study will assist in applying aspects of this chapter to a real-world scenario. There will be case study quizzes throughout the chapter to check understanding of core topics in understanding what motivates the maintenance of personal hygiene. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Case study''' Joel is a 19-year-old university student who lives in on-campus accommodation with three other students. While he understands that it is a good idea to wash his hands, he often skips the practice after taking the bus, touching shared surfaces, and before eating. He thinks it really cannot make all that much of a difference and can sometimes be inconvenient when he is in a rush. Because he is young and has good health, he believes he is unlikely to become ill. Recently, several students in the on-campus accommodation have become sick with COVID-19. One of Joel’s peers missed a week of classes and found it challenging to catch up due to the illness. Joel realised how easily infections can spread in shared spaces, becoming increasingly concerned. Due to the spread of COVID-19, the university launched a health promotion campaign surrounding hand hygiene. Posters around the campus explained how germs are spread from person to person and outlined the role of handwashing in preventing illness. Along with this, hand sanitiser stations were installed at the entrances to all buildings on campus, including the lobby of campus accommodations. Joel began to utilise the hand sanitiser provided on campus as he entered and exited buildings, especially after using public transport. After a few weeks, Joel noticed that he felt more confident about protecting himself and those he lived with from illness, becoming stricter about maintaining the practice of washing his hands before eating and after being in tight shared spaces, such as public transport. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Core motivators of personal hygiene == Personal hygiene can be motivated by a range of factors. The core motivators for personal hygiene are explored below. === Societal expectations === * Norms, peer pressure, and group identity can shape hygiene behaviours (Laursen & Faur, 2022). * Some hygiene behaviours are engaged with purely due to conformity or fear of judgement from others as opposed to a healthy practice (Pilli et al., 2024). * Example using a family scenario, where one child is encouraged to shower daily, and the other every second day. Are people more motivated to engage in personal hygiene when encouraged by those close to them? === Education and understanding of hygiene practices === [[File:Wash-your-hands-poster-english-508.pdf|thumb|297x297px|'''Figure 2.''' Public health messaging to promote proper hand washing hygiene in schools. ]] * Knowledge of the spread of disease through public health messaging (see Figure 2) or learning can influence motivation and engagement with behaviours (Bloomfield & Ackerley, 2023). * Understanding the reasons behind hygiene practices and their effectiveness can motivate individuals to engage with them, especially to avoid contracting a disease. * During COVID-19, which will be discussed later in this chapter, health messaging provided explanations as to why washing your hands for 20 seconds with warm water and soap was a vital hygiene behaviour to avoid contracting the illness (World Health Organisation, 2025). === Habit formation === * Hygiene practices can become second nature through repetition and reinforcement (Singh et al., 2024). * Brushing teeth, showering, and changing clothes are all personal hygiene behaviours that are second nature to many individuals. * What contributes to formation of habits? === Emotions === * Disgust and fear of illness can be drivers for hygiene behaviour in the same way depression and executive dysfunction can act as barriers (Ghassemi et al., 2023). * Explore levels of fear, including for self and loved ones. * Explore depression and executive dysfunction specific barriers to personal hygiene. === COVID-19 as a catalyst for personal hygiene === COVID-19 was a global pandemic that took over the world in 2020. From lockdowns to masks, hygiene behaviours changed drastically for individuals across the globe (World Health Organisation, 2025). * Increased hygiene engagement ** Handwashing as a more regular practice, sanitiser stations in public spaces, mask hygiene (see Figure 3), disinfecting and cleaning of surfaces after use (World Health Organisation, 2025). [[File:A woman wearing a protective face mask.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 3.''' Woman wearing mask on public transport during COVID-19 pandemic.]] * Risk perception and emotions ** Perceived threat or vulnerability to COVID-19 for self or loved ones increased practicing of hygiene behaviours. Motivational influence of fear and uncertainty (Miller et al., 2020). * Compliance and conformity ** Government mandates (quarantine, isolation, etc.) and collective responsibility of community increased motivation to engage in behaviours. Conforming to the majority, where most people engaged in COVID-19 protocols and influenced others to do the same (Miller et al., 2020). * Normalisation post-pandemic ** In 2026, many hygiene practices that increased in the pandemic have not reduced, and are the new 'normal'. Social distancing has become second nature to the extent where people judge those who stand too close to others. Wearing a mask when sick or feeling vulnerable has become a more common practice, and hand sanitiser is available in more public spaces than before the pandemic (Ali et al., 2023). == Understanding personal hygiene motivation according to the health belief model == The health belief model is a psychological framework used to explain and predict health-related behaviours. The model was first developed in the 1950s by social psychologists working in the [https://www.usphs.gov/ United States Public Health Service], proposing that an individual's willingness to change their behaviour depends on their perceptions (Alyafei & Easton-Carr, 2024). The health belief model can provide context into why people may maintain their personal hygiene behaviours through cognitive evaluations related to benefits and risks in engaging in hygiene behaviours (Kamal et al., 2017). '''Cognitive evaluations''' The health belief model relies on six core constructs, or cognitive evaluations, which can influence a person's perspective when deciding what behaviours to engage with. These constructs are defined in Table 2. {| class="wikitable" |+'''Table 2.''' Health belief model core constructs |Perceived susceptibility |Assessment of the risk |- |Perceived severity |Assessment of the danger of a condition and what the emotional, physical, and social consequences may be |- |Perceived benefits |Belief in the effectiveness of an action to reduce the perceived severity |- |Perceived barriers |Tangible and psychological obstacles in taking action |- |Cues to action |External and/or internal triggers that encourage people to change their behaviour |- |Self-efficacy |Confidence in the ability to perform the behaviour successfully |} == Cultural and economic context == Recognising standards of hygiene cross-culturally is important to be able to understand how and why people keep up with personal hygiene. === Cross-cultural norms === * Personal hygiene expectations and standards can differ between cultures. * Hand washing, oral care, and even spitting can be expected at one rate in one culture and a completely different rate in the next. * Understanding the definition or standard of hygiene in certain cultures can assist in the understanding of motivational factors behind the behaviour (Eriksson et al., 2021). === Economic constraints === * Access to water, sanitation, and hygiene products can influence individual's engagement and maintenance of hygiene behaviours. * Individuals in developing countries may be motivated to engage in hygiene behaviours, but are unable to due to a lack of resources such as hot water, clean clothes, or menstruation products (Rossouw & Ross, 2021). [[File:Washing hands kids.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 5.''' School children utilising an outdoor tap to wash their hands. ]] * Figure 5 displays an example hygiene practices in countries without adequate infrastructure. == Conclusion == * There are a variety of motivating factors for personal hygiene, with societal expectations and emotions being highly influential. * COVID-19 allowed individuals to understand the benefits of some hygiene practices, with routines that were popular during the pandemic remaining in 2026. * Personal hygiene can differ across socio-cultural backgrounds, and core motivators may look different cross-culturally. * Theoretical perspectives such as the health belief model and theory of planned behaviour can deepen the understanding behind motivation and maintenance of personal hygiene. == See also == {{ic|Rename links as shown in Tutorial 2}} * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Disgust and hygiene]] (Book chapter, 2024) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Conformity and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[wikipedia:Public_health_mitigation_of_COVID-19|Public health mitigation of COVID-19]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Ali, A. S., Mekonen, Y., & Tesfahun, T. (2023). Hygiene behavior and COVID-19 pandemic: Opportunities of COVID-19-Imposed changes in hygiene behavior. ''INQUIRY: The Journal of Health Care Organization, Provision, and Financing, 60''(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/00469580231218421 Alyafei, A., & Carr, R. E. (2024). The health belief model of behavior change. StatPearls Publishing. National Library of Medicine. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK606120/ Bloomfield, S. F., & Ackerley, L. (2023). Developing better understanding of hygiene is key to developing hygiene behaviour change in home and everyday life settings. ''Perspect Public Health, 144''(6), 175791392311637–175791392311637. https://doi.org/10.1177/17579139231163734 Bosnjak, M., Ajzen, I., & Schmidt, P. (2020). The theory of planned behavior: Selected recent advances and applications. Europe’s Journal of Psychology, 16(3), 352–356. NCBI. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.v16i3.3107 Eriksson, K., Dickins, T. E., & Strimling, P. (2021). Hygiene norms across 56 nations are predicted by self-control values and disease threat. Current Research in Ecological and Social Psychology, 2(1), 100013. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cresp.2021.100013 Ghassemi, E., Astrid Hasund Thorseth, Karine Le Roch, Heath, T., & White, S. (2023). Mapping the association between mental health and people’s perceived and actual ability to practice hygiene-related behaviours in humanitarian and pandemic crises: A scoping review. ''PLOS ONE, 18''(12). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0286494 Laursen, B., & Faur, S. (2022). What does it mean to be susceptible to influence? A brief primer on peer conformity and developmental changes that affect it. ''International Journal of Behavioral Development, 46''(3), 222–237. https://doi.org/10.1177/01650254221084103 Miller, G. J., Hartman, T. K., Levita, L., Martinez, A. P., Mason, L., McBride, O., McKay, R., Murphy, J., Shevlin, M., Stocks, T. V. A., Bennett, K. M., & Bentall, R. P. (2020). Capability, opportunity, and motivation to enact hygienic practices in the early stages of the COVID‐19 outbreak in the United Kingdom. British Journal of Health Psychology, 25(4), 856–864. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjhp.12426 Pilli, L., Veldwijk, J., Swait, J. D., Donkers, B., & de Bekker-Grob, E. W. (2024). Sources and processes of social influence on health-related choices: A systematic review based on a social-interdependent choice paradigm. ''Social Science & Medicine, 361''(1). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2024.117360 Rossouw, L., & Ross, H. (2021). Understanding period poverty: Socio-economic inequalities in menstrual hygiene management in eight low- and middle-income countries. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(5), 2571. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18052571 Singh, B., Murphy, A., Maher, C., & Smith, A. E. (2024). Time to form a habit: A systematic review and meta-analysis of health behaviour habit formation and its determinants. ''Healthcare, 12''(23), 2488. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare12232488 World Health Organization. (2025). ''Coronavirus disease (COVID-19).'' https://www.who.int/health-topics/coronavirus#tab=tab_1 }} ==External links== * [https://www.beyondblue.org.au/ Support if you are experiencing anxiety or depression] (Beyond Blue) * [https://open.spotify.com/show/5HG094bpiecqetNsvz0ELs Tips for good hygiene podcast] (Spotify - Sandra Keyes) * [https://hygieneforhealth.org.au/importance/ Why is hygiene so important?] (Hygiene for Health) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Anxiety]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Disgust]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]] 4dqwx33iscspz4i4l1amc8i5hs3cn7s 2836513 2836510 2026-10-07T09:56:29Z U3275940 3106402 /* Understanding personal hygiene motivation according to the health belief model */ 2836513 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Hygiene motivation:<br>What motivates maintenance of personal hygiene?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} ;Scenario [[File:Hand washing man.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Washing hands became a more frequent hygiene behaviour during the COVID-19 pandemic.]] You became increasingly aware of your own hygiene when the COVID-19 pandemic took over our lives in 2020. In the beginning, you were motivated by the fear of infection and desire to protect your loved ones. You washed your hands more frequently, used hand sanitiser after touching surfaces in public, cleaned your phone, and became more aware of how germs are passed on from person to person. As time passed, these hygiene behaviours became less about COVID-19, and more about feeling clean, easing the anxiety of spreading germs and keeping up with the standards of our society as encouraged during the pandemic. Even though the threat of COVID-19 has decreased immensely, you continue to wash your hands when you arrive home, sanitise after using public transport, and avoid sharing personal items when someone is sick. This displays how emotions and societal expectations can initially motivate our behaviour, while repetition, personal values and habit formations can maintain these behaviours over the course of our lives. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Personal hygiene is a fundamental feature of day-to-day life that influences one’s health, interactions with others, and overall wellbeing. While hygiene behaviours such as handwashing, bathing, and brushing teeth are seen as routine habits, people are motivated to engage in these behaviours for different reasons. [https://www.cdc.gov/hygiene/about/index.html The Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)] explains that hygiene behaviours can prevent disease, influence social acceptance, and bring personal comfort. Understanding the motivating factors behind the maintenance of personal hygiene is vital in encouraging long-term health behaviours and developing successful health promotion interventions. Personal hygiene is motivated by a range of factors which can assist in gaining an understanding of the reasons people engage and maintain hygiene behaviours. The health belief model can support the understanding of motivation related to the maintenance of personal hygiene.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} '''Focus questions''' # What are the core motivators for personal hygiene? # How did the COVID-19 pandemic influence motivation to maintain personal hygiene? # How can the health belief model explain motivation to maintain personal hygiene behaviours? # What differences in the motivation and maintenance of personal hygiene can be seen across varying economic and cultural contexts? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What is personal hygiene? == [https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/personal-hygiene Health Direct] describes good personal hygiene as keeping your body clean and looking after your health through daily habits. There are many kinds of personal hygiene behaviours that people engage with. {| class="wikitable" |+'''Table 1.''' Personal hygiene behaviours !Hygiene practice !Behaviour |- |Oral hygiene |Keeping teeth clean by brushing with toothpaste for two minutes twice daily, flossing daily, and using mouthwash. |- |Hand hygiene |Washing hands with warm water and soap for 20 seconds prior to eating, after using the toilet, etc. |- |Body hygiene |Washing body daily using soap and warm water to remove sweat, oils, and dirt from body. |- |Menstrual hygiene |Changing sanitary items regularly, washing hands before and after use, disposing of correctly. |- |Personal grooming |Washing clothing regularly, trimming fingernails, washing and keeping hair clean, not sharing personal items with others. |- |Symptom etiquette |Covering mouth when coughing or sneezing to prevent the spread of germs. |} == Case study of Joel == The provided case study will assist in applying aspects of this chapter to a real-world scenario. There will be case study quizzes throughout the chapter to check understanding of core topics in understanding what motivates the maintenance of personal hygiene. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Case study''' Joel is a 19-year-old university student who lives in on-campus accommodation with three other students. While he understands that it is a good idea to wash his hands, he often skips the practice after taking the bus, touching shared surfaces, and before eating. He thinks it really cannot make all that much of a difference and can sometimes be inconvenient when he is in a rush. Because he is young and has good health, he believes he is unlikely to become ill. Recently, several students in the on-campus accommodation have become sick with COVID-19. One of Joel’s peers missed a week of classes and found it challenging to catch up due to the illness. Joel realised how easily infections can spread in shared spaces, becoming increasingly concerned. Due to the spread of COVID-19, the university launched a health promotion campaign surrounding hand hygiene. Posters around the campus explained how germs are spread from person to person and outlined the role of handwashing in preventing illness. Along with this, hand sanitiser stations were installed at the entrances to all buildings on campus, including the lobby of campus accommodations. Joel began to utilise the hand sanitiser provided on campus as he entered and exited buildings, especially after using public transport. After a few weeks, Joel noticed that he felt more confident about protecting himself and those he lived with from illness, becoming stricter about maintaining the practice of washing his hands before eating and after being in tight shared spaces, such as public transport. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Core motivators of personal hygiene == Personal hygiene can be motivated by a range of factors. The core motivators for personal hygiene are explored below. === Societal expectations === * Norms, peer pressure, and group identity can shape hygiene behaviours (Laursen & Faur, 2022). * Some hygiene behaviours are engaged with purely due to conformity or fear of judgement from others as opposed to a healthy practice (Pilli et al., 2024). * Example using a family scenario, where one child is encouraged to shower daily, and the other every second day. Are people more motivated to engage in personal hygiene when encouraged by those close to them? === Education and understanding of hygiene practices === [[File:Wash-your-hands-poster-english-508.pdf|thumb|297x297px|'''Figure 2.''' Public health messaging to promote proper hand washing hygiene in schools. ]] * Knowledge of the spread of disease through public health messaging (see Figure 2) or learning can influence motivation and engagement with behaviours (Bloomfield & Ackerley, 2023). * Understanding the reasons behind hygiene practices and their effectiveness can motivate individuals to engage with them, especially to avoid contracting a disease. * During COVID-19, which will be discussed later in this chapter, health messaging provided explanations as to why washing your hands for 20 seconds with warm water and soap was a vital hygiene behaviour to avoid contracting the illness (World Health Organisation, 2025). === Habit formation === * Hygiene practices can become second nature through repetition and reinforcement (Singh et al., 2024). * Brushing teeth, showering, and changing clothes are all personal hygiene behaviours that are second nature to many individuals. * What contributes to formation of habits? === Emotions === * Disgust and fear of illness can be drivers for hygiene behaviour in the same way depression and executive dysfunction can act as barriers (Ghassemi et al., 2023). * Explore levels of fear, including for self and loved ones. * Explore depression and executive dysfunction specific barriers to personal hygiene. === COVID-19 as a catalyst for personal hygiene === COVID-19 was a global pandemic that took over the world in 2020. From lockdowns to masks, hygiene behaviours changed drastically for individuals across the globe (World Health Organisation, 2025). * Increased hygiene engagement ** Handwashing as a more regular practice, sanitiser stations in public spaces, mask hygiene (see Figure 3), disinfecting and cleaning of surfaces after use (World Health Organisation, 2025). [[File:A woman wearing a protective face mask.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 3.''' Woman wearing mask on public transport during COVID-19 pandemic.]] * Risk perception and emotions ** Perceived threat or vulnerability to COVID-19 for self or loved ones increased practicing of hygiene behaviours. Motivational influence of fear and uncertainty (Miller et al., 2020). * Compliance and conformity ** Government mandates (quarantine, isolation, etc.) and collective responsibility of community increased motivation to engage in behaviours. Conforming to the majority, where most people engaged in COVID-19 protocols and influenced others to do the same (Miller et al., 2020). * Normalisation post-pandemic ** In 2026, many hygiene practices that increased in the pandemic have not reduced, and are the new 'normal'. Social distancing has become second nature to the extent where people judge those who stand too close to others. Wearing a mask when sick or feeling vulnerable has become a more common practice, and hand sanitiser is available in more public spaces than before the pandemic (Ali et al., 2023). == Understanding personal hygiene motivation according to the health belief model == The health belief model is a psychological framework used to explain and predict health-related behaviours. The model was first developed in the 1950s by social psychologists working in the [https://www.usphs.gov/ United States Public Health Service], proposing that an individual's willingness to change their behaviour depends on their perceptions (Alyafei & Easton-Carr, 2024). The health belief model can provide context into why people may maintain their personal hygiene behaviours through cognitive evaluations related to benefits and risks in engaging in hygiene behaviours (Kamal et al., 2017). '''Cognitive evaluations''' The health belief model relies on six core constructs, or cognitive evaluations, which can influence a person's perspective when deciding what behaviours to engage with. These constructs are defined in Table 2. {| class="wikitable" |+'''Table 2.''' Health belief model core constructs |Perceived susceptibility |Assessment of the risk |- |Perceived severity |Assessment of the danger of a condition and what the emotional, physical, and social consequences may be |- |Perceived benefits |Belief in the effectiveness of an action to reduce the perceived severity |- |Perceived barriers |Tangible and psychological obstacles in taking action |- |Cues to action |External and/or internal triggers that encourage people to change their behaviour |- |Self-efficacy |Confidence in the ability to perform the behaviour successfully |} '''Health belief model related to hygiene behaviours''' <quiz display=simple> Which of the following does NOT contribute to motivation of TGD goal pursuit? |type="()"} - Abundance of resources - Higher familiarity within partnerships + Heightened competition between partners - Efficient coordination of partners </quiz> == Cultural and economic context == Recognising standards of hygiene cross-culturally is important to be able to understand how and why people keep up with personal hygiene. === Cross-cultural norms === * Personal hygiene expectations and standards can differ between cultures. * Hand washing, oral care, and even spitting can be expected at one rate in one culture and a completely different rate in the next. * Understanding the definition or standard of hygiene in certain cultures can assist in the understanding of motivational factors behind the behaviour (Eriksson et al., 2021). === Economic constraints === * Access to water, sanitation, and hygiene products can influence individual's engagement and maintenance of hygiene behaviours. * Individuals in developing countries may be motivated to engage in hygiene behaviours, but are unable to due to a lack of resources such as hot water, clean clothes, or menstruation products (Rossouw & Ross, 2021). [[File:Washing hands kids.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 5.''' School children utilising an outdoor tap to wash their hands. ]] * Figure 5 displays an example hygiene practices in countries without adequate infrastructure. == Conclusion == * There are a variety of motivating factors for personal hygiene, with societal expectations and emotions being highly influential. * COVID-19 allowed individuals to understand the benefits of some hygiene practices, with routines that were popular during the pandemic remaining in 2026. * Personal hygiene can differ across socio-cultural backgrounds, and core motivators may look different cross-culturally. * Theoretical perspectives such as the health belief model and theory of planned behaviour can deepen the understanding behind motivation and maintenance of personal hygiene. == See also == {{ic|Rename links as shown in Tutorial 2}} * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Disgust and hygiene]] (Book chapter, 2024) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Conformity and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[wikipedia:Public_health_mitigation_of_COVID-19|Public health mitigation of COVID-19]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Ali, A. S., Mekonen, Y., & Tesfahun, T. (2023). Hygiene behavior and COVID-19 pandemic: Opportunities of COVID-19-Imposed changes in hygiene behavior. ''INQUIRY: The Journal of Health Care Organization, Provision, and Financing, 60''(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/00469580231218421 Alyafei, A., & Carr, R. E. (2024). The health belief model of behavior change. StatPearls Publishing. National Library of Medicine. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK606120/ Bloomfield, S. F., & Ackerley, L. (2023). Developing better understanding of hygiene is key to developing hygiene behaviour change in home and everyday life settings. ''Perspect Public Health, 144''(6), 175791392311637–175791392311637. https://doi.org/10.1177/17579139231163734 Bosnjak, M., Ajzen, I., & Schmidt, P. (2020). The theory of planned behavior: Selected recent advances and applications. Europe’s Journal of Psychology, 16(3), 352–356. NCBI. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.v16i3.3107 Eriksson, K., Dickins, T. E., & Strimling, P. (2021). Hygiene norms across 56 nations are predicted by self-control values and disease threat. Current Research in Ecological and Social Psychology, 2(1), 100013. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cresp.2021.100013 Ghassemi, E., Astrid Hasund Thorseth, Karine Le Roch, Heath, T., & White, S. (2023). Mapping the association between mental health and people’s perceived and actual ability to practice hygiene-related behaviours in humanitarian and pandemic crises: A scoping review. ''PLOS ONE, 18''(12). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0286494 Laursen, B., & Faur, S. (2022). What does it mean to be susceptible to influence? A brief primer on peer conformity and developmental changes that affect it. ''International Journal of Behavioral Development, 46''(3), 222–237. https://doi.org/10.1177/01650254221084103 Miller, G. J., Hartman, T. K., Levita, L., Martinez, A. P., Mason, L., McBride, O., McKay, R., Murphy, J., Shevlin, M., Stocks, T. V. A., Bennett, K. M., & Bentall, R. P. (2020). Capability, opportunity, and motivation to enact hygienic practices in the early stages of the COVID‐19 outbreak in the United Kingdom. British Journal of Health Psychology, 25(4), 856–864. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjhp.12426 Pilli, L., Veldwijk, J., Swait, J. D., Donkers, B., & de Bekker-Grob, E. W. (2024). Sources and processes of social influence on health-related choices: A systematic review based on a social-interdependent choice paradigm. ''Social Science & Medicine, 361''(1). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2024.117360 Rossouw, L., & Ross, H. (2021). Understanding period poverty: Socio-economic inequalities in menstrual hygiene management in eight low- and middle-income countries. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(5), 2571. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18052571 Singh, B., Murphy, A., Maher, C., & Smith, A. E. (2024). Time to form a habit: A systematic review and meta-analysis of health behaviour habit formation and its determinants. ''Healthcare, 12''(23), 2488. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare12232488 World Health Organization. (2025). ''Coronavirus disease (COVID-19).'' https://www.who.int/health-topics/coronavirus#tab=tab_1 }} ==External links== * [https://www.beyondblue.org.au/ Support if you are experiencing anxiety or depression] (Beyond Blue) * [https://open.spotify.com/show/5HG094bpiecqetNsvz0ELs Tips for good hygiene podcast] (Spotify - Sandra Keyes) * [https://hygieneforhealth.org.au/importance/ Why is hygiene so important?] (Hygiene for Health) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Anxiety]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Disgust]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]] 8i498dgv2zx6stwd0glw5cs7pqmd8s8 2836514 2836513 2026-10-07T10:00:06Z U3275940 3106402 /* Understanding personal hygiene motivation according to the health belief model */ 2836514 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Hygiene motivation:<br>What motivates maintenance of personal hygiene?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} ;Scenario [[File:Hand washing man.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Washing hands became a more frequent hygiene behaviour during the COVID-19 pandemic.]] You became increasingly aware of your own hygiene when the COVID-19 pandemic took over our lives in 2020. In the beginning, you were motivated by the fear of infection and desire to protect your loved ones. You washed your hands more frequently, used hand sanitiser after touching surfaces in public, cleaned your phone, and became more aware of how germs are passed on from person to person. As time passed, these hygiene behaviours became less about COVID-19, and more about feeling clean, easing the anxiety of spreading germs and keeping up with the standards of our society as encouraged during the pandemic. Even though the threat of COVID-19 has decreased immensely, you continue to wash your hands when you arrive home, sanitise after using public transport, and avoid sharing personal items when someone is sick. This displays how emotions and societal expectations can initially motivate our behaviour, while repetition, personal values and habit formations can maintain these behaviours over the course of our lives. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Personal hygiene is a fundamental feature of day-to-day life that influences one’s health, interactions with others, and overall wellbeing. While hygiene behaviours such as handwashing, bathing, and brushing teeth are seen as routine habits, people are motivated to engage in these behaviours for different reasons. [https://www.cdc.gov/hygiene/about/index.html The Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)] explains that hygiene behaviours can prevent disease, influence social acceptance, and bring personal comfort. Understanding the motivating factors behind the maintenance of personal hygiene is vital in encouraging long-term health behaviours and developing successful health promotion interventions. Personal hygiene is motivated by a range of factors which can assist in gaining an understanding of the reasons people engage and maintain hygiene behaviours. The health belief model can support the understanding of motivation related to the maintenance of personal hygiene.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} '''Focus questions''' # What are the core motivators for personal hygiene? # How did the COVID-19 pandemic influence motivation to maintain personal hygiene? # How can the health belief model explain motivation to maintain personal hygiene behaviours? # What differences in the motivation and maintenance of personal hygiene can be seen across varying economic and cultural contexts? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What is personal hygiene? == [https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/personal-hygiene Health Direct] describes good personal hygiene as keeping your body clean and looking after your health through daily habits. There are many kinds of personal hygiene behaviours that people engage with. {| class="wikitable" |+'''Table 1.''' Personal hygiene behaviours !Hygiene practice !Behaviour |- |Oral hygiene |Keeping teeth clean by brushing with toothpaste for two minutes twice daily, flossing daily, and using mouthwash. |- |Hand hygiene |Washing hands with warm water and soap for 20 seconds prior to eating, after using the toilet, etc. |- |Body hygiene |Washing body daily using soap and warm water to remove sweat, oils, and dirt from body. |- |Menstrual hygiene |Changing sanitary items regularly, washing hands before and after use, disposing of correctly. |- |Personal grooming |Washing clothing regularly, trimming fingernails, washing and keeping hair clean, not sharing personal items with others. |- |Symptom etiquette |Covering mouth when coughing or sneezing to prevent the spread of germs. |} == Case study of Joel == The provided case study will assist in applying aspects of this chapter to a real-world scenario. There will be case study quizzes throughout the chapter to check understanding of core topics in understanding what motivates the maintenance of personal hygiene. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Case study''' Joel is a 19-year-old university student who lives in on-campus accommodation with three other students. While he understands that it is a good idea to wash his hands, he often skips the practice after taking the bus, touching shared surfaces, and before eating. He thinks it really cannot make all that much of a difference and can sometimes be inconvenient when he is in a rush. Because he is young and has good health, he believes he is unlikely to become ill. Recently, several students in the on-campus accommodation have become sick with COVID-19. One of Joel’s peers missed a week of classes and found it challenging to catch up due to the illness. Joel realised how easily infections can spread in shared spaces, becoming increasingly concerned. Due to the spread of COVID-19, the university launched a health promotion campaign surrounding hand hygiene. Posters around the campus explained how germs are spread from person to person and outlined the role of handwashing in preventing illness. Along with this, hand sanitiser stations were installed at the entrances to all buildings on campus, including the lobby of campus accommodations. Joel began to utilise the hand sanitiser provided on campus as he entered and exited buildings, especially after using public transport. After a few weeks, Joel noticed that he felt more confident about protecting himself and those he lived with from illness, becoming stricter about maintaining the practice of washing his hands before eating and after being in tight shared spaces, such as public transport. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Core motivators of personal hygiene == Personal hygiene can be motivated by a range of factors. The core motivators for personal hygiene are explored below. === Societal expectations === * Norms, peer pressure, and group identity can shape hygiene behaviours (Laursen & Faur, 2022). * Some hygiene behaviours are engaged with purely due to conformity or fear of judgement from others as opposed to a healthy practice (Pilli et al., 2024). * Example using a family scenario, where one child is encouraged to shower daily, and the other every second day. Are people more motivated to engage in personal hygiene when encouraged by those close to them? === Education and understanding of hygiene practices === [[File:Wash-your-hands-poster-english-508.pdf|thumb|297x297px|'''Figure 2.''' Public health messaging to promote proper hand washing hygiene in schools. ]] * Knowledge of the spread of disease through public health messaging (see Figure 2) or learning can influence motivation and engagement with behaviours (Bloomfield & Ackerley, 2023). * Understanding the reasons behind hygiene practices and their effectiveness can motivate individuals to engage with them, especially to avoid contracting a disease. * During COVID-19, which will be discussed later in this chapter, health messaging provided explanations as to why washing your hands for 20 seconds with warm water and soap was a vital hygiene behaviour to avoid contracting the illness (World Health Organisation, 2025). === Habit formation === * Hygiene practices can become second nature through repetition and reinforcement (Singh et al., 2024). * Brushing teeth, showering, and changing clothes are all personal hygiene behaviours that are second nature to many individuals. * What contributes to formation of habits? === Emotions === * Disgust and fear of illness can be drivers for hygiene behaviour in the same way depression and executive dysfunction can act as barriers (Ghassemi et al., 2023). * Explore levels of fear, including for self and loved ones. * Explore depression and executive dysfunction specific barriers to personal hygiene. === COVID-19 as a catalyst for personal hygiene === COVID-19 was a global pandemic that took over the world in 2020. From lockdowns to masks, hygiene behaviours changed drastically for individuals across the globe (World Health Organisation, 2025). * Increased hygiene engagement ** Handwashing as a more regular practice, sanitiser stations in public spaces, mask hygiene (see Figure 3), disinfecting and cleaning of surfaces after use (World Health Organisation, 2025). [[File:A woman wearing a protective face mask.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 3.''' Woman wearing mask on public transport during COVID-19 pandemic.]] * Risk perception and emotions ** Perceived threat or vulnerability to COVID-19 for self or loved ones increased practicing of hygiene behaviours. Motivational influence of fear and uncertainty (Miller et al., 2020). * Compliance and conformity ** Government mandates (quarantine, isolation, etc.) and collective responsibility of community increased motivation to engage in behaviours. Conforming to the majority, where most people engaged in COVID-19 protocols and influenced others to do the same (Miller et al., 2020). * Normalisation post-pandemic ** In 2026, many hygiene practices that increased in the pandemic have not reduced, and are the new 'normal'. Social distancing has become second nature to the extent where people judge those who stand too close to others. Wearing a mask when sick or feeling vulnerable has become a more common practice, and hand sanitiser is available in more public spaces than before the pandemic (Ali et al., 2023). == Understanding personal hygiene motivation according to the health belief model == The health belief model is a psychological framework used to explain and predict health-related behaviours. The model was first developed in the 1950s by social psychologists working in the [https://www.usphs.gov/ United States Public Health Service], proposing that an individual's willingness to change their behaviour depends on their perceptions (Alyafei & Easton-Carr, 2024). The health belief model can provide context into why people may maintain their personal hygiene behaviours through cognitive evaluations related to benefits and risks in engaging in hygiene behaviours (Kamal et al., 2017). '''Cognitive evaluations''' The health belief model relies on six core constructs, or cognitive evaluations, which can influence a person's perspective when deciding what behaviours to engage with. These constructs are defined in Table 2. {| class="wikitable" |+'''Table 2.''' Health belief model core constructs |Perceived susceptibility |Assessment of the risk |- |Perceived severity |Assessment of the danger of a condition and what the emotional, physical, and social consequences may be |- |Perceived benefits |Belief in the effectiveness of an action to reduce the perceived severity |- |Perceived barriers |Tangible and psychological obstacles in taking action |- |Cues to action |External and/or internal triggers that encourage people to change their behaviour |- |Self-efficacy |Confidence in the ability to perform the behaviour successfully |} '''Health belief model related to hygiene behaviours''' <quiz display="simple"> Case study quiz Where can cues to action be seen in Joel's case? |type="()"} - Friend missing classes and having difficulties catching up - Joel believing he is unlikely to become sick due to being young and healthy + University health campaign posters and hand sanitiser stations across campus - Living in on-campus accommodation </quiz> == Cultural and economic context == Recognising standards of hygiene cross-culturally is important to be able to understand how and why people keep up with personal hygiene. === Cross-cultural norms === * Personal hygiene expectations and standards can differ between cultures. * Hand washing, oral care, and even spitting can be expected at one rate in one culture and a completely different rate in the next. * Understanding the definition or standard of hygiene in certain cultures can assist in the understanding of motivational factors behind the behaviour (Eriksson et al., 2021). === Economic constraints === * Access to water, sanitation, and hygiene products can influence individual's engagement and maintenance of hygiene behaviours. * Individuals in developing countries may be motivated to engage in hygiene behaviours, but are unable to due to a lack of resources such as hot water, clean clothes, or menstruation products (Rossouw & Ross, 2021). [[File:Washing hands kids.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 5.''' School children utilising an outdoor tap to wash their hands. ]] * Figure 5 displays an example hygiene practices in countries without adequate infrastructure. == Conclusion == * There are a variety of motivating factors for personal hygiene, with societal expectations and emotions being highly influential. * COVID-19 allowed individuals to understand the benefits of some hygiene practices, with routines that were popular during the pandemic remaining in 2026. * Personal hygiene can differ across socio-cultural backgrounds, and core motivators may look different cross-culturally. * Theoretical perspectives such as the health belief model and theory of planned behaviour can deepen the understanding behind motivation and maintenance of personal hygiene. == See also == {{ic|Rename links as shown in Tutorial 2}} * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Disgust and hygiene]] (Book chapter, 2024) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Conformity and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[wikipedia:Public_health_mitigation_of_COVID-19|Public health mitigation of COVID-19]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Ali, A. S., Mekonen, Y., & Tesfahun, T. (2023). Hygiene behavior and COVID-19 pandemic: Opportunities of COVID-19-Imposed changes in hygiene behavior. ''INQUIRY: The Journal of Health Care Organization, Provision, and Financing, 60''(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/00469580231218421 Alyafei, A., & Carr, R. E. (2024). The health belief model of behavior change. StatPearls Publishing. National Library of Medicine. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK606120/ Bloomfield, S. F., & Ackerley, L. (2023). Developing better understanding of hygiene is key to developing hygiene behaviour change in home and everyday life settings. ''Perspect Public Health, 144''(6), 175791392311637–175791392311637. https://doi.org/10.1177/17579139231163734 Bosnjak, M., Ajzen, I., & Schmidt, P. (2020). The theory of planned behavior: Selected recent advances and applications. Europe’s Journal of Psychology, 16(3), 352–356. NCBI. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.v16i3.3107 Eriksson, K., Dickins, T. E., & Strimling, P. (2021). Hygiene norms across 56 nations are predicted by self-control values and disease threat. Current Research in Ecological and Social Psychology, 2(1), 100013. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cresp.2021.100013 Ghassemi, E., Astrid Hasund Thorseth, Karine Le Roch, Heath, T., & White, S. (2023). Mapping the association between mental health and people’s perceived and actual ability to practice hygiene-related behaviours in humanitarian and pandemic crises: A scoping review. ''PLOS ONE, 18''(12). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0286494 Laursen, B., & Faur, S. (2022). What does it mean to be susceptible to influence? A brief primer on peer conformity and developmental changes that affect it. ''International Journal of Behavioral Development, 46''(3), 222–237. https://doi.org/10.1177/01650254221084103 Miller, G. J., Hartman, T. K., Levita, L., Martinez, A. P., Mason, L., McBride, O., McKay, R., Murphy, J., Shevlin, M., Stocks, T. V. A., Bennett, K. M., & Bentall, R. P. (2020). Capability, opportunity, and motivation to enact hygienic practices in the early stages of the COVID‐19 outbreak in the United Kingdom. British Journal of Health Psychology, 25(4), 856–864. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjhp.12426 Pilli, L., Veldwijk, J., Swait, J. D., Donkers, B., & de Bekker-Grob, E. W. (2024). Sources and processes of social influence on health-related choices: A systematic review based on a social-interdependent choice paradigm. ''Social Science & Medicine, 361''(1). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2024.117360 Rossouw, L., & Ross, H. (2021). Understanding period poverty: Socio-economic inequalities in menstrual hygiene management in eight low- and middle-income countries. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(5), 2571. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18052571 Singh, B., Murphy, A., Maher, C., & Smith, A. E. (2024). Time to form a habit: A systematic review and meta-analysis of health behaviour habit formation and its determinants. ''Healthcare, 12''(23), 2488. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare12232488 World Health Organization. (2025). ''Coronavirus disease (COVID-19).'' https://www.who.int/health-topics/coronavirus#tab=tab_1 }} ==External links== * [https://www.beyondblue.org.au/ Support if you are experiencing anxiety or depression] (Beyond Blue) * [https://open.spotify.com/show/5HG094bpiecqetNsvz0ELs Tips for good hygiene podcast] (Spotify - Sandra Keyes) * [https://hygieneforhealth.org.au/importance/ Why is hygiene so important?] (Hygiene for Health) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Anxiety]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Disgust]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]] rjv2i7pnfreaat2accduv4toy14ovfq 2836515 2836514 2026-10-07T10:01:33Z U3275940 3106402 /* Understanding personal hygiene motivation according to the health belief model */ 2836515 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Hygiene motivation:<br>What motivates maintenance of personal hygiene?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} ;Scenario [[File:Hand washing man.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Washing hands became a more frequent hygiene behaviour during the COVID-19 pandemic.]] You became increasingly aware of your own hygiene when the COVID-19 pandemic took over our lives in 2020. In the beginning, you were motivated by the fear of infection and desire to protect your loved ones. You washed your hands more frequently, used hand sanitiser after touching surfaces in public, cleaned your phone, and became more aware of how germs are passed on from person to person. As time passed, these hygiene behaviours became less about COVID-19, and more about feeling clean, easing the anxiety of spreading germs and keeping up with the standards of our society as encouraged during the pandemic. Even though the threat of COVID-19 has decreased immensely, you continue to wash your hands when you arrive home, sanitise after using public transport, and avoid sharing personal items when someone is sick. This displays how emotions and societal expectations can initially motivate our behaviour, while repetition, personal values and habit formations can maintain these behaviours over the course of our lives. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Personal hygiene is a fundamental feature of day-to-day life that influences one’s health, interactions with others, and overall wellbeing. While hygiene behaviours such as handwashing, bathing, and brushing teeth are seen as routine habits, people are motivated to engage in these behaviours for different reasons. [https://www.cdc.gov/hygiene/about/index.html The Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)] explains that hygiene behaviours can prevent disease, influence social acceptance, and bring personal comfort. Understanding the motivating factors behind the maintenance of personal hygiene is vital in encouraging long-term health behaviours and developing successful health promotion interventions. Personal hygiene is motivated by a range of factors which can assist in gaining an understanding of the reasons people engage and maintain hygiene behaviours. The health belief model can support the understanding of motivation related to the maintenance of personal hygiene.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} '''Focus questions''' # What are the core motivators for personal hygiene? # How did the COVID-19 pandemic influence motivation to maintain personal hygiene? # How can the health belief model explain motivation to maintain personal hygiene behaviours? # What differences in the motivation and maintenance of personal hygiene can be seen across varying economic and cultural contexts? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What is personal hygiene? == [https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/personal-hygiene Health Direct] describes good personal hygiene as keeping your body clean and looking after your health through daily habits. There are many kinds of personal hygiene behaviours that people engage with. {| class="wikitable" |+'''Table 1.''' Personal hygiene behaviours !Hygiene practice !Behaviour |- |Oral hygiene |Keeping teeth clean by brushing with toothpaste for two minutes twice daily, flossing daily, and using mouthwash. |- |Hand hygiene |Washing hands with warm water and soap for 20 seconds prior to eating, after using the toilet, etc. |- |Body hygiene |Washing body daily using soap and warm water to remove sweat, oils, and dirt from body. |- |Menstrual hygiene |Changing sanitary items regularly, washing hands before and after use, disposing of correctly. |- |Personal grooming |Washing clothing regularly, trimming fingernails, washing and keeping hair clean, not sharing personal items with others. |- |Symptom etiquette |Covering mouth when coughing or sneezing to prevent the spread of germs. |} == Case study of Joel == The provided case study will assist in applying aspects of this chapter to a real-world scenario. There will be case study quizzes throughout the chapter to check understanding of core topics in understanding what motivates the maintenance of personal hygiene. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Case study''' Joel is a 19-year-old university student who lives in on-campus accommodation with three other students. While he understands that it is a good idea to wash his hands, he often skips the practice after taking the bus, touching shared surfaces, and before eating. He thinks it really cannot make all that much of a difference and can sometimes be inconvenient when he is in a rush. Because he is young and has good health, he believes he is unlikely to become ill. Recently, several students in the on-campus accommodation have become sick with COVID-19. One of Joel’s peers missed a week of classes and found it challenging to catch up due to the illness. Joel realised how easily infections can spread in shared spaces, becoming increasingly concerned. Due to the spread of COVID-19, the university launched a health promotion campaign surrounding hand hygiene. Posters around the campus explained how germs are spread from person to person and outlined the role of handwashing in preventing illness. Along with this, hand sanitiser stations were installed at the entrances to all buildings on campus, including the lobby of campus accommodations. Joel began to utilise the hand sanitiser provided on campus as he entered and exited buildings, especially after using public transport. After a few weeks, Joel noticed that he felt more confident about protecting himself and those he lived with from illness, becoming stricter about maintaining the practice of washing his hands before eating and after being in tight shared spaces, such as public transport. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Core motivators of personal hygiene == Personal hygiene can be motivated by a range of factors. The core motivators for personal hygiene are explored below. === Societal expectations === * Norms, peer pressure, and group identity can shape hygiene behaviours (Laursen & Faur, 2022). * Some hygiene behaviours are engaged with purely due to conformity or fear of judgement from others as opposed to a healthy practice (Pilli et al., 2024). * Example using a family scenario, where one child is encouraged to shower daily, and the other every second day. Are people more motivated to engage in personal hygiene when encouraged by those close to them? === Education and understanding of hygiene practices === [[File:Wash-your-hands-poster-english-508.pdf|thumb|297x297px|'''Figure 2.''' Public health messaging to promote proper hand washing hygiene in schools. ]] * Knowledge of the spread of disease through public health messaging (see Figure 2) or learning can influence motivation and engagement with behaviours (Bloomfield & Ackerley, 2023). * Understanding the reasons behind hygiene practices and their effectiveness can motivate individuals to engage with them, especially to avoid contracting a disease. * During COVID-19, which will be discussed later in this chapter, health messaging provided explanations as to why washing your hands for 20 seconds with warm water and soap was a vital hygiene behaviour to avoid contracting the illness (World Health Organisation, 2025). === Habit formation === * Hygiene practices can become second nature through repetition and reinforcement (Singh et al., 2024). * Brushing teeth, showering, and changing clothes are all personal hygiene behaviours that are second nature to many individuals. * What contributes to formation of habits? === Emotions === * Disgust and fear of illness can be drivers for hygiene behaviour in the same way depression and executive dysfunction can act as barriers (Ghassemi et al., 2023). * Explore levels of fear, including for self and loved ones. * Explore depression and executive dysfunction specific barriers to personal hygiene. === COVID-19 as a catalyst for personal hygiene === COVID-19 was a global pandemic that took over the world in 2020. From lockdowns to masks, hygiene behaviours changed drastically for individuals across the globe (World Health Organisation, 2025). * Increased hygiene engagement ** Handwashing as a more regular practice, sanitiser stations in public spaces, mask hygiene (see Figure 3), disinfecting and cleaning of surfaces after use (World Health Organisation, 2025). [[File:A woman wearing a protective face mask.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 3.''' Woman wearing mask on public transport during COVID-19 pandemic.]] * Risk perception and emotions ** Perceived threat or vulnerability to COVID-19 for self or loved ones increased practicing of hygiene behaviours. Motivational influence of fear and uncertainty (Miller et al., 2020). * Compliance and conformity ** Government mandates (quarantine, isolation, etc.) and collective responsibility of community increased motivation to engage in behaviours. Conforming to the majority, where most people engaged in COVID-19 protocols and influenced others to do the same (Miller et al., 2020). * Normalisation post-pandemic ** In 2026, many hygiene practices that increased in the pandemic have not reduced, and are the new 'normal'. Social distancing has become second nature to the extent where people judge those who stand too close to others. Wearing a mask when sick or feeling vulnerable has become a more common practice, and hand sanitiser is available in more public spaces than before the pandemic (Ali et al., 2023). == Understanding personal hygiene motivation according to the health belief model == The health belief model is a psychological framework used to explain and predict health-related behaviours. The model was first developed in the 1950s by social psychologists working in the [https://www.usphs.gov/ United States Public Health Service], proposing that an individual's willingness to change their behaviour depends on their perceptions (Alyafei & Easton-Carr, 2024). The health belief model can provide context into why people may maintain their personal hygiene behaviours through cognitive evaluations related to benefits and risks in engaging in hygiene behaviours (Kamal et al., 2017). '''Cognitive evaluations''' The health belief model relies on six core constructs, or cognitive evaluations, which can influence a person's perspective when deciding what behaviours to engage with. These constructs are defined in Table 2. {| class="wikitable" |+'''Table 2.''' Health belief model core constructs |Perceived susceptibility |Assessment of the risk |- |Perceived severity |Assessment of the danger of a condition and what the emotional, physical, and social consequences may be |- |Perceived benefits |Belief in the effectiveness of an action to reduce the perceived severity |- |Perceived barriers |Tangible and psychological obstacles in taking action |- |Cues to action |External and/or internal triggers that encourage people to change their behaviour |- |Self-efficacy |Confidence in the ability to perform the behaviour successfully |} '''Health belief model related to hygiene behaviours''' {{Tute box | colour = LightBlue | width = 100% | border = #2a4b7c | radius = 8px | padding = 15px | content = <quiz> ''Case study quiz''' Where can cues to action be seen in Joel's case? |type="()"} - Friend missing classes and having difficulties catching up - Joel believing he is unlikely to become sick due to being young and healthy + University health campaign posters and hand sanitiser stations across campus - Living in on-campus accommodation </quiz> }} == Cultural and economic context == Recognising standards of hygiene cross-culturally is important to be able to understand how and why people keep up with personal hygiene. === Cross-cultural norms === * Personal hygiene expectations and standards can differ between cultures. * Hand washing, oral care, and even spitting can be expected at one rate in one culture and a completely different rate in the next. * Understanding the definition or standard of hygiene in certain cultures can assist in the understanding of motivational factors behind the behaviour (Eriksson et al., 2021). === Economic constraints === * Access to water, sanitation, and hygiene products can influence individual's engagement and maintenance of hygiene behaviours. * Individuals in developing countries may be motivated to engage in hygiene behaviours, but are unable to due to a lack of resources such as hot water, clean clothes, or menstruation products (Rossouw & Ross, 2021). [[File:Washing hands kids.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 5.''' School children utilising an outdoor tap to wash their hands. ]] * Figure 5 displays an example hygiene practices in countries without adequate infrastructure. == Conclusion == * There are a variety of motivating factors for personal hygiene, with societal expectations and emotions being highly influential. * COVID-19 allowed individuals to understand the benefits of some hygiene practices, with routines that were popular during the pandemic remaining in 2026. * Personal hygiene can differ across socio-cultural backgrounds, and core motivators may look different cross-culturally. * Theoretical perspectives such as the health belief model and theory of planned behaviour can deepen the understanding behind motivation and maintenance of personal hygiene. == See also == {{ic|Rename links as shown in Tutorial 2}} * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Disgust and hygiene]] (Book chapter, 2024) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Conformity and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[wikipedia:Public_health_mitigation_of_COVID-19|Public health mitigation of COVID-19]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Ali, A. S., Mekonen, Y., & Tesfahun, T. (2023). Hygiene behavior and COVID-19 pandemic: Opportunities of COVID-19-Imposed changes in hygiene behavior. ''INQUIRY: The Journal of Health Care Organization, Provision, and Financing, 60''(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/00469580231218421 Alyafei, A., & Carr, R. E. (2024). The health belief model of behavior change. StatPearls Publishing. National Library of Medicine. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK606120/ Bloomfield, S. F., & Ackerley, L. (2023). Developing better understanding of hygiene is key to developing hygiene behaviour change in home and everyday life settings. ''Perspect Public Health, 144''(6), 175791392311637–175791392311637. https://doi.org/10.1177/17579139231163734 Bosnjak, M., Ajzen, I., & Schmidt, P. (2020). The theory of planned behavior: Selected recent advances and applications. Europe’s Journal of Psychology, 16(3), 352–356. NCBI. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.v16i3.3107 Eriksson, K., Dickins, T. E., & Strimling, P. (2021). Hygiene norms across 56 nations are predicted by self-control values and disease threat. Current Research in Ecological and Social Psychology, 2(1), 100013. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cresp.2021.100013 Ghassemi, E., Astrid Hasund Thorseth, Karine Le Roch, Heath, T., & White, S. (2023). Mapping the association between mental health and people’s perceived and actual ability to practice hygiene-related behaviours in humanitarian and pandemic crises: A scoping review. ''PLOS ONE, 18''(12). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0286494 Laursen, B., & Faur, S. (2022). What does it mean to be susceptible to influence? A brief primer on peer conformity and developmental changes that affect it. ''International Journal of Behavioral Development, 46''(3), 222–237. https://doi.org/10.1177/01650254221084103 Miller, G. J., Hartman, T. K., Levita, L., Martinez, A. P., Mason, L., McBride, O., McKay, R., Murphy, J., Shevlin, M., Stocks, T. V. A., Bennett, K. M., & Bentall, R. P. (2020). Capability, opportunity, and motivation to enact hygienic practices in the early stages of the COVID‐19 outbreak in the United Kingdom. British Journal of Health Psychology, 25(4), 856–864. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjhp.12426 Pilli, L., Veldwijk, J., Swait, J. D., Donkers, B., & de Bekker-Grob, E. W. (2024). Sources and processes of social influence on health-related choices: A systematic review based on a social-interdependent choice paradigm. ''Social Science & Medicine, 361''(1). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2024.117360 Rossouw, L., & Ross, H. (2021). Understanding period poverty: Socio-economic inequalities in menstrual hygiene management in eight low- and middle-income countries. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(5), 2571. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18052571 Singh, B., Murphy, A., Maher, C., & Smith, A. E. (2024). Time to form a habit: A systematic review and meta-analysis of health behaviour habit formation and its determinants. ''Healthcare, 12''(23), 2488. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare12232488 World Health Organization. (2025). ''Coronavirus disease (COVID-19).'' https://www.who.int/health-topics/coronavirus#tab=tab_1 }} ==External links== * [https://www.beyondblue.org.au/ Support if you are experiencing anxiety or depression] (Beyond Blue) * [https://open.spotify.com/show/5HG094bpiecqetNsvz0ELs Tips for good hygiene podcast] (Spotify - Sandra Keyes) * [https://hygieneforhealth.org.au/importance/ Why is hygiene so important?] (Hygiene for Health) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Anxiety]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Disgust]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]] 81za1gln4p0nmoupfb5snsoa8uwihyb 2836516 2836515 2026-10-07T10:02:06Z U3275940 3106402 /* Understanding personal hygiene motivation according to the health belief model */ 2836516 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Hygiene motivation:<br>What motivates maintenance of personal hygiene?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} ;Scenario [[File:Hand washing man.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Washing hands became a more frequent hygiene behaviour during the COVID-19 pandemic.]] You became increasingly aware of your own hygiene when the COVID-19 pandemic took over our lives in 2020. In the beginning, you were motivated by the fear of infection and desire to protect your loved ones. You washed your hands more frequently, used hand sanitiser after touching surfaces in public, cleaned your phone, and became more aware of how germs are passed on from person to person. As time passed, these hygiene behaviours became less about COVID-19, and more about feeling clean, easing the anxiety of spreading germs and keeping up with the standards of our society as encouraged during the pandemic. Even though the threat of COVID-19 has decreased immensely, you continue to wash your hands when you arrive home, sanitise after using public transport, and avoid sharing personal items when someone is sick. This displays how emotions and societal expectations can initially motivate our behaviour, while repetition, personal values and habit formations can maintain these behaviours over the course of our lives. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Personal hygiene is a fundamental feature of day-to-day life that influences one’s health, interactions with others, and overall wellbeing. While hygiene behaviours such as handwashing, bathing, and brushing teeth are seen as routine habits, people are motivated to engage in these behaviours for different reasons. [https://www.cdc.gov/hygiene/about/index.html The Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)] explains that hygiene behaviours can prevent disease, influence social acceptance, and bring personal comfort. Understanding the motivating factors behind the maintenance of personal hygiene is vital in encouraging long-term health behaviours and developing successful health promotion interventions. Personal hygiene is motivated by a range of factors which can assist in gaining an understanding of the reasons people engage and maintain hygiene behaviours. The health belief model can support the understanding of motivation related to the maintenance of personal hygiene.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} '''Focus questions''' # What are the core motivators for personal hygiene? # How did the COVID-19 pandemic influence motivation to maintain personal hygiene? # How can the health belief model explain motivation to maintain personal hygiene behaviours? # What differences in the motivation and maintenance of personal hygiene can be seen across varying economic and cultural contexts? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What is personal hygiene? == [https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/personal-hygiene Health Direct] describes good personal hygiene as keeping your body clean and looking after your health through daily habits. There are many kinds of personal hygiene behaviours that people engage with. {| class="wikitable" |+'''Table 1.''' Personal hygiene behaviours !Hygiene practice !Behaviour |- |Oral hygiene |Keeping teeth clean by brushing with toothpaste for two minutes twice daily, flossing daily, and using mouthwash. |- |Hand hygiene |Washing hands with warm water and soap for 20 seconds prior to eating, after using the toilet, etc. |- |Body hygiene |Washing body daily using soap and warm water to remove sweat, oils, and dirt from body. |- |Menstrual hygiene |Changing sanitary items regularly, washing hands before and after use, disposing of correctly. |- |Personal grooming |Washing clothing regularly, trimming fingernails, washing and keeping hair clean, not sharing personal items with others. |- |Symptom etiquette |Covering mouth when coughing or sneezing to prevent the spread of germs. |} == Case study of Joel == The provided case study will assist in applying aspects of this chapter to a real-world scenario. There will be case study quizzes throughout the chapter to check understanding of core topics in understanding what motivates the maintenance of personal hygiene. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Case study''' Joel is a 19-year-old university student who lives in on-campus accommodation with three other students. While he understands that it is a good idea to wash his hands, he often skips the practice after taking the bus, touching shared surfaces, and before eating. He thinks it really cannot make all that much of a difference and can sometimes be inconvenient when he is in a rush. Because he is young and has good health, he believes he is unlikely to become ill. Recently, several students in the on-campus accommodation have become sick with COVID-19. One of Joel’s peers missed a week of classes and found it challenging to catch up due to the illness. Joel realised how easily infections can spread in shared spaces, becoming increasingly concerned. Due to the spread of COVID-19, the university launched a health promotion campaign surrounding hand hygiene. Posters around the campus explained how germs are spread from person to person and outlined the role of handwashing in preventing illness. Along with this, hand sanitiser stations were installed at the entrances to all buildings on campus, including the lobby of campus accommodations. Joel began to utilise the hand sanitiser provided on campus as he entered and exited buildings, especially after using public transport. After a few weeks, Joel noticed that he felt more confident about protecting himself and those he lived with from illness, becoming stricter about maintaining the practice of washing his hands before eating and after being in tight shared spaces, such as public transport. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Core motivators of personal hygiene == Personal hygiene can be motivated by a range of factors. The core motivators for personal hygiene are explored below. === Societal expectations === * Norms, peer pressure, and group identity can shape hygiene behaviours (Laursen & Faur, 2022). * Some hygiene behaviours are engaged with purely due to conformity or fear of judgement from others as opposed to a healthy practice (Pilli et al., 2024). * Example using a family scenario, where one child is encouraged to shower daily, and the other every second day. Are people more motivated to engage in personal hygiene when encouraged by those close to them? === Education and understanding of hygiene practices === [[File:Wash-your-hands-poster-english-508.pdf|thumb|297x297px|'''Figure 2.''' Public health messaging to promote proper hand washing hygiene in schools. ]] * Knowledge of the spread of disease through public health messaging (see Figure 2) or learning can influence motivation and engagement with behaviours (Bloomfield & Ackerley, 2023). * Understanding the reasons behind hygiene practices and their effectiveness can motivate individuals to engage with them, especially to avoid contracting a disease. * During COVID-19, which will be discussed later in this chapter, health messaging provided explanations as to why washing your hands for 20 seconds with warm water and soap was a vital hygiene behaviour to avoid contracting the illness (World Health Organisation, 2025). === Habit formation === * Hygiene practices can become second nature through repetition and reinforcement (Singh et al., 2024). * Brushing teeth, showering, and changing clothes are all personal hygiene behaviours that are second nature to many individuals. * What contributes to formation of habits? === Emotions === * Disgust and fear of illness can be drivers for hygiene behaviour in the same way depression and executive dysfunction can act as barriers (Ghassemi et al., 2023). * Explore levels of fear, including for self and loved ones. * Explore depression and executive dysfunction specific barriers to personal hygiene. === COVID-19 as a catalyst for personal hygiene === COVID-19 was a global pandemic that took over the world in 2020. From lockdowns to masks, hygiene behaviours changed drastically for individuals across the globe (World Health Organisation, 2025). * Increased hygiene engagement ** Handwashing as a more regular practice, sanitiser stations in public spaces, mask hygiene (see Figure 3), disinfecting and cleaning of surfaces after use (World Health Organisation, 2025). [[File:A woman wearing a protective face mask.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 3.''' Woman wearing mask on public transport during COVID-19 pandemic.]] * Risk perception and emotions ** Perceived threat or vulnerability to COVID-19 for self or loved ones increased practicing of hygiene behaviours. Motivational influence of fear and uncertainty (Miller et al., 2020). * Compliance and conformity ** Government mandates (quarantine, isolation, etc.) and collective responsibility of community increased motivation to engage in behaviours. Conforming to the majority, where most people engaged in COVID-19 protocols and influenced others to do the same (Miller et al., 2020). * Normalisation post-pandemic ** In 2026, many hygiene practices that increased in the pandemic have not reduced, and are the new 'normal'. Social distancing has become second nature to the extent where people judge those who stand too close to others. Wearing a mask when sick or feeling vulnerable has become a more common practice, and hand sanitiser is available in more public spaces than before the pandemic (Ali et al., 2023). == Understanding personal hygiene motivation according to the health belief model == The health belief model is a psychological framework used to explain and predict health-related behaviours. The model was first developed in the 1950s by social psychologists working in the [https://www.usphs.gov/ United States Public Health Service], proposing that an individual's willingness to change their behaviour depends on their perceptions (Alyafei & Easton-Carr, 2024). The health belief model can provide context into why people may maintain their personal hygiene behaviours through cognitive evaluations related to benefits and risks in engaging in hygiene behaviours (Kamal et al., 2017). '''Cognitive evaluations''' The health belief model relies on six core constructs, or cognitive evaluations, which can influence a person's perspective when deciding what behaviours to engage with. These constructs are defined in Table 2. {| class="wikitable" |+'''Table 2.''' Health belief model core constructs |Perceived susceptibility |Assessment of the risk |- |Perceived severity |Assessment of the danger of a condition and what the emotional, physical, and social consequences may be |- |Perceived benefits |Belief in the effectiveness of an action to reduce the perceived severity |- |Perceived barriers |Tangible and psychological obstacles in taking action |- |Cues to action |External and/or internal triggers that encourage people to change their behaviour |- |Self-efficacy |Confidence in the ability to perform the behaviour successfully |} '''Health belief model related to hygiene behaviours''' {{Tute box | colour = LightBlue | width = 100% | border = #2a4b7c | radius = 8px | padding = 15px <quiz> ''Case study quiz''' Where can cues to action be seen in Joel's case? |type="()"} - Friend missing classes and having difficulties catching up - Joel believing he is unlikely to become sick due to being young and healthy + University health campaign posters and hand sanitiser stations across campus - Living in on-campus accommodation </quiz> }} == Cultural and economic context == Recognising standards of hygiene cross-culturally is important to be able to understand how and why people keep up with personal hygiene. === Cross-cultural norms === * Personal hygiene expectations and standards can differ between cultures. * Hand washing, oral care, and even spitting can be expected at one rate in one culture and a completely different rate in the next. * Understanding the definition or standard of hygiene in certain cultures can assist in the understanding of motivational factors behind the behaviour (Eriksson et al., 2021). === Economic constraints === * Access to water, sanitation, and hygiene products can influence individual's engagement and maintenance of hygiene behaviours. * Individuals in developing countries may be motivated to engage in hygiene behaviours, but are unable to due to a lack of resources such as hot water, clean clothes, or menstruation products (Rossouw & Ross, 2021). [[File:Washing hands kids.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 5.''' School children utilising an outdoor tap to wash their hands. ]] * Figure 5 displays an example hygiene practices in countries without adequate infrastructure. == Conclusion == * There are a variety of motivating factors for personal hygiene, with societal expectations and emotions being highly influential. * COVID-19 allowed individuals to understand the benefits of some hygiene practices, with routines that were popular during the pandemic remaining in 2026. * Personal hygiene can differ across socio-cultural backgrounds, and core motivators may look different cross-culturally. * Theoretical perspectives such as the health belief model and theory of planned behaviour can deepen the understanding behind motivation and maintenance of personal hygiene. == See also == {{ic|Rename links as shown in Tutorial 2}} * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Disgust and hygiene]] (Book chapter, 2024) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Conformity and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[wikipedia:Public_health_mitigation_of_COVID-19|Public health mitigation of COVID-19]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Ali, A. S., Mekonen, Y., & Tesfahun, T. (2023). Hygiene behavior and COVID-19 pandemic: Opportunities of COVID-19-Imposed changes in hygiene behavior. ''INQUIRY: The Journal of Health Care Organization, Provision, and Financing, 60''(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/00469580231218421 Alyafei, A., & Carr, R. E. (2024). The health belief model of behavior change. StatPearls Publishing. National Library of Medicine. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK606120/ Bloomfield, S. F., & Ackerley, L. (2023). Developing better understanding of hygiene is key to developing hygiene behaviour change in home and everyday life settings. ''Perspect Public Health, 144''(6), 175791392311637–175791392311637. https://doi.org/10.1177/17579139231163734 Bosnjak, M., Ajzen, I., & Schmidt, P. (2020). The theory of planned behavior: Selected recent advances and applications. Europe’s Journal of Psychology, 16(3), 352–356. NCBI. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.v16i3.3107 Eriksson, K., Dickins, T. E., & Strimling, P. (2021). Hygiene norms across 56 nations are predicted by self-control values and disease threat. Current Research in Ecological and Social Psychology, 2(1), 100013. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cresp.2021.100013 Ghassemi, E., Astrid Hasund Thorseth, Karine Le Roch, Heath, T., & White, S. (2023). Mapping the association between mental health and people’s perceived and actual ability to practice hygiene-related behaviours in humanitarian and pandemic crises: A scoping review. ''PLOS ONE, 18''(12). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0286494 Laursen, B., & Faur, S. (2022). What does it mean to be susceptible to influence? A brief primer on peer conformity and developmental changes that affect it. ''International Journal of Behavioral Development, 46''(3), 222–237. https://doi.org/10.1177/01650254221084103 Miller, G. J., Hartman, T. K., Levita, L., Martinez, A. P., Mason, L., McBride, O., McKay, R., Murphy, J., Shevlin, M., Stocks, T. V. A., Bennett, K. M., & Bentall, R. P. (2020). Capability, opportunity, and motivation to enact hygienic practices in the early stages of the COVID‐19 outbreak in the United Kingdom. British Journal of Health Psychology, 25(4), 856–864. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjhp.12426 Pilli, L., Veldwijk, J., Swait, J. D., Donkers, B., & de Bekker-Grob, E. W. (2024). Sources and processes of social influence on health-related choices: A systematic review based on a social-interdependent choice paradigm. ''Social Science & Medicine, 361''(1). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2024.117360 Rossouw, L., & Ross, H. (2021). Understanding period poverty: Socio-economic inequalities in menstrual hygiene management in eight low- and middle-income countries. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(5), 2571. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18052571 Singh, B., Murphy, A., Maher, C., & Smith, A. E. (2024). Time to form a habit: A systematic review and meta-analysis of health behaviour habit formation and its determinants. ''Healthcare, 12''(23), 2488. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare12232488 World Health Organization. (2025). ''Coronavirus disease (COVID-19).'' https://www.who.int/health-topics/coronavirus#tab=tab_1 }} ==External links== * [https://www.beyondblue.org.au/ Support if you are experiencing anxiety or depression] (Beyond Blue) * [https://open.spotify.com/show/5HG094bpiecqetNsvz0ELs Tips for good hygiene podcast] (Spotify - Sandra Keyes) * [https://hygieneforhealth.org.au/importance/ Why is hygiene so important?] (Hygiene for Health) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Anxiety]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Disgust]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]] 3wdier5kli831btp58sdfvgyl8xjkcr 2836517 2836516 2026-10-07T10:02:32Z U3275940 3106402 /* Understanding personal hygiene motivation according to the health belief model */ 2836517 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Hygiene motivation:<br>What motivates maintenance of personal hygiene?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} ;Scenario [[File:Hand washing man.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Washing hands became a more frequent hygiene behaviour during the COVID-19 pandemic.]] You became increasingly aware of your own hygiene when the COVID-19 pandemic took over our lives in 2020. In the beginning, you were motivated by the fear of infection and desire to protect your loved ones. You washed your hands more frequently, used hand sanitiser after touching surfaces in public, cleaned your phone, and became more aware of how germs are passed on from person to person. As time passed, these hygiene behaviours became less about COVID-19, and more about feeling clean, easing the anxiety of spreading germs and keeping up with the standards of our society as encouraged during the pandemic. Even though the threat of COVID-19 has decreased immensely, you continue to wash your hands when you arrive home, sanitise after using public transport, and avoid sharing personal items when someone is sick. This displays how emotions and societal expectations can initially motivate our behaviour, while repetition, personal values and habit formations can maintain these behaviours over the course of our lives. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Personal hygiene is a fundamental feature of day-to-day life that influences one’s health, interactions with others, and overall wellbeing. While hygiene behaviours such as handwashing, bathing, and brushing teeth are seen as routine habits, people are motivated to engage in these behaviours for different reasons. [https://www.cdc.gov/hygiene/about/index.html The Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)] explains that hygiene behaviours can prevent disease, influence social acceptance, and bring personal comfort. Understanding the motivating factors behind the maintenance of personal hygiene is vital in encouraging long-term health behaviours and developing successful health promotion interventions. Personal hygiene is motivated by a range of factors which can assist in gaining an understanding of the reasons people engage and maintain hygiene behaviours. The health belief model can support the understanding of motivation related to the maintenance of personal hygiene.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} '''Focus questions''' # What are the core motivators for personal hygiene? # How did the COVID-19 pandemic influence motivation to maintain personal hygiene? # How can the health belief model explain motivation to maintain personal hygiene behaviours? # What differences in the motivation and maintenance of personal hygiene can be seen across varying economic and cultural contexts? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What is personal hygiene? == [https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/personal-hygiene Health Direct] describes good personal hygiene as keeping your body clean and looking after your health through daily habits. There are many kinds of personal hygiene behaviours that people engage with. {| class="wikitable" |+'''Table 1.''' Personal hygiene behaviours !Hygiene practice !Behaviour |- |Oral hygiene |Keeping teeth clean by brushing with toothpaste for two minutes twice daily, flossing daily, and using mouthwash. |- |Hand hygiene |Washing hands with warm water and soap for 20 seconds prior to eating, after using the toilet, etc. |- |Body hygiene |Washing body daily using soap and warm water to remove sweat, oils, and dirt from body. |- |Menstrual hygiene |Changing sanitary items regularly, washing hands before and after use, disposing of correctly. |- |Personal grooming |Washing clothing regularly, trimming fingernails, washing and keeping hair clean, not sharing personal items with others. |- |Symptom etiquette |Covering mouth when coughing or sneezing to prevent the spread of germs. |} == Case study of Joel == The provided case study will assist in applying aspects of this chapter to a real-world scenario. There will be case study quizzes throughout the chapter to check understanding of core topics in understanding what motivates the maintenance of personal hygiene. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Case study''' Joel is a 19-year-old university student who lives in on-campus accommodation with three other students. While he understands that it is a good idea to wash his hands, he often skips the practice after taking the bus, touching shared surfaces, and before eating. He thinks it really cannot make all that much of a difference and can sometimes be inconvenient when he is in a rush. Because he is young and has good health, he believes he is unlikely to become ill. Recently, several students in the on-campus accommodation have become sick with COVID-19. One of Joel’s peers missed a week of classes and found it challenging to catch up due to the illness. Joel realised how easily infections can spread in shared spaces, becoming increasingly concerned. Due to the spread of COVID-19, the university launched a health promotion campaign surrounding hand hygiene. Posters around the campus explained how germs are spread from person to person and outlined the role of handwashing in preventing illness. Along with this, hand sanitiser stations were installed at the entrances to all buildings on campus, including the lobby of campus accommodations. Joel began to utilise the hand sanitiser provided on campus as he entered and exited buildings, especially after using public transport. After a few weeks, Joel noticed that he felt more confident about protecting himself and those he lived with from illness, becoming stricter about maintaining the practice of washing his hands before eating and after being in tight shared spaces, such as public transport. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Core motivators of personal hygiene == Personal hygiene can be motivated by a range of factors. The core motivators for personal hygiene are explored below. === Societal expectations === * Norms, peer pressure, and group identity can shape hygiene behaviours (Laursen & Faur, 2022). * Some hygiene behaviours are engaged with purely due to conformity or fear of judgement from others as opposed to a healthy practice (Pilli et al., 2024). * Example using a family scenario, where one child is encouraged to shower daily, and the other every second day. Are people more motivated to engage in personal hygiene when encouraged by those close to them? === Education and understanding of hygiene practices === [[File:Wash-your-hands-poster-english-508.pdf|thumb|297x297px|'''Figure 2.''' Public health messaging to promote proper hand washing hygiene in schools. ]] * Knowledge of the spread of disease through public health messaging (see Figure 2) or learning can influence motivation and engagement with behaviours (Bloomfield & Ackerley, 2023). * Understanding the reasons behind hygiene practices and their effectiveness can motivate individuals to engage with them, especially to avoid contracting a disease. * During COVID-19, which will be discussed later in this chapter, health messaging provided explanations as to why washing your hands for 20 seconds with warm water and soap was a vital hygiene behaviour to avoid contracting the illness (World Health Organisation, 2025). === Habit formation === * Hygiene practices can become second nature through repetition and reinforcement (Singh et al., 2024). * Brushing teeth, showering, and changing clothes are all personal hygiene behaviours that are second nature to many individuals. * What contributes to formation of habits? === Emotions === * Disgust and fear of illness can be drivers for hygiene behaviour in the same way depression and executive dysfunction can act as barriers (Ghassemi et al., 2023). * Explore levels of fear, including for self and loved ones. * Explore depression and executive dysfunction specific barriers to personal hygiene. === COVID-19 as a catalyst for personal hygiene === COVID-19 was a global pandemic that took over the world in 2020. From lockdowns to masks, hygiene behaviours changed drastically for individuals across the globe (World Health Organisation, 2025). * Increased hygiene engagement ** Handwashing as a more regular practice, sanitiser stations in public spaces, mask hygiene (see Figure 3), disinfecting and cleaning of surfaces after use (World Health Organisation, 2025). [[File:A woman wearing a protective face mask.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 3.''' Woman wearing mask on public transport during COVID-19 pandemic.]] * Risk perception and emotions ** Perceived threat or vulnerability to COVID-19 for self or loved ones increased practicing of hygiene behaviours. Motivational influence of fear and uncertainty (Miller et al., 2020). * Compliance and conformity ** Government mandates (quarantine, isolation, etc.) and collective responsibility of community increased motivation to engage in behaviours. Conforming to the majority, where most people engaged in COVID-19 protocols and influenced others to do the same (Miller et al., 2020). * Normalisation post-pandemic ** In 2026, many hygiene practices that increased in the pandemic have not reduced, and are the new 'normal'. Social distancing has become second nature to the extent where people judge those who stand too close to others. Wearing a mask when sick or feeling vulnerable has become a more common practice, and hand sanitiser is available in more public spaces than before the pandemic (Ali et al., 2023). == Understanding personal hygiene motivation according to the health belief model == The health belief model is a psychological framework used to explain and predict health-related behaviours. The model was first developed in the 1950s by social psychologists working in the [https://www.usphs.gov/ United States Public Health Service], proposing that an individual's willingness to change their behaviour depends on their perceptions (Alyafei & Easton-Carr, 2024). The health belief model can provide context into why people may maintain their personal hygiene behaviours through cognitive evaluations related to benefits and risks in engaging in hygiene behaviours (Kamal et al., 2017). '''Cognitive evaluations''' The health belief model relies on six core constructs, or cognitive evaluations, which can influence a person's perspective when deciding what behaviours to engage with. These constructs are defined in Table 2. {| class="wikitable" |+'''Table 2.''' Health belief model core constructs |Perceived susceptibility |Assessment of the risk |- |Perceived severity |Assessment of the danger of a condition and what the emotional, physical, and social consequences may be |- |Perceived benefits |Belief in the effectiveness of an action to reduce the perceived severity |- |Perceived barriers |Tangible and psychological obstacles in taking action |- |Cues to action |External and/or internal triggers that encourage people to change their behaviour |- |Self-efficacy |Confidence in the ability to perform the behaviour successfully |} '''Health belief model related to hygiene behaviours''' {{Tute box | colour = LightBlue <quiz> ''Case study quiz''' Where can cues to action be seen in Joel's case? |type="()"} - Friend missing classes and having difficulties catching up - Joel believing he is unlikely to become sick due to being young and healthy + University health campaign posters and hand sanitiser stations across campus - Living in on-campus accommodation </quiz> }} == Cultural and economic context == Recognising standards of hygiene cross-culturally is important to be able to understand how and why people keep up with personal hygiene. === Cross-cultural norms === * Personal hygiene expectations and standards can differ between cultures. * Hand washing, oral care, and even spitting can be expected at one rate in one culture and a completely different rate in the next. * Understanding the definition or standard of hygiene in certain cultures can assist in the understanding of motivational factors behind the behaviour (Eriksson et al., 2021). === Economic constraints === * Access to water, sanitation, and hygiene products can influence individual's engagement and maintenance of hygiene behaviours. * Individuals in developing countries may be motivated to engage in hygiene behaviours, but are unable to due to a lack of resources such as hot water, clean clothes, or menstruation products (Rossouw & Ross, 2021). [[File:Washing hands kids.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 5.''' School children utilising an outdoor tap to wash their hands. ]] * Figure 5 displays an example hygiene practices in countries without adequate infrastructure. == Conclusion == * There are a variety of motivating factors for personal hygiene, with societal expectations and emotions being highly influential. * COVID-19 allowed individuals to understand the benefits of some hygiene practices, with routines that were popular during the pandemic remaining in 2026. * Personal hygiene can differ across socio-cultural backgrounds, and core motivators may look different cross-culturally. * Theoretical perspectives such as the health belief model and theory of planned behaviour can deepen the understanding behind motivation and maintenance of personal hygiene. == See also == {{ic|Rename links as shown in Tutorial 2}} * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Disgust and hygiene]] (Book chapter, 2024) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Conformity and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[wikipedia:Public_health_mitigation_of_COVID-19|Public health mitigation of COVID-19]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Ali, A. S., Mekonen, Y., & Tesfahun, T. (2023). Hygiene behavior and COVID-19 pandemic: Opportunities of COVID-19-Imposed changes in hygiene behavior. ''INQUIRY: The Journal of Health Care Organization, Provision, and Financing, 60''(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/00469580231218421 Alyafei, A., & Carr, R. E. (2024). The health belief model of behavior change. StatPearls Publishing. National Library of Medicine. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK606120/ Bloomfield, S. F., & Ackerley, L. (2023). Developing better understanding of hygiene is key to developing hygiene behaviour change in home and everyday life settings. ''Perspect Public Health, 144''(6), 175791392311637–175791392311637. https://doi.org/10.1177/17579139231163734 Bosnjak, M., Ajzen, I., & Schmidt, P. (2020). The theory of planned behavior: Selected recent advances and applications. Europe’s Journal of Psychology, 16(3), 352–356. NCBI. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.v16i3.3107 Eriksson, K., Dickins, T. E., & Strimling, P. (2021). Hygiene norms across 56 nations are predicted by self-control values and disease threat. Current Research in Ecological and Social Psychology, 2(1), 100013. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cresp.2021.100013 Ghassemi, E., Astrid Hasund Thorseth, Karine Le Roch, Heath, T., & White, S. (2023). Mapping the association between mental health and people’s perceived and actual ability to practice hygiene-related behaviours in humanitarian and pandemic crises: A scoping review. ''PLOS ONE, 18''(12). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0286494 Laursen, B., & Faur, S. (2022). What does it mean to be susceptible to influence? A brief primer on peer conformity and developmental changes that affect it. ''International Journal of Behavioral Development, 46''(3), 222–237. https://doi.org/10.1177/01650254221084103 Miller, G. J., Hartman, T. K., Levita, L., Martinez, A. P., Mason, L., McBride, O., McKay, R., Murphy, J., Shevlin, M., Stocks, T. V. A., Bennett, K. M., & Bentall, R. P. (2020). Capability, opportunity, and motivation to enact hygienic practices in the early stages of the COVID‐19 outbreak in the United Kingdom. British Journal of Health Psychology, 25(4), 856–864. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjhp.12426 Pilli, L., Veldwijk, J., Swait, J. D., Donkers, B., & de Bekker-Grob, E. W. (2024). Sources and processes of social influence on health-related choices: A systematic review based on a social-interdependent choice paradigm. ''Social Science & Medicine, 361''(1). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2024.117360 Rossouw, L., & Ross, H. (2021). Understanding period poverty: Socio-economic inequalities in menstrual hygiene management in eight low- and middle-income countries. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(5), 2571. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18052571 Singh, B., Murphy, A., Maher, C., & Smith, A. E. (2024). Time to form a habit: A systematic review and meta-analysis of health behaviour habit formation and its determinants. ''Healthcare, 12''(23), 2488. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare12232488 World Health Organization. (2025). ''Coronavirus disease (COVID-19).'' https://www.who.int/health-topics/coronavirus#tab=tab_1 }} ==External links== * [https://www.beyondblue.org.au/ Support if you are experiencing anxiety or depression] (Beyond Blue) * [https://open.spotify.com/show/5HG094bpiecqetNsvz0ELs Tips for good hygiene podcast] (Spotify - Sandra Keyes) * [https://hygieneforhealth.org.au/importance/ Why is hygiene so important?] (Hygiene for Health) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Anxiety]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Disgust]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]] 61a4ofglj30ti9fa9yho4fpe99d04j6 2836519 2836517 2026-10-07T10:03:35Z U3275940 3106402 /* Understanding personal hygiene motivation according to the health belief model */ 2836519 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Hygiene motivation:<br>What motivates maintenance of personal hygiene?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} ;Scenario [[File:Hand washing man.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Washing hands became a more frequent hygiene behaviour during the COVID-19 pandemic.]] You became increasingly aware of your own hygiene when the COVID-19 pandemic took over our lives in 2020. In the beginning, you were motivated by the fear of infection and desire to protect your loved ones. You washed your hands more frequently, used hand sanitiser after touching surfaces in public, cleaned your phone, and became more aware of how germs are passed on from person to person. As time passed, these hygiene behaviours became less about COVID-19, and more about feeling clean, easing the anxiety of spreading germs and keeping up with the standards of our society as encouraged during the pandemic. Even though the threat of COVID-19 has decreased immensely, you continue to wash your hands when you arrive home, sanitise after using public transport, and avoid sharing personal items when someone is sick. This displays how emotions and societal expectations can initially motivate our behaviour, while repetition, personal values and habit formations can maintain these behaviours over the course of our lives. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Personal hygiene is a fundamental feature of day-to-day life that influences one’s health, interactions with others, and overall wellbeing. While hygiene behaviours such as handwashing, bathing, and brushing teeth are seen as routine habits, people are motivated to engage in these behaviours for different reasons. [https://www.cdc.gov/hygiene/about/index.html The Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)] explains that hygiene behaviours can prevent disease, influence social acceptance, and bring personal comfort. Understanding the motivating factors behind the maintenance of personal hygiene is vital in encouraging long-term health behaviours and developing successful health promotion interventions. Personal hygiene is motivated by a range of factors which can assist in gaining an understanding of the reasons people engage and maintain hygiene behaviours. The health belief model can support the understanding of motivation related to the maintenance of personal hygiene.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} '''Focus questions''' # What are the core motivators for personal hygiene? # How did the COVID-19 pandemic influence motivation to maintain personal hygiene? # How can the health belief model explain motivation to maintain personal hygiene behaviours? # What differences in the motivation and maintenance of personal hygiene can be seen across varying economic and cultural contexts? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What is personal hygiene? == [https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/personal-hygiene Health Direct] describes good personal hygiene as keeping your body clean and looking after your health through daily habits. There are many kinds of personal hygiene behaviours that people engage with. {| class="wikitable" |+'''Table 1.''' Personal hygiene behaviours !Hygiene practice !Behaviour |- |Oral hygiene |Keeping teeth clean by brushing with toothpaste for two minutes twice daily, flossing daily, and using mouthwash. |- |Hand hygiene |Washing hands with warm water and soap for 20 seconds prior to eating, after using the toilet, etc. |- |Body hygiene |Washing body daily using soap and warm water to remove sweat, oils, and dirt from body. |- |Menstrual hygiene |Changing sanitary items regularly, washing hands before and after use, disposing of correctly. |- |Personal grooming |Washing clothing regularly, trimming fingernails, washing and keeping hair clean, not sharing personal items with others. |- |Symptom etiquette |Covering mouth when coughing or sneezing to prevent the spread of germs. |} == Case study of Joel == The provided case study will assist in applying aspects of this chapter to a real-world scenario. There will be case study quizzes throughout the chapter to check understanding of core topics in understanding what motivates the maintenance of personal hygiene. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Case study''' Joel is a 19-year-old university student who lives in on-campus accommodation with three other students. While he understands that it is a good idea to wash his hands, he often skips the practice after taking the bus, touching shared surfaces, and before eating. He thinks it really cannot make all that much of a difference and can sometimes be inconvenient when he is in a rush. Because he is young and has good health, he believes he is unlikely to become ill. Recently, several students in the on-campus accommodation have become sick with COVID-19. One of Joel’s peers missed a week of classes and found it challenging to catch up due to the illness. Joel realised how easily infections can spread in shared spaces, becoming increasingly concerned. Due to the spread of COVID-19, the university launched a health promotion campaign surrounding hand hygiene. Posters around the campus explained how germs are spread from person to person and outlined the role of handwashing in preventing illness. Along with this, hand sanitiser stations were installed at the entrances to all buildings on campus, including the lobby of campus accommodations. Joel began to utilise the hand sanitiser provided on campus as he entered and exited buildings, especially after using public transport. After a few weeks, Joel noticed that he felt more confident about protecting himself and those he lived with from illness, becoming stricter about maintaining the practice of washing his hands before eating and after being in tight shared spaces, such as public transport. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Core motivators of personal hygiene == Personal hygiene can be motivated by a range of factors. The core motivators for personal hygiene are explored below. === Societal expectations === * Norms, peer pressure, and group identity can shape hygiene behaviours (Laursen & Faur, 2022). * Some hygiene behaviours are engaged with purely due to conformity or fear of judgement from others as opposed to a healthy practice (Pilli et al., 2024). * Example using a family scenario, where one child is encouraged to shower daily, and the other every second day. Are people more motivated to engage in personal hygiene when encouraged by those close to them? === Education and understanding of hygiene practices === [[File:Wash-your-hands-poster-english-508.pdf|thumb|297x297px|'''Figure 2.''' Public health messaging to promote proper hand washing hygiene in schools. ]] * Knowledge of the spread of disease through public health messaging (see Figure 2) or learning can influence motivation and engagement with behaviours (Bloomfield & Ackerley, 2023). * Understanding the reasons behind hygiene practices and their effectiveness can motivate individuals to engage with them, especially to avoid contracting a disease. * During COVID-19, which will be discussed later in this chapter, health messaging provided explanations as to why washing your hands for 20 seconds with warm water and soap was a vital hygiene behaviour to avoid contracting the illness (World Health Organisation, 2025). === Habit formation === * Hygiene practices can become second nature through repetition and reinforcement (Singh et al., 2024). * Brushing teeth, showering, and changing clothes are all personal hygiene behaviours that are second nature to many individuals. * What contributes to formation of habits? === Emotions === * Disgust and fear of illness can be drivers for hygiene behaviour in the same way depression and executive dysfunction can act as barriers (Ghassemi et al., 2023). * Explore levels of fear, including for self and loved ones. * Explore depression and executive dysfunction specific barriers to personal hygiene. === COVID-19 as a catalyst for personal hygiene === COVID-19 was a global pandemic that took over the world in 2020. From lockdowns to masks, hygiene behaviours changed drastically for individuals across the globe (World Health Organisation, 2025). * Increased hygiene engagement ** Handwashing as a more regular practice, sanitiser stations in public spaces, mask hygiene (see Figure 3), disinfecting and cleaning of surfaces after use (World Health Organisation, 2025). [[File:A woman wearing a protective face mask.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 3.''' Woman wearing mask on public transport during COVID-19 pandemic.]] * Risk perception and emotions ** Perceived threat or vulnerability to COVID-19 for self or loved ones increased practicing of hygiene behaviours. Motivational influence of fear and uncertainty (Miller et al., 2020). * Compliance and conformity ** Government mandates (quarantine, isolation, etc.) and collective responsibility of community increased motivation to engage in behaviours. Conforming to the majority, where most people engaged in COVID-19 protocols and influenced others to do the same (Miller et al., 2020). * Normalisation post-pandemic ** In 2026, many hygiene practices that increased in the pandemic have not reduced, and are the new 'normal'. Social distancing has become second nature to the extent where people judge those who stand too close to others. Wearing a mask when sick or feeling vulnerable has become a more common practice, and hand sanitiser is available in more public spaces than before the pandemic (Ali et al., 2023). == Understanding personal hygiene motivation according to the health belief model == The health belief model is a psychological framework used to explain and predict health-related behaviours. The model was first developed in the 1950s by social psychologists working in the [https://www.usphs.gov/ United States Public Health Service], proposing that an individual's willingness to change their behaviour depends on their perceptions (Alyafei & Easton-Carr, 2024). The health belief model can provide context into why people may maintain their personal hygiene behaviours through cognitive evaluations related to benefits and risks in engaging in hygiene behaviours (Kamal et al., 2017). '''Cognitive evaluations''' The health belief model relies on six core constructs, or cognitive evaluations, which can influence a person's perspective when deciding what behaviours to engage with. These constructs are defined in Table 2. {| class="wikitable" |+'''Table 2.''' Health belief model core constructs |Perceived susceptibility |Assessment of the risk |- |Perceived severity |Assessment of the danger of a condition and what the emotional, physical, and social consequences may be |- |Perceived benefits |Belief in the effectiveness of an action to reduce the perceived severity |- |Perceived barriers |Tangible and psychological obstacles in taking action |- |Cues to action |External and/or internal triggers that encourage people to change their behaviour |- |Self-efficacy |Confidence in the ability to perform the behaviour successfully |} '''Health belief model related to hygiene behaviours''' <quiz> ''Case study quiz''' Where can cues to action be seen in Joel's case? |type="()"} - Friend missing classes and having difficulties catching up - Joel believing he is unlikely to become sick due to being young and healthy + University health campaign posters and hand sanitiser stations across campus - Living in on-campus accommodation </quiz> == Cultural and economic context == Recognising standards of hygiene cross-culturally is important to be able to understand how and why people keep up with personal hygiene. === Cross-cultural norms === * Personal hygiene expectations and standards can differ between cultures. * Hand washing, oral care, and even spitting can be expected at one rate in one culture and a completely different rate in the next. * Understanding the definition or standard of hygiene in certain cultures can assist in the understanding of motivational factors behind the behaviour (Eriksson et al., 2021). === Economic constraints === * Access to water, sanitation, and hygiene products can influence individual's engagement and maintenance of hygiene behaviours. * Individuals in developing countries may be motivated to engage in hygiene behaviours, but are unable to due to a lack of resources such as hot water, clean clothes, or menstruation products (Rossouw & Ross, 2021). [[File:Washing hands kids.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 5.''' School children utilising an outdoor tap to wash their hands. ]] * Figure 5 displays an example hygiene practices in countries without adequate infrastructure. == Conclusion == * There are a variety of motivating factors for personal hygiene, with societal expectations and emotions being highly influential. * COVID-19 allowed individuals to understand the benefits of some hygiene practices, with routines that were popular during the pandemic remaining in 2026. * Personal hygiene can differ across socio-cultural backgrounds, and core motivators may look different cross-culturally. * Theoretical perspectives such as the health belief model and theory of planned behaviour can deepen the understanding behind motivation and maintenance of personal hygiene. == See also == {{ic|Rename links as shown in Tutorial 2}} * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Disgust and hygiene]] (Book chapter, 2024) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Conformity and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[wikipedia:Public_health_mitigation_of_COVID-19|Public health mitigation of COVID-19]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Ali, A. S., Mekonen, Y., & Tesfahun, T. (2023). Hygiene behavior and COVID-19 pandemic: Opportunities of COVID-19-Imposed changes in hygiene behavior. ''INQUIRY: The Journal of Health Care Organization, Provision, and Financing, 60''(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/00469580231218421 Alyafei, A., & Carr, R. E. (2024). The health belief model of behavior change. StatPearls Publishing. National Library of Medicine. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK606120/ Bloomfield, S. F., & Ackerley, L. (2023). Developing better understanding of hygiene is key to developing hygiene behaviour change in home and everyday life settings. ''Perspect Public Health, 144''(6), 175791392311637–175791392311637. https://doi.org/10.1177/17579139231163734 Bosnjak, M., Ajzen, I., & Schmidt, P. (2020). The theory of planned behavior: Selected recent advances and applications. Europe’s Journal of Psychology, 16(3), 352–356. NCBI. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.v16i3.3107 Eriksson, K., Dickins, T. E., & Strimling, P. (2021). Hygiene norms across 56 nations are predicted by self-control values and disease threat. Current Research in Ecological and Social Psychology, 2(1), 100013. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cresp.2021.100013 Ghassemi, E., Astrid Hasund Thorseth, Karine Le Roch, Heath, T., & White, S. (2023). Mapping the association between mental health and people’s perceived and actual ability to practice hygiene-related behaviours in humanitarian and pandemic crises: A scoping review. ''PLOS ONE, 18''(12). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0286494 Laursen, B., & Faur, S. (2022). What does it mean to be susceptible to influence? A brief primer on peer conformity and developmental changes that affect it. ''International Journal of Behavioral Development, 46''(3), 222–237. https://doi.org/10.1177/01650254221084103 Miller, G. J., Hartman, T. K., Levita, L., Martinez, A. P., Mason, L., McBride, O., McKay, R., Murphy, J., Shevlin, M., Stocks, T. V. A., Bennett, K. M., & Bentall, R. P. (2020). Capability, opportunity, and motivation to enact hygienic practices in the early stages of the COVID‐19 outbreak in the United Kingdom. British Journal of Health Psychology, 25(4), 856–864. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjhp.12426 Pilli, L., Veldwijk, J., Swait, J. D., Donkers, B., & de Bekker-Grob, E. W. (2024). Sources and processes of social influence on health-related choices: A systematic review based on a social-interdependent choice paradigm. ''Social Science & Medicine, 361''(1). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2024.117360 Rossouw, L., & Ross, H. (2021). Understanding period poverty: Socio-economic inequalities in menstrual hygiene management in eight low- and middle-income countries. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(5), 2571. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18052571 Singh, B., Murphy, A., Maher, C., & Smith, A. E. (2024). Time to form a habit: A systematic review and meta-analysis of health behaviour habit formation and its determinants. ''Healthcare, 12''(23), 2488. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare12232488 World Health Organization. (2025). ''Coronavirus disease (COVID-19).'' https://www.who.int/health-topics/coronavirus#tab=tab_1 }} ==External links== * [https://www.beyondblue.org.au/ Support if you are experiencing anxiety or depression] (Beyond Blue) * [https://open.spotify.com/show/5HG094bpiecqetNsvz0ELs Tips for good hygiene podcast] (Spotify - Sandra Keyes) * [https://hygieneforhealth.org.au/importance/ Why is hygiene so important?] (Hygiene for Health) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Anxiety]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Disgust]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]] d6zntywkwyrvfhjwkxu72wzyfpst47w 2836520 2836519 2026-10-07T10:05:17Z U3275940 3106402 /* Understanding personal hygiene motivation according to the health belief model */ 2836520 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Hygiene motivation:<br>What motivates maintenance of personal hygiene?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} ;Scenario [[File:Hand washing man.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Washing hands became a more frequent hygiene behaviour during the COVID-19 pandemic.]] You became increasingly aware of your own hygiene when the COVID-19 pandemic took over our lives in 2020. In the beginning, you were motivated by the fear of infection and desire to protect your loved ones. You washed your hands more frequently, used hand sanitiser after touching surfaces in public, cleaned your phone, and became more aware of how germs are passed on from person to person. As time passed, these hygiene behaviours became less about COVID-19, and more about feeling clean, easing the anxiety of spreading germs and keeping up with the standards of our society as encouraged during the pandemic. Even though the threat of COVID-19 has decreased immensely, you continue to wash your hands when you arrive home, sanitise after using public transport, and avoid sharing personal items when someone is sick. This displays how emotions and societal expectations can initially motivate our behaviour, while repetition, personal values and habit formations can maintain these behaviours over the course of our lives. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Personal hygiene is a fundamental feature of day-to-day life that influences one’s health, interactions with others, and overall wellbeing. While hygiene behaviours such as handwashing, bathing, and brushing teeth are seen as routine habits, people are motivated to engage in these behaviours for different reasons. [https://www.cdc.gov/hygiene/about/index.html The Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)] explains that hygiene behaviours can prevent disease, influence social acceptance, and bring personal comfort. Understanding the motivating factors behind the maintenance of personal hygiene is vital in encouraging long-term health behaviours and developing successful health promotion interventions. Personal hygiene is motivated by a range of factors which can assist in gaining an understanding of the reasons people engage and maintain hygiene behaviours. The health belief model can support the understanding of motivation related to the maintenance of personal hygiene.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} '''Focus questions''' # What are the core motivators for personal hygiene? # How did the COVID-19 pandemic influence motivation to maintain personal hygiene? # How can the health belief model explain motivation to maintain personal hygiene behaviours? # What differences in the motivation and maintenance of personal hygiene can be seen across varying economic and cultural contexts? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What is personal hygiene? == [https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/personal-hygiene Health Direct] describes good personal hygiene as keeping your body clean and looking after your health through daily habits. There are many kinds of personal hygiene behaviours that people engage with. {| class="wikitable" |+'''Table 1.''' Personal hygiene behaviours !Hygiene practice !Behaviour |- |Oral hygiene |Keeping teeth clean by brushing with toothpaste for two minutes twice daily, flossing daily, and using mouthwash. |- |Hand hygiene |Washing hands with warm water and soap for 20 seconds prior to eating, after using the toilet, etc. |- |Body hygiene |Washing body daily using soap and warm water to remove sweat, oils, and dirt from body. |- |Menstrual hygiene |Changing sanitary items regularly, washing hands before and after use, disposing of correctly. |- |Personal grooming |Washing clothing regularly, trimming fingernails, washing and keeping hair clean, not sharing personal items with others. |- |Symptom etiquette |Covering mouth when coughing or sneezing to prevent the spread of germs. |} == Case study of Joel == The provided case study will assist in applying aspects of this chapter to a real-world scenario. There will be case study quizzes throughout the chapter to check understanding of core topics in understanding what motivates the maintenance of personal hygiene. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Case study''' Joel is a 19-year-old university student who lives in on-campus accommodation with three other students. While he understands that it is a good idea to wash his hands, he often skips the practice after taking the bus, touching shared surfaces, and before eating. He thinks it really cannot make all that much of a difference and can sometimes be inconvenient when he is in a rush. Because he is young and has good health, he believes he is unlikely to become ill. Recently, several students in the on-campus accommodation have become sick with COVID-19. One of Joel’s peers missed a week of classes and found it challenging to catch up due to the illness. Joel realised how easily infections can spread in shared spaces, becoming increasingly concerned. Due to the spread of COVID-19, the university launched a health promotion campaign surrounding hand hygiene. Posters around the campus explained how germs are spread from person to person and outlined the role of handwashing in preventing illness. Along with this, hand sanitiser stations were installed at the entrances to all buildings on campus, including the lobby of campus accommodations. Joel began to utilise the hand sanitiser provided on campus as he entered and exited buildings, especially after using public transport. After a few weeks, Joel noticed that he felt more confident about protecting himself and those he lived with from illness, becoming stricter about maintaining the practice of washing his hands before eating and after being in tight shared spaces, such as public transport. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Core motivators of personal hygiene == Personal hygiene can be motivated by a range of factors. The core motivators for personal hygiene are explored below. === Societal expectations === * Norms, peer pressure, and group identity can shape hygiene behaviours (Laursen & Faur, 2022). * Some hygiene behaviours are engaged with purely due to conformity or fear of judgement from others as opposed to a healthy practice (Pilli et al., 2024). * Example using a family scenario, where one child is encouraged to shower daily, and the other every second day. Are people more motivated to engage in personal hygiene when encouraged by those close to them? === Education and understanding of hygiene practices === [[File:Wash-your-hands-poster-english-508.pdf|thumb|297x297px|'''Figure 2.''' Public health messaging to promote proper hand washing hygiene in schools. ]] * Knowledge of the spread of disease through public health messaging (see Figure 2) or learning can influence motivation and engagement with behaviours (Bloomfield & Ackerley, 2023). * Understanding the reasons behind hygiene practices and their effectiveness can motivate individuals to engage with them, especially to avoid contracting a disease. * During COVID-19, which will be discussed later in this chapter, health messaging provided explanations as to why washing your hands for 20 seconds with warm water and soap was a vital hygiene behaviour to avoid contracting the illness (World Health Organisation, 2025). === Habit formation === * Hygiene practices can become second nature through repetition and reinforcement (Singh et al., 2024). * Brushing teeth, showering, and changing clothes are all personal hygiene behaviours that are second nature to many individuals. * What contributes to formation of habits? === Emotions === * Disgust and fear of illness can be drivers for hygiene behaviour in the same way depression and executive dysfunction can act as barriers (Ghassemi et al., 2023). * Explore levels of fear, including for self and loved ones. * Explore depression and executive dysfunction specific barriers to personal hygiene. === COVID-19 as a catalyst for personal hygiene === COVID-19 was a global pandemic that took over the world in 2020. From lockdowns to masks, hygiene behaviours changed drastically for individuals across the globe (World Health Organisation, 2025). * Increased hygiene engagement ** Handwashing as a more regular practice, sanitiser stations in public spaces, mask hygiene (see Figure 3), disinfecting and cleaning of surfaces after use (World Health Organisation, 2025). [[File:A woman wearing a protective face mask.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 3.''' Woman wearing mask on public transport during COVID-19 pandemic.]] * Risk perception and emotions ** Perceived threat or vulnerability to COVID-19 for self or loved ones increased practicing of hygiene behaviours. Motivational influence of fear and uncertainty (Miller et al., 2020). * Compliance and conformity ** Government mandates (quarantine, isolation, etc.) and collective responsibility of community increased motivation to engage in behaviours. Conforming to the majority, where most people engaged in COVID-19 protocols and influenced others to do the same (Miller et al., 2020). * Normalisation post-pandemic ** In 2026, many hygiene practices that increased in the pandemic have not reduced, and are the new 'normal'. Social distancing has become second nature to the extent where people judge those who stand too close to others. Wearing a mask when sick or feeling vulnerable has become a more common practice, and hand sanitiser is available in more public spaces than before the pandemic (Ali et al., 2023). == Understanding personal hygiene motivation according to the health belief model == The health belief model is a psychological framework used to explain and predict health-related behaviours. The model was first developed in the 1950s by social psychologists working in the [https://www.usphs.gov/ United States Public Health Service], proposing that an individual's willingness to change their behaviour depends on their perceptions (Alyafei & Easton-Carr, 2024). The health belief model can provide context into why people may maintain their personal hygiene behaviours through cognitive evaluations related to benefits and risks in engaging in hygiene behaviours (Kamal et al., 2017). '''Cognitive evaluations''' The health belief model relies on six core constructs, or cognitive evaluations, which can influence a person's perspective when deciding what behaviours to engage with. These constructs are defined in Table 2. {| class="wikitable" |+'''Table 2.''' Health belief model core constructs |Perceived susceptibility |Assessment of the risk |- |Perceived severity |Assessment of the danger of a condition and what the emotional, physical, and social consequences may be |- |Perceived benefits |Belief in the effectiveness of an action to reduce the perceived severity |- |Perceived barriers |Tangible and psychological obstacles in taking action |- |Cues to action |External and/or internal triggers that encourage people to change their behaviour |- |Self-efficacy |Confidence in the ability to perform the behaviour successfully |} '''Health belief model related to hygiene behaviours''' {| border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=5 style="width:100%;" | bgcolor=#ccf | <quiz> ''Case study quiz''' Where can cues to action be seen in Joel's case? |type="()"} - Friend missing classes and having difficulties catching up - Joel believing he is unlikely to become sick due to being young and healthy + University health campaign posters and hand sanitiser stations across campus - Living in on-campus accommodation </quiz> |} == Cultural and economic context == Recognising standards of hygiene cross-culturally is important to be able to understand how and why people keep up with personal hygiene. === Cross-cultural norms === * Personal hygiene expectations and standards can differ between cultures. * Hand washing, oral care, and even spitting can be expected at one rate in one culture and a completely different rate in the next. * Understanding the definition or standard of hygiene in certain cultures can assist in the understanding of motivational factors behind the behaviour (Eriksson et al., 2021). === Economic constraints === * Access to water, sanitation, and hygiene products can influence individual's engagement and maintenance of hygiene behaviours. * Individuals in developing countries may be motivated to engage in hygiene behaviours, but are unable to due to a lack of resources such as hot water, clean clothes, or menstruation products (Rossouw & Ross, 2021). [[File:Washing hands kids.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 5.''' School children utilising an outdoor tap to wash their hands. ]] * Figure 5 displays an example hygiene practices in countries without adequate infrastructure. == Conclusion == * There are a variety of motivating factors for personal hygiene, with societal expectations and emotions being highly influential. * COVID-19 allowed individuals to understand the benefits of some hygiene practices, with routines that were popular during the pandemic remaining in 2026. * Personal hygiene can differ across socio-cultural backgrounds, and core motivators may look different cross-culturally. * Theoretical perspectives such as the health belief model and theory of planned behaviour can deepen the understanding behind motivation and maintenance of personal hygiene. == See also == {{ic|Rename links as shown in Tutorial 2}} * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Disgust and hygiene]] (Book chapter, 2024) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Conformity and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[wikipedia:Public_health_mitigation_of_COVID-19|Public health mitigation of COVID-19]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Ali, A. S., Mekonen, Y., & Tesfahun, T. (2023). Hygiene behavior and COVID-19 pandemic: Opportunities of COVID-19-Imposed changes in hygiene behavior. ''INQUIRY: The Journal of Health Care Organization, Provision, and Financing, 60''(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/00469580231218421 Alyafei, A., & Carr, R. E. (2024). The health belief model of behavior change. StatPearls Publishing. National Library of Medicine. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK606120/ Bloomfield, S. F., & Ackerley, L. (2023). Developing better understanding of hygiene is key to developing hygiene behaviour change in home and everyday life settings. ''Perspect Public Health, 144''(6), 175791392311637–175791392311637. https://doi.org/10.1177/17579139231163734 Bosnjak, M., Ajzen, I., & Schmidt, P. (2020). The theory of planned behavior: Selected recent advances and applications. Europe’s Journal of Psychology, 16(3), 352–356. NCBI. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.v16i3.3107 Eriksson, K., Dickins, T. E., & Strimling, P. (2021). Hygiene norms across 56 nations are predicted by self-control values and disease threat. Current Research in Ecological and Social Psychology, 2(1), 100013. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cresp.2021.100013 Ghassemi, E., Astrid Hasund Thorseth, Karine Le Roch, Heath, T., & White, S. (2023). Mapping the association between mental health and people’s perceived and actual ability to practice hygiene-related behaviours in humanitarian and pandemic crises: A scoping review. ''PLOS ONE, 18''(12). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0286494 Laursen, B., & Faur, S. (2022). What does it mean to be susceptible to influence? A brief primer on peer conformity and developmental changes that affect it. ''International Journal of Behavioral Development, 46''(3), 222–237. https://doi.org/10.1177/01650254221084103 Miller, G. J., Hartman, T. K., Levita, L., Martinez, A. P., Mason, L., McBride, O., McKay, R., Murphy, J., Shevlin, M., Stocks, T. V. A., Bennett, K. M., & Bentall, R. P. (2020). Capability, opportunity, and motivation to enact hygienic practices in the early stages of the COVID‐19 outbreak in the United Kingdom. British Journal of Health Psychology, 25(4), 856–864. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjhp.12426 Pilli, L., Veldwijk, J., Swait, J. D., Donkers, B., & de Bekker-Grob, E. W. (2024). Sources and processes of social influence on health-related choices: A systematic review based on a social-interdependent choice paradigm. ''Social Science & Medicine, 361''(1). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2024.117360 Rossouw, L., & Ross, H. (2021). Understanding period poverty: Socio-economic inequalities in menstrual hygiene management in eight low- and middle-income countries. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(5), 2571. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18052571 Singh, B., Murphy, A., Maher, C., & Smith, A. E. (2024). Time to form a habit: A systematic review and meta-analysis of health behaviour habit formation and its determinants. ''Healthcare, 12''(23), 2488. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare12232488 World Health Organization. (2025). ''Coronavirus disease (COVID-19).'' https://www.who.int/health-topics/coronavirus#tab=tab_1 }} ==External links== * [https://www.beyondblue.org.au/ Support if you are experiencing anxiety or depression] (Beyond Blue) * [https://open.spotify.com/show/5HG094bpiecqetNsvz0ELs Tips for good hygiene podcast] (Spotify - Sandra Keyes) * [https://hygieneforhealth.org.au/importance/ Why is hygiene so important?] (Hygiene for Health) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Anxiety]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Disgust]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]] 42u50gksa9m1cqhmb7ygmb3djgx1c3k 2836522 2836520 2026-10-07T10:07:21Z U3275940 3106402 /* Understanding personal hygiene motivation according to the health belief model */ 2836522 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Hygiene motivation:<br>What motivates maintenance of personal hygiene?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} ;Scenario [[File:Hand washing man.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Washing hands became a more frequent hygiene behaviour during the COVID-19 pandemic.]] You became increasingly aware of your own hygiene when the COVID-19 pandemic took over our lives in 2020. In the beginning, you were motivated by the fear of infection and desire to protect your loved ones. You washed your hands more frequently, used hand sanitiser after touching surfaces in public, cleaned your phone, and became more aware of how germs are passed on from person to person. As time passed, these hygiene behaviours became less about COVID-19, and more about feeling clean, easing the anxiety of spreading germs and keeping up with the standards of our society as encouraged during the pandemic. Even though the threat of COVID-19 has decreased immensely, you continue to wash your hands when you arrive home, sanitise after using public transport, and avoid sharing personal items when someone is sick. This displays how emotions and societal expectations can initially motivate our behaviour, while repetition, personal values and habit formations can maintain these behaviours over the course of our lives. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Personal hygiene is a fundamental feature of day-to-day life that influences one’s health, interactions with others, and overall wellbeing. While hygiene behaviours such as handwashing, bathing, and brushing teeth are seen as routine habits, people are motivated to engage in these behaviours for different reasons. [https://www.cdc.gov/hygiene/about/index.html The Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)] explains that hygiene behaviours can prevent disease, influence social acceptance, and bring personal comfort. Understanding the motivating factors behind the maintenance of personal hygiene is vital in encouraging long-term health behaviours and developing successful health promotion interventions. Personal hygiene is motivated by a range of factors which can assist in gaining an understanding of the reasons people engage and maintain hygiene behaviours. The health belief model can support the understanding of motivation related to the maintenance of personal hygiene.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} '''Focus questions''' # What are the core motivators for personal hygiene? # How did the COVID-19 pandemic influence motivation to maintain personal hygiene? # How can the health belief model explain motivation to maintain personal hygiene behaviours? # What differences in the motivation and maintenance of personal hygiene can be seen across varying economic and cultural contexts? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What is personal hygiene? == [https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/personal-hygiene Health Direct] describes good personal hygiene as keeping your body clean and looking after your health through daily habits. There are many kinds of personal hygiene behaviours that people engage with. {| class="wikitable" |+'''Table 1.''' Personal hygiene behaviours !Hygiene practice !Behaviour |- |Oral hygiene |Keeping teeth clean by brushing with toothpaste for two minutes twice daily, flossing daily, and using mouthwash. |- |Hand hygiene |Washing hands with warm water and soap for 20 seconds prior to eating, after using the toilet, etc. |- |Body hygiene |Washing body daily using soap and warm water to remove sweat, oils, and dirt from body. |- |Menstrual hygiene |Changing sanitary items regularly, washing hands before and after use, disposing of correctly. |- |Personal grooming |Washing clothing regularly, trimming fingernails, washing and keeping hair clean, not sharing personal items with others. |- |Symptom etiquette |Covering mouth when coughing or sneezing to prevent the spread of germs. |} == Case study of Joel == The provided case study will assist in applying aspects of this chapter to a real-world scenario. There will be case study quizzes throughout the chapter to check understanding of core topics in understanding what motivates the maintenance of personal hygiene. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Case study''' Joel is a 19-year-old university student who lives in on-campus accommodation with three other students. While he understands that it is a good idea to wash his hands, he often skips the practice after taking the bus, touching shared surfaces, and before eating. He thinks it really cannot make all that much of a difference and can sometimes be inconvenient when he is in a rush. Because he is young and has good health, he believes he is unlikely to become ill. Recently, several students in the on-campus accommodation have become sick with COVID-19. One of Joel’s peers missed a week of classes and found it challenging to catch up due to the illness. Joel realised how easily infections can spread in shared spaces, becoming increasingly concerned. Due to the spread of COVID-19, the university launched a health promotion campaign surrounding hand hygiene. Posters around the campus explained how germs are spread from person to person and outlined the role of handwashing in preventing illness. Along with this, hand sanitiser stations were installed at the entrances to all buildings on campus, including the lobby of campus accommodations. Joel began to utilise the hand sanitiser provided on campus as he entered and exited buildings, especially after using public transport. After a few weeks, Joel noticed that he felt more confident about protecting himself and those he lived with from illness, becoming stricter about maintaining the practice of washing his hands before eating and after being in tight shared spaces, such as public transport. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Core motivators of personal hygiene == Personal hygiene can be motivated by a range of factors. The core motivators for personal hygiene are explored below. === Societal expectations === * Norms, peer pressure, and group identity can shape hygiene behaviours (Laursen & Faur, 2022). * Some hygiene behaviours are engaged with purely due to conformity or fear of judgement from others as opposed to a healthy practice (Pilli et al., 2024). * Example using a family scenario, where one child is encouraged to shower daily, and the other every second day. Are people more motivated to engage in personal hygiene when encouraged by those close to them? === Education and understanding of hygiene practices === [[File:Wash-your-hands-poster-english-508.pdf|thumb|297x297px|'''Figure 2.''' Public health messaging to promote proper hand washing hygiene in schools. ]] * Knowledge of the spread of disease through public health messaging (see Figure 2) or learning can influence motivation and engagement with behaviours (Bloomfield & Ackerley, 2023). * Understanding the reasons behind hygiene practices and their effectiveness can motivate individuals to engage with them, especially to avoid contracting a disease. * During COVID-19, which will be discussed later in this chapter, health messaging provided explanations as to why washing your hands for 20 seconds with warm water and soap was a vital hygiene behaviour to avoid contracting the illness (World Health Organisation, 2025). === Habit formation === * Hygiene practices can become second nature through repetition and reinforcement (Singh et al., 2024). * Brushing teeth, showering, and changing clothes are all personal hygiene behaviours that are second nature to many individuals. * What contributes to formation of habits? === Emotions === * Disgust and fear of illness can be drivers for hygiene behaviour in the same way depression and executive dysfunction can act as barriers (Ghassemi et al., 2023). * Explore levels of fear, including for self and loved ones. * Explore depression and executive dysfunction specific barriers to personal hygiene. === COVID-19 as a catalyst for personal hygiene === COVID-19 was a global pandemic that took over the world in 2020. From lockdowns to masks, hygiene behaviours changed drastically for individuals across the globe (World Health Organisation, 2025). * Increased hygiene engagement ** Handwashing as a more regular practice, sanitiser stations in public spaces, mask hygiene (see Figure 3), disinfecting and cleaning of surfaces after use (World Health Organisation, 2025). [[File:A woman wearing a protective face mask.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 3.''' Woman wearing mask on public transport during COVID-19 pandemic.]] * Risk perception and emotions ** Perceived threat or vulnerability to COVID-19 for self or loved ones increased practicing of hygiene behaviours. Motivational influence of fear and uncertainty (Miller et al., 2020). * Compliance and conformity ** Government mandates (quarantine, isolation, etc.) and collective responsibility of community increased motivation to engage in behaviours. Conforming to the majority, where most people engaged in COVID-19 protocols and influenced others to do the same (Miller et al., 2020). * Normalisation post-pandemic ** In 2026, many hygiene practices that increased in the pandemic have not reduced, and are the new 'normal'. Social distancing has become second nature to the extent where people judge those who stand too close to others. Wearing a mask when sick or feeling vulnerable has become a more common practice, and hand sanitiser is available in more public spaces than before the pandemic (Ali et al., 2023). == Understanding personal hygiene motivation according to the health belief model == The health belief model is a psychological framework used to explain and predict health-related behaviours. The model was first developed in the 1950s by social psychologists working in the [https://www.usphs.gov/ United States Public Health Service], proposing that an individual's willingness to change their behaviour depends on their perceptions (Alyafei & Easton-Carr, 2024). The health belief model can provide context into why people may maintain their personal hygiene behaviours through cognitive evaluations related to benefits and risks in engaging in hygiene behaviours (Kamal et al., 2017). '''Cognitive evaluations''' The health belief model relies on six core constructs, or cognitive evaluations, which can influence a person's perspective when deciding what behaviours to engage with. These constructs are defined in Table 2. {| class="wikitable" |+'''Table 2.''' Health belief model core constructs |Perceived susceptibility |Assessment of the risk |- |Perceived severity |Assessment of the danger of a condition and what the emotional, physical, and social consequences may be |- |Perceived benefits |Belief in the effectiveness of an action to reduce the perceived severity |- |Perceived barriers |Tangible and psychological obstacles in taking action |- |Cues to action |External and/or internal triggers that encourage people to change their behaviour |- |Self-efficacy |Confidence in the ability to perform the behaviour successfully |} '''Health belief model related to hygiene behaviours''' {{Robelbox|theme=10|title=Quiz}} <quiz display=simple> 'Case study quiz''' Where can cues to action be seen in Joel's case? |type="()"} - Friend missing classes and having difficulties catching up - Joel believing he is unlikely to become sick due to being young and healthy + University health campaign posters and hand sanitiser stations across campus - Living in on-campus accommodation </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} == Cultural and economic context == Recognising standards of hygiene cross-culturally is important to be able to understand how and why people keep up with personal hygiene. === Cross-cultural norms === * Personal hygiene expectations and standards can differ between cultures. * Hand washing, oral care, and even spitting can be expected at one rate in one culture and a completely different rate in the next. * Understanding the definition or standard of hygiene in certain cultures can assist in the understanding of motivational factors behind the behaviour (Eriksson et al., 2021). === Economic constraints === * Access to water, sanitation, and hygiene products can influence individual's engagement and maintenance of hygiene behaviours. * Individuals in developing countries may be motivated to engage in hygiene behaviours, but are unable to due to a lack of resources such as hot water, clean clothes, or menstruation products (Rossouw & Ross, 2021). [[File:Washing hands kids.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 5.''' School children utilising an outdoor tap to wash their hands. ]] * Figure 5 displays an example hygiene practices in countries without adequate infrastructure. == Conclusion == * There are a variety of motivating factors for personal hygiene, with societal expectations and emotions being highly influential. * COVID-19 allowed individuals to understand the benefits of some hygiene practices, with routines that were popular during the pandemic remaining in 2026. * Personal hygiene can differ across socio-cultural backgrounds, and core motivators may look different cross-culturally. * Theoretical perspectives such as the health belief model and theory of planned behaviour can deepen the understanding behind motivation and maintenance of personal hygiene. == See also == {{ic|Rename links as shown in Tutorial 2}} * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Disgust and hygiene]] (Book chapter, 2024) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Conformity and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[wikipedia:Public_health_mitigation_of_COVID-19|Public health mitigation of COVID-19]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Ali, A. S., Mekonen, Y., & Tesfahun, T. (2023). Hygiene behavior and COVID-19 pandemic: Opportunities of COVID-19-Imposed changes in hygiene behavior. ''INQUIRY: The Journal of Health Care Organization, Provision, and Financing, 60''(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/00469580231218421 Alyafei, A., & Carr, R. E. (2024). The health belief model of behavior change. StatPearls Publishing. National Library of Medicine. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK606120/ Bloomfield, S. F., & Ackerley, L. (2023). Developing better understanding of hygiene is key to developing hygiene behaviour change in home and everyday life settings. ''Perspect Public Health, 144''(6), 175791392311637–175791392311637. https://doi.org/10.1177/17579139231163734 Bosnjak, M., Ajzen, I., & Schmidt, P. (2020). The theory of planned behavior: Selected recent advances and applications. Europe’s Journal of Psychology, 16(3), 352–356. NCBI. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.v16i3.3107 Eriksson, K., Dickins, T. E., & Strimling, P. (2021). Hygiene norms across 56 nations are predicted by self-control values and disease threat. Current Research in Ecological and Social Psychology, 2(1), 100013. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cresp.2021.100013 Ghassemi, E., Astrid Hasund Thorseth, Karine Le Roch, Heath, T., & White, S. (2023). Mapping the association between mental health and people’s perceived and actual ability to practice hygiene-related behaviours in humanitarian and pandemic crises: A scoping review. ''PLOS ONE, 18''(12). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0286494 Laursen, B., & Faur, S. (2022). What does it mean to be susceptible to influence? A brief primer on peer conformity and developmental changes that affect it. ''International Journal of Behavioral Development, 46''(3), 222–237. https://doi.org/10.1177/01650254221084103 Miller, G. J., Hartman, T. K., Levita, L., Martinez, A. P., Mason, L., McBride, O., McKay, R., Murphy, J., Shevlin, M., Stocks, T. V. A., Bennett, K. M., & Bentall, R. P. (2020). Capability, opportunity, and motivation to enact hygienic practices in the early stages of the COVID‐19 outbreak in the United Kingdom. British Journal of Health Psychology, 25(4), 856–864. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjhp.12426 Pilli, L., Veldwijk, J., Swait, J. D., Donkers, B., & de Bekker-Grob, E. W. (2024). Sources and processes of social influence on health-related choices: A systematic review based on a social-interdependent choice paradigm. ''Social Science & Medicine, 361''(1). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2024.117360 Rossouw, L., & Ross, H. (2021). Understanding period poverty: Socio-economic inequalities in menstrual hygiene management in eight low- and middle-income countries. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(5), 2571. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18052571 Singh, B., Murphy, A., Maher, C., & Smith, A. E. (2024). Time to form a habit: A systematic review and meta-analysis of health behaviour habit formation and its determinants. ''Healthcare, 12''(23), 2488. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare12232488 World Health Organization. (2025). ''Coronavirus disease (COVID-19).'' https://www.who.int/health-topics/coronavirus#tab=tab_1 }} ==External links== * [https://www.beyondblue.org.au/ Support if you are experiencing anxiety or depression] (Beyond Blue) * [https://open.spotify.com/show/5HG094bpiecqetNsvz0ELs Tips for good hygiene podcast] (Spotify - Sandra Keyes) * [https://hygieneforhealth.org.au/importance/ Why is hygiene so important?] (Hygiene for Health) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Anxiety]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Disgust]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]] lhfsf39e8f573cj6dj45p5hxbwqr9lx 2836523 2836522 2026-10-07T10:08:01Z U3275940 3106402 /* Understanding personal hygiene motivation according to the health belief model */ 2836523 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Hygiene motivation:<br>What motivates maintenance of personal hygiene?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} ;Scenario [[File:Hand washing man.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Washing hands became a more frequent hygiene behaviour during the COVID-19 pandemic.]] You became increasingly aware of your own hygiene when the COVID-19 pandemic took over our lives in 2020. In the beginning, you were motivated by the fear of infection and desire to protect your loved ones. You washed your hands more frequently, used hand sanitiser after touching surfaces in public, cleaned your phone, and became more aware of how germs are passed on from person to person. As time passed, these hygiene behaviours became less about COVID-19, and more about feeling clean, easing the anxiety of spreading germs and keeping up with the standards of our society as encouraged during the pandemic. Even though the threat of COVID-19 has decreased immensely, you continue to wash your hands when you arrive home, sanitise after using public transport, and avoid sharing personal items when someone is sick. This displays how emotions and societal expectations can initially motivate our behaviour, while repetition, personal values and habit formations can maintain these behaviours over the course of our lives. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Personal hygiene is a fundamental feature of day-to-day life that influences one’s health, interactions with others, and overall wellbeing. While hygiene behaviours such as handwashing, bathing, and brushing teeth are seen as routine habits, people are motivated to engage in these behaviours for different reasons. [https://www.cdc.gov/hygiene/about/index.html The Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)] explains that hygiene behaviours can prevent disease, influence social acceptance, and bring personal comfort. Understanding the motivating factors behind the maintenance of personal hygiene is vital in encouraging long-term health behaviours and developing successful health promotion interventions. Personal hygiene is motivated by a range of factors which can assist in gaining an understanding of the reasons people engage and maintain hygiene behaviours. The health belief model can support the understanding of motivation related to the maintenance of personal hygiene.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} '''Focus questions''' # What are the core motivators for personal hygiene? # How did the COVID-19 pandemic influence motivation to maintain personal hygiene? # How can the health belief model explain motivation to maintain personal hygiene behaviours? # What differences in the motivation and maintenance of personal hygiene can be seen across varying economic and cultural contexts? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What is personal hygiene? == [https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/personal-hygiene Health Direct] describes good personal hygiene as keeping your body clean and looking after your health through daily habits. There are many kinds of personal hygiene behaviours that people engage with. {| class="wikitable" |+'''Table 1.''' Personal hygiene behaviours !Hygiene practice !Behaviour |- |Oral hygiene |Keeping teeth clean by brushing with toothpaste for two minutes twice daily, flossing daily, and using mouthwash. |- |Hand hygiene |Washing hands with warm water and soap for 20 seconds prior to eating, after using the toilet, etc. |- |Body hygiene |Washing body daily using soap and warm water to remove sweat, oils, and dirt from body. |- |Menstrual hygiene |Changing sanitary items regularly, washing hands before and after use, disposing of correctly. |- |Personal grooming |Washing clothing regularly, trimming fingernails, washing and keeping hair clean, not sharing personal items with others. |- |Symptom etiquette |Covering mouth when coughing or sneezing to prevent the spread of germs. |} == Case study of Joel == The provided case study will assist in applying aspects of this chapter to a real-world scenario. There will be case study quizzes throughout the chapter to check understanding of core topics in understanding what motivates the maintenance of personal hygiene. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Case study''' Joel is a 19-year-old university student who lives in on-campus accommodation with three other students. While he understands that it is a good idea to wash his hands, he often skips the practice after taking the bus, touching shared surfaces, and before eating. He thinks it really cannot make all that much of a difference and can sometimes be inconvenient when he is in a rush. Because he is young and has good health, he believes he is unlikely to become ill. Recently, several students in the on-campus accommodation have become sick with COVID-19. One of Joel’s peers missed a week of classes and found it challenging to catch up due to the illness. Joel realised how easily infections can spread in shared spaces, becoming increasingly concerned. Due to the spread of COVID-19, the university launched a health promotion campaign surrounding hand hygiene. Posters around the campus explained how germs are spread from person to person and outlined the role of handwashing in preventing illness. Along with this, hand sanitiser stations were installed at the entrances to all buildings on campus, including the lobby of campus accommodations. Joel began to utilise the hand sanitiser provided on campus as he entered and exited buildings, especially after using public transport. After a few weeks, Joel noticed that he felt more confident about protecting himself and those he lived with from illness, becoming stricter about maintaining the practice of washing his hands before eating and after being in tight shared spaces, such as public transport. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Core motivators of personal hygiene == Personal hygiene can be motivated by a range of factors. The core motivators for personal hygiene are explored below. === Societal expectations === * Norms, peer pressure, and group identity can shape hygiene behaviours (Laursen & Faur, 2022). * Some hygiene behaviours are engaged with purely due to conformity or fear of judgement from others as opposed to a healthy practice (Pilli et al., 2024). * Example using a family scenario, where one child is encouraged to shower daily, and the other every second day. Are people more motivated to engage in personal hygiene when encouraged by those close to them? === Education and understanding of hygiene practices === [[File:Wash-your-hands-poster-english-508.pdf|thumb|297x297px|'''Figure 2.''' Public health messaging to promote proper hand washing hygiene in schools. ]] * Knowledge of the spread of disease through public health messaging (see Figure 2) or learning can influence motivation and engagement with behaviours (Bloomfield & Ackerley, 2023). * Understanding the reasons behind hygiene practices and their effectiveness can motivate individuals to engage with them, especially to avoid contracting a disease. * During COVID-19, which will be discussed later in this chapter, health messaging provided explanations as to why washing your hands for 20 seconds with warm water and soap was a vital hygiene behaviour to avoid contracting the illness (World Health Organisation, 2025). === Habit formation === * Hygiene practices can become second nature through repetition and reinforcement (Singh et al., 2024). * Brushing teeth, showering, and changing clothes are all personal hygiene behaviours that are second nature to many individuals. * What contributes to formation of habits? === Emotions === * Disgust and fear of illness can be drivers for hygiene behaviour in the same way depression and executive dysfunction can act as barriers (Ghassemi et al., 2023). * Explore levels of fear, including for self and loved ones. * Explore depression and executive dysfunction specific barriers to personal hygiene. === COVID-19 as a catalyst for personal hygiene === COVID-19 was a global pandemic that took over the world in 2020. From lockdowns to masks, hygiene behaviours changed drastically for individuals across the globe (World Health Organisation, 2025). * Increased hygiene engagement ** Handwashing as a more regular practice, sanitiser stations in public spaces, mask hygiene (see Figure 3), disinfecting and cleaning of surfaces after use (World Health Organisation, 2025). [[File:A woman wearing a protective face mask.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 3.''' Woman wearing mask on public transport during COVID-19 pandemic.]] * Risk perception and emotions ** Perceived threat or vulnerability to COVID-19 for self or loved ones increased practicing of hygiene behaviours. Motivational influence of fear and uncertainty (Miller et al., 2020). * Compliance and conformity ** Government mandates (quarantine, isolation, etc.) and collective responsibility of community increased motivation to engage in behaviours. Conforming to the majority, where most people engaged in COVID-19 protocols and influenced others to do the same (Miller et al., 2020). * Normalisation post-pandemic ** In 2026, many hygiene practices that increased in the pandemic have not reduced, and are the new 'normal'. Social distancing has become second nature to the extent where people judge those who stand too close to others. Wearing a mask when sick or feeling vulnerable has become a more common practice, and hand sanitiser is available in more public spaces than before the pandemic (Ali et al., 2023). == Understanding personal hygiene motivation according to the health belief model == The health belief model is a psychological framework used to explain and predict health-related behaviours. The model was first developed in the 1950s by social psychologists working in the [https://www.usphs.gov/ United States Public Health Service], proposing that an individual's willingness to change their behaviour depends on their perceptions (Alyafei & Easton-Carr, 2024). The health belief model can provide context into why people may maintain their personal hygiene behaviours through cognitive evaluations related to benefits and risks in engaging in hygiene behaviours (Kamal et al., 2017). '''Cognitive evaluations''' The health belief model relies on six core constructs, or cognitive evaluations, which can influence a person's perspective when deciding what behaviours to engage with. These constructs are defined in Table 2. {| class="wikitable" |+'''Table 2.''' Health belief model core constructs |Perceived susceptibility |Assessment of the risk |- |Perceived severity |Assessment of the danger of a condition and what the emotional, physical, and social consequences may be |- |Perceived benefits |Belief in the effectiveness of an action to reduce the perceived severity |- |Perceived barriers |Tangible and psychological obstacles in taking action |- |Cues to action |External and/or internal triggers that encourage people to change their behaviour |- |Self-efficacy |Confidence in the ability to perform the behaviour successfully |} '''Health belief model related to hygiene behaviours''' {{Robelbox|theme=10|title=Quiz}} <quiz display=simple> '''Case study quiz''' Where can cues to action be seen in Joel's case? |type="()"} - Friend missing classes and having difficulties catching up - Joel believing he is unlikely to become sick due to being young and healthy + University health campaign posters and hand sanitiser stations across campus - Living in on-campus accommodation </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} == Cultural and economic context == Recognising standards of hygiene cross-culturally is important to be able to understand how and why people keep up with personal hygiene. === Cross-cultural norms === * Personal hygiene expectations and standards can differ between cultures. * Hand washing, oral care, and even spitting can be expected at one rate in one culture and a completely different rate in the next. * Understanding the definition or standard of hygiene in certain cultures can assist in the understanding of motivational factors behind the behaviour (Eriksson et al., 2021). === Economic constraints === * Access to water, sanitation, and hygiene products can influence individual's engagement and maintenance of hygiene behaviours. * Individuals in developing countries may be motivated to engage in hygiene behaviours, but are unable to due to a lack of resources such as hot water, clean clothes, or menstruation products (Rossouw & Ross, 2021). [[File:Washing hands kids.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 5.''' School children utilising an outdoor tap to wash their hands. ]] * Figure 5 displays an example hygiene practices in countries without adequate infrastructure. == Conclusion == * There are a variety of motivating factors for personal hygiene, with societal expectations and emotions being highly influential. * COVID-19 allowed individuals to understand the benefits of some hygiene practices, with routines that were popular during the pandemic remaining in 2026. * Personal hygiene can differ across socio-cultural backgrounds, and core motivators may look different cross-culturally. * Theoretical perspectives such as the health belief model and theory of planned behaviour can deepen the understanding behind motivation and maintenance of personal hygiene. == See also == {{ic|Rename links as shown in Tutorial 2}} * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Disgust and hygiene]] (Book chapter, 2024) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Conformity and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[wikipedia:Public_health_mitigation_of_COVID-19|Public health mitigation of COVID-19]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Ali, A. S., Mekonen, Y., & Tesfahun, T. (2023). Hygiene behavior and COVID-19 pandemic: Opportunities of COVID-19-Imposed changes in hygiene behavior. ''INQUIRY: The Journal of Health Care Organization, Provision, and Financing, 60''(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/00469580231218421 Alyafei, A., & Carr, R. E. (2024). The health belief model of behavior change. StatPearls Publishing. National Library of Medicine. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK606120/ Bloomfield, S. F., & Ackerley, L. (2023). Developing better understanding of hygiene is key to developing hygiene behaviour change in home and everyday life settings. ''Perspect Public Health, 144''(6), 175791392311637–175791392311637. https://doi.org/10.1177/17579139231163734 Bosnjak, M., Ajzen, I., & Schmidt, P. (2020). The theory of planned behavior: Selected recent advances and applications. Europe’s Journal of Psychology, 16(3), 352–356. NCBI. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.v16i3.3107 Eriksson, K., Dickins, T. E., & Strimling, P. (2021). Hygiene norms across 56 nations are predicted by self-control values and disease threat. Current Research in Ecological and Social Psychology, 2(1), 100013. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cresp.2021.100013 Ghassemi, E., Astrid Hasund Thorseth, Karine Le Roch, Heath, T., & White, S. (2023). Mapping the association between mental health and people’s perceived and actual ability to practice hygiene-related behaviours in humanitarian and pandemic crises: A scoping review. ''PLOS ONE, 18''(12). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0286494 Laursen, B., & Faur, S. (2022). What does it mean to be susceptible to influence? A brief primer on peer conformity and developmental changes that affect it. ''International Journal of Behavioral Development, 46''(3), 222–237. https://doi.org/10.1177/01650254221084103 Miller, G. J., Hartman, T. K., Levita, L., Martinez, A. P., Mason, L., McBride, O., McKay, R., Murphy, J., Shevlin, M., Stocks, T. V. A., Bennett, K. M., & Bentall, R. P. (2020). Capability, opportunity, and motivation to enact hygienic practices in the early stages of the COVID‐19 outbreak in the United Kingdom. British Journal of Health Psychology, 25(4), 856–864. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjhp.12426 Pilli, L., Veldwijk, J., Swait, J. D., Donkers, B., & de Bekker-Grob, E. W. (2024). Sources and processes of social influence on health-related choices: A systematic review based on a social-interdependent choice paradigm. ''Social Science & Medicine, 361''(1). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2024.117360 Rossouw, L., & Ross, H. (2021). Understanding period poverty: Socio-economic inequalities in menstrual hygiene management in eight low- and middle-income countries. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(5), 2571. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18052571 Singh, B., Murphy, A., Maher, C., & Smith, A. E. (2024). Time to form a habit: A systematic review and meta-analysis of health behaviour habit formation and its determinants. ''Healthcare, 12''(23), 2488. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare12232488 World Health Organization. (2025). ''Coronavirus disease (COVID-19).'' https://www.who.int/health-topics/coronavirus#tab=tab_1 }} ==External links== * [https://www.beyondblue.org.au/ Support if you are experiencing anxiety or depression] (Beyond Blue) * [https://open.spotify.com/show/5HG094bpiecqetNsvz0ELs Tips for good hygiene podcast] (Spotify - Sandra Keyes) * [https://hygieneforhealth.org.au/importance/ Why is hygiene so important?] (Hygiene for Health) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Anxiety]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Disgust]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]] f4s4ebxtk8bb5jr311s07x9efiiwnc8 2836524 2836523 2026-10-07T10:08:17Z U3275940 3106402 /* Understanding personal hygiene motivation according to the health belief model */ 2836524 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Hygiene motivation:<br>What motivates maintenance of personal hygiene?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} ;Scenario [[File:Hand washing man.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Washing hands became a more frequent hygiene behaviour during the COVID-19 pandemic.]] You became increasingly aware of your own hygiene when the COVID-19 pandemic took over our lives in 2020. In the beginning, you were motivated by the fear of infection and desire to protect your loved ones. You washed your hands more frequently, used hand sanitiser after touching surfaces in public, cleaned your phone, and became more aware of how germs are passed on from person to person. As time passed, these hygiene behaviours became less about COVID-19, and more about feeling clean, easing the anxiety of spreading germs and keeping up with the standards of our society as encouraged during the pandemic. Even though the threat of COVID-19 has decreased immensely, you continue to wash your hands when you arrive home, sanitise after using public transport, and avoid sharing personal items when someone is sick. This displays how emotions and societal expectations can initially motivate our behaviour, while repetition, personal values and habit formations can maintain these behaviours over the course of our lives. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Personal hygiene is a fundamental feature of day-to-day life that influences one’s health, interactions with others, and overall wellbeing. While hygiene behaviours such as handwashing, bathing, and brushing teeth are seen as routine habits, people are motivated to engage in these behaviours for different reasons. [https://www.cdc.gov/hygiene/about/index.html The Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)] explains that hygiene behaviours can prevent disease, influence social acceptance, and bring personal comfort. Understanding the motivating factors behind the maintenance of personal hygiene is vital in encouraging long-term health behaviours and developing successful health promotion interventions. Personal hygiene is motivated by a range of factors which can assist in gaining an understanding of the reasons people engage and maintain hygiene behaviours. The health belief model can support the understanding of motivation related to the maintenance of personal hygiene.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} '''Focus questions''' # What are the core motivators for personal hygiene? # How did the COVID-19 pandemic influence motivation to maintain personal hygiene? # How can the health belief model explain motivation to maintain personal hygiene behaviours? # What differences in the motivation and maintenance of personal hygiene can be seen across varying economic and cultural contexts? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What is personal hygiene? == [https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/personal-hygiene Health Direct] describes good personal hygiene as keeping your body clean and looking after your health through daily habits. There are many kinds of personal hygiene behaviours that people engage with. {| class="wikitable" |+'''Table 1.''' Personal hygiene behaviours !Hygiene practice !Behaviour |- |Oral hygiene |Keeping teeth clean by brushing with toothpaste for two minutes twice daily, flossing daily, and using mouthwash. |- |Hand hygiene |Washing hands with warm water and soap for 20 seconds prior to eating, after using the toilet, etc. |- |Body hygiene |Washing body daily using soap and warm water to remove sweat, oils, and dirt from body. |- |Menstrual hygiene |Changing sanitary items regularly, washing hands before and after use, disposing of correctly. |- |Personal grooming |Washing clothing regularly, trimming fingernails, washing and keeping hair clean, not sharing personal items with others. |- |Symptom etiquette |Covering mouth when coughing or sneezing to prevent the spread of germs. |} == Case study of Joel == The provided case study will assist in applying aspects of this chapter to a real-world scenario. There will be case study quizzes throughout the chapter to check understanding of core topics in understanding what motivates the maintenance of personal hygiene. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Case study''' Joel is a 19-year-old university student who lives in on-campus accommodation with three other students. While he understands that it is a good idea to wash his hands, he often skips the practice after taking the bus, touching shared surfaces, and before eating. He thinks it really cannot make all that much of a difference and can sometimes be inconvenient when he is in a rush. Because he is young and has good health, he believes he is unlikely to become ill. Recently, several students in the on-campus accommodation have become sick with COVID-19. One of Joel’s peers missed a week of classes and found it challenging to catch up due to the illness. Joel realised how easily infections can spread in shared spaces, becoming increasingly concerned. Due to the spread of COVID-19, the university launched a health promotion campaign surrounding hand hygiene. Posters around the campus explained how germs are spread from person to person and outlined the role of handwashing in preventing illness. Along with this, hand sanitiser stations were installed at the entrances to all buildings on campus, including the lobby of campus accommodations. Joel began to utilise the hand sanitiser provided on campus as he entered and exited buildings, especially after using public transport. After a few weeks, Joel noticed that he felt more confident about protecting himself and those he lived with from illness, becoming stricter about maintaining the practice of washing his hands before eating and after being in tight shared spaces, such as public transport. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Core motivators of personal hygiene == Personal hygiene can be motivated by a range of factors. The core motivators for personal hygiene are explored below. === Societal expectations === * Norms, peer pressure, and group identity can shape hygiene behaviours (Laursen & Faur, 2022). * Some hygiene behaviours are engaged with purely due to conformity or fear of judgement from others as opposed to a healthy practice (Pilli et al., 2024). * Example using a family scenario, where one child is encouraged to shower daily, and the other every second day. Are people more motivated to engage in personal hygiene when encouraged by those close to them? === Education and understanding of hygiene practices === [[File:Wash-your-hands-poster-english-508.pdf|thumb|297x297px|'''Figure 2.''' Public health messaging to promote proper hand washing hygiene in schools. ]] * Knowledge of the spread of disease through public health messaging (see Figure 2) or learning can influence motivation and engagement with behaviours (Bloomfield & Ackerley, 2023). * Understanding the reasons behind hygiene practices and their effectiveness can motivate individuals to engage with them, especially to avoid contracting a disease. * During COVID-19, which will be discussed later in this chapter, health messaging provided explanations as to why washing your hands for 20 seconds with warm water and soap was a vital hygiene behaviour to avoid contracting the illness (World Health Organisation, 2025). === Habit formation === * Hygiene practices can become second nature through repetition and reinforcement (Singh et al., 2024). * Brushing teeth, showering, and changing clothes are all personal hygiene behaviours that are second nature to many individuals. * What contributes to formation of habits? === Emotions === * Disgust and fear of illness can be drivers for hygiene behaviour in the same way depression and executive dysfunction can act as barriers (Ghassemi et al., 2023). * Explore levels of fear, including for self and loved ones. * Explore depression and executive dysfunction specific barriers to personal hygiene. === COVID-19 as a catalyst for personal hygiene === COVID-19 was a global pandemic that took over the world in 2020. From lockdowns to masks, hygiene behaviours changed drastically for individuals across the globe (World Health Organisation, 2025). * Increased hygiene engagement ** Handwashing as a more regular practice, sanitiser stations in public spaces, mask hygiene (see Figure 3), disinfecting and cleaning of surfaces after use (World Health Organisation, 2025). [[File:A woman wearing a protective face mask.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 3.''' Woman wearing mask on public transport during COVID-19 pandemic.]] * Risk perception and emotions ** Perceived threat or vulnerability to COVID-19 for self or loved ones increased practicing of hygiene behaviours. Motivational influence of fear and uncertainty (Miller et al., 2020). * Compliance and conformity ** Government mandates (quarantine, isolation, etc.) and collective responsibility of community increased motivation to engage in behaviours. Conforming to the majority, where most people engaged in COVID-19 protocols and influenced others to do the same (Miller et al., 2020). * Normalisation post-pandemic ** In 2026, many hygiene practices that increased in the pandemic have not reduced, and are the new 'normal'. Social distancing has become second nature to the extent where people judge those who stand too close to others. Wearing a mask when sick or feeling vulnerable has become a more common practice, and hand sanitiser is available in more public spaces than before the pandemic (Ali et al., 2023). == Understanding personal hygiene motivation according to the health belief model == The health belief model is a psychological framework used to explain and predict health-related behaviours. The model was first developed in the 1950s by social psychologists working in the [https://www.usphs.gov/ United States Public Health Service], proposing that an individual's willingness to change their behaviour depends on their perceptions (Alyafei & Easton-Carr, 2024). The health belief model can provide context into why people may maintain their personal hygiene behaviours through cognitive evaluations related to benefits and risks in engaging in hygiene behaviours (Kamal et al., 2017). '''Cognitive evaluations''' The health belief model relies on six core constructs, or cognitive evaluations, which can influence a person's perspective when deciding what behaviours to engage with. These constructs are defined in Table 2. {| class="wikitable" |+'''Table 2.''' Health belief model core constructs |Perceived susceptibility |Assessment of the risk |- |Perceived severity |Assessment of the danger of a condition and what the emotional, physical, and social consequences may be |- |Perceived benefits |Belief in the effectiveness of an action to reduce the perceived severity |- |Perceived barriers |Tangible and psychological obstacles in taking action |- |Cues to action |External and/or internal triggers that encourage people to change their behaviour |- |Self-efficacy |Confidence in the ability to perform the behaviour successfully |} '''Health belief model related to hygiene behaviours''' {{Robelbox|theme=10|title=Quiz}} <quiz display=simple> '''Case study quiz''' Where can cues to action be seen in Joel's case? |type="()"} - Friend missing classes and having difficulties catching up - Joel believing he is unlikely to become sick due to being young and healthy + University health campaign posters and hand sanitiser stations across campus - Living in on-campus accommodation </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} == Cultural and economic context == Recognising standards of hygiene cross-culturally is important to be able to understand how and why people keep up with personal hygiene. === Cross-cultural norms === * Personal hygiene expectations and standards can differ between cultures. * Hand washing, oral care, and even spitting can be expected at one rate in one culture and a completely different rate in the next. * Understanding the definition or standard of hygiene in certain cultures can assist in the understanding of motivational factors behind the behaviour (Eriksson et al., 2021). === Economic constraints === * Access to water, sanitation, and hygiene products can influence individual's engagement and maintenance of hygiene behaviours. * Individuals in developing countries may be motivated to engage in hygiene behaviours, but are unable to due to a lack of resources such as hot water, clean clothes, or menstruation products (Rossouw & Ross, 2021). [[File:Washing hands kids.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 5.''' School children utilising an outdoor tap to wash their hands. ]] * Figure 5 displays an example hygiene practices in countries without adequate infrastructure. == Conclusion == * There are a variety of motivating factors for personal hygiene, with societal expectations and emotions being highly influential. * COVID-19 allowed individuals to understand the benefits of some hygiene practices, with routines that were popular during the pandemic remaining in 2026. * Personal hygiene can differ across socio-cultural backgrounds, and core motivators may look different cross-culturally. * Theoretical perspectives such as the health belief model and theory of planned behaviour can deepen the understanding behind motivation and maintenance of personal hygiene. == See also == {{ic|Rename links as shown in Tutorial 2}} * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Disgust and hygiene]] (Book chapter, 2024) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Conformity and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[wikipedia:Public_health_mitigation_of_COVID-19|Public health mitigation of COVID-19]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Ali, A. S., Mekonen, Y., & Tesfahun, T. (2023). Hygiene behavior and COVID-19 pandemic: Opportunities of COVID-19-Imposed changes in hygiene behavior. ''INQUIRY: The Journal of Health Care Organization, Provision, and Financing, 60''(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/00469580231218421 Alyafei, A., & Carr, R. E. (2024). The health belief model of behavior change. StatPearls Publishing. National Library of Medicine. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK606120/ Bloomfield, S. F., & Ackerley, L. (2023). Developing better understanding of hygiene is key to developing hygiene behaviour change in home and everyday life settings. ''Perspect Public Health, 144''(6), 175791392311637–175791392311637. https://doi.org/10.1177/17579139231163734 Bosnjak, M., Ajzen, I., & Schmidt, P. (2020). The theory of planned behavior: Selected recent advances and applications. Europe’s Journal of Psychology, 16(3), 352–356. NCBI. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.v16i3.3107 Eriksson, K., Dickins, T. E., & Strimling, P. (2021). Hygiene norms across 56 nations are predicted by self-control values and disease threat. Current Research in Ecological and Social Psychology, 2(1), 100013. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cresp.2021.100013 Ghassemi, E., Astrid Hasund Thorseth, Karine Le Roch, Heath, T., & White, S. (2023). Mapping the association between mental health and people’s perceived and actual ability to practice hygiene-related behaviours in humanitarian and pandemic crises: A scoping review. ''PLOS ONE, 18''(12). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0286494 Laursen, B., & Faur, S. (2022). What does it mean to be susceptible to influence? A brief primer on peer conformity and developmental changes that affect it. ''International Journal of Behavioral Development, 46''(3), 222–237. https://doi.org/10.1177/01650254221084103 Miller, G. J., Hartman, T. K., Levita, L., Martinez, A. P., Mason, L., McBride, O., McKay, R., Murphy, J., Shevlin, M., Stocks, T. V. A., Bennett, K. M., & Bentall, R. P. (2020). Capability, opportunity, and motivation to enact hygienic practices in the early stages of the COVID‐19 outbreak in the United Kingdom. British Journal of Health Psychology, 25(4), 856–864. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjhp.12426 Pilli, L., Veldwijk, J., Swait, J. D., Donkers, B., & de Bekker-Grob, E. W. (2024). Sources and processes of social influence on health-related choices: A systematic review based on a social-interdependent choice paradigm. ''Social Science & Medicine, 361''(1). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2024.117360 Rossouw, L., & Ross, H. (2021). Understanding period poverty: Socio-economic inequalities in menstrual hygiene management in eight low- and middle-income countries. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(5), 2571. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18052571 Singh, B., Murphy, A., Maher, C., & Smith, A. E. (2024). Time to form a habit: A systematic review and meta-analysis of health behaviour habit formation and its determinants. ''Healthcare, 12''(23), 2488. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare12232488 World Health Organization. (2025). ''Coronavirus disease (COVID-19).'' https://www.who.int/health-topics/coronavirus#tab=tab_1 }} ==External links== * [https://www.beyondblue.org.au/ Support if you are experiencing anxiety or depression] (Beyond Blue) * [https://open.spotify.com/show/5HG094bpiecqetNsvz0ELs Tips for good hygiene podcast] (Spotify - Sandra Keyes) * [https://hygieneforhealth.org.au/importance/ Why is hygiene so important?] (Hygiene for Health) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Anxiety]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Disgust]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]] ca2hmtmjqi3d6e800zwyxixbv14k2w3 2836525 2836524 2026-10-07T10:08:46Z U3275940 3106402 /* Understanding personal hygiene motivation according to the health belief model */ 2836525 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Hygiene motivation:<br>What motivates maintenance of personal hygiene?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} ;Scenario [[File:Hand washing man.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Washing hands became a more frequent hygiene behaviour during the COVID-19 pandemic.]] You became increasingly aware of your own hygiene when the COVID-19 pandemic took over our lives in 2020. In the beginning, you were motivated by the fear of infection and desire to protect your loved ones. You washed your hands more frequently, used hand sanitiser after touching surfaces in public, cleaned your phone, and became more aware of how germs are passed on from person to person. As time passed, these hygiene behaviours became less about COVID-19, and more about feeling clean, easing the anxiety of spreading germs and keeping up with the standards of our society as encouraged during the pandemic. Even though the threat of COVID-19 has decreased immensely, you continue to wash your hands when you arrive home, sanitise after using public transport, and avoid sharing personal items when someone is sick. This displays how emotions and societal expectations can initially motivate our behaviour, while repetition, personal values and habit formations can maintain these behaviours over the course of our lives. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Personal hygiene is a fundamental feature of day-to-day life that influences one’s health, interactions with others, and overall wellbeing. While hygiene behaviours such as handwashing, bathing, and brushing teeth are seen as routine habits, people are motivated to engage in these behaviours for different reasons. [https://www.cdc.gov/hygiene/about/index.html The Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)] explains that hygiene behaviours can prevent disease, influence social acceptance, and bring personal comfort. Understanding the motivating factors behind the maintenance of personal hygiene is vital in encouraging long-term health behaviours and developing successful health promotion interventions. Personal hygiene is motivated by a range of factors which can assist in gaining an understanding of the reasons people engage and maintain hygiene behaviours. The health belief model can support the understanding of motivation related to the maintenance of personal hygiene.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} '''Focus questions''' # What are the core motivators for personal hygiene? # How did the COVID-19 pandemic influence motivation to maintain personal hygiene? # How can the health belief model explain motivation to maintain personal hygiene behaviours? # What differences in the motivation and maintenance of personal hygiene can be seen across varying economic and cultural contexts? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What is personal hygiene? == [https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/personal-hygiene Health Direct] describes good personal hygiene as keeping your body clean and looking after your health through daily habits. There are many kinds of personal hygiene behaviours that people engage with. {| class="wikitable" |+'''Table 1.''' Personal hygiene behaviours !Hygiene practice !Behaviour |- |Oral hygiene |Keeping teeth clean by brushing with toothpaste for two minutes twice daily, flossing daily, and using mouthwash. |- |Hand hygiene |Washing hands with warm water and soap for 20 seconds prior to eating, after using the toilet, etc. |- |Body hygiene |Washing body daily using soap and warm water to remove sweat, oils, and dirt from body. |- |Menstrual hygiene |Changing sanitary items regularly, washing hands before and after use, disposing of correctly. |- |Personal grooming |Washing clothing regularly, trimming fingernails, washing and keeping hair clean, not sharing personal items with others. |- |Symptom etiquette |Covering mouth when coughing or sneezing to prevent the spread of germs. |} == Case study of Joel == The provided case study will assist in applying aspects of this chapter to a real-world scenario. There will be case study quizzes throughout the chapter to check understanding of core topics in understanding what motivates the maintenance of personal hygiene. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Case study''' Joel is a 19-year-old university student who lives in on-campus accommodation with three other students. While he understands that it is a good idea to wash his hands, he often skips the practice after taking the bus, touching shared surfaces, and before eating. He thinks it really cannot make all that much of a difference and can sometimes be inconvenient when he is in a rush. Because he is young and has good health, he believes he is unlikely to become ill. Recently, several students in the on-campus accommodation have become sick with COVID-19. One of Joel’s peers missed a week of classes and found it challenging to catch up due to the illness. Joel realised how easily infections can spread in shared spaces, becoming increasingly concerned. Due to the spread of COVID-19, the university launched a health promotion campaign surrounding hand hygiene. Posters around the campus explained how germs are spread from person to person and outlined the role of handwashing in preventing illness. Along with this, hand sanitiser stations were installed at the entrances to all buildings on campus, including the lobby of campus accommodations. Joel began to utilise the hand sanitiser provided on campus as he entered and exited buildings, especially after using public transport. After a few weeks, Joel noticed that he felt more confident about protecting himself and those he lived with from illness, becoming stricter about maintaining the practice of washing his hands before eating and after being in tight shared spaces, such as public transport. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Core motivators of personal hygiene == Personal hygiene can be motivated by a range of factors. The core motivators for personal hygiene are explored below. === Societal expectations === * Norms, peer pressure, and group identity can shape hygiene behaviours (Laursen & Faur, 2022). * Some hygiene behaviours are engaged with purely due to conformity or fear of judgement from others as opposed to a healthy practice (Pilli et al., 2024). * Example using a family scenario, where one child is encouraged to shower daily, and the other every second day. Are people more motivated to engage in personal hygiene when encouraged by those close to them? === Education and understanding of hygiene practices === [[File:Wash-your-hands-poster-english-508.pdf|thumb|297x297px|'''Figure 2.''' Public health messaging to promote proper hand washing hygiene in schools. ]] * Knowledge of the spread of disease through public health messaging (see Figure 2) or learning can influence motivation and engagement with behaviours (Bloomfield & Ackerley, 2023). * Understanding the reasons behind hygiene practices and their effectiveness can motivate individuals to engage with them, especially to avoid contracting a disease. * During COVID-19, which will be discussed later in this chapter, health messaging provided explanations as to why washing your hands for 20 seconds with warm water and soap was a vital hygiene behaviour to avoid contracting the illness (World Health Organisation, 2025). === Habit formation === * Hygiene practices can become second nature through repetition and reinforcement (Singh et al., 2024). * Brushing teeth, showering, and changing clothes are all personal hygiene behaviours that are second nature to many individuals. * What contributes to formation of habits? === Emotions === * Disgust and fear of illness can be drivers for hygiene behaviour in the same way depression and executive dysfunction can act as barriers (Ghassemi et al., 2023). * Explore levels of fear, including for self and loved ones. * Explore depression and executive dysfunction specific barriers to personal hygiene. === COVID-19 as a catalyst for personal hygiene === COVID-19 was a global pandemic that took over the world in 2020. From lockdowns to masks, hygiene behaviours changed drastically for individuals across the globe (World Health Organisation, 2025). * Increased hygiene engagement ** Handwashing as a more regular practice, sanitiser stations in public spaces, mask hygiene (see Figure 3), disinfecting and cleaning of surfaces after use (World Health Organisation, 2025). [[File:A woman wearing a protective face mask.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 3.''' Woman wearing mask on public transport during COVID-19 pandemic.]] * Risk perception and emotions ** Perceived threat or vulnerability to COVID-19 for self or loved ones increased practicing of hygiene behaviours. Motivational influence of fear and uncertainty (Miller et al., 2020). * Compliance and conformity ** Government mandates (quarantine, isolation, etc.) and collective responsibility of community increased motivation to engage in behaviours. Conforming to the majority, where most people engaged in COVID-19 protocols and influenced others to do the same (Miller et al., 2020). * Normalisation post-pandemic ** In 2026, many hygiene practices that increased in the pandemic have not reduced, and are the new 'normal'. Social distancing has become second nature to the extent where people judge those who stand too close to others. Wearing a mask when sick or feeling vulnerable has become a more common practice, and hand sanitiser is available in more public spaces than before the pandemic (Ali et al., 2023). == Understanding personal hygiene motivation according to the health belief model == The health belief model is a psychological framework used to explain and predict health-related behaviours. The model was first developed in the 1950s by social psychologists working in the [https://www.usphs.gov/ United States Public Health Service], proposing that an individual's willingness to change their behaviour depends on their perceptions (Alyafei & Easton-Carr, 2024). The health belief model can provide context into why people may maintain their personal hygiene behaviours through cognitive evaluations related to benefits and risks in engaging in hygiene behaviours (Kamal et al., 2017). '''Cognitive evaluations''' The health belief model relies on six core constructs, or cognitive evaluations, which can influence a person's perspective when deciding what behaviours to engage with. These constructs are defined in Table 2. {| class="wikitable" |+'''Table 2.''' Health belief model core constructs |Perceived susceptibility |Assessment of the risk |- |Perceived severity |Assessment of the danger of a condition and what the emotional, physical, and social consequences may be |- |Perceived benefits |Belief in the effectiveness of an action to reduce the perceived severity |- |Perceived barriers |Tangible and psychological obstacles in taking action |- |Cues to action |External and/or internal triggers that encourage people to change their behaviour |- |Self-efficacy |Confidence in the ability to perform the behaviour successfully |} '''Health belief model related to hygiene behaviours''' {{Robelbox|theme=10|title=Case study quiz}} <quiz display=simple> Where can cues to action be seen in Joel's case? |type="()"} - Friend missing classes and having difficulties catching up - Joel believing he is unlikely to become sick due to being young and healthy + University health campaign posters and hand sanitiser stations across campus - Living in on-campus accommodation </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} == Cultural and economic context == Recognising standards of hygiene cross-culturally is important to be able to understand how and why people keep up with personal hygiene. === Cross-cultural norms === * Personal hygiene expectations and standards can differ between cultures. * Hand washing, oral care, and even spitting can be expected at one rate in one culture and a completely different rate in the next. * Understanding the definition or standard of hygiene in certain cultures can assist in the understanding of motivational factors behind the behaviour (Eriksson et al., 2021). === Economic constraints === * Access to water, sanitation, and hygiene products can influence individual's engagement and maintenance of hygiene behaviours. * Individuals in developing countries may be motivated to engage in hygiene behaviours, but are unable to due to a lack of resources such as hot water, clean clothes, or menstruation products (Rossouw & Ross, 2021). [[File:Washing hands kids.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 5.''' School children utilising an outdoor tap to wash their hands. ]] * Figure 5 displays an example hygiene practices in countries without adequate infrastructure. == Conclusion == * There are a variety of motivating factors for personal hygiene, with societal expectations and emotions being highly influential. * COVID-19 allowed individuals to understand the benefits of some hygiene practices, with routines that were popular during the pandemic remaining in 2026. * Personal hygiene can differ across socio-cultural backgrounds, and core motivators may look different cross-culturally. * Theoretical perspectives such as the health belief model and theory of planned behaviour can deepen the understanding behind motivation and maintenance of personal hygiene. == See also == {{ic|Rename links as shown in Tutorial 2}} * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Disgust and hygiene]] (Book chapter, 2024) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Conformity and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[wikipedia:Public_health_mitigation_of_COVID-19|Public health mitigation of COVID-19]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Ali, A. S., Mekonen, Y., & Tesfahun, T. (2023). Hygiene behavior and COVID-19 pandemic: Opportunities of COVID-19-Imposed changes in hygiene behavior. ''INQUIRY: The Journal of Health Care Organization, Provision, and Financing, 60''(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/00469580231218421 Alyafei, A., & Carr, R. E. (2024). The health belief model of behavior change. StatPearls Publishing. National Library of Medicine. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK606120/ Bloomfield, S. F., & Ackerley, L. (2023). Developing better understanding of hygiene is key to developing hygiene behaviour change in home and everyday life settings. ''Perspect Public Health, 144''(6), 175791392311637–175791392311637. https://doi.org/10.1177/17579139231163734 Bosnjak, M., Ajzen, I., & Schmidt, P. (2020). The theory of planned behavior: Selected recent advances and applications. Europe’s Journal of Psychology, 16(3), 352–356. NCBI. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.v16i3.3107 Eriksson, K., Dickins, T. E., & Strimling, P. (2021). Hygiene norms across 56 nations are predicted by self-control values and disease threat. Current Research in Ecological and Social Psychology, 2(1), 100013. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cresp.2021.100013 Ghassemi, E., Astrid Hasund Thorseth, Karine Le Roch, Heath, T., & White, S. (2023). Mapping the association between mental health and people’s perceived and actual ability to practice hygiene-related behaviours in humanitarian and pandemic crises: A scoping review. ''PLOS ONE, 18''(12). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0286494 Laursen, B., & Faur, S. (2022). What does it mean to be susceptible to influence? A brief primer on peer conformity and developmental changes that affect it. ''International Journal of Behavioral Development, 46''(3), 222–237. https://doi.org/10.1177/01650254221084103 Miller, G. J., Hartman, T. K., Levita, L., Martinez, A. P., Mason, L., McBride, O., McKay, R., Murphy, J., Shevlin, M., Stocks, T. V. A., Bennett, K. M., & Bentall, R. P. (2020). Capability, opportunity, and motivation to enact hygienic practices in the early stages of the COVID‐19 outbreak in the United Kingdom. British Journal of Health Psychology, 25(4), 856–864. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjhp.12426 Pilli, L., Veldwijk, J., Swait, J. D., Donkers, B., & de Bekker-Grob, E. W. (2024). Sources and processes of social influence on health-related choices: A systematic review based on a social-interdependent choice paradigm. ''Social Science & Medicine, 361''(1). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2024.117360 Rossouw, L., & Ross, H. (2021). Understanding period poverty: Socio-economic inequalities in menstrual hygiene management in eight low- and middle-income countries. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(5), 2571. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18052571 Singh, B., Murphy, A., Maher, C., & Smith, A. E. (2024). Time to form a habit: A systematic review and meta-analysis of health behaviour habit formation and its determinants. ''Healthcare, 12''(23), 2488. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare12232488 World Health Organization. (2025). ''Coronavirus disease (COVID-19).'' https://www.who.int/health-topics/coronavirus#tab=tab_1 }} ==External links== * [https://www.beyondblue.org.au/ Support if you are experiencing anxiety or depression] (Beyond Blue) * [https://open.spotify.com/show/5HG094bpiecqetNsvz0ELs Tips for good hygiene podcast] (Spotify - Sandra Keyes) * [https://hygieneforhealth.org.au/importance/ Why is hygiene so important?] (Hygiene for Health) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Anxiety]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Disgust]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]] gu35e24brau8eyhhx3xf9wrw8f5bvc8 0 322573 2836358 2836111 2026-10-06T23:51:20Z E3297976 3106770 2836358 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Breathing exercises and relaxation:<br>How can breathing exercises promote relaxation?}} == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Falun Dafa fifth meditation exercise.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' The practice of meditation which is often associated with controlled breathing and relaxation. |316x316px]] It's extremely likely that in a moment of panic or upset you have been told to take a deep breath. Although it may seem pointless or silly in the moment, performing the simple action of taking in a deep breath does more than you think. Go back to a time you were stressed or anxious, and paused for a second to control your breathing. What did you feel in your body? Did you feel more relaxed? Using breathing exercises to promote relaxation is a practice that has been used for thousands of years (Bhargav et al., 2026). {{RoundBoxBottom}} * Provide an Introduction to the topic brief overview of what will be covered in the chapter == What is Relaxation? == * Introduction to Benson's relaxation response (Benson et al., 1975). * Introduction to Jacobson's progressive relaxation theory * Introduction to ABC relaxation theory (Smith et al., 2000). Although different theories of [[wikipedia:Relaxation_(psychology)|relaxation]] have different ideas about what actually defines relaxation, it can generally be described as a the absence of tension, anxiety and stress (Pagnini et al., 2013). Experiencing a frequent state of relaxation is important for wellbeing, especially when contrasted to frequent states of stress. [[Stress (psychological)|Stress]] is defined as a non-specific response of the body to a negative stimulus (Selye, 1950). The role stress plays in our day to day life is often looked over and in some cultures praised (Maulik, 2017). However the symptoms of stress include negative emotions, impaired cognitive ability, difficulty sleeping, changes in heart rate and feeling 'on edge', just to name a few. Chronic stress can have significant implications for physiological and psychological wellbeing. This includes increased likelyhood of developing stress-related diseases such as major depressive disorder (Marin et al., 2011). Now that we know that relaxation is important, what types of relaxation are there? Smith's Psychological Relaxation theory (2012) describes a set of learned psychological processes that counteract stress arousal. There are over 15 relaxation states (R-states) that one can reach that fall into these four categories: # basic relaxation: disengaged, sleepy, physically and mentally rested # positive energy: happy, energised, optomistic # core mindfulness: awareness, acceptance, flow # transcendence: wonder, awe, reverence These R-states can be reached via the ABC model. A stands for the activating event. This is any stimuli that elicits a stress response. B stands for beliefs. Your interpretation of the event changes your response. C stands for consequences. your previous interpretation of events contributes to your physiological, emotional and cognitive status. Smith proposed that relaxation techniques can intervene in this stress process and change how we respond to the stimulus (Matsumoto & Smith, 2001). - why chronic stress is bad - types of relaxation- introduce concept of mindfullness - theories of relaxation === Implications for Emotional Regulation === * definition of [[w:emotional_regulation|emotional regulation]] including wiki link * what being able to self regulate can do for reader * breathing exercises in emotional regulation (Fu et al., 2026). == Parasympathetic Nervous System == * About a paragraph explaining in easy to understand terms including wiki link * Divisions of the nervous system do different things * sympathetic: fight or flight * parasympathetic: rest and digest === How is it Stimulated? === * What is stimulation * connection to vagus nerve (Yuan & Silberstein, 2016). * common ways of stimulating === What happens when it is active? === * psychological and physiological changes * relation back to relaxation theories. * Insert quiz: Case study question and answers == What are Breathing Exercises? == * Short definition of breathing exercises * brief overview of different types === Diaphragmatic breathing === * description * link to external source with instructions: [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9jpchJcKivk How to do Diaphragmatic Breathing Exercises for Beginners] === Box breathing === * description * link to external source with instructions [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mPXy0974vu0 Box Breathing Tutorial | Reduces Anxiety & Stress] == How do Breathing Exercises Link to Relaxation? == * general info and overview about breathing creating relaxation * mention of practices like yoga and meditation * mention how mindfullness is often used and taught in clinical settings === Parasympathetic stimulation === * aligns with this theory of relaxation * vagus nerve- describe what it is and what it does === Cardiovascular and Respiratory Effects === * explain decreased heart rate and link to hormones (cortisol) * what theory of relaxation it aligns with === Emotional Regulation === * the further effects breathing exercises can have on emotional regulation] * going back to practicing mindfullness * link back to theme == Research == * summary of research * what the reader will get out of understanding * importance of knowing previous current and future research === History === * Ancient practices e.g Buddhist meditation (Omelyanenko, 2014) , examples, photos * what people originally thought was happening === Current === * the most influential and current theories surrounding the topic * at least 2 theories === Future === * gaps in research * suggestions for future research * limitations and implications == Conclusion == * Summary * Key takeaways relating back to book chapter theme * Bring back to first learning activity == See also == [[doi:10.1007/978-3-031-56798-8_4.|Slow Breathing for Anxiety: A Critical Perspective Towards Personalization]] (Book Chapter, 2024) {{ic|Move academic peer-reviewed sources into References and cite}} [[wikipedia:Pranayama|Pranyama]] (Wikipedia) == References == {{Hanging indent|1= Benson, H., Greenwood, M. M., & Klemchuk, H. (1975). The relaxation response: psychophysiologic aspects and clinical applications. ''Int J Psychiatry Med'', ''6''(1-2), 87-98. https://doi.org/10.2190/376w-e4mt-qm6q-h0um. Bhargav, H., Mehta, U. M., Kumar, A., Subramanian, S., & Keshavan, M. S. (2026). Breathing and the brain: Pranayama, an ancient self-directed approach to neuromodulation. ''Asian Journal of Psychiatry'', ''115'', 104788. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajp.2025.104788. Fu, J., Su, Q., & Fu, T. (2026). Effects of breathing rhythm–based exercise intervention on perceived stress and emotion regulation in cancer patients. ''Psycho-oncologie'', ''20''(2), 5706. https://doi.org/10.18282/po5706. Omelyanenko, V. I. (2014). Complex integrated method of dynamic meditation with Buddhists’ breathing in case of neurotic reactions. ''Pedagogics, Psychology, Medical-Biological Problems of Physical Training and Sports'', ''18''(2). https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.923513. Smith, J. C., Wedell, A. B., Kolotylo, C. J., Lewis, J. E., Byers, K. Y., & Segin, C. M. (2000). ABC relaxation theory and the factor structure of relaxation states, recalled relaxation activities, dispositions, and motivations. ''Psychol Rep'', ''86''(3 Pt 2), 1201-1208. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.2000.86.3c.1201. Yuan, H., & Silberstein, S. D. (2016). Vagus Nerve and Vagus Nerve Stimulation, a Comprehensive Review: Part I. ''Headache'', ''56''(1), 71-78. https://doi.org/10.1111/head.12647. }} == External Links == [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9jpchJcKivk How to do Diaphragmatic Breathing Exercises for Beginners] (youtube video) [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mPXy0974vu0 Box Breathing Tutorial | Reduces Anxiety & Stress] (youtube video) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Relaxation]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Stress]] k4nj0ho5urn5v5hboge29l8uc9aue5h 2836365 2836358 2026-10-07T00:31:32Z E3297976 3106770 progressive relaxation theory 2836365 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Breathing exercises and relaxation:<br>How can breathing exercises promote relaxation?}} == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Falun Dafa fifth meditation exercise.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' The practice of meditation which is often associated with controlled breathing and relaxation. |316x316px]] It's extremely likely that in a moment of panic or upset you have been told to take a deep breath. Although it may seem pointless or silly in the moment, performing the simple action of taking in a deep breath does more than you think. Go back to a time you were stressed or anxious, and paused for a second to control your breathing. What did you feel in your body? Did you feel more relaxed? Using breathing exercises to promote relaxation is a practice that has been used for thousands of years (Bhargav et al., 2026). {{RoundBoxBottom}} * Provide an Introduction to the topic brief overview of what will be covered in the chapter == What is Relaxation? == * Introduction to Benson's relaxation response (Benson et al., 1975). * Introduction to Jacobson's progressive relaxation theory Although different theories of [[wikipedia:Relaxation_(psychology)|relaxation]] have different ideas about what actually defines relaxation, it can generally be described as a the absence of tension, anxiety and stress (Pagnini et al., 2013). Experiencing a frequent state of relaxation is important for wellbeing, especially when contrasted to frequent states of stress. [[Stress (psychological)|Stress]] is defined as a non-specific response of the body to a negative stimulus (Selye, 1950). The role stress plays in our day to day life is often looked over and in some cultures praised (Maulik, 2017). However the symptoms of stress include negative emotions, impaired cognitive ability, difficulty sleeping, changes in heart rate and feeling 'on edge', just to name a few. Chronic stress can have significant implications for physiological and psychological wellbeing. This includes increased likelyhood of developing stress-related diseases such as major depressive disorder (Marin et al., 2011). === ABC Relaxation Theory === Now that we know that relaxation is important, what types of relaxation are there? Smith's Psychological Relaxation theory (2012) describes a set of learned psychological processes that counteract stress arousal. There are over 15 relaxation states (R-states) that one can reach that fall into these four categories: # basic relaxation: disengaged, sleepy, physically and mentally rested # [[File:The-abc-model.webp|right]]positive energy: happy, energised, optomistic # core mindfulness: awareness, acceptance, flow # transcendence: wonder, awe, reverence These R-states can be reached via the ABC model. A stands for the activating event. This is any stimuli that elicits a stress response. B stands for beliefs. Your interpretation of the event changes your response. C stands for consequences. your previous interpretation of events contributes to your physiological, emotional and cognitive status. Smith proposed that relaxation techniques can intervene in this stress process and change how we respond to the stimulus (Matsumoto & Smith, 2001). === Progressive Relaxation Theory === Progressive relaxation theory or progressive muscle relaxation was developed in the 1920s by Edward Jacobson. It takes the approach that mental stress and physical stress are interlinked, and that by reducing physical tension, mental relaxation will occur (Jacobson, 1987). He proposed that tensing a specific set of muscles for a few seconds, relaxing, and then repeating, would teach the individual to control tensions in the body, and therefore reduce build up of stress. Progressive muscle relaxation is now one of the most widely used stress-management theories (McGuigan & Lehrer, 2007). See this [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SNqYG95j_UQ video] by Therapy in a Nutshell for a brief guide to progressive relaxation (2019). === Implications for Emotional Regulation === * definition of [[w:emotional_regulation|emotional regulation]] including wiki link * what being able to self regulate can do for reader * breathing exercises in emotional regulation (Fu et al., 2026). == Parasympathetic Nervous System == * About a paragraph explaining in easy to understand terms including wiki link * Divisions of the nervous system do different things * sympathetic: fight or flight * parasympathetic: rest and digest === How is it Stimulated? === * What is stimulation * connection to vagus nerve (Yuan & Silberstein, 2016). * common ways of stimulating === What happens when it is active? === * psychological and physiological changes * relation back to relaxation theories. * Insert quiz: Case study question and answers == What are Breathing Exercises? == * Short definition of breathing exercises * brief overview of different types === Diaphragmatic breathing === * description * link to external source with instructions: [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9jpchJcKivk How to do Diaphragmatic Breathing Exercises for Beginners] === Box breathing === * description * link to external source with instructions [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mPXy0974vu0 Box Breathing Tutorial | Reduces Anxiety & Stress] == How do Breathing Exercises Link to Relaxation? == * general info and overview about breathing creating relaxation * mention of practices like yoga and meditation * mention how mindfullness is often used and taught in clinical settings === Parasympathetic stimulation === * aligns with this theory of relaxation * vagus nerve- describe what it is and what it does === Cardiovascular and Respiratory Effects === * explain decreased heart rate and link to hormones (cortisol) * what theory of relaxation it aligns with === Emotional Regulation === * the further effects breathing exercises can have on emotional regulation] * going back to practicing mindfullness * link back to theme == Research == * summary of research * what the reader will get out of understanding * importance of knowing previous current and future research === History === * Ancient practices e.g Buddhist meditation (Omelyanenko, 2014) , examples, photos * what people originally thought was happening === Current === * the most influential and current theories surrounding the topic * at least 2 theories === Future === * gaps in research * suggestions for future research * limitations and implications == Conclusion == * Summary * Key takeaways relating back to book chapter theme * Bring back to first learning activity == See also == [[doi:10.1007/978-3-031-56798-8_4.|Slow Breathing for Anxiety: A Critical Perspective Towards Personalization]] (Book Chapter, 2024) {{ic|Move academic peer-reviewed sources into References and cite}} [[wikipedia:Pranayama|Pranyama]] (Wikipedia) == References == {{Hanging indent|1= Benson, H., Greenwood, M. M., & Klemchuk, H. (1975). The relaxation response: psychophysiologic aspects and clinical applications. ''Int J Psychiatry Med'', ''6''(1-2), 87-98. https://doi.org/10.2190/376w-e4mt-qm6q-h0um. Bhargav, H., Mehta, U. M., Kumar, A., Subramanian, S., & Keshavan, M. S. (2026). Breathing and the brain: Pranayama, an ancient self-directed approach to neuromodulation. ''Asian Journal of Psychiatry'', ''115'', 104788. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajp.2025.104788. Fu, J., Su, Q., & Fu, T. (2026). Effects of breathing rhythm–based exercise intervention on perceived stress and emotion regulation in cancer patients. ''Psycho-oncologie'', ''20''(2), 5706. https://doi.org/10.18282/po5706. Omelyanenko, V. I. (2014). Complex integrated method of dynamic meditation with Buddhists’ breathing in case of neurotic reactions. ''Pedagogics, Psychology, Medical-Biological Problems of Physical Training and Sports'', ''18''(2). https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.923513. Smith, J. C., Wedell, A. B., Kolotylo, C. J., Lewis, J. E., Byers, K. Y., & Segin, C. M. (2000). ABC relaxation theory and the factor structure of relaxation states, recalled relaxation activities, dispositions, and motivations. ''Psychol Rep'', ''86''(3 Pt 2), 1201-1208. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.2000.86.3c.1201. Yuan, H., & Silberstein, S. D. (2016). Vagus Nerve and Vagus Nerve Stimulation, a Comprehensive Review: Part I. ''Headache'', ''56''(1), 71-78. https://doi.org/10.1111/head.12647. }} == External Links == [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9jpchJcKivk How to do Diaphragmatic Breathing Exercises for Beginners] (youtube video) [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mPXy0974vu0 Box Breathing Tutorial | Reduces Anxiety & Stress] (youtube video) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Relaxation]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Stress]] h9vx2rf906gj46limqlwnlpc4udsqph 2836369 2836365 2026-10-07T00:50:18Z E3297976 3106770 relaxation response 2836369 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Breathing exercises and relaxation:<br>How can breathing exercises promote relaxation?}} == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Falun Dafa fifth meditation exercise.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' The practice of meditation which is often associated with controlled breathing and relaxation. |316x316px]] It's extremely likely that in a moment of panic or upset you have been told to take a deep breath. Although it may seem pointless or silly in the moment, performing the simple action of taking in a deep breath does more than you think. Go back to a time you were stressed or anxious, and paused for a second to control your breathing. What did you feel in your body? Did you feel more relaxed? Using breathing exercises to promote relaxation is a practice that has been used for thousands of years (Bhargav et al., 2026). {{RoundBoxBottom}} * Provide an Introduction to the topic brief overview of what will be covered in the chapter == What is Relaxation? == * Introduction to Benson's relaxation response (Benson et al., 1975). Although different theories of [[wikipedia:Relaxation_(psychology)|relaxation]] have different ideas about what actually defines relaxation, it can generally be described as a the absence of tension, anxiety and stress (Pagnini et al., 2013). Experiencing a frequent state of relaxation is important for wellbeing, especially when contrasted to frequent states of stress. [[Stress (psychological)|Stress]] is defined as a non-specific response of the body to a negative stimulus (Selye, 1950). The role stress plays in our day to day life is often looked over and in some cultures praised (Maulik, 2017). However the symptoms of stress include negative emotions, impaired cognitive ability, difficulty sleeping, changes in heart rate and feeling 'on edge', just to name a few. Chronic stress can have significant implications for physiological and psychological wellbeing. This includes increased likelyhood of developing stress-related diseases such as major depressive disorder (Marin et al., 2011). === ABC Relaxation Theory === Now that we know that relaxation is important, what types of relaxation are there? Smith's Psychological Relaxation theory (2012) describes a set of learned psychological processes that counteract stress arousal. There are over 15 relaxation states (R-states) that one can reach that fall into these four categories: # basic relaxation: disengaged, sleepy, physically and mentally rested # [[File:The-abc-model.webp|right]]positive energy: happy, energised, optomistic # core mindfulness: awareness, acceptance, flow # transcendence: wonder, awe, reverence These R-states can be reached via the ABC model. A stands for the activating event. This is any stimuli that elicits a stress response. B stands for beliefs. Your interpretation of the event changes your response. C stands for consequences. your previous interpretation of events contributes to your physiological, emotional and cognitive status. Smith proposed that relaxation techniques can intervene in this stress process and change how we respond to the stimulus (Matsumoto & Smith, 2001). === Progressive Relaxation Theory === Progressive relaxation theory or progressive muscle relaxation was developed in the 1920s by Edward Jacobson. It takes the approach that mental stress and physical stress are interlinked, and that by reducing physical tension, mental relaxation will occur (Jacobson, 1987). He proposed that tensing a specific set of muscles for a few seconds, relaxing, and then repeating, would teach the individual to control tensions in the body, and therefore reduce build up of stress. Progressive muscle relaxation is now one of the most widely used stress-management theories (McGuigan & Lehrer, 2007). See this [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SNqYG95j_UQ video] by Therapy in a Nutshell for a brief guide to progressive relaxation (2019). === The Relaxation Response === The Relaxation response was developed by Herbert Benson in the 1970s. This theory places an emphasis on the body's natural ability to counteract stress through relaxation. Benson proposed that practicing relaxation techniques produces a physiological state opposite to the 'fight or flight' state (Benson et al., 1974). This disengages the sympathetic nervous system (which we'll discuss further down below) and reduces tension and physiological arousal. The steps to create this response are as follows: # Find a quiet environment where you won't be distracted # Relax your muscles, letting go of any obvious tension in the body and closing your eyes # Draw your focus to to your breath, breathe slowly through the nose and out through the mouth # Repeat a focus word or phrase such as 'calm' on each exhale # acknowledge any distracting thoughts before returning back to focus on the breath and word/phrase Benson himself gives a guide on how to elicit the relaxation response in this [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nBCsFuoFRp8&t=7s video] (MassDPH, 2016). === Implications for Emotional Regulation === * definition of [[w:emotional_regulation|emotional regulation]] including wiki link * what being able to self regulate can do for reader * breathing exercises in emotional regulation (Fu et al., 2026). == Parasympathetic Nervous System == * About a paragraph explaining in easy to understand terms including wiki link * Divisions of the nervous system do different things * sympathetic: fight or flight * parasympathetic: rest and digest === How is it Stimulated? === * What is stimulation * connection to vagus nerve (Yuan & Silberstein, 2016). * common ways of stimulating === What happens when it is active? === * psychological and physiological changes * relation back to relaxation theories. * Insert quiz: Case study question and answers == What are Breathing Exercises? == * Short definition of breathing exercises * brief overview of different types === Diaphragmatic breathing === * description * link to external source with instructions: [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9jpchJcKivk How to do Diaphragmatic Breathing Exercises for Beginners] === Box breathing === * description * link to external source with instructions [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mPXy0974vu0 Box Breathing Tutorial | Reduces Anxiety & Stress] == How do Breathing Exercises Link to Relaxation? == * general info and overview about breathing creating relaxation * mention of practices like yoga and meditation * mention how mindfullness is often used and taught in clinical settings === Parasympathetic stimulation === * aligns with this theory of relaxation * vagus nerve- describe what it is and what it does === Cardiovascular and Respiratory Effects === * explain decreased heart rate and link to hormones (cortisol) * what theory of relaxation it aligns with === Emotional Regulation === * the further effects breathing exercises can have on emotional regulation] * going back to practicing mindfullness * link back to theme == Research == * summary of research * what the reader will get out of understanding * importance of knowing previous current and future research === History === * Ancient practices e.g Buddhist meditation (Omelyanenko, 2014) , examples, photos * what people originally thought was happening === Current === * the most influential and current theories surrounding the topic * at least 2 theories === Future === * gaps in research * suggestions for future research * limitations and implications == Conclusion == * Summary * Key takeaways relating back to book chapter theme * Bring back to first learning activity == See also == [[doi:10.1007/978-3-031-56798-8_4.|Slow Breathing for Anxiety: A Critical Perspective Towards Personalization]] (Book Chapter, 2024) {{ic|Move academic peer-reviewed sources into References and cite}} [[wikipedia:Pranayama|Pranyama]] (Wikipedia) == References == {{Hanging indent|1= Benson, H., Greenwood, M. M., & Klemchuk, H. (1975). The relaxation response: psychophysiologic aspects and clinical applications. ''Int J Psychiatry Med'', ''6''(1-2), 87-98. https://doi.org/10.2190/376w-e4mt-qm6q-h0um. Bhargav, H., Mehta, U. M., Kumar, A., Subramanian, S., & Keshavan, M. S. (2026). Breathing and the brain: Pranayama, an ancient self-directed approach to neuromodulation. ''Asian Journal of Psychiatry'', ''115'', 104788. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajp.2025.104788. Fu, J., Su, Q., & Fu, T. (2026). Effects of breathing rhythm–based exercise intervention on perceived stress and emotion regulation in cancer patients. ''Psycho-oncologie'', ''20''(2), 5706. https://doi.org/10.18282/po5706. Omelyanenko, V. I. (2014). Complex integrated method of dynamic meditation with Buddhists’ breathing in case of neurotic reactions. ''Pedagogics, Psychology, Medical-Biological Problems of Physical Training and Sports'', ''18''(2). https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.923513. Smith, J. C., Wedell, A. B., Kolotylo, C. J., Lewis, J. E., Byers, K. Y., & Segin, C. M. (2000). ABC relaxation theory and the factor structure of relaxation states, recalled relaxation activities, dispositions, and motivations. ''Psychol Rep'', ''86''(3 Pt 2), 1201-1208. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.2000.86.3c.1201. Yuan, H., & Silberstein, S. D. (2016). Vagus Nerve and Vagus Nerve Stimulation, a Comprehensive Review: Part I. ''Headache'', ''56''(1), 71-78. https://doi.org/10.1111/head.12647. }} == External Links == [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9jpchJcKivk How to do Diaphragmatic Breathing Exercises for Beginners] (youtube video) [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mPXy0974vu0 Box Breathing Tutorial | Reduces Anxiety & Stress] (youtube video) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Relaxation]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Stress]] mrpxcox2y8xrpm34er66kjfn72ffo9a 2836431 2836369 2026-10-07T04:07:52Z E3297976 3106770 emotional regulation 2836431 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Breathing exercises and relaxation:<br>How can breathing exercises promote relaxation?}} == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Falun Dafa fifth meditation exercise.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' The practice of meditation which is often associated with controlled breathing and relaxation. |316x316px]] It's extremely likely that in a moment of panic or upset you have been told to take a deep breath. Although it may seem pointless or silly in the moment, performing the simple action of taking in a deep breath does more than you think. Go back to a time you were stressed or anxious, and paused for a second to control your breathing. What did you feel in your body? Did you feel more relaxed? Using breathing exercises to promote relaxation is a practice that has been used for thousands of years (Bhargav et al., 2026). {{RoundBoxBottom}} * Provide an Introduction to the topic brief overview of what will be covered in the chapter == What is Relaxation? == Although different theories of [[wikipedia:Relaxation_(psychology)|relaxation]] have different ideas about what actually defines relaxation, it can generally be described as a the absence of tension, anxiety and stress (Pagnini et al., 2013). Experiencing a frequent state of relaxation is important for wellbeing, especially when contrasted to frequent states of stress. [[Stress (psychological)|Stress]] is defined as a non-specific response of the body to a negative stimulus (Selye, 1950). The role stress plays in our day to day life is often looked over and in some cultures praised (Maulik, 2017). However the symptoms of stress include negative emotions, impaired cognitive ability, difficulty sleeping, changes in heart rate and feeling 'on edge', just to name a few. Chronic stress can have significant implications for physiological and psychological wellbeing. This includes increased likelyhood of developing stress-related diseases such as major depressive disorder (Marin et al., 2011). === ABC Relaxation Theory === Now that we know that relaxation is important, what types of relaxation are there? Smith's Psychological Relaxation theory (2012) describes a set of learned psychological processes that counteract stress arousal. There are over 15 relaxation states (R-states) that one can reach that fall into these four categories: # basic relaxation: disengaged, sleepy, physically and mentally rested # [[File:The-abc-model.webp|right]]positive energy: happy, energised, optomistic # core mindfulness: awareness, acceptance, flow # transcendence: wonder, awe, reverence These R-states can be reached via the ABC model. A stands for the activating event. This is any stimuli that elicits a stress response. B stands for beliefs. Your interpretation of the event changes your response. C stands for consequences. your previous interpretation of events contributes to your physiological, emotional and cognitive status. Smith proposed that relaxation techniques can intervene in this stress process and change how we respond to the stimulus (Matsumoto & Smith, 2001). === Progressive Relaxation Theory === Progressive relaxation theory or progressive muscle relaxation was developed in the 1920s by Edward Jacobson. It takes the approach that mental stress and physical stress are interlinked, and that by reducing physical tension, mental relaxation will occur (Jacobson, 1987). He proposed that tensing a specific set of muscles for a few seconds, relaxing, and then repeating, would teach the individual to control tensions in the body, and therefore reduce build up of stress. Progressive muscle relaxation is now one of the most widely used stress-management theories (McGuigan & Lehrer, 2007). See this [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SNqYG95j_UQ video] by Therapy in a Nutshell for a brief guide to progressive relaxation (2019). === The Relaxation Response === The Relaxation response was developed by Herbert Benson in the 1970s. This theory places an emphasis on the body's natural ability to counteract stress through relaxation. Benson proposed that practicing relaxation techniques produces a physiological state opposite to the 'fight or flight' state (Benson et al., 1974). This disengages the sympathetic nervous system (which we'll discuss further down below) and reduces tension and physiological arousal. The steps to create this response are as follows: # Find a quiet environment where you won't be distracted # Relax your muscles, letting go of any obvious tension in the body and closing your eyes # Draw your focus to to your breath, breathe slowly through the nose and out through the mouth # Repeat a focus word or phrase such as 'calm' on each exhale # acknowledge any distracting thoughts before returning back to focus on the breath and word/phrase Benson himself gives a guide on how to elicit the relaxation response in this [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nBCsFuoFRp8&t=7s video] (MassDPH, 2016). === Implications for Emotional Regulation === [[w:emotional_regulation|emotional regulation]] describes our ability to influence our emotions to be helpful rather than harmful (Gross, 2015). One of the criteria for emotional regulation is having effective strategies to manage our emotions. Having the knowledge and ability to induce relaxation is a form of emotional regulation. This can include strategies such as breathing exercises and meditation (Fu et al., 2026). Emotional regulation is important as it allows us to experience emotions without letting them overwhelm us. This has implications for many aspects of our lives (Gross & Jazaieri, 2014): * decision making * relationships * stress management * concentration * understanding of ourselves * sense of control == Parasympathetic Nervous System == * About a paragraph explaining in easy to understand terms including wiki link * Divisions of the nervous system do different things * sympathetic: fight or flight * parasympathetic: rest and digest === How is it Stimulated? === * What is stimulation * connection to vagus nerve (Yuan & Silberstein, 2016). * common ways of stimulating === What happens when it is active? === * psychological and physiological changes * relation back to relaxation theories. * Insert quiz: Case study question and answers == What are Breathing Exercises? == * Short definition of breathing exercises * brief overview of different types === Diaphragmatic breathing === * description * link to external source with instructions: [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9jpchJcKivk How to do Diaphragmatic Breathing Exercises for Beginners] === Box breathing === * description * link to external source with instructions [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mPXy0974vu0 Box Breathing Tutorial | Reduces Anxiety & Stress] == How do Breathing Exercises Link to Relaxation? == * general info and overview about breathing creating relaxation * mention of practices like yoga and meditation * mention how mindfullness is often used and taught in clinical settings === Parasympathetic stimulation === * aligns with this theory of relaxation * vagus nerve- describe what it is and what it does === Cardiovascular and Respiratory Effects === * explain decreased heart rate and link to hormones (cortisol) * what theory of relaxation it aligns with === Emotional Regulation === * the further effects breathing exercises can have on emotional regulation] * going back to practicing mindfullness * link back to theme == Research == * summary of research * what the reader will get out of understanding * importance of knowing previous current and future research === History === * Ancient practices e.g Buddhist meditation (Omelyanenko, 2014) , examples, photos * what people originally thought was happening === Current === * the most influential and current theories surrounding the topic * at least 2 theories === Future === * gaps in research * suggestions for future research * limitations and implications == Conclusion == * Summary * Key takeaways relating back to book chapter theme * Bring back to first learning activity == See also == [[doi:10.1007/978-3-031-56798-8_4.|Slow Breathing for Anxiety: A Critical Perspective Towards Personalization]] (Book Chapter, 2024) {{ic|Move academic peer-reviewed sources into References and cite}} [[wikipedia:Pranayama|Pranyama]] (Wikipedia) == References == {{Hanging indent|1= Benson, H., Greenwood, M. M., & Klemchuk, H. (1975). The relaxation response: psychophysiologic aspects and clinical applications. ''Int J Psychiatry Med'', ''6''(1-2), 87-98. https://doi.org/10.2190/376w-e4mt-qm6q-h0um. Bhargav, H., Mehta, U. M., Kumar, A., Subramanian, S., & Keshavan, M. S. (2026). Breathing and the brain: Pranayama, an ancient self-directed approach to neuromodulation. ''Asian Journal of Psychiatry'', ''115'', 104788. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajp.2025.104788. Fu, J., Su, Q., & Fu, T. (2026). Effects of breathing rhythm–based exercise intervention on perceived stress and emotion regulation in cancer patients. ''Psycho-oncologie'', ''20''(2), 5706. https://doi.org/10.18282/po5706. Omelyanenko, V. I. (2014). Complex integrated method of dynamic meditation with Buddhists’ breathing in case of neurotic reactions. ''Pedagogics, Psychology, Medical-Biological Problems of Physical Training and Sports'', ''18''(2). https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.923513. Smith, J. C., Wedell, A. B., Kolotylo, C. J., Lewis, J. E., Byers, K. Y., & Segin, C. M. (2000). ABC relaxation theory and the factor structure of relaxation states, recalled relaxation activities, dispositions, and motivations. ''Psychol Rep'', ''86''(3 Pt 2), 1201-1208. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.2000.86.3c.1201. Yuan, H., & Silberstein, S. D. (2016). Vagus Nerve and Vagus Nerve Stimulation, a Comprehensive Review: Part I. ''Headache'', ''56''(1), 71-78. https://doi.org/10.1111/head.12647. }} == External Links == [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9jpchJcKivk How to do Diaphragmatic Breathing Exercises for Beginners] (youtube video) [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mPXy0974vu0 Box Breathing Tutorial | Reduces Anxiety & Stress] (youtube video) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Relaxation]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Stress]] bv5xu6e42li1m4q0d4x1qp8t7bekz9a 2836433 2836431 2026-10-07T04:09:50Z E3297976 3106770 quiz 2836433 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Breathing exercises and relaxation:<br>How can breathing exercises promote relaxation?}} == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Falun Dafa fifth meditation exercise.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' The practice of meditation which is often associated with controlled breathing and relaxation. |316x316px]] It's extremely likely that in a moment of panic or upset you have been told to take a deep breath. Although it may seem pointless or silly in the moment, performing the simple action of taking in a deep breath does more than you think. Go back to a time you were stressed or anxious, and paused for a second to control your breathing. What did you feel in your body? Did you feel more relaxed? Using breathing exercises to promote relaxation is a practice that has been used for thousands of years (Bhargav et al., 2026). {{RoundBoxBottom}} * Provide an Introduction to the topic brief overview of what will be covered in the chapter == What is Relaxation? == Although different theories of [[wikipedia:Relaxation_(psychology)|relaxation]] have different ideas about what actually defines relaxation, it can generally be described as a the absence of tension, anxiety and stress (Pagnini et al., 2013). Experiencing a frequent state of relaxation is important for wellbeing, especially when contrasted to frequent states of stress. [[Stress (psychological)|Stress]] is defined as a non-specific response of the body to a negative stimulus (Selye, 1950). The role stress plays in our day to day life is often looked over and in some cultures praised (Maulik, 2017). However the symptoms of stress include negative emotions, impaired cognitive ability, difficulty sleeping, changes in heart rate and feeling 'on edge', just to name a few. Chronic stress can have significant implications for physiological and psychological wellbeing. This includes increased likelyhood of developing stress-related diseases such as major depressive disorder (Marin et al., 2011). === ABC Relaxation Theory === Now that we know that relaxation is important, what types of relaxation are there? Smith's Psychological Relaxation theory (2012) describes a set of learned psychological processes that counteract stress arousal. There are over 15 relaxation states (R-states) that one can reach that fall into these four categories: # basic relaxation: disengaged, sleepy, physically and mentally rested # [[File:The-abc-model.webp|right]]positive energy: happy, energised, optomistic # core mindfulness: awareness, acceptance, flow # transcendence: wonder, awe, reverence These R-states can be reached via the ABC model. A stands for the activating event. This is any stimuli that elicits a stress response. B stands for beliefs. Your interpretation of the event changes your response. C stands for consequences. your previous interpretation of events contributes to your physiological, emotional and cognitive status. Smith proposed that relaxation techniques can intervene in this stress process and change how we respond to the stimulus (Matsumoto & Smith, 2001). === Progressive Relaxation Theory === Progressive relaxation theory or progressive muscle relaxation was developed in the 1920s by Edward Jacobson. It takes the approach that mental stress and physical stress are interlinked, and that by reducing physical tension, mental relaxation will occur (Jacobson, 1987). He proposed that tensing a specific set of muscles for a few seconds, relaxing, and then repeating, would teach the individual to control tensions in the body, and therefore reduce build up of stress. Progressive muscle relaxation is now one of the most widely used stress-management theories (McGuigan & Lehrer, 2007). See this [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SNqYG95j_UQ video] by Therapy in a Nutshell for a brief guide to progressive relaxation (2019). === The Relaxation Response === The Relaxation response was developed by Herbert Benson in the 1970s. This theory places an emphasis on the body's natural ability to counteract stress through relaxation. Benson proposed that practicing relaxation techniques produces a physiological state opposite to the 'fight or flight' state (Benson et al., 1974). This disengages the sympathetic nervous system (which we'll discuss further down below) and reduces tension and physiological arousal. The steps to create this response are as follows: # Find a quiet environment where you won't be distracted # Relax your muscles, letting go of any obvious tension in the body and closing your eyes # Draw your focus to to your breath, breathe slowly through the nose and out through the mouth # Repeat a focus word or phrase such as 'calm' on each exhale # acknowledge any distracting thoughts before returning back to focus on the breath and word/phrase Benson himself gives a guide on how to elicit the relaxation response in this [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nBCsFuoFRp8&t=7s video] (MassDPH, 2016). === Implications for Emotional Regulation === [[w:emotional_regulation|emotional regulation]] describes our ability to influence our emotions to be helpful rather than harmful (Gross, 2015). One of the criteria for emotional regulation is having effective strategies to manage our emotions. Having the knowledge and ability to induce relaxation is a form of emotional regulation. This can include strategies such as breathing exercises and meditation (Fu et al., 2026). Emotional regulation is important as it allows us to experience emotions without letting them overwhelm us. This has implications for many aspects of our lives (Gross & Jazaieri, 2014): * decision making * relationships * stress management * concentration * understanding of ourselves * sense of control <nowiki><quiz display=simple></nowiki> {Type the question here... |type="()"} + The correct answer. - Wrong or misleading answer. - Wrong or misleading answer. - Wrong or misleading answer. <nowiki></quiz></nowiki> == Parasympathetic Nervous System == * About a paragraph explaining in easy to understand terms including wiki link * Divisions of the nervous system do different things * sympathetic: fight or flight * parasympathetic: rest and digest === How is it Stimulated? === * What is stimulation * connection to vagus nerve (Yuan & Silberstein, 2016). * common ways of stimulating === What happens when it is active? === * psychological and physiological changes * relation back to relaxation theories. * Insert quiz: Case study question and answers == What are Breathing Exercises? == * Short definition of breathing exercises * brief overview of different types === Diaphragmatic breathing === * description * link to external source with instructions: [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9jpchJcKivk How to do Diaphragmatic Breathing Exercises for Beginners] === Box breathing === * description * link to external source with instructions [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mPXy0974vu0 Box Breathing Tutorial | Reduces Anxiety & Stress] == How do Breathing Exercises Link to Relaxation? == * general info and overview about breathing creating relaxation * mention of practices like yoga and meditation * mention how mindfullness is often used and taught in clinical settings === Parasympathetic stimulation === * aligns with this theory of relaxation * vagus nerve- describe what it is and what it does === Cardiovascular and Respiratory Effects === * explain decreased heart rate and link to hormones (cortisol) * what theory of relaxation it aligns with === Emotional Regulation === * the further effects breathing exercises can have on emotional regulation] * going back to practicing mindfullness * link back to theme == Research == * summary of research * what the reader will get out of understanding * importance of knowing previous current and future research === History === * Ancient practices e.g Buddhist meditation (Omelyanenko, 2014) , examples, photos * what people originally thought was happening === Current === * the most influential and current theories surrounding the topic * at least 2 theories === Future === * gaps in research * suggestions for future research * limitations and implications == Conclusion == * Summary * Key takeaways relating back to book chapter theme * Bring back to first learning activity == See also == [[doi:10.1007/978-3-031-56798-8_4.|Slow Breathing for Anxiety: A Critical Perspective Towards Personalization]] (Book Chapter, 2024) {{ic|Move academic peer-reviewed sources into References and cite}} [[wikipedia:Pranayama|Pranyama]] (Wikipedia) == References == {{Hanging indent|1= Benson, H., Greenwood, M. M., & Klemchuk, H. (1975). The relaxation response: psychophysiologic aspects and clinical applications. ''Int J Psychiatry Med'', ''6''(1-2), 87-98. https://doi.org/10.2190/376w-e4mt-qm6q-h0um. Bhargav, H., Mehta, U. M., Kumar, A., Subramanian, S., & Keshavan, M. S. (2026). Breathing and the brain: Pranayama, an ancient self-directed approach to neuromodulation. ''Asian Journal of Psychiatry'', ''115'', 104788. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajp.2025.104788. Fu, J., Su, Q., & Fu, T. (2026). Effects of breathing rhythm–based exercise intervention on perceived stress and emotion regulation in cancer patients. ''Psycho-oncologie'', ''20''(2), 5706. https://doi.org/10.18282/po5706. Omelyanenko, V. I. (2014). Complex integrated method of dynamic meditation with Buddhists’ breathing in case of neurotic reactions. ''Pedagogics, Psychology, Medical-Biological Problems of Physical Training and Sports'', ''18''(2). https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.923513. Smith, J. C., Wedell, A. B., Kolotylo, C. J., Lewis, J. E., Byers, K. Y., & Segin, C. M. (2000). ABC relaxation theory and the factor structure of relaxation states, recalled relaxation activities, dispositions, and motivations. ''Psychol Rep'', ''86''(3 Pt 2), 1201-1208. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.2000.86.3c.1201. Yuan, H., & Silberstein, S. D. (2016). Vagus Nerve and Vagus Nerve Stimulation, a Comprehensive Review: Part I. ''Headache'', ''56''(1), 71-78. https://doi.org/10.1111/head.12647. }} == External Links == [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9jpchJcKivk How to do Diaphragmatic Breathing Exercises for Beginners] (youtube video) [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mPXy0974vu0 Box Breathing Tutorial | Reduces Anxiety & Stress] (youtube video) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Relaxation]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Stress]] hvojzcprcoa1dyof5avaqppq37gfpmx 2836437 2836433 2026-10-07T04:27:47Z E3297976 3106770 i hate wikiversity 2836437 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Breathing exercises and relaxation:<br>How can breathing exercises promote relaxation?}} == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Falun Dafa fifth meditation exercise.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' The practice of meditation which is often associated with controlled breathing and relaxation. |316x316px]] It's extremely likely that in a moment of panic or upset you have been told to take a deep breath. Although it may seem pointless or silly in the moment, performing the simple action of taking in a deep breath does more than you think. Go back to a time you were stressed or anxious, and paused for a second to control your breathing. What did you feel in your body? Did you feel more relaxed? Using breathing exercises to promote relaxation is a practice that has been used for thousands of years (Bhargav et al., 2026). {{RoundBoxBottom}} * Provide an Introduction to the topic brief overview of what will be covered in the chapter == What is Relaxation? == Although different theories of [[wikipedia:Relaxation_(psychology)|relaxation]] have different ideas about what actually defines relaxation, it can generally be described as a the absence of tension, anxiety and stress (Pagnini et al., 2013). Experiencing a frequent state of relaxation is important for wellbeing, especially when contrasted to frequent states of stress. [[Stress (psychological)|Stress]] is defined as a non-specific response of the body to a negative stimulus (Selye, 1950). The role stress plays in our day to day life is often looked over and in some cultures praised (Maulik, 2017). However the symptoms of stress include negative emotions, impaired cognitive ability, difficulty sleeping, changes in heart rate and feeling 'on edge', just to name a few. Chronic stress can have significant implications for physiological and psychological wellbeing. This includes increased likelyhood of developing stress-related diseases such as major depressive disorder (Marin et al., 2011). === ABC Relaxation Theory === Now that we know that relaxation is important, what types of relaxation are there? Smith's Psychological Relaxation theory (2012) describes a set of learned psychological processes that counteract stress arousal. There are over 15 relaxation states (R-states) that one can reach that fall into these four categories: # basic relaxation: disengaged, sleepy, physically and mentally rested # [[File:The-abc-model.webp|right]]positive energy: happy, energised, optomistic # core mindfulness: awareness, acceptance, flow # transcendence: wonder, awe, reverence These R-states can be reached via the ABC model. A stands for the activating event. This is any stimuli that elicits a stress response. B stands for beliefs. Your interpretation of the event changes your response. C stands for consequences. your previous interpretation of events contributes to your physiological, emotional and cognitive status. Smith proposed that relaxation techniques can intervene in this stress process and change how we respond to the stimulus (Matsumoto & Smith, 2001). === Progressive Relaxation Theory === Progressive relaxation theory or progressive muscle relaxation was developed in the 1920s by Edward Jacobson. It takes the approach that mental stress and physical stress are interlinked, and that by reducing physical tension, mental relaxation will occur (Jacobson, 1987). He proposed that tensing a specific set of muscles for a few seconds, relaxing, and then repeating, would teach the individual to control tensions in the body, and therefore reduce build up of stress. Progressive muscle relaxation is now one of the most widely used stress-management theories (McGuigan & Lehrer, 2007). See this [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SNqYG95j_UQ video] by Therapy in a Nutshell for a brief guide to progressive relaxation (2019). === The Relaxation Response === The Relaxation response was developed by Herbert Benson in the 1970s. This theory places an emphasis on the body's natural ability to counteract stress through relaxation. Benson proposed that practicing relaxation techniques produces a physiological state opposite to the 'fight or flight' state (Benson et al., 1974). This disengages the sympathetic nervous system (which we'll discuss further down below) and reduces tension and physiological arousal. The steps to create this response are as follows: # Find a quiet environment where you won't be distracted # Relax your muscles, letting go of any obvious tension in the body and closing your eyes # Draw your focus to to your breath, breathe slowly through the nose and out through the mouth # Repeat a focus word or phrase such as 'calm' on each exhale # acknowledge any distracting thoughts before returning back to focus on the breath and word/phrase Benson himself gives a guide on how to elicit the relaxation response in this [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nBCsFuoFRp8&t=7s video] (MassDPH, 2016). === Implications for Emotional Regulation === [[w:emotional_regulation|emotional regulation]] describes our ability to influence our emotions to be helpful rather than harmful (Gross, 2015). One of the criteria for emotional regulation is having effective strategies to manage our emotions. Having the knowledge and ability to induce relaxation is a form of emotional regulation. This can include strategies such as breathing exercises and meditation (Fu et al., 2026). Emotional regulation is important as it allows us to experience emotions without letting them overwhelm us. This has implications for many aspects of our lives (Gross & Jazaieri, 2014): * decision making * relationships * stress management * concentration * understanding of ourselves * sense of control <syntaxhighlight lang="html"> <quiz display=simple> {Millie finds a quiet place to sit and begins systematically tensing and relaxing her muscles to reduce tension. Which theory of relaxation describes what Millie is doing? |type="()"} + Progressive relaxation theory. - ABC Relaxation Theory. - Nervous System Theory. - Relaxation Response Theory. </quiz> </syntaxhighlight> == Parasympathetic Nervous System == * About a paragraph explaining in easy to understand terms including wiki link * Divisions of the nervous system do different things * sympathetic: fight or flight * parasympathetic: rest and digest === How is it Stimulated? === * What is stimulation * connection to vagus nerve (Yuan & Silberstein, 2016). * common ways of stimulating === What happens when it is active? === * psychological and physiological changes * relation back to relaxation theories. * Insert quiz: Case study question and answers == What are Breathing Exercises? == * Short definition of breathing exercises * brief overview of different types === Diaphragmatic breathing === * description * link to external source with instructions: [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9jpchJcKivk How to do Diaphragmatic Breathing Exercises for Beginners] === Box breathing === * description * link to external source with instructions [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mPXy0974vu0 Box Breathing Tutorial | Reduces Anxiety & Stress] == How do Breathing Exercises Link to Relaxation? == * general info and overview about breathing creating relaxation * mention of practices like yoga and meditation * mention how mindfullness is often used and taught in clinical settings === Parasympathetic stimulation === * aligns with this theory of relaxation * vagus nerve- describe what it is and what it does === Cardiovascular and Respiratory Effects === * explain decreased heart rate and link to hormones (cortisol) * what theory of relaxation it aligns with === Emotional Regulation === * the further effects breathing exercises can have on emotional regulation] * going back to practicing mindfullness * link back to theme == Research == * summary of research * what the reader will get out of understanding * importance of knowing previous current and future research === History === * Ancient practices e.g Buddhist meditation (Omelyanenko, 2014) , examples, photos * what people originally thought was happening === Current === * the most influential and current theories surrounding the topic * at least 2 theories === Future === * gaps in research * suggestions for future research * limitations and implications == Conclusion == * Summary * Key takeaways relating back to book chapter theme * Bring back to first learning activity == See also == [[doi:10.1007/978-3-031-56798-8_4.|Slow Breathing for Anxiety: A Critical Perspective Towards Personalization]] (Book Chapter, 2024) {{ic|Move academic peer-reviewed sources into References and cite}} [[wikipedia:Pranayama|Pranyama]] (Wikipedia) == References == {{Hanging indent|1= Benson, H., Greenwood, M. M., & Klemchuk, H. (1975). The relaxation response: psychophysiologic aspects and clinical applications. ''Int J Psychiatry Med'', ''6''(1-2), 87-98. https://doi.org/10.2190/376w-e4mt-qm6q-h0um. Bhargav, H., Mehta, U. M., Kumar, A., Subramanian, S., & Keshavan, M. S. (2026). Breathing and the brain: Pranayama, an ancient self-directed approach to neuromodulation. ''Asian Journal of Psychiatry'', ''115'', 104788. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajp.2025.104788. Fu, J., Su, Q., & Fu, T. (2026). Effects of breathing rhythm–based exercise intervention on perceived stress and emotion regulation in cancer patients. ''Psycho-oncologie'', ''20''(2), 5706. https://doi.org/10.18282/po5706. Omelyanenko, V. I. (2014). Complex integrated method of dynamic meditation with Buddhists’ breathing in case of neurotic reactions. ''Pedagogics, Psychology, Medical-Biological Problems of Physical Training and Sports'', ''18''(2). https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.923513. Smith, J. C., Wedell, A. B., Kolotylo, C. J., Lewis, J. E., Byers, K. Y., & Segin, C. M. (2000). ABC relaxation theory and the factor structure of relaxation states, recalled relaxation activities, dispositions, and motivations. ''Psychol Rep'', ''86''(3 Pt 2), 1201-1208. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.2000.86.3c.1201. Yuan, H., & Silberstein, S. D. (2016). Vagus Nerve and Vagus Nerve Stimulation, a Comprehensive Review: Part I. ''Headache'', ''56''(1), 71-78. https://doi.org/10.1111/head.12647. }} == External Links == [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9jpchJcKivk How to do Diaphragmatic Breathing Exercises for Beginners] (youtube video) [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mPXy0974vu0 Box Breathing Tutorial | Reduces Anxiety & Stress] (youtube video) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Relaxation]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Stress]] 1tkyknz1c0ai04jnjgoumuw9r1brc9j 0 322580 2836486 2833301 2026-10-07T08:57:38Z Flickstar888 3106813 Added a caption to Figure 2836486 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Wisdom, motivation, and emotion:<br>How do motivational and emotional processes contribute to wisdom?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Work-life-balance.webp|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. [A student balancing life]]] Imagine a university student who has an important exam coming up, weekly assessment and other things that should be done outside the university. Balancing life with school responsibilities, personal things and a career job working on. This are the things that a person is dealing with. What strategies can help a person stay motivated while using wisdom to make good decisions and managing their emotions? How can we maintain wisdom, motivation, and emotional balance when facing challenges in life? {{RoundBoxBottom}} Wisdom, motivation, and emotion are three important aspects of human psychology that influence the way people think, feel, and behave. Wisdom involves using knowledge and experience to make thoughtful decisions. Motivation gives people the drive to achieve their goals and overcome challenges. Emotion refers to feelings that affect our thoughts, decisions, and actions. Understanding these three concepts can help us better understand human behaviour and how people respond to different situations. This book chapter will hopefully bring understanding the Wisdom, Motivation and Emotion behind human behaviour. As you can see on [[:File:Work-life-balance.webp|Figure 1]], the chapter will cover relevant theories that attempt to explain the Wisdom, Motivation and Emotion of a person. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Focus questions * How thinking influences behaviour?{{vague}} * What are the psychological theories for wisdom, motivation and emotion?{{ic|APA style uses serial commas}} {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Introduction to wisdom, motivation and emotion == === Psychological Theories: === ==== 1.Wisdom ==== the ability to combine knowledge, experience, and deep judgment to make sound decisions and navigate complex or uncertain life situations. * The Berlin Definition''':''' Psychologist Paul Baltes defined wisdom as "expert knowledge in the fundamental pragmatics of life" that helps people give good advice on difficult matters.{{fact}} * Robert Sternberg’s View''':''' He defines wisdom as balancing one's own needs with the needs of others to achieve a common good.{{fact}} * Monika Ardelt's View''':''' She views wisdom as an individual trait built through self-reflection, compassion, and a search for truth.{{fact}} ==== 2. Motivation ==== is the internal or external driving force that prompts a person to initiate, direct, and persist in goal-oriented behavior.{{g}} * Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: Abraham Maslow proposed a pyramid of needs. People must satisfy basic physiological and safety needs before moving on to social, esteem, and self-actualization needs. * Self-Determination Theory (SDT): This theory states that three basic psychological needs drive growth and engagement: autonomy (control), competence (mastery), and relatedness (connection). * Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory: Job satisfaction comes from "motivators" (like achievement and growth), while job dissatisfaction comes from "hygiene factors" (like salary and working conditions). ==== 3. Emotion ==== is a complex mental and physical reaction to an event or situation that involves a subjective feeling, a bodily change, and an outward behavior. * James-Lange Theory: Proposes that physical bodily arousal happens first, and the brain then interprets those physical changes as an emotion (e.g., your heart races before you feel afraid). * Cannon-Bard Theory: Suggests that physical arousal and the emotional experience occur at the exact same time, rather than one causing the other. * Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory: Argues that emotion requires two components: general physical arousal and a cognitive label applied to that arousal based on the context. * Cognitive Appraisal Theory: States that a person must first think about and evaluate a situation (appraisal) before experiencing the corresponding emotion. * Facial Feedback Theory: Suggests that facial expressions can actually trigger or influence emotional feelings (e.g., smiling can make you feel happier). * Evolutionary Theory: Views emotions as adaptive responses that evolved to help humans survive and react quickly to environmental dangers. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Case study: The burned-out high achiever Emma is a 24-year-old university student who has always been highly motivated. Throughout school, she received excellent grades and was praised by her parents and teachers for being successful. She now studies law at university and spends most of her time studying, working part-time, and trying to maintain a social life. Initially, Emma was driven by genuine interest in her degree and the desire to become a lawyer. Over time, however, her motivation changed. She became increasingly concerned about disappointing her parents and comparing herself with other high-achieving students. During exam periods, Emma experiences intense anxiety. She has difficulty sleeping, becomes irritable with friends, and feels guilty whenever she takes time away from studying. Even when she performs well, she quickly focuses on what she could have done better. After receiving a disappointing exam result, Emma considers dropping out. A mentor encourages her to reflect on what she actually values and what kind of life she wants beyond academic achievement. Emma begins recognising that success does not have to mean being perfect. She starts setting healthier boundaries, seeking support from friends, and making decisions based more on her long-term values than on other people's expectations. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Conclusion == * A person’s wisdom usually develops through a combination of life experience, reflection, emotional maturity, knowledge, and the ability to see situations from multiple perspectives. Simply being older or having lots of knowledge doesn't necessarily make someone wise. * A person becomes motivated when they have a reason to act and believe that their action can lead to something they value. Motivation is influenced by both internal factors (what we want, value, or enjoy) and external factors (rewards, expectations, consequences, or social pressure). * Wisdom functions as a cognitive framework. It helps individuals interpret difficulty, regulate emotion, maintain motivation, and make decisions aligned with long-term values rather than short-term impulses. In this sense, wisdom is not simply something people possess — it is something they practice through thinking patterns and behavioral choices. * Emotions are psychological and physiological responses to situations that we perceive as important. They influence how we think, behave, make decisions, and interact with other people. == See also == {{ic|Try again - choose the ''most'' relevant sources}} * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/COVID-19 pandemic impacts on emotion|Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter]] (COVID-19 pandemic impacts on emotion) * https://openbooks.library.baylor.edu/psychscience/chapter/emotion-motivation/ (Ch 10: Emotion and Motivation) == References == {{expand}} == External links == {{expand}} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Wisdom]] 9db5kez7c7tz3oupfwf29jpmqpzcs26 2836487 2836486 2026-10-07T08:59:26Z Flickstar888 3106813 /* Overview */ 2836487 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Wisdom, motivation, and emotion:<br>How do motivational and emotional processes contribute to wisdom?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Work-life-balance.webp|thumb|'''Figure 1.''A student balancing life]] Imagine a university student who has an important exam coming up, weekly assessment and other things that should be done outside the university. Balancing life with school responsibilities, personal things and a career job working on. This are the things that a person is dealing with. What strategies can help a person stay motivated while using wisdom to make good decisions and managing their emotions? How can we maintain wisdom, motivation, and emotional balance when facing challenges in life? {{RoundBoxBottom}} Wisdom, motivation, and emotion are three important aspects of human psychology that influence the way people think, feel, and behave. Wisdom involves using knowledge and experience to make thoughtful decisions. Motivation gives people the drive to achieve their goals and overcome challenges. Emotion refers to feelings that affect our thoughts, decisions, and actions. Understanding these three concepts can help us better understand human behaviour and how people respond to different situations. This book chapter will hopefully bring understanding the Wisdom, Motivation and Emotion behind human behaviour. As you can see on [[:File:Work-life-balance.webp|Figure 1]], the chapter will cover relevant theories that attempt to explain the Wisdom, Motivation and Emotion of a person. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Focus questions * How thinking influences behaviour?{{vague}} * What are the psychological theories for wisdom, motivation and emotion?{{ic|APA style uses serial commas}} {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Introduction to wisdom, motivation and emotion == === Psychological Theories: === ==== 1.Wisdom ==== the ability to combine knowledge, experience, and deep judgment to make sound decisions and navigate complex or uncertain life situations. * The Berlin Definition''':''' Psychologist Paul Baltes defined wisdom as "expert knowledge in the fundamental pragmatics of life" that helps people give good advice on difficult matters.{{fact}} * Robert Sternberg’s View''':''' He defines wisdom as balancing one's own needs with the needs of others to achieve a common good.{{fact}} * Monika Ardelt's View''':''' She views wisdom as an individual trait built through self-reflection, compassion, and a search for truth.{{fact}} ==== 2. Motivation ==== is the internal or external driving force that prompts a person to initiate, direct, and persist in goal-oriented behavior.{{g}} * Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: Abraham Maslow proposed a pyramid of needs. People must satisfy basic physiological and safety needs before moving on to social, esteem, and self-actualization needs. * Self-Determination Theory (SDT): This theory states that three basic psychological needs drive growth and engagement: autonomy (control), competence (mastery), and relatedness (connection). * Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory: Job satisfaction comes from "motivators" (like achievement and growth), while job dissatisfaction comes from "hygiene factors" (like salary and working conditions). ==== 3. Emotion ==== is a complex mental and physical reaction to an event or situation that involves a subjective feeling, a bodily change, and an outward behavior. * James-Lange Theory: Proposes that physical bodily arousal happens first, and the brain then interprets those physical changes as an emotion (e.g., your heart races before you feel afraid). * Cannon-Bard Theory: Suggests that physical arousal and the emotional experience occur at the exact same time, rather than one causing the other. * Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory: Argues that emotion requires two components: general physical arousal and a cognitive label applied to that arousal based on the context. * Cognitive Appraisal Theory: States that a person must first think about and evaluate a situation (appraisal) before experiencing the corresponding emotion. * Facial Feedback Theory: Suggests that facial expressions can actually trigger or influence emotional feelings (e.g., smiling can make you feel happier). * Evolutionary Theory: Views emotions as adaptive responses that evolved to help humans survive and react quickly to environmental dangers. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Case study: The burned-out high achiever Emma is a 24-year-old university student who has always been highly motivated. Throughout school, she received excellent grades and was praised by her parents and teachers for being successful. She now studies law at university and spends most of her time studying, working part-time, and trying to maintain a social life. Initially, Emma was driven by genuine interest in her degree and the desire to become a lawyer. Over time, however, her motivation changed. She became increasingly concerned about disappointing her parents and comparing herself with other high-achieving students. During exam periods, Emma experiences intense anxiety. She has difficulty sleeping, becomes irritable with friends, and feels guilty whenever she takes time away from studying. Even when she performs well, she quickly focuses on what she could have done better. After receiving a disappointing exam result, Emma considers dropping out. A mentor encourages her to reflect on what she actually values and what kind of life she wants beyond academic achievement. Emma begins recognising that success does not have to mean being perfect. She starts setting healthier boundaries, seeking support from friends, and making decisions based more on her long-term values than on other people's expectations. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Conclusion == * A person’s wisdom usually develops through a combination of life experience, reflection, emotional maturity, knowledge, and the ability to see situations from multiple perspectives. Simply being older or having lots of knowledge doesn't necessarily make someone wise. * A person becomes motivated when they have a reason to act and believe that their action can lead to something they value. Motivation is influenced by both internal factors (what we want, value, or enjoy) and external factors (rewards, expectations, consequences, or social pressure). * Wisdom functions as a cognitive framework. It helps individuals interpret difficulty, regulate emotion, maintain motivation, and make decisions aligned with long-term values rather than short-term impulses. In this sense, wisdom is not simply something people possess — it is something they practice through thinking patterns and behavioral choices. * Emotions are psychological and physiological responses to situations that we perceive as important. They influence how we think, behave, make decisions, and interact with other people. == See also == {{ic|Try again - choose the ''most'' relevant sources}} * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/COVID-19 pandemic impacts on emotion|Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter]] (COVID-19 pandemic impacts on emotion) * https://openbooks.library.baylor.edu/psychscience/chapter/emotion-motivation/ (Ch 10: Emotion and Motivation) == References == {{expand}} == External links == {{expand}} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Wisdom]] nnw88o2zisx1r9fts9irkf2i0femuf7 2836488 2836487 2026-10-07T09:06:03Z Flickstar888 3106813 helped refine the scenario 2836488 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Wisdom, motivation, and emotion:<br>How do motivational and emotional processes contribute to wisdom?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}Scenario [[File:Work-life-balance.webp|thumb|''Figure 1. ''A student balancing life]] Imagine a university student who has an important exam coming up, they also have weekly assessments and other things they do outside of university. Balancing life with school responsibilities, personal admin, part-time job while working on building a career. They are trying to deal with too many things all at once. What strategies could help this student stay motivated while using wisdom to make good decisions as well as managing their emotions? How can we maintain wisdom, motivation, and emotional balance when facing challenges in life? {{RoundBoxBottom}} Wisdom, motivation, and emotion are three important aspects of human psychology that influence the way people think, feel, and behave. Wisdom involves using knowledge and experience to make thoughtful decisions. Motivation gives people the drive to achieve their goals and overcome challenges. Emotion refers to feelings that affect our thoughts, decisions, and actions. Understanding these three concepts can help us better understand human behaviour and how people respond to different situations. This book chapter will hopefully bring understanding the Wisdom, Motivation and Emotion behind human behaviour. As you can see on [[:File:Work-life-balance.webp|Figure 1]], the chapter will cover relevant theories that attempt to explain the Wisdom, Motivation and Emotion of a person. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Focus questions * How thinking influences behaviour?{{vague}} * What are the psychological theories for wisdom, motivation and emotion?{{ic|APA style uses serial commas}} {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Introduction to wisdom, motivation and emotion == === Psychological Theories: === ==== 1.Wisdom ==== the ability to combine knowledge, experience, and deep judgment to make sound decisions and navigate complex or uncertain life situations. * The Berlin Definition''':''' Psychologist Paul Baltes defined wisdom as "expert knowledge in the fundamental pragmatics of life" that helps people give good advice on difficult matters.{{fact}} * Robert Sternberg’s View''':''' He defines wisdom as balancing one's own needs with the needs of others to achieve a common good.{{fact}} * Monika Ardelt's View''':''' She views wisdom as an individual trait built through self-reflection, compassion, and a search for truth.{{fact}} ==== 2. Motivation ==== is the internal or external driving force that prompts a person to initiate, direct, and persist in goal-oriented behavior.{{g}} * Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: Abraham Maslow proposed a pyramid of needs. People must satisfy basic physiological and safety needs before moving on to social, esteem, and self-actualization needs. * Self-Determination Theory (SDT): This theory states that three basic psychological needs drive growth and engagement: autonomy (control), competence (mastery), and relatedness (connection). * Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory: Job satisfaction comes from "motivators" (like achievement and growth), while job dissatisfaction comes from "hygiene factors" (like salary and working conditions). ==== 3. Emotion ==== is a complex mental and physical reaction to an event or situation that involves a subjective feeling, a bodily change, and an outward behavior. * James-Lange Theory: Proposes that physical bodily arousal happens first, and the brain then interprets those physical changes as an emotion (e.g., your heart races before you feel afraid). * Cannon-Bard Theory: Suggests that physical arousal and the emotional experience occur at the exact same time, rather than one causing the other. * Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory: Argues that emotion requires two components: general physical arousal and a cognitive label applied to that arousal based on the context. * Cognitive Appraisal Theory: States that a person must first think about and evaluate a situation (appraisal) before experiencing the corresponding emotion. * Facial Feedback Theory: Suggests that facial expressions can actually trigger or influence emotional feelings (e.g., smiling can make you feel happier). * Evolutionary Theory: Views emotions as adaptive responses that evolved to help humans survive and react quickly to environmental dangers. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Case study: The burned-out high achiever Emma is a 24-year-old university student who has always been highly motivated. Throughout school, she received excellent grades and was praised by her parents and teachers for being successful. She now studies law at university and spends most of her time studying, working part-time, and trying to maintain a social life. Initially, Emma was driven by genuine interest in her degree and the desire to become a lawyer. Over time, however, her motivation changed. She became increasingly concerned about disappointing her parents and comparing herself with other high-achieving students. During exam periods, Emma experiences intense anxiety. She has difficulty sleeping, becomes irritable with friends, and feels guilty whenever she takes time away from studying. Even when she performs well, she quickly focuses on what she could have done better. After receiving a disappointing exam result, Emma considers dropping out. A mentor encourages her to reflect on what she actually values and what kind of life she wants beyond academic achievement. Emma begins recognising that success does not have to mean being perfect. She starts setting healthier boundaries, seeking support from friends, and making decisions based more on her long-term values than on other people's expectations. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Conclusion == * A person’s wisdom usually develops through a combination of life experience, reflection, emotional maturity, knowledge, and the ability to see situations from multiple perspectives. Simply being older or having lots of knowledge doesn't necessarily make someone wise. * A person becomes motivated when they have a reason to act and believe that their action can lead to something they value. Motivation is influenced by both internal factors (what we want, value, or enjoy) and external factors (rewards, expectations, consequences, or social pressure). * Wisdom functions as a cognitive framework. It helps individuals interpret difficulty, regulate emotion, maintain motivation, and make decisions aligned with long-term values rather than short-term impulses. In this sense, wisdom is not simply something people possess — it is something they practice through thinking patterns and behavioral choices. * Emotions are psychological and physiological responses to situations that we perceive as important. They influence how we think, behave, make decisions, and interact with other people. == See also == {{ic|Try again - choose the ''most'' relevant sources}} * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/COVID-19 pandemic impacts on emotion|Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter]] (COVID-19 pandemic impacts on emotion) * https://openbooks.library.baylor.edu/psychscience/chapter/emotion-motivation/ (Ch 10: Emotion and Motivation) == References == {{expand}} == External links == {{expand}} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Wisdom]] sjpypalyxhb9o8j3in4cyzve2f5k56h 2836491 2836488 2026-10-07T09:09:22Z Flickstar888 3106813 worked on the scenario 2836491 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Wisdom, motivation, and emotion:<br>How do motivational and emotional processes contribute to wisdom?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}Scenario [[File:Work-life-balance.webp|thumb|''Figure 1. ''A student balancing life]] Imagine a university student who has an important exam coming up, they also have weekly assessments and other things going on outside of university. Balancing life with university responsibilities, personal admin and a part-time job, all while trying to build a career. The student is trying to deal with too many things all at once. What strategies could help this student stay motivated while using wisdom to make good decisions as well as managing their emotions? How can we maintain wisdom, motivation, and emotional balance when facing challenges in life? {{RoundBoxBottom}} Wisdom, motivation, and emotion are three important aspects of human psychology that influence the way people think, feel, and behave. Wisdom involves using knowledge and experience to make thoughtful decisions. Motivation gives people the drive to achieve their goals and overcome challenges. Emotion refers to feelings that affect our thoughts, decisions, and actions. Understanding these three concepts can help us better understand human behaviour and how people respond to different situations. This book chapter will hopefully bring understanding the Wisdom, Motivation and Emotion behind human behaviour. As you can see on [[:File:Work-life-balance.webp|Figure 1]], the chapter will cover relevant theories that attempt to explain the Wisdom, Motivation and Emotion of a person. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Focus questions * How thinking influences behaviour?{{vague}} * What are the psychological theories for wisdom, motivation and emotion?{{ic|APA style uses serial commas}} {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Introduction to wisdom, motivation and emotion == === Psychological Theories: === ==== 1.Wisdom ==== the ability to combine knowledge, experience, and deep judgment to make sound decisions and navigate complex or uncertain life situations. * The Berlin Definition''':''' Psychologist Paul Baltes defined wisdom as "expert knowledge in the fundamental pragmatics of life" that helps people give good advice on difficult matters.{{fact}} * Robert Sternberg’s View''':''' He defines wisdom as balancing one's own needs with the needs of others to achieve a common good.{{fact}} * Monika Ardelt's View''':''' She views wisdom as an individual trait built through self-reflection, compassion, and a search for truth.{{fact}} ==== 2. Motivation ==== is the internal or external driving force that prompts a person to initiate, direct, and persist in goal-oriented behavior.{{g}} * Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: Abraham Maslow proposed a pyramid of needs. People must satisfy basic physiological and safety needs before moving on to social, esteem, and self-actualization needs. * Self-Determination Theory (SDT): This theory states that three basic psychological needs drive growth and engagement: autonomy (control), competence (mastery), and relatedness (connection). * Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory: Job satisfaction comes from "motivators" (like achievement and growth), while job dissatisfaction comes from "hygiene factors" (like salary and working conditions). ==== 3. Emotion ==== is a complex mental and physical reaction to an event or situation that involves a subjective feeling, a bodily change, and an outward behavior. * James-Lange Theory: Proposes that physical bodily arousal happens first, and the brain then interprets those physical changes as an emotion (e.g., your heart races before you feel afraid). * Cannon-Bard Theory: Suggests that physical arousal and the emotional experience occur at the exact same time, rather than one causing the other. * Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory: Argues that emotion requires two components: general physical arousal and a cognitive label applied to that arousal based on the context. * Cognitive Appraisal Theory: States that a person must first think about and evaluate a situation (appraisal) before experiencing the corresponding emotion. * Facial Feedback Theory: Suggests that facial expressions can actually trigger or influence emotional feelings (e.g., smiling can make you feel happier). * Evolutionary Theory: Views emotions as adaptive responses that evolved to help humans survive and react quickly to environmental dangers. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Case study: The burned-out high achiever Emma is a 24-year-old university student who has always been highly motivated. Throughout school, she received excellent grades and was praised by her parents and teachers for being successful. She now studies law at university and spends most of her time studying, working part-time, and trying to maintain a social life. Initially, Emma was driven by genuine interest in her degree and the desire to become a lawyer. Over time, however, her motivation changed. She became increasingly concerned about disappointing her parents and comparing herself with other high-achieving students. During exam periods, Emma experiences intense anxiety. She has difficulty sleeping, becomes irritable with friends, and feels guilty whenever she takes time away from studying. Even when she performs well, she quickly focuses on what she could have done better. After receiving a disappointing exam result, Emma considers dropping out. A mentor encourages her to reflect on what she actually values and what kind of life she wants beyond academic achievement. Emma begins recognising that success does not have to mean being perfect. She starts setting healthier boundaries, seeking support from friends, and making decisions based more on her long-term values than on other people's expectations. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Conclusion == * A person’s wisdom usually develops through a combination of life experience, reflection, emotional maturity, knowledge, and the ability to see situations from multiple perspectives. Simply being older or having lots of knowledge doesn't necessarily make someone wise. * A person becomes motivated when they have a reason to act and believe that their action can lead to something they value. Motivation is influenced by both internal factors (what we want, value, or enjoy) and external factors (rewards, expectations, consequences, or social pressure). * Wisdom functions as a cognitive framework. It helps individuals interpret difficulty, regulate emotion, maintain motivation, and make decisions aligned with long-term values rather than short-term impulses. In this sense, wisdom is not simply something people possess — it is something they practice through thinking patterns and behavioral choices. * Emotions are psychological and physiological responses to situations that we perceive as important. They influence how we think, behave, make decisions, and interact with other people. == See also == {{ic|Try again - choose the ''most'' relevant sources}} * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/COVID-19 pandemic impacts on emotion|Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter]] (COVID-19 pandemic impacts on emotion) * https://openbooks.library.baylor.edu/psychscience/chapter/emotion-motivation/ (Ch 10: Emotion and Motivation) == References == {{expand}} == External links == {{expand}} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Wisdom]] m6k5oxhat8a4pcnjs6hryoa2w1oes2q 118 325228 2836321 2836031 2026-10-06T13:28:23Z Krolkrolf 3112174 2836321 wikitext text/x-wiki == Clicker Game == A clicker game, also known as an idle or incremental game, is a type of game which involves doing simple things such as clicking on the screen.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2024-08-28|title=Incremental game|url=https://simple.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Incremental_game&oldid=9733379|journal=Simple English Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia|language=en}}</ref> An example of a popular clicker game is [[w:en:Cookie Clicker|Cookie Clicker]]<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2025-10-27|title=Incremental game|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Incremental_game&oldid=1319044985|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>. In this short project guide, we will be making a clicker game, with a score function, visual effects, shop and more. Let's get started! == Setting Up == Start off by creating a new project and deleting the Scratch cat. Now, go to the Scratch library and choose any sprite. In this guide, I will be using the Button1 sprite, but you are free to use any sprite in this guide. <br> You can also use any backdrop, but I will be using the light backdrop. You may also design your own backdrop or upload your own, if that is what you fancy. == Scripting == === Phase 1 - Scripting the Actual Base Game === Now we actually start scripting the project. We need to make a variable for our score. We do this by going into the Variable tab in the block palette and clicking 'Make a Variable'. This will open up a new menu where you can create a new variable. Name the variable 'score'. Make sure it is for all sprites. <br> Now we can make the actual 'clicking' function for our game. Add this script: [[File:Scratch clicker game script.png]] Those two blocks are responsible for incrementing the score variable when the sprite is clicked. Try it out! Fun, isn't it? Now let's make the variable reset everytime the [[File:Greenflag.svg|26x26px]] gets clicked. That's to make sure we can start up the game when needed. Add this script: [[File:Scratch reset variable script.png]] == References == equ1whdtm6sycgmce9t3sxjotlbk8t8 2 326765 2836330 2821480 2026-10-06T16:07:36Z Dc.samizdat 2856930 /* The 16-cell 4-orthoplex */ 2836330 wikitext text/x-wiki = Golden chords of the 120-cell = {{align|center|David Brooks Christie}} {{align|center|dc@samizdat.org}} {{align|center|Draft in progress}} {{align|center|January 2026 - August 2026}} <blockquote>Steinbach discovered the formula for the ratios of diagonal to side in the regular polygons. Fontaine and Hurley extended this result, discovering a formula for the reciprocal of a regular polygon chord derived geometrically from the chord's star polygon. We observe that these findings in plane geometry apply more generally, to polytopes of any dimensionality. Fontaine and Hurley's geometric procedure for finding the reciprocals of the chords of a regular polygon from their star polygons also finds the rotational geodesics of any polytope of any dimensionality.</blockquote> == Introduction == Steinbach discovered the Diagonal Product Formula and the Golden Fields family of ratios of diagonal to side in the regular polygons. He showed how this family extends beyond the pentagon {5} with its well-known golden bisection proportional to 𝜙, finding that the heptagon {7} has an analogous trisection, the nonagon {9} has an analogous quadrasection, and the hendecagon {11} has an analogous pentasection, an extended family of golden proportions with quasiperiodic properties. Kappraff and Adamson extended these findings in plane geometry to a theory of Generalized Fibonacci Sequences, showing that the Golden Fields not only do not end with the hendecagon, they form an infinite number of periodic trajectories when operated on by the Mandelbrot operator. They found a relation between the edges of star polygons and dynamical systems in the state of chaos, revealing a connection between chaos theory, number, and rotations in Coxeter Euclidean geometry. Fontaine and Hurley examined Steinbach's finding that the length of each chord of a regular polygon is both the product of two chords and the sum of a set of smaller chords, so that in rotations to add is to multiply. They illustrated Steinbach's sets of additive chords lying parallel to each other in the plane (pointing in the same direction), and by applying Steinbach's formula more generally they found another summation relation of signed parallel chords (pointing in opposite directions) which relates each chord length to its reciprocal, and relates the summation to a distinct star polygon rotation. We examine these remarkable findings (which stem from study of the chords of humble regular polygons) in higher-dimensional spaces, specifically in the chords, polygons and rotations of the [[120-cell]], the largest four-dimensional regular convex polytope. == Visualizing the 120-cell == {| class="wikitable floatright" width="400" |style="vertical-align:top"|[[File:120-cell.gif|200px]]<br>Orthographic projection of the 600-point 120-cell ><math>\{5,3,3\}</math> performing a [[W:SO(4)#Geometry of 4D rotations|simple rotation]].{{Sfn|Hise|2011|loc=File:120-cell.gif|ps=; "Created by Jason Hise with Maya and Macromedia Fireworks. A 3D projection of a 120-cell performing a [[W:SO(4)#Geometry of 4D rotations|simple rotation]]."}} In this simplified rendering only the 120-cell's own edges are shown; its 29 interior chords are not rendered. Therefore even though it is translucent, only its outer surface is visible. The complex interior parts of the 120-cell, all its inscribed 5-cells, 16-cells, 8-cells, 24-cells, 600-cells and its much larger inventory of polyhedra, are completely invisible in this view, as none of their edges are rendered at all. |style="vertical-align:top"|[[File:Ortho solid 016-uniform polychoron p33-t0.png|200px]]<br>Orthographic projection of the 600-point [[W:Great grand stellated 120-cell|great grand stellated 120-cell]] <math>\{\tfrac{5}{2},3,3\}</math>.{{Sfn|Ruen: Great grand stellated 120-cell|2007}} The 120-cell is its convex hull. The projection to the left renders only the 120-cell's shortest chord, its 1200 edges. The projection above also renders only one of the 120-cell's 30 chords, the edges of its 120 inscribed regular 5-cells. The 120-cell itself (the convex hull) is invisible in this view, as its edges are not rendered. |} [[120-cell#Geometry|The 120-cell is the maximally complex regular 4-polytope]], containing inscribed instances of every regular 1-, 2-, 3-, and 4-polytope, except the regular polygons of more than {15} sides. The 120-cell is the convex hull of a regular [[120-cell#Relationships among interior polytopes|compound of each of the 6 regular convex 4-polytopes]]. They are the [[5-cell|5-point (5-cell) 4-simplex]], the [[16-cell|8-point (16-cell) 4-orthoplex]], the [[W:Tesseract|16-point (8-cell) tesseract]], the [[24-cell|24-point (24-cell)]], the [[600-cell|120-point (600-cell)]], and the [[120-cell|600-point (120-cell)]]. The 120-cell is the convex hull of a compound of 120 disjoint regular 5-cells, of 75 disjoint 16-cells, of 25 disjoint 24-cells, and of 5 disjoint 600-cells. The 120-cell contains an even larger inventory of irregular polytopes, created by the intersection of multiple instances of these component regular 4-polytopes. Many are quite unexpected, because they do not occur as components of any regular polytope smaller than the 120-cell. As just one example among the [[120-cell#Concentric hulls|sections of the 120-cell]], there is an irregular 24-point polyhedron with 16 triangle faces and 4 nonagon {9} faces.{{Sfn|Moxness|}} Most renderings of the 120-cell, like the rotating projection here, only illustrate its outer surface, which is a honeycomb of face-bonded dodecahedral cells. Only the objects in its 3-dimensional surface are rendered, namely the 120 dodecahedra, their pentagon faces, and their edges. Although the 120-cell has chords of 30 distinct lengths, in this kind of simplified rendering only the 120-cell's own edges (its shortest chord) are shown. Its 29 interior chords, the edges of objects in the interior of the 120-cell, are not rendered, so interior objects are not visible at all. Visualizing the complete interior of the 600-vertex 120-cell in a single image is impractical because of its complexity. Only four 120-cell edges are incident at each vertex, but [[120-cell#Chords|600 chords (of all 30 lengths)]] are incident at ''each'' vertex. == Compounds in the 120-cell == The 8-point (16-cell), not the 5-point (5-cell) 4-simplex, is the smallest building block; it compounds to every larger regular 4-polytope. The 5-point (5-cell) does compound to the 600-point (120-cell), but it does not fit into any smaller regular 4-polytope. The 8-point (16-cell) compounds by 2 in the 16-point (8-cell), and by 3 in the 24-point (24-cell). The 16-point (8-cell) compounds in the 24-point (24-cell) by 3 non-disjoint instances of itself, with each of the 24 vertices shared by two 16-point (8-cells). The 24-point (24-cell) compounds by 5 disjoint instances of itself in the 120-point (600-cell), and the 120-point (600-cell) compounds by 5 disjoint instances of itself in the 600-point (120-cell). The 24-point (24-cell) also compounds by 5² non-disjoint instances of itself in the 120-point (600-cell); it compounds in 5 disjoint instances of itself, 10 (not 5) different ways. Whichever set of 5 disjoint 24-point (24-cells) are assembled, the resulting 120-point (600-cell) contains 25 distinct 24-point (24-cells), not just 5 (or 10). Consequently 15 disjoint 8-point (16-cells) will construct a 120-point (600-cell), which contains 75 distinct 8-point (16-cells). The 600-point (120-cell) is 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells), just 2 different ways (not 5 or 10 ways), so it is 10 distinct 120-point (600-cells). Consequently the 8-point (16-cell) compounds by 3 times 5² (75) disjoint instances of itself in the 600-point (120-cell), which contains 3² times 5² (225) distinct instances of the 24-point (24-cell), and 3³ times 5² (675) distinct instances of the 8-point (16-cell). These facts were discovered painstakingly by various researchers, and no one has found a general rule governing subsumption relations among regular polytopes. The reasons for some of their numeric incidence relations are far from obvious. [[W:Pieter Hendrik Schoute|Schoute]] was the first to see that the 120-point (600-cell) is a compound of 5 24-point (24-cells) ''10 different ways'', and after he saw it a hundred years lapsed until Denney, Hooker, Johnson, Robinson, Butler & Claiborne proved his result, and showed why.{{Sfn|Denney, Hooker, Johnson, Robinson, Butler & Claiborne|2020|loc=''The geometry of H4 polytopes''}} So much for the compounds of 16-cells. The 120-cell is also the convex hull of the compound of 120 disjoint regular 5-cells. That stellated compound (without its convex hull of 120-cell edges) is the [[w:Great_grand_stellated_120-cell|great grand stellated 120-cell]] illustrated above, the final regular [[W:Stellation|stellation]] of the 120-cell, and the only [[W:Schläfli-Hess polychoron|regular star 4-polytope]] to have the 120-cell for its convex hull. The edges of the great grand stellated 120-cell are <math>\phi^6</math> as long as those of its 120-cell [[W:List of polyhedral stellations#Stellation process|stellation core]] deep inside. The compound of 120 disjoint 5-point (5-cells) can be seen to be equivalent to the compound of 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells), as follows. Beginning with a single 120-point (600-cell), expand each vertex into a regular 5-cell, by adding 4 new equidistant vertices, such that the 5 vertices form a regular 5-cell inscribed in the 3-sphere. The 120 5-cells are disjoint, and the 600 vertices form 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells): a 120-cell. == Thirty distinguished distances == The 30 numbers listed in the table are all-important in Euclidean geometry. A case can be made on symmetry grounds that their squares are the 30 most important numbers between 0 and 4. The 30 rows of the table are the 30 distinct [[120-cell#Geodesic rectangles|chord lengths of the unit-radius 120-cell]], the largest regular convex 4-polytope. Since the 120-cell subsumes all smaller regular polytopes, its 30 chords are the complete chord set of all the regular polytopes that can be constructed in the first four dimensions of Euclidean space, except for regular polygons of more than 15 sides. {| class="wikitable" style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:center" !rowspan=2|<math>c_t</math> !rowspan=2|arc !rowspan=2|<small><math>\left\{\frac{30}{n}\right\}</math></small> !rowspan=2|<math>\left\{p\right\}</math> !rowspan=2|<small><math>m\left\{\frac{k}{d}\right\}</math></small> !rowspan=2|Steinbach roots !colspan=7|Chord lengths of the unit 120-cell |- !colspan=5|unit-radius length <math>c_t</math> !colspan=2|unit-edge length <math>c_t/c_1</math><br>in 120-cell of radius <math>c_8=\sqrt{2}\phi^2</math> |- |<small><math>c_{1,1}</math></small> |<small><math>15.5{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{30\right\}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{30\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>c_{4,1}-c_{2,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7-3 \sqrt{5}}</math></small> |<small><math>0.270091</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{\sqrt{2} \phi ^2}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{1}{2 \phi ^4}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{0.072949}</math></small> |<small><math>1</math></small> |<small><math>1.</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{2,1}</math></small> |<small><math>25.2{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{30}{2}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>2 \left\{15\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{2} \left(c_{18,1}-c_{4,1}\right)</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt{3-\sqrt{5}}}{2}</math></small> |<small><math>0.437016</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{\sqrt{2} \phi }</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{1}{2 \phi ^2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{0.190983}</math></small> |<small><math>\phi </math></small> |<small><math>1.61803</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{3,1}</math></small> |<small><math>36{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{30}{3}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{10\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>3 \left\{\frac{10}{3}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{2} \left(\sqrt{5}-1\right) c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{2} \left(\sqrt{5}-1\right)</math></small> |<small><math>0.618034</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{\phi }</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi ^2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{0.381966}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{2} \phi </math></small> |<small><math>2.28825</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{4,1}</math></small> |<small><math>41.4{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{60}{7}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{c_{8,1}}{\sqrt{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>0.707107</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{1}{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{0.5}</math></small> |<small><math>\phi ^2</math></small> |<small><math>2.61803</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{5,1}</math></small> |<small><math>44.5{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{30}{4}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>2 \left\{\frac{15}{2}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{3} c_{2,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{9-3 \sqrt{5}}</math></small> |<small><math>0.756934</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}}{\phi }</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{3}{2 \phi ^2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{0.572949}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{3} \phi </math></small> |<small><math>2.80252</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{6,1}</math></small> |<small><math>49.1{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{120}{17}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{5-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt{5-\sqrt{5}}}{2}</math></small> |<small><math>0.831254</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{\sqrt{5}}{2 \phi }}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{0.690983}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi ^3}</math></small> |<small><math>3.07768</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{7,1}</math></small> |<small><math>56.0{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{20}{3}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{\phi }} c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}</math></small> |<small><math>0.93913</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt{\frac{\psi }{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{0.881966}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\psi \phi ^3}</math></small> |<small><math>3.47709</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>60{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{30}{5}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{6\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{6\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>1</math></small> |<small><math>1</math></small> |<small><math>1.</math></small> |<small><math>1</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{1}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{1.}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{2} \phi ^2</math></small> |<small><math>3.70246</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{9,1}</math></small> |<small><math>66.1{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{40}{7}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{2 \phi }} c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}</math></small> |<small><math>1.09132</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt{\frac{\chi }{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{\chi }{2 \phi }}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{1.19098}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\chi \phi ^3}</math></small> |<small><math>4.04057</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{10,1}</math></small> |<small><math>69.8{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{60}{11}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\phi c_{4,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1+\sqrt{5}}{2 \sqrt{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>1.14412</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\phi }{\sqrt{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{\phi ^2}{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{1.30902}</math></small> |<small><math>\phi ^3</math></small> |<small><math>4.23607</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{11,1}</math></small> |<small><math>72{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{30}{6}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{5\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{5\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }} c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}</math></small> |<small><math>1.17557</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{3-\phi }</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{3-\phi }</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{1.38197}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{2} \sqrt{3-\phi } \phi ^2</math></small> |<small><math>4.3525</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{12,1}</math></small> |<small><math>75.5{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{24}{5}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>1.22474</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{1.5}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{3} \phi ^2</math></small> |<small><math>4.53457</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{13,1}</math></small> |<small><math>81.1{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{60}{13}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}}}{2}</math></small> |<small><math>1.30038</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}}}{2}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(9-\sqrt{5}\right)}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{1.69098}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(9-\sqrt{5}\right)} \phi ^2</math></small> |<small><math>4.8146</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{14,1}</math></small> |<small><math>84.5{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{40}{9}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi } c_{8,1}}{\sqrt{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{2} \sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{1+\sqrt{5}}</math></small> |<small><math>1.345</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi }}{\sqrt{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{\sqrt{5} \phi }{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{1.80902}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi ^5}</math></small> |<small><math>4.9798</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{15,1}</math></small> |<small><math>90.0{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{30}{7}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{4\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{4\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>2 c_{4,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{2}</math></small> |<small><math>1.41421</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{2}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{2}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{2.}</math></small> |<small><math>2 \phi ^2</math></small> |<small><math>5.23607</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{16,1}</math></small> |<small><math>95.5{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{120}{29}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}}}{2}</math></small> |<small><math>1.4802</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}}}{2}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(11-\sqrt{5}\right)}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{2.19098}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(11-\sqrt{5}\right)} \phi ^2</math></small> |<small><math>5.48037</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{17,1}</math></small> |<small><math>98.9{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{120}{31}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}}}{2}</math></small> |<small><math>1.51954</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}}}{2}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(7+\sqrt{5}\right)}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{2.30902}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\psi \phi ^5}</math></small> |<small><math>5.62605</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{18,1}</math></small> |<small><math>104.5{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{30}{8}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{15}{4}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}} c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>1.58114</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{2.5}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{5} \sqrt{\phi ^4}</math></small> |<small><math>5.8541</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{19,1}</math></small> |<small><math>108.0{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{30}{9}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{10}{3}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>c_{3,1}+c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{2} \left(1+\sqrt{5}\right)</math></small> |<small><math>1.61803</math></small> |<small><math>\phi </math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{1+\phi }</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{2.61803}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{2} \phi ^3</math></small> |<small><math>5.9907</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{20,1}</math></small> |<small><math>110.2{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{120}{7}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}}}{2}</math></small> |<small><math>1.64042</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}}}{2}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(13-\sqrt{5}\right)}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{2.69098}</math></small> |<small><math>\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\phi ^2}</math></small> |<small><math>6.07359</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{21,1}</math></small> |<small><math>113.9{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{60}{19}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}} c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}</math></small> |<small><math>1.67601</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{2.80902}</math></small> |<small><math>\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{\chi }{\phi }}</math></small> |<small><math>6.20537</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{22,1}</math></small> |<small><math>120{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{30}{10}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{3\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{3\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{3} c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{3}</math></small> |<small><math>1.73205</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{3}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{3}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{3.}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{6} \phi ^2</math></small> |<small><math>6.41285</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{23,1}</math></small> |<small><math>124.0{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{120}{41}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }+\frac{5}{2}} c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}</math></small> |<small><math>1.7658</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{4-\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{4-\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{3.11803}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\chi \phi ^5}</math></small> |<small><math>6.53779</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{24,1}</math></small> |<small><math>130.9{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{20}{7}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}}}{2}</math></small> |<small><math>1.81907</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}}}{2}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(11+\sqrt{5}\right)}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{3.30902}</math></small> |<small><math>\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{\sqrt{5}}{\phi }}</math></small> |<small><math>6.73503</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{25,1}</math></small> |<small><math>135.5{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{30}{11}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{30}{11}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+3 \sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+3 \sqrt{5}}</math></small> |<small><math>1.85123</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\phi ^2}{\sqrt{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{\phi ^4}{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{3.42705}</math></small> |<small><math>\phi ^4</math></small> |<small><math>6.8541</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{26,1}</math></small> |<small><math>138.6{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{12}{5}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}} c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>1.87083</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{3.5}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{7} \phi ^2</math></small> |<small><math>6.92667</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{27,1}</math></small> |<small><math>144{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{30}{12}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{5}{2}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(5+\sqrt{5}\right)} c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(5+\sqrt{5}\right)}</math></small> |<small><math>1.90211</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\phi +2}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{2+\phi }</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{3.61803}</math></small> |<small><math>\phi ^2 \sqrt{2 \phi +4}</math></small> |<small><math>7.0425</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{28,1}</math></small> |<small><math>154.8{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{30}{13}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{30}{13}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}}}{2}</math></small> |<small><math>1.95167</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}}}{2}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(13+\sqrt{5}\right)}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{3.80902}</math></small> |<small><math>\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{1}{\phi ^2}}</math></small> |<small><math>7.22598</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{29,1}</math></small> |<small><math>164.5{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{30}{14}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{15}{7}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\phi c_{12,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} \left(1+\sqrt{5}\right)</math></small> |<small><math>1.98168</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} \phi </math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{3 \phi ^2}{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{3.92705}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{3} \phi ^3</math></small> |<small><math>7.33708</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{30,1}</math></small> |<small><math>180{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{30}{15}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{2\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{2\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>2 c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>2</math></small> |<small><math>2.</math></small> |<small><math>2</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{4}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{4.}</math></small> |<small><math>2 \sqrt{2} \phi ^2</math></small> |<small><math>7.40492</math></small> |- |rowspan=4 colspan=6| |rowspan=4 colspan=4| <small><math>\phi</math></small> is the golden ratio:<br> <small><math>\phi ^2-\phi -1=0</math></small><br> <small><math>\frac{1}{\phi }+1=\phi</math></small>, and: <small><math>\phi+1=\phi^2</math></small><br> <small><math>\frac{1}{\phi }::1::\phi ::\phi ^2</math></small><br> <small><math>1/\phi</math></small> and <small><math>\phi</math></small> are the golden sections of <small><math>\sqrt{5}</math></small>:<br> <small><math>\phi +\frac{1}{\phi }=\sqrt{5}</math></small> |colspan=2|<small><math>\phi = (\sqrt{5} + 1)/2</math></small> |<small><math>1.618034</math></small> |- |colspan=2|<small><math>\chi = (3\sqrt{5} + 1)/2</math></small> |<small><math>3.854102</math></small> |- |colspan=2|<math>\psi = (3\sqrt{5} - 1)/2</math> |<math>2.854102</math> |- |colspan=2|<math>\psi = 11/\chi = 22/(3\sqrt{5} + 1)</math> |<math>2.854102</math> |} == The 16-cell 4-orthoplex == In 2-space we have the regular 8-point octagon, in 3-space the regular 8-point cube, and in 4-space the regular 8-point [[16-cell]]. A planar octagon with rigid edges of unit length has chords of length: :<math>r_1=1,r_2=\sqrt{2+\sqrt{2}} \approx 1.848,r_3=\sqrt{2}+1 \approx 2.414,r_4=\sqrt{4 + \sqrt{8}} \approx 2.613</math> The chord ratio <math>r_3=\sqrt{2}+1</math> is a geometrical proportion, the [[W:Silver ratio|silver ratio]]. Fontaine and Hurley's procedure for obtaining the reciprocal of a chord tells us that: :<math>r_3-r_1-r_1=1/r_3 \approx 0.414</math> Note that <math>r_3-2=1/r_3=\sqrt{2}-1</math>. Their procedure rotates counterclockwise over three <math>r_3</math> chords of an {8/3} octagram. Over the first <math>r_3</math> chord the displacement is <math>\sqrt{2}+1</math>. Over the second <math>r_3</math> chord it moves in the opposite direction a distance of <math>-1</math> . Over the third <math>r_3</math> chord it also moves a distance of <math>-1</math>. Fontaine and Hurley also demonstrated the significance of <math>1/r_i</math> in Steinbach's Diagonal Product Formula, which says that every chord length is the sum of certain smaller chord lengths. The smaller chords are certain diagonals of the same regular polygon of a smaller edge length, specifically edge length <math>1/r_i</math> rather than <math>1</math>. If we embed the planar octagon in 3-space, we can make it skew, repositioning its vertices so that each is one unit-edge length distant from three others instead of two others, at the vertices of a unit-edge cube with chords of length: :<math>r_1=1, r_2=\sqrt{2}, r_3=\sqrt{3}, r_4=\sqrt{2}</math> If we embed this cube in 4-space, we can skew it some more, repositioning its vertices so that each is one unit-edge length distant from six others instead of three others, at the vertices of a unit-edge 4-polytope with chords of length: :<math>r_1=1,r_2=1,r_3=1,r_4=\sqrt{2}</math> All of its chords except its long diameters are the same unit length as its edge. In fact they are its 24 edges, and it is a 16-cell of radius <math>1/\sqrt{2}</math>. [[File:octagon16cell.png|thumb|Orthogonal projection of a regular 16-cell to the [[16-cell#Projections|B₄ Coxeter plane]]. Only its edges are shown; its long diameter chords are not drawn. All 24 edges are the same length and none lie parallel to the projection plane. The octagon circumference is a Petrie polygon. The two disjoint squares lie in completely orthogonal central planes. The blue octagram is a Clifford polygon. ]] The [[16-cell]] is the [[W:Regular convex 4-polytope|regular convex 4-polytope]] with [[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]] <math>\{3,3,4\}</math>. It has 8 vertices, 24 edges, 32 equilateral triangle faces, and 16 regular tetrahedron cells. It is the [[16-cell#Octahedral dipyramid|four-dimensional analogue of the octahedron]], and each of its four orthogonal central hyperplanes is an octahedron. The only planar regular polygons found in the 16-cell are face triangles and central plane squares, but the 16-cell also contains a skew regular octagon, its [[W:Petrie polygon|Petrie polygon]].{{Efn|name=Petrie polygon of a honeycomb}} The chords of this regular octagon, which lies skew in 4-space, are those given above for the 16-cell, as opposed to those for the cube or the regular octagon in the plane. The 16-cell is a construct of 3 Petrie octagons which share the same 8 vertices but have disjoint sets of 8 edges each. The regular octad has higher symmetry in 4-space than it does in 2-space. The 16-cell is the 4-[[w:Cross-polytope|orthoplex]], the simplest regular 4-polytope after the [[5-cell|4-simplex]]. All the larger regular convex 4-polytopes are compounds of the 16-cell. The regular octagon exhibits this high symmetry only when embedded in 4-space at the vertices of the 16-cell. The 16-cell constitutes an [[W:Orthonormal basis|orthonormal basis]] for the choice of a 4-dimensional Cartesian reference frame, because its vertices define four orthogonal axes. The eight vertices of a unit-radius 16-cell are (±1, 0, 0, 0), (0, ±1, 0, 0), (0, 0, ±1, 0), (0, 0, 0, ±1). All vertices are connected by <math>\sqrt{2}</math> edges except opposite pairs. The vertex coordinates of the 16-cell form 6 central squares lying in 6 pairwise [[W:Orthogonal|orthogonal]] coordinate planes. Great squares in opposite planes that do not share an axis (e.g. in the ''xy'' and ''wz'' planes) are completely disjoint (they do not intersect at any vertices). These planes are [[W:Completely orthogonal|completely orthogonal]].{{Efn|name=Six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} Since the unit-radius coordinate system is convenient, let us derive the unit-radius 16-cell by skewing a unit-radius planar octagon, which has chords of length: :<math>r_1=\sqrt{2-\sqrt{2}} \approx 0.765,r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{2+\sqrt{2}} \approx 1.848,r_4=2</math> We will need a planar octagon with rigid <math>r_2</math> chords, rather than one with rigid <math>r_1</math> edges. The octagon's <math>r_2</math> chords form two disjoint great squares, visible in the orthogonal projection, which we can reposition in 3-space to form a cube by making them parallel, and in 4-space to form a 16-cell by making them completely orthogonal. Each chord is a distinct 4-vector with a length and a direction. Since the edges of the 16-cell are all the same length <math>r_1=\sqrt{2},r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{2}</math>, those chords are distinct only in the context of a rotation, where vertices circle over the chords of an <math>r_i</math> polygon. The rotational curve over each <math>r_i</math> chord makes <math>i</math> 45° turns. The angle between two <math>r_i</math> chords is <math>180^\circ - i \times 45^\circ</math>. [[File:16-cell-orig.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 8-point 16-cell <math>\{3,3,4\}</math> performing a double rotation.{{Sfn|Hise|2007}}]] [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space|Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]] can be seen as the composition of two 2-dimensional rotations in completely orthogonal planes. The general rotation in 4-space is a [[W:SO(4)#Double rotations|double rotation]] in pairs of completely orthogonal planes. Two completely orthogonal planes are called invariant planes of the rotation when all points in the plane rotate on circles that remain in the plane, even as the whole plane tilts sideways (like a coin flipping) into another plane. The two completely orthogonal rotations of each plane (like a wheel, and like a coin flipping) are simultaneous but independent, in that they are not geometrically constrained to turn at the same rate. However, the most circular kind of rotation (as opposed to an elliptical double rotation of a rigid spherical object) occurs when the completely orthogonal planes do rotate through the same angle in the same time interval. Such equi-angled double rotations are called [[w:SO(4)#Isoclinic_rotations|isoclinic]], also [[w:William_Kingdon_Clifford|Clifford]] displacements. The <math>r_1</math> chords of the 16-cell form a Petrie polygon {8/1} which zig-zags back and forth, in the left and right rotational directions, between two completely orthogonal great squares formed by <math>r_2</math> chords. The <math>r_2</math> chords of the 16-cell form an ''edge polygon'' {8/2}=2{4}. The two completely orthogonal great squares lie parallel ''and'' perpendicular to each other. A ''simple'' rotation of the 16-cell in ''one'' of those two square central planes rotates that square like a wheel, while the other square does not move.{{Efn|name=simple rotations}} The four vertices of the rotating square orbit on a great circle in the plane. The <math>r_3</math> chords of the 16-cell form a circular helix, visible as a blue {8/3} octagram in the orthogonal projection. A ''double'' rotation of the 16-cell, in both of two completely orthogonal invariant <math>r_2</math> square planes at once by equal angles (an isoclinic rotation), moves the eight vertices along the circular helix over <math>r_3</math> chords. The vertex motion is a [[w:Geodesic|geodesic]] circle orbit on the 3-sphere of a special kind: it does not lie in a central plane, its [[w:Winding_number|winding number]] is not 1 (it is 3 in this case), its circumference is not <math>2\pi</math> (it is <math>6\pi</math> in this case), and it moves in either a left or right handed circular spiral. We shall refer to such a chiral circle orbit as an ''isocline'', and to the skew polygram of its rotational chords as a ''Clifford polygon''. The 16-cell is the simplest possible frame in which to [[16-cell#Rotations|observe 4-dimensional rotations]] because its characteristic rotations feature a single pair of invariant rotation planes. In the 16-cell an isoclinic rotation by 90° in any pair of invariant completely orthogonal square central planes takes every great square to its completely orthogonal great square in a twisting displacement, as the invariant planes tilt sideways 90° into each other's plane while rotating 90° internally. All the vertices move at once along the same circular helix geodesic isocline of <math>r_3</math> chords, displaced 90° in 8 orthogonal directions, and the rigid 16-cell assumes a new orientation in 4-space. When the 90° isoclinic rotation is continued in the same rotational direction through an additional 90°, each vertex is again displaced 90°, but from the new orientation in a direction orthogonal to its first 90° displacement. The rotational curve over each 90° <math>r_3</math> chord makes three 45° turns. In 360° of isoclinic rotation over four <math>r_3</math> chords, each vertex makes twelve 45° turns and reaches its antipodal position. The trajectory of each vertex over each 90° isoclinic rotational displacement is a one-eighth segment of its geodesic orbit. Its entire orbit traces an isocline circle in 4-space of circumference <math>6\pi</math> over eight <math>r_3</math> chords, and also traces an ordinary great circle in the plane twice, over the four <math>r_2</math> edges of a great square in one of the two moving invariant rotation planes. In the course of a 720° isoclinic revolution each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions just once and returns to its original position, and the 16-cell returns to its original orientation. We shall refer to this isoclinic rotation as the ''great square rotation characteristic of the 16-cell'', and note once again that it is Fontaine and Hurley's counterclockwise rotation over the <math>r_3</math> {8/3} star polygon, which constructs <math>1/r_3</math>. == The 8-cell tesseract == The long diameter of the unit-edge [[W:Hypercube|hypercube]] of dimension <math>n</math> is <math>\sqrt{n}</math>, so the unit-edge [[w:Tesseract|4-hypercube, the 16-point (8-cell) tesseract,]] has chords: :<math>r_1=\sqrt{1},r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{3},r_4=\sqrt{4}</math> Uniquely in its 4-dimensional case, a hypercube's edge length equals its radius, like the hexagon. We call such polytopes ''radially equilateral'', because they can be constructed from equilateral triangles which meet at their center, each contributing two radii and an edge. The [[w:Cuboctahedron|cuboctahedron]] and the 24-cell are also radially equilateral. [[File:8-cell.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 16-point (8-cell) tesseract <math>\{4,3,3\}</math> performing a simple rotation about a plane in 4-space.{{Sfn|Hise|2007}} The stationary plane bisects the figure from front-left to back-right and top to bottom.]] The [[W:Tesseract|tesseract]] is the [[W:Regular convex 4-polytope|regular convex 4-polytope]] with [[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]] <math>\{4,3,3\}</math>. It has 16 vertices, 32 edges, 24 square faces, and 8 cube cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the cube. The 16-point tesseract is the convex hull of a compound of two 8-point 16-cells, in exact dimensional analogy to the way the 8-point cube is the convex hull of a [[W:Stellated octahedron|compound of two 4-point regular tetrahedrons]]. The [[W:Demihypercube|demihypercubes]] occupy alternate vertices of the hypercubes. The diagonals of the square faces of the unit-edge, unit-radius tesseract are the <math>\sqrt{2}</math> edges of two unit-radius 16-cells, also the edges of the square central planes. We can rotate the tesseract isoclinically the way we rotated the 16-cell, by 90° in the great square rotation characteristic of the 16-cell, with parallel effect on both alternate-position 16-cells. In the course of a 720° revolution each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions of its 16-cell just once and returns to its original position, but it does not visit the vertex positions of the other 16-cell. The two skew {8/3} octagram Clifford polygons lie on two disjoint parallel isoclines of the same chirality, of circumference <math>6\pi</math> over <math>\sqrt{2}</math> chords. They form a circular double helix which intersects each vertex of the tesseract once. The double helix is an 8-rung ladder twisted around 3 times, and bent into a circle in the fourth dimension with its ends joined. Each rung is a <math>\sqrt{3}</math> chord. The tesseract is the [[W:Dual polytope|dual polytope]] of the 16-cell. They have the same Petrie polygon, the regular skew octagon, but the tesseract is a construct of 4 Petrie octagons with disjoint sets of 8 tesseract edges each. We can construct the tesseract by skewing two planar octagons. Because the tesseract is radially equilateral (unlike the 16-cell), we use two octagons of unit-edge length to build the unit-radius tesseract. To start we embed the planar octagons in 4-space at the same point and make them completely orthogonal. Then we skew each planar octagon into a cube, so we have a compound of two completely orthogonal cubes, provided we skewed them both in the same direction. The 16 vertices will be the vertices of a tesseract with half its 32 edges missing. Because the tesseract contains two 16-cells in alternate positions it has two sets of 6 orthogonal square central planes. Two angles are required to specify the relationship between two planes in 4-space. Pairs of square central planes within each 16-cell are 90° apart in one angle, and either 0° or 90° apart in the other angle. They are 90° apart in both angles if and only if they are completely orthogonal planes, 90° apart by isoclinic rotation, with no vertices in common and their corresponding pairs of vertices 180° apart. Otherwise they are 0° apart in one of the angles, 90° apart by simple rotation, and they intersect in one axis and lie in a common 3-dimensional hyperplane.{{Efn|A double rotation in which one of the two angles of rotation is 0°, so that one of the completely orthogonal invariant planes does not rotate, is called a simple rotation. Ordinary rotations observed in a 3-dimensional space are simple rotations.|name=simple rotations}} A pair of square central planes from alternate-position 16-cells are 60° apart by isoclinic rotation, with their corresponding pairs of vertices 120° apart. The planes are not orthogonal or parallel, so they intersect in a line somewhere, but they have no vertices in common, they have no 3-dimensional hyperplane in common, and they cannot reach each other by simple rotation. Such pairs of objects are called [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] because all their corresponding pairs of vertices are the same distance apart, although they are not parallel in the usual sense, because they have a common center. Not only the alternate-position 16-cells' corresponding square central planes, but also the 16-cells themselves, are Clifford parallel objects. More generally, multiple disjoint instances of a 4-polytope which compound to make a larger 4-polytope are Clifford parallel objects. == The 24-cell == [[File:24-cell vertex geometry.png|thumb|Planar geometry of the radially equilateral 24-cell, showing its 3 great circle polygons and its 4 chord lengths.]] In 2-space we have the radially equilateral 6-point hexagon. In 3-space we have the radially equilateral 12-point cuboctahedron, with 4 hexagon central planes. In 4-space we have the radially equilateral 24-point 24-cell, with 12 cuboctahedron central hyperplanes and 16 hexagon central planes. The [[24-cell]] is the regular convex 4-polytope with Schläfli symbol <math>\{3,4,3\}</math>. It has 24 vertices, 96 edges, 96 equilateral triangle faces, and 24 octahedron cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the cuboctahedron. The 24-cell has the same chord set as the 4-hypercube tesseract: :<math>r_1=\sqrt{1},r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{3},r_4=\sqrt{4}</math> [[Image:24-cell.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 24-point 24-cell <math>\{3,4,3\}</math> performing a simple rotation.{{Sfn|Hise|2007}} The 3-dimensional surface made of 24 octahedra is visible.]] The 24-cell is [[W:Dual polytope|self-dual]], like the regular polygons and regular simplexes. It is the maximal regular construct of triangles and squares (with no pentagons). It is the convex hull of a compound of three completely disjoint 8-point 16-cells, rotated 60° isoclinically with respect to each other. Each of the three pairs of 16-cells is a tesseract. Each 24-cell edge is also a tesseract edge. The corresponding vertices of two 16-cells or two tesseracts are 120° apart by a <math>\sqrt{3}</math> chord. Each tesseract has 8 cube cells, and each cube has four <math>\sqrt{3}</math> long diameters. The <math>\sqrt{3}</math> chords joining the corresponding vertices of two tesseracts belong to the third tesseract as cell long diameters. The 24-cell's Petrie polygon is the regular dodecagon {12}. The unit-radius planar {12}-gon has chords of length: :<math>r_1=\tfrac{\sqrt{3}-1}{\sqrt{2}} \approx 0.518,r_2=\sqrt{1},r_3=\sqrt{2},r_4=\sqrt{3},r_5=\tfrac{\sqrt{3}+1}{\sqrt{2}} \approx 1.932,r_6=\sqrt{4}</math> Fontaine and Hurley's procedure for obtaining the reciprocal of a chord tells us that: :<math>r_5-r_3+r_1+r_1-r_3=1/r_5</math> when <math>r_1=1</math>. In the system of unit-radius coordinates <math>r_1=1/r_5</math>. The procedure rotates counterclockwise over five <math>r_5</math> chords of a {12/5} dodecagram. The <math>r_1</math> and <math>r_5</math> chords of the planar dodecagon do not occur in the 24-cell, which is a construct of eight skew dodecagons with disjoint sets of twelve <math>\sqrt{1}</math> edges each. In the skew dodecagons the chord lengths are: :<math>r_1=\sqrt{1},r_2=\sqrt{1},r_3=\sqrt{2},r_4=\sqrt{3},r_5=\sqrt{3},r_6=\sqrt{4}</math> Where chords are the same length, they are distinct only in the context of a rotation. The <math>r_1=\sqrt{1}</math> chords form 8 Petrie dodecagons which zig-zag back and forth, in the left and right rotational directions, between two Clifford parallel great hexagons formed by <math>r_2</math> chords. The 8 Petrie dodecagons can be divided four ways into 2 disjoint Petrie dodecagons {24/2}=2{12}. The <math>r_2=\sqrt{1}</math> chords form 16 great hexagons, which can be divided four ways into 4 Clifford parallel great hexagons {24/4}=4{6}. The <math>r_3=\sqrt{2}</math> chords form 18 great squares, which can be divided three ways into 6 Clifford parallel great squares {24/6}=6{4}, including one pair of completely orthogonal great squares from each of the three 16-cells. The <math>r_4=\sqrt{3}</math> chords form 32 great triangles, which can be divided four ways into 8 disjoint great triangles {24/8}=8{3} inscribed in 4 Clifford parallel great hexagons. The <math>r_5=\sqrt{3}</math> chords form 8 circular helix Clifford polygons, visible as a green {12/5} dodecagram in the orthogonal projection. An isoclinic rotation of the 24-cell in 4 invariant <math>r_2</math> hexagon planes moves the vertices along 2 Clifford parallel circular isoclines {24/2}=2{12/5} over <math>r_5</math> chords. [[File:dodecagon24cell.png|thumb|Orthogonal projection of half a 24-cell to the [[24-cell#Geodesics|F₄ Coxeter plane]]. Only one Petrie dodecagon {12} of the 24-cell is shown. In a unit-radius 24-cell, all black lines are 24-cell edges of unit length, also tesseract edges. The two disjoint hexagons lie in Clifford parallel central planes. Blue chords are <math>\sqrt{2}</math> 16-cell edges of Clifford parallel great squares, also isocline chords in great square rotations. Green chords are <math>\sqrt{3}</math> distances between corresponding vertices of two 16-cells, also isocline chords in great hexagon rotations. The green {12/5} dodecagram is a Clifford polygon.]] [[File:Regular_star_figure_3(8,3).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/9}=3{8/3} shows three octagram isoclines of <math>\sqrt{2}</math> chords in the 24-cell]] We can rotate the 24-cell isoclinically in 6 Clifford parallel invariant great square planes containing 16-cell edges, in the great square rotation characteristic of the 16-cell, with parallel effect on all three 16-cells. In 720° each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions of its 16-cell just once and returns to its original position, but it does not visit the vertex positions of the other 16-cells. The rotational curve over each 90° <math>\sqrt{2}</math> chord makes three 45° turns. Three Clifford parallel {8/3} octagram geodesic isoclines of circumference <math>6\pi</math> over <math>\sqrt{2}</math> chords form a circular triple helix {24/9}=3{8/3} that intersects each 24-cell vertex once. The triple helix is an 8-step circular staircase that twists around 3 times, and is bent into a torus in the fourth dimension. Each staircase step is a great triangle of <math>\sqrt{3}</math> chords. [[File:Regular star figure 2(12,5).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/10}=2{12/5} shows 2 dodecagram isoclines of <math>\sqrt{3}</math> chords in the 24-cell]]We can rotate the 24-cell isoclinically in 4 Clifford parallel invariant great hexagon planes containing 24-cell edges, over <math>r_{5}</math> isocline chords. This is the ''great hexagon rotation characteristic of the 24-cell'', also Fontaine and Hurley's counterclockwise rotation over the <math>r_5</math> {12/5} star polygon, which constructs <math>1/r_5</math>. A 24-cell great hexagon invariant plane revolution requires 720° like a 16-cell great square invariant plane revolution, but it is completed in 12 isoclinic displacements of 60° each rather than 8 isoclinic displacements of 90° each. An isoclinic rotation by 60° in a great hexagon invariant plane takes every great hexagon to a Clifford parallel great hexagon in a twisting displacement, as 4 great hexagon invariant planes tilt sideways 60° while rotating 60° internally. It also takes every great square to a Clifford parallel great square. All 24 vertices move at once on two Clifford parallel geodesic isoclines, displaced 120° in different directions. The trajectory of each vertex over each 60° rotational displacement is a one-twelfth segment of its geodesic orbit. Its entire orbit traces an isocline circle in 4-space over 12 <math>r_5</math> <math>\sqrt{3}</math> chords, and also traces an ordinary great circle in the plane 5 times in a moving invariant rotation plane. The rotational curve over each <math>r_5</math> 120° chord makes five 30° turns. Two Clifford parallel {12/5} dodecagram geodesic isoclines of circumference <math>10\pi</math> form a circular double helix {24/10}=2{12/5} that intersects each 24-cell vertex once. In the course of a 720° revolution each vertex departs from 12 vertex positions just once and returns to its original position, and the 24-cell returns to its original orientation. {| class="wikitable floatright" style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:center" ! colspan="7" |6 distinct 180° chord pairs make 6 distinct isoclinic rotations |- ! colspan="3" |Short chords !Invariant planes ! colspan="3" |Long chords |- style="background: gainsboro;" | | rowspan="4" |<math>t_1</math> |60° | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_polygon_24.svg|100px]]<br>{24/1}={24} | rowspan="4" | | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_24-11.svg|100px]]<br>{24/11} |120° | rowspan="4" |<math>t_{11}</math> |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |{{radic|1}} |{{radic|3}} |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |1 |1.732~ |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |165° |15° |- style="background: palegreen;" | | rowspan="4" |<math>t_2</math> |60° | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(12,1).svg|100px]]<br>{24/2}=2{12} | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_4(6,1).svg|100px]]<br>{24/4}=4{6} | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(12,5).svg|100px]]<br>{24/10}=2{12/5} |120° | rowspan="4" |<math>t_{10}</math> |- style="background: palegreen;" | |{{radic|1}} |{{radic|3}} |- style="background: palegreen;" | |1 |1.732~ |- style="background: palegreen;" | |150° |30° |- style="background: seashell;" | | rowspan="4" |<math>t_3</math> |90° | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(8,1).svg|100px]]<br>{24/3}=3{8} | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(4,1).svg|100px]]<br>{24/6}=6{4} | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(8,3).svg|100px]]<br>{24/9}=3{8/3} |90° | rowspan="4" |<math>t_{9}</math> |- style="background: seashell;" | |{{radic|2}} |{{radic|2}} |- style="background: seashell;" | |1.414~ |1.414~ |- style="background: seashell;" | |135° |45° |- style="background: palegreen;" | | rowspan="4" |<math>t_4</math> |60° | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_4(6,1).svg|100px]]<br>{24/4}=4{6} | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_12(2,1).svg|100px]]<br>{24/12}=12{2} | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_8(3,1).svg|100px]]<br>{24/8}=8{3} |120° | rowspan="4" |<math>t_{8}</math> |- style="background: palegreen;" | |{{radic|1}} |{{radic|3}} |- style="background: palegreen;" | |1 |1.732~ |- style="background: palegreen;" | |120° |60° |- style="background: gainsboro;" | | rowspan="4" |<math>t_5</math> |60° | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_24-5.svg|100px]]<br>{24/5} | rowspan="4" | | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_24-7.svg|100px]]<br>{24/7} |120° | rowspan="4" |<math>t_{7}</math> |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |{{radic|1}} |{{radic|3}} |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |1 |1.732~ |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |105° |75° |- style="background: seashell;" | | rowspan="4" |<math>t_6</math> |90° | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(4,1).svg|100px]]<br>{24/6}=6{4} | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(4,1).svg|100px]]<br>{24/6}=6{4} | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(4,1).svg|100px]]<br>{24/6}=6{4} |90° | rowspan="4" |<math>t_{6}</math> |- style="background: seashell;" | |{{radic|2}} |{{radic|2}} |- style="background: seashell;" | |1.414~ |1.414~ |- style="background: seashell;" | |90° |90° |} By examining the chords <math>r_i</math> of the 24-cell's Petrie {12}-gon we have found two distinct isoclinic rotations, the great square rotation characteristic of the 16-cell and the great hexagon rotation characteristic of the 24-cell. If we examine the chords <math>t_i</math> of the 24-cell's {24}-gon we find these, and also four other distinct isoclinic rotations. Each row of the table describes a distinct isoclinic rotation of the 24-cell characterized by a pair of chords whose arc-lengths sum to 180°. Each chord lies in a central plane which is either a great square or a great hexagon. Each short chord plane is completely orthogonal to a corresponding long chord plane. These central planes are not to be confused with the invariant planes of the rotation, which intersect 0, 2, 4, or 6 vertices of the 24-cell as illustrated in the center column of each row. The short chord and long chord each have their characteristic {24/''n''}-gon, which correspond as projections of the 24-cell to completely orthogonal planes. Their projection viewpoints look straight down orthogonal cylinders in <math>\mathbb{S}^3</math> which are [[w:SO(4)#Visualization_of_4D_rotations|bent into tori]] in <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>. Each {24/''n''}-gon forms either a compound of ''n'' disjoint Clifford parallel regular polygons, or a single regular {24/n} star polygon. Polygons with {2}, {3}, {4} or {6} sides lie in a central plane, and all others lie skew in 4-space. The rotational angle between successive short chords in 4-space and the rotational angle between successive long chords in 4-space sum to 180°. Those angles distinguish distinct chords <math>t_i</math> which are the same length. Each isoclinic rotation takes two chiral forms. There is a ''right rotation'' and a ''left rotation'' for each row of the table. A pair of right and left rotations are enantiomorphous reflections of each other, like a pair of clasped hands. The rotation takes Clifford parallel short chord polygons to each other, while the long chord polygons remain stationary in 4-space as vertices circle over them. The right and left rotations have non-congruent vertex position sequences: they take the short chord polygons through different sequences of short chord polygons. {{Clear}} == The 600-cell == [[Image:600-cell.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 120-point 600-cell <math>\{3,3,5\}</math> performing a simple rotation.{{Sfn|Hise|2011}} The 3-dimensional surface made of 600 tetrahedra is visible. Invisible in this rendering are 25 inscribed instances of the [[#The 24-cell|24-cell (see illustration above)]], which occur in the 600-cell as interior boundary envelopes.]] The [[600-cell]] is the regular convex 4-polytope with Schläfli symbol <math>\{3,3,5\}</math>. It has 120 vertices, 720 edges, 1200 equilateral triangle faces, and 600 tetrahedron cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the icosahedron. The 600-cell rounds out the 24-cell by adding 96 more vertices (four more disjoint 24-cells) between the 24-cell's existing 24 vertices, in effect adding twenty-four more distinct 24-cells inscribed in the 600-cell. The new surface thus formed is a honeycomb of smaller, more numerous cells: tetrahedra of edge length <math>\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618</math> instead of octahedra of edge length <math>\sqrt{1}</math>. It encloses the <math>\sqrt{1}</math> edges of the 24-cells, which become invisible interior chords in the 600-cell, like the <math>\sqrt{2}</math> and <math>\sqrt{3}</math> chords. Since the tetrahedra are made of shorter triangle edges than the octahedra (by a factor of <math>\phi^{-1}</math> the inverse golden ratio), the 600-cell is not radially equilateral like the 24-cell and the tesseract. Like them it is radially triangular in a special way, but one in which [[w:Golden_triangle_(mathematics)|golden triangles]] rather than equilateral triangles meet at the center. In 2-space we have the ''radially golden'' [[W:Decagon#The golden ratio in decagon|regular decagon]]. In 3-space we have the radially golden 30-point [[W:icosidodecahedron|icosidodecahedron]], with 6 decagon central planes. In 4-space we have the radially golden 120-point 600-cell, with 60 icosidodecahedron central hyperplanes and 72 decagon central planes. The 600-cell's Petrie polygon is the regular [[w:Triacontagon|triacontagon {30}]]. The unit-radius planar {30}-gon has chords of length: :<math>r_1=2 \times \sin(\tfrac{\pi}{15}/2) \approx 0.209</math> :<math>r_2=2 \times \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{15}/2) \approx 0.416</math> :<math>r_3=2 \times \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618</math> :<math>r_4=2 \times \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{15}/2) \approx 0.813</math> :<math>r_5=2 \times \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{1}</math> :<math>r_6=2 \times \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{3-\phi} \approx 1.176</math> :<math>r_7=2 \times \sin (\tfrac{7\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.338</math> :<math>r_8=2 \times \cos (\tfrac{7\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.486</math> :<math>r_9=2 \times \sin (\tfrac{3\pi}{5}/2)=\phi \approx 1.618</math> :<math>r_{10}=2 \times \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{3}</math> :<math>r_{11}=2 \times \cos (\tfrac{4\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.827</math> :<math>r_{12}=2 \times \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902</math> :<math>r_{13}=2 \times \cos (\tfrac{2\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.956</math> :<math>r_{14}=2 \times \cos (\tfrac{\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.989</math> :<math>r_{15}=2 \times \sin (\pi/2)=\sqrt{4}</math> Only the chord lengths <math>r_3</math>, <math>r_5</math>, <math>r_6</math>, <math>\sqrt{2}</math>, <math>r_9</math>, <math>r_{10}</math>, <math>r_{12}</math>, <math>r_{15}</math> occur in the 600-cell, which is a construct of 24 Petrie {30}-gons of edge length <math>r_3</math>, six of which intersect in each icosahedral vertex figure. In the skew {30}-gons the chord lengths are: [[File:600-cell vertex geometry.png|thumb|Planar geometry of the 600-cell, showing its 5 regular great circle polygons and its 8 chord lengths with angles of arc. The golden ratio governs the fractional roots of every other chord, and the radial golden triangles which meet at the center.|400x400px]] :<math>r_1=2 \times \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618</math> :<math>r_2=2 \times \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618</math> :<math>r_3=2 \times \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618</math> :<math>r_4=2 \times \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{1}</math> :<math>r_5=2 \times \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{1}</math> :<math>r_6=2 \times \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{3-\phi} \approx 1.176</math> :<math>r_7=2 \times \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{2}/2)=\sqrt{2}</math> :<math>r_8=2 \times \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{2}/2)=\sqrt{2}</math> :<math>r_9=2 \times \sin (\tfrac{3\pi}{5}/2)=\phi \approx 1.618</math> :<math>r_{10}=2 \times \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{3}</math> :<math>r_{11}=2 \times \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{3}</math> :<math>r_{12}=2 \times \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902</math> :<math>r_{13}=2 \times \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902</math> :<math>r_{14}=2 \times \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902</math> :<math>r_{15}=2 \times \sin (\pi/2)=\sqrt{4}</math> Where chords are the same length, they are distinct only in the context of a rotation. {| class="wikitable floatright" style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:center" ! colspan="7" |15 chords (4 distinct 180° pairs) make 4 distinct section polyhedra |- ! colspan="3" |Short chords ! Section ! colspan="3" |Long chords |- style="background: palegreen;" | | rowspan="4" |<math>r_0</math> |0° | rowspan="4" | | rowspan="4" | | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_15(2,1).svg|100px]]<br>{30/15}=15{2} |180° | rowspan="4" |<math>r_{15}</math> |- style="background: palegreen;" | |{{radic|0}} |{{radic|4}} |- style="background: palegreen;" | |0 |2 |- style="background: palegreen;" | |180° |0° |- style="background: palegreen;" | | rowspan="4" |<math>r_1</math> |36° | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_polygon_30.svg|100px]]<br>{30/1} | rowspan="4" | | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,7).svg|100px]]<br>{30/14}=2{15/7} |144° | rowspan="4" |<math>r_{14}</math> |- style="background: palegreen;" | |{{radic|0.382~}} |{{radic|3.618~}} |- style="background: palegreen;" | |0.618~ |1.902~ |- style="background: palegreen;" | |168° |12° |- style="background: gainsboro;" | | rowspan="4" |<math>r_2</math> |36° | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,1).svg|100px]]<br>{30/2}=2{15} | rowspan="4" | | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-13.svg|100px]]<br>{30/13} |144° | rowspan="4" |<math>r_{13}</math> |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |{{radic|0.382~}} |{{radic|3.618~}} |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |0.618~ |1.902~ |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |156° |24° |- style="background: yellow;" | | rowspan="4" |<math>r_3</math> |36° | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,1).svg|100px]]<br>{30/3}=3{10} | rowspan="4" |[[File:V1 icosahedron.png|100px]]<br>Icosahedron | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,2).svg|100px]]<br>{30/12}=6{5/2} |144° | rowspan="4" |<math>r_{12}</math> |- style="background: yellow;" | |{{radic|0.382~}} |{{radic|3.618~}} |- style="background: yellow;" | |0.618~ |1.902~ |- style="background: yellow;" | |144° |36° |- style="background: palegreen;" | | rowspan="4" |<math>r_4</math> |60° | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,2).svg|100px]]<br>{30/4}=2{15/2} | rowspan="4" | | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-11.svg|100px]]<br>{30/11} |120° | rowspan="4" |<math>r_{11}</math> |- style="background: palegreen;" | |{{radic|1}} |{{radic|3}} |- style="background: palegreen;" | |1 |1.732~ |- style="background: palegreen;" | |132° |48° |- style="background: palegreen;" | | rowspan="4" |<math>r_5</math> |60° | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_5(6,1).svg|100px]]<br>{30/5}=5{6} | rowspan="4" |[[File:V2 dodecahedron.png|100px]]<br>Dodecahedron | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_10(3,1).svg|100px]]<br>{30/10}=10{3} |120° | rowspan="4" |<math>r_{10}</math> |- style="background: palegreen;" | |{{radic|1}} |{{radic|3}} |- style="background: palegreen;" | |1 |1.732~ |- style="background: palegreen;" | |120° |60° |- style="background: yellow;" | | rowspan="4" |<math>r_{6}</math> |72° | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,1).svg|100px]]<br>{30/6}=6{5} | rowspan="4" |[[File:V3 icosahedron.png|100px]]<br>Icosahedron | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,3).svg|100px]]<br>{30/9}=3{10/3} |108° | rowspan="4" |<math>r_{9}</math> |- style="background: yellow;" | |{{radic|1.382~}} |{{radic|2.618~}} |- style="background: yellow;" | |1.176~ |1.618~ |- style="background: yellow;" | |108° |72° |- style="background: seashell;" | | rowspan="4" |<math>r_{7}</math> |90° | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-7.svg|100px]]<br>{30/7} | rowspan="4" |[[File:V4 icosidodecahedron.png|100px]]<br>Icosidodecahedron | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,4).svg|100px]]<br>{30/8}=2{15/4} |90° | rowspan="4" |<math>r_{8}</math> |- style="background: seashell;" | |{{radic|2}} |{{radic|2}} |- style="background: seashell;" | |1.414~ |1.414~ |- style="background: seashell;" | |96° |84° |} The list of 600-cell chords <math>r_{i}</math> can be rearranged into a table of 8 rows with a pair of 180° complements in each row. The short chord and long chord each have their characteristic {30/n}-gon. Each row identifies a distinct isoclinic rotation of the 600-cell, which occurs in right and left chiral forms. In both forms the long chord is the isocline chord of the stationary Clifford polygon over which vertices circle in 4-space. Each distinct pair of complementary chord lengths is also identified with a distinct [[w:600-cell#Polyhedral sections|polyhedral section of the 600-cell]] beginning with a vertex. In spherical [[w:3-sphere|3-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{S}^3</math>]], every vertex is the center of a set of 7 concentric polyhedra of increasing radii that nest like [[w:Matryoshka_doll|Russian dolls.]] The smallest polyhedral section at radial distance <math>\phi^{-1}</math> is a icosahedron vertex figure, and the largest section at radial distance <math>\sqrt{2}</math> is an [[W:Icosidodecahedron|icosidodecahedron]] central section bisecting the 600-cell. Because [[w:3-sphere|<math>\mathbb{S}^3</math>]] is spherical, at radial distances greater than <math>\sqrt{2}</math> the successive complement-radius polyhedra decrease in size, to the antipodal icosahedron vertex figure at distance <math>\sqrt{2+\phi}</math>. In Euclidean 4-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>, every vertex is the apex of 7 [[w:Hyperpyramid|polyhedral pyramids]] where the lateral edge length is the chordal distance to the base polyhedron section. Each section lies parallel to a congruent complement-radius section (or coincident with it, in the case of the central section). [[File:Regular_star_figure_3(8,3).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/9}=3{8/3} <math>\sqrt{2}</math>]] We can rotate the 600-cell isoclinically in the great square rotation characteristic of the 16-cell, with parallel effect on 15 disjoint 16-cells. Each 90° displacement takes 15 pairs of completely orthogonal invariant great square planes to each other. In the course of a 720° revolution each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions of its 16-cell just once and returns to its original position, without visiting other vertex positions. The rotational curve over each 90° chord makes three 45° turns. Fifteen Clifford parallel {8/3} octagram geodesic isoclines of circumference <math>6\pi</math> form a circular fibration of 15 twisted parallel strands 5{24/9}=15{8/3} that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. The 600-cell has another distinct isoclinic rotation in invariant great square planes, which has period 30 and visits every vertex of a 600-cell Petrie polygon. This ''great square rotation characteristic of the 600-cell'' takes place over <math>r_7</math> edge chords and <math>r_8</math> isocline chords. The {30/7} edge polygon is a skew helix of circumference <math>14\pi</math> with each <math>r_7</math> edge belonging to a distinct great square. The four {30/7} polygrams contribute one edge each to 30 great squares. Each 90° displacement takes every 16-cell to another 16-cell. The vertices of the invariant great squares each make seven orbits on a great circle within the moving invariant plane in the course of one complete revolution. The rotational curve over each 90° {30/7} edge makes seven 12° turns. Four Clifford parallel {30/7} geodesics of circumference <math>14\pi</math> form a circular quadruple helix that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. The {30/8}=2{15/4} Clifford polygon is a compound of two skew {15/4} pentadecagrams of circumference <math>16\pi</math> with each <math>r_8</math> isocline chord belonging to a distinct 16-cell. The four {30/8} polygrams contribute one edge each to 30 great squares. The rotational curve over each 90° {30/8} isocline chord makes eight 12° turns. Four Clifford parallel {30/8} geodesics of circumference <math>16\pi</math> form a circular quadruple helix that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. {{Clear}} [[File:Regular star figure 2(12,5).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/10}=2{12/5} <math>\sqrt{3}</math>]] We can rotate the 600-cell isoclinically in the great hexagon rotation characteristic of the 24-cell, over <math>\sqrt{1}</math> edge chords and <math>\sqrt{3}</math> isocline chords, with parallel effect on 5 disjoint 24-cells. In the course of a 720° revolution each vertex departs from 12 vertex positions of its 24-cell just once and returns to its original position, without visiting other vertex positions. Ten Clifford parallel {12/5} dodecagram geodesic isoclines of circumference <math>10\pi</math> form a circular fibration of ten twisted parallel strands 5{24/10}=10{12/5} that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. The 600-cell has another distinct isoclinic rotation in invariant great hexagon planes, over <math>r_{4}=\sqrt{1}</math> edge chords and <math>r_{11}=\sqrt{3}</math> isocline chords This ''great hexagon rotation characteristic of the 600-cell'' has 4 parallel orbits of period 30. The {30/11} Clifford polygon is a skew helix where each <math>r_{11}</math> isocline chord is the <math>\sqrt{3}</math> diagonal of a great hexagon of a 24-cell. The vertices in the invariant planes of this rotation each make eleven orbits on a great circle within the moving invariant plane in the course of one complete revolution. The rotational curve over each 120° <math>r_{11}</math> isocline chord makes eleven 12° turns. Four Clifford parallel {30/11} geodesic isoclines of circumference <math>22\pi</math> over <math>r_{11}</math> chords form a circular quadruple helix that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. We can rotate the 600-cell isoclinically in 12 Clifford parallel invariant decagon central planes containing its 36° <math>r_{3}</math> edges, over 144° <math>r_{12}</math> isocline chords. This ''great pentagon rotation characteristic of the 600-cell'' has period 5 and takes disjoint 24-cells to each other. The rotational curve over each <math>r_{12}</math> chord of its {5/2} Clifford polygon makes twelve 12° turns. 24 Clifford parallel {5/2} pentagram geodesic isoclines of circumference <math>4\pi</math> over five <math>r_{12}</math> chords form a circular fibration of 24 twisted parallel strands 4{30/12}=24{5/2} that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. The rotation of the 600-cell by 36° in any invariant decagon central plane takes every great decagon to a Clifford parallel great decagon in a twisting displacement, as all the central planes tilt sideways 36° while rotating 36° internally. It also takes every great hexagon to a Clifford parallel great hexagon, and every great square to a Clifford parallel great square. The 24-cells revolve within the 600-cell, as the 16-cells revolve within the 24-cells. All 120 vertices move at once on four Clifford parallel geodesic isoclines, displaced 144° in different directions. The 600-cell has another distinct isoclinic rotation in invariant great decagon planes containing its 36° <math>r_{2}</math> edges, over 144° <math>r_{13}</math> isocline chords. This rotation has 4 parallel orbits of period 30. The rotational curve over each 144° <math>r_{13}</math> isocline chord makes thirteen 12° turns. Four Clifford parallel {30/13} geodesic isoclines of circumference <math>26\pi</math> form a circular quadruple helix that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. {{Clear}} == Finally the 120-cell == {| class="wikitable floatright" style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:center" ! colspan="7" |30 chords (15 180° pairs) make 15 distinct section polyhedra |- ! colspan="3" |Short chords ! Section ! colspan="3" |Long chords |- style="background: palegreen;" | | rowspan="4" |<math>c_0</math> |0° | rowspan="4" | | rowspan="4" | | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_15(2,1).svg|100px]]<br>{30/15}=15{2} |180° | rowspan="4" |<math>c_{30}</math> |- style="background: palegreen;" | |{{radic|0}} |{{radic|4}} |- style="background: palegreen;" | |0 |2 |- style="background: palegreen;" | |180° |0° |- style="background: palegreen;" | | rowspan="4" |<math>c_1</math> |15.5~° | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_polygon_30.svg|100px]]<br>{30/1} | rowspan="4" | | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,7).svg|100px]]<br>{30/14} |164.5~° | rowspan="4" |<math>c_{29}</math> |- style="background: palegreen;" | |{{radic|0.073~}} |{{radic|3.927~}} |- style="background: palegreen;" | |0.270~ |1.982~ |- style="background: palegreen;" | |168° |12° |- style="background: gainsboro;" | | rowspan="4" |<math>c_2</math> |25.2~° | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,1).svg|100px]]<br>{30/2}=2{15} | rowspan="4" | | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-13.svg|100px]]<br>{30/13} |154.8~° | rowspan="4" |<math>c_{28}</math> |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |{{radic|0.191~}} |{{radic|3.809~}} |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |0.437~ |1.952~ |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |156° |24° |- style="background: yellow;" | | rowspan="4" |<math>c_3</math> |36° | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,1).svg|100px]]<br>{30/3}=3{10} | rowspan="4" | | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,2).svg|100px]]<br>{30/12}=6{5/2} |144° | rowspan="4" |<math>c_{27}</math> |- style="background: yellow;" | |{{radic|0.382~}} |{{radic|3.618~}} |- style="background: yellow;" | |0.618~ |1.902~ |- style="background: yellow;" | |144° |36° |- style="background: gainsboro;" | | rowspan="4" |<math>c_4</math> |41.4~° | rowspan="4" | | rowspan="4" | | rowspan="4" | |138.6~° | rowspan="4" |<math>c_{26}</math> |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |{{radic|0.5}} |{{radic|3.5}} |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |0.707~ |1.871~ |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |138° |42° |- style="background: palegreen;" | | rowspan="4" |<math>c_5</math> |44.5~° | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,2).svg|100px]]<br>{30/4}=2{15/2} | rowspan="4" | | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-11.svg|100px]]<br>{30/11} |135.5~° | rowspan="4" |<math>c_{25}</math> |- style="background: palegreen;" | |{{radic|0.573~}} |{{radic|3.427~}} |- style="background: palegreen;" | |0.757~ |1.851~ |- style="background: palegreen;" | |132° |48° |- style="background: gainsboro; height:50px" | | rowspan="4" |<math>c_6</math> |49.1~° | rowspan="4" | | rowspan="4" | | rowspan="4" | |130.9~° | rowspan="4" |<math>c_{24}</math> |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |{{radic|0.691~}} |{{radic|3.309~}} |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |0.831~ |1.819~ |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |128° |52° |- style="background: gainsboro; height:50px" | | rowspan="4" |<math>c_7</math> |56° | rowspan="4" | | rowspan="4" | | rowspan="4" | |124° | rowspan="4" |<math>c_{23}</math> |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |{{radic|0.882~}} |{{radic|3.118~}} |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |0.939~ |1.766~ |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |124° |56° |- style="background: palegreen;" | | rowspan="4" |<math>c_8</math> |60° | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_5(6,1).svg|100px]]<br>{30/5}=5{6} | rowspan="4" | | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_10(3,1).svg|100px]]<br>{30/10}=10{3} |120° | rowspan="4" |<math>c_{22}</math> |- style="background: palegreen;" | |{{radic|1}} |{{radic|3}} |- style="background: palegreen;" | |1 |1.732~ |- style="background: palegreen;" | |120° |60° |- style="background: gainsboro; height:50px" | | rowspan="4" |<math>c_9</math> |66.1~° | rowspan="4" | | rowspan="4" | | rowspan="4" | |113.9~° | rowspan="4" |<math>c_{21}</math> |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |{{radic|1.191~}} |{{radic|2.809~}} |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |1.091~ |1.676~ |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |116° |64° |- style="background: gainsboro; height:50px" | | rowspan="4" |<math>c_{10}</math> |69.8~° | rowspan="4" | | rowspan="4" | | rowspan="4" | |110.2~° | rowspan="4" |<math>c_{20}</math> |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |{{radic|1.309~}} |{{radic|2.691~}} |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |1.144~ |1.640~ |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |112° |68° |- style="background: yellow;" | | rowspan="4" |<math>c_{11}</math> |72° | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,1).svg|100px]]<br>{30/6}=6{5} | rowspan="4" | | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,3).svg|100px]]<br>{30/9}=3{10/3} |108° | rowspan="4" |<math>c_{19}</math> |- style="background: yellow;" | |{{radic|1.382~}} |{{radic|2.618~}} |- style="background: yellow;" | |1.176~ |1.618~ |- style="background: yellow;" | |108° |72° |- style="background: palegreen; height:50px" | | rowspan="4" |<math>c_{12}</math> |75.5~° | rowspan="4" | | rowspan="4" | | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,4).svg|100px]]<br>{30/8}=2{15/4} |104.5~° | rowspan="4" |<math>c_{18}</math> |- style="background: palegreen;" | |{{radic|1.5}} |{{radic|2.5}} |- style="background: palegreen;" | |1.224~ |1.581~ |- style="background: palegreen;" | |96° |84° |- style="background: gainsboro; height:50px" | | rowspan="4" |<math>c_{13}</math> |81.1~° | rowspan="4" | | rowspan="4" | | rowspan="4" | |98.9~° | rowspan="4" |<math>c_{17}</math> |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |{{radic|1.691~}} |{{radic|2.309~}} |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |1.300~ |1.520~ |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |° |° |- style="background: gainsboro; height:50px" | | rowspan="4" |<math>c_{14}</math> |84.5~° | rowspan="4" | | rowspan="4" | | rowspan="4" | |95.5~° | rowspan="4" |<math>c_{16}</math> |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |{{radic|0.809~}} |{{radic|2.191~}} |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |1.345~ |1.480~ |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |° |° |- style="background: seashell;" | | rowspan="4" |<math>c_{15}</math> |90° | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-7.svg|100px]]<br>{30/7} | rowspan="4" | | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-7.svg|100px]]<br>{30/7} |90° | rowspan="4" |<math>c_{15}</math> |- style="background: seashell;" | |{{radic|2}} |{{radic|2}} |- style="background: seashell;" | |1.414~ |1.414~ |- style="background: seashell;" | |90° |90° |} The [[120-cell]] is the regular convex 4-polytope with Schläfli symbol <math>\{5,3,3\}</math>. It has 600 vertices, 1200 edges, 720 pentagon faces, and 120 dodecahedron cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the dodecahedron. The [[User:Dc.samizdat/Golden chords of the 120-cell#Thirty distinguished distances|list of 30 120-cell chords]] <math>c_{t}</math> can be rearranged into a table of 16 rows with a pair of 180° complements in each row. This table first appears in [[w:Regular_Polytopes_(book)|''Regular Polytopes'']] (1947),{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|loc=Table V(v): Simplified sections of {5,3,3} beginning with a vertex|pp=300-301}} where Coxeter identified each row with a distinct [[w:120-cell#Concentric_hulls|polyhedral section of the 120-cell]] beginning with a vertex. He showed that in spherical [[w:3-sphere|3-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{S}^3</math>]] every vertex is the center of a set of 29 concentric polyhedra of increasing radii that nest like [[w:Matryoshka_doll|Russian dolls.]] The smallest polyhedral section at radial distance <math>c_1</math> is a tetrahedron vertex figure, and the largest section at radial distance <math>c_{15}</math> is a central section bisecting the 120-cell. Because [[w:3-sphere|<math>\mathbb{S}^3</math>]] is spherical, at radial distances greater than <math>c_{15}</math> the successive complement-radius polyhedra decrease in size, to the antipodal tetrahedron vertex figure at distance <math>c_{29}</math>. In Euclidean 4-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>, every vertex is the apex of 29 [[w:Hyperpyramid|polyhedral pyramids]], where the pyramid's lateral edge length is the radial distance in <math>\mathbb{S}^3</math> and its base polyhedron is the section. Each section lies parallel to a congruent complement-radius section (or coincident with it, in the case of the central section). In the 120-cell, each section also lies completely orthogonal to another congruent section. The 120-cell is the [[W:Dual polytope|dual polytope]] of the 600-cell. They have the same Petrie polygon, the regular skew triacontagon {30}, but the 120-cell is a construct of 40 Petrie {30}-gons of edge length <math>c_1</math>, two of which intersect in each tetrahedral vertex figure. Only 8 of the 30 chords in the 120-cell occur in the 600-cell. The 120-cell's additional chords arise originally from the regular 5-cell 4-simplex, in its interaction with the other regular 4-polytopes that compound to make the 120-cell. Since all those polytopes except the 5-cell occur in the 600-cell, and the 600-cell and the 120-cell have the same symmetry group, the 5-cell's symmetry group is the entirety of what's new in the 120-cell. ... {{Clear}} == Conclusions == Fontaine and Hurley's discovery is more than a geometric formula for the reciprocal of a regular ''n''-polygon diagonal. It also yields the discrete sequence of isocline chords of the characteristic isoclinic rotation of a ''d''-dimensional polytope. The characteristic rotational chord sequence of the ''d''-polytope can be represented geometrically in two dimensions on a distinct star polygon, but it lies on a geodesic circle through ''d''-dimensional space. Fontaine and Hurley discovered the geodesic topology of polytopes generally. Their procedure will reveal the geodesics of arbitrary non-uniform polytopes, since it can be applied to a polytope of any dimensionality and irregularity, by first fitting the polytope to the smallest regular polygon whose chords include its chords. [If what is meant by this is its Petrie polygon, it is not quite necessary or possible with respect to the planar polygon chords, e.g. the planar Petrie polygon of the 600-cell does not contain the <math>\sqrt{2}</math> chord. But perhaps it would work if the fit is to the smallest regular skew polygon in the ''d''-space.] The discovery of a chordal construction for discrete isoclinic rotations generally closes the circuit on Kappraff and Adamson's discovery of a rotational connection between dynamical systems, Steinbach's golden fields, and Coxeter's Euclidean geometry of reflections in ''n'' dimensions. Application of the Fontaine and Hurley procedure to the 120-cell demonstrates why the connection exists: because polytope sequences generally, from Steinbach's golden chord sequences in polygons, to sequences of star polygons in isoclinic rotations, to subsumption relations in the sequence of regular 4-polytopes, arise as expressions of the reflections and rotations of distinct Coxeter symmetry groups, when those various groups interact. == Appendix: Sequence of regular 4-polytopes == {{Regular convex 4-polytopes|wiki=W:|columns=7}} == Notes == {{Notelist}} == Citations == {{Reflist}} == References == {{Refbegin}} * {{Cite journal | last=Steinbach | first=Peter | year=1997 | title=Golden fields: A case for the Heptagon | journal=Mathematics Magazine | volume=70 | issue=Feb 1997 | pages=22–31 | doi=10.1080/0025570X.1997.11996494 | jstor=2691048 | ref={{SfnRef|Steinbach|1997}} }} * {{Cite journal | last=Steinbach | first=Peter | year=2000 | title=Sections Beyond Golden| journal=Bridges: Mathematical Connections in Art, Music and Science | issue=2000 | pages=35-44 | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2000/bridges2000-35.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Steinbach|2000}}}} * {{Cite journal | last1=Kappraff | first1=Jay | last2=Jablan | first2=Slavik | last3=Adamson | first3=Gary | last4=Sazdanovich | first4=Radmila | year=2004 | title=Golden Fields, Generalized Fibonacci Sequences, and Chaotic Matrices | journal=Forma | volume=19 | pages=367-387 | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2005/bridges2005-369.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Kappraff, Jablan, Adamson & Sazdanovich|2004}} }} * {{Cite journal | last1=Kappraff | first1=Jay | last2=Adamson | first2=Gary | year=2004 | title=Polygons and Chaos | journal=Dynamical Systems and Geometric Theories | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2001/bridges2001-67.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Kappraff & Adamson|2004}} }} * {{Cite journal | last1=Fontaine | first1=Anne | last2=Hurley | first2=Susan | year=2006 | title=Proof by Picture: Products and Reciprocals of Diagonal Length Ratios in the Regular Polygon | journal=Forum Geometricorum | volume=6 | pages=97-101 | url=https://scispace.com/pdf/proof-by-picture-products-and-reciprocals-of-diagonal-length-1aian8mgp9.pdf }} {{Refend}} i6yhse4zb0zyda0nxqavlojh7j772ca 2836331 2836330 2026-10-06T16:08:34Z Dc.samizdat 2856930 2836331 wikitext text/x-wiki = Golden chords of the 120-cell = {{align|center|David Brooks Christie}} {{align|center|dc@samizdat.org}} {{align|center|Draft in progress}} {{align|center|January 2026 - October 2026}} <blockquote>Steinbach discovered the formula for the ratios of diagonal to side in the regular polygons. Fontaine and Hurley extended this result, discovering a formula for the reciprocal of a regular polygon chord derived geometrically from the chord's star polygon. We observe that these findings in plane geometry apply more generally, to polytopes of any dimensionality. Fontaine and Hurley's geometric procedure for finding the reciprocals of the chords of a regular polygon from their star polygons also finds the rotational geodesics of any polytope of any dimensionality.</blockquote> == Introduction == Steinbach discovered the Diagonal Product Formula and the Golden Fields family of ratios of diagonal to side in the regular polygons. He showed how this family extends beyond the pentagon {5} with its well-known golden bisection proportional to 𝜙, finding that the heptagon {7} has an analogous trisection, the nonagon {9} has an analogous quadrasection, and the hendecagon {11} has an analogous pentasection, an extended family of golden proportions with quasiperiodic properties. Kappraff and Adamson extended these findings in plane geometry to a theory of Generalized Fibonacci Sequences, showing that the Golden Fields not only do not end with the hendecagon, they form an infinite number of periodic trajectories when operated on by the Mandelbrot operator. They found a relation between the edges of star polygons and dynamical systems in the state of chaos, revealing a connection between chaos theory, number, and rotations in Coxeter Euclidean geometry. Fontaine and Hurley examined Steinbach's finding that the length of each chord of a regular polygon is both the product of two chords and the sum of a set of smaller chords, so that in rotations to add is to multiply. They illustrated Steinbach's sets of additive chords lying parallel to each other in the plane (pointing in the same direction), and by applying Steinbach's formula more generally they found another summation relation of signed parallel chords (pointing in opposite directions) which relates each chord length to its reciprocal, and relates the summation to a distinct star polygon rotation. We examine these remarkable findings (which stem from study of the chords of humble regular polygons) in higher-dimensional spaces, specifically in the chords, polygons and rotations of the [[120-cell]], the largest four-dimensional regular convex polytope. == Visualizing the 120-cell == {| class="wikitable floatright" width="400" |style="vertical-align:top"|[[File:120-cell.gif|200px]]<br>Orthographic projection of the 600-point 120-cell ><math>\{5,3,3\}</math> performing a [[W:SO(4)#Geometry of 4D rotations|simple rotation]].{{Sfn|Hise|2011|loc=File:120-cell.gif|ps=; "Created by Jason Hise with Maya and Macromedia Fireworks. A 3D projection of a 120-cell performing a [[W:SO(4)#Geometry of 4D rotations|simple rotation]]."}} In this simplified rendering only the 120-cell's own edges are shown; its 29 interior chords are not rendered. Therefore even though it is translucent, only its outer surface is visible. The complex interior parts of the 120-cell, all its inscribed 5-cells, 16-cells, 8-cells, 24-cells, 600-cells and its much larger inventory of polyhedra, are completely invisible in this view, as none of their edges are rendered at all. |style="vertical-align:top"|[[File:Ortho solid 016-uniform polychoron p33-t0.png|200px]]<br>Orthographic projection of the 600-point [[W:Great grand stellated 120-cell|great grand stellated 120-cell]] <math>\{\tfrac{5}{2},3,3\}</math>.{{Sfn|Ruen: Great grand stellated 120-cell|2007}} The 120-cell is its convex hull. The projection to the left renders only the 120-cell's shortest chord, its 1200 edges. The projection above also renders only one of the 120-cell's 30 chords, the edges of its 120 inscribed regular 5-cells. The 120-cell itself (the convex hull) is invisible in this view, as its edges are not rendered. |} [[120-cell#Geometry|The 120-cell is the maximally complex regular 4-polytope]], containing inscribed instances of every regular 1-, 2-, 3-, and 4-polytope, except the regular polygons of more than {15} sides. The 120-cell is the convex hull of a regular [[120-cell#Relationships among interior polytopes|compound of each of the 6 regular convex 4-polytopes]]. They are the [[5-cell|5-point (5-cell) 4-simplex]], the [[16-cell|8-point (16-cell) 4-orthoplex]], the [[W:Tesseract|16-point (8-cell) tesseract]], the [[24-cell|24-point (24-cell)]], the [[600-cell|120-point (600-cell)]], and the [[120-cell|600-point (120-cell)]]. The 120-cell is the convex hull of a compound of 120 disjoint regular 5-cells, of 75 disjoint 16-cells, of 25 disjoint 24-cells, and of 5 disjoint 600-cells. The 120-cell contains an even larger inventory of irregular polytopes, created by the intersection of multiple instances of these component regular 4-polytopes. Many are quite unexpected, because they do not occur as components of any regular polytope smaller than the 120-cell. As just one example among the [[120-cell#Concentric hulls|sections of the 120-cell]], there is an irregular 24-point polyhedron with 16 triangle faces and 4 nonagon {9} faces.{{Sfn|Moxness|}} Most renderings of the 120-cell, like the rotating projection here, only illustrate its outer surface, which is a honeycomb of face-bonded dodecahedral cells. Only the objects in its 3-dimensional surface are rendered, namely the 120 dodecahedra, their pentagon faces, and their edges. Although the 120-cell has chords of 30 distinct lengths, in this kind of simplified rendering only the 120-cell's own edges (its shortest chord) are shown. Its 29 interior chords, the edges of objects in the interior of the 120-cell, are not rendered, so interior objects are not visible at all. Visualizing the complete interior of the 600-vertex 120-cell in a single image is impractical because of its complexity. Only four 120-cell edges are incident at each vertex, but [[120-cell#Chords|600 chords (of all 30 lengths)]] are incident at ''each'' vertex. == Compounds in the 120-cell == The 8-point (16-cell), not the 5-point (5-cell) 4-simplex, is the smallest building block; it compounds to every larger regular 4-polytope. The 5-point (5-cell) does compound to the 600-point (120-cell), but it does not fit into any smaller regular 4-polytope. The 8-point (16-cell) compounds by 2 in the 16-point (8-cell), and by 3 in the 24-point (24-cell). The 16-point (8-cell) compounds in the 24-point (24-cell) by 3 non-disjoint instances of itself, with each of the 24 vertices shared by two 16-point (8-cells). The 24-point (24-cell) compounds by 5 disjoint instances of itself in the 120-point (600-cell), and the 120-point (600-cell) compounds by 5 disjoint instances of itself in the 600-point (120-cell). The 24-point (24-cell) also compounds by 5² non-disjoint instances of itself in the 120-point (600-cell); it compounds in 5 disjoint instances of itself, 10 (not 5) different ways. Whichever set of 5 disjoint 24-point (24-cells) are assembled, the resulting 120-point (600-cell) contains 25 distinct 24-point (24-cells), not just 5 (or 10). Consequently 15 disjoint 8-point (16-cells) will construct a 120-point (600-cell), which contains 75 distinct 8-point (16-cells). The 600-point (120-cell) is 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells), just 2 different ways (not 5 or 10 ways), so it is 10 distinct 120-point (600-cells). Consequently the 8-point (16-cell) compounds by 3 times 5² (75) disjoint instances of itself in the 600-point (120-cell), which contains 3² times 5² (225) distinct instances of the 24-point (24-cell), and 3³ times 5² (675) distinct instances of the 8-point (16-cell). These facts were discovered painstakingly by various researchers, and no one has found a general rule governing subsumption relations among regular polytopes. The reasons for some of their numeric incidence relations are far from obvious. [[W:Pieter Hendrik Schoute|Schoute]] was the first to see that the 120-point (600-cell) is a compound of 5 24-point (24-cells) ''10 different ways'', and after he saw it a hundred years lapsed until Denney, Hooker, Johnson, Robinson, Butler & Claiborne proved his result, and showed why.{{Sfn|Denney, Hooker, Johnson, Robinson, Butler & Claiborne|2020|loc=''The geometry of H4 polytopes''}} So much for the compounds of 16-cells. The 120-cell is also the convex hull of the compound of 120 disjoint regular 5-cells. That stellated compound (without its convex hull of 120-cell edges) is the [[w:Great_grand_stellated_120-cell|great grand stellated 120-cell]] illustrated above, the final regular [[W:Stellation|stellation]] of the 120-cell, and the only [[W:Schläfli-Hess polychoron|regular star 4-polytope]] to have the 120-cell for its convex hull. The edges of the great grand stellated 120-cell are <math>\phi^6</math> as long as those of its 120-cell [[W:List of polyhedral stellations#Stellation process|stellation core]] deep inside. The compound of 120 disjoint 5-point (5-cells) can be seen to be equivalent to the compound of 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells), as follows. Beginning with a single 120-point (600-cell), expand each vertex into a regular 5-cell, by adding 4 new equidistant vertices, such that the 5 vertices form a regular 5-cell inscribed in the 3-sphere. The 120 5-cells are disjoint, and the 600 vertices form 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells): a 120-cell. == Thirty distinguished distances == The 30 numbers listed in the table are all-important in Euclidean geometry. A case can be made on symmetry grounds that their squares are the 30 most important numbers between 0 and 4. The 30 rows of the table are the 30 distinct [[120-cell#Geodesic rectangles|chord lengths of the unit-radius 120-cell]], the largest regular convex 4-polytope. Since the 120-cell subsumes all smaller regular polytopes, its 30 chords are the complete chord set of all the regular polytopes that can be constructed in the first four dimensions of Euclidean space, except for regular polygons of more than 15 sides. {| class="wikitable" style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:center" !rowspan=2|<math>c_t</math> !rowspan=2|arc !rowspan=2|<small><math>\left\{\frac{30}{n}\right\}</math></small> !rowspan=2|<math>\left\{p\right\}</math> !rowspan=2|<small><math>m\left\{\frac{k}{d}\right\}</math></small> !rowspan=2|Steinbach roots !colspan=7|Chord lengths of the unit 120-cell |- !colspan=5|unit-radius length <math>c_t</math> !colspan=2|unit-edge length <math>c_t/c_1</math><br>in 120-cell of radius <math>c_8=\sqrt{2}\phi^2</math> |- |<small><math>c_{1,1}</math></small> |<small><math>15.5{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{30\right\}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{30\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>c_{4,1}-c_{2,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7-3 \sqrt{5}}</math></small> |<small><math>0.270091</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{\sqrt{2} \phi ^2}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{1}{2 \phi ^4}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{0.072949}</math></small> |<small><math>1</math></small> |<small><math>1.</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{2,1}</math></small> |<small><math>25.2{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{30}{2}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>2 \left\{15\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{2} \left(c_{18,1}-c_{4,1}\right)</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt{3-\sqrt{5}}}{2}</math></small> |<small><math>0.437016</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{\sqrt{2} \phi }</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{1}{2 \phi ^2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{0.190983}</math></small> |<small><math>\phi </math></small> |<small><math>1.61803</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{3,1}</math></small> |<small><math>36{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{30}{3}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{10\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>3 \left\{\frac{10}{3}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{2} \left(\sqrt{5}-1\right) c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{2} \left(\sqrt{5}-1\right)</math></small> |<small><math>0.618034</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{\phi }</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi ^2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{0.381966}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{2} \phi </math></small> |<small><math>2.28825</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{4,1}</math></small> |<small><math>41.4{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{60}{7}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{c_{8,1}}{\sqrt{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>0.707107</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{1}{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{0.5}</math></small> |<small><math>\phi ^2</math></small> |<small><math>2.61803</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{5,1}</math></small> |<small><math>44.5{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{30}{4}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>2 \left\{\frac{15}{2}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{3} c_{2,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{9-3 \sqrt{5}}</math></small> |<small><math>0.756934</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}}{\phi }</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{3}{2 \phi ^2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{0.572949}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{3} \phi </math></small> |<small><math>2.80252</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{6,1}</math></small> |<small><math>49.1{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{120}{17}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{5-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt{5-\sqrt{5}}}{2}</math></small> |<small><math>0.831254</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{\sqrt{5}}{2 \phi }}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{0.690983}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi ^3}</math></small> |<small><math>3.07768</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{7,1}</math></small> |<small><math>56.0{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{20}{3}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{\phi }} c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}</math></small> |<small><math>0.93913</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt{\frac{\psi }{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{0.881966}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\psi \phi ^3}</math></small> |<small><math>3.47709</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>60{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{30}{5}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{6\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{6\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>1</math></small> |<small><math>1</math></small> |<small><math>1.</math></small> |<small><math>1</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{1}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{1.}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{2} \phi ^2</math></small> |<small><math>3.70246</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{9,1}</math></small> |<small><math>66.1{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{40}{7}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{2 \phi }} c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}</math></small> |<small><math>1.09132</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt{\frac{\chi }{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{\chi }{2 \phi }}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{1.19098}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\chi \phi ^3}</math></small> |<small><math>4.04057</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{10,1}</math></small> |<small><math>69.8{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{60}{11}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\phi c_{4,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1+\sqrt{5}}{2 \sqrt{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>1.14412</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\phi }{\sqrt{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{\phi ^2}{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{1.30902}</math></small> |<small><math>\phi ^3</math></small> |<small><math>4.23607</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{11,1}</math></small> |<small><math>72{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{30}{6}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{5\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{5\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }} c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}</math></small> |<small><math>1.17557</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{3-\phi }</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{3-\phi }</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{1.38197}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{2} \sqrt{3-\phi } \phi ^2</math></small> |<small><math>4.3525</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{12,1}</math></small> |<small><math>75.5{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{24}{5}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>1.22474</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{1.5}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{3} \phi ^2</math></small> |<small><math>4.53457</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{13,1}</math></small> |<small><math>81.1{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{60}{13}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}}}{2}</math></small> |<small><math>1.30038</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}}}{2}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(9-\sqrt{5}\right)}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{1.69098}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(9-\sqrt{5}\right)} \phi ^2</math></small> |<small><math>4.8146</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{14,1}</math></small> |<small><math>84.5{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{40}{9}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi } c_{8,1}}{\sqrt{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{2} \sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{1+\sqrt{5}}</math></small> |<small><math>1.345</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi }}{\sqrt{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{\sqrt{5} \phi }{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{1.80902}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi ^5}</math></small> |<small><math>4.9798</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{15,1}</math></small> |<small><math>90.0{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{30}{7}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{4\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{4\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>2 c_{4,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{2}</math></small> |<small><math>1.41421</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{2}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{2}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{2.}</math></small> |<small><math>2 \phi ^2</math></small> |<small><math>5.23607</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{16,1}</math></small> |<small><math>95.5{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{120}{29}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}}}{2}</math></small> |<small><math>1.4802</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}}}{2}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(11-\sqrt{5}\right)}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{2.19098}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(11-\sqrt{5}\right)} \phi ^2</math></small> |<small><math>5.48037</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{17,1}</math></small> |<small><math>98.9{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{120}{31}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}}}{2}</math></small> |<small><math>1.51954</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}}}{2}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(7+\sqrt{5}\right)}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{2.30902}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\psi \phi ^5}</math></small> |<small><math>5.62605</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{18,1}</math></small> |<small><math>104.5{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{30}{8}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{15}{4}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}} c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>1.58114</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{2.5}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{5} \sqrt{\phi ^4}</math></small> |<small><math>5.8541</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{19,1}</math></small> |<small><math>108.0{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{30}{9}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{10}{3}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>c_{3,1}+c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{2} \left(1+\sqrt{5}\right)</math></small> |<small><math>1.61803</math></small> |<small><math>\phi </math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{1+\phi }</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{2.61803}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{2} \phi ^3</math></small> |<small><math>5.9907</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{20,1}</math></small> |<small><math>110.2{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{120}{7}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}}}{2}</math></small> |<small><math>1.64042</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}}}{2}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(13-\sqrt{5}\right)}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{2.69098}</math></small> |<small><math>\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\phi ^2}</math></small> |<small><math>6.07359</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{21,1}</math></small> |<small><math>113.9{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{60}{19}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}} c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}</math></small> |<small><math>1.67601</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{2.80902}</math></small> |<small><math>\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{\chi }{\phi }}</math></small> |<small><math>6.20537</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{22,1}</math></small> |<small><math>120{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{30}{10}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{3\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{3\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{3} c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{3}</math></small> |<small><math>1.73205</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{3}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{3}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{3.}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{6} \phi ^2</math></small> |<small><math>6.41285</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{23,1}</math></small> |<small><math>124.0{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{120}{41}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }+\frac{5}{2}} c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}</math></small> |<small><math>1.7658</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{4-\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{4-\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{3.11803}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\chi \phi ^5}</math></small> |<small><math>6.53779</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{24,1}</math></small> |<small><math>130.9{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{20}{7}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}}}{2}</math></small> |<small><math>1.81907</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}}}{2}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(11+\sqrt{5}\right)}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{3.30902}</math></small> |<small><math>\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{\sqrt{5}}{\phi }}</math></small> |<small><math>6.73503</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{25,1}</math></small> |<small><math>135.5{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{30}{11}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{30}{11}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+3 \sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+3 \sqrt{5}}</math></small> |<small><math>1.85123</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\phi ^2}{\sqrt{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{\phi ^4}{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{3.42705}</math></small> |<small><math>\phi ^4</math></small> |<small><math>6.8541</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{26,1}</math></small> |<small><math>138.6{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{12}{5}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}} c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>1.87083</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{3.5}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{7} \phi ^2</math></small> |<small><math>6.92667</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{27,1}</math></small> |<small><math>144{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{30}{12}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{5}{2}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(5+\sqrt{5}\right)} c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(5+\sqrt{5}\right)}</math></small> |<small><math>1.90211</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\phi +2}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{2+\phi }</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{3.61803}</math></small> |<small><math>\phi ^2 \sqrt{2 \phi +4}</math></small> |<small><math>7.0425</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{28,1}</math></small> |<small><math>154.8{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{30}{13}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{30}{13}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}}}{2}</math></small> |<small><math>1.95167</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{\sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}}}{2}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(13+\sqrt{5}\right)}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{3.80902}</math></small> |<small><math>\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{1}{\phi ^2}}</math></small> |<small><math>7.22598</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{29,1}</math></small> |<small><math>164.5{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{30}{14}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math></math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{15}{7}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\phi c_{12,1}</math></small> |<small><math>\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} \left(1+\sqrt{5}\right)</math></small> |<small><math>1.98168</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} \phi </math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{\frac{3 \phi ^2}{2}}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{3.92705}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{3} \phi ^3</math></small> |<small><math>7.33708</math></small> |- |<small><math>c_{30,1}</math></small> |<small><math>180{}^{\circ}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{\frac{30}{15}\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{2\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>\left\{2\right\}</math></small> |<small><math>2 c_{8,1}</math></small> |<small><math>2</math></small> |<small><math>2.</math></small> |<small><math>2</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{4}</math></small> |<small><math>\sqrt{4.}</math></small> |<small><math>2 \sqrt{2} \phi ^2</math></small> |<small><math>7.40492</math></small> |- |rowspan=4 colspan=6| |rowspan=4 colspan=4| <small><math>\phi</math></small> is the golden ratio:<br> <small><math>\phi ^2-\phi -1=0</math></small><br> <small><math>\frac{1}{\phi }+1=\phi</math></small>, and: <small><math>\phi+1=\phi^2</math></small><br> <small><math>\frac{1}{\phi }::1::\phi ::\phi ^2</math></small><br> <small><math>1/\phi</math></small> and <small><math>\phi</math></small> are the golden sections of <small><math>\sqrt{5}</math></small>:<br> <small><math>\phi +\frac{1}{\phi }=\sqrt{5}</math></small> |colspan=2|<small><math>\phi = (\sqrt{5} + 1)/2</math></small> |<small><math>1.618034</math></small> |- |colspan=2|<small><math>\chi = (3\sqrt{5} + 1)/2</math></small> |<small><math>3.854102</math></small> |- |colspan=2|<math>\psi = (3\sqrt{5} - 1)/2</math> |<math>2.854102</math> |- |colspan=2|<math>\psi = 11/\chi = 22/(3\sqrt{5} + 1)</math> |<math>2.854102</math> |} == The 16-cell 4-orthoplex == In 2-space we have the regular 8-point octagon, in 3-space the regular 8-point cube, and in 4-space the regular 8-point [[16-cell]]. A planar octagon with rigid edges of unit length has chords of length: :<math>r_1=1,r_2=\sqrt{2+\sqrt{2}} \approx 1.848,r_3=\sqrt{2}+1 \approx 2.414,r_4=\sqrt{4 + \sqrt{8}} \approx 2.613</math> The chord ratio <math>r_3=\sqrt{2}+1</math> is a geometrical proportion, the [[W:Silver ratio|silver ratio]]. Fontaine and Hurley's procedure for obtaining the reciprocal of a chord tells us that: :<math>r_3-r_1-r_1=1/r_3 \approx 0.414</math> Note that <math>r_3-2=1/r_3=\sqrt{2}-1</math>. Their procedure rotates counterclockwise over three <math>r_3</math> chords of an {8/3} octagram. Over the first <math>r_3</math> chord the displacement is <math>\sqrt{2}+1</math>. Over the second <math>r_3</math> chord it moves in the opposite direction a distance of <math>-1</math> . Over the third <math>r_3</math> chord it also moves a distance of <math>-1</math>. Fontaine and Hurley also demonstrated the significance of <math>1/r_i</math> in Steinbach's Diagonal Product Formula, which says that every chord length is the sum of certain smaller chord lengths. The smaller chords are certain diagonals of the same regular polygon of a smaller edge length, specifically edge length <math>1/r_i</math> rather than <math>1</math>. If we embed the planar octagon in 3-space, we can make it skew, repositioning its vertices so that each is one unit-edge length distant from three others instead of two others, at the vertices of a unit-edge cube with chords of length: :<math>r_1=1, r_2=\sqrt{2}, r_3=\sqrt{3}, r_4=\sqrt{2}</math> If we embed this cube in 4-space, we can skew it some more, repositioning its vertices so that each is one unit-edge length distant from six others instead of three others, at the vertices of a unit-edge 4-polytope with chords of length: :<math>r_1=1,r_2=1,r_3=1,r_4=\sqrt{2}</math> All of its chords except its long diameters are the same unit length as its edge. In fact they are its 24 edges, and it is a 16-cell of radius <math>1/\sqrt{2}</math>. [[File:octagon16cell.png|thumb|Orthogonal projection of a regular 16-cell to the [[16-cell#Projections|B₄ Coxeter plane]]. Only its edges are shown; its long diameter chords are not drawn. All 24 edges are the same length and none lie parallel to the projection plane. The octagon circumference is a Petrie polygon. The two disjoint squares lie in completely orthogonal central planes. The blue octagram is a Clifford polygon. ]] The [[16-cell]] is the [[W:Regular convex 4-polytope|regular convex 4-polytope]] with [[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]] <math>\{3,3,4\}</math>. It has 8 vertices, 24 edges, 32 equilateral triangle faces, and 16 regular tetrahedron cells. It is the [[16-cell#Octahedral dipyramid|four-dimensional analogue of the octahedron]], and each of its four orthogonal central hyperplanes is an octahedron. The only planar regular polygons found in the 16-cell are face triangles and central plane squares, but the 16-cell also contains a skew regular octagon, its [[W:Petrie polygon|Petrie polygon]].{{Efn|name=Petrie polygon of a honeycomb}} The chords of this regular octagon, which lies skew in 4-space, are those given above for the 16-cell, as opposed to those for the cube or the regular octagon in the plane. The 16-cell is a construct of 3 Petrie octagons which share the same 8 vertices but have disjoint sets of 8 edges each. The regular octad has higher symmetry in 4-space than it does in 2-space. The 16-cell is the 4-[[w:Cross-polytope|orthoplex]], the simplest regular 4-polytope after the [[5-cell|4-simplex]]. All the larger regular convex 4-polytopes are compounds of the 16-cell. The regular octagon exhibits this high symmetry only when embedded in 4-space at the vertices of the 16-cell. The 16-cell constitutes an [[W:Orthonormal basis|orthonormal basis]] for the choice of a 4-dimensional Cartesian reference frame, because its vertices define four orthogonal axes. The eight vertices of a unit-radius 16-cell are (±1, 0, 0, 0), (0, ±1, 0, 0), (0, 0, ±1, 0), (0, 0, 0, ±1). All vertices are connected by <math>\sqrt{2}</math> edges except opposite pairs. The vertex coordinates of the 16-cell form 6 central squares lying in 6 pairwise [[W:Orthogonal|orthogonal]] coordinate planes. Great squares in opposite planes that do not share an axis (e.g. in the ''xy'' and ''wz'' planes) are completely disjoint (they do not intersect at any vertices). These planes are [[W:Completely orthogonal|completely orthogonal]].{{Efn|name=Six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} Since the unit-radius coordinate system is convenient, let us derive the unit-radius 16-cell by skewing a unit-radius planar octagon, which has chords of length: :<math>r_1=\sqrt{2-\sqrt{2}} \approx 0.765,r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{2+\sqrt{2}} \approx 1.848,r_4=2</math> We will need a planar octagon with rigid <math>r_2</math> chords, rather than one with rigid <math>r_1</math> edges. The octagon's <math>r_2</math> chords form two disjoint great squares, visible in the orthogonal projection, which we can reposition in 3-space to form a cube by making them parallel, and in 4-space to form a 16-cell by making them completely orthogonal. Each chord is a distinct 4-vector with a length and a direction. Since the edges of the 16-cell are all the same length <math>r_1=\sqrt{2},r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{2}</math>, those chords are distinct only in the context of a rotation, where vertices circle over the chords of an <math>r_i</math> polygon. The rotational curve over each <math>r_i</math> chord makes <math>i</math> 45° turns. The angle between two <math>r_i</math> chords is <math>180^\circ - i \times 45^\circ</math>. [[File:16-cell-orig.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 8-point 16-cell <math>\{3,3,4\}</math> performing a double rotation.{{Sfn|Hise|2007}}]] [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space|Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]] can be seen as the composition of two 2-dimensional rotations in completely orthogonal planes. The general rotation in 4-space is a [[W:SO(4)#Double rotations|double rotation]] in pairs of completely orthogonal planes. Two completely orthogonal planes are called invariant planes of the rotation when all points in the plane rotate on circles that remain in the plane, even as the whole plane tilts sideways (like a coin flipping) into another plane. The two completely orthogonal rotations of each plane (like a wheel, and like a coin flipping) are simultaneous but independent, in that they are not geometrically constrained to turn at the same rate. However, the most circular kind of rotation (as opposed to an elliptical double rotation of a rigid spherical object) occurs when the completely orthogonal planes do rotate through the same angle in the same time interval. Such equi-angled double rotations are called [[w:SO(4)#Isoclinic_rotations|isoclinic]], also [[w:William_Kingdon_Clifford|Clifford]] displacements. The <math>r_1</math> chords of the 16-cell form a Petrie polygon {8/1} which zig-zags back and forth, in the left and right rotational directions, between two completely orthogonal great squares formed by <math>r_2</math> chords. The <math>r_2</math> chords of the 16-cell form an ''edge polygon'' {8/2}=2{4}. The two completely orthogonal great squares lie parallel ''and'' perpendicular to each other. A ''simple'' rotation of the 16-cell in ''one'' of those two square central planes rotates that square like a wheel, while the other square does not move.{{Efn|name=simple rotations}} The four vertices of the rotating square orbit on a great circle in the plane. The <math>r_3</math> chords of the 16-cell form a circular helix, visible as a blue {8/3} octagram in the orthogonal projection. A ''double'' rotation of the 16-cell, in both of two completely orthogonal invariant <math>r_2</math> square planes at once by equal angles (an isoclinic rotation), moves the eight vertices along the circular helix over <math>r_3</math> chords. The vertex motion is a [[w:Geodesic|geodesic]] circle orbit on the 3-sphere of a special kind: it does not lie in a central plane, its [[w:Winding_number|winding number]] is not 1 (it is 3 in this case), its circumference is not <math>2\pi</math> (it is <math>6\pi</math> in this case), and it moves in either a left or right handed circular spiral. We shall refer to such a chiral circle orbit as an ''isocline'', and to the skew polygram of its rotational chords as a ''Clifford polygon''. The 16-cell is the simplest possible frame in which to [[16-cell#Rotations|observe 4-dimensional rotations]] because its characteristic rotations feature a single pair of invariant rotation planes. In the 16-cell an isoclinic rotation by 90° in any pair of invariant completely orthogonal square central planes takes every great square to its completely orthogonal great square in a twisting displacement, as the invariant planes tilt sideways 90° into each other's plane while rotating 90° internally. All the vertices move at once along the same circular helix geodesic isocline of <math>r_3</math> chords, displaced 90° in 8 orthogonal directions, and the rigid 16-cell assumes a new orientation in 4-space. When the 90° isoclinic rotation is continued in the same rotational direction through an additional 90°, each vertex is again displaced 90°, but from the new orientation in a direction orthogonal to its first 90° displacement. The rotational curve over each 90° <math>r_3</math> chord makes three 45° turns. In 360° of isoclinic rotation over four <math>r_3</math> chords, each vertex makes twelve 45° turns and reaches its antipodal position. The trajectory of each vertex over each 90° isoclinic rotational displacement is a one-eighth segment of its geodesic orbit. Its entire orbit traces an isocline circle in 4-space of circumference <math>6\pi</math> over eight <math>r_3</math> chords, and also traces an ordinary great circle in the plane twice, over the four <math>r_2</math> edges of a great square in one of the two moving invariant rotation planes. In the course of a 720° isoclinic revolution each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions just once and returns to its original position, and the 16-cell returns to its original orientation. We shall refer to this isoclinic rotation as the ''great square rotation characteristic of the 16-cell'', and note once again that it is Fontaine and Hurley's counterclockwise rotation over the <math>r_3</math> {8/3} star polygon, which constructs <math>1/r_3</math>. == The 8-cell tesseract == The long diameter of the unit-edge [[W:Hypercube|hypercube]] of dimension <math>n</math> is <math>\sqrt{n}</math>, so the unit-edge [[w:Tesseract|4-hypercube, the 16-point (8-cell) tesseract,]] has chords: :<math>r_1=\sqrt{1},r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{3},r_4=\sqrt{4}</math> Uniquely in its 4-dimensional case, a hypercube's edge length equals its radius, like the hexagon. We call such polytopes ''radially equilateral'', because they can be constructed from equilateral triangles which meet at their center, each contributing two radii and an edge. The [[w:Cuboctahedron|cuboctahedron]] and the 24-cell are also radially equilateral. [[File:8-cell.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 16-point (8-cell) tesseract <math>\{4,3,3\}</math> performing a simple rotation about a plane in 4-space.{{Sfn|Hise|2007}} The stationary plane bisects the figure from front-left to back-right and top to bottom.]] The [[W:Tesseract|tesseract]] is the [[W:Regular convex 4-polytope|regular convex 4-polytope]] with [[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]] <math>\{4,3,3\}</math>. It has 16 vertices, 32 edges, 24 square faces, and 8 cube cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the cube. The 16-point tesseract is the convex hull of a compound of two 8-point 16-cells, in exact dimensional analogy to the way the 8-point cube is the convex hull of a [[W:Stellated octahedron|compound of two 4-point regular tetrahedrons]]. The [[W:Demihypercube|demihypercubes]] occupy alternate vertices of the hypercubes. The diagonals of the square faces of the unit-edge, unit-radius tesseract are the <math>\sqrt{2}</math> edges of two unit-radius 16-cells, also the edges of the square central planes. We can rotate the tesseract isoclinically the way we rotated the 16-cell, by 90° in the great square rotation characteristic of the 16-cell, with parallel effect on both alternate-position 16-cells. In the course of a 720° revolution each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions of its 16-cell just once and returns to its original position, but it does not visit the vertex positions of the other 16-cell. The two skew {8/3} octagram Clifford polygons lie on two disjoint parallel isoclines of the same chirality, of circumference <math>6\pi</math> over <math>\sqrt{2}</math> chords. They form a circular double helix which intersects each vertex of the tesseract once. The double helix is an 8-rung ladder twisted around 3 times, and bent into a circle in the fourth dimension with its ends joined. Each rung is a <math>\sqrt{3}</math> chord. The tesseract is the [[W:Dual polytope|dual polytope]] of the 16-cell. They have the same Petrie polygon, the regular skew octagon, but the tesseract is a construct of 4 Petrie octagons with disjoint sets of 8 tesseract edges each. We can construct the tesseract by skewing two planar octagons. Because the tesseract is radially equilateral (unlike the 16-cell), we use two octagons of unit-edge length to build the unit-radius tesseract. To start we embed the planar octagons in 4-space at the same point and make them completely orthogonal. Then we skew each planar octagon into a cube, so we have a compound of two completely orthogonal cubes, provided we skewed them both in the same direction. The 16 vertices will be the vertices of a tesseract with half its 32 edges missing. Because the tesseract contains two 16-cells in alternate positions it has two sets of 6 orthogonal square central planes. Two angles are required to specify the relationship between two planes in 4-space. Pairs of square central planes within each 16-cell are 90° apart in one angle, and either 0° or 90° apart in the other angle. They are 90° apart in both angles if and only if they are completely orthogonal planes, 90° apart by isoclinic rotation, with no vertices in common and their corresponding pairs of vertices 180° apart. Otherwise they are 0° apart in one of the angles, 90° apart by simple rotation, and they intersect in one axis and lie in a common 3-dimensional hyperplane.{{Efn|A double rotation in which one of the two angles of rotation is 0°, so that one of the completely orthogonal invariant planes does not rotate, is called a simple rotation. Ordinary rotations observed in a 3-dimensional space are simple rotations.|name=simple rotations}} A pair of square central planes from alternate-position 16-cells are 60° apart by isoclinic rotation, with their corresponding pairs of vertices 120° apart. The planes are not orthogonal or parallel, so they intersect in a line somewhere, but they have no vertices in common, they have no 3-dimensional hyperplane in common, and they cannot reach each other by simple rotation. Such pairs of objects are called [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] because all their corresponding pairs of vertices are the same distance apart, although they are not parallel in the usual sense, because they have a common center. Not only the alternate-position 16-cells' corresponding square central planes, but also the 16-cells themselves, are Clifford parallel objects. More generally, multiple disjoint instances of a 4-polytope which compound to make a larger 4-polytope are Clifford parallel objects. == The 24-cell == [[File:24-cell vertex geometry.png|thumb|Planar geometry of the radially equilateral 24-cell, showing its 3 great circle polygons and its 4 chord lengths.]] In 2-space we have the radially equilateral 6-point hexagon. In 3-space we have the radially equilateral 12-point cuboctahedron, with 4 hexagon central planes. In 4-space we have the radially equilateral 24-point 24-cell, with 12 cuboctahedron central hyperplanes and 16 hexagon central planes. The [[24-cell]] is the regular convex 4-polytope with Schläfli symbol <math>\{3,4,3\}</math>. It has 24 vertices, 96 edges, 96 equilateral triangle faces, and 24 octahedron cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the cuboctahedron. The 24-cell has the same chord set as the 4-hypercube tesseract: :<math>r_1=\sqrt{1},r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{3},r_4=\sqrt{4}</math> [[Image:24-cell.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 24-point 24-cell <math>\{3,4,3\}</math> performing a simple rotation.{{Sfn|Hise|2007}} The 3-dimensional surface made of 24 octahedra is visible.]] The 24-cell is [[W:Dual polytope|self-dual]], like the regular polygons and regular simplexes. It is the maximal regular construct of triangles and squares (with no pentagons). It is the convex hull of a compound of three completely disjoint 8-point 16-cells, rotated 60° isoclinically with respect to each other. Each of the three pairs of 16-cells is a tesseract. Each 24-cell edge is also a tesseract edge. The corresponding vertices of two 16-cells or two tesseracts are 120° apart by a <math>\sqrt{3}</math> chord. Each tesseract has 8 cube cells, and each cube has four <math>\sqrt{3}</math> long diameters. The <math>\sqrt{3}</math> chords joining the corresponding vertices of two tesseracts belong to the third tesseract as cell long diameters. The 24-cell's Petrie polygon is the regular dodecagon {12}. The unit-radius planar {12}-gon has chords of length: :<math>r_1=\tfrac{\sqrt{3}-1}{\sqrt{2}} \approx 0.518,r_2=\sqrt{1},r_3=\sqrt{2},r_4=\sqrt{3},r_5=\tfrac{\sqrt{3}+1}{\sqrt{2}} \approx 1.932,r_6=\sqrt{4}</math> Fontaine and Hurley's procedure for obtaining the reciprocal of a chord tells us that: :<math>r_5-r_3+r_1+r_1-r_3=1/r_5</math> when <math>r_1=1</math>. In the system of unit-radius coordinates <math>r_1=1/r_5</math>. The procedure rotates counterclockwise over five <math>r_5</math> chords of a {12/5} dodecagram. The <math>r_1</math> and <math>r_5</math> chords of the planar dodecagon do not occur in the 24-cell, which is a construct of eight skew dodecagons with disjoint sets of twelve <math>\sqrt{1}</math> edges each. In the skew dodecagons the chord lengths are: :<math>r_1=\sqrt{1},r_2=\sqrt{1},r_3=\sqrt{2},r_4=\sqrt{3},r_5=\sqrt{3},r_6=\sqrt{4}</math> Where chords are the same length, they are distinct only in the context of a rotation. The <math>r_1=\sqrt{1}</math> chords form 8 Petrie dodecagons which zig-zag back and forth, in the left and right rotational directions, between two Clifford parallel great hexagons formed by <math>r_2</math> chords. The 8 Petrie dodecagons can be divided four ways into 2 disjoint Petrie dodecagons {24/2}=2{12}. The <math>r_2=\sqrt{1}</math> chords form 16 great hexagons, which can be divided four ways into 4 Clifford parallel great hexagons {24/4}=4{6}. The <math>r_3=\sqrt{2}</math> chords form 18 great squares, which can be divided three ways into 6 Clifford parallel great squares {24/6}=6{4}, including one pair of completely orthogonal great squares from each of the three 16-cells. The <math>r_4=\sqrt{3}</math> chords form 32 great triangles, which can be divided four ways into 8 disjoint great triangles {24/8}=8{3} inscribed in 4 Clifford parallel great hexagons. The <math>r_5=\sqrt{3}</math> chords form 8 circular helix Clifford polygons, visible as a green {12/5} dodecagram in the orthogonal projection. An isoclinic rotation of the 24-cell in 4 invariant <math>r_2</math> hexagon planes moves the vertices along 2 Clifford parallel circular isoclines {24/2}=2{12/5} over <math>r_5</math> chords. [[File:dodecagon24cell.png|thumb|Orthogonal projection of half a 24-cell to the [[24-cell#Geodesics|F₄ Coxeter plane]]. Only one Petrie dodecagon {12} of the 24-cell is shown. In a unit-radius 24-cell, all black lines are 24-cell edges of unit length, also tesseract edges. The two disjoint hexagons lie in Clifford parallel central planes. Blue chords are <math>\sqrt{2}</math> 16-cell edges of Clifford parallel great squares, also isocline chords in great square rotations. Green chords are <math>\sqrt{3}</math> distances between corresponding vertices of two 16-cells, also isocline chords in great hexagon rotations. The green {12/5} dodecagram is a Clifford polygon.]] [[File:Regular_star_figure_3(8,3).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/9}=3{8/3} shows three octagram isoclines of <math>\sqrt{2}</math> chords in the 24-cell]] We can rotate the 24-cell isoclinically in 6 Clifford parallel invariant great square planes containing 16-cell edges, in the great square rotation characteristic of the 16-cell, with parallel effect on all three 16-cells. In 720° each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions of its 16-cell just once and returns to its original position, but it does not visit the vertex positions of the other 16-cells. The rotational curve over each 90° <math>\sqrt{2}</math> chord makes three 45° turns. Three Clifford parallel {8/3} octagram geodesic isoclines of circumference <math>6\pi</math> over <math>\sqrt{2}</math> chords form a circular triple helix {24/9}=3{8/3} that intersects each 24-cell vertex once. The triple helix is an 8-step circular staircase that twists around 3 times, and is bent into a torus in the fourth dimension. Each staircase step is a great triangle of <math>\sqrt{3}</math> chords. [[File:Regular star figure 2(12,5).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/10}=2{12/5} shows 2 dodecagram isoclines of <math>\sqrt{3}</math> chords in the 24-cell]]We can rotate the 24-cell isoclinically in 4 Clifford parallel invariant great hexagon planes containing 24-cell edges, over <math>r_{5}</math> isocline chords. This is the ''great hexagon rotation characteristic of the 24-cell'', also Fontaine and Hurley's counterclockwise rotation over the <math>r_5</math> {12/5} star polygon, which constructs <math>1/r_5</math>. A 24-cell great hexagon invariant plane revolution requires 720° like a 16-cell great square invariant plane revolution, but it is completed in 12 isoclinic displacements of 60° each rather than 8 isoclinic displacements of 90° each. An isoclinic rotation by 60° in a great hexagon invariant plane takes every great hexagon to a Clifford parallel great hexagon in a twisting displacement, as 4 great hexagon invariant planes tilt sideways 60° while rotating 60° internally. It also takes every great square to a Clifford parallel great square. All 24 vertices move at once on two Clifford parallel geodesic isoclines, displaced 120° in different directions. The trajectory of each vertex over each 60° rotational displacement is a one-twelfth segment of its geodesic orbit. Its entire orbit traces an isocline circle in 4-space over 12 <math>r_5</math> <math>\sqrt{3}</math> chords, and also traces an ordinary great circle in the plane 5 times in a moving invariant rotation plane. The rotational curve over each <math>r_5</math> 120° chord makes five 30° turns. Two Clifford parallel {12/5} dodecagram geodesic isoclines of circumference <math>10\pi</math> form a circular double helix {24/10}=2{12/5} that intersects each 24-cell vertex once. In the course of a 720° revolution each vertex departs from 12 vertex positions just once and returns to its original position, and the 24-cell returns to its original orientation. {| class="wikitable floatright" style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:center" ! colspan="7" |6 distinct 180° chord pairs make 6 distinct isoclinic rotations |- ! colspan="3" |Short chords !Invariant planes ! colspan="3" |Long chords |- style="background: gainsboro;" | | rowspan="4" |<math>t_1</math> |60° | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_polygon_24.svg|100px]]<br>{24/1}={24} | rowspan="4" | | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_24-11.svg|100px]]<br>{24/11} |120° | rowspan="4" |<math>t_{11}</math> |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |{{radic|1}} |{{radic|3}} |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |1 |1.732~ |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |165° |15° |- style="background: palegreen;" | | rowspan="4" |<math>t_2</math> |60° | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(12,1).svg|100px]]<br>{24/2}=2{12} | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_4(6,1).svg|100px]]<br>{24/4}=4{6} | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(12,5).svg|100px]]<br>{24/10}=2{12/5} |120° | rowspan="4" |<math>t_{10}</math> |- style="background: palegreen;" | |{{radic|1}} |{{radic|3}} |- style="background: palegreen;" | |1 |1.732~ |- style="background: palegreen;" | |150° |30° |- style="background: seashell;" | | rowspan="4" |<math>t_3</math> |90° | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(8,1).svg|100px]]<br>{24/3}=3{8} | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(4,1).svg|100px]]<br>{24/6}=6{4} | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(8,3).svg|100px]]<br>{24/9}=3{8/3} |90° | rowspan="4" |<math>t_{9}</math> |- style="background: seashell;" | |{{radic|2}} |{{radic|2}} |- style="background: seashell;" | |1.414~ |1.414~ |- style="background: seashell;" | |135° |45° |- style="background: palegreen;" | | rowspan="4" |<math>t_4</math> |60° | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_4(6,1).svg|100px]]<br>{24/4}=4{6} | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_12(2,1).svg|100px]]<br>{24/12}=12{2} | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_8(3,1).svg|100px]]<br>{24/8}=8{3} |120° | rowspan="4" |<math>t_{8}</math> |- style="background: palegreen;" | |{{radic|1}} |{{radic|3}} |- style="background: palegreen;" | |1 |1.732~ |- style="background: palegreen;" | |120° |60° |- style="background: gainsboro;" | | rowspan="4" |<math>t_5</math> |60° | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_24-5.svg|100px]]<br>{24/5} | rowspan="4" | | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_24-7.svg|100px]]<br>{24/7} |120° | rowspan="4" |<math>t_{7}</math> |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |{{radic|1}} |{{radic|3}} |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |1 |1.732~ |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |105° |75° |- style="background: seashell;" | | rowspan="4" |<math>t_6</math> |90° | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(4,1).svg|100px]]<br>{24/6}=6{4} | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(4,1).svg|100px]]<br>{24/6}=6{4} | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(4,1).svg|100px]]<br>{24/6}=6{4} |90° | rowspan="4" |<math>t_{6}</math> |- style="background: seashell;" | |{{radic|2}} |{{radic|2}} |- style="background: seashell;" | |1.414~ |1.414~ |- style="background: seashell;" | |90° |90° |} By examining the chords <math>r_i</math> of the 24-cell's Petrie {12}-gon we have found two distinct isoclinic rotations, the great square rotation characteristic of the 16-cell and the great hexagon rotation characteristic of the 24-cell. If we examine the chords <math>t_i</math> of the 24-cell's {24}-gon we find these, and also four other distinct isoclinic rotations. Each row of the table describes a distinct isoclinic rotation of the 24-cell characterized by a pair of chords whose arc-lengths sum to 180°. Each chord lies in a central plane which is either a great square or a great hexagon. Each short chord plane is completely orthogonal to a corresponding long chord plane. These central planes are not to be confused with the invariant planes of the rotation, which intersect 0, 2, 4, or 6 vertices of the 24-cell as illustrated in the center column of each row. The short chord and long chord each have their characteristic {24/''n''}-gon, which correspond as projections of the 24-cell to completely orthogonal planes. Their projection viewpoints look straight down orthogonal cylinders in <math>\mathbb{S}^3</math> which are [[w:SO(4)#Visualization_of_4D_rotations|bent into tori]] in <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>. Each {24/''n''}-gon forms either a compound of ''n'' disjoint Clifford parallel regular polygons, or a single regular {24/n} star polygon. Polygons with {2}, {3}, {4} or {6} sides lie in a central plane, and all others lie skew in 4-space. The rotational angle between successive short chords in 4-space and the rotational angle between successive long chords in 4-space sum to 180°. Those angles distinguish distinct chords <math>t_i</math> which are the same length. Each isoclinic rotation takes two chiral forms. There is a ''right rotation'' and a ''left rotation'' for each row of the table. A pair of right and left rotations are enantiomorphous reflections of each other, like a pair of clasped hands. The rotation takes Clifford parallel short chord polygons to each other, while the long chord polygons remain stationary in 4-space as vertices circle over them. The right and left rotations have non-congruent vertex position sequences: they take the short chord polygons through different sequences of short chord polygons. {{Clear}} == The 600-cell == [[Image:600-cell.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 120-point 600-cell <math>\{3,3,5\}</math> performing a simple rotation.{{Sfn|Hise|2011}} The 3-dimensional surface made of 600 tetrahedra is visible. Invisible in this rendering are 25 inscribed instances of the [[#The 24-cell|24-cell (see illustration above)]], which occur in the 600-cell as interior boundary envelopes.]] The [[600-cell]] is the regular convex 4-polytope with Schläfli symbol <math>\{3,3,5\}</math>. It has 120 vertices, 720 edges, 1200 equilateral triangle faces, and 600 tetrahedron cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the icosahedron. The 600-cell rounds out the 24-cell by adding 96 more vertices (four more disjoint 24-cells) between the 24-cell's existing 24 vertices, in effect adding twenty-four more distinct 24-cells inscribed in the 600-cell. The new surface thus formed is a honeycomb of smaller, more numerous cells: tetrahedra of edge length <math>\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618</math> instead of octahedra of edge length <math>\sqrt{1}</math>. It encloses the <math>\sqrt{1}</math> edges of the 24-cells, which become invisible interior chords in the 600-cell, like the <math>\sqrt{2}</math> and <math>\sqrt{3}</math> chords. Since the tetrahedra are made of shorter triangle edges than the octahedra (by a factor of <math>\phi^{-1}</math> the inverse golden ratio), the 600-cell is not radially equilateral like the 24-cell and the tesseract. Like them it is radially triangular in a special way, but one in which [[w:Golden_triangle_(mathematics)|golden triangles]] rather than equilateral triangles meet at the center. In 2-space we have the ''radially golden'' [[W:Decagon#The golden ratio in decagon|regular decagon]]. In 3-space we have the radially golden 30-point [[W:icosidodecahedron|icosidodecahedron]], with 6 decagon central planes. In 4-space we have the radially golden 120-point 600-cell, with 60 icosidodecahedron central hyperplanes and 72 decagon central planes. The 600-cell's Petrie polygon is the regular [[w:Triacontagon|triacontagon {30}]]. The unit-radius planar {30}-gon has chords of length: :<math>r_1=2 \times \sin(\tfrac{\pi}{15}/2) \approx 0.209</math> :<math>r_2=2 \times \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{15}/2) \approx 0.416</math> :<math>r_3=2 \times \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618</math> :<math>r_4=2 \times \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{15}/2) \approx 0.813</math> :<math>r_5=2 \times \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{1}</math> :<math>r_6=2 \times \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{3-\phi} \approx 1.176</math> :<math>r_7=2 \times \sin (\tfrac{7\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.338</math> :<math>r_8=2 \times \cos (\tfrac{7\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.486</math> :<math>r_9=2 \times \sin (\tfrac{3\pi}{5}/2)=\phi \approx 1.618</math> :<math>r_{10}=2 \times \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{3}</math> :<math>r_{11}=2 \times \cos (\tfrac{4\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.827</math> :<math>r_{12}=2 \times \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902</math> :<math>r_{13}=2 \times \cos (\tfrac{2\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.956</math> :<math>r_{14}=2 \times \cos (\tfrac{\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.989</math> :<math>r_{15}=2 \times \sin (\pi/2)=\sqrt{4}</math> Only the chord lengths <math>r_3</math>, <math>r_5</math>, <math>r_6</math>, <math>\sqrt{2}</math>, <math>r_9</math>, <math>r_{10}</math>, <math>r_{12}</math>, <math>r_{15}</math> occur in the 600-cell, which is a construct of 24 Petrie {30}-gons of edge length <math>r_3</math>, six of which intersect in each icosahedral vertex figure. In the skew {30}-gons the chord lengths are: [[File:600-cell vertex geometry.png|thumb|Planar geometry of the 600-cell, showing its 5 regular great circle polygons and its 8 chord lengths with angles of arc. The golden ratio governs the fractional roots of every other chord, and the radial golden triangles which meet at the center.|400x400px]] :<math>r_1=2 \times \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618</math> :<math>r_2=2 \times \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618</math> :<math>r_3=2 \times \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618</math> :<math>r_4=2 \times \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{1}</math> :<math>r_5=2 \times \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{1}</math> :<math>r_6=2 \times \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{3-\phi} \approx 1.176</math> :<math>r_7=2 \times \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{2}/2)=\sqrt{2}</math> :<math>r_8=2 \times \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{2}/2)=\sqrt{2}</math> :<math>r_9=2 \times \sin (\tfrac{3\pi}{5}/2)=\phi \approx 1.618</math> :<math>r_{10}=2 \times \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{3}</math> :<math>r_{11}=2 \times \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{3}</math> :<math>r_{12}=2 \times \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902</math> :<math>r_{13}=2 \times \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902</math> :<math>r_{14}=2 \times \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902</math> :<math>r_{15}=2 \times \sin (\pi/2)=\sqrt{4}</math> Where chords are the same length, they are distinct only in the context of a rotation. {| class="wikitable floatright" style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:center" ! colspan="7" |15 chords (4 distinct 180° pairs) make 4 distinct section polyhedra |- ! colspan="3" |Short chords ! Section ! colspan="3" |Long chords |- style="background: palegreen;" | | rowspan="4" |<math>r_0</math> |0° | rowspan="4" | | rowspan="4" | | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_15(2,1).svg|100px]]<br>{30/15}=15{2} |180° | rowspan="4" |<math>r_{15}</math> |- style="background: palegreen;" | |{{radic|0}} |{{radic|4}} |- style="background: palegreen;" | |0 |2 |- style="background: palegreen;" | |180° |0° |- style="background: palegreen;" | | rowspan="4" |<math>r_1</math> |36° | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_polygon_30.svg|100px]]<br>{30/1} | rowspan="4" | | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,7).svg|100px]]<br>{30/14}=2{15/7} |144° | rowspan="4" |<math>r_{14}</math> |- style="background: palegreen;" | |{{radic|0.382~}} |{{radic|3.618~}} |- style="background: palegreen;" | |0.618~ |1.902~ |- style="background: palegreen;" | |168° |12° |- style="background: gainsboro;" | | rowspan="4" |<math>r_2</math> |36° | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,1).svg|100px]]<br>{30/2}=2{15} | rowspan="4" | | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-13.svg|100px]]<br>{30/13} |144° | rowspan="4" |<math>r_{13}</math> |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |{{radic|0.382~}} |{{radic|3.618~}} |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |0.618~ |1.902~ |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |156° |24° |- style="background: yellow;" | | rowspan="4" |<math>r_3</math> |36° | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,1).svg|100px]]<br>{30/3}=3{10} | rowspan="4" |[[File:V1 icosahedron.png|100px]]<br>Icosahedron | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,2).svg|100px]]<br>{30/12}=6{5/2} |144° | rowspan="4" |<math>r_{12}</math> |- style="background: yellow;" | |{{radic|0.382~}} |{{radic|3.618~}} |- style="background: yellow;" | |0.618~ |1.902~ |- style="background: yellow;" | |144° |36° |- style="background: palegreen;" | | rowspan="4" |<math>r_4</math> |60° | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,2).svg|100px]]<br>{30/4}=2{15/2} | rowspan="4" | | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-11.svg|100px]]<br>{30/11} |120° | rowspan="4" |<math>r_{11}</math> |- style="background: palegreen;" | |{{radic|1}} |{{radic|3}} |- style="background: palegreen;" | |1 |1.732~ |- style="background: palegreen;" | |132° |48° |- style="background: palegreen;" | | rowspan="4" |<math>r_5</math> |60° | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_5(6,1).svg|100px]]<br>{30/5}=5{6} | rowspan="4" |[[File:V2 dodecahedron.png|100px]]<br>Dodecahedron | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_10(3,1).svg|100px]]<br>{30/10}=10{3} |120° | rowspan="4" |<math>r_{10}</math> |- style="background: palegreen;" | |{{radic|1}} |{{radic|3}} |- style="background: palegreen;" | |1 |1.732~ |- style="background: palegreen;" | |120° |60° |- style="background: yellow;" | | rowspan="4" |<math>r_{6}</math> |72° | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,1).svg|100px]]<br>{30/6}=6{5} | rowspan="4" |[[File:V3 icosahedron.png|100px]]<br>Icosahedron | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,3).svg|100px]]<br>{30/9}=3{10/3} |108° | rowspan="4" |<math>r_{9}</math> |- style="background: yellow;" | |{{radic|1.382~}} |{{radic|2.618~}} |- style="background: yellow;" | |1.176~ |1.618~ |- style="background: yellow;" | |108° |72° |- style="background: seashell;" | | rowspan="4" |<math>r_{7}</math> |90° | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-7.svg|100px]]<br>{30/7} | rowspan="4" |[[File:V4 icosidodecahedron.png|100px]]<br>Icosidodecahedron | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,4).svg|100px]]<br>{30/8}=2{15/4} |90° | rowspan="4" |<math>r_{8}</math> |- style="background: seashell;" | |{{radic|2}} |{{radic|2}} |- style="background: seashell;" | |1.414~ |1.414~ |- style="background: seashell;" | |96° |84° |} The list of 600-cell chords <math>r_{i}</math> can be rearranged into a table of 8 rows with a pair of 180° complements in each row. The short chord and long chord each have their characteristic {30/n}-gon. Each row identifies a distinct isoclinic rotation of the 600-cell, which occurs in right and left chiral forms. In both forms the long chord is the isocline chord of the stationary Clifford polygon over which vertices circle in 4-space. Each distinct pair of complementary chord lengths is also identified with a distinct [[w:600-cell#Polyhedral sections|polyhedral section of the 600-cell]] beginning with a vertex. In spherical [[w:3-sphere|3-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{S}^3</math>]], every vertex is the center of a set of 7 concentric polyhedra of increasing radii that nest like [[w:Matryoshka_doll|Russian dolls.]] The smallest polyhedral section at radial distance <math>\phi^{-1}</math> is a icosahedron vertex figure, and the largest section at radial distance <math>\sqrt{2}</math> is an [[W:Icosidodecahedron|icosidodecahedron]] central section bisecting the 600-cell. Because [[w:3-sphere|<math>\mathbb{S}^3</math>]] is spherical, at radial distances greater than <math>\sqrt{2}</math> the successive complement-radius polyhedra decrease in size, to the antipodal icosahedron vertex figure at distance <math>\sqrt{2+\phi}</math>. In Euclidean 4-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>, every vertex is the apex of 7 [[w:Hyperpyramid|polyhedral pyramids]] where the lateral edge length is the chordal distance to the base polyhedron section. Each section lies parallel to a congruent complement-radius section (or coincident with it, in the case of the central section). [[File:Regular_star_figure_3(8,3).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/9}=3{8/3} <math>\sqrt{2}</math>]] We can rotate the 600-cell isoclinically in the great square rotation characteristic of the 16-cell, with parallel effect on 15 disjoint 16-cells. Each 90° displacement takes 15 pairs of completely orthogonal invariant great square planes to each other. In the course of a 720° revolution each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions of its 16-cell just once and returns to its original position, without visiting other vertex positions. The rotational curve over each 90° chord makes three 45° turns. Fifteen Clifford parallel {8/3} octagram geodesic isoclines of circumference <math>6\pi</math> form a circular fibration of 15 twisted parallel strands 5{24/9}=15{8/3} that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. The 600-cell has another distinct isoclinic rotation in invariant great square planes, which has period 30 and visits every vertex of a 600-cell Petrie polygon. This ''great square rotation characteristic of the 600-cell'' takes place over <math>r_7</math> edge chords and <math>r_8</math> isocline chords. The {30/7} edge polygon is a skew helix of circumference <math>14\pi</math> with each <math>r_7</math> edge belonging to a distinct great square. The four {30/7} polygrams contribute one edge each to 30 great squares. Each 90° displacement takes every 16-cell to another 16-cell. The vertices of the invariant great squares each make seven orbits on a great circle within the moving invariant plane in the course of one complete revolution. The rotational curve over each 90° {30/7} edge makes seven 12° turns. Four Clifford parallel {30/7} geodesics of circumference <math>14\pi</math> form a circular quadruple helix that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. The {30/8}=2{15/4} Clifford polygon is a compound of two skew {15/4} pentadecagrams of circumference <math>16\pi</math> with each <math>r_8</math> isocline chord belonging to a distinct 16-cell. The four {30/8} polygrams contribute one edge each to 30 great squares. The rotational curve over each 90° {30/8} isocline chord makes eight 12° turns. Four Clifford parallel {30/8} geodesics of circumference <math>16\pi</math> form a circular quadruple helix that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. {{Clear}} [[File:Regular star figure 2(12,5).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/10}=2{12/5} <math>\sqrt{3}</math>]] We can rotate the 600-cell isoclinically in the great hexagon rotation characteristic of the 24-cell, over <math>\sqrt{1}</math> edge chords and <math>\sqrt{3}</math> isocline chords, with parallel effect on 5 disjoint 24-cells. In the course of a 720° revolution each vertex departs from 12 vertex positions of its 24-cell just once and returns to its original position, without visiting other vertex positions. Ten Clifford parallel {12/5} dodecagram geodesic isoclines of circumference <math>10\pi</math> form a circular fibration of ten twisted parallel strands 5{24/10}=10{12/5} that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. The 600-cell has another distinct isoclinic rotation in invariant great hexagon planes, over <math>r_{4}=\sqrt{1}</math> edge chords and <math>r_{11}=\sqrt{3}</math> isocline chords This ''great hexagon rotation characteristic of the 600-cell'' has 4 parallel orbits of period 30. The {30/11} Clifford polygon is a skew helix where each <math>r_{11}</math> isocline chord is the <math>\sqrt{3}</math> diagonal of a great hexagon of a 24-cell. The vertices in the invariant planes of this rotation each make eleven orbits on a great circle within the moving invariant plane in the course of one complete revolution. The rotational curve over each 120° <math>r_{11}</math> isocline chord makes eleven 12° turns. Four Clifford parallel {30/11} geodesic isoclines of circumference <math>22\pi</math> over <math>r_{11}</math> chords form a circular quadruple helix that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. We can rotate the 600-cell isoclinically in 12 Clifford parallel invariant decagon central planes containing its 36° <math>r_{3}</math> edges, over 144° <math>r_{12}</math> isocline chords. This ''great pentagon rotation characteristic of the 600-cell'' has period 5 and takes disjoint 24-cells to each other. The rotational curve over each <math>r_{12}</math> chord of its {5/2} Clifford polygon makes twelve 12° turns. 24 Clifford parallel {5/2} pentagram geodesic isoclines of circumference <math>4\pi</math> over five <math>r_{12}</math> chords form a circular fibration of 24 twisted parallel strands 4{30/12}=24{5/2} that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. The rotation of the 600-cell by 36° in any invariant decagon central plane takes every great decagon to a Clifford parallel great decagon in a twisting displacement, as all the central planes tilt sideways 36° while rotating 36° internally. It also takes every great hexagon to a Clifford parallel great hexagon, and every great square to a Clifford parallel great square. The 24-cells revolve within the 600-cell, as the 16-cells revolve within the 24-cells. All 120 vertices move at once on four Clifford parallel geodesic isoclines, displaced 144° in different directions. The 600-cell has another distinct isoclinic rotation in invariant great decagon planes containing its 36° <math>r_{2}</math> edges, over 144° <math>r_{13}</math> isocline chords. This rotation has 4 parallel orbits of period 30. The rotational curve over each 144° <math>r_{13}</math> isocline chord makes thirteen 12° turns. Four Clifford parallel {30/13} geodesic isoclines of circumference <math>26\pi</math> form a circular quadruple helix that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. {{Clear}} == Finally the 120-cell == {| class="wikitable floatright" style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:center" ! colspan="7" |30 chords (15 180° pairs) make 15 distinct section polyhedra |- ! colspan="3" |Short chords ! Section ! colspan="3" |Long chords |- style="background: palegreen;" | | rowspan="4" |<math>c_0</math> |0° | rowspan="4" | | rowspan="4" | | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_15(2,1).svg|100px]]<br>{30/15}=15{2} |180° | rowspan="4" |<math>c_{30}</math> |- style="background: palegreen;" | |{{radic|0}} |{{radic|4}} |- style="background: palegreen;" | |0 |2 |- style="background: palegreen;" | |180° |0° |- style="background: palegreen;" | | rowspan="4" |<math>c_1</math> |15.5~° | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_polygon_30.svg|100px]]<br>{30/1} | rowspan="4" | | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,7).svg|100px]]<br>{30/14} |164.5~° | rowspan="4" |<math>c_{29}</math> |- style="background: palegreen;" | |{{radic|0.073~}} |{{radic|3.927~}} |- style="background: palegreen;" | |0.270~ |1.982~ |- style="background: palegreen;" | |168° |12° |- style="background: gainsboro;" | | rowspan="4" |<math>c_2</math> |25.2~° | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,1).svg|100px]]<br>{30/2}=2{15} | rowspan="4" | | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-13.svg|100px]]<br>{30/13} |154.8~° | rowspan="4" |<math>c_{28}</math> |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |{{radic|0.191~}} |{{radic|3.809~}} |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |0.437~ |1.952~ |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |156° |24° |- style="background: yellow;" | | rowspan="4" |<math>c_3</math> |36° | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,1).svg|100px]]<br>{30/3}=3{10} | rowspan="4" | | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,2).svg|100px]]<br>{30/12}=6{5/2} |144° | rowspan="4" |<math>c_{27}</math> |- style="background: yellow;" | |{{radic|0.382~}} |{{radic|3.618~}} |- style="background: yellow;" | |0.618~ |1.902~ |- style="background: yellow;" | |144° |36° |- style="background: gainsboro;" | | rowspan="4" |<math>c_4</math> |41.4~° | rowspan="4" | | rowspan="4" | | rowspan="4" | |138.6~° | rowspan="4" |<math>c_{26}</math> |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |{{radic|0.5}} |{{radic|3.5}} |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |0.707~ |1.871~ |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |138° |42° |- style="background: palegreen;" | | rowspan="4" |<math>c_5</math> |44.5~° | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,2).svg|100px]]<br>{30/4}=2{15/2} | rowspan="4" | | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-11.svg|100px]]<br>{30/11} |135.5~° | rowspan="4" |<math>c_{25}</math> |- style="background: palegreen;" | |{{radic|0.573~}} |{{radic|3.427~}} |- style="background: palegreen;" | |0.757~ |1.851~ |- style="background: palegreen;" | |132° |48° |- style="background: gainsboro; height:50px" | | rowspan="4" |<math>c_6</math> |49.1~° | rowspan="4" | | rowspan="4" | | rowspan="4" | |130.9~° | rowspan="4" |<math>c_{24}</math> |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |{{radic|0.691~}} |{{radic|3.309~}} |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |0.831~ |1.819~ |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |128° |52° |- style="background: gainsboro; height:50px" | | rowspan="4" |<math>c_7</math> |56° | rowspan="4" | | rowspan="4" | | rowspan="4" | |124° | rowspan="4" |<math>c_{23}</math> |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |{{radic|0.882~}} |{{radic|3.118~}} |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |0.939~ |1.766~ |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |124° |56° |- style="background: palegreen;" | | rowspan="4" |<math>c_8</math> |60° | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_5(6,1).svg|100px]]<br>{30/5}=5{6} | rowspan="4" | | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_10(3,1).svg|100px]]<br>{30/10}=10{3} |120° | rowspan="4" |<math>c_{22}</math> |- style="background: palegreen;" | |{{radic|1}} |{{radic|3}} |- style="background: palegreen;" | |1 |1.732~ |- style="background: palegreen;" | |120° |60° |- style="background: gainsboro; height:50px" | | rowspan="4" |<math>c_9</math> |66.1~° | rowspan="4" | | rowspan="4" | | rowspan="4" | |113.9~° | rowspan="4" |<math>c_{21}</math> |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |{{radic|1.191~}} |{{radic|2.809~}} |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |1.091~ |1.676~ |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |116° |64° |- style="background: gainsboro; height:50px" | | rowspan="4" |<math>c_{10}</math> |69.8~° | rowspan="4" | | rowspan="4" | | rowspan="4" | |110.2~° | rowspan="4" |<math>c_{20}</math> |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |{{radic|1.309~}} |{{radic|2.691~}} |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |1.144~ |1.640~ |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |112° |68° |- style="background: yellow;" | | rowspan="4" |<math>c_{11}</math> |72° | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,1).svg|100px]]<br>{30/6}=6{5} | rowspan="4" | | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,3).svg|100px]]<br>{30/9}=3{10/3} |108° | rowspan="4" |<math>c_{19}</math> |- style="background: yellow;" | |{{radic|1.382~}} |{{radic|2.618~}} |- style="background: yellow;" | |1.176~ |1.618~ |- style="background: yellow;" | |108° |72° |- style="background: palegreen; height:50px" | | rowspan="4" |<math>c_{12}</math> |75.5~° | rowspan="4" | | rowspan="4" | | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,4).svg|100px]]<br>{30/8}=2{15/4} |104.5~° | rowspan="4" |<math>c_{18}</math> |- style="background: palegreen;" | |{{radic|1.5}} |{{radic|2.5}} |- style="background: palegreen;" | |1.224~ |1.581~ |- style="background: palegreen;" | |96° |84° |- style="background: gainsboro; height:50px" | | rowspan="4" |<math>c_{13}</math> |81.1~° | rowspan="4" | | rowspan="4" | | rowspan="4" | |98.9~° | rowspan="4" |<math>c_{17}</math> |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |{{radic|1.691~}} |{{radic|2.309~}} |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |1.300~ |1.520~ |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |° |° |- style="background: gainsboro; height:50px" | | rowspan="4" |<math>c_{14}</math> |84.5~° | rowspan="4" | | rowspan="4" | | rowspan="4" | |95.5~° | rowspan="4" |<math>c_{16}</math> |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |{{radic|0.809~}} |{{radic|2.191~}} |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |1.345~ |1.480~ |- style="background: gainsboro;" | |° |° |- style="background: seashell;" | | rowspan="4" |<math>c_{15}</math> |90° | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-7.svg|100px]]<br>{30/7} | rowspan="4" | | rowspan="4" |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-7.svg|100px]]<br>{30/7} |90° | rowspan="4" |<math>c_{15}</math> |- style="background: seashell;" | |{{radic|2}} |{{radic|2}} |- style="background: seashell;" | |1.414~ |1.414~ |- style="background: seashell;" | |90° |90° |} The [[120-cell]] is the regular convex 4-polytope with Schläfli symbol <math>\{5,3,3\}</math>. It has 600 vertices, 1200 edges, 720 pentagon faces, and 120 dodecahedron cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the dodecahedron. The [[User:Dc.samizdat/Golden chords of the 120-cell#Thirty distinguished distances|list of 30 120-cell chords]] <math>c_{t}</math> can be rearranged into a table of 16 rows with a pair of 180° complements in each row. This table first appears in [[w:Regular_Polytopes_(book)|''Regular Polytopes'']] (1947),{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|loc=Table V(v): Simplified sections of {5,3,3} beginning with a vertex|pp=300-301}} where Coxeter identified each row with a distinct [[w:120-cell#Concentric_hulls|polyhedral section of the 120-cell]] beginning with a vertex. He showed that in spherical [[w:3-sphere|3-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{S}^3</math>]] every vertex is the center of a set of 29 concentric polyhedra of increasing radii that nest like [[w:Matryoshka_doll|Russian dolls.]] The smallest polyhedral section at radial distance <math>c_1</math> is a tetrahedron vertex figure, and the largest section at radial distance <math>c_{15}</math> is a central section bisecting the 120-cell. Because [[w:3-sphere|<math>\mathbb{S}^3</math>]] is spherical, at radial distances greater than <math>c_{15}</math> the successive complement-radius polyhedra decrease in size, to the antipodal tetrahedron vertex figure at distance <math>c_{29}</math>. In Euclidean 4-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>, every vertex is the apex of 29 [[w:Hyperpyramid|polyhedral pyramids]], where the pyramid's lateral edge length is the radial distance in <math>\mathbb{S}^3</math> and its base polyhedron is the section. Each section lies parallel to a congruent complement-radius section (or coincident with it, in the case of the central section). In the 120-cell, each section also lies completely orthogonal to another congruent section. The 120-cell is the [[W:Dual polytope|dual polytope]] of the 600-cell. They have the same Petrie polygon, the regular skew triacontagon {30}, but the 120-cell is a construct of 40 Petrie {30}-gons of edge length <math>c_1</math>, two of which intersect in each tetrahedral vertex figure. Only 8 of the 30 chords in the 120-cell occur in the 600-cell. The 120-cell's additional chords arise originally from the regular 5-cell 4-simplex, in its interaction with the other regular 4-polytopes that compound to make the 120-cell. Since all those polytopes except the 5-cell occur in the 600-cell, and the 600-cell and the 120-cell have the same symmetry group, the 5-cell's symmetry group is the entirety of what's new in the 120-cell. ... {{Clear}} == Conclusions == Fontaine and Hurley's discovery is more than a geometric formula for the reciprocal of a regular ''n''-polygon diagonal. It also yields the discrete sequence of isocline chords of the characteristic isoclinic rotation of a ''d''-dimensional polytope. The characteristic rotational chord sequence of the ''d''-polytope can be represented geometrically in two dimensions on a distinct star polygon, but it lies on a geodesic circle through ''d''-dimensional space. Fontaine and Hurley discovered the geodesic topology of polytopes generally. Their procedure will reveal the geodesics of arbitrary non-uniform polytopes, since it can be applied to a polytope of any dimensionality and irregularity, by first fitting the polytope to the smallest regular polygon whose chords include its chords. [If what is meant by this is its Petrie polygon, it is not quite necessary or possible with respect to the planar polygon chords, e.g. the planar Petrie polygon of the 600-cell does not contain the <math>\sqrt{2}</math> chord. But perhaps it would work if the fit is to the smallest regular skew polygon in the ''d''-space.] The discovery of a chordal construction for discrete isoclinic rotations generally closes the circuit on Kappraff and Adamson's discovery of a rotational connection between dynamical systems, Steinbach's golden fields, and Coxeter's Euclidean geometry of reflections in ''n'' dimensions. Application of the Fontaine and Hurley procedure to the 120-cell demonstrates why the connection exists: because polytope sequences generally, from Steinbach's golden chord sequences in polygons, to sequences of star polygons in isoclinic rotations, to subsumption relations in the sequence of regular 4-polytopes, arise as expressions of the reflections and rotations of distinct Coxeter symmetry groups, when those various groups interact. == Appendix: Sequence of regular 4-polytopes == {{Regular convex 4-polytopes|wiki=W:|columns=7}} == Notes == {{Notelist}} == Citations == {{Reflist}} == References == {{Refbegin}} * {{Cite journal | last=Steinbach | first=Peter | year=1997 | title=Golden fields: A case for the Heptagon | journal=Mathematics Magazine | volume=70 | issue=Feb 1997 | pages=22–31 | doi=10.1080/0025570X.1997.11996494 | jstor=2691048 | ref={{SfnRef|Steinbach|1997}} }} * {{Cite journal | last=Steinbach | first=Peter | year=2000 | title=Sections Beyond Golden| journal=Bridges: Mathematical Connections in Art, Music and Science | issue=2000 | pages=35-44 | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2000/bridges2000-35.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Steinbach|2000}}}} * {{Cite journal | last1=Kappraff | first1=Jay | last2=Jablan | first2=Slavik | last3=Adamson | first3=Gary | last4=Sazdanovich | first4=Radmila | year=2004 | title=Golden Fields, Generalized Fibonacci Sequences, and Chaotic Matrices | journal=Forma | volume=19 | pages=367-387 | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2005/bridges2005-369.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Kappraff, Jablan, Adamson & Sazdanovich|2004}} }} * {{Cite journal | last1=Kappraff | first1=Jay | last2=Adamson | first2=Gary | year=2004 | title=Polygons and Chaos | journal=Dynamical Systems and Geometric Theories | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2001/bridges2001-67.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Kappraff & Adamson|2004}} }} * {{Cite journal | last1=Fontaine | first1=Anne | last2=Hurley | first2=Susan | year=2006 | title=Proof by Picture: Products and Reciprocals of Diagonal Length Ratios in the Regular Polygon | journal=Forum Geometricorum | volume=6 | pages=97-101 | url=https://scispace.com/pdf/proof-by-picture-products-and-reciprocals-of-diagonal-length-1aian8mgp9.pdf }} {{Refend}} eibgbzgbuv5u214r24onakolhwvbnd6 5 330057 2836460 2828876 2026-10-07T05:45:06Z Mu301 3705 /* 'crat actions */ comment 2836460 wikitext text/x-wiki == Notice to colloquium == What is the sence of noticing community about that? [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 17:10, 8 June 2026 (UTC) : A notice would be posted at the inactive SSM's user talk page, and a separate notification at the village pump listing the inactive support staff member(s). [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:46, 25 June 2026 (UTC) ::And the reasoning behind why whole community should know, there is inactive staff? [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:08, 2 July 2026 (UTC) ::: This is standard practice as the stewards have done this similar procedure per [[m:Admin activity review]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:06, 2 July 2026 (UTC) : I think this practice helps towards openness and transparency. For example, someone else in the community may become aware and comment about reasons why the SSM may be inactive. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 05:43, 21 July 2026 (UTC) ::I concur that the community should be made aware of, and given an opportunity to comment on, decisions that have an effect on our site. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] ^{[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]} 22:11, 27 August 2026 (UTC) == Inactive curator template == Just a note if this policy is agreet the template should be fixed. No it counts with 2 years. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 17:12, 8 June 2026 (UTC) : I'm not sure what you are trying to explain. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:47, 25 June 2026 (UTC) ::I am saying that if the inactive period is changed, the {{tl|Inactive curator}} template text ''"no edits or no logged actions for 2 years"'' should be changed to the appropriate one. This is just a notice, not to forget to do so. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:10, 2 July 2026 (UTC) ::: I see, thank you for explaining. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:05, 2 July 2026 (UTC) == Communication with the SSM and deadlines == A notification on the user's user page is a decent way to communicate with support staff. If they don't respond, it's clear that there's no point in waiting any longer and their rights have been revoked. On the contrary, if they respond, they suspect that they should start working on Wikiversity, but it may happen that they won't, i.e. SSM will respond, but they will continue to be inactive, so they will have another year of "peace". I would probably reduce the inactivity time to '''8 months''' (i.e. 6 months + 2 months, which may take to creat a custodian), but I would leave the response time at a '''month or more'''. I assume that sometimes the reason for inactivity is health problems or personal problems, and in such situations a person is usually not very reactive - i.e. they don't manage to respond quickly to all the requests that come to them. Another reason may be the busy work schedule of university teachers, who, for example, are on the job for 4 months during exams. This means, yes, you have been inactive for a while for some reason and then someone invites you to return to activity, but you are sick, or you are writing a scientific article, grant report, etc. and you don't have much time right now. Here, it would perhaps require standardized posts for all SSM roles, where a notice would be written that according to the policy, a SSM cannot be inactive for a given period. ''Then a question whether they will resume activity within 2 months.'' Yes - rights retained, no/no answer - rights removed within a month. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 17:29, 8 June 2026 (UTC) : I still think we should leave the timeframe as one year to maintain consistency with some other projects. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 01:40, 25 June 2026 (UTC) ::Well, why not. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 07:25, 25 June 2026 (UTC) : I think 12 months is a simple, clear, appropriate timeframe for inactivity. : I agree that one month to reply is more reasonable than 2 weeks. It is quite common for people to be on annual leave e.g., for 4 weeks. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 05:47, 21 July 2026 (UTC) == wording == This may sound pendantic... the prhase "are considered inactive if they have made no edits and logged actions within one year." Does this mean that any edit [[w:Logical conjunction|AND]] a log action are required in one year? Does it mean that either one is required in that time frame, but not necessarily both? [[User:Mu301|mikeu]] ^{[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]} 04:39, 10 July 2026 (UTC) : This means an edit and a logged action, together. I am not sure what is the point of desysopping a custodian who makes edits but otherwise does not use their permission(s). [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 23:45, 10 July 2026 (UTC) ::I updated the draft language to remove any ambiguity. [[User:Mu301|mikeu]] ^{[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]} 17:18, 16 July 2026 (UTC) == 'crat actions == For reference, please see the en.wikipedia section at [[meta:Admin activity review/Local inactivity policies]]. <blockquote>Bureaucrats: same as the Inactive administrators rule above, plus if a bureaucrat does not participate in bureaucrat activity for over three years, their rights may also be removed.</blockquote> As someone who uses this tool, I can tell you that these rights are infrequently used. If more than 12 months passes with no need to flip a custodian bit (a not particularity rare occurrence) it would result in every 'crat here having the bit simultaneously removed. Comments? [[User:Mu301|mikeu]] ^{[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]} 17:25, 16 July 2026 (UTC) : Should this be a part of this policy, a notice would be recommended explaining that some bureaucrat haven't used their bit involving bureaucrat actions, and a week should be given whether they would like to retain it or not, or otherwise resign at [[m:SRP]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 19:56, 16 July 2026 (UTC) : Pinging bureaucrats [[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]], [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]], [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] and [[User:Koavf|Koavf]] to this discussion. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 19:57, 16 July 2026 (UTC) ::I am fine with CN's proposal. I think a more sensible policy would be to collapse bureaucrat and sysop rights together, so if someone hasn't changed users rights (bureaucrat) <em>or</em> blocked a user, deleted a page, deleted a rev, imported a page, etc. (sysop rights), then that person's advanced user rights would fall under the inactivity policy. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 23:26, 16 July 2026 (UTC) :::I agree with Justin. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 00:07, 19 July 2026 (UTC) ::: Yes, I agree with Koavf's suggestion; it resolves Mu301's concerns that Bureaucrat-specific actions may not be used in a 12 month period even though the user is active. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 05:50, 21 July 2026 (UTC) :::: Koavf's suggestion adequately addresses my concerns. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] ^{[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]} 22:15, 27 August 2026 (UTC) :: The current draft refers to administrative actions in a broad sense, not bureaucrat-specific actions. So, I think it is reasonable to interpret this as meaning that a bureaucrat would only be considered inactive if they haven't used any administrative action and haven't edited in 12 months. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 06:31, 21 July 2026 (UTC) ::: I concur with that interpretation. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] ^{[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]} 05:44, 7 October 2026 (UTC) == Process == *For item #2 of process I would recommend requiring both talk page notification and also "email this user." If someone is inactive they might not notice the talk page edit. *For #3 we should make clear that a steward request can only be made after a community discussion has concluded. The draft policy seems to skip over the step of review by the community, how long the review should remain open, and other important due process details. :--[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] ^{[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]} 22:24, 16 July 2026 (UTC) : For number 3, the discussion should last about the same as the inactivity response timeframe, but I don't think there should be voting, as this is about inactivity. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:20, 18 July 2026 (UTC) : In that case, go ahead. I am not against these changes. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:22, 18 July 2026 (UTC) :: Pinging @[[User:Mu301|Mu301]] a second time–in case you did not see my response(s). [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 23:03, 23 August 2026 (UTC) ==Vested interest== Which admins could be affected by this proposal? I think that we should ping them to solicit input on a proposed policy before finalizing the terms. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] ^{[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]} 01:43, 28 August 2026 (UTC) 2k2d1w4smyyusasetrqbgayr9wdaz18 0 330076 2836453 2836221 2026-10-07T05:19:46Z Monuc9 3106784 /* Community and Wellness */ Basically completed assignment onto finalising formatting and figures 2836453 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Generativity:<br>What is generativity and how can it benefit life outcomes?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ;Imagine this... You're sitting next to a friend in a bar. They're telling you all about this new network software they created and how it's going to completely change the future of social networking. As they talk, you reflect on your own achievements and wonder why they don't seem to live up to the same standard. You watch people drawn to the atmosphere of your friend and in turn, begin to feel a internalised isolation. This feeling is an example of stagnation, the opposite to generativity in Erikson's theory of Pyschosicial Development. {{ic|Use an em-dash}} {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[wikipedia:Generativity|Generativity]] is part of the [[wikipedia:Erikson's_stages_of_psychosocial_development|psychoanalytic theory]] developed by Erik Erikson and Joan Erikson and encompasses the innate human desire to contribute positively to society for future generations. The generativity stage is the seventh of the eighth stages of life coined by the Erikson duo and typically occurs in middle adulthood (around the 45-64year mark) where most individuals are either in long term relationships, have older children or are in long term employment. The desire to contribute to future generations is an important development for adults but left unsatisfied, it can lead to stagnancy. Stagnancy is categorised as feelings of discontentment, dissatisfaction and disappointment which arise from the inability or unwillingness to help society move forward. Therefore, it is important to understand the importance of generativity in regards to life outcome, both individually and communally. On top of maintaining overall wellness, individuals with higher rates of generativity are similar more motivated to increase it. Sort of a “have your cake and eat it to” moment. Wanting to positively impact the lives of people around you will drive you towards building stronger communities and relationships, ergo feelings of fulfillment and belonging, ergo, a stronger drive for generativity. This chapter will explore generativity in a cyclical model, focusing on how generativity, motivation, community and wellness intermingle and impact overall life outcomes. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * How can generativity increase motivation? * How does motivation lead to a stronger sense of belonging within a community? * How does a sense of belonging in a community impact mental wellness * How does mental wellness translate to increased generativity? {{cross}}{{tick}} {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development== As an attempt to negotiate his biopsychosocial background with sociocultural forces, Erikson developed the eight stage psychosocial model. The stages are: trust versus mistrust, autonomy versus shame and doubt, initiative versus guilt, industry versus inferiority, identity versus role confusion, intimacy versus isolation, generativity versus stagnation, and ego integrity versus despair. Whilst the stages are separate and one does not need to master a previous stage to progress to the next one, the positive and negative experiences in each stage can provide resources for navigating subsequent developmental challenges. In particular, identity provides a foundation for intimacy, intimacy facilitates the capacity to invest in others, and generativity provides a pathway toward the sense of integrity associated with later life. ('''box) It should be noted that while generativity is typically associated with parenthood, it also involves mentoring, volunteering, teaching and political contributions.''' The relationship between generativity and wellbeing is therefore reciprocal. People may engage in meaningful activities because they already possess a strong motivation to contribute, while the experience of contributing may subsequently strengthen their sense of purpose, competence, belonging and wellbeing. == Generativity and Motivation == Generativity and motivation are interlinked through social necessity in the human species. At its core, generativity can be understood as a motivational orientation toward creating value that extends beyond the individual self. Generativity therefore involves a motivational movement from self-development toward self-transcendence. === Self Determination Theory === The motivational component of generativity becomes clear in the model developed by McAdams and de St. Aubin (1992). Their theory distinguishes between an inner generative desire and the behavioural expression of that desire. To put plainly, generativity is not simply something that a person does; it is also something that a person wants to do and experiences as meaningful. This distinction is important because individuals can possess considerable opportunities to contribute without necessarily experiencing themselves as generative. Conversely, a person may possess a strong desire to contribute but encounter social, physical, or institutional barriers that prevent them from doing so. This dimension can be connected directly to contemporary motivational psychology, one which is the highly influential theories is [[wikipedia:Self-determination_theory|Self-Determination Theory]] (SDT), developed by Deci and Ryan (2000). SDT proposes that human motivation is strongly influenced by three basic psychological needs: autonomy, competence, and relatedness (see Table 1.) '''Table 1.''' {| class="wikitable" |+SDT Needs |Autonomy |Experiencing oneself as an agent of their own actions |- |Competence |Feelings of capableness and effectiveness |- |Relatedness |Experiencing meaningful connections with others |} Generative behaviour can satisfy all three psychological needs simultaneously. For example, an older adult who chooses to mentor young people may experience autonomy because the activity reflects personally held values, competence because accumulated knowledge is being used effectively, and relatedness because the activity creates meaningful relationships across generations. Generativity can therefore become intrinsically or autonomously rewarding rather than simply an obligation imposed by society. It should be noted that the distinction between autonomous and controlled motivation is particularly relevant. A person may volunteer because they genuinely value contributing to the community, or because they feel pressured to demonstrate that they are still useful. These two motivations may produce superficially similar behaviours but very different psychological experiences. Deci and Ryan (2000) argued that goals pursued for autonomous reasons are more likely to support psychological wellbeing than goals pursued primarily because of external pressure, guilt, or contingent self-worth. Therefore, in the pursuit of meaningful generativity, individuals should consider their social environments and whether their contributions feel meaningful and self-directed or compulsory and taxing. === Achievement Goal Theory === When considering generativity from a motivational psychology viewpoint, it might surprise some to consider that Achievement Goal Theory should be included. Although the theory was primarily developed within achievement oriented research, it provides a useful conceptual lens for understanding generative behaviour. Elliot and McGregor (2001) developed a 2 × 2 achievement goal framework that distinguishes goals according to whether people are oriented toward demonstrating competence or avoiding incompetence and whether they focus on attaining success or avoiding failure. '''Table 2.''' {| class="wikitable" |+2x2 Achievement Goal Theory | |'''Absolute (intrapersonal mastery)''' |'''Normative (performance)''' |- |'''Positive (approaching success)''' |Mastery-approach goals |Performance-approach goals |- |'''Negative (avoiding failure)''' |Mastery-avoidance goals) |Performance-avoidance goals |} Generativity can involve mastery-oriented goals, such as learning how to mentor effectively or developing knowledge that can benefit younger people. Alternatively, it can become performance-oriented, where the individual seeks recognition as a successful, productive, or socially valuable person. This distinction matters because generativity is not automatically psychologically beneficial. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Consider this...''' Two people volunteering in the same organisation: The first volunteers because they value supporting young people and believe their experience can make a difference. The second volunteers primarily because they fear becoming irrelevant after retirement and need evidence that they remain valuable. Both may perform substantial amounts of volunteer work, but the motivational quality is different.{{RoundBoxBottom}} The first example resembles autonomous, mastery-oriented motivation, whereas the second may involve controlled motivation and avoidance of perceived failure (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Elliot & McGregor, 2001). Achievement Goal Theory therefore complements Self-Determination Theory when considering the interrelationship between generativity and motivation. Self-Determination Theory asks whether behaviour is experienced as autonomous and psychologically need-supportive, while achievement goal perspectives ask what type of goal is being pursued and how success and failure are defined. Together, these theories help explain why generative behaviour can sometimes produce wellbeing and at other times contribute to pressure, overcommitment, or disappointment. Similarly, research examining environmental volunteering has identified generativity, usefulness to others, socialisation, and environmental concern as important reasons older adults participate in environmental activities (Chen et al., 2022). Generative motivation in this context extends beyond direct interpersonal relationships. Environmental action can represent a form of generativity in which the "next generation" is conceptualised not only as younger people but as future inhabitants of a shared ecological environment. This expands Erikson's (1963) original framework and reiterates that generativity is not solely about parenthood. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}'''Important note: Consider whether the individual is investing in something perceived as extending beyond the immediate self.'''{{RoundBoxBottom}} Interestingly however, longitudinal evidence challenges the idea that generativity simply increases continuously with age and that there may be more subtle nuances within individuals motivations which increases or decreases generative behaviour. Törmäkangas and Kokko (2023) followed adults from approximately age 42 to 61 and found substantial individual variation in the development of generativity. Whilst average levels declined somewhat across the sample, individuals demonstrated different developmental trajectories for generative behaviour. Similarly, Hösch et al. (2023) found considerable individual variation in perceived generativity over a six-year period. Generativity was associated with subjective remaining life expectancy and perceptions of psychological obsolescence, demonstrating that generativity depends not only on chronological age but also on how individuals perceive their future and their continuing relevance. Generativity should not be regarded as an automatic psychological consequence of reaching middle age. Rather, it represents a developmental possibility shaped by motivation, opportunity, social relationships, and perceptions of personal usefulness (Hösch et al., 2023; Törmäkangas & Kokko, 2023). '''(add key takeaway from this heading)''' == Motivation and Community == Social support is vital in developing and mainting motivation in all aspects of life. If generativity is a motivational orientation toward contributing beyond the self, the community provides one of the major social contexts in which that motivation can become behaviour. Interestingly however, when considering generativity in a community sense, more emphasis is needed in developing a clear generative culture towards aging adults rather than simply assuming older adults should be partaking in generative behaviors. === Generativity and its impact on community === The relationship between motivation and community can be understood through Erikson's concept of intimacy versus isolation, which ties in nicely to the next topic of community and wellness. Generative community involvement provides opportunities for individuals to experience relationships in which their contributions are both needed and valued. It is through this that community participation can provide continuity between intimacy and generativity: close relationships teach individuals to care for others, while generative relationships expand that care into broader social networks. Recognition is particularly important because generativity involves an individual having the belief that their actions matter. If a community repeatedly uses someone's labour without acknowledging its value, the motivational benefits of contribution may diminish. Generative relationships should therefore be reciprocal rather than purely extractive. Community organisations therefore have an important role in supporting healthy generativity. They can provide meaningful choice, opportunities for skill development, reciprocal relationships, and recognition. Jongenelis and Pettigrew (2021) found that older volunteers experienced greater wellbeing when their volunteering involved appreciation, meaningful engagement, and a perception that their contribution benefited others. Community participation can help resolve aspects of the transition between Erikson's stages, particularly in later stages in life. During adulthood, individuals may experience changes in employment, family roles, and social status. Retirement, for example, can remove established sources of identity, competence, and social recognition. If retirement results in social withdrawal, individuals may experience something resembling stagnation. However, if community roles provide meaningful opportunities to mentor, volunteer, teach, or lead, retirement can become a transition toward a different form of generativity. === Building meaningful community to support generativity === Community is important as generative intentions require opportunities for expression. A person may want to teach, mentor, care, protect, create, or contribute, but those motivations only become psychologically and socially meaningful when an environment provides legitimate roles through which they can be enacted. Erikson's (1963) psychosocial theory is inherently social. Development occurs through the interaction between the individual and the social environment rather than solely within the individual. Consequently, generativity should not be understood as an isolated personality characteristic. Communities determine, at least partly, who is given opportunities to contribute, whose knowledge is valued, and whose participation is recognised. Research with older Australians demonstrates how community involvement can provide opportunities for generative action. Warburton et al. (2006) examined family and community involvement among older Australians and demonstrated how participation could support positive experiences of ageing. Community involvement allowed older adults to continue exercising social responsibility and assisted in helping them reframe their later years as a period of contribution rather than decline. In this case, the community became a social mechanism through which older adults could express generativity to then better the community. The significance of community becomes even clearer in the Baltimore Experience Corps Trial. Gruenewald et al. (2016) examined an intergenerational civic engagement programme in which older adults volunteered in schools and community settings. Participants who engaged with the programme demonstrated increases in generative desire and perceptions of generative achievement compared with controls. The researchers also identified evidence of a relationship between programme exposure and generativity. This finding is important because it reverses a common assumption; that gnerativity is often something an individual brings into a community. The findings of Gruenewald et al. (2016) suggest that community participation can itself strengthen generativity. Motivation and community may therefore operate as a feedback loop, rienforcing the fact that '''generativity is cyclicle figure thing.''' This is particularly relevant to the concept of productive ageing. Productive ageing should not be interpreted narrowly as continued paid employment. Community-oriented activity can be productive because it creates social, cultural, and relational value. Pinazo-Hernandis et al. (2023) found that different forms of productive activity were associated with different aspects of generativity, demonstrating the importance of the type and meaning of activity rather than simply the quantity of participation. Community therefore creates what might be called a generative infrastructure: institutions, relationships, and social roles through which individuals can convert motivation into contribution. However, this infrastructure is not equally available to everyone. Social inequalities, ageism, disability, economic circumstances, and cultural expectations can constrain generativity. A person may possess strong generative motivation but lack access to meaningful roles. Conversely, communities may expect older people to provide unpaid care without adequately recognising the psychological and physical costs involved. This distinction is particularly important when considering caregiving. Homan et al. (2020) examined generativity and wellbeing among midlife and older parents raising children with developmental or mental health problems. Their findings illustrate the complexity of generativity because caregiving can provide meaning and purpose while simultaneously creating substantial psychological demands. Caregiving demonstrates that generativity can be both rewarding and demanding. The developmental desire to nurture another person can create meaning and purpose, but sustained responsibility can also generate stress. Consequently, the presence of generative behaviour cannot automatically be interpreted as evidence of wellbeing. This observation is consistent with Achievement Goal Theory. If an individual defines successful adulthood as always being useful to others, contribution can become a performance requirement. Failure to contribute may then be interpreted as personal inadequacy. In contrast, a mastery-oriented approach allows individuals to understand contribution as an evolving process involving learning, adaptation, and realistic limits (Elliot & McGregor, 2001). The community is consequently more than a setting in which generativity occurs. It is an active psychological environment that can produce, strengthen, constrain, or undermine generative motivation. (Key take away, put as a seperate box. == Community and Wellness == This ties in to the human need for community to improve wellness.The impact of generative motivation and community directly ties into the impact community has on overall wellness. This section will focus on the direct application of community on wellness and how this applies to generative behaviour. === Social support through life changes === To start, it should be noted that when we refer to wellness, we are encompassing a broad scope. It includes psychological wellbeing, meaning in life, life satisfaction, social connectedness, perceived usefulness, and, where supported by evidence, physical and mental health. The relationship between community and wellness is significant in later adulthood as ageing can involve major changes in employment, family roles, physical capacity, and social networks. Community participation can provide stability at precisely the time when previous sources of identity may be changing. Research indicates that volunteering and community participation can be associated with positive psychological outcomes among older adults. Jongenelis et al. (2022), for example, examined longitudinal associations between formal volunteering and wellbeing among retired older people. Their findings suggest that volunteering can contribute to wellbeing, although the strength and consistency of these effects depend on the nature and extent of engagement. This specification is significant as not all community involvement is necessarily beneficial. Concepts such as excessive responsibilities, poorly designed roles, or activities undertaken under pressure can undermine wellbeing. What seems to matter most is the psychological quality of participation. Jongenelis and Pettigrew (2021) found that older volunteers' psychological wellbeing was associated with feeling appreciated, experiencing social and cognitive engagement, and knowing that others benefited from their contribution. These findings map closely onto Self-Determination Theory. Appreciation can reinforce competence and social value; meaningful social interaction supports relatedness; and cognitively engaging activities can strengthen competence and mastery (Deci & Ryan, 2000). The community therefore provides an environment in which psychological needs can be satisfied. This may explain why generative community activities can contribute to wellness even when they are not explicitly designed as mental-health interventions. Hofer et al. (2014) provide further evidence through their cross-cultural study of generativity and meaning in life among older adults. Their findings support the proposition that generativity is associated with meaning in later adulthood. Meaning is particularly important because Erikson's final stage, '''ego integrity versus despair''', involves the individual's evaluation of their life as a coherent and worthwhile as a whole (Erikson, 1963). === Legacy, life meaning and the impact of interpretation === Generative activity can contribute to this process by allowing individuals to perceive continuity between their own life and the lives of those who follow them, also known as legacy. This is one of the largest drivers of generative behaviour and is heavily based in an individuals perception of community and their impact on it. This notion of legacy can occur through direct intergenerational relationships. An older teacher may pass knowledge to students. A grandparent may transmit family stories etc. In each case, the individual encounters a form of psychological continuity: something of the self continues through what has been contributed. This is one reason legacy is closely related to generativity. Neller et al. (2023) examined how older adults created "legacies of values" and found that legacy creation involved preserving knowledge, communicating values, and reflecting on one's life. Rather than representing exclusively an end-of-life activity, legacy-building encouraged participants to consider how they wanted to live in the present. This provides an important bridge between generativity and [[wikipedia:Ego|ego]] integrity. The concept of legacy therefore reinforces and connects Erikson's seventh and eighth stages. Generativity asks, in effect, ''What can I give to the future?'' Ego integrity asks, ''Can I look back on my life and recognise it as meaningful and coherent?'' Generative action can contribute to the second question because it provides evidence that one's life has had consequences beyond the self. Becchetti and Bellucci (2021) similarly demonstrated relationships between generativity and subjective wellbeing among older adults. Their findings support the broader proposition that generative activity can be associated with life satisfaction and meaning, which is significant as wellbeing may emerge not simply from pursuing happiness directly, but by pursuing meaningful goals. This principle is consistent with positive psychological perspectives in which wellbeing is understood partly as a consequence of purposeful engagement. Generativity exemplifies this process because the immediate focus is often on improving another person's life, contributing to a community, or protecting something valued. Personal wellbeing can emerge indirectly from that contribution. The complex relationship between community and wellness is also visible in research on civic engagement where Chen et al. (2023) examined civic activities and mental health in later life and found associations between generative civic participation and psychological wellbeing. This would suggest that generative concerns may influence the psychological effects of civic engagement, reinforcing the distinction between ''activity'' and ''generativity''. Interestingly, this implies that simply participating in an organisation does not necessarily constitute generativity. The individual's '''interpretation''' of the activity matters. This is particularly evident in the growing realm of environmental concern. Chen et al. (2022) found that environmental volunteering among older adults could provide social connection, meaningful purpose, empowerment, and wellbeing, while generativity was one of the motivations for participation. Here, individual wellbeing and community or environmental wellbeing become interconnected. The individual protects something that will outlast them while simultaneously experiencing social and psychological benefits. This has implications for the way communities conceptualise ageing. If older adulthood is represented primarily as a period of dependency and decline, opportunities for generativity may be reduced whereas if older adults are recognised as knowledge holders, mentors, carers, leaders, and contributors, communities can create opportunities for continued psychosocial development. Community therefore becomes a mechanism through which wellness can be sustained across developmental transitions. == Wellness and Generativity == The final relationship in this framework is the reciprocal connection between wellness and generativity. The evidence suggests that generativity can support wellbeing, but wellbeing can also make generative engagement more possible. A psychologically healthy person might possess greater energy, confidence, social capacity, and perceived agency with which to contribute to others, particularly if the community nurtured or supported them in their youth. However, this must be carefully balanced between value and meaning, where in later stages of life, individuals should not feel pressured to do extrenuous generative activities out of the necessity to "prove their worth." === Tying in the cycle === An increased capacity to give back to the community that has nurtured an individual is an important aspect of generative behaviours. Now that we have gone over the rest of the generative cycle components (generativity, motivation, community, wellness) we finish by looping wellness back to generativity. This reciprocal model can be represented conceptually as: '''Psychological resources''' '''> generative motivation > community participation > contribution > meaning, connection and competence > wellbeing > further capacity for generativity.''' The cycle also explains why generativity should be considered across the entire life course rather than exclusively within middle age, where the inclination for those behaviours emerge more extensively. When relating back to the origins of the theory, the first four Eriksonian stages provide the earliest foundations for this cycle. '''Trust versus mistrust''' establishes the expectation that the social world can be reliable. '''Autonomy versus shame and doubt''' contributes to a sense of agency. '''Initiative versus guilt''' supports purposeful action, while '''industry versus inferiority''' develops a sense of competence (Erikson, 1963). These psychosocial strengths later become resources for identity formation, intimacy, and, most importantly, generativity. Research done by Neller et al. (2023) found their participants described legacy creation as simultaneously future-oriented and present-oriented and that creating a legacy helped individuals reflect on their lives while also encouraging them to live intentionally in the present. It should be noted that whilst generativity is preferred over stagnance, aformentioned as the state opposite to generativityin Erikson's model, not all generative behaviours should be treated as universally positive. Balance is required to ensure healthy generative behaviours as generativity can involve emotional and physical costs, particularly when caring responsibilities become excessive. Homan et al. (2020) demonstrated the complexity of generativity among parents of children with developmental or mental health problems. Generative commitment can coexist with substantial demands on psychological and physical resources. The quality of motivation therefore matters. Self-Determination Theory suggests that people are more likely to experience positive outcomes when their generative activities support autonomy, competence, and relatedness (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Ryan & Deci, 2000). If a person feels forced to care for others, lacks control over their role, or receives little recognition, generative behaviour may become psychologically costly. Achievement Goal Theory provides a second explanation. Generative activities may be healthier when they are approached through mastery and meaningful development rather than through an overwhelming need to prove worth or avoid failure (Elliot & McGregor, 2001). This distinction is particularly relevant to older adulthood. Retirement can challenge a person's sense of competence because familiar occupational roles disappear. A generative community role can restore that sense of competence, but it can also become problematic if the individual feels that they must continually demonstrate their usefulness to justify their value. === Maintaining a positive cycle of value and meaning === The healthiest form of generativity may therefore involve '''reciprocity rather than self-sacrifice'''. Generative relationships should allow individuals to give and receive. The older adult can mentor younger people while also learning from them. A volunteer can support a community while receiving friendship and recognition. A grandparent can transmit cultural knowledge while gaining renewed connection and purpose. A strong empirical illustration of this reciprocal model came from Gruenewald et al. (2016), who found that intergenerational volunteering could strengthen older adults' perceptions of generative achievement. The community therefore benefited from older adults' contributions while the volunteers themselves experienced developmental benefits. Generativity may therefore be understood as a form of '''developmental reciprocity'''. Individuals shape their communities, while communities provide the conditions through which individuals continue to develop. It is important to consider that human development never truly ceases, even in later stages of life. There is always something more to learn or do. This concept addresses an apparent contradiction in Erikson's theory, for, if generativity is a developmental task of middle adulthood, why does it remain important among older adults? The answer is that developmental stages may be better understood as continuing psychosocial themes rather than strictly age-bound psychological compartments. Later adulthood can contain generative activity alongside reflection, adaptation, and integrity. Indeed, generativity may become particularly significant when individuals begin thinking explicitly about legacy and continuity. This can also put to question when is it an appropriate time to consider future generations and how your activites may impact them. Hösch et al. (2023) found that perceived generativity fluctuated within individuals over time and was associated with perceptions of remaining life and psychological obsolescence rather than simply chronological age. Similarly, Törmäkangas and Kokko (2023) identified substantial individual differences in developmental trajectories, demonstrating that people of the same chronological age can experience generativity in very different ways. Consequently, interventions designed to promote healthy ageing should not merely encourage older people to "stay active." Activity is insufficient on its own. Instead, programmes should create opportunities for meaningful contribution, autonomy, competence, social connection, and future-oriented purpose. The four relationships developed throughout this chapter can therefore be understood as a developmental system: '''Generativity motivates contribution. Contribution requires community. Community can promote wellness. Wellness creates psychological resources for further generativity.''' Erikson's model provides the developmental structure for this system, while motivational psychology helps explain its mechanisms. Self-Determination Theory explains how autonomy, competence, and relatedness can make generative behaviour psychologically satisfying. Achievement Goal Theory helps explain why the orientation toward contribution matters: contribution pursued as meaningful mastery is potentially different from contribution pursued under pressure to prove worth. Taken together, these perspectives suggest that generativity is neither simply a personality characteristic nor simply a behaviour. It is a '''motivational-developmental process''' through which individuals use their psychological resources, relationships, knowledge, and experiences to contribute to something beyond themselves. The implications extend well beyond older adulthood. Young people can display generativity through peer mentoring and community service; adults can express it through parenting, teaching, and professional leadership; and older adults can continue to express it through volunteering, mentoring, environmental stewardship, cultural transmission, and legacy creation. Generativity therefore represents continuity across the life course. In this sense, generativity represents an important bridge between '''individual wellness''' and '''collective wellbeing'''. A generative person does not seek wellbeing solely by focusing on their internal functions. Instead, wellbeing can emerge through participation, contribution, relationship, and meaning. Communities become healthier when people have opportunities to contribute, while individuals can become healthier when their communities recognise and enable those contributions. The central implication is therefore that successful ageing and psychosocial wellbeing should not be conceptualised merely as the maintenance of individual functioning. They should also involve opportunities to '''matter to others'''. Generativity provides the psychological mechanism through which those opportunities can be realised, encouraging future generations to be generative when they are older. ==Figures== [[File:Mona Lisa, by Leonardo da Vinci, from C2RMF retouched.jpg|alt=|thumb|232x232px|'''Figure 2'''. How you'll look if you're generative]] * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure; this can be the figure in the scenario * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] which hosts free-to-use media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, and audio * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== {{anchor|Tables}} ;Quizzes <quiz display="simple"> {When observing a friend discussing their achievements and you feel a sense of isolation, this is called?: |type="()"} + Stagnance - Supplicant {Having a desire to improve the lives of others is easy for everyone?: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== Generativity is a chronological stage within Erikson's psychosocial model theorized to occure at the middle adulthood life of 40-60 years of age. However, generativity has a much broader reach than originally thought and is not so easily defined as simply participating in activities meant to influence future generations. Generativity is a life long pursuit that involves a complex interrelationship between motivation, community and wellness. People do not need to be of a certain age to participate in generative activities and society's should work towards implementing cultures that foster genuine, healthy generative behaviours, starting from adolesence all the way through to elderly life, to reduce stagnancy, isolation and stigma for the people who came before us. oijln {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Generativity|Generativity]] (Book chapter, 2025) [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Intrinsic motivation]] [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Physiological needs]] {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Becchetti, L., & Bellucci, D. (2021). Generativity, aging and subjective well-being. International Review of Economics, 68, 141–184. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12232-020-00358-6 Chen, P.-W., Chen, L.-K., Huang, H.-K., & Loh, C.-H. (2022). Productive aging by environmental volunteerism: A systematic review. Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics, 98, 104563. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.archger.2021.104563 Chen, Y.-C., Morrow-Howell, N., Hung, N., & Chan, C. L. W. (2023). Civic activities and mental health in later life: The moderating role of generative concerns. Journal of Gerontological Social Work, 66(7), 844–863. https://doi.org/10.1080/01634372.2023.2183297 Cox, K. S., Wilt, J., Olson, B., & McAdams, D. P. (2010). Generativity, the Big Five, and psychosocial adaptation in midlife adults. Journal of Personality, 78(4), 1185–1208. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2010.00647.x Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The "what" and "why" of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11(4), 227–268. https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/SDT/documents/2000_DeciRyan_PIWhatWhy.pdf Elliot, A. J., & McGregor, H. A. (2001). A 2 × 2 achievement goal framework. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80(3), 501–519. https://www.selfdeterminationtheory.org/SDT/documents/2001_ElliotMcGregor.pdf Erikson, E. H. (1963). Childhood and society (2nd ed.). W. W. Norton. Gruenewald, T. L., Tanner, E. K., Fried, L. P., Carlson, M. C., Xue, Q.-L., Parisi, J. M., Rebok, G. W., Yarnell, L. M., & Seeman, T. E. (2016). The Baltimore Experience Corps Trial: Enhancing generativity via intergenerational activity engagement in later life. The Journals of Gerontology: Series B, 71(4), 661–670. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbv005 Hofer, J., Busch, H., Au, A., Šolcová, I. P., Tavel, P., & Wong, T. T. (2014). For the benefit of others: Generativity and meaning in life in the elderly in four cultures. Psychology and Aging, 29(4), 764–775. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037762 Homan, K. J., Greenberg, J. S., & Mailick, M. R. (2020). Generativity and well-being of midlife and aging parents with children with developmental or mental health problems. Research on Aging, 42(3–4), 95–104. https://doi.org/10.1177/0164027519884759 Hösch, H. S., Rupprecht, F. S., & Lang, F. R. (2023). Psychological obsolescence and subjective remaining life expectancy are predictors of generativity in a six-year longitudinal study. Journal of Adult Development, 30, 359–368. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10804-023-09441-y Jongenelis, M. I., Jackson, B., Newton, R. U., & Pettigrew, S. (2022). Longitudinal associations between formal volunteering and well-being among retired older people: Follow-up results from a randomized controlled trial. Aging & Mental Health, 26(2), 368–375. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2021.1884845 Jongenelis, M. I., & Pettigrew, S. (2021). Aspects of the volunteering experience associated with well-being in older adults. Health Promotion Journal of Australia, 32(Suppl. 2), 384–390. https://doi.org/10.1002/hpja.399 McAdams, D. P., & de St. Aubin, E. (1992). A theory of generativity and its assessment through self-report, behavioral acts, and narrative themes in autobiography. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 62(6), 1003–1015. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Ed-Aubin/publication/232504200_A_Theory_of_Generativity_and_Its_Assessment_Through_Self-Report_Behavioral_Acts_and_Narrative_Themes_in_Autobiography/links/550047010cf28e4ac347f1b3/A-Theory-of-Generativity-and-Its-Assessment-Through-Self-Report-Behavioral-Acts-and-Narrative-Themes-in-Autobiography.pdf Neller, S. A., Cloyes, K. G., Edelman, L. S., Wong, B., Baines, B., & Towsley, G. L. (2023). Preparing for the future while living in the present: Older adults' experiences creating a legacy of values. The Gerontologist, 63(9), 1488–1496. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/gnad019 Pinazo-Hernandis, S., Zacarés, J. J., Serrat, R., & Villar, F. (2023). The role of generativity in later life in the case of productive activities: Does the type of active aging activity matter? Research on Aging, 45(1), 35–46. https://doi.org/10.1177/01640275221122914 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/SDT/documents/2000_RyanDeci_SDT.pdf Törmäkangas, T., & Kokko, K. (2023). The development of generativity in middle adulthood and the beginning of late adulthood: A longitudinal study from age 42 to 61. Journal of Adult Development. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10804-022-09436-1 Warburton, J., & Gooch, M. (2007). Stewardship volunteering by older Australians: The generative response. Local Environment, 12(1), 43–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/13549830601098230 Warburton, J., McLaughlin, D., & Pinsker, D. (2006). Generative acts: Family and community involvement of older Australians. https://doi.org/10.2190/9te3-t1g1-333v-3dt8 Yamashita, T., López, E. B., Soligo, M., & Keene, J. R. (2017). Older lifelong learners' motivations for participating in formal volunteer activities in urban communities. Adult Education Quarterly, 67(2), 118–135. https://doi.org/10.1177/0741713616688957 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Developmental]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]] kjmrp54x6geclct9ytgm84pnc0i82le 2836459 2836453 2026-10-07T05:43:51Z Monuc9 3106784 Minor edits in formatting 2836459 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Generativity:<br>What is generativity and how can it benefit life outcomes?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ;Imagine this... You're sitting next to a friend in a bar. They're telling you all about this new network software they created and how it's going to completely change the future of social networking. As they talk, you reflect on your own achievements and wonder why they don't seem to live up to the same standard. You watch people drawn to the atmosphere of your friend and in turn, begin to feel a internalised isolation. This feeling is an example of stagnation, the opposite to generativity in Erikson's theory of Pyschosicial Development. {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[wikipedia:Generativity|Generativity]] is part of the [[wikipedia:Erikson's_stages_of_psychosocial_development|psychoanalytic theory]] developed by Erik Erikson and Joan Erikson and encompasses the innate human desire to contribute positively to society for future generations. The generativity stage is the seventh of the eighth stages of life coined by the Erikson duo and typically occurs in middle adulthood (around the 45-64year mark) where most individuals are either in long term relationships, have older children or are in long term employment. The desire to contribute to future generations is an important development for adults but left unsatisfied, it can lead to stagnancy. Stagnancy is categorised as feelings of discontentment, dissatisfaction and disappointment which arise from the inability or unwillingness to help society move forward. Therefore, it is important to understand the importance of generativity in regards to life outcome, both individually and communally. On top of maintaining overall wellness, individuals with higher rates of generativity are similar more motivated to increase it. Sort of a “have your cake and eat it to” moment. Wanting to positively impact the lives of people around you will drive you towards building stronger communities and relationships, ergo feelings of fulfillment and belonging, ergo, a stronger drive for generativity. This chapter will explore generativity in a cyclical model, focusing on how generativity, motivation, community and wellness intermingle and impact overall life outcomes. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * How does motivational psychology play a role in generativity? * How do community and motivation impact generative behaviours? * How can wellness and community influence generativity on a collective scale? * What does the relationship between generativity and wellness mean for the future? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development== As an attempt to negotiate his biopsychosocial background with sociocultural forces, Erikson developed the eight stage psychosocial model. The stages are: trust versus mistrust, autonomy versus shame and doubt, initiative versus guilt, industry versus inferiority, identity versus role confusion, intimacy versus isolation, generativity versus stagnation, and ego integrity versus despair. Whilst the stages are separate and one does not need to master a previous stage to progress to the next one, the positive and negative experiences in each stage can provide resources for navigating subsequent developmental challenges. In particular, identity provides a foundation for intimacy, intimacy facilitates the capacity to invest in others, and generativity provides a pathway toward the sense of integrity associated with later life. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}It should be noted that while generativity is typically associated with parenthood, it also involves mentoring, volunteering, teaching and political contributions.{{RoundBoxBottom}} The relationship between generativity and wellbeing is therefore reciprocal. People may engage in meaningful activities because they already possess a strong motivation to contribute, while the experience of contributing may subsequently strengthen their sense of purpose, competence, belonging and wellbeing. == Generativity and Motivation == Generativity and motivation are interlinked through social necessity in the human species. At its core, generativity can be understood as a motivational orientation toward creating value that extends beyond the individual self. Generativity therefore involves a motivational movement from self-development toward self-transcendence. === Self Determination Theory === The motivational component of generativity becomes clear in the model developed by McAdams and de St. Aubin (1992). Their theory distinguishes between an inner generative desire and the behavioural expression of that desire. To put plainly, generativity is not simply something that a person does; it is also something that a person wants to do and experiences as meaningful. This distinction is important because individuals can possess considerable opportunities to contribute without necessarily experiencing themselves as generative. Conversely, a person may possess a strong desire to contribute but encounter social, physical, or institutional barriers that prevent them from doing so. This dimension can be connected directly to contemporary motivational psychology, one which is the highly influential theories is [[wikipedia:Self-determination_theory|Self-Determination Theory]] (SDT), developed by Deci and Ryan (2000). SDT proposes that human motivation is strongly influenced by three basic psychological needs: autonomy, competence, and relatedness (see Table 1.) '''Table 1.''' {| class="wikitable" |+SDT Needs |Autonomy |Experiencing oneself as an agent of their own actions |- |Competence |Feelings of capableness and effectiveness |- |Relatedness |Experiencing meaningful connections with others |} Generative behaviour can satisfy all three psychological needs simultaneously. For example, an older adult who chooses to mentor young people may experience autonomy because the activity reflects personally held values, competence because accumulated knowledge is being used effectively, and relatedness because the activity creates meaningful relationships across generations. Generativity can therefore become intrinsically or autonomously rewarding rather than simply an obligation imposed by society. It should be noted that the distinction between autonomous and controlled motivation is particularly relevant. A person may volunteer because they genuinely value contributing to the community, or because they feel pressured to demonstrate that they are still useful. These two motivations may produce superficially similar behaviours but very different psychological experiences. Deci and Ryan (2000) argued that goals pursued for autonomous reasons are more likely to support psychological wellbeing than goals pursued primarily because of external pressure, guilt, or contingent self-worth. Therefore, in the pursuit of meaningful generativity, individuals should consider their social environments and whether their contributions feel meaningful and self-directed or compulsory and taxing. === Achievement Goal Theory === When considering generativity from a motivational psychology viewpoint, it might surprise some to consider that Achievement Goal Theory should be included. Although the theory was primarily developed within achievement oriented research, it provides a useful conceptual lens for understanding generative behaviour. Elliot and McGregor (2001) developed a 2 × 2 achievement goal framework that distinguishes goals according to whether people are oriented toward demonstrating competence or avoiding incompetence and whether they focus on attaining success or avoiding failure. '''Table 2.''' {| class="wikitable" |+2x2 Achievement Goal Theory | |'''Absolute (intrapersonal mastery)''' |'''Normative (performance)''' |- |'''Positive (approaching success)''' |Mastery-approach goals |Performance-approach goals |- |'''Negative (avoiding failure)''' |Mastery-avoidance goals) |Performance-avoidance goals |} Generativity can involve mastery-oriented goals, such as learning how to mentor effectively or developing knowledge that can benefit younger people. Alternatively, it can become performance-oriented, where the individual seeks recognition as a successful, productive, or socially valuable person. This distinction matters because generativity is not automatically psychologically beneficial. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Consider this...''' Two people volunteering in the same organisation: The first volunteers because they value supporting young people and believe their experience can make a difference. The second volunteers primarily because they fear becoming irrelevant after retirement and need evidence that they remain valuable. Both may perform substantial amounts of volunteer work, but the motivational quality is different.{{RoundBoxBottom}} The first example resembles autonomous, mastery-oriented motivation, whereas the second may involve controlled motivation and avoidance of perceived failure (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Elliot & McGregor, 2001). Achievement Goal Theory therefore complements Self-Determination Theory when considering the interrelationship between generativity and motivation. Self-Determination Theory asks whether behaviour is experienced as autonomous and psychologically need-supportive, while achievement goal perspectives ask what type of goal is being pursued and how success and failure are defined. Together, these theories help explain why generative behaviour can sometimes produce wellbeing and at other times contribute to pressure, overcommitment, or disappointment. Similarly, research examining environmental volunteering has identified generativity, usefulness to others, socialisation, and environmental concern as important reasons older adults participate in environmental activities (Chen et al., 2022). Generative motivation in this context extends beyond direct interpersonal relationships. Environmental action can represent a form of generativity in which the "next generation" is conceptualised not only as younger people but as future inhabitants of a shared ecological environment. This expands Erikson's (1963) original framework and reiterates that generativity is not solely about parenthood. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}}'''Important note:''' Consider whether the individual is investing in something perceived as extending beyond the immediate self.{{RoundBoxBottom}} Interestingly however, longitudinal evidence challenges the idea that generativity simply increases continuously with age and that there may be more subtle nuances within individuals motivations which increases or decreases generative behaviour. Törmäkangas and Kokko (2023) followed adults from approximately age 42 to 61 and found substantial individual variation in the development of generativity. Whilst average levels declined somewhat across the sample, individuals demonstrated different developmental trajectories for generative behaviour. Similarly, Hösch et al. (2023) found considerable individual variation in perceived generativity over a six-year period. Generativity was associated with subjective remaining life expectancy and perceptions of psychological obsolescence, demonstrating that generativity depends not only on chronological age but also on how individuals perceive their future and their continuing relevance. Generativity should not be regarded as an automatic psychological consequence of reaching middle age. Rather, it represents a developmental possibility shaped by motivation, opportunity, social relationships, and perceptions of personal usefulness (Hösch et al., 2023; Törmäkangas & Kokko, 2023). == Motivation and Community == Social support is vital in developing and mainting motivation in all aspects of life. If generativity is a motivational orientation toward contributing beyond the self, the community provides one of the major social contexts in which that motivation can become behaviour. Interestingly however, when considering generativity in a community sense, more emphasis is needed in developing a clear generative culture towards aging adults rather than simply assuming older adults should be partaking in generative behaviors. === Generativity and its impact on community === The relationship between motivation and community can be understood through Erikson's concept of intimacy versus isolation, which ties in nicely to the next topic of community and wellness. Generative community involvement provides opportunities for individuals to experience relationships in which their contributions are both needed and valued. It is through this that community participation can provide continuity between intimacy and generativity: close relationships teach individuals to care for others, while generative relationships expand that care into broader social networks. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}'''Recognition is particularly important because generativity involves an individual having the belief that their actions matter.''' If a community repeatedly uses someone's labour without acknowledging its value, the motivational benefits of contribution may diminish. Generative relationships should therefore be reciprocal rather than purely extractive.{{RoundBoxBottom}} Community organisations therefore have an important role in supporting healthy generativity. They can provide meaningful choice, opportunities for skill development, reciprocal relationships, and recognition. Jongenelis and Pettigrew (2021) found that older volunteers experienced greater wellbeing when their volunteering involved appreciation, meaningful engagement, and a perception that their contribution benefited others. Community participation can help resolve aspects of the transition between Erikson's stages, particularly in later stages in life. During adulthood, individuals may experience changes in employment, family roles, and social status. Retirement, for example, can remove established sources of identity, competence, and social recognition. If retirement results in social withdrawal, individuals may experience something resembling stagnation. However, if community roles provide meaningful opportunities to mentor, volunteer, teach, or lead, retirement can become a transition toward a different form of generativity. === Building meaningful community to support generativity === Community is important as generative intentions require opportunities for expression. A person may want to teach, mentor, care, protect, create, or contribute, but those motivations only become psychologically and socially meaningful when an environment provides legitimate roles through which they can be enacted. Erikson's (1963) psychosocial theory is inherently social. Development occurs through the interaction between the individual and the social environment rather than solely within the individual. Consequently, generativity should not be understood as an isolated personality characteristic. Communities determine, at least partly, who is given opportunities to contribute, whose knowledge is valued, and whose participation is recognised. Research with older Australians demonstrates how community involvement can provide opportunities for generative action. Warburton et al. (2006) examined family and community involvement among older Australians and demonstrated how participation could support positive experiences of ageing. Community involvement allowed older adults to continue exercising social responsibility and assisted in helping them reframe their later years as a period of contribution rather than decline. In this case, the community became a social mechanism through which older adults could express generativity to then better the community. The significance of community becomes even clearer in the Baltimore Experience Corps Trial. Gruenewald et al. (2016) examined an intergenerational civic engagement programme in which older adults volunteered in schools and community settings. Participants who engaged with the programme demonstrated increases in generative desire and perceptions of generative achievement compared with controls. The researchers also identified evidence of a relationship between programme exposure and generativity. This finding is important because it reverses a common assumption; that gnerativity is often something an individual brings into a community. The findings of Gruenewald et al. (2016) suggest that community participation can itself strengthen generativity. Motivation and community may therefore operate as a feedback loop, rienforcing the fact that: {{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}'''generativity is cyclicle.'''{{RoundBoxBottom}} This is particularly relevant to the concept of productive ageing. Productive ageing should not be interpreted narrowly as continued paid employment. Community-oriented activity can be productive because it creates social, cultural, and relational value. Pinazo-Hernandis et al. (2023) found that different forms of productive activity were associated with different aspects of generativity, demonstrating the importance of the type and meaning of activity rather than simply the quantity of participation. Community therefore creates what might be called a generative infrastructure: institutions, relationships, and social roles through which individuals can convert motivation into contribution. However, this infrastructure is not equally available to everyone. Social inequalities, ageism, disability, economic circumstances, and cultural expectations can constrain generativity. A person may possess strong generative motivation but lack access to meaningful roles. Conversely, communities may expect older people to provide unpaid care without adequately recognising the psychological and physical costs involved. This distinction is particularly important when we look at caregiving. Homan et al. (2020) examined generativity and wellbeing among midlife and older parents raising children with developmental or mental health problems. Their findings illustrate the complexity of generativity because caregiving can provide meaning and purpose while simultaneously creating substantial psychological demands. Caregiving demonstrates that generativity can be both rewarding and demanding. The developmental desire to nurture another person can create meaning and purpose, but sustained responsibility can also generate stress, as such, the presence of generative behaviour cannot automatically be interpreted as evidence of wellbeing.This observation is consistent with Achievement Goal Theory. If an individual defines successful adulthood as always being useful to others, contribution can become a performance requirement. Failure to contribute may then be interpreted as personal inadequacy. In contrast, a mastery-oriented approach allows individuals to understand contribution as an evolving process involving learning, adaptation, and realistic limits (Elliot & McGregor, 2001). The community is therefore more than a setting in which generativity occurs. It is an active psychological environment that can produce, strengthen, constrain, or undermine generative motivation. == Community and Wellness == This ties in to the human need for community to improve wellness.The impact of generative motivation and community directly ties into the impact community has on overall wellness. This section will focus on the direct application of community on wellness and how this applies to generative behaviour. === Social support through life changes === To start, it should be noted that when we refer to wellness, we are encompassing a broad scope. It includes psychological wellbeing, meaning in life, life satisfaction, social connectedness, perceived usefulness, and, where supported by evidence, physical and mental health. The relationship between community and wellness is significant in later adulthood as ageing can involve major changes in employment, family roles, physical capacity, and social networks. Community participation can provide stability at precisely the time when previous sources of identity may be changing. Research indicates that volunteering and community participation can be associated with positive psychological outcomes among older adults. Jongenelis et al. (2022), for example, examined longitudinal associations between formal volunteering and wellbeing among retired older people. Their findings suggest that volunteering can contribute to wellbeing, although the strength and consistency of these effects depend on the nature and extent of engagement. This specification is significant as not all community involvement is necessarily beneficial. Concepts such as excessive responsibilities, poorly designed roles, or activities undertaken under pressure can undermine wellbeing. What seems to matter most is the psychological quality of participation. Jongenelis and Pettigrew (2021) found that older volunteers' psychological wellbeing was associated with feeling appreciated, experiencing social and cognitive engagement, and knowing that others benefited from their contribution. These findings map closely onto Self-Determination Theory. Appreciation can reinforce competence and social value; meaningful social interaction supports relatedness; and cognitively engaging activities can strengthen competence and mastery (Deci & Ryan, 2000). The community therefore provides an environment in which psychological needs can be satisfied. This may explain why generative community activities can contribute to wellness even when they are not explicitly designed as mental-health interventions. Hofer et al. (2014) provide further evidence through their cross-cultural study of generativity and meaning in life among older adults. Their findings support the proposition that generativity is associated with meaning in later adulthood. Meaning is particularly important because Erikson's final stage, '''ego integrity versus despair''', involves the individual's evaluation of their life as a coherent and worthwhile as a whole (Erikson, 1963). === Legacy, life meaning and the impact of interpretation === Generative activity can contribute to this process by allowing individuals to perceive continuity between their own life and the lives of those who follow them, also known as legacy. This is one of the largest drivers of generative behaviour and is heavily based in an individuals perception of community and their impact on it. This notion of legacy can occur through direct intergenerational relationships. An older teacher may pass knowledge to students. A grandparent may transmit family stories etc. In each case, the individual encounters a form of psychological continuity: something of the self continues through what has been contributed. This is one reason legacy is closely related to generativity. Neller et al. (2023) examined how older adults created "legacies of values" and found that legacy creation involved preserving knowledge, communicating values, and reflecting on one's life. Rather than representing exclusively an end-of-life activity, legacy-building encouraged participants to consider how they wanted to live in the present. This provides an important bridge between generativity and [[wikipedia:Ego|ego]] integrity. The concept of legacy therefore reinforces and connects Erikson's seventh and eighth stages. Generativity asks, in effect, ''What can I give to the future?'' Ego integrity asks, ''Can I look back on my life and recognise it as meaningful and coherent?'' Generative action can contribute to the second question because it provides evidence that one's life has had consequences beyond the self. Becchetti and Bellucci (2021) similarly demonstrated relationships between generativity and subjective wellbeing among older adults. Their findings support the broader proposition that generative activity can be associated with life satisfaction and meaning, which is significant as wellbeing may emerge not simply from pursuing happiness directly, but by pursuing meaningful goals. This principle is consistent with positive psychological perspectives in which wellbeing is understood partly as a consequence of purposeful engagement. Generativity exemplifies this process because the immediate focus is often on improving another person's life, contributing to a community, or protecting something valued. Personal wellbeing can emerge indirectly from that contribution. The complex relationship between community and wellness is also visible in research on civic engagement where Chen et al. (2023) examined civic activities and mental health in later life and found associations between generative civic participation and psychological wellbeing. This would suggest that generative concerns may influence the psychological effects of civic engagement, reinforcing the distinction between ''activity'' and ''generativity''. Interestingly, this implies that simply participating in an organisation does not necessarily constitute generativity. The individual's '''interpretation''' of the activity matters. This is particularly evident in the growing realm of environmental concern. Chen et al. (2022) found that environmental volunteering among older adults could provide social connection, meaningful purpose, empowerment, and wellbeing, while generativity was one of the motivations for participation. Here, individual wellbeing and community or environmental wellbeing become interconnected. The individual protects something that will outlast them while simultaneously experiencing social and psychological benefits. This has implications for the way communities conceptualise ageing. If older adulthood is represented primarily as a period of dependency and decline, opportunities for generativity may be reduced whereas if older adults are recognised as knowledge holders, mentors, carers, leaders, and contributors, communities can create opportunities for continued psychosocial development. Community therefore becomes a mechanism through which wellness can be sustained across developmental transitions. == Wellness and Generativity == The final relationship in this framework is the reciprocal connection between wellness and generativity. The evidence suggests that generativity can support wellbeing, but wellbeing can also make generative engagement more possible. A psychologically healthy person might possess greater energy, confidence, social capacity, and perceived agency with which to contribute to others, particularly if the community nurtured or supported them in their youth. However, this must be carefully balanced between value and meaning, where in later stages of life, individuals should not feel pressured to do extrenuous generative activities out of the necessity to "prove their worth." === Tying in the cycle === An increased capacity to give back to the community that has nurtured an individual is an important aspect of generative behaviours. Now that we have gone over the rest of the generative cycle components (generativity, motivation, community, wellness) we finish by looping wellness back to generativity. This reciprocal model can be represented conceptually as: {{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}'''Psychological resources > generative motivation > community participation > contribution > meaning, connection and competence > wellbeing > further capacity for generativity.'''{{RoundBoxBottom}} The cycle also explains why generativity should be considered across the entire life course rather than exclusively within middle age, where the inclination for those behaviours emerge more extensively. When relating back to the origins of the theory, the first four Eriksonian stages provide the earliest foundations for this cycle. '''Trust versus mistrust''' establishes the expectation that the social world can be reliable. '''Autonomy versus shame and doubt''' contributes to a sense of agency. '''Initiative versus guilt''' supports purposeful action, while '''industry versus inferiority''' develops a sense of competence (Erikson, 1963). These psychosocial strengths later become resources for identity formation, intimacy, and, most importantly, generativity. Research done by Neller et al. (2023) found their participants described legacy creation as simultaneously future-oriented and present-oriented and that creating a legacy helped individuals reflect on their lives while also encouraging them to live intentionally in the present. It should be noted that whilst generativity is preferred over stagnance, aformentioned as the state opposite to generativityin Erikson's model, not all generative behaviours should be treated as universally positive. Balance is required to ensure healthy generative behaviours as generativity can involve emotional and physical costs, particularly when caring responsibilities become excessive. Homan et al. (2020) demonstrated the complexity of generativity among parents of children with developmental or mental health problems. Generative commitment can coexist with substantial demands on psychological and physical resources. The quality of motivation therefore matters. Self-Determination Theory suggests that people are more likely to experience positive outcomes when their generative activities support autonomy, competence, and relatedness (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Ryan & Deci, 2000). If a person feels forced to care for others, lacks control over their role, or receives little recognition, generative behaviour may become psychologically costly. Achievement Goal Theory provides a second explanation. Generative activities may be healthier when they are approached through mastery and meaningful development rather than through an overwhelming need to prove worth or avoid failure (Elliot & McGregor, 2001). This distinction is particularly relevant to older adulthood. Retirement can challenge a person's sense of competence because familiar occupational roles disappear. A generative community role can restore that sense of competence, but it can also become problematic if the individual feels that they must continually demonstrate their usefulness to justify their value. === Maintaining a positive cycle of value and meaning === The healthiest form of generativity may therefore involve '''reciprocity rather than self-sacrifice'''. Generative relationships should allow individuals to give and receive. The older adult can mentor younger people while also learning from them. A volunteer can support a community while receiving friendship and recognition. A grandparent can transmit cultural knowledge while gaining renewed connection and purpose. A strong empirical illustration of this reciprocal model came from Gruenewald et al. (2016), who found that intergenerational volunteering could strengthen older adults' perceptions of generative achievement. The community therefore benefited from older adults' contributions while the volunteers themselves experienced developmental benefits. Generativity may therefore be understood as a form of '''developmental reciprocity'''. Individuals shape their communities, while communities provide the conditions through which individuals continue to develop. It is important to consider that human development never truly ceases, even in later stages of life. There is always something more to learn or do. This concept addresses an apparent contradiction in Erikson's theory, for, if generativity is a developmental task of middle adulthood, why does it remain important among older adults? The answer is that developmental stages may be better understood as continuing psychosocial themes rather than strictly age-bound psychological compartments. Later adulthood can contain generative activity alongside reflection, adaptation, and integrity. Indeed, generativity may become particularly significant when individuals begin thinking explicitly about legacy and continuity. This can also put to question when is it an appropriate time to consider future generations and how your activites may impact them. Hösch et al. (2023) found that perceived generativity fluctuated within individuals over time and was associated with perceptions of remaining life and psychological obsolescence rather than simply chronological age. Similarly, Törmäkangas and Kokko (2023) identified substantial individual differences in developmental trajectories, demonstrating that people of the same chronological age can experience generativity in very different ways. Consequently, interventions designed to promote healthy ageing should not merely encourage older people to "stay active." Activity is insufficient on its own. Instead, programmes should create opportunities for meaningful contribution, autonomy, competence, social connection, and future-oriented purpose. The four relationships developed throughout this chapter can therefore be understood as a developmental system: '''Generativity motivates contribution. Contribution requires community. Community can promote wellness. Wellness creates psychological resources for further generativity.''' Erikson's model provides the developmental structure for this system, while motivational psychology helps explain its mechanisms. Self-Determination Theory explains how autonomy, competence, and relatedness can make generative behaviour psychologically satisfying. Achievement Goal Theory helps explain why the orientation toward contribution matters: contribution pursued as meaningful mastery is potentially different from contribution pursued under pressure to prove worth. Taken together, these perspectives suggest that generativity is neither simply a personality characteristic nor simply a behaviour. It is a '''motivational-developmental process''' through which individuals use their psychological resources, relationships, knowledge, and experiences to contribute to something beyond themselves. The implications extend well beyond older adulthood. Young people can display generativity through peer mentoring and community service; adults can express it through parenting, teaching, and professional leadership; and older adults can continue to express it through volunteering, mentoring, environmental stewardship, cultural transmission, and legacy creation. Generativity therefore represents continuity across the life course. In this sense, generativity represents an important bridge between '''individual wellness''' and '''collective wellbeing'''. A generative person does not seek wellbeing solely by focusing on their internal functions. Instead, wellbeing can emerge through participation, contribution, relationship, and meaning. Communities become healthier when people have opportunities to contribute, while individuals can become healthier when their communities recognise and enable those contributions. The central implication is therefore that successful ageing and psychosocial wellbeing should not be conceptualised merely as the maintenance of individual functioning. They should also involve opportunities to '''matter to others'''. Generativity provides the psychological mechanism through which those opportunities can be realised, encouraging future generations to be generative when they are older. ==Learning features== ;Quizzes <quiz display="simple"> {When observing a friend discussing their achievements and you feel a sense of isolation, this is called?: |type="()"} + Stagnance - Supplicant {Having a desire to improve the lives of others is easy for everyone?: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== Generativity is a chronological stage within Erikson's psychosocial model theorized to occure at the middle adulthood life of 40-60 years of age. However, generativity has a much broader reach than originally thought and is not so easily defined as simply participating in activities meant to influence future generations. Generativity is a life long pursuit that involves a complex interrelationship between motivation, community and wellness. People do not need to be of a certain age to participate in generative activities and society's should work towards implementing cultures that foster genuine, healthy generative behaviours, starting from adolesence all the way through to elderly life, to reduce stagnancy, isolation and stigma for the people who came before us. oijln {{tip|[[File:Nuvola apps kuser.svg|Nuvola apps kuser|left|20px]] '''Take home message:''' * }} ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Generativity|Generativity]] (Book chapter, 2025) * Erikson Theory * Generativity [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Intrinsic motivation]] [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Physiological needs]] ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Becchetti, L., & Bellucci, D. (2021). Generativity, aging and subjective well-being. International Review of Economics, 68, 141–184. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12232-020-00358-6 Chen, P.-W., Chen, L.-K., Huang, H.-K., & Loh, C.-H. (2022). Productive aging by environmental volunteerism: A systematic review. Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics, 98, 104563. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.archger.2021.104563 Chen, Y.-C., Morrow-Howell, N., Hung, N., & Chan, C. L. W. (2023). Civic activities and mental health in later life: The moderating role of generative concerns. Journal of Gerontological Social Work, 66(7), 844–863. https://doi.org/10.1080/01634372.2023.2183297 Cox, K. S., Wilt, J., Olson, B., & McAdams, D. P. (2010). Generativity, the Big Five, and psychosocial adaptation in midlife adults. Journal of Personality, 78(4), 1185–1208. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2010.00647.x Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The "what" and "why" of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11(4), 227–268. https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/SDT/documents/2000_DeciRyan_PIWhatWhy.pdf Elliot, A. J., & McGregor, H. A. (2001). A 2 × 2 achievement goal framework. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80(3), 501–519. https://www.selfdeterminationtheory.org/SDT/documents/2001_ElliotMcGregor.pdf Erikson, E. H. (1963). Childhood and society (2nd ed.). W. W. Norton. Gruenewald, T. L., Tanner, E. K., Fried, L. P., Carlson, M. C., Xue, Q.-L., Parisi, J. M., Rebok, G. W., Yarnell, L. M., & Seeman, T. E. (2016). The Baltimore Experience Corps Trial: Enhancing generativity via intergenerational activity engagement in later life. The Journals of Gerontology: Series B, 71(4), 661–670. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbv005 Hofer, J., Busch, H., Au, A., Šolcová, I. P., Tavel, P., & Wong, T. T. (2014). For the benefit of others: Generativity and meaning in life in the elderly in four cultures. Psychology and Aging, 29(4), 764–775. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037762 Homan, K. J., Greenberg, J. S., & Mailick, M. R. (2020). Generativity and well-being of midlife and aging parents with children with developmental or mental health problems. Research on Aging, 42(3–4), 95–104. https://doi.org/10.1177/0164027519884759 Hösch, H. S., Rupprecht, F. S., & Lang, F. R. (2023). Psychological obsolescence and subjective remaining life expectancy are predictors of generativity in a six-year longitudinal study. Journal of Adult Development, 30, 359–368. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10804-023-09441-y Jongenelis, M. I., Jackson, B., Newton, R. U., & Pettigrew, S. (2022). Longitudinal associations between formal volunteering and well-being among retired older people: Follow-up results from a randomized controlled trial. Aging & Mental Health, 26(2), 368–375. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2021.1884845 Jongenelis, M. I., & Pettigrew, S. (2021). Aspects of the volunteering experience associated with well-being in older adults. Health Promotion Journal of Australia, 32(Suppl. 2), 384–390. https://doi.org/10.1002/hpja.399 McAdams, D. P., & de St. Aubin, E. (1992). A theory of generativity and its assessment through self-report, behavioral acts, and narrative themes in autobiography. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 62(6), 1003–1015. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Ed-Aubin/publication/232504200_A_Theory_of_Generativity_and_Its_Assessment_Through_Self-Report_Behavioral_Acts_and_Narrative_Themes_in_Autobiography/links/550047010cf28e4ac347f1b3/A-Theory-of-Generativity-and-Its-Assessment-Through-Self-Report-Behavioral-Acts-and-Narrative-Themes-in-Autobiography.pdf Neller, S. A., Cloyes, K. G., Edelman, L. S., Wong, B., Baines, B., & Towsley, G. L. (2023). Preparing for the future while living in the present: Older adults' experiences creating a legacy of values. The Gerontologist, 63(9), 1488–1496. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/gnad019 Pinazo-Hernandis, S., Zacarés, J. J., Serrat, R., & Villar, F. (2023). The role of generativity in later life in the case of productive activities: Does the type of active aging activity matter? Research on Aging, 45(1), 35–46. https://doi.org/10.1177/01640275221122914 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/SDT/documents/2000_RyanDeci_SDT.pdf Törmäkangas, T., & Kokko, K. (2023). The development of generativity in middle adulthood and the beginning of late adulthood: A longitudinal study from age 42 to 61. Journal of Adult Development. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10804-022-09436-1 Warburton, J., & Gooch, M. (2007). Stewardship volunteering by older Australians: The generative response. Local Environment, 12(1), 43–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/13549830601098230 Warburton, J., McLaughlin, D., & Pinsker, D. (2006). Generative acts: Family and community involvement of older Australians. https://doi.org/10.2190/9te3-t1g1-333v-3dt8 Yamashita, T., López, E. B., Soligo, M., & Keene, J. R. (2017). Older lifelong learners' motivations for participating in formal volunteer activities in urban communities. Adult Education Quarterly, 67(2), 118–135. https://doi.org/10.1177/0741713616688957 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Developmental]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]] 4g3jz0702ldlsx95ictoccoyb337ocb 2836465 2836459 2026-10-07T06:47:54Z Monuc9 3106784 More final edits, formate adjustments 2836465 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Generativity:<br>What is generativity and how can it benefit life outcomes?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ;Imagine this... You're sitting next to a friend in a bar. They're telling you all about this new network software they created and how it's going to completely change the future of social networking. As they talk, you reflect on your own achievements and wonder why they don't seem to live up to the same standard. You watch people drawn to the atmosphere of your friend and in turn, begin to feel a internalised isolation. This feeling is an example of stagnation, the opposite to generativity in Erikson's theory of Pyschosicial Development. {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[wikipedia:Generativity|Generativity]] is part of the [[wikipedia:Erikson's_stages_of_psychosocial_development|psychoanalytic theory]] developed by Erik Erikson and Joan Erikson and encompasses the innate human desire to contribute positively to society for future generations. The generativity stage is the seventh of the eighth stages of life coined by the Erikson duo and typically occurs in middle adulthood (around the 45-64year mark) where most individuals are either in long term relationships, have older children or are in long term employment. The desire to contribute to future generations is an important development for adults but left unsatisfied, it can lead to stagnancy. Stagnancy is categorised as feelings of discontentment, dissatisfaction and disappointment which arise from the inability or unwillingness to help society move forward. Therefore, it is important to understand the importance of generativity in regards to life outcome, both individually and communally. On top of maintaining overall wellness, individuals with higher rates of generativity are similar more motivated to increase it. Sort of a “have your cake and eat it to” moment. Wanting to positively impact the lives of people around you will drive you towards building stronger communities and relationships, ergo feelings of fulfillment and belonging, ergo, a stronger drive for generativity. This chapter will explore generativity in a cyclical model, focusing on how generativity, motivation, community and wellness intermingle and impact overall life outcomes. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * How does motivational psychology play a role in generativity? * How do community and motivation impact generative behaviours? * How can wellness and community influence generativity on a collective scale? * What does the relationship between generativity and wellness mean for the future? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development== As an attempt to negotiate his biopsychosocial background with sociocultural forces, Erikson developed the eight stage psychosocial model. The stages are: trust versus mistrust, autonomy versus shame and doubt, initiative versus guilt, industry versus inferiority, identity versus role confusion, intimacy versus isolation, generativity versus stagnation, and ego integrity versus despair. Whilst the stages are separate and one does not need to master a previous stage to progress to the next one, the positive and negative experiences in each stage can provide resources for navigating subsequent developmental challenges. In particular, identity provides a foundation for intimacy, intimacy facilitates the capacity to invest in others, and generativity provides a pathway toward the sense of integrity associated with later life. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}It should be noted that while generativity is typically associated with parenthood, it also involves mentoring, volunteering, teaching and political contributions.{{RoundBoxBottom}} The relationship between generativity and wellbeing is therefore reciprocal. People may engage in meaningful activities because they already possess a strong motivation to contribute, while the experience of contributing may subsequently strengthen their sense of purpose, competence, belonging and wellbeing. == Generativity and Motivation == Generativity and motivation are interlinked through social necessity in the human species. At its core, generativity can be understood as a motivational orientation toward creating value that extends beyond the individual self. Generativity therefore involves a motivational movement from self-development toward self-transcendence. === Self Determination Theory === The motivational component of generativity becomes clear in the model developed by McAdams and de St. Aubin (1992). Their theory distinguishes between an inner generative desire and the behavioural expression of that desire. To put plainly, generativity is not simply something that a person does; it is also something that a person wants to do and experiences as meaningful. This distinction is important because individuals can possess considerable opportunities to contribute without necessarily experiencing themselves as generative. Conversely, a person may possess a strong desire to contribute but encounter social, physical, or institutional barriers that prevent them from doing so. This dimension can be connected directly to contemporary motivational psychology, one which is the highly influential theories is [[wikipedia:Self-determination_theory|Self-Determination Theory]] (SDT), developed by Deci and Ryan (2000). SDT proposes that human motivation is strongly influenced by three basic psychological needs: autonomy, competence, and relatedness (see Table 1.) '''Table 1.''' {| class="wikitable" |+SDT Needs |Autonomy |Experiencing oneself as an agent of their own actions |- |Competence |Feelings of capableness and effectiveness |- |Relatedness |Experiencing meaningful connections with others |} Generative behaviour can satisfy all three psychological needs simultaneously. For example, an older adult who chooses to mentor young people may experience autonomy because the activity reflects personally held values, competence because accumulated knowledge is being used effectively, and relatedness because the activity creates meaningful relationships across generations. Generativity can therefore become intrinsically or autonomously rewarding rather than simply an obligation imposed by society. It should be noted that the distinction between autonomous and controlled motivation is particularly relevant. A person may volunteer because they genuinely value contributing to the community, or because they feel pressured to demonstrate that they are still useful. These two motivations may produce superficially similar behaviours but very different psychological experiences. Deci and Ryan (2000) argued that goals pursued for autonomous reasons are more likely to support psychological wellbeing than goals pursued primarily because of external pressure, guilt, or contingent self-worth. Therefore, in the pursuit of meaningful generativity, individuals should consider their social environments and whether their contributions feel meaningful and self-directed or compulsory and taxing. === Achievement Goal Theory === When considering generativity from a motivational psychology viewpoint, it might surprise some to consider that Achievement Goal Theory should be included. Although the theory was primarily developed within achievement oriented research, it provides a useful conceptual lens for understanding generative behaviour. Elliot and McGregor (2001) developed a 2 × 2 achievement goal framework that distinguishes goals according to whether people are oriented toward demonstrating competence or avoiding incompetence and whether they focus on attaining success or avoiding failure. '''Table 2.''' {| class="wikitable" |+2x2 Achievement Goal Theory | |'''Absolute (intrapersonal mastery)''' |'''Normative (performance)''' |- |'''Positive (approaching success)''' |Mastery-approach goals |Performance-approach goals |- |'''Negative (avoiding failure)''' |Mastery-avoidance goals) |Performance-avoidance goals |} Generativity can involve mastery-oriented goals, such as learning how to mentor effectively or developing knowledge that can benefit younger people. Alternatively, it can become performance-oriented, where the individual seeks recognition as a successful, productive, or socially valuable person. This distinction matters because generativity is not automatically psychologically beneficial. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Consider this...''' Two people volunteering in the same organisation: The first volunteers because they value supporting young people and believe their experience can make a difference. The second volunteers primarily because they fear becoming irrelevant after retirement and need evidence that they remain valuable. Both may perform substantial amounts of volunteer work, but the motivational quality is different.{{RoundBoxBottom}} The first example resembles autonomous, mastery-oriented motivation, whereas the second may involve controlled motivation and avoidance of perceived failure (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Elliot & McGregor, 2001). Achievement Goal Theory therefore complements Self-Determination Theory when considering the interrelationship between generativity and motivation. Self-Determination Theory asks whether behaviour is experienced as autonomous and psychologically need-supportive, while achievement goal perspectives ask what type of goal is being pursued and how success and failure are defined. Together, these theories help explain why generative behaviour can sometimes produce wellbeing and at other times contribute to pressure, overcommitment, or disappointment. Similarly, research examining environmental volunteering has identified generativity, usefulness to others, socialisation, and environmental concern as important reasons older adults participate in environmental activities (Chen et al., 2022). Generative motivation in this context extends beyond direct interpersonal relationships. Environmental action can represent a form of generativity in which the "next generation" is conceptualised not only as younger people but as future inhabitants of a shared ecological environment. This expands Erikson's (1963) original framework and reiterates that generativity is not solely about parenthood. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}}'''Important note:''' Consider whether the individual is investing in something perceived as extending beyond the immediate self.{{RoundBoxBottom}} Interestingly however, longitudinal evidence challenges the idea that generativity simply increases continuously with age and that there may be more subtle nuances within individuals motivations which increases or decreases generative behaviour. Törmäkangas and Kokko (2023) followed adults from approximately age 42 to 61 and found substantial individual variation in the development of generativity. Whilst average levels declined somewhat across the sample, individuals demonstrated different developmental trajectories for generative behaviour. Similarly, Hösch et al. (2023) found considerable individual variation in perceived generativity over a six-year period. Generativity was associated with subjective remaining life expectancy and perceptions of psychological obsolescence, demonstrating that generativity depends not only on chronological age but also on how individuals perceive their future and their continuing relevance. Generativity should not be regarded as an automatic psychological consequence of reaching middle age. Rather, it represents a developmental possibility shaped by motivation, opportunity, social relationships, and perceptions of personal usefulness (Hösch et al., 2023; Törmäkangas & Kokko, 2023). == Motivation and Community == Social support is vital in developing and mainting motivation in all aspects of life. If generativity is a motivational orientation toward contributing beyond the self, the community provides one of the major social contexts in which that motivation can become behaviour. Interestingly however, when considering generativity in a community sense, more emphasis is needed in developing a clear generative culture towards aging adults rather than simply assuming older adults should be partaking in generative behaviors. === Generativity and its impact on community === The relationship between motivation and community can be understood through Erikson's concept of intimacy versus isolation, which ties in nicely to the next topic of community and wellness. Generative community involvement provides opportunities for individuals to experience relationships in which their contributions are both needed and valued. It is through this that community participation can provide continuity between intimacy and generativity: close relationships teach individuals to care for others, while generative relationships expand that care into broader social networks. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}'''Recognition is particularly important because generativity involves an individual having the belief that their actions matter.''' If a community repeatedly uses someone's labour without acknowledging its value, the motivational benefits of contribution may diminish. Generative relationships should therefore be reciprocal rather than purely extractive.{{RoundBoxBottom}} Community organisations therefore have an important role in supporting healthy generativity. They can provide meaningful choice, opportunities for skill development, reciprocal relationships, and recognition. Jongenelis and Pettigrew (2021) found that older volunteers experienced greater wellbeing when their volunteering involved appreciation, meaningful engagement, and a perception that their contribution benefited others. Community participation can help resolve aspects of the transition between Erikson's stages, particularly in later stages in life. During adulthood, individuals may experience changes in employment, family roles, and social status. Retirement, for example, can remove established sources of identity, competence, and social recognition. If retirement results in social withdrawal, individuals may experience something resembling stagnation. However, if community roles provide meaningful opportunities to mentor, volunteer, teach, or lead, retirement can become a transition toward a different form of generativity. === Building meaningful community to support generativity === Community is important as generative intentions require opportunities for expression. A person may want to teach, mentor, care, protect, create, or contribute, but those motivations only become psychologically and socially meaningful when an environment provides legitimate roles through which they can be enacted. Erikson's (1963) psychosocial theory is inherently social. Development occurs through the interaction between the individual and the social environment rather than solely within the individual. Consequently, generativity should not be understood as an isolated personality characteristic. Communities determine, at least partly, who is given opportunities to contribute, whose knowledge is valued, and whose participation is recognised. Research with older Australians demonstrates how community involvement can provide opportunities for generative action. Warburton et al. (2006) examined family and community involvement among older Australians and demonstrated how participation could support positive experiences of ageing. Community involvement allowed older adults to continue exercising social responsibility and assisted in helping them reframe their later years as a period of contribution rather than decline. In this case, the community became a social mechanism through which older adults could express generativity to then better the community. The significance of community becomes even clearer in the Baltimore Experience Corps Trial. Gruenewald et al. (2016) examined an intergenerational civic engagement programme in which older adults volunteered in schools and community settings. Participants who engaged with the programme demonstrated increases in generative desire and perceptions of generative achievement compared with controls. The researchers also identified evidence of a relationship between programme exposure and generativity. This finding is important because it reverses a common assumption; that gnerativity is often something an individual brings into a community. The findings of Gruenewald et al. (2016) suggest that community participation can itself strengthen generativity. Motivation and community may therefore operate as a feedback loop, rienforcing the fact that: {{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}'''generativity is cyclicle.'''{{RoundBoxBottom}} This is particularly relevant to the concept of productive ageing. Productive ageing should not be interpreted narrowly as continued paid employment. Community-oriented activity can be productive because it creates social, cultural, and relational value. Pinazo-Hernandis et al. (2023) found that different forms of productive activity were associated with different aspects of generativity, demonstrating the importance of the type and meaning of activity rather than simply the quantity of participation. Community therefore creates what might be called a generative infrastructure: institutions, relationships, and social roles through which individuals can convert motivation into contribution. However, this infrastructure is not equally available to everyone. Social inequalities, ageism, disability, economic circumstances, and cultural expectations can constrain generativity. A person may possess strong generative motivation but lack access to meaningful roles. Conversely, communities may expect older people to provide unpaid care without adequately recognising the psychological and physical costs involved. This distinction is particularly important when we look at caregiving. Homan et al. (2020) examined generativity and wellbeing among midlife and older parents raising children with developmental or mental health problems. Their findings illustrate the complexity of generativity because caregiving can provide meaning and purpose while simultaneously creating substantial psychological demands. Caregiving demonstrates that generativity can be both rewarding and demanding. The developmental desire to nurture another person can create meaning and purpose, but sustained responsibility can also generate stress, as such, the presence of generative behaviour cannot automatically be interpreted as evidence of wellbeing.This observation is consistent with Achievement Goal Theory. If an individual defines successful adulthood as always being useful to others, contribution can become a performance requirement. Failure to contribute may then be interpreted as personal inadequacy. In contrast, a mastery-oriented approach allows individuals to understand contribution as an evolving process involving learning, adaptation, and realistic limits (Elliot & McGregor, 2001). The community is therefore more than a setting in which generativity occurs. It is an active psychological environment that can produce, strengthen, constrain, or undermine generative motivation. == Community and Wellness == This ties in to the human need for community to improve wellness.The impact of generative motivation and community directly ties into the impact community has on overall wellness. This section will focus on the direct application of community on wellness and how this applies to generative behaviour. === Social support through life changes === To start, it should be noted that when we refer to wellness, we are encompassing a broad scope. It includes psychological wellbeing, meaning in life, life satisfaction, social connectedness, perceived usefulness, and, where supported by evidence, physical and mental health. The relationship between community and wellness is significant in later adulthood as ageing can involve major changes in employment, family roles, physical capacity, and social networks. Community participation can provide stability at precisely the time when previous sources of identity may be changing. Research indicates that volunteering and community participation can be associated with positive psychological outcomes among older adults. Jongenelis et al. (2022), for example, examined longitudinal associations between formal volunteering and wellbeing among retired older people. Their findings suggest that volunteering can contribute to wellbeing, although the strength and consistency of these effects depend on the nature and extent of engagement. This specification is significant as not all community involvement is necessarily beneficial. Concepts such as excessive responsibilities, poorly designed roles, or activities undertaken under pressure can undermine wellbeing. What seems to matter most is the psychological quality of participation. Jongenelis and Pettigrew (2021) found that older volunteers' psychological wellbeing was associated with feeling appreciated, experiencing social and cognitive engagement, and knowing that others benefited from their contribution. These findings map closely onto Self-Determination Theory. Appreciation can reinforce competence and social value; meaningful social interaction supports relatedness; and cognitively engaging activities can strengthen competence and mastery (Deci & Ryan, 2000). The community therefore provides an environment in which psychological needs can be satisfied. This may explain why generative community activities can contribute to wellness even when they are not explicitly designed as mental-health interventions. Hofer et al. (2014) provide further evidence through their cross-cultural study of generativity and meaning in life among older adults. Their findings support the proposition that generativity is associated with meaning in later adulthood. Meaning is particularly important because Erikson's final stage, '''ego integrity versus despair''', involves the individual's evaluation of their life as a coherent and worthwhile as a whole (Erikson, 1963). === Legacy, life meaning and the impact of interpretation === Generative activity can contribute to this process by allowing individuals to perceive continuity between their own life and the lives of those who follow them, also known as legacy. This is one of the largest drivers of generative behaviour and is heavily based in an individuals perception of community and their impact on it. This notion of legacy can occur through direct intergenerational relationships. An older teacher may pass knowledge to students. A grandparent may transmit family stories etc. In each case, the individual encounters a form of psychological continuity: something of the self continues through what has been contributed. This is one reason legacy is closely related to generativity. Neller et al. (2023) examined how older adults created "legacies of values" and found that legacy creation involved preserving knowledge, communicating values, and reflecting on one's life. Rather than representing exclusively an end-of-life activity, legacy-building encouraged participants to consider how they wanted to live in the present. This provides an important bridge between generativity and [[wikipedia:Ego|ego]] integrity. The concept of legacy therefore reinforces and connects Erikson's seventh and eighth stages. Generativity asks, in effect, ''What can I give to the future?'' Ego integrity asks, ''Can I look back on my life and recognise it as meaningful and coherent?'' Generative action can contribute to the second question because it provides evidence that one's life has had consequences beyond the self. Becchetti and Bellucci (2021) similarly demonstrated relationships between generativity and subjective wellbeing among older adults. Their findings support the broader proposition that generative activity can be associated with life satisfaction and meaning, which is significant as wellbeing may emerge not simply from pursuing happiness directly, but by pursuing meaningful goals. This principle is consistent with positive psychological perspectives in which wellbeing is understood partly as a consequence of purposeful engagement. Generativity exemplifies this process because the immediate focus is often on improving another person's life, contributing to a community, or protecting something valued. Personal wellbeing can emerge indirectly from that contribution. The complex relationship between community and wellness is also visible in research on civic engagement where Chen et al. (2023) examined civic activities and mental health in later life and found associations between generative civic participation and psychological wellbeing. This would suggest that generative concerns may influence the psychological effects of civic engagement, reinforcing the distinction between ''activity'' and ''generativity''. Interestingly, this implies that simply participating in an organisation does not necessarily constitute generativity. The individual's '''interpretation''' of the activity matters. This is particularly evident in the growing realm of environmental concern. Chen et al. (2022) found that environmental volunteering among older adults could provide social connection, meaningful purpose, empowerment, and wellbeing, while generativity was one of the motivations for participation. Here, individual wellbeing and community or environmental wellbeing become interconnected. The individual protects something that will outlast them while simultaneously experiencing social and psychological benefits. This has implications for the way communities conceptualise ageing. If older adulthood is represented primarily as a period of dependency and decline, opportunities for generativity may be reduced whereas if older adults are recognised as knowledge holders, mentors, carers, leaders, and contributors, communities can create opportunities for continued psychosocial development. Community therefore becomes a mechanism through which wellness can be sustained across developmental transitions. == Wellness and Generativity == The final relationship in this framework is the reciprocal connection between wellness and generativity. The evidence suggests that generativity can support wellbeing, but wellbeing can also make generative engagement more possible. A psychologically healthy person might possess greater energy, confidence, social capacity, and perceived agency with which to contribute to others, particularly if the community nurtured or supported them in their youth. However, this must be carefully balanced between value and meaning, where in later stages of life, individuals should not feel pressured to do extrenuous generative activities out of the necessity to "prove their worth." === Tying in the cycle === An increased capacity to give back to the community that has nurtured an individual is an important aspect of generative behaviours. Now that we have gone over the rest of the generative cycle components (generativity, motivation, community, wellness) we finish by looping wellness back to generativity. This reciprocal model can be represented conceptually as: {{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}'''Psychological resources > generative motivation > community participation > contribution > meaning, connection and competence > wellbeing > further capacity for generativity.'''{{RoundBoxBottom}} The cycle also explains why generativity should be considered across the entire life course rather than exclusively within middle age, where the inclination for those behaviours emerge more extensively. When relating back to the origins of the theory, the first four Eriksonian stages provide the earliest foundations for this cycle. '''Trust versus mistrust''' establishes the expectation that the social world can be reliable. '''Autonomy versus shame and doubt''' contributes to a sense of agency. '''Initiative versus guilt''' supports purposeful action, while '''industry versus inferiority''' develops a sense of competence (Erikson, 1963). These psychosocial strengths later become resources for identity formation, intimacy, and, most importantly, generativity. Research done by Neller et al. (2023) found their participants described legacy creation as simultaneously future-oriented and present-oriented and that creating a legacy helped individuals reflect on their lives while also encouraging them to live intentionally in the present. It should be noted that whilst generativity is preferred over stagnance, aformentioned as the state opposite to generativityin Erikson's model, not all generative behaviours should be treated as universally positive. Balance is required to ensure healthy generative behaviours as generativity can involve emotional and physical costs, particularly when caring responsibilities become excessive. Homan et al. (2020) demonstrated the complexity of generativity among parents of children with developmental or mental health problems. Generative commitment can coexist with substantial demands on psychological and physical resources. This would therefore suggest that the quality of motivation matters. Self-Determination Theory suggests that people are more likely to experience positive outcomes when their generative activities support autonomy, competence, and relatedness (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Ryan & Deci, 2000). If a person feels forced to care for others, lacks control over their role, or receives little recognition, generative behaviour may become psychologically costly. Achievement Goal Theory provides a second explanation. Generative activities may be healthier when they are approached through mastery and meaningful development rather than through an overwhelming need to prove worth or avoid failure (Elliot & McGregor, 2001). This distinction is particularly relevant to older adulthood. Retirement can challenge a person's sense of competence because familiar occupational roles disappear. A generative community role can restore that sense of competence, but it can also become problematic if the individual feels that they must continually demonstrate their usefulness to justify their value. === Maintaining balance === The healthiest form of generativity may therefore involve '''reciprocity rather than self-sacrifice'''. Generative relationships should allow individuals to give and receive. The older adult can mentor younger people while also learning from them. A volunteer can support a community while receiving friendship and recognition. A grandparent can transmit cultural knowledge while gaining renewed connection and purpose. A strong empirical illustration of this reciprocal model came from Gruenewald et al. (2016), who found that intergenerational volunteering could strengthen older adults' perceptions of generative achievement. The community therefore benefited from older adults' contributions while the volunteers themselves experienced developmental benefits. Generativity may therefore be understood as a form of '''developmental reciprocity'''. Individuals shape their communities, while communities provide the conditions through which individuals continue to develop. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}}'''Important note:''' Consider that human development never truly ceases, even in later stages of life. There is always something more to learn or do.{{RoundBoxBottom}} This concept addresses an apparent contradiction in Erikson's theory, for, if generativity is a developmental task of middle adulthood, why does it remain important among older adults? The answer is that developmental stages may be better understood as continuing psychosocial themes rather than strictly age-bound psychological compartments. Later adulthood can contain generative activity alongside reflection, adaptation, and integrity. Indeed, generativity may become particularly significant when individuals begin thinking explicitly about legacy and continuity. This can also put to question when is it an appropriate time to consider future generations and how your activites may impact them. Hösch et al. (2023) found that perceived generativity fluctuated within individuals over time and was associated with perceptions of remaining life and psychological obsolescence rather than simply chronological age. Similarly, Törmäkangas and Kokko (2023) identified substantial individual differences in developmental trajectories, demonstrating that people of the same chronological age can experience generativity in very different ways. Consequently, interventions designed to promote healthy ageing should not merely encourage older people to "stay active." Activity is insufficient on its own. Instead, programmes should create opportunities for meaningful contribution, autonomy, competence, social connection, and future-oriented purpose. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}'''The four relationships developed throughout the chapter can be understood as a developmental system with components that work in cohesion with each other.''' Generativity motivates contribution. Contribution requires community. Community can promote wellness. Wellness creates psychological resources for further generativity.{{RoundBoxBottom}} Erikson's model provides the developmental structure for this system, while motivational psychology helps explain its mechanisms. Self-Determination Theory explains how autonomy, competence, and relatedness can make generative behaviour psychologically satisfying. Achievement Goal Theory helps explain why the orientation toward contribution matters: contribution pursued as meaningful mastery is potentially different from contribution pursued under pressure to prove worth. Taken together, these perspectives suggest that generativity is neither simply a personality characteristic nor simply a behaviour, rather it is a '''motivational-developmental process''' through which individuals use their psychological resources, relationships, knowledge, and experiences to contribute to something beyond themselves. It should also be understood that this process extend well beyond older adulthood. Young people can display generativity through peer mentoring and community service; adults can express it through parenting, teaching, and professional leadership; and older adults can continue to express it through volunteering, mentoring, environmental stewardship, cultural transmission, and legacy creation. In this sense, generativity represents an important bridge between '''individual wellness''' and '''collective wellbeing'''. A generative person does not seek wellbeing solely by focusing on their internal functions. Instead, wellbeing can emerge through participation, contribution, relationship, and meaning. Communities become healthier when people have opportunities to contribute, while individuals can become healthier when their communities recognise and enable those contributions. Successful ageing and psychosocial wellbeing should not be conceptualised merely as the maintenance of individual functioning, they should also involve opportunities to '''matter to others'''. Generativity provides the psychological mechanism through which those opportunities can be realised, encouraging future generations to be generative when they are older. ==Learning features== ;Quizzes <quiz display="simple"> {When observing a friend discussing their achievements and you feel a sense of isolation, this is called?: |type="()"} + Stagnance - Supplicant {Having a desire to improve the lives of others is easy for everyone?: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== Generativity is a chronological stage within Erikson's psychosocial model theorized to occure at the middle adulthood life of 40-60 years of age. However, generativity has a much broader reach than originally thought and is not so easily defined as simply participating in activities meant to influence future generations. Generativity is a life long pursuit that involves a complex interrelationship between motivation, community and wellness. People do not need to be of a certain age to participate in generative activities and society's should work towards implementing cultures that foster genuine, healthy generative behaviours, starting from adolesence all the way through to elderly life, to reduce stagnancy, isolation and stigma for the people who came before us. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} [[File:Nuvola apps kuser.svg|Nuvola apps kuser|left|20px]] '''Take home message:''' Generativity is a complex human desire to contribute to their society for future generations. The cultivation of generativity stems from middle adulthood and beyond and should be encouraged throughout life to support overall wellness, motivation and community.{{RoundBoxBottom}} ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Generativity|Generativity]] (Book chapter, 2025) * Erikson Theory * Generativity [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Intrinsic motivation]] [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Physiological needs]] ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Becchetti, L., & Bellucci, D. (2021). Generativity, aging and subjective well-being. International Review of Economics, 68, 141–184. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12232-020-00358-6 Chen, P.-W., Chen, L.-K., Huang, H.-K., & Loh, C.-H. (2022). Productive aging by environmental volunteerism: A systematic review. Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics, 98, 104563. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.archger.2021.104563 Chen, Y.-C., Morrow-Howell, N., Hung, N., & Chan, C. L. W. (2023). Civic activities and mental health in later life: The moderating role of generative concerns. Journal of Gerontological Social Work, 66(7), 844–863. https://doi.org/10.1080/01634372.2023.2183297 Cox, K. S., Wilt, J., Olson, B., & McAdams, D. P. (2010). Generativity, the Big Five, and psychosocial adaptation in midlife adults. Journal of Personality, 78(4), 1185–1208. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2010.00647.x Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The "what" and "why" of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11(4), 227–268. https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/SDT/documents/2000_DeciRyan_PIWhatWhy.pdf Elliot, A. J., & McGregor, H. A. (2001). A 2 × 2 achievement goal framework. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80(3), 501–519. https://www.selfdeterminationtheory.org/SDT/documents/2001_ElliotMcGregor.pdf Erikson, E. H. (1963). Childhood and society (2nd ed.). W. W. Norton. Gruenewald, T. L., Tanner, E. K., Fried, L. P., Carlson, M. C., Xue, Q.-L., Parisi, J. M., Rebok, G. W., Yarnell, L. M., & Seeman, T. E. (2016). The Baltimore Experience Corps Trial: Enhancing generativity via intergenerational activity engagement in later life. The Journals of Gerontology: Series B, 71(4), 661–670. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbv005 Hofer, J., Busch, H., Au, A., Šolcová, I. P., Tavel, P., & Wong, T. T. (2014). For the benefit of others: Generativity and meaning in life in the elderly in four cultures. Psychology and Aging, 29(4), 764–775. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037762 Homan, K. J., Greenberg, J. S., & Mailick, M. R. (2020). Generativity and well-being of midlife and aging parents with children with developmental or mental health problems. Research on Aging, 42(3–4), 95–104. https://doi.org/10.1177/0164027519884759 Hösch, H. S., Rupprecht, F. S., & Lang, F. R. (2023). Psychological obsolescence and subjective remaining life expectancy are predictors of generativity in a six-year longitudinal study. Journal of Adult Development, 30, 359–368. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10804-023-09441-y Jongenelis, M. I., Jackson, B., Newton, R. U., & Pettigrew, S. (2022). Longitudinal associations between formal volunteering and well-being among retired older people: Follow-up results from a randomized controlled trial. Aging & Mental Health, 26(2), 368–375. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2021.1884845 Jongenelis, M. I., & Pettigrew, S. (2021). Aspects of the volunteering experience associated with well-being in older adults. Health Promotion Journal of Australia, 32(Suppl. 2), 384–390. https://doi.org/10.1002/hpja.399 McAdams, D. P., & de St. Aubin, E. (1992). A theory of generativity and its assessment through self-report, behavioral acts, and narrative themes in autobiography. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 62(6), 1003–1015. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Ed-Aubin/publication/232504200_A_Theory_of_Generativity_and_Its_Assessment_Through_Self-Report_Behavioral_Acts_and_Narrative_Themes_in_Autobiography/links/550047010cf28e4ac347f1b3/A-Theory-of-Generativity-and-Its-Assessment-Through-Self-Report-Behavioral-Acts-and-Narrative-Themes-in-Autobiography.pdf Neller, S. A., Cloyes, K. G., Edelman, L. S., Wong, B., Baines, B., & Towsley, G. L. (2023). Preparing for the future while living in the present: Older adults' experiences creating a legacy of values. The Gerontologist, 63(9), 1488–1496. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/gnad019 Pinazo-Hernandis, S., Zacarés, J. J., Serrat, R., & Villar, F. (2023). The role of generativity in later life in the case of productive activities: Does the type of active aging activity matter? Research on Aging, 45(1), 35–46. https://doi.org/10.1177/01640275221122914 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/SDT/documents/2000_RyanDeci_SDT.pdf Törmäkangas, T., & Kokko, K. (2023). The development of generativity in middle adulthood and the beginning of late adulthood: A longitudinal study from age 42 to 61. Journal of Adult Development. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10804-022-09436-1 Warburton, J., & Gooch, M. (2007). Stewardship volunteering by older Australians: The generative response. Local Environment, 12(1), 43–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/13549830601098230 Warburton, J., McLaughlin, D., & Pinsker, D. (2006). Generative acts: Family and community involvement of older Australians. https://doi.org/10.2190/9te3-t1g1-333v-3dt8 Yamashita, T., López, E. B., Soligo, M., & Keene, J. R. (2017). Older lifelong learners' motivations for participating in formal volunteer activities in urban communities. Adult Education Quarterly, 67(2), 118–135. https://doi.org/10.1177/0741713616688957 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Developmental]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]] ciwk70llua7go07esqrup9397p4q43h 0 330077 2836503 2831475 2026-10-07T09:36:54Z U3280251 3103739 2836503 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Lifelong learning motivation:<br>What motivates lifelong learning?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} [[File:Science of Lifelong Learning Onion.png|right|thumb|450px|'''Figure 1'''. Onion diagram of the scientific underpinnings of lifelong learning]] ; Case Study '''Consider yourself''', the reader of this chapter, what prompted you to navigate to this Wikiversity page? As you read this, you are reading just one article out of the '''{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}''' articles you could have possibly accessed on Wikiversity. This doesn't yet consider the countless other tasks you may have elected to do instead of coming to, and continuing to read this page. Perhaps your internet search was motivated by needing information for a personal, academic or workplace project. Alternatively you may want to learn about what motivates lifelong learning for your own personal growth, editing another Wikiversity article or simply as a pass time. As you continue to read through this page consider why it continues to hold your engagement over all the other activities you may want to be doing. {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[w:Lifelong_learning|Lifelong learning]] has been defined in many ways, with equally broad rationales for its importance. It can most readily understood as the motivation to learn.That is, the question "what motivates lifelong learning" can be simplified to "what motivates learning". Thus the scientific underpinnings lifelong learning can be difficult to translate and thus difficult, requiring an [[w:Interdisciplinarity|interdisciplinary]] synthesis of [[psychological science]], [[neuroscience]] and the [[Social Sciences|social sciences]] (see Figure 1) (Goodwill & Chen, 2021). * The need to motivate lifelong learning has been widely encouraged by industry, educational institutes, society at large and individuals who must keep up with evolving knowledge, skills and technology in the 21st century. * Formal, non-formal and informal learning environments as key environmental considerations * Meta cognitive skills are malleable and can be improved to motivate and enable lifelong learning {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * How has lifelong learning been defined across key discplines? * What are the key socio-envrionmental factors influencing lifelong learning motivation? * Which meta-cognitive skills are needed to motivate and maintain lifelong learning? * How do the motivations supporting lifelong learning vary across cultures? * How does lifelong learning motivation change across the lifespan? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Lifelong learning == * Definition of lifelong learning varies across contexts and disciplines, potentially warranting specific subheadings *Lifelong learning is of global importance and is central to modern education paradigms (Van den Broeck, et al., 2024) *Skills which underpin lifelong learning are malleable and can be improved through intervention (Endres, et al., 2021) == Theoretical perspectives == * A unified theory or framework of lifelong learning does not yet exist in the literature, although some more general theories, such as the ones below, have been particularly well-applied to lifelong learning motivation. * Self-directed learning interventions have been shown to improve lifelong learning initiative in students - own subsection needed (Chukwuedo et al., 2021). *Underpinned by socio-constructivism, which may warrant its own subsection (Chukwuedo et al., 2021) * Extrinsic motivation often seen as a weaker driving force in the motivation for lifelong learning (Vidigal et al., 2025). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} <quiz display=simple> {Extrinsic motivation is generally seen as a weaker driving motivation force for lifelong learning compared to intrinsic motivation |type="()"} + True - False </quiz> {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Socio-environmental factors == * Formal, non-formal and informal learning environments will likely be split into 3 distinct subheadings due to breadth of topic * Prohibitive cost of lifelong learning was a key historical consideration in lifelong learning motivation, though technological and open access advancements such as Wikiversity make lifelong learning more accessible. * Cost benefit analysis is a key motivational bottleneck which may be the ultimate deciding factor for wether lifelong learning occurs in the short-term. May be accompanied by a case study demonstrating cost-benefit analysis == Meta-cognitive skills == * Meta-cognitive skills are is an important part of motivating lifelong learning, as a lack of baseline meta-cognitive skills can substantially increase the amount of effort needed to engage in lifelong learning (Goodwill & Chen, 2021). * Meta-cognitive strategies include implementation, monitoring, and evaluation (Cornford, 2002). * Meta-cognitive skills are malleable, and can be taught through explicit instruction (Cornford, 2002). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} <quiz display=simple> {Although meta-cognitive skills are important motivators for lifelong, they cannot be explicitly improved |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Lifelong learning motivation across cultures == * Lifelong learning is a globalised phenomenon that has attracted interest from the UN. * Differences in lifelong learning motivations across cultures can be summarised as either social utilitarianism or individual interest and hobbies (Chen & Liu, 2019). *Globalisation has resulted in [[w:Transculturalism|transcultural]] lifelong learning, which reflects both a process of inquiry and the integration of varying cultural epistemologies which can facilitate motivation and interest in lifelong learning (Jurkova & Guo, 2021). - Quiz Planned == Lifelong learning motivation across the lifespan == * Some neurobiological and socio-environmental considerations are relevant when looking at young children versus young adults versus older adults. * Answers to the question "What motivates lifelong learning" are not always generalisable across the entire lifespan. * As would be discussed earlier, lifelong learning is not simply learning that takes place outside the formal years of education or learning. - Quiz Planned ==Conclusion== * Lifelong learning and the motivation principles which support it have been widely considered crucial for societies and individuals in the 21st century. * While the motivation for lifelong learning is influenced by a range of factors, many of these factors, including socio-environmental and individual factors can be modified directly or indirectly to promote motivation for lifelong learning. *Key take-home messages are planned to be a summary of the most influential environmental and individual motivational factors which can readily be changed by those seeking to enhance their lifelong learning. ==See also== * [[w:Lifelong_learning|Lifelong learning]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Lifelong learning motivation|Lifelong learning motivation]] (Book chapter, 2025) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Chen, Z., & Liu, Y. (2019). The different style of lifelong learning in China and the USA based on influencing motivations and factors. International Journal of Educational Research, 95, 13-25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2019.03.005 Chukwuedo, S. O., Mbagwu, F. O., & Ogbuanya, T. C. (2021). Motivating academic engagement and lifelong learning among vocational and adult education students via self-direction in learning. Learning and Motivation, 74, 101729. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lmot.2021.101729 Cornford, I. R. (2002). Learning-to-learn strategies as a basis for effective lifelong learning. International journal of lifelong education, 21(4), 357–368. https://doi.org/10.1080/02601370210141020 Endres, T., Leber, J., Böttger, C., Rovers, S., & Renkl, A. (2021). Improving lifelong learning by fostering students’ learning strategies at university. Psychology Learning & Teaching, 20(1), 144–160. https://doi.org/10.1177/1475725720952025 Goodwill, A., & Chen, S. H. (2021). The science of lifelong learning. The United Nations Institute for Lifelong Learning Jurkova, S., & Guo, S. (2021). Conceptualising a holistic model of transcultural lifelong learning. International Review of Education, 67(6), 791-810. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11159-021-09930-w Van den Broeck, L., De Laet, T., Dujardin, R., Tuyaerts, S., & Langie, G. (2024). Unveiling the competencies at the core of lifelong learning: A systematic literature review. Educational Research Review, 45, Article 100646. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2024.100646 Vidigal Alfaya, S., Ballesteros Moscosio, M. Á., & Yanes Cabrera, C. M. (2025). Motivation as a key factor in lifelong learning. https://doi.org/10.11591/edulearn.v19i3.21960 }} ==External links== * [https://uni-freiburg.de/en/studies/lifelong-learning/ Lifelong learning] (University of Freiburg) * [https://www.uil.unesco.org/en UNESCO institute for lifelong learning] (UNESCO) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Education]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Learning]] blq64uhlb8e3k4rtv7i6ylpwr5rd5ra 2836536 2836503 2026-10-07T10:31:56Z U3280251 3103739 2836536 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Lifelong learning motivation:<br>What motivates lifelong learning?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} [[File:Science of Lifelong Learning Onion.png|right|thumb|450px|'''Figure 1'''. Onion diagram of the scientific underpinnings of lifelong learning]] ; Case Study '''Consider yourself''', the reader of this chapter, what prompted you to navigate to this Wikiversity page? As you read this, you are reading just one article out of the '''{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}''' articles you could have possibly accessed on Wikiversity. This doesn't yet consider the countless other tasks you may have elected to do instead of coming to, and continuing to read this page. Perhaps your internet search was motivated by needing information for a personal, academic or workplace project. Alternatively you may want to learn about what motivates lifelong learning for your own personal growth, editing another Wikiversity article or simply as a pass time. As you continue to read through this page consider why it continues to hold your engagement over all the other activities you may want to be doing. {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[w:Lifelong_learning|Lifelong learning]] has been defined in many ways but can most readily understood as the motivation to learn. That is, the question "what motivates lifelong learning" can be simplified to "what motivates learning"]. The motivation to learn is seen as naturally occurring.. Thus to motivate lifelong learning can also be more precisely defined as directing individual's natural curiosity to learn toward a lifelong pursuit This lifelong pursuit of knowledge is contextualised by societal The scientific underpinnings lifelong learning can be difficult to translate and thus difficult to understand, requiring an [[w:Interdisciplinarity|interdisciplinary]] synthesis of [[psychological science]], [[neuroscience]] and the [[Social Sciences|social sciences]] (see Figure 1) (Goodwill & Chen, 2021). * The need to motivate lifelong learning has been widely encouraged by industry, educational institutes, society at large and individuals who must keep up with evolving knowledge, skills and technology in the 21st century. * Formal, non-formal and informal learning environments as key environmental considerations * Meta cognitive skills are malleable and can be improved to motivate and enable lifelong learning {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * How has lifelong learning been defined across key discplines? * What are the key socio-envrionmental factors influencing lifelong learning motivation? * Which meta-cognitive skills are needed to motivate and maintain lifelong learning? * How do the motivations supporting lifelong learning vary across cultures? * How does lifelong learning motivation change across the lifespan? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Lifelong learning == * Definition of lifelong learning varies across contexts and disciplines, potentially warranting specific subheadings *Lifelong learning is of global importance and is central to modern education paradigms (Van den Broeck, et al., 2024) *Skills which underpin lifelong learning are malleable and can be improved through intervention (Endres, et al., 2021) == Theoretical perspectives == * A unified theory or framework of lifelong learning does not yet exist in the literature, although some more general theories, such as the ones below, have been particularly well-applied to lifelong learning motivation. === Socio-constructivism === === Self Regulated Learning Theory === * Self-directed learning interventions have been shown to improve lifelong learning initiative in students - own subsection needed (Chukwuedo et al., 2021). *Underpinned by socio-constructivism, which may warrant its own subsection (Chukwuedo et al., 2021) * Extrinsic motivation often seen as a weaker driving force in the motivation for lifelong learning (Vidigal et al., 2025). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} <quiz display=simple> {Extrinsic motivation is generally seen as a weaker driving motivation force for lifelong learning compared to intrinsic motivation |type="()"} + True - False </quiz> {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Socio-environmental factors == * Formal, non-formal and informal learning environments will likely be split into 3 distinct subheadings due to breadth of topic * Prohibitive cost of lifelong learning was a key historical consideration in lifelong learning motivation, though technological and open access advancements such as Wikiversity make lifelong learning more accessible. * Cost benefit analysis is a key motivational bottleneck which may be the ultimate deciding factor for wether lifelong learning occurs in the short-term. May be accompanied by a case study demonstrating cost-benefit analysis == Meta-cognitive skills == * Meta-cognitive skills are is an important part of motivating lifelong learning, as a lack of baseline meta-cognitive skills can substantially increase the amount of effort needed to engage in lifelong learning (Goodwill & Chen, 2021). * Meta-cognitive strategies include implementation, monitoring, and evaluation (Cornford, 2002). * Meta-cognitive skills are malleable, and can be taught through explicit instruction (Cornford, 2002). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} <quiz display=simple> {Although meta-cognitive skills are important motivators for lifelong, they cannot be explicitly improved |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Lifelong learning motivation across cultures == While recent ubiquitous and globalised interest in lifelong learning and it's benefits have expanded lifelong learning from a [[Western domination of social psychology|western-centric]] educational initiative, the motivators which underpin lifelong learning vary as a product of cultural context. * Lifelong learning is a globalised phenomenon that has attracted interest from the UN. * Differences in lifelong learning motivations across cultures can be summarised as either social utilitarianism or individual interest and hobbies (Chen & Liu, 2019). *Globalisation has resulted in [[w:Transculturalism|transcultural]] lifelong learning, which reflects both a process of inquiry and the integration of varying cultural epistemologies which can facilitate motivation and interest in lifelong learning (Jurkova & Guo, 2021). - Quiz Planned == Lifelong learning motivation across the lifespan == While lifelong learning is seen to be a motivational state of learning across the lifespan, the specific motivators underpinning it change throughout an individuals life. * Some neurobiological and socio-environmental considerations are relevant when looking at young children versus young adults versus older adults. * Answers to the question "What motivates lifelong learning" are not always generalisable across the entire lifespan. * As would be discussed earlier, lifelong learning is not simply learning that takes place outside the formal years of education or learning. - Quiz Planned ==Conclusion== * Lifelong learning and the motivation principles which support it have been widely considered crucial for societies and individuals in the 21st century. * While the motivation for lifelong learning is influenced by a range of factors, many of these factors, including socio-environmental and individual factors can be modified directly or indirectly to promote motivation for lifelong learning. *Key take-home messages are planned to be a summary of the most influential environmental and individual motivational factors which can readily be changed by those seeking to enhance their lifelong learning. ==See also== * [[w:Lifelong_learning|Lifelong learning]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Lifelong learning motivation|Lifelong learning motivation]] (Book chapter, 2025) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Chen, Z., & Liu, Y. (2019). The different style of lifelong learning in China and the USA based on influencing motivations and factors. International Journal of Educational Research, 95, 13-25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2019.03.005 Chukwuedo, S. O., Mbagwu, F. O., & Ogbuanya, T. C. (2021). Motivating academic engagement and lifelong learning among vocational and adult education students via self-direction in learning. Learning and Motivation, 74, 101729. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lmot.2021.101729 Cornford, I. R. (2002). Learning-to-learn strategies as a basis for effective lifelong learning. International journal of lifelong education, 21(4), 357–368. https://doi.org/10.1080/02601370210141020 Endres, T., Leber, J., Böttger, C., Rovers, S., & Renkl, A. (2021). Improving lifelong learning by fostering students’ learning strategies at university. Psychology Learning & Teaching, 20(1), 144–160. https://doi.org/10.1177/1475725720952025 Goodwill, A., & Chen, S. H. (2021). The science of lifelong learning. The United Nations Institute for Lifelong Learning Jurkova, S., & Guo, S. (2021). Conceptualising a holistic model of transcultural lifelong learning. International Review of Education, 67(6), 791-810. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11159-021-09930-w Van den Broeck, L., De Laet, T., Dujardin, R., Tuyaerts, S., & Langie, G. (2024). Unveiling the competencies at the core of lifelong learning: A systematic literature review. Educational Research Review, 45, Article 100646. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2024.100646 Vidigal Alfaya, S., Ballesteros Moscosio, M. Á., & Yanes Cabrera, C. M. (2025). Motivation as a key factor in lifelong learning. https://doi.org/10.11591/edulearn.v19i3.21960 }} ==External links== * [https://uni-freiburg.de/en/studies/lifelong-learning/ Lifelong learning] (University of Freiburg) * [https://www.uil.unesco.org/en UNESCO institute for lifelong learning] (UNESCO) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Education]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Learning]] nkxgxdmy6e67iuynk2aoetv4wzobphq 2836540 2836536 2026-10-07T10:48:06Z U3280251 3103739 2836540 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Lifelong learning motivation:<br>What motivates lifelong learning?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} [[File:Science of Lifelong Learning Onion.png|right|thumb|450px|'''Figure 1'''. Onion diagram of the scientific underpinnings of lifelong learning]] ; Case Study '''Consider yourself''', the reader of this chapter, what prompted you to navigate to this Wikiversity page? As you read this, you are reading just one article out of the '''{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}''' articles you could have possibly accessed on Wikiversity. This doesn't yet consider the countless other tasks you may have elected to do instead of coming to, and continuing to read this page. Perhaps your internet search was motivated by needing information for a personal, academic or workplace project. Alternatively you may want to learn about what motivates lifelong learning for your own personal growth, editing another Wikiversity article or simply as a pass time. As you continue to read through this page consider why it continues to hold your engagement over all the other activities you may want to be doing. {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[w:Lifelong_learning|Lifelong learning]] has been defined in many ways but can most readily understood as the motivation to learn. That is, the question "what motivates lifelong learning" can be simplified to "what motivates learning"]. The motivation to learn is seen as naturally occurring.. Thus to motivate lifelong learning can also be more precisely defined as directing individual's natural curiosity to learn toward a lifelong pursuit This lifelong pursuit of knowledge is contextualised by societal The scientific underpinnings lifelong learning can be difficult to translate and thus difficult to understand, requiring an [[w:Interdisciplinarity|interdisciplinary]] synthesis of [[psychological science]], [[neuroscience]] and the [[Social Sciences|social sciences]] (see Figure 1) (Goodwill & Chen, 2021). Lifelong learning has expanded beyond the simply being a euphemism for adult learning outside the formal years of education. Much focus within K-12 curriculum has begun focusing on developing meta-cognitive skills to faciliate lifelong learning in the classroom and beyond. * The need to motivate lifelong learning has been widely encouraged by industry, educational institutes, society at large and individuals who must keep up with evolving knowledge, skills and technology in the 21st century. * Formal, non-formal and informal learning environments as key environmental considerations * Meta cognitive skills are malleable and can be improved to motivate and enable lifelong learning {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * How has lifelong learning been defined across key discplines? * What are the key socio-envrionmental factors influencing lifelong learning motivation? * Which meta-cognitive skills are needed to motivate and maintain lifelong learning? * How do the motivations supporting lifelong learning vary across cultures? * How does lifelong learning motivation change across the lifespan? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Lifelong learning == * Definition of lifelong learning varies across contexts and disciplines, potentially warranting specific subheadings *Lifelong learning is of global importance and is central to modern education paradigms (Van den Broeck, et al., 2024) *Skills which underpin lifelong learning are malleable and can be improved through intervention (Endres, et al., 2021) == Theoretical perspectives == * A unified theory or framework of lifelong learning does not yet exist in the literature, although some more general theories, such as the ones below, have been particularly well-applied to lifelong learning motivation. === Socio-constructivism === === Self Regulated Learning Theory === * Self-directed learning interventions have been shown to improve lifelong learning initiative in students - own subsection needed (Chukwuedo et al., 2021). *Underpinned by socio-constructivism, which may warrant its own subsection (Chukwuedo et al., 2021) * Extrinsic motivation often seen as a weaker driving force in the motivation for lifelong learning (Vidigal et al., 2025). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} <quiz display=simple> {Extrinsic motivation is generally seen as a weaker driving motivation force for lifelong learning compared to intrinsic motivation |type="()"} + True - False </quiz> {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Socio-environmental factors == * Formal, non-formal and informal learning environments will likely be split into 3 distinct subheadings due to breadth of topic * Prohibitive cost of lifelong learning was a key historical consideration in lifelong learning motivation, though technological and open access advancements such as Wikiversity make lifelong learning more accessible. * Cost benefit analysis is a key motivational bottleneck which may be the ultimate deciding factor for wether lifelong learning occurs in the short-term. May be accompanied by a case study demonstrating cost-benefit analysis === Digital Technology === Ubiquitous across all learning environments in the 21st century is digital technology, which offers unique affordances to learners in motivating lifelong learning. Digital technology its self and it's rapid proliferation is a major contributing factor to the motivation to lifelong learning == Meta-cognitive skills == * Meta-cognitive skills are is an important part of motivating lifelong learning, as a lack of baseline meta-cognitive skills can substantially increase the amount of effort needed to engage in lifelong learning (Goodwill & Chen, 2021). * Meta-cognitive strategies include implementation, monitoring, and evaluation (Cornford, 2002). * Meta-cognitive skills are malleable, and can be taught through explicit instruction (Cornford, 2002). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} <quiz display=simple> {Although meta-cognitive skills are important motivators for lifelong, they cannot be explicitly improved |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Lifelong learning motivation across cultures == While recent ubiquitous and globalised interest in lifelong learning and it's benefits have expanded lifelong learning from a [[w:Western_culture|western-centric]] educational initiative, the motivators which underpin lifelong learning vary as a product of cultural context. * Lifelong learning is a globalised phenomenon that has attracted interest from the UN. * Differences in lifelong learning motivations across cultures can be summarised as either social utilitarianism or individual interest and hobbies (Chen & Liu, 2019). *Globalisation has resulted in [[w:Transculturalism|transcultural]] lifelong learning, which reflects both a process of inquiry and the integration of varying cultural epistemologies which can facilitate motivation and interest in lifelong learning (Jurkova & Guo, 2021). - Quiz Planned == Lifelong learning motivation across the lifespan == While lifelong learning is seen to be a motivational state of learning across the lifespan, the specific motivators underpinning it change throughout an individuals life. * Some neurobiological and socio-environmental considerations are relevant when looking at young children versus young adults versus older adults. * Answers to the question "What motivates lifelong learning" are not always generalisable across the entire lifespan. * As would be discussed earlier, lifelong learning is not simply learning that takes place outside the formal years of education or learning. - Quiz Planned ==Conclusion== * Lifelong learning and the motivation principles which support it have been widely considered crucial for societies and individuals in the 21st century. * While the motivation for lifelong learning is influenced by a range of factors, many of these factors, including socio-environmental and individual factors can be modified directly or indirectly to promote motivation for lifelong learning. *Key take-home messages are planned to be a summary of the most influential environmental and individual motivational factors which can readily be changed by those seeking to enhance their lifelong learning. ==See also== * [[w:Lifelong_learning|Lifelong learning]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Lifelong learning motivation|Lifelong learning motivation]] (Book chapter, 2025) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Chen, Z., & Liu, Y. (2019). The different style of lifelong learning in China and the USA based on influencing motivations and factors. International Journal of Educational Research, 95, 13-25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2019.03.005 Chukwuedo, S. O., Mbagwu, F. O., & Ogbuanya, T. C. (2021). Motivating academic engagement and lifelong learning among vocational and adult education students via self-direction in learning. Learning and Motivation, 74, 101729. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lmot.2021.101729 Cornford, I. R. (2002). Learning-to-learn strategies as a basis for effective lifelong learning. International journal of lifelong education, 21(4), 357–368. https://doi.org/10.1080/02601370210141020 Endres, T., Leber, J., Böttger, C., Rovers, S., & Renkl, A. (2021). Improving lifelong learning by fostering students’ learning strategies at university. Psychology Learning & Teaching, 20(1), 144–160. https://doi.org/10.1177/1475725720952025 Goodwill, A., & Chen, S. H. (2021). The science of lifelong learning. The United Nations Institute for Lifelong Learning Jurkova, S., & Guo, S. (2021). Conceptualising a holistic model of transcultural lifelong learning. International Review of Education, 67(6), 791-810. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11159-021-09930-w Van den Broeck, L., De Laet, T., Dujardin, R., Tuyaerts, S., & Langie, G. (2024). Unveiling the competencies at the core of lifelong learning: A systematic literature review. Educational Research Review, 45, Article 100646. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2024.100646 Vidigal Alfaya, S., Ballesteros Moscosio, M. Á., & Yanes Cabrera, C. M. (2025). Motivation as a key factor in lifelong learning. https://doi.org/10.11591/edulearn.v19i3.21960 }} ==External links== * [https://uni-freiburg.de/en/studies/lifelong-learning/ Lifelong learning] (University of Freiburg) * [https://www.uil.unesco.org/en UNESCO institute for lifelong learning] (UNESCO) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Education]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Learning]] lr50hkrzgvk212d3xznk6kx92ks2hiz 0 330078 2836452 2833249 2026-10-07T05:14:41Z Ckopplemann 3108346 scenario changed 2836452 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Pleasure anticipation and dopamine:<br> How does the brain's reward system generate motivation through expected rather than experienced pleasure?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Scenario - Wanting without liking [[File:Cartoon describing the vaporization process of e-cigarette.webp|thumb|right|170px|'''Figure 1'''. Illustration of the vaporisation process of an electronic cigarette.]] {{g}}Imagine somebody who frequently uses a vape. They're having a long day at work that feels as if its never ending, stressful and overwhelming. After going several hours at work without vaping, the overwhelming stress creates a strong nicotine craving. They anticipate that using their vape will feel satisfying and provide them with a sense of releif from this long day, the expexpection of releif grows stronger and harder to ignore. Eventually, they use their vape. However, the actual experience is overall pretty disapointing, the taste is unpleasent, they feel nauseous and the expected pleasure is short lived and underwhelming. Despite these feelings of disapointment, the craving later returns. Why can a pleasureable experience create such a strong motivation when the actual experience itself provides little pleasure? {{RoundBoxBottom}} *'''What is pleasure anticipation?''' - Anticipatory pleasure is epxerienced{{sp}} when thinking about or expecting a future reward. Gard et al. (2006) described anticipatory pleasure as the pleasure experienced in anticipation of an enjoyable stimuli and associates it with the feeling of 'wanting'. While consummatory pleasure is the pleasure experinerenced when the rewarding stimuli is actually taking place, often described as the in the moment experience of pleasure. *'''How does pleasure anticipation motivate behaviour? -''' Anticipating pleasure can influence motivated behaviour by increasing a persons willingness to put effort into obtaining a potential future reward. Geaney et al. (2015) exmained aticipatory pleasure along with participants willingness to expand their efforts for rewards. In doing this it was found that higher aticipary pleasure was associated with more effortful choices for potially greater rewards. This now suggests that pleasure anticipation can influence reward seeking motivation, rather than simply being a positive feeling. *'''What role does dopamine play in reward anticipation? -''' Dopamine plays a key role in reward anticipation by assisting the brain in learning and predicting, which cues signal future rewards. Nasser et al. (2017) describes dopamine reward prediction error signalling as reflecting differences between expected and received rewards. This allows reward expectations to be updated through learning. This process helps the brain learn which cues are associated with rewards, which can motivate future reward seeking behaviour. *'''What is the difference between wanting vs liking?''' - Berridge and Robinson (2016) study distinguishes between the two components of reward (Wanting vs Liking). The literature explains that incentive salience (wanting), is a form of motivation associated with mesolimbic dopamine systems, compared to 'liking' which refers to the pleasurable feeling experienced when a reward is consumed. Crucially, Berridge and Robinson state that the brain mechanisms responsible for 'wanting' and 'liking' are seperate, meaning a person can strongly want a reward without necessarily experiencing the same level of pleasure when they actually receive it. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' {{ic|The section above suggests 4 other questions; consolidate and integrate the questions into this focus question section. Ensure alignment between the sub-title, the focus questions, and the top-level headings.}} * How does anticipating pleasure influence motivation and behaviour? * What role does dopamine play in reward anticipation, prediction and learning? * How can incentive salience explain the difference between 'wanting' and 'liking' a reward? * How does pleasure anticipation influence behaviours such as sexual desire, gambling and substance use? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Pleasure anticipation and motivation == * Pleasure anticipation is a key component of reward based motivation. * Experiencing reward can involve anticipatory pleasure even prior to receiving a reward while consummatory pleasure occurs while experiencing the reward. * Expectations of future pleasure can motivate individuals to engage in behaviours directed towards obtaining a potential reward. (Gard et al. (2006) === Anticipatory and consummatory pleasure === * Anticipatory pleasure is referring too the pleasure experincned{{sp}} when tanticipating{{sp}} a future reward or pleasurable feeling. Gard et al. (2006) associates anticipatory pleasure with the motivation process of 'wanting' * Consummatory pleasure refers to the pleasure experienced while the rewarding event is actually happening. Gard (2006) refers to this as an 'in the moment' experience of pleasure. * Anticipatory and consummatory pleasure are related but are two seperate experiences. Gard (2006),{{g}} found that the two components are positively correlated however they represent seperate constructs. === Pleasure and motivated behaviour === * Anticipating pleasure can motivate reward seeking behaviour. The expectation of a future rewarding experience can increase the motivation and willingness of an individual to put more effort into obtaining that suspected reward. (Geanney et al. (2015) * Anticipatory pleasure predicts effort towards rewards. In Geanney, et al. (2015)'s study it was found that higher anticipatory pleasure was linked to greater effort for rewards, especially when the predicted chances of the reward was low. * These findings suggest that expected pleasure can influence motivation and behaviour prior to a reward being experienced. Geanney et al. (2015) == Dopamine and reward anticipation == * Dopamine plays an key role in reward anticipation, learning and motivated behaviour. * Dopamine activity can respond to cues that predict future rewards, allowing these cues to gain motivation significance. * Errors in reward prediction can help individuals learn differences between expected and experienced rewards. (Nasser et. al., 2017) === The dopamine reward system === * Dopamine is an important neurotransmitter involved in the brains connected reward systems in the limbic regions and contributes to reward related learning and motivation. (Nasser et. al., 2017) * Dopamine neurons in the midbrain respond to unexpected rewards. As learning takes place, dopamine activity can begin responding to the cue that signals the upcoming reward. (Nasser et. al., 2017) * Reward predicting cues can then therefore become motivationally significant. Once a cue becomes associated with a reward it can then encourage future behaviour in regards to obtaining a reward. (Nasser et. al., 2017) === Reward prediction and learning === * Reward prediction error occurs when there is a difference between the expected reward and the reward thats actually received. (Nasser et. al., 2017) * When a reward is greater then originally predicted, that is described as the positive prediction error, while when a reward is less than predicted, a negative prediction error is produced. (Nasser et. al., 2017) * Prediction errors support learning by updating an individuals predictions of future rewards. Overtime, this can allow cues to become associated with particular rewards and either positively or negatively influence future decisions. (Nasser et. al., 2017) == Wanting, liking and incentive salience == * Reward involves seperate processes of 'wanting' and 'liking', which often influenced reward seeking behaviour. * 'Wanting' refers to the motivation to pursue a reward, whereas 'liking' refers to the pleasure experienced when the reward is received. * Incentive salience can influence motivational value of rewarding cues, meaning an indivdual may strongly 'want' a reward without necessarily experinecing that same level of 'liking' for the reward. (Berridge & Robinson 20016) === Wanting versus liking === * 'Wanting' and 'liking' are two seperate components of the rewarding feeling. 'Wanting' refers to the motivation to obtain a reward, while 'liking' refers to the pleasure felt once the reward is experienced. (Berridge & Robinson (2016) * The systems in the brain involved in 'wanting' and 'liking' can operate separately. Individuals can strongly desire something even when the actual experienced provides little pleasure. (Berridge & Robinson (2016) * Dopamine is more strongly linking with wanting than liking, challenging the idea that dopamine simply produced pleasure and rather highlights its role in reward motivation. (Berridge & Robinson (2016) === Incentive salience theory === * Incentive salience theory explains how reward related cues can strongly motivate behaviour. Cues associated with reward can trigger a 'wanting' for the reward. (Berridge & Robinson (2016) * Mesolimbic dopamine systems play a key role in incentive salience through increasing the motivational value of these reward related cues. (Berridge & Robinson (2016) * Incentive salience can often help explain why the feeling of 'wanting' may continue or increase while the feeling of 'liking' can decrease. This can lead to an individual to remaining highly motivated to seek a rewards despite receiving limited pleasure from it. (Berridge & Robinson (2016) == Pleasure anticipation and human behaviour == * Pleasure anticipation can motivate individuals to seek rewarding experiences. * Reward related cues can increase motivation when pleasure is expected. * Sexual desire, gambling and substance abuse demonstrate how anticipated rewards can influence motivation and reward seeking behaviour. (Agmo & Laan, 2023) === Sexual desire and pleasure === * Sexual desire can be seen as a form of incentive motivation. Sexual cues can active motivation and encourage individuals to approach or seek sexual experiences. (Agmo & Laan (2023) * Expecting sexual pleasure can make sexual cues more motivating. Previous pleasurable sexual experiences can make related cues more incising and increase future sexual desire. (Agmo & Laan (2023) * Sexual motivation can often occur prior to experienced pleasure. Individuals may seek sexual experienced because they expect them to be rewarding, even before they feel pleasure. (Agmo & Laan (2023) === Gambling, reward, and uncertainty === * The uncertainty of whether a reward will be granted may increase an individuals motivation to gamble. Unpredictable rewards may make gambling related cues more motivating, further inspiring one to seek rewards or success. (Clark et. al. (2009) * This study found that 'near misses' in gambling increased participants motivation to continue playing, despite the 'near misses' being experienced as unpleasant. (Clark et. al. (2009) * Near misses illustrate how 'wanting' can occur without 'liking'. Individuals can continue to feel motivation to gamble even when they do not receive an immediate reward of enjoy the outcome. (Clark et. al. (2009) === Substance use and addiction === * Substance use further demonstrates how 'wanting' and 'liking' can be seperate. An individual may develop a strong motivation to use a substance even when the pleasurable effects have decreased or do not exist. ( Berridge & Robinson (2016) * Repeated drug use can sensitise brain systems involved in incentive motivation. This can lead to drug related cues becoming more powerful leading to a trigger in 'wanting' and drug seeking behaviour. (Berridge & Robinson (2016) * Drug related cues can therefore continue to trigger strong cravings, even when the experience of the substance is no longer considered pleasurable. This can explain how excessive 'wanting' can contribute to persistent substance seeking and relapse. (Berridge & Robinson (2016) === Quiz === <quiz display="simple"> {What is anticipatory pleasure? |type="()"} - Experienced pleasure only AFTER receiving a reward + Pleasure associated with expecting a future reward - The lack of motivation for a reward - Pleasure that is only experienced while experiencing a pleasurable reward {When does a positive reward prediction error occur? |type="()"} + When a reward is greater than expected - When a reward is equally to what was expected - When a reward is less than what was expected - When there is no reward granted {According to incentive salience theory, what does "wanting" refer to? |type="()"} - The pleasure experinced when receiving a reward - The absensce of reward anticipation - Having a fear of rewarding stimuli + The motivation to pursue a reward {Which example best demonstrates "wanting" without "liking"? |type="()"} - Enjoying a reward you originally weren't anticipating you would enjoy - Avoiding the reward as you don't anticipate you will enjoy it + Strongly cravings a substance despite experiencing little pleasure from it - Receiving an pleasurable unexpected reward </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Pleasure anticipation can generate motivation prior to actually experiencing the reward. Expectations of future pleasure can encourage reward seeking behaviours and increase an individuals willingness to chase a reward. * Dopamine contributes to reward anticipation through reward prediction, learning and incentive motivation. Reward related cues can become significant and often influence behaviour towards obtaining rewards. * Anticipated and experienced pleasure do not always correspond. There is a key distinction between 'wanting' and 'liking' which helps explain why individuals may remain heavily motivated to pursue pleasurable experineces such as sexual pleasure, gambling and substance use, even if the reward only provide limited pleasure. ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Reward prediction error|Reward Prediction Error]] (Book chapter, 2026) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Pleasure anticipation and dopamine|Pleasure anticipation and dopamine]] (Book chapter, 2025) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Ågmo, A., & Laan, E. (2023). The sexual incentive motivation model and its clinical applications. ''The Journal of Sex Research'', ''60''(7), 969–988. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2022.2134978 Berridge, K. C., & Robinson, T. E. (2016). Liking, wanting, and the incentive-sensitization theory of addiction. ''The American Psychologist'', ''71''(8), 670–679. PubMed Central. [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5171207/?utm https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000059] Clark, L., Lawrence, A. J., Astley-Jones, F., & Gray, N. (2009). Gambling near-misses enhance motivation to gamble and recruit win-related brain circuitry. ''Neuron'', ''61''(3), 481–490. PubMed Central. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2008.12.031 Gard, D. E., Gard, M. G., Kring, A. M., & John, O. P. (2006). Anticipatory and consummatory components of the experience of pleasure: A scale development study. ''Journal of Research in Personality'', ''40''(6), 1086–1102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2005.11.001 Geaney, J. T., Treadway, M. T., & Smillie, L. D. (2015). Trait anticipatory pleasure predicts effort expenditure for reward. ''PLOS ONE'', ''10''(6), e0131357. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0131357 Nasser, H. M., Calu, D. J., Schoenbaum, G., & Sharpe, M. J. (2017). The dopamine prediction error: Contributions to associative models of reward learning. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''8''. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00244 }} ==External links== * [https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/dopamine Dopamine] * [https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/gambling-addiction Gambling Addiction] [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Neurotransmitters/Dopamine]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Pleasure]] mddfdow5amsz6sy8ukud3rh0yk22rdm 2836461 2836452 2026-10-07T06:05:44Z Ckopplemann 3108346 summarised the overview 2836461 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Pleasure anticipation and dopamine:<br> How does the brain's reward system generate motivation through expected rather than experienced pleasure?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Scenario - Wanting without liking [[File:Cartoon describing the vaporization process of e-cigarette.webp|thumb|right|170px|'''Figure 1'''. Illustration of the vaporisation process of an electronic cigarette.]] {{g}}Imagine somebody who frequently uses a vape. They're having a long day at work that feels as if its never ending, stressful and overwhelming. After going several hours at work without vaping, the overwhelming stress creates a strong nicotine craving. They anticipate that using their vape will feel satisfying and provide them with a sense of releif from this long day, the expexpection of releif grows stronger and harder to ignore. Eventually, they use their vape. However, the actual experience is overall pretty disapointing, the taste is unpleasent, they feel nauseous and the expected pleasure is short lived and underwhelming. Despite these feelings of disapointment, the craving later returns. Why can a pleasureable experience create such a strong motivation when the actual experience itself provides little pleasure? {{RoundBoxBottom}} *'''Pleasure anticipation and Consummatory pleasure''' - Pleasure anticipation (Anticipatory Pleasure) refers to the expectation of a future rewarding experience. On the other side of the spectrum we have Conummatory pleasure which only occurs when a reward is actually being experineced. (Gard et al., 2006). *'''Anticipated pleasure motivating behvaiour -''' The expectations of a future pleasurable experinece can directly influence how willing an individual may be to expand their efforts to obtain a potenial reward. (Geaney et al., 2015). *'''Dopamine contributions to reward prediction -''' Dopamine prediction error signalling helps update expectations when there is a definded difference between expected and experience reward. This may further lead to changes in future reward seeking behaviour. (Nasser et al., 2017) *'''Wanting vs Liking''' - Incentive salience theory proposes that motivational 'wanting' can often become seprated from pleasurable 'liking', helping explain why a reward may remain strongly desired despite it providing limitied experienced pleasure. (Berridge & Robinson, 2016). ==Pleasure anticipation and motivation == * Pleasure anticipation is a key component of reward based motivation. * Experiencing reward can involve anticipatory pleasure even prior to receiving a reward while consummatory pleasure occurs while experiencing the reward. * Expectations of future pleasure can motivate individuals to engage in behaviours directed towards obtaining a potential reward. (Gard et al. (2006) === Anticipatory and consummatory pleasure === * Anticipatory pleasure is referring too the pleasure experincned{{sp}} when tanticipating{{sp}} a future reward or pleasurable feeling. Gard et al. (2006) associates anticipatory pleasure with the motivation process of 'wanting' * Consummatory pleasure refers to the pleasure experienced while the rewarding event is actually happening. Gard (2006) refers to this as an 'in the moment' experience of pleasure. * Anticipatory and consummatory pleasure are related but are two seperate experiences. Gard (2006),{{g}} found that the two components are positively correlated however they represent seperate constructs. === Pleasure and motivated behaviour === * Anticipating pleasure can motivate reward seeking behaviour. The expectation of a future rewarding experience can increase the motivation and willingness of an individual to put more effort into obtaining that suspected reward. (Geanney et al. (2015) * Anticipatory pleasure predicts effort towards rewards. In Geanney, et al. (2015)'s study it was found that higher anticipatory pleasure was linked to greater effort for rewards, especially when the predicted chances of the reward was low. * These findings suggest that expected pleasure can influence motivation and behaviour prior to a reward being experienced. Geanney et al. (2015) == Dopamine and reward anticipation == * Dopamine plays an key role in reward anticipation, learning and motivated behaviour. * Dopamine activity can respond to cues that predict future rewards, allowing these cues to gain motivation significance. * Errors in reward prediction can help individuals learn differences between expected and experienced rewards. (Nasser et. al., 2017) === The dopamine reward system === * Dopamine is an important neurotransmitter involved in the brains connected reward systems in the limbic regions and contributes to reward related learning and motivation. (Nasser et. al., 2017) * Dopamine neurons in the midbrain respond to unexpected rewards. As learning takes place, dopamine activity can begin responding to the cue that signals the upcoming reward. (Nasser et. al., 2017) * Reward predicting cues can then therefore become motivationally significant. Once a cue becomes associated with a reward it can then encourage future behaviour in regards to obtaining a reward. (Nasser et. al., 2017) === Reward prediction and learning === * Reward prediction error occurs when there is a difference between the expected reward and the reward thats actually received. (Nasser et. al., 2017) * When a reward is greater then originally predicted, that is described as the positive prediction error, while when a reward is less than predicted, a negative prediction error is produced. (Nasser et. al., 2017) * Prediction errors support learning by updating an individuals predictions of future rewards. Overtime, this can allow cues to become associated with particular rewards and either positively or negatively influence future decisions. (Nasser et. al., 2017) == Wanting, liking and incentive salience == * Reward involves seperate processes of 'wanting' and 'liking', which often influenced reward seeking behaviour. * 'Wanting' refers to the motivation to pursue a reward, whereas 'liking' refers to the pleasure experienced when the reward is received. * Incentive salience can influence motivational value of rewarding cues, meaning an indivdual may strongly 'want' a reward without necessarily experinecing that same level of 'liking' for the reward. (Berridge & Robinson 20016) === Wanting versus liking === * 'Wanting' and 'liking' are two seperate components of the rewarding feeling. 'Wanting' refers to the motivation to obtain a reward, while 'liking' refers to the pleasure felt once the reward is experienced. (Berridge & Robinson (2016) * The systems in the brain involved in 'wanting' and 'liking' can operate separately. Individuals can strongly desire something even when the actual experienced provides little pleasure. (Berridge & Robinson (2016) * Dopamine is more strongly linking with wanting than liking, challenging the idea that dopamine simply produced pleasure and rather highlights its role in reward motivation. (Berridge & Robinson (2016) === Incentive salience theory === * Incentive salience theory explains how reward related cues can strongly motivate behaviour. Cues associated with reward can trigger a 'wanting' for the reward. (Berridge & Robinson (2016) * Mesolimbic dopamine systems play a key role in incentive salience through increasing the motivational value of these reward related cues. (Berridge & Robinson (2016) * Incentive salience can often help explain why the feeling of 'wanting' may continue or increase while the feeling of 'liking' can decrease. This can lead to an individual to remaining highly motivated to seek a rewards despite receiving limited pleasure from it. (Berridge & Robinson (2016) == Pleasure anticipation and human behaviour == * Pleasure anticipation can motivate individuals to seek rewarding experiences. * Reward related cues can increase motivation when pleasure is expected. * Sexual desire, gambling and substance abuse demonstrate how anticipated rewards can influence motivation and reward seeking behaviour. (Agmo & Laan, 2023) === Sexual desire and pleasure === * Sexual desire can be seen as a form of incentive motivation. Sexual cues can active motivation and encourage individuals to approach or seek sexual experiences. (Agmo & Laan (2023) * Expecting sexual pleasure can make sexual cues more motivating. Previous pleasurable sexual experiences can make related cues more incising and increase future sexual desire. (Agmo & Laan (2023) * Sexual motivation can often occur prior to experienced pleasure. Individuals may seek sexual experienced because they expect them to be rewarding, even before they feel pleasure. (Agmo & Laan (2023) === Gambling, reward, and uncertainty === * The uncertainty of whether a reward will be granted may increase an individuals motivation to gamble. Unpredictable rewards may make gambling related cues more motivating, further inspiring one to seek rewards or success. (Clark et. al. (2009) * This study found that 'near misses' in gambling increased participants motivation to continue playing, despite the 'near misses' being experienced as unpleasant. (Clark et. al. (2009) * Near misses illustrate how 'wanting' can occur without 'liking'. Individuals can continue to feel motivation to gamble even when they do not receive an immediate reward of enjoy the outcome. (Clark et. al. (2009) === Substance use and addiction === * Substance use further demonstrates how 'wanting' and 'liking' can be seperate. An individual may develop a strong motivation to use a substance even when the pleasurable effects have decreased or do not exist. ( Berridge & Robinson (2016) * Repeated drug use can sensitise brain systems involved in incentive motivation. This can lead to drug related cues becoming more powerful leading to a trigger in 'wanting' and drug seeking behaviour. (Berridge & Robinson (2016) * Drug related cues can therefore continue to trigger strong cravings, even when the experience of the substance is no longer considered pleasurable. This can explain how excessive 'wanting' can contribute to persistent substance seeking and relapse. (Berridge & Robinson (2016) === Quiz === <quiz display="simple"> {What is anticipatory pleasure? |type="()"} - Experienced pleasure only AFTER receiving a reward + Pleasure associated with expecting a future reward - The lack of motivation for a reward - Pleasure that is only experienced while experiencing a pleasurable reward {When does a positive reward prediction error occur? |type="()"} + When a reward is greater than expected - When a reward is equally to what was expected - When a reward is less than what was expected - When there is no reward granted {According to incentive salience theory, what does "wanting" refer to? |type="()"} - The pleasure experinced when receiving a reward - The absensce of reward anticipation - Having a fear of rewarding stimuli + The motivation to pursue a reward {Which example best demonstrates "wanting" without "liking"? |type="()"} - Enjoying a reward you originally weren't anticipating you would enjoy - Avoiding the reward as you don't anticipate you will enjoy it + Strongly cravings a substance despite experiencing little pleasure from it - Receiving an pleasurable unexpected reward </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Pleasure anticipation can generate motivation prior to actually experiencing the reward. Expectations of future pleasure can encourage reward seeking behaviours and increase an individuals willingness to chase a reward. * Dopamine contributes to reward anticipation through reward prediction, learning and incentive motivation. Reward related cues can become significant and often influence behaviour towards obtaining rewards. * Anticipated and experienced pleasure do not always correspond. There is a key distinction between 'wanting' and 'liking' which helps explain why individuals may remain heavily motivated to pursue pleasurable experineces such as sexual pleasure, gambling and substance use, even if the reward only provide limited pleasure. ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Reward prediction error|Reward Prediction Error]] (Book chapter, 2026) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Pleasure anticipation and dopamine|Pleasure anticipation and dopamine]] (Book chapter, 2025) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Ågmo, A., & Laan, E. (2023). The sexual incentive motivation model and its clinical applications. ''The Journal of Sex Research'', ''60''(7), 969–988. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2022.2134978 Berridge, K. C., & Robinson, T. E. (2016). Liking, wanting, and the incentive-sensitization theory of addiction. ''The American Psychologist'', ''71''(8), 670–679. PubMed Central. [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5171207/?utm https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000059] Clark, L., Lawrence, A. J., Astley-Jones, F., & Gray, N. (2009). Gambling near-misses enhance motivation to gamble and recruit win-related brain circuitry. ''Neuron'', ''61''(3), 481–490. PubMed Central. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2008.12.031 Gard, D. E., Gard, M. G., Kring, A. M., & John, O. P. (2006). Anticipatory and consummatory components of the experience of pleasure: A scale development study. ''Journal of Research in Personality'', ''40''(6), 1086–1102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2005.11.001 Geaney, J. T., Treadway, M. T., & Smillie, L. D. (2015). Trait anticipatory pleasure predicts effort expenditure for reward. ''PLOS ONE'', ''10''(6), e0131357. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0131357 Nasser, H. M., Calu, D. J., Schoenbaum, G., & Sharpe, M. J. (2017). The dopamine prediction error: Contributions to associative models of reward learning. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''8''. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00244 }} ==External links== * [https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/dopamine Dopamine] * [https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/gambling-addiction Gambling Addiction] [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Neurotransmitters/Dopamine]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Pleasure]] is4umsl5pxe4pj8d2byr8x6rqccxwml 2836518 2836461 2026-10-07T10:02:55Z Ckopplemann 3108346 edited focus questions 2836518 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Pleasure anticipation and dopamine:<br> How does the brain's reward system generate motivation through expected rather than experienced pleasure?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Scenario - Wanting without liking [[File:Cartoon describing the vaporization process of e-cigarette.webp|thumb|right|170px|'''Figure 1'''. Illustration of the vaporisation process of an electronic cigarette.]] {{g}}Imagine somebody who frequently uses a vape. They're having a long day at work that feels as if its never ending, stressful and overwhelming. After going several hours at work without vaping, the overwhelming stress creates a strong nicotine craving. They anticipate that using their vape will feel satisfying and provide them with a sense of releif from this long day, the expexpection of releif grows stronger and harder to ignore. Eventually, they use their vape. However, the actual experience is overall pretty disapointing, the taste is unpleasent, they feel nauseous and the expected pleasure is short lived and underwhelming. Despite these feelings of disapointment, the craving later returns. Why can a pleasureable experience create such a strong motivation when the actual experience itself provides little pleasure? {{RoundBoxBottom}} *'''Pleasure anticipation and Consummatory pleasure''' - Pleasure anticipation (Anticipatory Pleasure) refers to the expectation of a future rewarding experience. On the other side of the spectrum we have Conummatory pleasure which only occurs when a reward is actually being experineced. (Gard et al., 2006). *'''Anticipated pleasure motivating behvaiour -''' The expectations of a future pleasurable experinece can directly influence how willing an individual may be to expand their efforts to obtain a potenial reward. (Geaney et al., 2015). *'''Dopamine contributions to reward prediction -''' Dopamine prediction error signalling helps update expectations when there is a definded difference between expected and experience reward. This may further lead to changes in future reward seeking behaviour. (Nasser et al., 2017) *'''Wanting vs Liking''' - Incentive salience theory proposes that motivational 'wanting' can often become seprated from pleasurable 'liking', helping explain why a reward may remain strongly desired despite it providing limitied experienced pleasure. (Berridge & Robinson, 2016). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * How does anticipating pleasure generate motivation? * What role does dopamine play in reward anticipation? * How can incentive salience explain the difference between 'wanting' and 'liking' a reward? * How does pleasure anticipation influence reward seeking behaviours such as gambling, substance abuse and sexual desire? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Pleasure anticipation and motivation == * Pleasure anticipation is a key component of reward based motivation. * Experiencing reward can involve anticipatory pleasure even prior to receiving a reward while consummatory pleasure occurs while experiencing the reward. * Expectations of future pleasure can motivate individuals to engage in behaviours directed towards obtaining a potential reward. (Gard et al. (2006) === Anticipatory and consummatory pleasure === * Anticipatory pleasure is referring too the pleasure experincned{{sp}} when tanticipating{{sp}} a future reward or pleasurable feeling. Gard et al. (2006) associates anticipatory pleasure with the motivation process of 'wanting' * Consummatory pleasure refers to the pleasure experienced while the rewarding event is actually happening. Gard (2006) refers to this as an 'in the moment' experience of pleasure. * Anticipatory and consummatory pleasure are related but are two seperate experiences. Gard (2006),{{g}} found that the two components are positively correlated however they represent seperate constructs. === Pleasure and motivated behaviour === * Anticipating pleasure can motivate reward seeking behaviour. The expectation of a future rewarding experience can increase the motivation and willingness of an individual to put more effort into obtaining that suspected reward. (Geanney et al. (2015) * Anticipatory pleasure predicts effort towards rewards. In Geanney, et al. (2015)'s study it was found that higher anticipatory pleasure was linked to greater effort for rewards, especially when the predicted chances of the reward was low. * These findings suggest that expected pleasure can influence motivation and behaviour prior to a reward being experienced. Geanney et al. (2015) == Dopamine and reward anticipation == * Dopamine plays an key role in reward anticipation, learning and motivated behaviour. * Dopamine activity can respond to cues that predict future rewards, allowing these cues to gain motivation significance. * Errors in reward prediction can help individuals learn differences between expected and experienced rewards. (Nasser et. al., 2017) === The dopamine reward system === * Dopamine is an important neurotransmitter involved in the brains connected reward systems in the limbic regions and contributes to reward related learning and motivation. (Nasser et. al., 2017) * Dopamine neurons in the midbrain respond to unexpected rewards. As learning takes place, dopamine activity can begin responding to the cue that signals the upcoming reward. (Nasser et. al., 2017) * Reward predicting cues can then therefore become motivationally significant. Once a cue becomes associated with a reward it can then encourage future behaviour in regards to obtaining a reward. (Nasser et. al., 2017) === Reward prediction and learning === * Reward prediction error occurs when there is a difference between the expected reward and the reward thats actually received. (Nasser et. al., 2017) * When a reward is greater then originally predicted, that is described as the positive prediction error, while when a reward is less than predicted, a negative prediction error is produced. (Nasser et. al., 2017) * Prediction errors support learning by updating an individuals predictions of future rewards. Overtime, this can allow cues to become associated with particular rewards and either positively or negatively influence future decisions. (Nasser et. al., 2017) == Wanting, liking and incentive salience == * Reward involves seperate processes of 'wanting' and 'liking', which often influenced reward seeking behaviour. * 'Wanting' refers to the motivation to pursue a reward, whereas 'liking' refers to the pleasure experienced when the reward is received. * Incentive salience can influence motivational value of rewarding cues, meaning an indivdual may strongly 'want' a reward without necessarily experinecing that same level of 'liking' for the reward. (Berridge & Robinson 20016) === Wanting versus liking === * 'Wanting' and 'liking' are two seperate components of the rewarding feeling. 'Wanting' refers to the motivation to obtain a reward, while 'liking' refers to the pleasure felt once the reward is experienced. (Berridge & Robinson (2016) * The systems in the brain involved in 'wanting' and 'liking' can operate separately. Individuals can strongly desire something even when the actual experienced provides little pleasure. (Berridge & Robinson (2016) * Dopamine is more strongly linking with wanting than liking, challenging the idea that dopamine simply produced pleasure and rather highlights its role in reward motivation. (Berridge & Robinson (2016) === Incentive salience theory === * Incentive salience theory explains how reward related cues can strongly motivate behaviour. Cues associated with reward can trigger a 'wanting' for the reward. (Berridge & Robinson (2016) * Mesolimbic dopamine systems play a key role in incentive salience through increasing the motivational value of these reward related cues. (Berridge & Robinson (2016) * Incentive salience can often help explain why the feeling of 'wanting' may continue or increase while the feeling of 'liking' can decrease. This can lead to an individual to remaining highly motivated to seek a rewards despite receiving limited pleasure from it. (Berridge & Robinson (2016) == Pleasure anticipation and human behaviour == * Pleasure anticipation can motivate individuals to seek rewarding experiences. * Reward related cues can increase motivation when pleasure is expected. * Sexual desire, gambling and substance abuse demonstrate how anticipated rewards can influence motivation and reward seeking behaviour. (Agmo & Laan, 2023) === Sexual desire and pleasure === * Sexual desire can be seen as a form of incentive motivation. Sexual cues can active motivation and encourage individuals to approach or seek sexual experiences. (Agmo & Laan (2023) * Expecting sexual pleasure can make sexual cues more motivating. Previous pleasurable sexual experiences can make related cues more incising and increase future sexual desire. (Agmo & Laan (2023) * Sexual motivation can often occur prior to experienced pleasure. Individuals may seek sexual experienced because they expect them to be rewarding, even before they feel pleasure. (Agmo & Laan (2023) === Gambling, reward, and uncertainty === * The uncertainty of whether a reward will be granted may increase an individuals motivation to gamble. Unpredictable rewards may make gambling related cues more motivating, further inspiring one to seek rewards or success. (Clark et. al. (2009) * This study found that 'near misses' in gambling increased participants motivation to continue playing, despite the 'near misses' being experienced as unpleasant. (Clark et. al. (2009) * Near misses illustrate how 'wanting' can occur without 'liking'. Individuals can continue to feel motivation to gamble even when they do not receive an immediate reward of enjoy the outcome. (Clark et. al. (2009) === Substance use and addiction === * Substance use further demonstrates how 'wanting' and 'liking' can be seperate. An individual may develop a strong motivation to use a substance even when the pleasurable effects have decreased or do not exist. ( Berridge & Robinson (2016) * Repeated drug use can sensitise brain systems involved in incentive motivation. This can lead to drug related cues becoming more powerful leading to a trigger in 'wanting' and drug seeking behaviour. (Berridge & Robinson (2016) * Drug related cues can therefore continue to trigger strong cravings, even when the experience of the substance is no longer considered pleasurable. This can explain how excessive 'wanting' can contribute to persistent substance seeking and relapse. (Berridge & Robinson (2016) === Quiz === <quiz display="simple"> {What is anticipatory pleasure? |type="()"} - Experienced pleasure only AFTER receiving a reward + Pleasure associated with expecting a future reward - The lack of motivation for a reward - Pleasure that is only experienced while experiencing a pleasurable reward {When does a positive reward prediction error occur? |type="()"} + When a reward is greater than expected - When a reward is equally to what was expected - When a reward is less than what was expected - When there is no reward granted {According to incentive salience theory, what does "wanting" refer to? |type="()"} - The pleasure experinced when receiving a reward - The absensce of reward anticipation - Having a fear of rewarding stimuli + The motivation to pursue a reward {Which example best demonstrates "wanting" without "liking"? |type="()"} - Enjoying a reward you originally weren't anticipating you would enjoy - Avoiding the reward as you don't anticipate you will enjoy it + Strongly cravings a substance despite experiencing little pleasure from it - Receiving an pleasurable unexpected reward </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Pleasure anticipation can generate motivation prior to actually experiencing the reward. Expectations of future pleasure can encourage reward seeking behaviours and increase an individuals willingness to chase a reward. * Dopamine contributes to reward anticipation through reward prediction, learning and incentive motivation. Reward related cues can become significant and often influence behaviour towards obtaining rewards. * Anticipated and experienced pleasure do not always correspond. There is a key distinction between 'wanting' and 'liking' which helps explain why individuals may remain heavily motivated to pursue pleasurable experineces such as sexual pleasure, gambling and substance use, even if the reward only provide limited pleasure. ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Reward prediction error|Reward Prediction Error]] (Book chapter, 2026) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Pleasure anticipation and dopamine|Pleasure anticipation and dopamine]] (Book chapter, 2025) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Ågmo, A., & Laan, E. (2023). The sexual incentive motivation model and its clinical applications. ''The Journal of Sex Research'', ''60''(7), 969–988. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2022.2134978 Berridge, K. C., & Robinson, T. E. (2016). Liking, wanting, and the incentive-sensitization theory of addiction. ''The American Psychologist'', ''71''(8), 670–679. PubMed Central. [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5171207/?utm https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000059] Clark, L., Lawrence, A. J., Astley-Jones, F., & Gray, N. (2009). Gambling near-misses enhance motivation to gamble and recruit win-related brain circuitry. ''Neuron'', ''61''(3), 481–490. PubMed Central. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2008.12.031 Gard, D. E., Gard, M. G., Kring, A. M., & John, O. P. (2006). Anticipatory and consummatory components of the experience of pleasure: A scale development study. ''Journal of Research in Personality'', ''40''(6), 1086–1102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2005.11.001 Geaney, J. T., Treadway, M. T., & Smillie, L. D. (2015). Trait anticipatory pleasure predicts effort expenditure for reward. ''PLOS ONE'', ''10''(6), e0131357. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0131357 Nasser, H. M., Calu, D. J., Schoenbaum, G., & Sharpe, M. J. (2017). The dopamine prediction error: Contributions to associative models of reward learning. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''8''. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00244 }} ==External links== * [https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/dopamine Dopamine] * [https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/gambling-addiction Gambling Addiction] [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Neurotransmitters/Dopamine]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Pleasure]] j8ia0uju4fcfnhfnwwm45ijhb44usst 0 331034 2836357 2835102 2026-10-06T23:49:03Z U3222012 2968463 added in-text citation 2836357 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Perfectionism and procrastination:<br>What is the role of perfectionism in procrastination and what can be done about it?}} <div align=center>Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}} [[File:The procrastinating student - panoramio.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Waiting for the perfect moment]] '''Scenario''' Brian has been trying for several days to start preparing an important presentation for an upcoming meeting. He is convinced that he must deliver a flawless presentation - think everything through and execute everything perfectly. He’s long had a clear picture in his mind of what the presentation should be like, but some kind of inner resistance keeps making him put off getting started. He glances through the materials, then switches to other tasks, as if waiting for the moment when he’ll finally feel completely ready. But that moment never comes. {{RoundBoxBottom}} In a world where success and high achievement are highly valued, it is paradoxical that individuals who attach great importance to these goals may nonetheless refrain from action or engage in task avoidance (Flett,Hewitt & Martin, 1995). The interplay of these motives can result in two psychological constructs: [[wikipedia:Perfectionism_(psychology)|perfectionism]] and [[wikipedia:Procrastination|procrastination]] {{citation needed}}. Although they do not necessarily co-occur, empirical research indicates that some links exist between them {{citation needed}}. Understanding which possible mechanisms underlie the relationship between perfectionism and procrastination may help identify ways to overcome procrastination and achieve intended goals {{citation needed}}. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' [[File:Crystal Clear app ktip.svg|left|20px|]] * What is the nature{{vague}} of perfectionism and procrastination? * What is the relationship between perfectionism and procrastination? * What dimensions of perfectionism predict (contribute to) procrastination? * How can we reduce procrastination and the negative effects of perfectionism? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Perfectionism and Procrastination == '''Perfectionism and procrastination''' are complex psychological constructs that may be closely related but differ in their nature and manifestations. Perfectionism primarily refers to personality traits and attitudes, whereas procrastination manifests itself primarily as a pattern of behaviour (Akpur & Yurtseven, 2019, Husain et al., 2025) '''Perfectionism''': definition and key characteristics (Stoeber et al., 2018) '''Perfectionism''' is the pursuit of perfection or flawlessness, the setting of high standards, and a critical attitude toward one's own mistakes (imperfections) (Sirois, 2017). According to a multidimensional model main dimensions: perfectionistic strivings (setting high standards, striving for excellence; It is often considered an adaptive trait, as it can help achieve goals ) and perfectionictics concerns (fear of making a mistake, fear of criticism, excessive self-criticism, inability to take joy in success;is classified as maladaptive because it leads to negative consequences and is associated with failure of self-regulation (Gäde et al., 2017, Sirois, 2017) {{grammar}}. '''Procrastination''': definition and key characteristics (Sirois, 2017, Steel, 2007) '''Procrastination''' is a ''behaviour'' in which a person voluntarily postpones important planned tasks, knowing that the negative consequences of such an action are inevitable; '''criteria''': * '''Consciousness and''' '''voluntariness''': the delay is not due to objective external circumstances but is a conscious choice made by the individual. * '''Irrationality''': a person, clearly aware of the negative consequences, still continues to avoid performing the activity. * '''Failure of self‑regulation''': Failure to the delay in activity is related to the individual’s inability to sufficiently control their behavior and emotions at the present moment (Sirois, 2017). '''Domains of procrastination''': academic, work, everyday life, health, interpersonal (Kurtovic at al., 2019)<gallery> </gallery> '''Table 1.''' Types of procrastination and their characteristics{{fact}} {| class="wikitable" |+ !'''Type''' !'''Description''' |- |Academic procrastination |Delaying academic assignments, exam preparation, and writing academic papers. |- |Workplace procrastination |Postponing important work tasks, meetings, reports, and phone calls. |- |Health procrastination |Postponing medical appointments, health check-ups, treatment, or health-promoting behaviours |- |Decision procrastination |Postponing or avoiding important decisions. |} {{Robelbox|left|alt=|theme=6|title=Learning Checkpoint |icon=Emblem-question-yellow.svg|iconwidth=48px}}<div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> <quiz display=simple> {Imagine this situation: you have a deadline for a report, but your boss has asked you to take on some of the work of a colleague who is sick. Do you think it’s considered procrastination if you put off your report to deal your boss’s request? } -Yes +No </quiz> </div> {{Robelbox/close}} == How perfectionism relates to procrastination == '''Perfectionistic concerns''': their contribution to procrastination - is an attempt to avoid the negative feelings associated with a potentially less than ideal outcomes; an individual’s choice to delay in order to avoid confronting negative thoughts and feelings {{fact}} '''Underlying mechanisms:''' high standards and the inability to meet them lead to a breakdown in self-regulation, which in turn leads to avoidance behavior (Sirois, 2017)'''.''' '''Mediating factors''' ( fear of failure as a mediator (Yosopov et al., 2024), perceived discrepancy between standards and performance (Kurtovic at al., 2019), concern over mistakes, self-critical evaluation) == A motivational perspective on perfectionism and procrastination == Relevant motiventional theories (Stoeber et al., 2018) '''Self-Determination Theory''' According to Self-Determination Theory, motivation depends on the fulfillment of basic needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness {{fact}}. A person successfully achieves only those goals that they consider valuable and important {{fact}}. If a task is imposed from the outside and these needs are not met, a natural internal resistance arises {{fact}}. Within this framework, these basic needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness can be met in various ways, which can be divided into internal and external {{fact}}. Internal approaches are linked to internal values and aspirations, while external approaches depend on external factors such as pressure, rewards, and punishments {{fact}}. In the case of perfectionism, when needs are formed more autonomously, adaptive perfectionism may develop, whereas with the external approach, maladaptive perfectionism may develop (Stoeber et al., 2018). '''Motivational mechanism''': Lack of autonomy and competence creates internal resistance, triggering a desire to delay non-autonomous tasks which ultimately leads to procrastination (Grund & Fries, 2018). == Approaches to adressing perfectionism-related procrastination == '''Evidence for effectivness''' Psychological interventions (2018 meta-analysis on the effectiveness of psychological interventions for combating procrastination. Psychotherapeutic methods generally have a small but statistically significant effect (g = 0.34).The most effective method is cognitive-behavioral therapy (CDT) (Rosental et al., 2018). Self-help strategies (Self-monitoring/Time tracking; Goal-setting;Self-control training;Time management) produce inconsistent results; they address external symptoms but ignore the underlying psychological causes (perfectionism, emotional dysregulation ...) (Rosental et al., 2018 ==Conclusion== * Perfectionism and procrastination may be interrelated (Akpur & Yurtseven, 2019, Husain et al., 2025) . * Not all perfectionism leads to procrastination; procrastination is associated with perfectionist concerns {{fact}}. * Perfectionist concerns may contribute to procrastination by leading individuals to avoid negative thoughts and feelings, as well as the fear of failing to meet high standards {{fact}}. * From a motivational perspective, extrinsic motivation may be linked to maladaptive perfectionism, which in certain cases leads to procrastination {{fact}}. * According to self-determination theory, a lack of autonomy can reduce motivation and lead to procrastination (Stoeber et al., 2018) . * One of the most effective psychotherapeutic method for overcoming procrastination is cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT)(Rosental et al., 2018) . ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Perfectionism|Perfectionism]] (Book chapter,2022) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Procrastination, moods, and emotion|Procrastination, moods, and emotion]] (Book chapter,2015) ==References == {{Hanging indent|1= Akpur, U., & Yurtseven, N. (2019). Structural Relationships between Academic Motivation, Procrastination and Perfectionism: A Modelling Study. ''Cumhuriyet International Journal of Education''. https://doi.org/10.30703/cije.452633 Ferrari, J. R. (1992). Procrastinators and perfect behavior: An exploratory factor analysis of self-presentation, self-awareness, and self-handicapping components. ''Journal of Research in Personality'', ''26''(1), 75–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/0092-6566(92)90060-h Frost, R. O., Marten, P., Lahart, C., & Rosenblate, R. (1990). The dimensions of perfectionism. ''Cognitive Therapy and Research'', 14(5), 449–468. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01172967 Gäde, J. C., Schermelleh-Engel, K., & Klein, A. G. (2017). Disentangling the Common Variance of Perfectionistic Strivings and Perfectionistic Concerns: A Bifactor Model of Perfectionism. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''8''(160). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00160 Grund, A., & Fries, S. (2018). Understanding procrastination: A motivational approach. ''Personality and Individual Differences'', ''121'', 120–130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2017.09.035 Husain, W., Trabelsi, K., Ammar, A., Saif, Z., & Jahrami, H. (2025). The development and validation of a one-off scale to measure procrastination and precrastination traits in young adults. BMC Psychology, 13(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-025-03072-6 Kurtovic, A., Vrdoljak, G., & Idzanovic, A. (2019). Predicting procrastination: The role of academic achievement, self-efficacy and perfectionism. International Journal of Educational Psychology, 8(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.17583/ijep.2019.2993 Rozental, A., Bennett, S., Forsström, D., Ebert, D. D., Shafran, R., Andersson, G., & Carlbring, P. (2018). Targeting Procrastination Using Psychological Treatments: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Frontiers in Psychology, 9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01588 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination Theory and the Facilitation of Intrinsic Motivation, Social Development, and Well-being. ''American Psychologist'', ''55''(1), 68–78. https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/SDT/documents/2000_RyanDeci_SDT.pdf Sirois, F. M., Molnar, D. S., & Hirsch, J. K. (2017). A Meta-analytic and Conceptual Update on the Associations Between Procrastination and Multidimensional Perfectionism. ''European Journal of Personality'', ''31''(2), 137–159. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2098         Steel, P. (2007). The nature of procrastination: A meta-analytic and theoretical review of quintessential self-regulatory failure. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''133''(1), 65–94. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.65 Stoeber, J., Damian, L. E., & Madigan, D. J. (2018). Perfectionism: A motivational perspective. In J. Stoeber (Ed.), The psychology of perfectionism: Theory, research, applications (pp. 19–43). Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group.https://www.researchgate.net/publication/311970309_Perfectionism_A_motivational_perspective Xie, Y., Yang, J., & Chen, F. (2018). Procrastination and multidimensional perfectionism: A meta-analysis of main, mediating, and moderating effects. Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 46(3), 395–408. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.6680 Yosopov, L., Saklofske, D. H., Smith, M. M., Flett, G. L., & Hewitt, P. L. (2024). Failure Sensitivity in Perfectionism and Procrastination: Fear of Failure and Overgeneralization of Failure as Mediators of Traits and Cognitions. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 42(6). https://doi.org/10.1177/07342829241249784 }} This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== {{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}} [https://www.oneyoufeed.net/procrastinator/ Being a Procrastinator with Tim Pychyl] [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lFG1b1-EsW8 Our dangerous obsession with perfectionism is getting worse | Thomas Curran] [https://www.apa.org/gradpsych/2010/01/procrastination Procrastination or 'intentional delay'?] {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Perfectionism]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Procrastination]] dltpen9iaoxsi87vop9gw3arrczvy0k 2836362 2836357 2026-10-07T00:22:20Z U3222012 2968463 The sentence was revised with ChatGPT https://chatgpt.com/c/6ac58ce0-a5b0-83ec-b1ec-59692289652c 2836362 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Perfectionism and procrastination:<br>What is the role of perfectionism in procrastination and what can be done about it?}} <div align=center>Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}} [[File:The procrastinating student - panoramio.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Waiting for the perfect moment]] '''Scenario''' Brian has been trying for several days to start preparing an important presentation for an upcoming meeting. He is convinced that he must deliver a flawless presentation - think everything through and execute everything perfectly. He’s long had a clear picture in his mind of what the presentation should be like, but some kind of inner resistance keeps making him put off getting started. He glances through the materials, then switches to other tasks, as if waiting for the moment when he’ll finally feel completely ready. But that moment never comes. {{RoundBoxBottom}} In a world where success and high achievement are highly valued, it is paradoxical that individuals who attach great importance to these goals may nonetheless refrain from action or engage in task avoidance (Flett,Hewitt & Martin, 1995). This paradox highlights the relationship between two psychological constructs: [[wikipedia:Perfectionism_(psychology)|perfectionism]] and [[wikipedia:Procrastination|procrastination]] (Sirois et al., 2017). Although they do not necessarily co-occur, empirical research indicates that some links exist between them {{citation needed}}. Understanding which possible mechanisms underlie the relationship between perfectionism and procrastination may help identify ways to overcome procrastination and achieve intended goals {{citation needed}}. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' [[File:Crystal Clear app ktip.svg|left|20px|]] * What is the nature{{vague}} of perfectionism and procrastination? * What is the relationship between perfectionism and procrastination? * What dimensions of perfectionism predict (contribute to) procrastination? * How can we reduce procrastination and the negative effects of perfectionism? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Perfectionism and Procrastination == '''Perfectionism and procrastination''' are complex psychological constructs that may be closely related but differ in their nature and manifestations. Perfectionism primarily refers to personality traits and attitudes, whereas procrastination manifests itself primarily as a pattern of behaviour (Akpur & Yurtseven, 2019, Husain et al., 2025) '''Perfectionism''': definition and key characteristics (Stoeber et al., 2018) '''Perfectionism''' is the pursuit of perfection or flawlessness, the setting of high standards, and a critical attitude toward one's own mistakes (imperfections) (Sirois, 2017). According to a multidimensional model main dimensions: perfectionistic strivings (setting high standards, striving for excellence; It is often considered an adaptive trait, as it can help achieve goals ) and perfectionictics concerns (fear of making a mistake, fear of criticism, excessive self-criticism, inability to take joy in success;is classified as maladaptive because it leads to negative consequences and is associated with failure of self-regulation (Gäde et al., 2017, Sirois, 2017) {{grammar}}. '''Procrastination''': definition and key characteristics (Sirois, 2017, Steel, 2007) '''Procrastination''' is a ''behaviour'' in which a person voluntarily postpones important planned tasks, knowing that the negative consequences of such an action are inevitable; '''criteria''': * '''Consciousness and''' '''voluntariness''': the delay is not due to objective external circumstances but is a conscious choice made by the individual. * '''Irrationality''': a person, clearly aware of the negative consequences, still continues to avoid performing the activity. * '''Failure of self‑regulation''': Failure to the delay in activity is related to the individual’s inability to sufficiently control their behavior and emotions at the present moment (Sirois, 2017). '''Domains of procrastination''': academic, work, everyday life, health, interpersonal (Kurtovic at al., 2019)<gallery> </gallery> '''Table 1.''' Types of procrastination and their characteristics{{fact}} {| class="wikitable" |+ !'''Type''' !'''Description''' |- |Academic procrastination |Delaying academic assignments, exam preparation, and writing academic papers. |- |Workplace procrastination |Postponing important work tasks, meetings, reports, and phone calls. |- |Health procrastination |Postponing medical appointments, health check-ups, treatment, or health-promoting behaviours |- |Decision procrastination |Postponing or avoiding important decisions. |} {{Robelbox|left|alt=|theme=6|title=Learning Checkpoint |icon=Emblem-question-yellow.svg|iconwidth=48px}}<div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> <quiz display=simple> {Imagine this situation: you have a deadline for a report, but your boss has asked you to take on some of the work of a colleague who is sick. Do you think it’s considered procrastination if you put off your report to deal your boss’s request? } -Yes +No </quiz> </div> {{Robelbox/close}} == How perfectionism relates to procrastination == '''Perfectionistic concerns''': their contribution to procrastination - is an attempt to avoid the negative feelings associated with a potentially less than ideal outcomes; an individual’s choice to delay in order to avoid confronting negative thoughts and feelings {{fact}} '''Underlying mechanisms:''' high standards and the inability to meet them lead to a breakdown in self-regulation, which in turn leads to avoidance behavior (Sirois, 2017)'''.''' '''Mediating factors''' ( fear of failure as a mediator (Yosopov et al., 2024), perceived discrepancy between standards and performance (Kurtovic at al., 2019), concern over mistakes, self-critical evaluation) == A motivational perspective on perfectionism and procrastination == Relevant motiventional theories (Stoeber et al., 2018) '''Self-Determination Theory''' According to Self-Determination Theory, motivation depends on the fulfillment of basic needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness {{fact}}. A person successfully achieves only those goals that they consider valuable and important {{fact}}. If a task is imposed from the outside and these needs are not met, a natural internal resistance arises {{fact}}. Within this framework, these basic needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness can be met in various ways, which can be divided into internal and external {{fact}}. Internal approaches are linked to internal values and aspirations, while external approaches depend on external factors such as pressure, rewards, and punishments {{fact}}. In the case of perfectionism, when needs are formed more autonomously, adaptive perfectionism may develop, whereas with the external approach, maladaptive perfectionism may develop (Stoeber et al., 2018). '''Motivational mechanism''': Lack of autonomy and competence creates internal resistance, triggering a desire to delay non-autonomous tasks which ultimately leads to procrastination (Grund & Fries, 2018). == Approaches to adressing perfectionism-related procrastination == '''Evidence for effectivness''' Psychological interventions (2018 meta-analysis on the effectiveness of psychological interventions for combating procrastination. Psychotherapeutic methods generally have a small but statistically significant effect (g = 0.34).The most effective method is cognitive-behavioral therapy (CDT) (Rosental et al., 2018). Self-help strategies (Self-monitoring/Time tracking; Goal-setting;Self-control training;Time management) produce inconsistent results; they address external symptoms but ignore the underlying psychological causes (perfectionism, emotional dysregulation ...) (Rosental et al., 2018 ==Conclusion== * Perfectionism and procrastination may be interrelated (Akpur & Yurtseven, 2019, Husain et al., 2025) . * Not all perfectionism leads to procrastination; procrastination is associated with perfectionist concerns {{fact}}. * Perfectionist concerns may contribute to procrastination by leading individuals to avoid negative thoughts and feelings, as well as the fear of failing to meet high standards {{fact}}. * From a motivational perspective, extrinsic motivation may be linked to maladaptive perfectionism, which in certain cases leads to procrastination {{fact}}. * According to self-determination theory, a lack of autonomy can reduce motivation and lead to procrastination (Stoeber et al., 2018) . * One of the most effective psychotherapeutic method for overcoming procrastination is cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT)(Rosental et al., 2018) . ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Perfectionism|Perfectionism]] (Book chapter,2022) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Procrastination, moods, and emotion|Procrastination, moods, and emotion]] (Book chapter,2015) ==References == {{Hanging indent|1= Akpur, U., & Yurtseven, N. (2019). Structural Relationships between Academic Motivation, Procrastination and Perfectionism: A Modelling Study. ''Cumhuriyet International Journal of Education''. https://doi.org/10.30703/cije.452633 Ferrari, J. R. (1992). Procrastinators and perfect behavior: An exploratory factor analysis of self-presentation, self-awareness, and self-handicapping components. ''Journal of Research in Personality'', ''26''(1), 75–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/0092-6566(92)90060-h Frost, R. O., Marten, P., Lahart, C., & Rosenblate, R. (1990). The dimensions of perfectionism. ''Cognitive Therapy and Research'', 14(5), 449–468. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01172967 Gäde, J. C., Schermelleh-Engel, K., & Klein, A. G. (2017). Disentangling the Common Variance of Perfectionistic Strivings and Perfectionistic Concerns: A Bifactor Model of Perfectionism. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''8''(160). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00160 Grund, A., & Fries, S. (2018). Understanding procrastination: A motivational approach. ''Personality and Individual Differences'', ''121'', 120–130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2017.09.035 Husain, W., Trabelsi, K., Ammar, A., Saif, Z., & Jahrami, H. (2025). The development and validation of a one-off scale to measure procrastination and precrastination traits in young adults. BMC Psychology, 13(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-025-03072-6 Kurtovic, A., Vrdoljak, G., & Idzanovic, A. (2019). Predicting procrastination: The role of academic achievement, self-efficacy and perfectionism. International Journal of Educational Psychology, 8(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.17583/ijep.2019.2993 Rozental, A., Bennett, S., Forsström, D., Ebert, D. D., Shafran, R., Andersson, G., & Carlbring, P. (2018). Targeting Procrastination Using Psychological Treatments: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Frontiers in Psychology, 9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01588 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination Theory and the Facilitation of Intrinsic Motivation, Social Development, and Well-being. ''American Psychologist'', ''55''(1), 68–78. https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/SDT/documents/2000_RyanDeci_SDT.pdf Sirois, F. M., Molnar, D. S., & Hirsch, J. K. (2017). A Meta-analytic and Conceptual Update on the Associations Between Procrastination and Multidimensional Perfectionism. ''European Journal of Personality'', ''31''(2), 137–159. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2098         Steel, P. (2007). The nature of procrastination: A meta-analytic and theoretical review of quintessential self-regulatory failure. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''133''(1), 65–94. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.65 Stoeber, J., Damian, L. E., & Madigan, D. J. (2018). Perfectionism: A motivational perspective. In J. Stoeber (Ed.), The psychology of perfectionism: Theory, research, applications (pp. 19–43). Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group.https://www.researchgate.net/publication/311970309_Perfectionism_A_motivational_perspective Xie, Y., Yang, J., & Chen, F. (2018). Procrastination and multidimensional perfectionism: A meta-analysis of main, mediating, and moderating effects. Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 46(3), 395–408. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.6680 Yosopov, L., Saklofske, D. H., Smith, M. M., Flett, G. L., & Hewitt, P. L. (2024). Failure Sensitivity in Perfectionism and Procrastination: Fear of Failure and Overgeneralization of Failure as Mediators of Traits and Cognitions. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 42(6). https://doi.org/10.1177/07342829241249784 }} This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== {{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}} [https://www.oneyoufeed.net/procrastinator/ Being a Procrastinator with Tim Pychyl] [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lFG1b1-EsW8 Our dangerous obsession with perfectionism is getting worse | Thomas Curran] [https://www.apa.org/gradpsych/2010/01/procrastination Procrastination or 'intentional delay'?] {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Perfectionism]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Procrastination]] bijia9qo3g8tyz2q81htwuvjsbokjoj 2836378 2836362 2026-10-07T01:31:01Z U3222012 2968463 Added citation 2836378 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Perfectionism and procrastination:<br>What is the role of perfectionism in procrastination and what can be done about it?}} <div align=center>Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}} [[File:The procrastinating student - panoramio.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Waiting for the perfect moment]] '''Scenario''' Brian has been trying for several days to start preparing an important presentation for an upcoming meeting. He is convinced that he must deliver a flawless presentation - think everything through and execute everything perfectly. He’s long had a clear picture in his mind of what the presentation should be like, but some kind of inner resistance keeps making him put off getting started. He glances through the materials, then switches to other tasks, as if waiting for the moment when he’ll finally feel completely ready. But that moment never comes. {{RoundBoxBottom}} In a world where success and high achievement are highly valued, it is paradoxical that individuals who attach great importance to these goals may nonetheless refrain from action or engage in task avoidance (Flett,Hewitt & Martin, 1995). This paradox highlights the relationship between two psychological constructs: [[wikipedia:Perfectionism_(psychology)|perfectionism]] and [[wikipedia:Procrastination|procrastination]] (Sirois et al., 2017). Although they do not necessarily co-occur, empirical research indicates that some links exist between them (Sirois et al., 2017). Understanding which possible mechanisms underlie the relationship between perfectionism and procrastination may help identify ways to overcome procrastination and achieve intended goals {{citation needed}}. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' [[File:Crystal Clear app ktip.svg|left|20px|]] * What is the nature{{vague}} of perfectionism and procrastination? * What is the relationship between perfectionism and procrastination? * What dimensions of perfectionism predict (contribute to) procrastination? * How can we reduce procrastination and the negative effects of perfectionism? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Perfectionism and Procrastination == '''Perfectionism and procrastination''' are complex psychological constructs that may be closely related but differ in their nature and manifestations. Perfectionism primarily refers to personality traits and attitudes, whereas procrastination manifests itself primarily as a pattern of behaviour (Akpur & Yurtseven, 2019, Husain et al., 2025) '''Perfectionism''': definition and key characteristics (Stoeber et al., 2018) '''Perfectionism''' is the pursuit of perfection or flawlessness, the setting of high standards, and a critical attitude toward one's own mistakes (imperfections) (Sirois, 2017). According to a multidimensional model main dimensions: perfectionistic strivings (setting high standards, striving for excellence; It is often considered an adaptive trait, as it can help achieve goals ) and perfectionictics concerns (fear of making a mistake, fear of criticism, excessive self-criticism, inability to take joy in success;is classified as maladaptive because it leads to negative consequences and is associated with failure of self-regulation (Gäde et al., 2017, Sirois, 2017) {{grammar}}. '''Procrastination''': definition and key characteristics (Sirois, 2017, Steel, 2007) '''Procrastination''' is a ''behaviour'' in which a person voluntarily postpones important planned tasks, knowing that the negative consequences of such an action are inevitable; '''criteria''': * '''Consciousness and''' '''voluntariness''': the delay is not due to objective external circumstances but is a conscious choice made by the individual. * '''Irrationality''': a person, clearly aware of the negative consequences, still continues to avoid performing the activity. * '''Failure of self‑regulation''': Failure to the delay in activity is related to the individual’s inability to sufficiently control their behavior and emotions at the present moment (Sirois, 2017). '''Domains of procrastination''': academic, work, everyday life, health, interpersonal (Kurtovic at al., 2019)<gallery> </gallery> '''Table 1.''' Types of procrastination and their characteristics{{fact}} {| class="wikitable" |+ !'''Type''' !'''Description''' |- |Academic procrastination |Delaying academic assignments, exam preparation, and writing academic papers. |- |Workplace procrastination |Postponing important work tasks, meetings, reports, and phone calls. |- |Health procrastination |Postponing medical appointments, health check-ups, treatment, or health-promoting behaviours |- |Decision procrastination |Postponing or avoiding important decisions. |} {{Robelbox|left|alt=|theme=6|title=Learning Checkpoint |icon=Emblem-question-yellow.svg|iconwidth=48px}}<div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> <quiz display=simple> {Imagine this situation: you have a deadline for a report, but your boss has asked you to take on some of the work of a colleague who is sick. Do you think it’s considered procrastination if you put off your report to deal your boss’s request? } -Yes +No </quiz> </div> {{Robelbox/close}} == How perfectionism relates to procrastination == '''Perfectionistic concerns''': their contribution to procrastination - is an attempt to avoid the negative feelings associated with a potentially less than ideal outcomes; an individual’s choice to delay in order to avoid confronting negative thoughts and feelings {{fact}} '''Underlying mechanisms:''' high standards and the inability to meet them lead to a breakdown in self-regulation, which in turn leads to avoidance behavior (Sirois, 2017)'''.''' '''Mediating factors''' ( fear of failure as a mediator (Yosopov et al., 2024), perceived discrepancy between standards and performance (Kurtovic at al., 2019), concern over mistakes, self-critical evaluation) == A motivational perspective on perfectionism and procrastination == Relevant motiventional theories (Stoeber et al., 2018) '''Self-Determination Theory''' According to Self-Determination Theory, motivation depends on the fulfillment of basic needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness {{fact}}. A person successfully achieves only those goals that they consider valuable and important {{fact}}. If a task is imposed from the outside and these needs are not met, a natural internal resistance arises {{fact}}. Within this framework, these basic needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness can be met in various ways, which can be divided into internal and external {{fact}}. Internal approaches are linked to internal values and aspirations, while external approaches depend on external factors such as pressure, rewards, and punishments {{fact}}. In the case of perfectionism, when needs are formed more autonomously, adaptive perfectionism may develop, whereas with the external approach, maladaptive perfectionism may develop (Stoeber et al., 2018). '''Motivational mechanism''': Lack of autonomy and competence creates internal resistance, triggering a desire to delay non-autonomous tasks which ultimately leads to procrastination (Grund & Fries, 2018). == Approaches to adressing perfectionism-related procrastination == '''Evidence for effectivness''' Psychological interventions (2018 meta-analysis on the effectiveness of psychological interventions for combating procrastination. Psychotherapeutic methods generally have a small but statistically significant effect (g = 0.34).The most effective method is cognitive-behavioral therapy (CDT) (Rosental et al., 2018). Self-help strategies (Self-monitoring/Time tracking; Goal-setting;Self-control training;Time management) produce inconsistent results; they address external symptoms but ignore the underlying psychological causes (perfectionism, emotional dysregulation ...) (Rosental et al., 2018 ==Conclusion== * Perfectionism and procrastination may be interrelated (Akpur & Yurtseven, 2019, Husain et al., 2025) . * Not all perfectionism leads to procrastination; procrastination is associated with perfectionist concerns {{fact}}. * Perfectionist concerns may contribute to procrastination by leading individuals to avoid negative thoughts and feelings, as well as the fear of failing to meet high standards {{fact}}. * From a motivational perspective, extrinsic motivation may be linked to maladaptive perfectionism, which in certain cases leads to procrastination {{fact}}. * According to self-determination theory, a lack of autonomy can reduce motivation and lead to procrastination (Stoeber et al., 2018) . * One of the most effective psychotherapeutic method for overcoming procrastination is cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT)(Rosental et al., 2018) . ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Perfectionism|Perfectionism]] (Book chapter,2022) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Procrastination, moods, and emotion|Procrastination, moods, and emotion]] (Book chapter,2015) ==References == {{Hanging indent|1= Akpur, U., & Yurtseven, N. (2019). Structural Relationships between Academic Motivation, Procrastination and Perfectionism: A Modelling Study. ''Cumhuriyet International Journal of Education''. https://doi.org/10.30703/cije.452633 Ferrari, J. R. (1992). Procrastinators and perfect behavior: An exploratory factor analysis of self-presentation, self-awareness, and self-handicapping components. ''Journal of Research in Personality'', ''26''(1), 75–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/0092-6566(92)90060-h Frost, R. O., Marten, P., Lahart, C., & Rosenblate, R. (1990). The dimensions of perfectionism. ''Cognitive Therapy and Research'', 14(5), 449–468. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01172967 Gäde, J. C., Schermelleh-Engel, K., & Klein, A. G. (2017). Disentangling the Common Variance of Perfectionistic Strivings and Perfectionistic Concerns: A Bifactor Model of Perfectionism. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''8''(160). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00160 Grund, A., & Fries, S. (2018). Understanding procrastination: A motivational approach. ''Personality and Individual Differences'', ''121'', 120–130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2017.09.035 Husain, W., Trabelsi, K., Ammar, A., Saif, Z., & Jahrami, H. (2025). The development and validation of a one-off scale to measure procrastination and precrastination traits in young adults. BMC Psychology, 13(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-025-03072-6 Kurtovic, A., Vrdoljak, G., & Idzanovic, A. (2019). Predicting procrastination: The role of academic achievement, self-efficacy and perfectionism. International Journal of Educational Psychology, 8(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.17583/ijep.2019.2993 Rozental, A., Bennett, S., Forsström, D., Ebert, D. D., Shafran, R., Andersson, G., & Carlbring, P. (2018). Targeting Procrastination Using Psychological Treatments: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Frontiers in Psychology, 9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01588 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination Theory and the Facilitation of Intrinsic Motivation, Social Development, and Well-being. ''American Psychologist'', ''55''(1), 68–78. https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/SDT/documents/2000_RyanDeci_SDT.pdf Sirois, F. M., Molnar, D. S., & Hirsch, J. K. (2017). A Meta-analytic and Conceptual Update on the Associations Between Procrastination and Multidimensional Perfectionism. ''European Journal of Personality'', ''31''(2), 137–159. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2098         Steel, P. (2007). The nature of procrastination: A meta-analytic and theoretical review of quintessential self-regulatory failure. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''133''(1), 65–94. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.65 Stoeber, J., Damian, L. E., & Madigan, D. J. (2018). Perfectionism: A motivational perspective. In J. Stoeber (Ed.), The psychology of perfectionism: Theory, research, applications (pp. 19–43). Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group.https://www.researchgate.net/publication/311970309_Perfectionism_A_motivational_perspective Xie, Y., Yang, J., & Chen, F. (2018). Procrastination and multidimensional perfectionism: A meta-analysis of main, mediating, and moderating effects. Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 46(3), 395–408. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.6680 Yosopov, L., Saklofske, D. H., Smith, M. M., Flett, G. L., & Hewitt, P. L. (2024). Failure Sensitivity in Perfectionism and Procrastination: Fear of Failure and Overgeneralization of Failure as Mediators of Traits and Cognitions. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 42(6). https://doi.org/10.1177/07342829241249784 }} This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== {{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}} [https://www.oneyoufeed.net/procrastinator/ Being a Procrastinator with Tim Pychyl] [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lFG1b1-EsW8 Our dangerous obsession with perfectionism is getting worse | Thomas Curran] [https://www.apa.org/gradpsych/2010/01/procrastination Procrastination or 'intentional delay'?] {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Perfectionism]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Procrastination]] b3ht7z3zedyjmi1kt7kayj6w6lvk3mi 2836383 2836378 2026-10-07T01:57:16Z U3222012 2968463 updated and added citation 2836383 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Perfectionism and procrastination:<br>What is the role of perfectionism in procrastination and what can be done about it?}} <div align=center>Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}} [[File:The procrastinating student - panoramio.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Waiting for the perfect moment]] '''Scenario''' Brian has been trying for several days to start preparing an important presentation for an upcoming meeting. He is convinced that he must deliver a flawless presentation - think everything through and execute everything perfectly. He’s long had a clear picture in his mind of what the presentation should be like, but some kind of inner resistance keeps making him put off getting started. He glances through the materials, then switches to other tasks, as if waiting for the moment when he’ll finally feel completely ready. But that moment never comes. {{RoundBoxBottom}} In a world where success and high achievement are highly valued, it is paradoxical that individuals who attach great importance to these goals may nonetheless refrain from action or engage in task avoidance (Flett et al., 1995). This paradox highlights the relationship between two psychological constructs: [[wikipedia:Perfectionism_(psychology)|perfectionism]] and [[wikipedia:Procrastination|procrastination]] (Sirois et al., 2017). Although they do not necessarily co-occur, empirical research indicates that some links exist between them (Sirois et al., 2017). Understanding which possible mechanisms underlie the relationship between perfectionism and procrastination may help identify ways to overcome procrastination and achieve intended goals (Wang et al., 2024). Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' [[File:Crystal Clear app ktip.svg|left|20px|]] * What is the nature{{vague}} of perfectionism and procrastination? * What is the relationship between perfectionism and procrastination? * What dimensions of perfectionism predict (contribute to) procrastination? * How can we reduce procrastination and the negative effects of perfectionism? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Perfectionism and Procrastination == '''Perfectionism and procrastination''' are complex psychological constructs that may be closely related but differ in their nature and manifestations. Perfectionism primarily refers to personality traits and attitudes, whereas procrastination manifests itself primarily as a pattern of behaviour (Akpur & Yurtseven, 2019, Husain et al., 2025) '''Perfectionism''': definition and key characteristics (Stoeber et al., 2018) '''Perfectionism''' is the pursuit of perfection or flawlessness, the setting of high standards, and a critical attitude toward one's own mistakes (imperfections) (Sirois, 2017). According to a multidimensional model main dimensions: perfectionistic strivings (setting high standards, striving for excellence; It is often considered an adaptive trait, as it can help achieve goals ) and perfectionictics concerns (fear of making a mistake, fear of criticism, excessive self-criticism, inability to take joy in success;is classified as maladaptive because it leads to negative consequences and is associated with failure of self-regulation (Gäde et al., 2017, Sirois, 2017) {{grammar}}. '''Procrastination''': definition and key characteristics (Sirois, 2017, Steel, 2007) '''Procrastination''' is a ''behaviour'' in which a person voluntarily postpones important planned tasks, knowing that the negative consequences of such an action are inevitable; '''criteria''': * '''Consciousness and''' '''voluntariness''': the delay is not due to objective external circumstances but is a conscious choice made by the individual. * '''Irrationality''': a person, clearly aware of the negative consequences, still continues to avoid performing the activity. * '''Failure of self‑regulation''': Failure to the delay in activity is related to the individual’s inability to sufficiently control their behavior and emotions at the present moment (Sirois, 2017). '''Domains of procrastination''': academic, work, everyday life, health, interpersonal (Kurtovic at al., 2019)<gallery> </gallery> '''Table 1.''' Types of procrastination and their characteristics{{fact}} {| class="wikitable" |+ !'''Type''' !'''Description''' |- |Academic procrastination |Delaying academic assignments, exam preparation, and writing academic papers. |- |Workplace procrastination |Postponing important work tasks, meetings, reports, and phone calls. |- |Health procrastination |Postponing medical appointments, health check-ups, treatment, or health-promoting behaviours |- |Decision procrastination |Postponing or avoiding important decisions. |} {{Robelbox|left|alt=|theme=6|title=Learning Checkpoint |icon=Emblem-question-yellow.svg|iconwidth=48px}}<div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> <quiz display=simple> {Imagine this situation: you have a deadline for a report, but your boss has asked you to take on some of the work of a colleague who is sick. Do you think it’s considered procrastination if you put off your report to deal your boss’s request? } -Yes +No </quiz> </div> {{Robelbox/close}} == How perfectionism relates to procrastination == '''Perfectionistic concerns''': their contribution to procrastination - is an attempt to avoid the negative feelings associated with a potentially less than ideal outcomes; an individual’s choice to delay in order to avoid confronting negative thoughts and feelings {{fact}} '''Underlying mechanisms:''' high standards and the inability to meet them lead to a breakdown in self-regulation, which in turn leads to avoidance behavior (Sirois, 2017)'''.''' '''Mediating factors''' ( fear of failure as a mediator (Yosopov et al., 2024), perceived discrepancy between standards and performance (Kurtovic at al., 2019), concern over mistakes, self-critical evaluation) == A motivational perspective on perfectionism and procrastination == Relevant motiventional theories (Stoeber et al., 2018) '''Self-Determination Theory''' According to Self-Determination Theory, motivation depends on the fulfillment of basic needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness {{fact}}. A person successfully achieves only those goals that they consider valuable and important {{fact}}. If a task is imposed from the outside and these needs are not met, a natural internal resistance arises {{fact}}. Within this framework, these basic needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness can be met in various ways, which can be divided into internal and external {{fact}}. Internal approaches are linked to internal values and aspirations, while external approaches depend on external factors such as pressure, rewards, and punishments {{fact}}. In the case of perfectionism, when needs are formed more autonomously, adaptive perfectionism may develop, whereas with the external approach, maladaptive perfectionism may develop (Stoeber et al., 2018). '''Motivational mechanism''': Lack of autonomy and competence creates internal resistance, triggering a desire to delay non-autonomous tasks which ultimately leads to procrastination (Grund & Fries, 2018). == Approaches to adressing perfectionism-related procrastination == '''Evidence for effectivness''' Psychological interventions (2018 meta-analysis on the effectiveness of psychological interventions for combating procrastination. Psychotherapeutic methods generally have a small but statistically significant effect (g = 0.34).The most effective method is cognitive-behavioral therapy (CDT) (Rosental et al., 2018). Self-help strategies (Self-monitoring/Time tracking; Goal-setting;Self-control training;Time management) produce inconsistent results; they address external symptoms but ignore the underlying psychological causes (perfectionism, emotional dysregulation ...) (Rosental et al., 2018 ==Conclusion== * Perfectionism and procrastination may be interrelated (Akpur & Yurtseven, 2019, Husain et al., 2025) . * Not all perfectionism leads to procrastination; procrastination is associated with perfectionist concerns {{fact}}. * Perfectionist concerns may contribute to procrastination by leading individuals to avoid negative thoughts and feelings, as well as the fear of failing to meet high standards {{fact}}. * From a motivational perspective, extrinsic motivation may be linked to maladaptive perfectionism, which in certain cases leads to procrastination {{fact}}. * According to self-determination theory, a lack of autonomy can reduce motivation and lead to procrastination (Stoeber et al., 2018) . * One of the most effective psychotherapeutic method for overcoming procrastination is cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT)(Rosental et al., 2018) . ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Perfectionism|Perfectionism]] (Book chapter,2022) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Procrastination, moods, and emotion|Procrastination, moods, and emotion]] (Book chapter,2015) ==References == {{Hanging indent|1= Akpur, U., & Yurtseven, N. (2019). Structural Relationships between Academic Motivation, Procrastination and Perfectionism: A Modelling Study. ''Cumhuriyet International Journal of Education''. https://doi.org/10.30703/cije.452633 Ferrari, J. R. (1992). Procrastinators and perfect behavior: An exploratory factor analysis of self-presentation, self-awareness, and self-handicapping components. ''Journal of Research in Personality'', ''26''(1), 75–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/0092-6566(92)90060-h Frost, R. O., Marten, P., Lahart, C., & Rosenblate, R. (1990). The dimensions of perfectionism. ''Cognitive Therapy and Research'', 14(5), 449–468. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01172967 Gäde, J. C., Schermelleh-Engel, K., & Klein, A. G. (2017). Disentangling the Common Variance of Perfectionistic Strivings and Perfectionistic Concerns: A Bifactor Model of Perfectionism. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''8''(160). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00160 Grund, A., & Fries, S. (2018). Understanding procrastination: A motivational approach. ''Personality and Individual Differences'', ''121'', 120–130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2017.09.035 Husain, W., Trabelsi, K., Ammar, A., Saif, Z., & Jahrami, H. (2025). The development and validation of a one-off scale to measure procrastination and precrastination traits in young adults. BMC Psychology, 13(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-025-03072-6 Kurtovic, A., Vrdoljak, G., & Idzanovic, A. (2019). Predicting procrastination: The role of academic achievement, self-efficacy and perfectionism. International Journal of Educational Psychology, 8(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.17583/ijep.2019.2993 Rozental, A., Bennett, S., Forsström, D., Ebert, D. D., Shafran, R., Andersson, G., & Carlbring, P. (2018). Targeting Procrastination Using Psychological Treatments: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Frontiers in Psychology, 9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01588 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination Theory and the Facilitation of Intrinsic Motivation, Social Development, and Well-being. ''American Psychologist'', ''55''(1), 68–78. https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/SDT/documents/2000_RyanDeci_SDT.pdf Sirois, F. M., Molnar, D. S., & Hirsch, J. K. (2017). A Meta-analytic and Conceptual Update on the Associations Between Procrastination and Multidimensional Perfectionism. ''European Journal of Personality'', ''31''(2), 137–159. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2098         Steel, P. (2007). The nature of procrastination: A meta-analytic and theoretical review of quintessential self-regulatory failure. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''133''(1), 65–94. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.65 Stoeber, J., Damian, L. E., & Madigan, D. J. (2018). Perfectionism: A motivational perspective. In J. Stoeber (Ed.), The psychology of perfectionism: Theory, research, applications (pp. 19–43). Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group.https://www.researchgate.net/publication/311970309_Perfectionism_A_motivational_perspective Xie, Y., Yang, J., & Chen, F. (2018). Procrastination and multidimensional perfectionism: A meta-analysis of main, mediating, and moderating effects. Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 46(3), 395–408. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.6680 Yosopov, L., Saklofske, D. H., Smith, M. M., Flett, G. L., & Hewitt, P. L. (2024). Failure Sensitivity in Perfectionism and Procrastination: Fear of Failure and Overgeneralization of Failure as Mediators of Traits and Cognitions. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 42(6). https://doi.org/10.1177/07342829241249784 }} This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== {{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}} [https://www.oneyoufeed.net/procrastinator/ Being a Procrastinator with Tim Pychyl] [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lFG1b1-EsW8 Our dangerous obsession with perfectionism is getting worse | Thomas Curran] [https://www.apa.org/gradpsych/2010/01/procrastination Procrastination or 'intentional delay'?] {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Perfectionism]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Procrastination]] mog2d4hz6nwyei1yca8vz5gdfbvjtpj 2836384 2836383 2026-10-07T02:04:01Z U3222012 2968463 2836384 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Perfectionism and procrastination:<br>What is the role of perfectionism in procrastination and what can be done about it?}} <div align=center>Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}} [[File:The procrastinating student - panoramio.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Waiting for the perfect moment]] '''Scenario''' Brian has been trying for several days to start preparing an important presentation for an upcoming meeting. He is convinced that he must deliver a flawless presentation - think everything through and execute everything perfectly. He’s long had a clear picture in his mind of what the presentation should be like, but some kind of inner resistance keeps making him put off getting started. He glances through the materials, then switches to other tasks, as if waiting for the moment when he’ll finally feel completely ready. But that moment never comes. {{RoundBoxBottom}} In a world where success and high achievement are highly valued, it is paradoxical that individuals who attach great importance to these goals may nonetheless refrain from action or engage in task avoidance (Flett et al., 1995). This paradox highlights the relationship between two psychological constructs: [[wikipedia:Perfectionism_(psychology)|perfectionism]] and [[wikipedia:Procrastination|procrastination]] (Sirois et al., 2017). Although they do not necessarily co-occur, empirical research indicates that some links exist between them (Sirois et al., 2017). Understanding which possible mechanisms underlie the relationship between perfectionism and procrastination may help identify ways to overcome procrastination and achieve intended goals (Wang et al., 2024). Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' [[File:Crystal Clear app ktip.svg|left|20px|]] * What are the main characteristics{{vague}} of perfectionism and procrastination? * What is the relationship between perfectionism and procrastination? * What dimensions of perfectionism predict (contribute to) procrastination? * How can we reduce procrastination and the negative effects of perfectionism? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Perfectionism and Procrastination == '''Perfectionism and procrastination''' are complex psychological constructs that may be closely related but differ in their nature and manifestations. Perfectionism primarily refers to personality traits and attitudes, whereas procrastination manifests itself primarily as a pattern of behaviour (Akpur & Yurtseven, 2019, Husain et al., 2025) '''Perfectionism''': definition and key characteristics (Stoeber et al., 2018) '''Perfectionism''' is the pursuit of perfection or flawlessness, the setting of high standards, and a critical attitude toward one's own mistakes (imperfections) (Sirois, 2017). According to a multidimensional model main dimensions: perfectionistic strivings (setting high standards, striving for excellence; It is often considered an adaptive trait, as it can help achieve goals ) and perfectionictics concerns (fear of making a mistake, fear of criticism, excessive self-criticism, inability to take joy in success;is classified as maladaptive because it leads to negative consequences and is associated with failure of self-regulation (Gäde et al., 2017, Sirois, 2017) {{grammar}}. '''Procrastination''': definition and key characteristics (Sirois, 2017, Steel, 2007) '''Procrastination''' is a ''behaviour'' in which a person voluntarily postpones important planned tasks, knowing that the negative consequences of such an action are inevitable; '''criteria''': * '''Consciousness and''' '''voluntariness''': the delay is not due to objective external circumstances but is a conscious choice made by the individual. * '''Irrationality''': a person, clearly aware of the negative consequences, still continues to avoid performing the activity. * '''Failure of self‑regulation''': Failure to the delay in activity is related to the individual’s inability to sufficiently control their behavior and emotions at the present moment (Sirois, 2017). '''Domains of procrastination''': academic, work, everyday life, health, interpersonal (Kurtovic at al., 2019)<gallery> </gallery> '''Table 1.''' Types of procrastination and their characteristics{{fact}} {| class="wikitable" |+ !'''Type''' !'''Description''' |- |Academic procrastination |Delaying academic assignments, exam preparation, and writing academic papers. |- |Workplace procrastination |Postponing important work tasks, meetings, reports, and phone calls. |- |Health procrastination |Postponing medical appointments, health check-ups, treatment, or health-promoting behaviours |- |Decision procrastination |Postponing or avoiding important decisions. |} {{Robelbox|left|alt=|theme=6|title=Learning Checkpoint |icon=Emblem-question-yellow.svg|iconwidth=48px}}<div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> <quiz display=simple> {Imagine this situation: you have a deadline for a report, but your boss has asked you to take on some of the work of a colleague who is sick. Do you think it’s considered procrastination if you put off your report to deal your boss’s request? } -Yes +No </quiz> </div> {{Robelbox/close}} == How perfectionism relates to procrastination == '''Perfectionistic concerns''': their contribution to procrastination - is an attempt to avoid the negative feelings associated with a potentially less than ideal outcomes; an individual’s choice to delay in order to avoid confronting negative thoughts and feelings {{fact}} '''Underlying mechanisms:''' high standards and the inability to meet them lead to a breakdown in self-regulation, which in turn leads to avoidance behavior (Sirois, 2017)'''.''' '''Mediating factors''' ( fear of failure as a mediator (Yosopov et al., 2024), perceived discrepancy between standards and performance (Kurtovic at al., 2019), concern over mistakes, self-critical evaluation) == A motivational perspective on perfectionism and procrastination == Relevant motiventional theories (Stoeber et al., 2018) '''Self-Determination Theory''' According to Self-Determination Theory, motivation depends on the fulfillment of basic needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness {{fact}}. A person successfully achieves only those goals that they consider valuable and important {{fact}}. If a task is imposed from the outside and these needs are not met, a natural internal resistance arises {{fact}}. Within this framework, these basic needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness can be met in various ways, which can be divided into internal and external {{fact}}. Internal approaches are linked to internal values and aspirations, while external approaches depend on external factors such as pressure, rewards, and punishments {{fact}}. In the case of perfectionism, when needs are formed more autonomously, adaptive perfectionism may develop, whereas with the external approach, maladaptive perfectionism may develop (Stoeber et al., 2018). '''Motivational mechanism''': Lack of autonomy and competence creates internal resistance, triggering a desire to delay non-autonomous tasks which ultimately leads to procrastination (Grund & Fries, 2018). == Approaches to adressing perfectionism-related procrastination == '''Evidence for effectivness''' Psychological interventions (2018 meta-analysis on the effectiveness of psychological interventions for combating procrastination. Psychotherapeutic methods generally have a small but statistically significant effect (g = 0.34).The most effective method is cognitive-behavioral therapy (CDT) (Rosental et al., 2018). Self-help strategies (Self-monitoring/Time tracking; Goal-setting;Self-control training;Time management) produce inconsistent results; they address external symptoms but ignore the underlying psychological causes (perfectionism, emotional dysregulation ...) (Rosental et al., 2018 ==Conclusion== * Perfectionism and procrastination may be interrelated (Akpur & Yurtseven, 2019, Husain et al., 2025) . * Not all perfectionism leads to procrastination; procrastination is associated with perfectionist concerns {{fact}}. * Perfectionist concerns may contribute to procrastination by leading individuals to avoid negative thoughts and feelings, as well as the fear of failing to meet high standards {{fact}}. * From a motivational perspective, extrinsic motivation may be linked to maladaptive perfectionism, which in certain cases leads to procrastination {{fact}}. * According to self-determination theory, a lack of autonomy can reduce motivation and lead to procrastination (Stoeber et al., 2018) . * One of the most effective psychotherapeutic method for overcoming procrastination is cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT)(Rosental et al., 2018) . ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Perfectionism|Perfectionism]] (Book chapter,2022) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Procrastination, moods, and emotion|Procrastination, moods, and emotion]] (Book chapter,2015) ==References == {{Hanging indent|1= Akpur, U., & Yurtseven, N. (2019). Structural Relationships between Academic Motivation, Procrastination and Perfectionism: A Modelling Study. ''Cumhuriyet International Journal of Education''. https://doi.org/10.30703/cije.452633 Ferrari, J. R. (1992). Procrastinators and perfect behavior: An exploratory factor analysis of self-presentation, self-awareness, and self-handicapping components. ''Journal of Research in Personality'', ''26''(1), 75–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/0092-6566(92)90060-h Frost, R. O., Marten, P., Lahart, C., & Rosenblate, R. (1990). The dimensions of perfectionism. ''Cognitive Therapy and Research'', 14(5), 449–468. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01172967 Gäde, J. C., Schermelleh-Engel, K., & Klein, A. G. (2017). Disentangling the Common Variance of Perfectionistic Strivings and Perfectionistic Concerns: A Bifactor Model of Perfectionism. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''8''(160). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00160 Grund, A., & Fries, S. (2018). Understanding procrastination: A motivational approach. ''Personality and Individual Differences'', ''121'', 120–130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2017.09.035 Husain, W., Trabelsi, K., Ammar, A., Saif, Z., & Jahrami, H. (2025). The development and validation of a one-off scale to measure procrastination and precrastination traits in young adults. BMC Psychology, 13(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-025-03072-6 Kurtovic, A., Vrdoljak, G., & Idzanovic, A. (2019). Predicting procrastination: The role of academic achievement, self-efficacy and perfectionism. International Journal of Educational Psychology, 8(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.17583/ijep.2019.2993 Rozental, A., Bennett, S., Forsström, D., Ebert, D. D., Shafran, R., Andersson, G., & Carlbring, P. (2018). Targeting Procrastination Using Psychological Treatments: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Frontiers in Psychology, 9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01588 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination Theory and the Facilitation of Intrinsic Motivation, Social Development, and Well-being. ''American Psychologist'', ''55''(1), 68–78. https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/SDT/documents/2000_RyanDeci_SDT.pdf Sirois, F. M., Molnar, D. S., & Hirsch, J. K. (2017). A Meta-analytic and Conceptual Update on the Associations Between Procrastination and Multidimensional Perfectionism. ''European Journal of Personality'', ''31''(2), 137–159. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2098         Steel, P. (2007). The nature of procrastination: A meta-analytic and theoretical review of quintessential self-regulatory failure. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''133''(1), 65–94. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.65 Stoeber, J., Damian, L. E., & Madigan, D. J. (2018). Perfectionism: A motivational perspective. In J. Stoeber (Ed.), The psychology of perfectionism: Theory, research, applications (pp. 19–43). Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group.https://www.researchgate.net/publication/311970309_Perfectionism_A_motivational_perspective Xie, Y., Yang, J., & Chen, F. (2018). Procrastination and multidimensional perfectionism: A meta-analysis of main, mediating, and moderating effects. Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 46(3), 395–408. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.6680 Yosopov, L., Saklofske, D. H., Smith, M. M., Flett, G. L., & Hewitt, P. L. (2024). Failure Sensitivity in Perfectionism and Procrastination: Fear of Failure and Overgeneralization of Failure as Mediators of Traits and Cognitions. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 42(6). https://doi.org/10.1177/07342829241249784 }} This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== {{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}} [https://www.oneyoufeed.net/procrastinator/ Being a Procrastinator with Tim Pychyl] [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lFG1b1-EsW8 Our dangerous obsession with perfectionism is getting worse | Thomas Curran] [https://www.apa.org/gradpsych/2010/01/procrastination Procrastination or 'intentional delay'?] {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Perfectionism]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Procrastination]] 7fri2uac6h6j54m1adokjbuf1v323ah 2836385 2836384 2026-10-07T02:05:29Z U3222012 2968463 2836385 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Perfectionism and procrastination:<br>What is the role of perfectionism in procrastination and what can be done about it?}} <div align=center>Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}} [[File:The procrastinating student - panoramio.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Waiting for the perfect moment]] '''Scenario''' Brian has been trying for several days to start preparing an important presentation for an upcoming meeting. He is convinced that he must deliver a flawless presentation - think everything through and execute everything perfectly. He’s long had a clear picture in his mind of what the presentation should be like, but some kind of inner resistance keeps making him put off getting started. He glances through the materials, then switches to other tasks, as if waiting for the moment when he’ll finally feel completely ready. But that moment never comes. {{RoundBoxBottom}} In a world where success and high achievement are highly valued, it is paradoxical that individuals who attach great importance to these goals may nonetheless refrain from action or engage in task avoidance (Flett et al., 1995). This paradox highlights the relationship between two psychological constructs: [[wikipedia:Perfectionism_(psychology)|perfectionism]] and [[wikipedia:Procrastination|procrastination]] (Sirois et al., 2017). Although they do not necessarily co-occur, empirical research indicates that some links exist between them (Sirois et al., 2017). Understanding which possible mechanisms underlie the relationship between perfectionism and procrastination may help identify ways to overcome procrastination and achieve intended goals (Wang et al., 2024). Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' [[File:Crystal Clear app ktip.svg|left|20px|]] * What are the main characteristics of perfectionism and procrastination? * What is the relationship between perfectionism and procrastination? * What dimensions of perfectionism predict (contribute to) procrastination? * How can we reduce procrastination and the negative effects of perfectionism? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Perfectionism and Procrastination == '''Perfectionism and procrastination''' are complex psychological constructs that may be closely related but differ in their nature and manifestations. Perfectionism primarily refers to personality traits and attitudes, whereas procrastination manifests itself primarily as a pattern of behaviour (Akpur & Yurtseven, 2019, Husain et al., 2025) '''Perfectionism''': definition and key characteristics (Stoeber et al., 2018) '''Perfectionism''' is the pursuit of perfection or flawlessness, the setting of high standards, and a critical attitude toward one's own mistakes (imperfections) (Sirois, 2017). According to a multidimensional model main dimensions: perfectionistic strivings (setting high standards, striving for excellence; It is often considered an adaptive trait, as it can help achieve goals ) and perfectionictics concerns (fear of making a mistake, fear of criticism, excessive self-criticism, inability to take joy in success;is classified as maladaptive because it leads to negative consequences and is associated with failure of self-regulation (Gäde et al., 2017, Sirois, 2017) {{grammar}}. '''Procrastination''': definition and key characteristics (Sirois, 2017, Steel, 2007) '''Procrastination''' is a ''behaviour'' in which a person voluntarily postpones important planned tasks, knowing that the negative consequences of such an action are inevitable; '''criteria''': * '''Consciousness and''' '''voluntariness''': the delay is not due to objective external circumstances but is a conscious choice made by the individual. * '''Irrationality''': a person, clearly aware of the negative consequences, still continues to avoid performing the activity. * '''Failure of self‑regulation''': Failure to the delay in activity is related to the individual’s inability to sufficiently control their behavior and emotions at the present moment (Sirois, 2017). '''Domains of procrastination''': academic, work, everyday life, health, interpersonal (Kurtovic at al., 2019)<gallery> </gallery> '''Table 1.''' Types of procrastination and their characteristics{{fact}} {| class="wikitable" |+ !'''Type''' !'''Description''' |- |Academic procrastination |Delaying academic assignments, exam preparation, and writing academic papers. |- |Workplace procrastination |Postponing important work tasks, meetings, reports, and phone calls. |- |Health procrastination |Postponing medical appointments, health check-ups, treatment, or health-promoting behaviours |- |Decision procrastination |Postponing or avoiding important decisions. |} {{Robelbox|left|alt=|theme=6|title=Learning Checkpoint |icon=Emblem-question-yellow.svg|iconwidth=48px}}<div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> <quiz display=simple> {Imagine this situation: you have a deadline for a report, but your boss has asked you to take on some of the work of a colleague who is sick. Do you think it’s considered procrastination if you put off your report to deal your boss’s request? } -Yes +No </quiz> </div> {{Robelbox/close}} == How perfectionism relates to procrastination == '''Perfectionistic concerns''': their contribution to procrastination - is an attempt to avoid the negative feelings associated with a potentially less than ideal outcomes; an individual’s choice to delay in order to avoid confronting negative thoughts and feelings {{fact}} '''Underlying mechanisms:''' high standards and the inability to meet them lead to a breakdown in self-regulation, which in turn leads to avoidance behavior (Sirois, 2017)'''.''' '''Mediating factors''' ( fear of failure as a mediator (Yosopov et al., 2024), perceived discrepancy between standards and performance (Kurtovic at al., 2019), concern over mistakes, self-critical evaluation) == A motivational perspective on perfectionism and procrastination == Relevant motiventional theories (Stoeber et al., 2018) '''Self-Determination Theory''' According to Self-Determination Theory, motivation depends on the fulfillment of basic needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness {{fact}}. A person successfully achieves only those goals that they consider valuable and important {{fact}}. If a task is imposed from the outside and these needs are not met, a natural internal resistance arises {{fact}}. Within this framework, these basic needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness can be met in various ways, which can be divided into internal and external {{fact}}. Internal approaches are linked to internal values and aspirations, while external approaches depend on external factors such as pressure, rewards, and punishments {{fact}}. In the case of perfectionism, when needs are formed more autonomously, adaptive perfectionism may develop, whereas with the external approach, maladaptive perfectionism may develop (Stoeber et al., 2018). '''Motivational mechanism''': Lack of autonomy and competence creates internal resistance, triggering a desire to delay non-autonomous tasks which ultimately leads to procrastination (Grund & Fries, 2018). == Approaches to adressing perfectionism-related procrastination == '''Evidence for effectivness''' Psychological interventions (2018 meta-analysis on the effectiveness of psychological interventions for combating procrastination. Psychotherapeutic methods generally have a small but statistically significant effect (g = 0.34).The most effective method is cognitive-behavioral therapy (CDT) (Rosental et al., 2018). Self-help strategies (Self-monitoring/Time tracking; Goal-setting;Self-control training;Time management) produce inconsistent results; they address external symptoms but ignore the underlying psychological causes (perfectionism, emotional dysregulation ...) (Rosental et al., 2018 ==Conclusion== * Perfectionism and procrastination may be interrelated (Akpur & Yurtseven, 2019, Husain et al., 2025) . * Not all perfectionism leads to procrastination; procrastination is associated with perfectionist concerns {{fact}}. * Perfectionist concerns may contribute to procrastination by leading individuals to avoid negative thoughts and feelings, as well as the fear of failing to meet high standards {{fact}}. * From a motivational perspective, extrinsic motivation may be linked to maladaptive perfectionism, which in certain cases leads to procrastination {{fact}}. * According to self-determination theory, a lack of autonomy can reduce motivation and lead to procrastination (Stoeber et al., 2018) . * One of the most effective psychotherapeutic method for overcoming procrastination is cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT)(Rosental et al., 2018) . ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Perfectionism|Perfectionism]] (Book chapter,2022) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Procrastination, moods, and emotion|Procrastination, moods, and emotion]] (Book chapter,2015) ==References == {{Hanging indent|1= Akpur, U., & Yurtseven, N. (2019). Structural Relationships between Academic Motivation, Procrastination and Perfectionism: A Modelling Study. ''Cumhuriyet International Journal of Education''. https://doi.org/10.30703/cije.452633 Ferrari, J. R. (1992). Procrastinators and perfect behavior: An exploratory factor analysis of self-presentation, self-awareness, and self-handicapping components. ''Journal of Research in Personality'', ''26''(1), 75–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/0092-6566(92)90060-h Frost, R. O., Marten, P., Lahart, C., & Rosenblate, R. (1990). The dimensions of perfectionism. ''Cognitive Therapy and Research'', 14(5), 449–468. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01172967 Gäde, J. C., Schermelleh-Engel, K., & Klein, A. G. (2017). Disentangling the Common Variance of Perfectionistic Strivings and Perfectionistic Concerns: A Bifactor Model of Perfectionism. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''8''(160). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00160 Grund, A., & Fries, S. (2018). Understanding procrastination: A motivational approach. ''Personality and Individual Differences'', ''121'', 120–130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2017.09.035 Husain, W., Trabelsi, K., Ammar, A., Saif, Z., & Jahrami, H. (2025). The development and validation of a one-off scale to measure procrastination and precrastination traits in young adults. BMC Psychology, 13(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-025-03072-6 Kurtovic, A., Vrdoljak, G., & Idzanovic, A. (2019). Predicting procrastination: The role of academic achievement, self-efficacy and perfectionism. International Journal of Educational Psychology, 8(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.17583/ijep.2019.2993 Rozental, A., Bennett, S., Forsström, D., Ebert, D. D., Shafran, R., Andersson, G., & Carlbring, P. (2018). Targeting Procrastination Using Psychological Treatments: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Frontiers in Psychology, 9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01588 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination Theory and the Facilitation of Intrinsic Motivation, Social Development, and Well-being. ''American Psychologist'', ''55''(1), 68–78. https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/SDT/documents/2000_RyanDeci_SDT.pdf Sirois, F. M., Molnar, D. S., & Hirsch, J. K. (2017). A Meta-analytic and Conceptual Update on the Associations Between Procrastination and Multidimensional Perfectionism. ''European Journal of Personality'', ''31''(2), 137–159. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2098         Steel, P. (2007). The nature of procrastination: A meta-analytic and theoretical review of quintessential self-regulatory failure. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''133''(1), 65–94. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.65 Stoeber, J., Damian, L. E., & Madigan, D. J. (2018). Perfectionism: A motivational perspective. In J. Stoeber (Ed.), The psychology of perfectionism: Theory, research, applications (pp. 19–43). Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group.https://www.researchgate.net/publication/311970309_Perfectionism_A_motivational_perspective Xie, Y., Yang, J., & Chen, F. (2018). Procrastination and multidimensional perfectionism: A meta-analysis of main, mediating, and moderating effects. Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 46(3), 395–408. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.6680 Yosopov, L., Saklofske, D. H., Smith, M. M., Flett, G. L., & Hewitt, P. L. (2024). Failure Sensitivity in Perfectionism and Procrastination: Fear of Failure and Overgeneralization of Failure as Mediators of Traits and Cognitions. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 42(6). https://doi.org/10.1177/07342829241249784 }} This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== {{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}} [https://www.oneyoufeed.net/procrastinator/ Being a Procrastinator with Tim Pychyl] [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lFG1b1-EsW8 Our dangerous obsession with perfectionism is getting worse | Thomas Curran] [https://www.apa.org/gradpsych/2010/01/procrastination Procrastination or 'intentional delay'?] {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Perfectionism]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Procrastination]] o95ipog8b5xuwk5ftj8vqzbxj6g1n5b 2836391 2836385 2026-10-07T02:17:04Z U3222012 2968463 Grammar corrections 2836391 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Perfectionism and procrastination:<br>What is the role of perfectionism in procrastination and what can be done about it?}} <div align=center>Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}} [[File:The procrastinating student - panoramio.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Waiting for the perfect moment]] '''Scenario''' Brian has been trying for several days to start preparing an important presentation for an upcoming meeting. He is convinced that he must deliver a flawless presentation - think everything through and execute everything perfectly. He’s long had a clear picture in his mind of what the presentation should be like, but some kind of inner resistance keeps making him put off getting started. He glances through the materials, then switches to other tasks, as if waiting for the moment when he’ll finally feel completely ready. But that moment never comes. {{RoundBoxBottom}} In a world where success and high achievement are highly valued, it is paradoxical that individuals who attach great importance to these goals may nonetheless refrain from action or engage in task avoidance (Flett et al., 1995). This paradox highlights the relationship between two psychological constructs: [[wikipedia:Perfectionism_(psychology)|perfectionism]] and [[wikipedia:Procrastination|procrastination]] (Sirois et al., 2017). Although they do not necessarily co-occur, empirical research indicates that some links exist between them (Sirois et al., 2017). Understanding which possible mechanisms underlie the relationship between perfectionism and procrastination may help identify ways to overcome procrastination and achieve intended goals (Wang et al., 2024). Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' [[File:Crystal Clear app ktip.svg|left|20px|]] * What are the main characteristics of perfectionism and procrastination? * What is the relationship between perfectionism and procrastination? * What dimensions of perfectionism predict (contribute to) procrastination? * How can we reduce procrastination and the negative effects of perfectionism? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Perfectionism and Procrastination == '''Perfectionism and procrastination''' are complex psychological constructs that may be closely related but differ in their nature and manifestations. Perfectionism primarily refers to personality traits and attitudes, whereas procrastination manifests itself primarily as a pattern of behaviour (Akpur & Yurtseven, 2019, Husain et al., 2025) '''Perfectionism''': definition and key characteristics (Stoeber et al., 2018) '''Perfectionism''' is the pursuit of perfection or flawlessness, the setting of high standards, and a critical attitude toward one's own mistakes (imperfections) (Sirois, 2017). According to a multidimensional model main dimensions: perfectionistic strivings (setting high standards, striving for excellence); It is often considered an adaptive trait, as it can help achieve goals and perfectionictic concerns (fear of making a mistake, fear of criticism, excessive self-criticism, inability to take joy in success) is classified as maladaptive because it leads to negative consequences and is associated with failure of self-regulation (Gäde et al., 2017, Sirois, 2017). '''Procrastination''': definition and key characteristics (Sirois, 2017, Steel, 2007) '''Procrastination''' is a ''behaviour'' in which a person voluntarily postpones important planned tasks, knowing that the negative consequences of such an action are inevitable; '''criteria''': * '''Consciousness and''' '''voluntariness''': the delay is not due to objective external circumstances but is a conscious choice made by the individual. * '''Irrationality''': a person, clearly aware of the negative consequences, still continues to avoid performing the activity. * '''Failure of self‑regulation''': Failure to the delay in activity is related to the individual’s inability to sufficiently control their behavior and emotions at the present moment (Sirois, 2017). '''Domains of procrastination''': academic, work, everyday life, health, interpersonal (Kurtovic at al., 2019)<gallery> </gallery> '''Table 1.''' Types of procrastination and their characteristics{{fact}} {| class="wikitable" |+ !'''Type''' !'''Description''' |- |Academic procrastination |Delaying academic assignments, exam preparation, and writing academic papers. |- |Workplace procrastination |Postponing important work tasks, meetings, reports, and phone calls. |- |Health procrastination |Postponing medical appointments, health check-ups, treatment, or health-promoting behaviours |- |Decision procrastination |Postponing or avoiding important decisions. |} {{Robelbox|left|alt=|theme=6|title=Learning Checkpoint |icon=Emblem-question-yellow.svg|iconwidth=48px}}<div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> <quiz display=simple> {Imagine this situation: you have a deadline for a report, but your boss has asked you to take on some of the work of a colleague who is sick. Do you think it’s considered procrastination if you put off your report to deal your boss’s request? } -Yes +No </quiz> </div> {{Robelbox/close}} == How perfectionism relates to procrastination == '''Perfectionistic concerns''': their contribution to procrastination - is an attempt to avoid the negative feelings associated with a potentially less than ideal outcomes; an individual’s choice to delay in order to avoid confronting negative thoughts and feelings {{fact}} '''Underlying mechanisms:''' high standards and the inability to meet them lead to a breakdown in self-regulation, which in turn leads to avoidance behavior (Sirois, 2017)'''.''' '''Mediating factors''' ( fear of failure as a mediator (Yosopov et al., 2024), perceived discrepancy between standards and performance (Kurtovic at al., 2019), concern over mistakes, self-critical evaluation) == A motivational perspective on perfectionism and procrastination == Relevant motiventional theories (Stoeber et al., 2018) '''Self-Determination Theory''' According to Self-Determination Theory, motivation depends on the fulfillment of basic needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness {{fact}}. A person successfully achieves only those goals that they consider valuable and important {{fact}}. If a task is imposed from the outside and these needs are not met, a natural internal resistance arises {{fact}}. Within this framework, these basic needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness can be met in various ways, which can be divided into internal and external {{fact}}. Internal approaches are linked to internal values and aspirations, while external approaches depend on external factors such as pressure, rewards, and punishments {{fact}}. In the case of perfectionism, when needs are formed more autonomously, adaptive perfectionism may develop, whereas with the external approach, maladaptive perfectionism may develop (Stoeber et al., 2018). '''Motivational mechanism''': Lack of autonomy and competence creates internal resistance, triggering a desire to delay non-autonomous tasks which ultimately leads to procrastination (Grund & Fries, 2018). == Approaches to adressing perfectionism-related procrastination == '''Evidence for effectivness''' Psychological interventions (2018 meta-analysis on the effectiveness of psychological interventions for combating procrastination. Psychotherapeutic methods generally have a small but statistically significant effect (g = 0.34).The most effective method is cognitive-behavioral therapy (CDT) (Rosental et al., 2018). Self-help strategies (Self-monitoring/Time tracking; Goal-setting;Self-control training;Time management) produce inconsistent results; they address external symptoms but ignore the underlying psychological causes (perfectionism, emotional dysregulation ...) (Rosental et al., 2018 ==Conclusion== * Perfectionism and procrastination may be interrelated (Akpur & Yurtseven, 2019, Husain et al., 2025) . * Not all perfectionism leads to procrastination; procrastination is associated with perfectionist concerns {{fact}}. * Perfectionist concerns may contribute to procrastination by leading individuals to avoid negative thoughts and feelings, as well as the fear of failing to meet high standards {{fact}}. * From a motivational perspective, extrinsic motivation may be linked to maladaptive perfectionism, which in certain cases leads to procrastination {{fact}}. * According to self-determination theory, a lack of autonomy can reduce motivation and lead to procrastination (Stoeber et al., 2018) . * One of the most effective psychotherapeutic method for overcoming procrastination is cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT)(Rosental et al., 2018) . ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Perfectionism|Perfectionism]] (Book chapter,2022) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Procrastination, moods, and emotion|Procrastination, moods, and emotion]] (Book chapter,2015) ==References == {{Hanging indent|1= Akpur, U., & Yurtseven, N. (2019). Structural Relationships between Academic Motivation, Procrastination and Perfectionism: A Modelling Study. ''Cumhuriyet International Journal of Education''. https://doi.org/10.30703/cije.452633 Ferrari, J. R. (1992). Procrastinators and perfect behavior: An exploratory factor analysis of self-presentation, self-awareness, and self-handicapping components. ''Journal of Research in Personality'', ''26''(1), 75–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/0092-6566(92)90060-h Frost, R. O., Marten, P., Lahart, C., & Rosenblate, R. (1990). The dimensions of perfectionism. ''Cognitive Therapy and Research'', 14(5), 449–468. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01172967 Gäde, J. C., Schermelleh-Engel, K., & Klein, A. G. (2017). Disentangling the Common Variance of Perfectionistic Strivings and Perfectionistic Concerns: A Bifactor Model of Perfectionism. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''8''(160). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00160 Grund, A., & Fries, S. (2018). Understanding procrastination: A motivational approach. ''Personality and Individual Differences'', ''121'', 120–130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2017.09.035 Husain, W., Trabelsi, K., Ammar, A., Saif, Z., & Jahrami, H. (2025). The development and validation of a one-off scale to measure procrastination and precrastination traits in young adults. BMC Psychology, 13(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-025-03072-6 Kurtovic, A., Vrdoljak, G., & Idzanovic, A. (2019). Predicting procrastination: The role of academic achievement, self-efficacy and perfectionism. International Journal of Educational Psychology, 8(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.17583/ijep.2019.2993 Rozental, A., Bennett, S., Forsström, D., Ebert, D. D., Shafran, R., Andersson, G., & Carlbring, P. (2018). Targeting Procrastination Using Psychological Treatments: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Frontiers in Psychology, 9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01588 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination Theory and the Facilitation of Intrinsic Motivation, Social Development, and Well-being. ''American Psychologist'', ''55''(1), 68–78. https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/SDT/documents/2000_RyanDeci_SDT.pdf Sirois, F. M., Molnar, D. S., & Hirsch, J. K. (2017). A Meta-analytic and Conceptual Update on the Associations Between Procrastination and Multidimensional Perfectionism. ''European Journal of Personality'', ''31''(2), 137–159. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2098         Steel, P. (2007). The nature of procrastination: A meta-analytic and theoretical review of quintessential self-regulatory failure. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''133''(1), 65–94. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.65 Stoeber, J., Damian, L. E., & Madigan, D. J. (2018). Perfectionism: A motivational perspective. In J. Stoeber (Ed.), The psychology of perfectionism: Theory, research, applications (pp. 19–43). Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group.https://www.researchgate.net/publication/311970309_Perfectionism_A_motivational_perspective Xie, Y., Yang, J., & Chen, F. (2018). Procrastination and multidimensional perfectionism: A meta-analysis of main, mediating, and moderating effects. Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 46(3), 395–408. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.6680 Yosopov, L., Saklofske, D. H., Smith, M. M., Flett, G. L., & Hewitt, P. L. (2024). Failure Sensitivity in Perfectionism and Procrastination: Fear of Failure and Overgeneralization of Failure as Mediators of Traits and Cognitions. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 42(6). https://doi.org/10.1177/07342829241249784 }} This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== {{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}} [https://www.oneyoufeed.net/procrastinator/ Being a Procrastinator with Tim Pychyl] [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lFG1b1-EsW8 Our dangerous obsession with perfectionism is getting worse | Thomas Curran] [https://www.apa.org/gradpsych/2010/01/procrastination Procrastination or 'intentional delay'?] {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Perfectionism]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Procrastination]] qd2i621zv2em4q10kmp0o7r9t0i9b8w 0 331035 2836386 2836296 2026-10-07T02:12:27Z P U3270518 3106535 /* Coping with positive emotions */ copilot was used to understand and summarise finding of few articles. link to the chat:https://copilot.cloud.microsoft/chat/conversation/87b9977b-fde7-479e-89c8-2abea019f8e3?fromcode=cmmqbg1y3ah&es=UnauthClick 2836386 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Positive emotion dysregulation:<br>What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} [[File:Woman in red sweater with hand in air.jpg|right|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1.''' Grace experiencing happiness and excitement following several positive life events.]] '''Scenario''' Grace is a university student who feels that she has just won the lottery of her life. First, she receives a PhD offer from her dream university. Shortly afterwards, she learns that she has been awarded a scholarship to support her studies. For next several days, Grace feels unusually happy and energised (see Figure 1). She sleeps very little because she believes there is too much to achieve. To celebrate her success, she purchases an expensive laptop, makes an impulsive travel booking and commits to several university projects despite having a full schedule. People close to Grace begin to wonder if something is not right. Her close friends tried to slow her down, but she ignored them. From Grace's perspective, she is just happy, motivated and confident as pieces of her life are finally coming together in a positive way. 💡 What is happening to Grace? Why do her positive emotions become so intense? {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotions]] are a normal and important part of human life. It includes a variety of feelings such as joy, interest, love, contentment, gratitude, awe, and amusement (Campos et al., 2013). These emotions play an important role in expanding people's thoughts and possible actions to help them build lasting psychological and social resources (Fredrickson, 2001). However, positive emotions might not always be beneficial if they are inadequately regulated. A review by Gruber et al. (2020) on positive emotion disturbance suggests that extremely strong or prolonged positive emotional states can sometimes interfere with adaptive functioning. Positive emotion dysregulation helps to explain how positive emotional states can feel initially feel good but can sometimes contribute to harmful thoughts and behaviour. This chapter will explore how positive emotions can shift from being adaptive to maladaptive, and how it can affect psychological functioning. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} 🔎 '''Focus questions''' 1️⃣ What is positive emotion dysregulation, and how can it be distinguished from healthy positive emotions? 2️⃣ What factors contribute to difficulties in regulating positive emotions? 3️⃣ How does positive emotion dysregulation affect psychological functioning and wellbeing? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Positive emotion: From benefit to dysregulation== Understanding positive emotion dysregulation requires more than just identifying whether an emotional experience is pleasant or intense. [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotions]] such as joy, amusement and interest are usually considered pleasant in nature (Fredrickson, 2001). These feelings shape the way people thick, act and connect with world around them. Positive emotion dysregulation refers to difficulties in responding to positive emotions (Mansueto et al., 2025). It involves problems such as accepting, controlling or managing actions while feeling happy or excited (Mansueto et al., 2025). Therefore, positive emotion dysregulation is not simply experiencing strong positive emotions. It is about struggling to regulate those feelings in a way that support effective functioning. This section will consider why positive emotions are important, how they are normally regulated and how difficulties in regulating them can lead to positive emotion dysregulation. === Positive emotions and its adaptive functions === [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotions]] play an important role in psychological functioning. They include numerous experiences such as [[wikipedia:Joy|joy]], [[wikipedia:Interest_(emotion)|interest]], [[wikipedia:Love|love]], [[wikipedia:Contentment|contentment]], [[wikipedia:Gratitude|gratitude]], [[wikipedia:Awe|awe]], and [[wikipedia:Amusement|amusement]] which can influence cognition, behaviour, and social interaction (Campos et al., 2013). Instead of simply producing pleasant effects, positive emotions can encourage individuals to explore their environment, learn from experiences, engage with others and pursue meaningful goals. Positive emotions can broaden people's thoughts, cognition and behaviour. [[wikipedia:Broaden-and-build|Broaden-and-Build Theory]] by Fredrickson (2001) proposes that positive emotions broaden momentary thought-action repertoires that encourages exploration, flexibility and engagement. For instance, excitement following major positive events may encourage student such as Grace to pursue new opportunities and get more involved in university. These positive emotions can help to build psychological and social resources, including relationships and coping resources (Fredrickson, 2001). Nevertheless, a network analysis about broaden-and-build theory on two studies (''N'' = 312; ''N''=302) found support for relationships between positive emotions, resources and life outcomes. But the broadening component that this theory proposed consistently deviated from the theory’s predictions, questioning its validity (Roth et al., 2024). However, positive emotions are not always beneficial in every circumstances. Effects of positive emotions may depend on intensity, timing, and context. This provides a foundation for understanding when positive emotion may become less adaptive (Gruber et al., 2011). This review challenges assumption of [[wikipedia:Positive_psychology|positive psychology]] that increasing positive emotion will improve well-being. It does not mean that strong positive emotions are always harmful. Review by Gruber et al. (2020), on positive emotion disturbance highlighted how positive emotion disturbance can interfere with adaptive functioning. Overall, these findings suggest that positive emotions can support adaptive functioning. But positive emotions are not automatic and same for everyone. Kashdan et al. (2015) reviewed myths regarding positive emotion regulation. This article emphasised flexibility in how people regulate emotions. Emotional responses should be adjusted according to the situation and personal goals. Thus, healthy positive emotion is not defined by its intensity alone. It depends on how it can be regulated flexibly without interfering with functioning. === From emotion regulation to positive emotion dysregulation === [[Emotional regulation]] refers to one’s ability to seek control over own emotional state (Gross, 2015). [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Extended process model of emotion regulation|The process model of emotion]] [[File:Positive emotion dysregulation pathway.png|thumb|434x434px|'''Figure 2.''' Applying the emotion regulation process to a positive situation. ''Note''. Some parts of this image has been adapted from Gross (1998) process model of emotion regulation ]][[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Extended process model of emotion regulation|regulation]] by Gross (1998) provides a framework for understanding how individual can modify emotional experiences. This model proposes that regulation occur at different stages which includes situation selection, situation modification, attentional deployment, cognitive appraisal and response modulation. Regulation can occur before an emotional response is fully developed or after anemotion has already been experienced. In Grace’s case, receiving the PhD offer and scholarship shifted her attention shifted towards positive achievement. She appraises the situation positively. According to Gross (1998) process model, emotion regulation then influences how she responds to and manages these emotions (see Figure 2). It also shapes what she does next.   Successful regulation helps individuals to modify their emotional experiences. In contrast, difficulties in managing emotional experiences can lead to [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Emotion dysregulation|emotion dysregulation]]. Difficulties in regulating emotions can lead to interpersonal problems, [[wikipedia:Rumination_(psychology)|rumination]], and several [[wikipedia:Mental_disorder|mental disorders]]. This highlight that it is important to understand how emotions are experienced and also how individuals respond to them. Importantly, positive emotions also require regulation. According to Carl et al., (2013), individuals may need to regulate their positive emotions based on their needs, goals and circumstances. Research has heavily focused on negative emotions and regulation of positive emotion has received less attention. This provides foundation to examine positive emotion dysregulation. === Recognising positive emotion dysregulation === Positive emotion dysregulation is defined as the difficulties in responding and managing positive emotional experiences. It is a multifaced construct that involves difficulty in accepting positive emotions, maintaining goal-directed behaviour, and controlling behaviour when experiencing positive emotions (Weiss et al., 2015). These three elements provide a useful of recognising difficulties in regulating positive emotions (see Table 1). An intense positive emotion does not necessarily means dysregulated. Feelings such as happiness, excitement, or enthusiasm may be well-placed responses to certain life events. Context, intensity, persistence and implications are crucial. Positive emotions can be considered [[wikipedia:Maladaptation|maladaptive]] if are poorly fitted to the situation or if they start to interfere with functioning (Gruber et al., 2011). Positive emotion dysregulation occurs when these feelings are hard to manage and when they disturb behaviour, goals and daily life. In Grace’s scenario, she engages in impulsive behaviour and commits to projects that she will not be able to complete on time. This highlights dysregulation as it affects her daily functioning. A review by Vogel et al. (2023), suggests that there is a need to examine the challenges of regulating positive emotions rather than focusing exclusively on negative emotions. This review also highlights that dysregulation should be understood in relation to the feelings and the way a person behaves. Research by Mansueto et al. (2025) found that stronger [[Metacognition|metacognitive]] beliefs were associated with greater positive emotion dysregulation, suggesting a therapeutic target. Overall, recognising emotional dysregulation means looking past how strong the feeling is and focusing on how person can respond and manage that feeling. '''Table 1''' ''Key elements for recognising positive emotion dysregulation'' ''Note. This table is based on the DERS-Positive dimensions researched by Weiss et al. (2015)'' {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! Dimension !Positive emotion regulation ! Positive emotion dysregulation |- | Accepting positive emotions |Accepts and acknowledges positive emotions without feeling that they are wrong or threatening | Feels uncomfortable or scared when experiencing positive emotions |- |Goal-directed behaviour |Can stay focused on goals while experiencing positive emotions |Difficulty in continuing goal-directed behaviour while experiencing positive emotions |- |Behavioural control |Can control behaviour and avoid acting impulsively when feeling happy or excited |Struggle in controlling behaviour or acts impulsively |} ; {{Robelbox|theme=5|title=Quiz}}[[Image: Hand Gesture - Holding a Magnifying Glass.gif|right|128px]] <quiz display=simple> Which of the following statement best differentiates healthy positive emotion from positive emotion dysregulation? |type="()"} - Healthy positive emotions improves behaviour, whereas dysregulation occurs when positive behaviour becomes excessive - Healthy positive emotions means emotions are freely expressed, whereas dysregulation occurs when they are suppressed + Healthy positive emotions supports functioning and positive emotion dysregulation involves difficulty in managing positive emotions. - Healthy positive emotions are always beneficial and positive emotion dysregulation means positive emotions become negative. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} == Factors underlying positive emotion dysregulation == Positive emotion dysregulation is unlikely result from a single factor. Instead, it is a result of psychological, physiological, biological, individual, and environment factors. All these factors may interact to influence how strongly positive emotions are experienced and how they are regulated. This section will examine biological and environmental influences, ways of coping and regulation of positive emotions, and environmental and social factors. === Biological and temperamental factors === One of the factors for positive emotion dysregulation can be an increased sensitivity to emotional events from a biological and temperamental perspective. Some people might be emotionally more sensitive or find it harder to control their emotional reactions. A review by Vogel et al. (2023) reported that [[wikipedia:Surgency|surgency]] negatively correlated with effortful control and self-regulation in childhood. This may suggests that high surgency can be associated with aggression and externalising behaviours. Nonetheless, surgency has positive implications too and its link with regulation changed at different developmental stages. Therefore, it is hard to make strong conclusion to explain dysregulation only through surgency. Difficulties may also arise if there is high emotional activation that exceeds individual’s cognitive capacity. Additionally, Vogel et al. (2023) review only highlighted that [[wikipedia:Temperament|temperamental]] traits represent a vulnerability but not the exact causes of positive emotion dysregulation. Linehan’s (1993) [[wikipedia:Biosocial_theory|biosocial model]] offers additional perspective where biological emotional sensitivity combined with environmental invalidation leads to emotional dysregulation. It results in difficulties in managing and responding to intense positive emotions. Limitation of this theory is that it is not designed for positive emotions specifically. But it can be used to predict that people with high biological emotional sensitivity will be affected by the way other people perceive their emotions. Taken together, the developmental findings by Vogel et al. (2023) combined with Linehan’s (1993) theory can provide evidence that temperament may create vulnerability. But ability to regulate and environmental experiences determine the impact of excessive positive emotion. === Coping and emotion-regulation strategies === Individual’s ability to cope with their emotions may determine whether their strong emotions remain adaptive or turn into something uncontrollable. The process model of emotion regulation by Gross (1998) provides useful framework for understanding emotion regulation process. According to this model, regulation involves modifying emotional responses according to the situation and goals. Studies that look at emotion regulation back this idea. Livingstone and Srivastava (2012) found three ways to increase the level of positive emotions which are engagement, betterment, and indulgence. This provides evidence that increasing emotions does not necessarily mean dysregulation. Coping strategies may contribute to vulnerability to positive emotion dysregulation. To assess how regulation strategies work in real life conditions, Boemo et al. (2022) undertook a systematic review and meta-analysis of experience sampling and daily diary design. The findings showed that reappraisal was associated with greater positive effect, while rumination and suppression were associated with poorer affective outcomes. Reappraisal prospectively predicted positive affect (''r'' = .34), while rumination prospectively predicted negative affect (''r'' = .16). These results shows that how people manage emotions can influence emotional functioning. The review focused on emotion regulation not on positive emotion dysregulation so it cannot prove that bad regulation leads to positive emotion dysregulation. Haag et al. (2024) conducted systematic review of 11 studies involving 3,775 adolescents (''M'' = 13.4 years) to understand emotion regulation flexibility in adolescents. Results of this study found that greater emotion regulation flexibility is associated with more adaptive outcomes, including higher positive effect and self-worth. The study conceptualised emotion regulation flexibility in two ways which was flexibility in regulating emotions according to the situation and the use of emotion regulation strategies. However, the evidence is limited as most studies were cross-sectional and community based. There was also heavy reliance on self-report measures. Therfore, the findings suggests that poor regulation may increase vulnerability to emotional difficulties. But the study does not establish that low emotional regulation flexibility directly causes positive emotion dysregulation. === Environmental and social factors === * Temperament may influence positive emotional reactivity (Vogel et al., 2023). * Individual and contextual factors influences emotion regulation. * Situation can determine whether positive emotional activation is adaptive.<br /> {{Robelbox|theme=10|title=Quiz}}[[Image: Hand Gesture - Holding a Magnifying Glass.gif|right|128px]] <quiz display=simple> Why high surgency can not be considered as a direct cause of positive emotion dysregulation ? |type="()"} - Surgency only occurs during adulthood - Surgency has only negative effects - Surgency is not related to emotional functioning + The effects of surgency is adaptive and its association with regulation changes across development </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} == Consequences of positive emotion dysregulation on psychological functioning == The regulation of positive emotions may manifest itself through altered thinking processes, decision-making, goals pursued and behaviour of an individual. While positive emotions helps to expand attention and motivate individuals to explore more, strong and poorly regulated emotional activation may influence judgement. This section will discuss the way in which positive experiences may impact cognition, motivation and decision-making processes. === Changes in cognition and decision-making === * Positive emotions can broaden attention and action thought repertoires. Fredrickson and Branigan (2005) found that positive affective states broadened both attention and the range of thought-action responses that the participants gave. It provided empirical support for broaden-and-build theory. * Positive emotion dysregulation can influence decision-making. * The effects of cognitive broadening are context-dependent === Goal pursuit and behavioural activation === * The positive emotions would enhance approach motivation and behavioural activation. * Excessive activation might help achieve goals but could be exaggerated. In case of exaggeration, the activation might make people over-commit. * Grace’s behaviour explains this as initially she was motivated to participate in university opportunities. But repeatedly taking additional projects despite limited time shows that goal directed activation is becoming difficult to regulate. === Risk-taking and Impulsivity === * Presence of positive emotional activation may lead to increased level of impulsivity and risky behaviour. * Positive urgency provides a precise reason for rash behaviour during high levels of positive emotions. Cyders and Smith (2008) define positive urgency as the tendency of behaving rashly during high levels of positive affect. This behavioural trend can be risky as well. * Impulsivity and risk-taking should not be equated with positive emotion dysregulation {{Robelbox|theme=4|title=Quiz}}[[Image: Hand Gesture - Holding a Magnifying Glass.gif|right|128px]] <quiz display=simple> Which of the following is correct regarding positive emotion dysregulation and psychological functioning? |type="()"} + Poorly regulated positive emotions can interfere with attention, wellbeing, relationships and everyday responsibilities - Positive emotions are always harmful - Positive emotions have no effect on behaviour and functioning - Intense positive emotions always indicate dysregulation </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} ==Conclusion== *Positive emotion dysregulation is not simply experiencing intense happiness, but difficulty in regulating positive emotions. *Dysregulation can influence thoughts, decision-making and behaviour. *Difficulty in regulating positive emotions may affect everyday responsibilities and functioning. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} [[File:Nuvola apps kuser.svg|Nuvola apps kuser|left|20px]] ''' Take-home messages:''' - Positive emotion dysregulation occurs when positive emotions are difficult to regulate in ways that are appropriate according to the situation. - When positive emotions are poorly regulated, they can interfere with an individual's wellbeing, attention and everyday functioning. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==See also == *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions|Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions]] (Book chapter, 2016) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Emotion dysregulation|Emotion dysregulation]] (Book chapter, 2026) *[[wikipedia:Emotional_dysregulation|Emotional dysregulation]] (Wikipedia) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Cyders, M. A., & Smith, G. T. (2008). Emotion-based dispositions to rash action: Positive and negative urgency. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''134''(6), 807–828. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013341 Campos, B., Shiota, M. N., Keltner, D., Gonzaga, G. C., & Goetz, J. L. (2013). What is shared, what is different? Core relational themes and expressive displays of eight positive emotions. ''Cognition and Emotion'', ''27''(1), 37–52. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2012.683852 Carl, J. R., Soskin, D. P., Kerns, C., & Barlow, D. H. (2013). Positive emotion regulation in emotional disorders: A theoretical review. ''Clinical Psychology Review'', ''33''(3), 343–360. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2013.01.003 Fredrickson B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology. The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. ''The American psychologist'', ''56''(3), 218–226. https://doi.org/10.1037//0003-066x.56.3.218 Fredrickson, B. L., & Branigan, C. (2005). Positive emotions broaden the scope of attention and thought‐action repertoires. ''Cognition & Emotion'', ''19''(3), 313–332. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930441000238 Gross, J. J. (1998). The emerging field of emotion regulation: An integrative review. ''Review of General Psychology'', ''2''(3), 271–299. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.2.3.271 Gruber, J., Mauss, I. B., & Tamir, M. (2011). A Dark Side of Happiness? How, When, and Why Happiness Is Not Always Good. ''Perspectives on Psychological Science'', ''6''(3), 222–233. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691611406927 Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion regulation: Current status and future prospects. ''Psychological Inquiry'', ''26''(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2014.940781 Gruber, J., Villanueva, C., Burr, E., Purcell, J. R., & Karoly, H. (2020). Understanding and Taking Stock of Positive Emotion Disturbance. ''Social and personality psychology compass'', ''14''(1), e12515. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12515 Vogel, A. C., Brotman, M. A., Roy, A. K., & Perlman, S. B. (2023). Review: Defining positive emotion dysregulation: Integrating temperamental and clinical perspectives. ''Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry'', ''62''(3), 297–305. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2022.06.019 }} ==External links== * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/everyday-resilience/202404/emotional-well-being-5-healthy-practices-for-regulation Emotional wellbeing] (Psychology Today) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MyfzIQH6YKI Positive emotions with Barbara Fredrickson] (Youtube.com) * [https://sk.sagepub.com/ency/edvol/the-sage-encyclopedia-of-lifespan-human-development/chpt/reward-sensitivity Reward sensitivity] (sk.sagepub.com) __TOC__ [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion regulation]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Positive emotion]] 72ql0f8l2crvgkdceybhe8rwz5xi0n5 2836393 2836386 2026-10-07T02:21:35Z P U3270518 3106535 /* Coping and emotion-regulation strategies */ Created links for few words in this section 2836393 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Positive emotion dysregulation:<br>What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} [[File:Woman in red sweater with hand in air.jpg|right|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1.''' Grace experiencing happiness and excitement following several positive life events.]] '''Scenario''' Grace is a university student who feels that she has just won the lottery of her life. First, she receives a PhD offer from her dream university. Shortly afterwards, she learns that she has been awarded a scholarship to support her studies. For next several days, Grace feels unusually happy and energised (see Figure 1). She sleeps very little because she believes there is too much to achieve. To celebrate her success, she purchases an expensive laptop, makes an impulsive travel booking and commits to several university projects despite having a full schedule. People close to Grace begin to wonder if something is not right. Her close friends tried to slow her down, but she ignored them. From Grace's perspective, she is just happy, motivated and confident as pieces of her life are finally coming together in a positive way. 💡 What is happening to Grace? Why do her positive emotions become so intense? {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotions]] are a normal and important part of human life. It includes a variety of feelings such as joy, interest, love, contentment, gratitude, awe, and amusement (Campos et al., 2013). These emotions play an important role in expanding people's thoughts and possible actions to help them build lasting psychological and social resources (Fredrickson, 2001). However, positive emotions might not always be beneficial if they are inadequately regulated. A review by Gruber et al. (2020) on positive emotion disturbance suggests that extremely strong or prolonged positive emotional states can sometimes interfere with adaptive functioning. Positive emotion dysregulation helps to explain how positive emotional states can feel initially feel good but can sometimes contribute to harmful thoughts and behaviour. This chapter will explore how positive emotions can shift from being adaptive to maladaptive, and how it can affect psychological functioning. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} 🔎 '''Focus questions''' 1️⃣ What is positive emotion dysregulation, and how can it be distinguished from healthy positive emotions? 2️⃣ What factors contribute to difficulties in regulating positive emotions? 3️⃣ How does positive emotion dysregulation affect psychological functioning and wellbeing? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Positive emotion: From benefit to dysregulation== Understanding positive emotion dysregulation requires more than just identifying whether an emotional experience is pleasant or intense. [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotions]] such as joy, amusement and interest are usually considered pleasant in nature (Fredrickson, 2001). These feelings shape the way people thick, act and connect with world around them. Positive emotion dysregulation refers to difficulties in responding to positive emotions (Mansueto et al., 2025). It involves problems such as accepting, controlling or managing actions while feeling happy or excited (Mansueto et al., 2025). Therefore, positive emotion dysregulation is not simply experiencing strong positive emotions. It is about struggling to regulate those feelings in a way that support effective functioning. This section will consider why positive emotions are important, how they are normally regulated and how difficulties in regulating them can lead to positive emotion dysregulation. === Positive emotions and its adaptive functions === [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotions]] play an important role in psychological functioning. They include numerous experiences such as [[wikipedia:Joy|joy]], [[wikipedia:Interest_(emotion)|interest]], [[wikipedia:Love|love]], [[wikipedia:Contentment|contentment]], [[wikipedia:Gratitude|gratitude]], [[wikipedia:Awe|awe]], and [[wikipedia:Amusement|amusement]] which can influence cognition, behaviour, and social interaction (Campos et al., 2013). Instead of simply producing pleasant effects, positive emotions can encourage individuals to explore their environment, learn from experiences, engage with others and pursue meaningful goals. Positive emotions can broaden people's thoughts, cognition and behaviour. [[wikipedia:Broaden-and-build|Broaden-and-Build Theory]] by Fredrickson (2001) proposes that positive emotions broaden momentary thought-action repertoires that encourages exploration, flexibility and engagement. For instance, excitement following major positive events may encourage student such as Grace to pursue new opportunities and get more involved in university. These positive emotions can help to build psychological and social resources, including relationships and coping resources (Fredrickson, 2001). Nevertheless, a network analysis about broaden-and-build theory on two studies (''N'' = 312; ''N''=302) found support for relationships between positive emotions, resources and life outcomes. But the broadening component that this theory proposed consistently deviated from the theory’s predictions, questioning its validity (Roth et al., 2024). However, positive emotions are not always beneficial in every circumstances. Effects of positive emotions may depend on intensity, timing, and context. This provides a foundation for understanding when positive emotion may become less adaptive (Gruber et al., 2011). This review challenges assumption of [[wikipedia:Positive_psychology|positive psychology]] that increasing positive emotion will improve well-being. It does not mean that strong positive emotions are always harmful. Review by Gruber et al. (2020), on positive emotion disturbance highlighted how positive emotion disturbance can interfere with adaptive functioning. Overall, these findings suggest that positive emotions can support adaptive functioning. But positive emotions are not automatic and same for everyone. Kashdan et al. (2015) reviewed myths regarding positive emotion regulation. This article emphasised flexibility in how people regulate emotions. Emotional responses should be adjusted according to the situation and personal goals. Thus, healthy positive emotion is not defined by its intensity alone. It depends on how it can be regulated flexibly without interfering with functioning. === From emotion regulation to positive emotion dysregulation === [[Emotional regulation]] refers to one’s ability to seek control over own emotional state (Gross, 2015). [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Extended process model of emotion regulation|The process model of emotion]] [[File:Positive emotion dysregulation pathway.png|thumb|434x434px|'''Figure 2.''' Applying the emotion regulation process to a positive situation. ''Note''. Some parts of this image has been adapted from Gross (1998) process model of emotion regulation ]][[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Extended process model of emotion regulation|regulation]] by Gross (1998) provides a framework for understanding how individual can modify emotional experiences. This model proposes that regulation occur at different stages which includes situation selection, situation modification, attentional deployment, cognitive appraisal and response modulation. Regulation can occur before an emotional response is fully developed or after anemotion has already been experienced. In Grace’s case, receiving the PhD offer and scholarship shifted her attention shifted towards positive achievement. She appraises the situation positively. According to Gross (1998) process model, emotion regulation then influences how she responds to and manages these emotions (see Figure 2). It also shapes what she does next.   Successful regulation helps individuals to modify their emotional experiences. In contrast, difficulties in managing emotional experiences can lead to [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Emotion dysregulation|emotion dysregulation]]. Difficulties in regulating emotions can lead to interpersonal problems, [[wikipedia:Rumination_(psychology)|rumination]], and several [[wikipedia:Mental_disorder|mental disorders]]. This highlight that it is important to understand how emotions are experienced and also how individuals respond to them. Importantly, positive emotions also require regulation. According to Carl et al., (2013), individuals may need to regulate their positive emotions based on their needs, goals and circumstances. Research has heavily focused on negative emotions and regulation of positive emotion has received less attention. This provides foundation to examine positive emotion dysregulation. === Recognising positive emotion dysregulation === Positive emotion dysregulation is defined as the difficulties in responding and managing positive emotional experiences. It is a multifaced construct that involves difficulty in accepting positive emotions, maintaining goal-directed behaviour, and controlling behaviour when experiencing positive emotions (Weiss et al., 2015). These three elements provide a useful of recognising difficulties in regulating positive emotions (see Table 1). An intense positive emotion does not necessarily means dysregulated. Feelings such as happiness, excitement, or enthusiasm may be well-placed responses to certain life events. Context, intensity, persistence and implications are crucial. Positive emotions can be considered [[wikipedia:Maladaptation|maladaptive]] if are poorly fitted to the situation or if they start to interfere with functioning (Gruber et al., 2011). Positive emotion dysregulation occurs when these feelings are hard to manage and when they disturb behaviour, goals and daily life. In Grace’s scenario, she engages in impulsive behaviour and commits to projects that she will not be able to complete on time. This highlights dysregulation as it affects her daily functioning. A review by Vogel et al. (2023), suggests that there is a need to examine the challenges of regulating positive emotions rather than focusing exclusively on negative emotions. This review also highlights that dysregulation should be understood in relation to the feelings and the way a person behaves. Research by Mansueto et al. (2025) found that stronger [[Metacognition|metacognitive]] beliefs were associated with greater positive emotion dysregulation, suggesting a therapeutic target. Overall, recognising emotional dysregulation means looking past how strong the feeling is and focusing on how person can respond and manage that feeling. '''Table 1''' ''Key elements for recognising positive emotion dysregulation'' ''Note. This table is based on the DERS-Positive dimensions researched by Weiss et al. (2015)'' {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! Dimension !Positive emotion regulation ! Positive emotion dysregulation |- | Accepting positive emotions |Accepts and acknowledges positive emotions without feeling that they are wrong or threatening | Feels uncomfortable or scared when experiencing positive emotions |- |Goal-directed behaviour |Can stay focused on goals while experiencing positive emotions |Difficulty in continuing goal-directed behaviour while experiencing positive emotions |- |Behavioural control |Can control behaviour and avoid acting impulsively when feeling happy or excited |Struggle in controlling behaviour or acts impulsively |} ; {{Robelbox|theme=5|title=Quiz}}[[Image: Hand Gesture - Holding a Magnifying Glass.gif|right|128px]] <quiz display=simple> Which of the following statement best differentiates healthy positive emotion from positive emotion dysregulation? |type="()"} - Healthy positive emotions improves behaviour, whereas dysregulation occurs when positive behaviour becomes excessive - Healthy positive emotions means emotions are freely expressed, whereas dysregulation occurs when they are suppressed + Healthy positive emotions supports functioning and positive emotion dysregulation involves difficulty in managing positive emotions. - Healthy positive emotions are always beneficial and positive emotion dysregulation means positive emotions become negative. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} == Factors underlying positive emotion dysregulation == Positive emotion dysregulation is unlikely result from a single factor. Instead, it is a result of psychological, physiological, biological, individual, and environment factors. All these factors may interact to influence how strongly positive emotions are experienced and how they are regulated. This section will examine biological and environmental influences, ways of coping and regulation of positive emotions, and environmental and social factors. === Biological and temperamental factors === One of the factors for positive emotion dysregulation can be an increased sensitivity to emotional events from a biological and temperamental perspective. Some people might be emotionally more sensitive or find it harder to control their emotional reactions. A review by Vogel et al. (2023) reported that [[wikipedia:Surgency|surgency]] negatively correlated with effortful control and self-regulation in childhood. This may suggests that high surgency can be associated with aggression and externalising behaviours. Nonetheless, surgency has positive implications too and its link with regulation changed at different developmental stages. Therefore, it is hard to make strong conclusion to explain dysregulation only through surgency. Difficulties may also arise if there is high emotional activation that exceeds individual’s cognitive capacity. Additionally, Vogel et al. (2023) review only highlighted that [[wikipedia:Temperament|temperamental]] traits represent a vulnerability but not the exact causes of positive emotion dysregulation. Linehan’s (1993) [[wikipedia:Biosocial_theory|biosocial model]] offers additional perspective where biological emotional sensitivity combined with environmental invalidation leads to emotional dysregulation. It results in difficulties in managing and responding to intense positive emotions. Limitation of this theory is that it is not designed for positive emotions specifically. But it can be used to predict that people with high biological emotional sensitivity will be affected by the way other people perceive their emotions. Taken together, the developmental findings by Vogel et al. (2023) combined with Linehan’s (1993) theory can provide evidence that temperament may create vulnerability. But ability to regulate and environmental experiences determine the impact of excessive positive emotion. === Coping and emotion-regulation strategies === Individual’s ability to cope with their emotions may determine whether their strong emotions remain adaptive or turn into something uncontrollable. The process model of emotion regulation by Gross (1998) provides useful framework for understanding emotion regulation process. According to this model, regulation involves modifying emotional responses according to the situation and goals. Studies that look at emotion regulation back this idea. Livingstone and Srivastava (2012) found three ways to increase the level of positive emotions which are engagement, betterment, and indulgence. This provides evidence that increasing emotions does not necessarily mean dysregulation. [[wikipedia:Coping|Coping strategies]] may contribute to vulnerability to positive emotion dysregulation. To assess how regulation strategies work in real life conditions, Boemo et al. (2022) undertook a [[wikipedia:Systematic_review|systematic review]] and [[wikipedia:Meta-analysis|meta-analysis]] of experience sampling and daily diary design. The findings showed that [[wikipedia:Appraisal_theory|reappraisal]] was associated with greater positive effect, while [[wikipedia:Rumination_(psychology)|rumination]] and suppression were associated with poorer affective outcomes. Reappraisal prospectively predicted positive affect (''r'' = .34), while rumination prospectively predicted negative affect (''r'' = .16). These results shows that how people manage emotions can influence emotional functioning. The review focused on emotion regulation not on positive emotion dysregulation so it cannot prove that bad regulation leads to positive emotion dysregulation. Haag et al. (2024) conducted systematic review of 11 studies involving 3,775 adolescents (''M'' = 13.4 years) to understand emotion regulation flexibility in adolescents. Results of this study found that greater emotion regulation flexibility is associated with more adaptive outcomes, including higher positive effect and self-worth. The study conceptualised emotion regulation flexibility in two ways which was flexibility in regulating emotions according to the situation and the use of emotion regulation strategies. However, the evidence is limited as most studies were [[wikipedia:Cross-sectional_study|cross-sectional]] and community based. There was also heavy reliance on [[wikipedia:Self-report_study|self-report measures]]. Therfore, the findings suggests that poor regulation may increase vulnerability to emotional difficulties. But the study does not establish that low emotional regulation flexibility directly causes positive emotion dysregulation. === Environmental and social factors === * Temperament may influence positive emotional reactivity (Vogel et al., 2023). * Individual and contextual factors influences emotion regulation. * Situation can determine whether positive emotional activation is adaptive.<br /> {{Robelbox|theme=10|title=Quiz}}[[Image: Hand Gesture - Holding a Magnifying Glass.gif|right|128px]] <quiz display=simple> Why high surgency can not be considered as a direct cause of positive emotion dysregulation ? |type="()"} - Surgency only occurs during adulthood - Surgency has only negative effects - Surgency is not related to emotional functioning + The effects of surgency is adaptive and its association with regulation changes across development </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} == Consequences of positive emotion dysregulation on psychological functioning == The regulation of positive emotions may manifest itself through altered thinking processes, decision-making, goals pursued and behaviour of an individual. While positive emotions helps to expand attention and motivate individuals to explore more, strong and poorly regulated emotional activation may influence judgement. This section will discuss the way in which positive experiences may impact cognition, motivation and decision-making processes. === Changes in cognition and decision-making === * Positive emotions can broaden attention and action thought repertoires. Fredrickson and Branigan (2005) found that positive affective states broadened both attention and the range of thought-action responses that the participants gave. It provided empirical support for broaden-and-build theory. * Positive emotion dysregulation can influence decision-making. * The effects of cognitive broadening are context-dependent === Goal pursuit and behavioural activation === * The positive emotions would enhance approach motivation and behavioural activation. * Excessive activation might help achieve goals but could be exaggerated. In case of exaggeration, the activation might make people over-commit. * Grace’s behaviour explains this as initially she was motivated to participate in university opportunities. But repeatedly taking additional projects despite limited time shows that goal directed activation is becoming difficult to regulate. === Risk-taking and Impulsivity === * Presence of positive emotional activation may lead to increased level of impulsivity and risky behaviour. * Positive urgency provides a precise reason for rash behaviour during high levels of positive emotions. Cyders and Smith (2008) define positive urgency as the tendency of behaving rashly during high levels of positive affect. This behavioural trend can be risky as well. * Impulsivity and risk-taking should not be equated with positive emotion dysregulation {{Robelbox|theme=4|title=Quiz}}[[Image: Hand Gesture - Holding a Magnifying Glass.gif|right|128px]] <quiz display=simple> Which of the following is correct regarding positive emotion dysregulation and psychological functioning? |type="()"} + Poorly regulated positive emotions can interfere with attention, wellbeing, relationships and everyday responsibilities - Positive emotions are always harmful - Positive emotions have no effect on behaviour and functioning - Intense positive emotions always indicate dysregulation </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} ==Conclusion== *Positive emotion dysregulation is not simply experiencing intense happiness, but difficulty in regulating positive emotions. *Dysregulation can influence thoughts, decision-making and behaviour. *Difficulty in regulating positive emotions may affect everyday responsibilities and functioning. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} [[File:Nuvola apps kuser.svg|Nuvola apps kuser|left|20px]] ''' Take-home messages:''' - Positive emotion dysregulation occurs when positive emotions are difficult to regulate in ways that are appropriate according to the situation. - When positive emotions are poorly regulated, they can interfere with an individual's wellbeing, attention and everyday functioning. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==See also == *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions|Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions]] (Book chapter, 2016) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Emotion dysregulation|Emotion dysregulation]] (Book chapter, 2026) *[[wikipedia:Emotional_dysregulation|Emotional dysregulation]] (Wikipedia) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Cyders, M. A., & Smith, G. T. (2008). Emotion-based dispositions to rash action: Positive and negative urgency. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''134''(6), 807–828. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013341 Campos, B., Shiota, M. N., Keltner, D., Gonzaga, G. C., & Goetz, J. L. (2013). What is shared, what is different? Core relational themes and expressive displays of eight positive emotions. ''Cognition and Emotion'', ''27''(1), 37–52. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2012.683852 Carl, J. R., Soskin, D. P., Kerns, C., & Barlow, D. H. (2013). Positive emotion regulation in emotional disorders: A theoretical review. ''Clinical Psychology Review'', ''33''(3), 343–360. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2013.01.003 Fredrickson B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology. The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. ''The American psychologist'', ''56''(3), 218–226. https://doi.org/10.1037//0003-066x.56.3.218 Fredrickson, B. L., & Branigan, C. (2005). Positive emotions broaden the scope of attention and thought‐action repertoires. ''Cognition & Emotion'', ''19''(3), 313–332. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930441000238 Gross, J. J. (1998). The emerging field of emotion regulation: An integrative review. ''Review of General Psychology'', ''2''(3), 271–299. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.2.3.271 Gruber, J., Mauss, I. B., & Tamir, M. (2011). A Dark Side of Happiness? How, When, and Why Happiness Is Not Always Good. ''Perspectives on Psychological Science'', ''6''(3), 222–233. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691611406927 Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion regulation: Current status and future prospects. ''Psychological Inquiry'', ''26''(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2014.940781 Gruber, J., Villanueva, C., Burr, E., Purcell, J. R., & Karoly, H. (2020). Understanding and Taking Stock of Positive Emotion Disturbance. ''Social and personality psychology compass'', ''14''(1), e12515. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12515 Vogel, A. C., Brotman, M. A., Roy, A. K., & Perlman, S. B. (2023). Review: Defining positive emotion dysregulation: Integrating temperamental and clinical perspectives. ''Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry'', ''62''(3), 297–305. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2022.06.019 }} ==External links== * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/everyday-resilience/202404/emotional-well-being-5-healthy-practices-for-regulation Emotional wellbeing] (Psychology Today) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MyfzIQH6YKI Positive emotions with Barbara Fredrickson] (Youtube.com) * [https://sk.sagepub.com/ency/edvol/the-sage-encyclopedia-of-lifespan-human-development/chpt/reward-sensitivity Reward sensitivity] (sk.sagepub.com) __TOC__ [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion regulation]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Positive emotion]] 0z5irk6zvtv192nonmm50dnbt01w2oy 2836402 2836393 2026-10-07T02:29:28Z P U3270518 3106535 /* External links */ provided few more external links 2836402 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Positive emotion dysregulation:<br>What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} [[File:Woman in red sweater with hand in air.jpg|right|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1.''' Grace experiencing happiness and excitement following several positive life events.]] '''Scenario''' Grace is a university student who feels that she has just won the lottery of her life. First, she receives a PhD offer from her dream university. Shortly afterwards, she learns that she has been awarded a scholarship to support her studies. For next several days, Grace feels unusually happy and energised (see Figure 1). She sleeps very little because she believes there is too much to achieve. To celebrate her success, she purchases an expensive laptop, makes an impulsive travel booking and commits to several university projects despite having a full schedule. People close to Grace begin to wonder if something is not right. Her close friends tried to slow her down, but she ignored them. From Grace's perspective, she is just happy, motivated and confident as pieces of her life are finally coming together in a positive way. 💡 What is happening to Grace? Why do her positive emotions become so intense? {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotions]] are a normal and important part of human life. It includes a variety of feelings such as joy, interest, love, contentment, gratitude, awe, and amusement (Campos et al., 2013). These emotions play an important role in expanding people's thoughts and possible actions to help them build lasting psychological and social resources (Fredrickson, 2001). However, positive emotions might not always be beneficial if they are inadequately regulated. A review by Gruber et al. (2020) on positive emotion disturbance suggests that extremely strong or prolonged positive emotional states can sometimes interfere with adaptive functioning. Positive emotion dysregulation helps to explain how positive emotional states can feel initially feel good but can sometimes contribute to harmful thoughts and behaviour. This chapter will explore how positive emotions can shift from being adaptive to maladaptive, and how it can affect psychological functioning. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} 🔎 '''Focus questions''' 1️⃣ What is positive emotion dysregulation, and how can it be distinguished from healthy positive emotions? 2️⃣ What factors contribute to difficulties in regulating positive emotions? 3️⃣ How does positive emotion dysregulation affect psychological functioning and wellbeing? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Positive emotion: From benefit to dysregulation== Understanding positive emotion dysregulation requires more than just identifying whether an emotional experience is pleasant or intense. [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotions]] such as joy, amusement and interest are usually considered pleasant in nature (Fredrickson, 2001). These feelings shape the way people thick, act and connect with world around them. Positive emotion dysregulation refers to difficulties in responding to positive emotions (Mansueto et al., 2025). It involves problems such as accepting, controlling or managing actions while feeling happy or excited (Mansueto et al., 2025). Therefore, positive emotion dysregulation is not simply experiencing strong positive emotions. It is about struggling to regulate those feelings in a way that support effective functioning. This section will consider why positive emotions are important, how they are normally regulated and how difficulties in regulating them can lead to positive emotion dysregulation. === Positive emotions and its adaptive functions === [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotions]] play an important role in psychological functioning. They include numerous experiences such as [[wikipedia:Joy|joy]], [[wikipedia:Interest_(emotion)|interest]], [[wikipedia:Love|love]], [[wikipedia:Contentment|contentment]], [[wikipedia:Gratitude|gratitude]], [[wikipedia:Awe|awe]], and [[wikipedia:Amusement|amusement]] which can influence cognition, behaviour, and social interaction (Campos et al., 2013). Instead of simply producing pleasant effects, positive emotions can encourage individuals to explore their environment, learn from experiences, engage with others and pursue meaningful goals. Positive emotions can broaden people's thoughts, cognition and behaviour. [[wikipedia:Broaden-and-build|Broaden-and-Build Theory]] by Fredrickson (2001) proposes that positive emotions broaden momentary thought-action repertoires that encourages exploration, flexibility and engagement. For instance, excitement following major positive events may encourage student such as Grace to pursue new opportunities and get more involved in university. These positive emotions can help to build psychological and social resources, including relationships and coping resources (Fredrickson, 2001). Nevertheless, a network analysis about broaden-and-build theory on two studies (''N'' = 312; ''N''=302) found support for relationships between positive emotions, resources and life outcomes. But the broadening component that this theory proposed consistently deviated from the theory’s predictions, questioning its validity (Roth et al., 2024). However, positive emotions are not always beneficial in every circumstances. Effects of positive emotions may depend on intensity, timing, and context. This provides a foundation for understanding when positive emotion may become less adaptive (Gruber et al., 2011). This review challenges assumption of [[wikipedia:Positive_psychology|positive psychology]] that increasing positive emotion will improve well-being. It does not mean that strong positive emotions are always harmful. Review by Gruber et al. (2020), on positive emotion disturbance highlighted how positive emotion disturbance can interfere with adaptive functioning. Overall, these findings suggest that positive emotions can support adaptive functioning. But positive emotions are not automatic and same for everyone. Kashdan et al. (2015) reviewed myths regarding positive emotion regulation. This article emphasised flexibility in how people regulate emotions. Emotional responses should be adjusted according to the situation and personal goals. Thus, healthy positive emotion is not defined by its intensity alone. It depends on how it can be regulated flexibly without interfering with functioning. === From emotion regulation to positive emotion dysregulation === [[Emotional regulation]] refers to one’s ability to seek control over own emotional state (Gross, 2015). [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Extended process model of emotion regulation|The process model of emotion]] [[File:Positive emotion dysregulation pathway.png|thumb|434x434px|'''Figure 2.''' Applying the emotion regulation process to a positive situation. ''Note''. Some parts of this image has been adapted from Gross (1998) process model of emotion regulation ]][[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Extended process model of emotion regulation|regulation]] by Gross (1998) provides a framework for understanding how individual can modify emotional experiences. This model proposes that regulation occur at different stages which includes situation selection, situation modification, attentional deployment, cognitive appraisal and response modulation. Regulation can occur before an emotional response is fully developed or after anemotion has already been experienced. In Grace’s case, receiving the PhD offer and scholarship shifted her attention shifted towards positive achievement. She appraises the situation positively. According to Gross (1998) process model, emotion regulation then influences how she responds to and manages these emotions (see Figure 2). It also shapes what she does next.   Successful regulation helps individuals to modify their emotional experiences. In contrast, difficulties in managing emotional experiences can lead to [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Emotion dysregulation|emotion dysregulation]]. Difficulties in regulating emotions can lead to interpersonal problems, [[wikipedia:Rumination_(psychology)|rumination]], and several [[wikipedia:Mental_disorder|mental disorders]]. This highlight that it is important to understand how emotions are experienced and also how individuals respond to them. Importantly, positive emotions also require regulation. According to Carl et al., (2013), individuals may need to regulate their positive emotions based on their needs, goals and circumstances. Research has heavily focused on negative emotions and regulation of positive emotion has received less attention. This provides foundation to examine positive emotion dysregulation. === Recognising positive emotion dysregulation === Positive emotion dysregulation is defined as the difficulties in responding and managing positive emotional experiences. It is a multifaced construct that involves difficulty in accepting positive emotions, maintaining goal-directed behaviour, and controlling behaviour when experiencing positive emotions (Weiss et al., 2015). These three elements provide a useful of recognising difficulties in regulating positive emotions (see Table 1). An intense positive emotion does not necessarily means dysregulated. Feelings such as happiness, excitement, or enthusiasm may be well-placed responses to certain life events. Context, intensity, persistence and implications are crucial. Positive emotions can be considered [[wikipedia:Maladaptation|maladaptive]] if are poorly fitted to the situation or if they start to interfere with functioning (Gruber et al., 2011). Positive emotion dysregulation occurs when these feelings are hard to manage and when they disturb behaviour, goals and daily life. In Grace’s scenario, she engages in impulsive behaviour and commits to projects that she will not be able to complete on time. This highlights dysregulation as it affects her daily functioning. A review by Vogel et al. (2023), suggests that there is a need to examine the challenges of regulating positive emotions rather than focusing exclusively on negative emotions. This review also highlights that dysregulation should be understood in relation to the feelings and the way a person behaves. Research by Mansueto et al. (2025) found that stronger [[Metacognition|metacognitive]] beliefs were associated with greater positive emotion dysregulation, suggesting a therapeutic target. Overall, recognising emotional dysregulation means looking past how strong the feeling is and focusing on how person can respond and manage that feeling. '''Table 1''' ''Key elements for recognising positive emotion dysregulation'' ''Note. This table is based on the DERS-Positive dimensions researched by Weiss et al. (2015)'' {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! Dimension !Positive emotion regulation ! Positive emotion dysregulation |- | Accepting positive emotions |Accepts and acknowledges positive emotions without feeling that they are wrong or threatening | Feels uncomfortable or scared when experiencing positive emotions |- |Goal-directed behaviour |Can stay focused on goals while experiencing positive emotions |Difficulty in continuing goal-directed behaviour while experiencing positive emotions |- |Behavioural control |Can control behaviour and avoid acting impulsively when feeling happy or excited |Struggle in controlling behaviour or acts impulsively |} ; {{Robelbox|theme=5|title=Quiz}}[[Image: Hand Gesture - Holding a Magnifying Glass.gif|right|128px]] <quiz display=simple> Which of the following statement best differentiates healthy positive emotion from positive emotion dysregulation? |type="()"} - Healthy positive emotions improves behaviour, whereas dysregulation occurs when positive behaviour becomes excessive - Healthy positive emotions means emotions are freely expressed, whereas dysregulation occurs when they are suppressed + Healthy positive emotions supports functioning and positive emotion dysregulation involves difficulty in managing positive emotions. - Healthy positive emotions are always beneficial and positive emotion dysregulation means positive emotions become negative. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} == Factors underlying positive emotion dysregulation == Positive emotion dysregulation is unlikely result from a single factor. Instead, it is a result of psychological, physiological, biological, individual, and environment factors. All these factors may interact to influence how strongly positive emotions are experienced and how they are regulated. This section will examine biological and environmental influences, ways of coping and regulation of positive emotions, and environmental and social factors. === Biological and temperamental factors === One of the factors for positive emotion dysregulation can be an increased sensitivity to emotional events from a biological and temperamental perspective. Some people might be emotionally more sensitive or find it harder to control their emotional reactions. A review by Vogel et al. (2023) reported that [[wikipedia:Surgency|surgency]] negatively correlated with effortful control and self-regulation in childhood. This may suggests that high surgency can be associated with aggression and externalising behaviours. Nonetheless, surgency has positive implications too and its link with regulation changed at different developmental stages. Therefore, it is hard to make strong conclusion to explain dysregulation only through surgency. Difficulties may also arise if there is high emotional activation that exceeds individual’s cognitive capacity. Additionally, Vogel et al. (2023) review only highlighted that [[wikipedia:Temperament|temperamental]] traits represent a vulnerability but not the exact causes of positive emotion dysregulation. Linehan’s (1993) [[wikipedia:Biosocial_theory|biosocial model]] offers additional perspective where biological emotional sensitivity combined with environmental invalidation leads to emotional dysregulation. It results in difficulties in managing and responding to intense positive emotions. Limitation of this theory is that it is not designed for positive emotions specifically. But it can be used to predict that people with high biological emotional sensitivity will be affected by the way other people perceive their emotions. Taken together, the developmental findings by Vogel et al. (2023) combined with Linehan’s (1993) theory can provide evidence that temperament may create vulnerability. But ability to regulate and environmental experiences determine the impact of excessive positive emotion. === Coping and emotion-regulation strategies === Individual’s ability to cope with their emotions may determine whether their strong emotions remain adaptive or turn into something uncontrollable. The process model of emotion regulation by Gross (1998) provides useful framework for understanding emotion regulation process. According to this model, regulation involves modifying emotional responses according to the situation and goals. Studies that look at emotion regulation back this idea. Livingstone and Srivastava (2012) found three ways to increase the level of positive emotions which are engagement, betterment, and indulgence. This provides evidence that increasing emotions does not necessarily mean dysregulation. [[wikipedia:Coping|Coping strategies]] may contribute to vulnerability to positive emotion dysregulation. To assess how regulation strategies work in real life conditions, Boemo et al. (2022) undertook a [[wikipedia:Systematic_review|systematic review]] and [[wikipedia:Meta-analysis|meta-analysis]] of experience sampling and daily diary design. The findings showed that [[wikipedia:Appraisal_theory|reappraisal]] was associated with greater positive effect, while [[wikipedia:Rumination_(psychology)|rumination]] and suppression were associated with poorer affective outcomes. Reappraisal prospectively predicted positive affect (''r'' = .34), while rumination prospectively predicted negative affect (''r'' = .16). These results shows that how people manage emotions can influence emotional functioning. The review focused on emotion regulation not on positive emotion dysregulation so it cannot prove that bad regulation leads to positive emotion dysregulation. Haag et al. (2024) conducted systematic review of 11 studies involving 3,775 adolescents (''M'' = 13.4 years) to understand emotion regulation flexibility in adolescents. Results of this study found that greater emotion regulation flexibility is associated with more adaptive outcomes, including higher positive effect and self-worth. The study conceptualised emotion regulation flexibility in two ways which was flexibility in regulating emotions according to the situation and the use of emotion regulation strategies. However, the evidence is limited as most studies were [[wikipedia:Cross-sectional_study|cross-sectional]] and community based. There was also heavy reliance on [[wikipedia:Self-report_study|self-report measures]]. Therfore, the findings suggests that poor regulation may increase vulnerability to emotional difficulties. But the study does not establish that low emotional regulation flexibility directly causes positive emotion dysregulation. === Environmental and social factors === * Temperament may influence positive emotional reactivity (Vogel et al., 2023). * Individual and contextual factors influences emotion regulation. * Situation can determine whether positive emotional activation is adaptive.<br /> {{Robelbox|theme=10|title=Quiz}}[[Image: Hand Gesture - Holding a Magnifying Glass.gif|right|128px]] <quiz display=simple> Why high surgency can not be considered as a direct cause of positive emotion dysregulation ? |type="()"} - Surgency only occurs during adulthood - Surgency has only negative effects - Surgency is not related to emotional functioning + The effects of surgency is adaptive and its association with regulation changes across development </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} == Consequences of positive emotion dysregulation on psychological functioning == The regulation of positive emotions may manifest itself through altered thinking processes, decision-making, goals pursued and behaviour of an individual. While positive emotions helps to expand attention and motivate individuals to explore more, strong and poorly regulated emotional activation may influence judgement. This section will discuss the way in which positive experiences may impact cognition, motivation and decision-making processes. === Changes in cognition and decision-making === * Positive emotions can broaden attention and action thought repertoires. Fredrickson and Branigan (2005) found that positive affective states broadened both attention and the range of thought-action responses that the participants gave. It provided empirical support for broaden-and-build theory. * Positive emotion dysregulation can influence decision-making. * The effects of cognitive broadening are context-dependent === Goal pursuit and behavioural activation === * The positive emotions would enhance approach motivation and behavioural activation. * Excessive activation might help achieve goals but could be exaggerated. In case of exaggeration, the activation might make people over-commit. * Grace’s behaviour explains this as initially she was motivated to participate in university opportunities. But repeatedly taking additional projects despite limited time shows that goal directed activation is becoming difficult to regulate. === Risk-taking and Impulsivity === * Presence of positive emotional activation may lead to increased level of impulsivity and risky behaviour. * Positive urgency provides a precise reason for rash behaviour during high levels of positive emotions. Cyders and Smith (2008) define positive urgency as the tendency of behaving rashly during high levels of positive affect. This behavioural trend can be risky as well. * Impulsivity and risk-taking should not be equated with positive emotion dysregulation {{Robelbox|theme=4|title=Quiz}}[[Image: Hand Gesture - Holding a Magnifying Glass.gif|right|128px]] <quiz display=simple> Which of the following is correct regarding positive emotion dysregulation and psychological functioning? |type="()"} + Poorly regulated positive emotions can interfere with attention, wellbeing, relationships and everyday responsibilities - Positive emotions are always harmful - Positive emotions have no effect on behaviour and functioning - Intense positive emotions always indicate dysregulation </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} ==Conclusion== *Positive emotion dysregulation is not simply experiencing intense happiness, but difficulty in regulating positive emotions. *Dysregulation can influence thoughts, decision-making and behaviour. *Difficulty in regulating positive emotions may affect everyday responsibilities and functioning. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} [[File:Nuvola apps kuser.svg|Nuvola apps kuser|left|20px]] ''' Take-home messages:''' - Positive emotion dysregulation occurs when positive emotions are difficult to regulate in ways that are appropriate according to the situation. - When positive emotions are poorly regulated, they can interfere with an individual's wellbeing, attention and everyday functioning. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==See also == *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions|Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions]] (Book chapter, 2016) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Emotion dysregulation|Emotion dysregulation]] (Book chapter, 2026) *[[wikipedia:Emotional_dysregulation|Emotional dysregulation]] (Wikipedia) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Cyders, M. A., & Smith, G. T. (2008). Emotion-based dispositions to rash action: Positive and negative urgency. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''134''(6), 807–828. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013341 Campos, B., Shiota, M. N., Keltner, D., Gonzaga, G. C., & Goetz, J. L. (2013). What is shared, what is different? Core relational themes and expressive displays of eight positive emotions. ''Cognition and Emotion'', ''27''(1), 37–52. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2012.683852 Carl, J. R., Soskin, D. P., Kerns, C., & Barlow, D. H. (2013). Positive emotion regulation in emotional disorders: A theoretical review. ''Clinical Psychology Review'', ''33''(3), 343–360. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2013.01.003 Fredrickson B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology. The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. ''The American psychologist'', ''56''(3), 218–226. https://doi.org/10.1037//0003-066x.56.3.218 Fredrickson, B. L., & Branigan, C. (2005). Positive emotions broaden the scope of attention and thought‐action repertoires. ''Cognition & Emotion'', ''19''(3), 313–332. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930441000238 Gross, J. J. (1998). The emerging field of emotion regulation: An integrative review. ''Review of General Psychology'', ''2''(3), 271–299. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.2.3.271 Gruber, J., Mauss, I. B., & Tamir, M. (2011). A Dark Side of Happiness? How, When, and Why Happiness Is Not Always Good. ''Perspectives on Psychological Science'', ''6''(3), 222–233. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691611406927 Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion regulation: Current status and future prospects. ''Psychological Inquiry'', ''26''(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2014.940781 Gruber, J., Villanueva, C., Burr, E., Purcell, J. R., & Karoly, H. (2020). Understanding and Taking Stock of Positive Emotion Disturbance. ''Social and personality psychology compass'', ''14''(1), e12515. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12515 Vogel, A. C., Brotman, M. A., Roy, A. K., & Perlman, S. B. (2023). Review: Defining positive emotion dysregulation: Integrating temperamental and clinical perspectives. ''Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry'', ''62''(3), 297–305. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2022.06.019 }} ==External links== * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/everyday-resilience/202404/emotional-well-being-5-healthy-practices-for-regulation Emotional wellbeing] (Psychology today) * [https://www.belonghealth.com.au/emotional-regulation-dysregulation-perth-mandurah.html Emotion dysregulation consequences] (Belong health) * [https://www.londonpsychiatry.clinic/blog/5-evidence-based-emotional-regulation-strategies Emotional regulation strategies] (London psychiatry clinic) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MyfzIQH6YKI Positive emotions with Barbara Fredrickson] (Youtube.com) __TOC__ [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion regulation]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Positive emotion]] r66eqnjilx7nte3znu19re5ivg2ymra 2836407 2836402 2026-10-07T02:42:00Z P U3270518 3106535 /* Positive emotions and its adaptive functions */ 2836407 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Positive emotion dysregulation:<br>What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} [[File:Woman in red sweater with hand in air.jpg|right|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1.''' Grace experiencing happiness and excitement following several positive life events.]] '''Scenario''' Grace is a university student who feels that she has just won the lottery of her life. First, she receives a PhD offer from her dream university. Shortly afterwards, she learns that she has been awarded a scholarship to support her studies. For next several days, Grace feels unusually happy and energised (see Figure 1). She sleeps very little because she believes there is too much to achieve. To celebrate her success, she purchases an expensive laptop, makes an impulsive travel booking and commits to several university projects despite having a full schedule. People close to Grace begin to wonder if something is not right. Her close friends tried to slow her down, but she ignored them. From Grace's perspective, she is just happy, motivated and confident as pieces of her life are finally coming together in a positive way. 💡 What is happening to Grace? Why do her positive emotions become so intense? {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotions]] are a normal and important part of human life. It includes a variety of feelings such as joy, interest, love, contentment, gratitude, awe, and amusement (Campos et al., 2013). These emotions play an important role in expanding people's thoughts and possible actions to help them build lasting psychological and social resources (Fredrickson, 2001). However, positive emotions might not always be beneficial if they are inadequately regulated. A review by Gruber et al. (2020) on positive emotion disturbance suggests that extremely strong or prolonged positive emotional states can sometimes interfere with adaptive functioning. Positive emotion dysregulation helps to explain how positive emotional states can feel initially feel good but can sometimes contribute to harmful thoughts and behaviour. This chapter will explore how positive emotions can shift from being adaptive to maladaptive, and how it can affect psychological functioning. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} 🔎 '''Focus questions''' 1️⃣ What is positive emotion dysregulation, and how can it be distinguished from healthy positive emotions? 2️⃣ What factors contribute to difficulties in regulating positive emotions? 3️⃣ How does positive emotion dysregulation affect psychological functioning and wellbeing? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Positive emotion: From benefit to dysregulation== Understanding positive emotion dysregulation requires more than just identifying whether an emotional experience is pleasant or intense. [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotions]] such as joy, amusement and interest are usually considered pleasant in nature (Fredrickson, 2001). These feelings shape the way people thick, act and connect with world around them. Positive emotion dysregulation refers to difficulties in responding to positive emotions (Mansueto et al., 2025). It involves problems such as accepting, controlling or managing actions while feeling happy or excited (Mansueto et al., 2025). Therefore, positive emotion dysregulation is not simply experiencing strong positive emotions. It is about struggling to regulate those feelings in a way that support effective functioning. This section will consider why positive emotions are important, how they are normally regulated and how difficulties in regulating them can lead to positive emotion dysregulation. === Positive emotions and its adaptive functions === [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotions]] play an important role in psychological functioning. They include numerous experiences such as [[wikipedia:Joy|joy]], [[wikipedia:Interest_(emotion)|interest]], [[wikipedia:Love|love]], [[wikipedia:Contentment|contentment]], [[wikipedia:Gratitude|gratitude]], [[wikipedia:Awe|awe]], and [[wikipedia:Amusement|amusement]] which can influence cognition, behaviour, and social interaction (Campos et al., 2013). Instead of simply producing pleasant effects, positive emotions can encourage individuals to explore their environment, learn from experiences, engage with others and pursue meaningful goals. Positive emotions can broaden people's thoughts, cognition and behaviour. [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions|Broaden-and-Build Theory]] by Fredrickson (2001) proposes that positive emotions broaden momentary thought-action repertoires that encourages exploration, flexibility and engagement. For instance, excitement following major positive events may encourage student such as Grace to pursue new opportunities and get more involved in university. These positive emotions can help to build psychological and social resources, including relationships and coping resources (Fredrickson, 2001). Nevertheless, a network analysis about broaden-and-build theory on two studies (''N'' = 312; ''N''=302) found support for relationships between positive emotions, resources and life outcomes. But the broadening component that this theory proposed consistently deviated from the theory’s predictions, questioning its validity (Roth et al., 2024). However, positive emotions are not always beneficial in every circumstances. Effects of positive emotions may depend on intensity, timing, and context. This provides a foundation for understanding when positive emotion may become less adaptive (Gruber et al., 2011). This review challenges assumption of [[wikipedia:Positive_psychology|positive psychology]] that increasing positive emotion will improve well-being. It does not mean that strong positive emotions are always harmful. Review by Gruber et al. (2020), on positive emotion disturbance highlighted how positive emotion disturbance can interfere with adaptive functioning. Overall, these findings suggest that positive emotions can support adaptive functioning. But positive emotions are not automatic and same for everyone. Kashdan et al. (2015) reviewed myths regarding positive emotion regulation. This article emphasised flexibility in how people regulate emotions. Emotional responses should be adjusted according to the situation and personal goals. Thus, healthy positive emotion is not defined by its intensity alone. It depends on how it can be regulated flexibly without interfering with functioning. === From emotion regulation to positive emotion dysregulation === [[Emotional regulation]] refers to one’s ability to seek control over own emotional state (Gross, 2015). [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Extended process model of emotion regulation|The process model of emotion]] [[File:Positive emotion dysregulation pathway.png|thumb|434x434px|'''Figure 2.''' Applying the emotion regulation process to a positive situation. ''Note''. Some parts of this image has been adapted from Gross (1998) process model of emotion regulation ]][[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Extended process model of emotion regulation|regulation]] by Gross (1998) provides a framework for understanding how individual can modify emotional experiences. This model proposes that regulation occur at different stages which includes situation selection, situation modification, attentional deployment, cognitive appraisal and response modulation. Regulation can occur before an emotional response is fully developed or after anemotion has already been experienced. In Grace’s case, receiving the PhD offer and scholarship shifted her attention shifted towards positive achievement. She appraises the situation positively. According to Gross (1998) process model, emotion regulation then influences how she responds to and manages these emotions (see Figure 2). It also shapes what she does next.   Successful regulation helps individuals to modify their emotional experiences. In contrast, difficulties in managing emotional experiences can lead to [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Emotion dysregulation|emotion dysregulation]]. Difficulties in regulating emotions can lead to interpersonal problems, [[wikipedia:Rumination_(psychology)|rumination]], and several [[wikipedia:Mental_disorder|mental disorders]]. This highlight that it is important to understand how emotions are experienced and also how individuals respond to them. Importantly, positive emotions also require regulation. According to Carl et al., (2013), individuals may need to regulate their positive emotions based on their needs, goals and circumstances. Research has heavily focused on negative emotions and regulation of positive emotion has received less attention. This provides foundation to examine positive emotion dysregulation. === Recognising positive emotion dysregulation === Positive emotion dysregulation is defined as the difficulties in responding and managing positive emotional experiences. It is a multifaced construct that involves difficulty in accepting positive emotions, maintaining goal-directed behaviour, and controlling behaviour when experiencing positive emotions (Weiss et al., 2015). These three elements provide a useful of recognising difficulties in regulating positive emotions (see Table 1). An intense positive emotion does not necessarily means dysregulated. Feelings such as happiness, excitement, or enthusiasm may be well-placed responses to certain life events. Context, intensity, persistence and implications are crucial. Positive emotions can be considered [[wikipedia:Maladaptation|maladaptive]] if are poorly fitted to the situation or if they start to interfere with functioning (Gruber et al., 2011). Positive emotion dysregulation occurs when these feelings are hard to manage and when they disturb behaviour, goals and daily life. In Grace’s scenario, she engages in impulsive behaviour and commits to projects that she will not be able to complete on time. This highlights dysregulation as it affects her daily functioning. A review by Vogel et al. (2023), suggests that there is a need to examine the challenges of regulating positive emotions rather than focusing exclusively on negative emotions. This review also highlights that dysregulation should be understood in relation to the feelings and the way a person behaves. Research by Mansueto et al. (2025) found that stronger [[Metacognition|metacognitive]] beliefs were associated with greater positive emotion dysregulation, suggesting a therapeutic target. Overall, recognising emotional dysregulation means looking past how strong the feeling is and focusing on how person can respond and manage that feeling. '''Table 1''' ''Key elements for recognising positive emotion dysregulation'' ''Note. This table is based on the DERS-Positive dimensions researched by Weiss et al. (2015)'' {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! Dimension !Positive emotion regulation ! Positive emotion dysregulation |- | Accepting positive emotions |Accepts and acknowledges positive emotions without feeling that they are wrong or threatening | Feels uncomfortable or scared when experiencing positive emotions |- |Goal-directed behaviour |Can stay focused on goals while experiencing positive emotions |Difficulty in continuing goal-directed behaviour while experiencing positive emotions |- |Behavioural control |Can control behaviour and avoid acting impulsively when feeling happy or excited |Struggle in controlling behaviour or acts impulsively |} ; {{Robelbox|theme=5|title=Quiz}}[[Image: Hand Gesture - Holding a Magnifying Glass.gif|right|128px]] <quiz display=simple> Which of the following statement best differentiates healthy positive emotion from positive emotion dysregulation? |type="()"} - Healthy positive emotions improves behaviour, whereas dysregulation occurs when positive behaviour becomes excessive - Healthy positive emotions means emotions are freely expressed, whereas dysregulation occurs when they are suppressed + Healthy positive emotions supports functioning and positive emotion dysregulation involves difficulty in managing positive emotions. - Healthy positive emotions are always beneficial and positive emotion dysregulation means positive emotions become negative. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} == Factors underlying positive emotion dysregulation == Positive emotion dysregulation is unlikely result from a single factor. Instead, it is a result of psychological, physiological, biological, individual, and environment factors. All these factors may interact to influence how strongly positive emotions are experienced and how they are regulated. This section will examine biological and environmental influences, ways of coping and regulation of positive emotions, and environmental and social factors. === Biological and temperamental factors === One of the factors for positive emotion dysregulation can be an increased sensitivity to emotional events from a biological and temperamental perspective. Some people might be emotionally more sensitive or find it harder to control their emotional reactions. A review by Vogel et al. (2023) reported that [[wikipedia:Surgency|surgency]] negatively correlated with effortful control and self-regulation in childhood. This may suggests that high surgency can be associated with aggression and externalising behaviours. Nonetheless, surgency has positive implications too and its link with regulation changed at different developmental stages. Therefore, it is hard to make strong conclusion to explain dysregulation only through surgency. Difficulties may also arise if there is high emotional activation that exceeds individual’s cognitive capacity. Additionally, Vogel et al. (2023) review only highlighted that [[wikipedia:Temperament|temperamental]] traits represent a vulnerability but not the exact causes of positive emotion dysregulation. Linehan’s (1993) [[wikipedia:Biosocial_theory|biosocial model]] offers additional perspective where biological emotional sensitivity combined with environmental invalidation leads to emotional dysregulation. It results in difficulties in managing and responding to intense positive emotions. Limitation of this theory is that it is not designed for positive emotions specifically. But it can be used to predict that people with high biological emotional sensitivity will be affected by the way other people perceive their emotions. Taken together, the developmental findings by Vogel et al. (2023) combined with Linehan’s (1993) theory can provide evidence that temperament may create vulnerability. But ability to regulate and environmental experiences determine the impact of excessive positive emotion. === Coping and emotion-regulation strategies === Individual’s ability to cope with their emotions may determine whether their strong emotions remain adaptive or turn into something uncontrollable. The process model of emotion regulation by Gross (1998) provides useful framework for understanding emotion regulation process. According to this model, regulation involves modifying emotional responses according to the situation and goals. Studies that look at emotion regulation back this idea. Livingstone and Srivastava (2012) found three ways to increase the level of positive emotions which are engagement, betterment, and indulgence. This provides evidence that increasing emotions does not necessarily mean dysregulation. [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Coping and emotion|Coping strategies]] may contribute to vulnerability to positive emotion dysregulation. To assess how regulation strategies work in real life conditions, Boemo et al. (2022) undertook a [[wikipedia:Systematic_review|systematic review]] and [[wikipedia:Meta-analysis|meta-analysis]] of experience sampling and daily diary design. The findings showed that [[wikipedia:Appraisal_theory|reappraisal]] was associated with greater positive effect, while [[wikipedia:Rumination_(psychology)|rumination]] and suppression were associated with poorer affective outcomes. Reappraisal prospectively predicted positive affect (''r'' = .34), while rumination prospectively predicted negative affect (''r'' = .16). These results shows that how people manage emotions can influence emotional functioning. The review focused on emotion regulation not on positive emotion dysregulation so it cannot prove that bad regulation leads to positive emotion dysregulation. Haag et al. (2024) conducted systematic review of 11 studies involving 3,775 adolescents (''M'' = 13.4 years) to understand emotion regulation flexibility in adolescents. Results of this study found that greater emotion regulation flexibility is associated with more adaptive outcomes, including higher positive effect and self-worth. The study conceptualised emotion regulation flexibility in two ways which was flexibility in regulating emotions according to the situation and the use of emotion regulation strategies. However, the evidence is limited as most studies were [[wikipedia:Cross-sectional_study|cross-sectional]] and community based. There was also heavy reliance on [[wikipedia:Self-report_study|self-report measures]]. Therfore, the findings suggests that poor regulation may increase vulnerability to emotional difficulties. But the study does not establish that low emotional regulation flexibility directly causes positive emotion dysregulation. === Environmental and social factors === * Temperament may influence positive emotional reactivity (Vogel et al., 2023). * Individual and contextual factors influences emotion regulation. * Situation can determine whether positive emotional activation is adaptive.<br /> {{Robelbox|theme=10|title=Quiz}}[[Image: Hand Gesture - Holding a Magnifying Glass.gif|right|128px]] <quiz display=simple> Why high surgency can not be considered as a direct cause of positive emotion dysregulation ? |type="()"} - Surgency only occurs during adulthood - Surgency has only negative effects - Surgency is not related to emotional functioning + The effects of surgency is adaptive and its association with regulation changes across development </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} == Consequences of positive emotion dysregulation on psychological functioning == The regulation of positive emotions may manifest itself through altered thinking processes, decision-making, goals pursued and behaviour of an individual. While positive emotions helps to expand attention and motivate individuals to explore more, strong and poorly regulated emotional activation may influence judgement. This section will discuss the way in which positive experiences may impact cognition, motivation and decision-making processes. === Changes in cognition and decision-making === * Positive emotions can broaden attention and action thought repertoires. Fredrickson and Branigan (2005) found that positive affective states broadened both attention and the range of thought-action responses that the participants gave. It provided empirical support for broaden-and-build theory. * Positive emotion dysregulation can influence decision-making. * The effects of cognitive broadening are context-dependent === Goal pursuit and behavioural activation === * The positive emotions would enhance approach motivation and behavioural activation. * Excessive activation might help achieve goals but could be exaggerated. In case of exaggeration, the activation might make people over-commit. * Grace’s behaviour explains this as initially she was motivated to participate in university opportunities. But repeatedly taking additional projects despite limited time shows that goal directed activation is becoming difficult to regulate. === Risk-taking and Impulsivity === * Presence of positive emotional activation may lead to increased level of impulsivity and risky behaviour. * Positive urgency provides a precise reason for rash behaviour during high levels of positive emotions. Cyders and Smith (2008) define positive urgency as the tendency of behaving rashly during high levels of positive affect. This behavioural trend can be risky as well. * Impulsivity and risk-taking should not be equated with positive emotion dysregulation {{Robelbox|theme=4|title=Quiz}}[[Image: Hand Gesture - Holding a Magnifying Glass.gif|right|128px]] <quiz display=simple> Which of the following is correct regarding positive emotion dysregulation and psychological functioning? |type="()"} + Poorly regulated positive emotions can interfere with attention, wellbeing, relationships and everyday responsibilities - Positive emotions are always harmful - Positive emotions have no effect on behaviour and functioning - Intense positive emotions always indicate dysregulation </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} ==Conclusion== *Positive emotion dysregulation is not simply experiencing intense happiness, but difficulty in regulating positive emotions. *Dysregulation can influence thoughts, decision-making and behaviour. *Difficulty in regulating positive emotions may affect everyday responsibilities and functioning. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} [[File:Nuvola apps kuser.svg|Nuvola apps kuser|left|20px]] ''' Take-home messages:''' - Positive emotion dysregulation occurs when positive emotions are difficult to regulate in ways that are appropriate according to the situation. - When positive emotions are poorly regulated, they can interfere with an individual's wellbeing, attention and everyday functioning. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==See also == *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions|Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions]] (Book chapter, 2016) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Coping and emotion|Coping and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Emotion dysregulation|Emotion dysregulation]] (Book chapter, 2026) *[[wikipedia:Emotional_dysregulation|Emotional dysregulation]] (Wikipedia) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Cyders, M. A., & Smith, G. T. (2008). Emotion-based dispositions to rash action: Positive and negative urgency. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''134''(6), 807–828. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013341 Campos, B., Shiota, M. N., Keltner, D., Gonzaga, G. C., & Goetz, J. L. (2013). What is shared, what is different? Core relational themes and expressive displays of eight positive emotions. ''Cognition and Emotion'', ''27''(1), 37–52. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2012.683852 Carl, J. R., Soskin, D. P., Kerns, C., & Barlow, D. H. (2013). Positive emotion regulation in emotional disorders: A theoretical review. ''Clinical Psychology Review'', ''33''(3), 343–360. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2013.01.003 Fredrickson B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology. The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. ''The American psychologist'', ''56''(3), 218–226. https://doi.org/10.1037//0003-066x.56.3.218 Fredrickson, B. L., & Branigan, C. (2005). Positive emotions broaden the scope of attention and thought‐action repertoires. ''Cognition & Emotion'', ''19''(3), 313–332. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930441000238 Gross, J. J. (1998). The emerging field of emotion regulation: An integrative review. ''Review of General Psychology'', ''2''(3), 271–299. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.2.3.271 Gruber, J., Mauss, I. B., & Tamir, M. (2011). A Dark Side of Happiness? How, When, and Why Happiness Is Not Always Good. ''Perspectives on Psychological Science'', ''6''(3), 222–233. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691611406927 Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion regulation: Current status and future prospects. ''Psychological Inquiry'', ''26''(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2014.940781 Gruber, J., Villanueva, C., Burr, E., Purcell, J. R., & Karoly, H. (2020). Understanding and Taking Stock of Positive Emotion Disturbance. ''Social and personality psychology compass'', ''14''(1), e12515. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12515 Vogel, A. C., Brotman, M. A., Roy, A. K., & Perlman, S. B. (2023). Review: Defining positive emotion dysregulation: Integrating temperamental and clinical perspectives. ''Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry'', ''62''(3), 297–305. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2022.06.019 }} ==External links== * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/everyday-resilience/202404/emotional-well-being-5-healthy-practices-for-regulation Emotional wellbeing] (Psychology today) * [https://www.belonghealth.com.au/emotional-regulation-dysregulation-perth-mandurah.html Emotion dysregulation consequences] (Belong health) * [https://www.londonpsychiatry.clinic/blog/5-evidence-based-emotional-regulation-strategies Emotional regulation strategies] (London psychiatry clinic) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MyfzIQH6YKI Positive emotions with Barbara Fredrickson] (Youtube.com) __TOC__ [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion regulation]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Positive emotion]] 4woo54hch090f932q70v6xaq674dms7 2836416 2836407 2026-10-07T03:17:33Z P U3270518 3106535 added few points in coping section 2836416 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Positive emotion dysregulation:<br>What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} [[File:Woman in red sweater with hand in air.jpg|right|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1.''' Grace experiencing happiness and excitement following several positive life events.]] '''Scenario''' Grace is a university student who feels that she has just won the lottery of her life. First, she receives a PhD offer from her dream university. Shortly afterwards, she learns that she has been awarded a scholarship to support her studies. For next several days, Grace feels unusually happy and energised (see Figure 1). She sleeps very little because she believes there is too much to achieve. To celebrate her success, she purchases an expensive laptop, makes an impulsive travel booking and commits to several university projects despite having a full schedule. People close to Grace begin to wonder if something is not right. Her close friends tried to slow her down, but she ignored them. From Grace's perspective, she is just happy, motivated and confident as pieces of her life are finally coming together in a positive way. 💡 What is happening to Grace? Why do her positive emotions become so intense? {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotions]] are a normal and important part of human life. It includes a variety of feelings such as joy, interest, love, contentment, gratitude, awe, and amusement (Campos et al., 2013). These emotions play an important role in expanding people's thoughts and possible actions to help them build lasting psychological and social resources (Fredrickson, 2001). However, positive emotions might not always be beneficial if they are inadequately regulated. A review by Gruber et al. (2020) on positive emotion disturbance suggests that extremely strong or prolonged positive emotional states can sometimes interfere with adaptive functioning. Positive emotion dysregulation helps to explain how positive emotional states can feel initially feel good but can sometimes contribute to harmful thoughts and behaviour. This chapter will explore how positive emotions can shift from being adaptive to maladaptive, and how it can affect psychological functioning. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} 🔎 '''Focus questions''' 1️⃣ What is positive emotion dysregulation, and how can it be distinguished from healthy positive emotions? 2️⃣ What factors contribute to difficulties in regulating positive emotions? 3️⃣ How does positive emotion dysregulation affect psychological functioning and wellbeing? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Positive emotion: From benefit to dysregulation== Understanding positive emotion dysregulation requires more than just identifying whether an emotional experience is pleasant or intense. [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotions]] such as joy, amusement and interest are usually considered pleasant in nature (Fredrickson, 2001). These feelings shape the way people thick, act and connect with world around them. Positive emotion dysregulation refers to difficulties in responding to positive emotions (Mansueto et al., 2025). It involves problems such as accepting, controlling or managing actions while feeling happy or excited (Mansueto et al., 2025). Therefore, positive emotion dysregulation is not simply experiencing strong positive emotions. It is about struggling to regulate those feelings in a way that support effective functioning. This section will consider why positive emotions are important, how they are normally regulated and how difficulties in regulating them can lead to positive emotion dysregulation. === Positive emotions and its adaptive functions === [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotions]] play an important role in psychological functioning. They include numerous experiences such as [[wikipedia:Joy|joy]], [[wikipedia:Interest_(emotion)|interest]], [[wikipedia:Love|love]], [[wikipedia:Contentment|contentment]], [[wikipedia:Gratitude|gratitude]], [[wikipedia:Awe|awe]], and [[wikipedia:Amusement|amusement]] which can influence cognition, behaviour, and social interaction (Campos et al., 2013). Instead of simply producing pleasant effects, positive emotions can encourage individuals to explore their environment, learn from experiences, engage with others and pursue meaningful goals. Positive emotions can broaden people's thoughts, cognition and behaviour. [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions|Broaden-and-Build Theory]] by Fredrickson (2001) proposes that positive emotions broaden momentary thought-action repertoires that encourages exploration, flexibility and engagement. For instance, excitement following major positive events may encourage student such as Grace to pursue new opportunities and get more involved in university. These positive emotions can help to build psychological and social resources, including relationships and coping resources (Fredrickson, 2001). Nevertheless, a network analysis about broaden-and-build theory on two studies (''N'' = 312; ''N''=302) found support for relationships between positive emotions, resources and life outcomes. But the broadening component that this theory proposed consistently deviated from the theory’s predictions, questioning its validity (Roth et al., 2024). However, positive emotions are not always beneficial in every circumstances. Effects of positive emotions may depend on intensity, timing, and context. This provides a foundation for understanding when positive emotion may become less adaptive (Gruber et al., 2011). This review challenges assumption of [[wikipedia:Positive_psychology|positive psychology]] that increasing positive emotion will improve well-being. It does not mean that strong positive emotions are always harmful. Review by Gruber et al. (2020), on positive emotion disturbance highlighted how positive emotion disturbance can interfere with adaptive functioning. Overall, these findings suggest that positive emotions can support adaptive functioning. But positive emotions are not automatic and same for everyone. Kashdan et al. (2015) reviewed myths regarding positive emotion regulation. This article emphasised flexibility in how people regulate emotions. Emotional responses should be adjusted according to the situation and personal goals. Thus, healthy positive emotion is not defined by its intensity alone. It depends on how it can be regulated flexibly without interfering with functioning. === From emotion regulation to positive emotion dysregulation === [[Emotional regulation]] refers to one’s ability to seek control over own emotional state (Gross, 2015). [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Extended process model of emotion regulation|The process model of emotion]] [[File:Positive emotion dysregulation pathway.png|thumb|434x434px|'''Figure 2.''' Applying the emotion regulation process to a positive situation. ''Note''. Some parts of this image has been adapted from Gross (1998) process model of emotion regulation ]][[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Extended process model of emotion regulation|regulation]] by Gross (1998) provides a framework for understanding how individual can modify emotional experiences. This model proposes that regulation occur at different stages which includes situation selection, situation modification, attentional deployment, cognitive appraisal and response modulation. Regulation can occur before an emotional response is fully developed or after anemotion has already been experienced. In Grace’s case, receiving the PhD offer and scholarship shifted her attention shifted towards positive achievement. She appraises the situation positively. According to Gross (1998) process model, emotion regulation then influences how she responds to and manages these emotions (see Figure 2). It also shapes what she does next.   Successful regulation helps individuals to modify their emotional experiences. In contrast, difficulties in managing emotional experiences can lead to [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Emotion dysregulation|emotion dysregulation]]. Difficulties in regulating emotions can lead to interpersonal problems, [[wikipedia:Rumination_(psychology)|rumination]], and several [[wikipedia:Mental_disorder|mental disorders]]. This highlight that it is important to understand how emotions are experienced and also how individuals respond to them. Importantly, positive emotions also require regulation. According to Carl et al., (2013), individuals may need to regulate their positive emotions based on their needs, goals and circumstances. Research has heavily focused on negative emotions and regulation of positive emotion has received less attention. This provides foundation to examine positive emotion dysregulation. === Recognising positive emotion dysregulation === Positive emotion dysregulation is defined as the difficulties in responding and managing positive emotional experiences. It is a multifaced construct that involves difficulty in accepting positive emotions, maintaining goal-directed behaviour, and controlling behaviour when experiencing positive emotions (Weiss et al., 2015). These three elements provide a useful of recognising difficulties in regulating positive emotions (see Table 1). An intense positive emotion does not necessarily means dysregulated. Feelings such as happiness, excitement, or enthusiasm may be well-placed responses to certain life events. Context, intensity, persistence and implications are crucial. Positive emotions can be considered [[wikipedia:Maladaptation|maladaptive]] if are poorly fitted to the situation or if they start to interfere with functioning (Gruber et al., 2011). Positive emotion dysregulation occurs when these feelings are hard to manage and when they disturb behaviour, goals and daily life. In Grace’s scenario, she engages in impulsive behaviour and commits to projects that she will not be able to complete on time. This highlights dysregulation as it affects her daily functioning. A review by Vogel et al. (2023), suggests that there is a need to examine the challenges of regulating positive emotions rather than focusing exclusively on negative emotions. This review also highlights that dysregulation should be understood in relation to the feelings and the way a person behaves. Research by Mansueto et al. (2025) found that stronger [[Metacognition|metacognitive]] beliefs were associated with greater positive emotion dysregulation, suggesting a therapeutic target. Overall, recognising emotional dysregulation means looking past how strong the feeling is and focusing on how person can respond and manage that feeling. '''Table 1''' ''Key elements for recognising positive emotion dysregulation'' ''Note. This table is based on the DERS-Positive dimensions researched by Weiss et al. (2015)'' {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! Dimension !Positive emotion regulation ! Positive emotion dysregulation |- | Accepting positive emotions |Accepts and acknowledges positive emotions without feeling that they are wrong or threatening | Feels uncomfortable or scared when experiencing positive emotions |- |Goal-directed behaviour |Can stay focused on goals while experiencing positive emotions |Difficulty in continuing goal-directed behaviour while experiencing positive emotions |- |Behavioural control |Can control behaviour and avoid acting impulsively when feeling happy or excited |Struggle in controlling behaviour or acts impulsively |} ; {{Robelbox|theme=5|title=Quiz}}[[Image: Hand Gesture - Holding a Magnifying Glass.gif|right|128px]] <quiz display=simple> Which of the following statement best differentiates healthy positive emotion from positive emotion dysregulation? |type="()"} - Healthy positive emotions improves behaviour, whereas dysregulation occurs when positive behaviour becomes excessive - Healthy positive emotions means emotions are freely expressed, whereas dysregulation occurs when they are suppressed + Healthy positive emotions supports functioning and positive emotion dysregulation involves difficulty in managing positive emotions. - Healthy positive emotions are always beneficial and positive emotion dysregulation means positive emotions become negative. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} == Factors underlying positive emotion dysregulation == Positive emotion dysregulation is unlikely result from a single factor. Instead, it is a result of psychological, physiological, biological, individual, and environment factors. All these factors may interact to influence how strongly positive emotions are experienced and how they are regulated. This section will examine biological and environmental influences, ways of coping and regulation of positive emotions, and environmental and social factors. === Biological and temperamental factors === One of the factors for positive emotion dysregulation can be an increased sensitivity to emotional events from a biological and temperamental perspective. Some people might be emotionally more sensitive or find it harder to control their emotional reactions. A review by Vogel et al. (2023) reported that [[wikipedia:Surgency|surgency]] negatively correlated with effortful control and self-regulation in childhood. This may suggests that high surgency can be associated with aggression and externalising behaviours. Nonetheless, surgency has positive implications too and its link with regulation changed at different developmental stages. Therefore, it is hard to make strong conclusion to explain dysregulation only through surgency. Difficulties may also arise if there is high emotional activation that exceeds individual’s cognitive capacity. Additionally, Vogel et al. (2023) review only highlighted that [[wikipedia:Temperament|temperamental]] traits represent a vulnerability but not the exact causes of positive emotion dysregulation. Linehan’s (1993) [[wikipedia:Biosocial_theory|biosocial model]] offers additional perspective where biological emotional sensitivity combined with environmental invalidation leads to emotional dysregulation. It results in difficulties in managing and responding to intense positive emotions. Limitation of this theory is that it is not designed for positive emotions specifically. But it can be used to predict that people with high biological emotional sensitivity will be affected by the way other people perceive their emotions. Taken together, the developmental findings by Vogel et al. (2023) combined with Linehan’s (1993) theory can provide evidence that temperament may create vulnerability. But ability to regulate and environmental experiences determine the impact of excessive positive emotion. === Coping and emotion-regulation strategies === Individual’s ability to cope with their emotions may determine whether their strong emotions remain adaptive or turn into something uncontrollable. The process model of emotion regulation by Gross (1998) provides useful framework for understanding emotion regulation process. According to this model, regulation involves modifying emotional responses according to the situation and goals. Studies that look at emotion regulation back this idea. Livingstone and Srivastava (2012) found three ways to increase the level of positive emotions which are engagement, betterment, and indulgence. This provides evidence that increasing emotions does not necessarily mean dysregulation. [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Coping and emotion|Coping strategies]] may contribute to vulnerability to positive emotion dysregulation. To assess how regulation strategies work in real life conditions, Boemo et al. (2022) undertook a [[wikipedia:Systematic_review|systematic review]] and [[wikipedia:Meta-analysis|meta-analysis]] of experience sampling and daily diary design. The findings showed that [[wikipedia:Appraisal_theory|reappraisal]] was associated with greater positive effect, while [[wikipedia:Rumination_(psychology)|rumination]] and suppression were associated with poorer affective outcomes. Reappraisal prospectively predicted positive affect (''r'' = .34), while rumination prospectively predicted negative affect (''r'' = .16). These results shows that how people manage emotions can influence emotional functioning. The review focused on emotion regulation not on positive emotion dysregulation so it cannot prove that bad regulation leads to positive emotion dysregulation. Haag et al. (2024) conducted systematic review of 11 studies involving 3,775 adolescents (''M'' = 13.4 years) to understand emotion regulation flexibility in adolescents. Results of this study found that greater emotion regulation flexibility is associated with more adaptive outcomes, including higher positive effect and self-worth. The study conceptualised emotion regulation flexibility in two ways which was flexibility in regulating emotions according to the situation and the use of emotion regulation strategies. However, the evidence is limited as most studies were [[wikipedia:Cross-sectional_study|cross-sectional]] and community based. There was also heavy reliance on [[wikipedia:Self-report_study|self-report measures]]. Therfore, the findings suggests that poor regulation may increase vulnerability to emotional difficulties. But the study does not establish that low emotional regulation flexibility directly causes positive emotion dysregulation. Lastly, these studies combined provides foundation to understand relationship between ability to cope with emotions and emotional dysregulation. But direct inferences cannot be made as research is broad and focused only on emotional dysregulation in general. Future research is needed to understand how to cope with intense positive emotions so that does not lead to positive emotion dysregulation. === Environmental and social factors === * Temperament may influence positive emotional reactivity (Vogel et al., 2023). * Individual and contextual factors influences emotion regulation. * Situation can determine whether positive emotional activation is adaptive.<br /> {{Robelbox|theme=10|title=Quiz}}[[Image: Hand Gesture - Holding a Magnifying Glass.gif|right|128px]] <quiz display=simple> Why high surgency can not be considered as a direct cause of positive emotion dysregulation ? |type="()"} - Surgency only occurs during adulthood - Surgency has only negative effects - Surgency is not related to emotional functioning + The effects of surgency is adaptive and its association with regulation changes across development </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} == Consequences of positive emotion dysregulation on psychological functioning == The regulation of positive emotions may manifest itself through altered thinking processes, decision-making, goals pursued and behaviour of an individual. While positive emotions helps to expand attention and motivate individuals to explore more, strong and poorly regulated emotional activation may influence judgement. This section will discuss the way in which positive experiences may impact cognition, motivation and decision-making processes. === Changes in cognition and decision-making === * Positive emotions can broaden attention and action thought repertoires. Fredrickson and Branigan (2005) found that positive affective states broadened both attention and the range of thought-action responses that the participants gave. It provided empirical support for broaden-and-build theory. * Positive emotion dysregulation can influence decision-making. * The effects of cognitive broadening are context-dependent === Goal pursuit and behavioural activation === * The positive emotions would enhance approach motivation and behavioural activation. * Excessive activation might help achieve goals but could be exaggerated. In case of exaggeration, the activation might make people over-commit. * Grace’s behaviour explains this as initially she was motivated to participate in university opportunities. But repeatedly taking additional projects despite limited time shows that goal directed activation is becoming difficult to regulate. === Risk-taking and Impulsivity === * Presence of positive emotional activation may lead to increased level of impulsivity and risky behaviour. * Positive urgency provides a precise reason for rash behaviour during high levels of positive emotions. Cyders and Smith (2008) define positive urgency as the tendency of behaving rashly during high levels of positive affect. This behavioural trend can be risky as well. * Impulsivity and risk-taking should not be equated with positive emotion dysregulation {{Robelbox|theme=4|title=Quiz}}[[Image: Hand Gesture - Holding a Magnifying Glass.gif|right|128px]] <quiz display=simple> Which of the following is correct regarding positive emotion dysregulation and psychological functioning? |type="()"} + Poorly regulated positive emotions can interfere with attention, wellbeing, relationships and everyday responsibilities - Positive emotions are always harmful - Positive emotions have no effect on behaviour and functioning - Intense positive emotions always indicate dysregulation </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} ==Conclusion== *Positive emotion dysregulation is not simply experiencing intense happiness, but difficulty in regulating positive emotions. *Dysregulation can influence thoughts, decision-making and behaviour. *Difficulty in regulating positive emotions may affect everyday responsibilities and functioning. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} [[File:Nuvola apps kuser.svg|Nuvola apps kuser|left|20px]] ''' Take-home messages:''' - Positive emotion dysregulation occurs when positive emotions are difficult to regulate in ways that are appropriate according to the situation. - When positive emotions are poorly regulated, they can interfere with an individual's wellbeing, attention and everyday functioning. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==See also == *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions|Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions]] (Book chapter, 2016) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Coping and emotion|Coping and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Emotion dysregulation|Emotion dysregulation]] (Book chapter, 2026) *[[wikipedia:Emotional_dysregulation|Emotional dysregulation]] (Wikipedia) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Cyders, M. A., & Smith, G. T. (2008). Emotion-based dispositions to rash action: Positive and negative urgency. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''134''(6), 807–828. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013341 Campos, B., Shiota, M. N., Keltner, D., Gonzaga, G. C., & Goetz, J. L. (2013). What is shared, what is different? Core relational themes and expressive displays of eight positive emotions. ''Cognition and Emotion'', ''27''(1), 37–52. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2012.683852 Carl, J. R., Soskin, D. P., Kerns, C., & Barlow, D. H. (2013). Positive emotion regulation in emotional disorders: A theoretical review. ''Clinical Psychology Review'', ''33''(3), 343–360. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2013.01.003 Fredrickson B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology. The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. ''The American psychologist'', ''56''(3), 218–226. https://doi.org/10.1037//0003-066x.56.3.218 Fredrickson, B. L., & Branigan, C. (2005). Positive emotions broaden the scope of attention and thought‐action repertoires. ''Cognition & Emotion'', ''19''(3), 313–332. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930441000238 Gross, J. J. (1998). The emerging field of emotion regulation: An integrative review. ''Review of General Psychology'', ''2''(3), 271–299. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.2.3.271 Gruber, J., Mauss, I. B., & Tamir, M. (2011). A Dark Side of Happiness? How, When, and Why Happiness Is Not Always Good. ''Perspectives on Psychological Science'', ''6''(3), 222–233. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691611406927 Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion regulation: Current status and future prospects. ''Psychological Inquiry'', ''26''(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2014.940781 Gruber, J., Villanueva, C., Burr, E., Purcell, J. R., & Karoly, H. (2020). Understanding and Taking Stock of Positive Emotion Disturbance. ''Social and personality psychology compass'', ''14''(1), e12515. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12515 Vogel, A. C., Brotman, M. A., Roy, A. K., & Perlman, S. B. (2023). Review: Defining positive emotion dysregulation: Integrating temperamental and clinical perspectives. ''Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry'', ''62''(3), 297–305. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2022.06.019 }} ==External links== * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/everyday-resilience/202404/emotional-well-being-5-healthy-practices-for-regulation Emotional wellbeing] (Psychology today) * [https://www.belonghealth.com.au/emotional-regulation-dysregulation-perth-mandurah.html Emotion dysregulation consequences] (Belong health) * [https://www.londonpsychiatry.clinic/blog/5-evidence-based-emotional-regulation-strategies Emotional regulation strategies] (London psychiatry clinic) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MyfzIQH6YKI Positive emotions with Barbara Fredrickson] (Youtube.com) __TOC__ [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion regulation]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Positive emotion]] cylmcjlv4z8oe2mgshy8mv8b38hcdn5 2836419 2836416 2026-10-07T03:35:30Z P U3270518 3106535 overview done 2836419 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Positive emotion dysregulation:<br>What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} [[File:Woman in red sweater with hand in air.jpg|right|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1.''' Grace experiencing happiness and excitement following several positive life events.]] '''Scenario''' Grace is a university student who feels that she has just won the lottery of her life. First, she receives a PhD offer from her dream university. Shortly afterwards, she learns that she has been awarded a scholarship to support her studies. Overwhelmed with happiness, Grace invites her boyfriend over to celebrate. Her boyfriend surprises her by proposing during the celebration, making it the best day of her life. For next several days, Grace feels unusually happy and energised (see Figure 1). She sleeps very little because she believes there is too much to achieve. To celebrate her success, she purchases an expensive laptop, makes an impulsive travel booking and commits to several university projects despite having a full schedule. People close to Grace begin to wonder if something is not right. Her close friends tried to slow her down, but she ignored them. From Grace's perspective, she is just happy, motivated and confident as pieces of her life are finally coming together in a positive way. 💡 What is happening to Grace? Why do her positive emotions become so intense? {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotions]] are a normal and important part of human life. It includes a variety of feelings such as joy, interest, love, contentment, gratitude, awe, and amusement (Campos et al., 2013). These emotions play an important role in expanding people's thoughts and possible actions to help them build lasting psychological and social resources (Fredrickson, 2001). However, positive emotions might not always be beneficial if they are inadequately regulated. A review by Gruber et al. (2020) on positive emotion disturbance suggests that extremely strong or prolonged positive emotional states can sometimes interfere with adaptive functioning. Positive emotion dysregulation helps to explain how positive emotional states can feel initially feel good but can sometimes contribute to harmful thoughts and behaviour. This chapter will explore how positive emotions can shift from being adaptive to maladaptive, and how it can affect psychological functioning. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} 🔎 '''Focus questions''' 1️⃣ What is positive emotion dysregulation, and how can it be distinguished from healthy positive emotions? 2️⃣ What factors contribute to difficulties in regulating positive emotions? 3️⃣ How does positive emotion dysregulation affect psychological functioning and wellbeing? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Positive emotion: From benefit to dysregulation== Understanding positive emotion dysregulation requires more than just identifying whether an emotional experience is pleasant or intense. [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotions]] such as joy, amusement and interest are usually considered pleasant in nature (Fredrickson, 2001). These feelings shape the way people thick, act and connect with world around them. Positive emotion dysregulation refers to difficulties in responding to positive emotions (Mansueto et al., 2025). It involves problems such as accepting, controlling or managing actions while feeling happy or excited (Mansueto et al., 2025). Therefore, positive emotion dysregulation is not simply experiencing strong positive emotions. It is about struggling to regulate those feelings in a way that support effective functioning. This section will consider why positive emotions are important, how they are normally regulated and how difficulties in regulating them can lead to positive emotion dysregulation. === Positive emotions and its adaptive functions === [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotions]] play an important role in psychological functioning. They include numerous experiences such as [[wikipedia:Joy|joy]], [[wikipedia:Interest_(emotion)|interest]], [[wikipedia:Love|love]], [[wikipedia:Contentment|contentment]], [[wikipedia:Gratitude|gratitude]], [[wikipedia:Awe|awe]], and [[wikipedia:Amusement|amusement]] which can influence cognition, behaviour, and social interaction (Campos et al., 2013). Instead of simply producing pleasant effects, positive emotions can encourage individuals to explore their environment, learn from experiences, engage with others and pursue meaningful goals. Positive emotions can broaden people's thoughts, cognition and behaviour. [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions|Broaden-and-Build Theory]] by Fredrickson (2001) proposes that positive emotions broaden momentary thought-action repertoires that encourages exploration, flexibility and engagement. For instance, excitement following major positive events may encourage student such as Grace to pursue new opportunities and get more involved in university. These positive emotions can help to build psychological and social resources, including relationships and coping resources (Fredrickson, 2001). Nevertheless, a network analysis about broaden-and-build theory on two studies (''N'' = 312; ''N''=302) found support for relationships between positive emotions, resources and life outcomes. But the broadening component that this theory proposed consistently deviated from the theory’s predictions, questioning its validity (Roth et al., 2024). However, positive emotions are not always beneficial in every circumstances. Effects of positive emotions may depend on intensity, timing, and context. This provides a foundation for understanding when positive emotion may become less adaptive (Gruber et al., 2011). This review challenges assumption of [[wikipedia:Positive_psychology|positive psychology]] that increasing positive emotion will improve well-being. It does not mean that strong positive emotions are always harmful. Review by Gruber et al. (2020), on positive emotion disturbance highlighted how positive emotion disturbance can interfere with adaptive functioning. Overall, these findings suggest that positive emotions can support adaptive functioning. But positive emotions are not automatic and same for everyone. Kashdan et al. (2015) reviewed myths regarding positive emotion regulation. This article emphasised flexibility in how people regulate emotions. Emotional responses should be adjusted according to the situation and personal goals. Thus, healthy positive emotion is not defined by its intensity alone. It depends on how it can be regulated flexibly without interfering with functioning. === From emotion regulation to positive emotion dysregulation === [[Emotional regulation]] refers to one’s ability to seek control over own emotional state (Gross, 2015). [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Extended process model of emotion regulation|The process model of emotion]] [[File:Positive emotion dysregulation pathway.png|thumb|434x434px|'''Figure 2.''' Applying the emotion regulation process to a positive situation. ''Note''. Some parts of this image has been adapted from Gross (1998) process model of emotion regulation ]][[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Extended process model of emotion regulation|regulation]] by Gross (1998) provides a framework for understanding how individual can modify emotional experiences. This model proposes that regulation occur at different stages which includes situation selection, situation modification, attentional deployment, cognitive appraisal and response modulation. Regulation can occur before an emotional response is fully developed or after anemotion has already been experienced. In Grace’s case, receiving the PhD offer and scholarship shifted her attention shifted towards positive achievement. She appraises the situation positively. According to Gross (1998) process model, emotion regulation then influences how she responds to and manages these emotions (see Figure 2). It also shapes what she does next.   Successful regulation helps individuals to modify their emotional experiences. In contrast, difficulties in managing emotional experiences can lead to [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Emotion dysregulation|emotion dysregulation]]. Difficulties in regulating emotions can lead to interpersonal problems, [[wikipedia:Rumination_(psychology)|rumination]], and several [[wikipedia:Mental_disorder|mental disorders]]. This highlight that it is important to understand how emotions are experienced and also how individuals respond to them. Importantly, positive emotions also require regulation. According to Carl et al., (2013), individuals may need to regulate their positive emotions based on their needs, goals and circumstances. Research has heavily focused on negative emotions and regulation of positive emotion has received less attention. This provides foundation to examine positive emotion dysregulation. === Recognising positive emotion dysregulation === Positive emotion dysregulation is defined as the difficulties in responding and managing positive emotional experiences. It is a multifaced construct that involves difficulty in accepting positive emotions, maintaining goal-directed behaviour, and controlling behaviour when experiencing positive emotions (Weiss et al., 2015). These three elements provide a useful of recognising difficulties in regulating positive emotions (see Table 1). An intense positive emotion does not necessarily means dysregulated. Feelings such as happiness, excitement, or enthusiasm may be well-placed responses to certain life events. Context, intensity, persistence and implications are crucial. Positive emotions can be considered [[wikipedia:Maladaptation|maladaptive]] if are poorly fitted to the situation or if they start to interfere with functioning (Gruber et al., 2011). Positive emotion dysregulation occurs when these feelings are hard to manage and when they disturb behaviour, goals and daily life. In Grace’s scenario, she engages in impulsive behaviour and commits to projects that she will not be able to complete on time. This highlights dysregulation as it affects her daily functioning. A review by Vogel et al. (2023), suggests that there is a need to examine the challenges of regulating positive emotions rather than focusing exclusively on negative emotions. This review also highlights that dysregulation should be understood in relation to the feelings and the way a person behaves. Research by Mansueto et al. (2025) found that stronger [[Metacognition|metacognitive]] beliefs were associated with greater positive emotion dysregulation, suggesting a therapeutic target. Overall, recognising emotional dysregulation means looking past how strong the feeling is and focusing on how person can respond and manage that feeling. '''Table 1''' ''Key elements for recognising positive emotion dysregulation'' ''Note. This table is based on the DERS-Positive dimensions researched by Weiss et al. (2015)'' {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! Dimension !Positive emotion regulation ! Positive emotion dysregulation |- | Accepting positive emotions |Accepts and acknowledges positive emotions without feeling that they are wrong or threatening | Feels uncomfortable or scared when experiencing positive emotions |- |Goal-directed behaviour |Can stay focused on goals while experiencing positive emotions |Difficulty in continuing goal-directed behaviour while experiencing positive emotions |- |Behavioural control |Can control behaviour and avoid acting impulsively when feeling happy or excited |Struggle in controlling behaviour or acts impulsively |} ; {{Robelbox|theme=5|title=Quiz}}[[Image: Hand Gesture - Holding a Magnifying Glass.gif|right|128px]] <quiz display=simple> Which of the following statement best differentiates healthy positive emotion from positive emotion dysregulation? |type="()"} - Healthy positive emotions improves behaviour, whereas dysregulation occurs when positive behaviour becomes excessive - Healthy positive emotions means emotions are freely expressed, whereas dysregulation occurs when they are suppressed + Healthy positive emotions supports functioning and positive emotion dysregulation involves difficulty in managing positive emotions. - Healthy positive emotions are always beneficial and positive emotion dysregulation means positive emotions become negative. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} == Factors underlying positive emotion dysregulation == Positive emotion dysregulation is unlikely result from a single factor. Instead, it is a result of psychological, physiological, biological, individual, and environment factors. All these factors may interact to influence how strongly positive emotions are experienced and how they are regulated. This section will examine biological and environmental influences, ways of coping and regulation of positive emotions, and environmental and social factors. === Biological and temperamental factors === One of the factors for positive emotion dysregulation can be an increased sensitivity to emotional events from a biological and temperamental perspective. Some people might be emotionally more sensitive or find it harder to control their emotional reactions. A review by Vogel et al. (2023) reported that [[wikipedia:Surgency|surgency]] negatively correlated with effortful control and self-regulation in childhood. This may suggests that high surgency can be associated with aggression and externalising behaviours. Nonetheless, surgency has positive implications too and its link with regulation changed at different developmental stages. Therefore, it is hard to make strong conclusion to explain dysregulation only through surgency. Difficulties may also arise if there is high emotional activation that exceeds individual’s cognitive capacity. Additionally, Vogel et al. (2023) review only highlighted that [[wikipedia:Temperament|temperamental]] traits represent a vulnerability but not the exact causes of positive emotion dysregulation. Linehan’s (1993) [[wikipedia:Biosocial_theory|biosocial model]] offers additional perspective where biological emotional sensitivity combined with environmental invalidation leads to emotional dysregulation. It results in difficulties in managing and responding to intense positive emotions. Limitation of this theory is that it is not designed for positive emotions specifically. But it can be used to predict that people with high biological emotional sensitivity will be affected by the way other people perceive their emotions. Taken together, the developmental findings by Vogel et al. (2023) combined with Linehan’s (1993) theory can provide evidence that temperament may create vulnerability. But ability to regulate and environmental experiences determine the impact of excessive positive emotion. === Coping and emotion-regulation strategies === Individual’s ability to cope with their emotions may determine whether their strong emotions remain adaptive or turn into something uncontrollable. The process model of emotion regulation by Gross (1998) provides useful framework for understanding emotion regulation process. According to this model, regulation involves modifying emotional responses according to the situation and goals. Studies that look at emotion regulation back this idea. Livingstone and Srivastava (2012) found three ways to increase the level of positive emotions which are engagement, betterment, and indulgence. This provides evidence that increasing emotions does not necessarily mean dysregulation. [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Coping and emotion|Coping strategies]] may contribute to vulnerability to positive emotion dysregulation. To assess how regulation strategies work in real life conditions, Boemo et al. (2022) undertook a [[wikipedia:Systematic_review|systematic review]] and [[wikipedia:Meta-analysis|meta-analysis]] of experience sampling and daily diary design. The findings showed that [[wikipedia:Appraisal_theory|reappraisal]] was associated with greater positive effect, while [[wikipedia:Rumination_(psychology)|rumination]] and suppression were associated with poorer affective outcomes. Reappraisal prospectively predicted positive affect (''r'' = .34), while rumination prospectively predicted negative affect (''r'' = .16). These results shows that how people manage emotions can influence emotional functioning. The review focused on emotion regulation not on positive emotion dysregulation so it cannot prove that bad regulation leads to positive emotion dysregulation. Haag et al. (2024) conducted systematic review of 11 studies involving 3,775 adolescents (''M'' = 13.4 years) to understand emotion regulation flexibility in adolescents. Results of this study found that greater emotion regulation flexibility is associated with more adaptive outcomes, including higher positive effect and self-worth. The study conceptualised emotion regulation flexibility in two ways which was flexibility in regulating emotions according to the situation and the use of emotion regulation strategies. However, the evidence is limited as most studies were [[wikipedia:Cross-sectional_study|cross-sectional]] and community based. There was also heavy reliance on [[wikipedia:Self-report_study|self-report measures]]. Therfore, the findings suggests that poor regulation may increase vulnerability to emotional difficulties. But the study does not establish that low emotional regulation flexibility directly causes positive emotion dysregulation. Lastly, these studies combined provides foundation to understand relationship between ability to cope with emotions and emotional dysregulation. But direct inferences cannot be made as research is broad and focused only on emotional dysregulation in general. Future research is needed to understand how to cope with intense positive emotions so that does not lead to positive emotion dysregulation. === Environmental and social factors === * Temperament may influence positive emotional reactivity (Vogel et al., 2023). * Individual and contextual factors influences emotion regulation. * Situation can determine whether positive emotional activation is adaptive.<br /> {{Robelbox|theme=10|title=Quiz}}[[Image: Hand Gesture - Holding a Magnifying Glass.gif|right|128px]] <quiz display=simple> Why high surgency can not be considered as a direct cause of positive emotion dysregulation ? |type="()"} - Surgency only occurs during adulthood - Surgency has only negative effects - Surgency is not related to emotional functioning + The effects of surgency is adaptive and its association with regulation changes across development </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} == Consequences of positive emotion dysregulation on psychological functioning == The regulation of positive emotions may manifest itself through altered thinking processes, decision-making, goals pursued and behaviour of an individual. While positive emotions helps to expand attention and motivate individuals to explore more, strong and poorly regulated emotional activation may influence judgement. This section will discuss the way in which positive experiences may impact cognition, motivation and decision-making processes. === Changes in cognition and decision-making === * Positive emotions can broaden attention and action thought repertoires. Fredrickson and Branigan (2005) found that positive affective states broadened both attention and the range of thought-action responses that the participants gave. It provided empirical support for broaden-and-build theory. * Positive emotion dysregulation can influence decision-making. * The effects of cognitive broadening are context-dependent === Goal pursuit and behavioural activation === * The positive emotions would enhance approach motivation and behavioural activation. * Excessive activation might help achieve goals but could be exaggerated. In case of exaggeration, the activation might make people over-commit. * Grace’s behaviour explains this as initially she was motivated to participate in university opportunities. But repeatedly taking additional projects despite limited time shows that goal directed activation is becoming difficult to regulate. === Risk-taking and Impulsivity === * Presence of positive emotional activation may lead to increased level of impulsivity and risky behaviour. * Positive urgency provides a precise reason for rash behaviour during high levels of positive emotions. Cyders and Smith (2008) define positive urgency as the tendency of behaving rashly during high levels of positive affect. This behavioural trend can be risky as well. * Impulsivity and risk-taking should not be equated with positive emotion dysregulation {{Robelbox|theme=4|title=Quiz}}[[Image: Hand Gesture - Holding a Magnifying Glass.gif|right|128px]] <quiz display=simple> Which of the following is correct regarding positive emotion dysregulation and psychological functioning? |type="()"} + Poorly regulated positive emotions can interfere with attention, wellbeing, relationships and everyday responsibilities - Positive emotions are always harmful - Positive emotions have no effect on behaviour and functioning - Intense positive emotions always indicate dysregulation </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} ==Conclusion== *Positive emotion dysregulation is not simply experiencing intense happiness, but difficulty in regulating positive emotions. *Dysregulation can influence thoughts, decision-making and behaviour. *Difficulty in regulating positive emotions may affect everyday responsibilities and functioning. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} [[File:Nuvola apps kuser.svg|Nuvola apps kuser|left|20px]] ''' Take-home messages:''' - Positive emotion dysregulation occurs when positive emotions are difficult to regulate in ways that are appropriate according to the situation. - When positive emotions are poorly regulated, they can interfere with an individual's wellbeing, attention and everyday functioning. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==See also == *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions|Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions]] (Book chapter, 2016) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Coping and emotion|Coping and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Emotion dysregulation|Emotion dysregulation]] (Book chapter, 2026) *[[wikipedia:Emotional_dysregulation|Emotional dysregulation]] (Wikipedia) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Cyders, M. A., & Smith, G. T. (2008). Emotion-based dispositions to rash action: Positive and negative urgency. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''134''(6), 807–828. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013341 Campos, B., Shiota, M. N., Keltner, D., Gonzaga, G. C., & Goetz, J. L. (2013). What is shared, what is different? Core relational themes and expressive displays of eight positive emotions. ''Cognition and Emotion'', ''27''(1), 37–52. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2012.683852 Carl, J. R., Soskin, D. P., Kerns, C., & Barlow, D. H. (2013). Positive emotion regulation in emotional disorders: A theoretical review. ''Clinical Psychology Review'', ''33''(3), 343–360. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2013.01.003 Fredrickson B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology. The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. ''The American psychologist'', ''56''(3), 218–226. https://doi.org/10.1037//0003-066x.56.3.218 Fredrickson, B. L., & Branigan, C. (2005). Positive emotions broaden the scope of attention and thought‐action repertoires. ''Cognition & Emotion'', ''19''(3), 313–332. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930441000238 Gross, J. J. (1998). The emerging field of emotion regulation: An integrative review. ''Review of General Psychology'', ''2''(3), 271–299. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.2.3.271 Gruber, J., Mauss, I. B., & Tamir, M. (2011). A Dark Side of Happiness? How, When, and Why Happiness Is Not Always Good. ''Perspectives on Psychological Science'', ''6''(3), 222–233. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691611406927 Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion regulation: Current status and future prospects. ''Psychological Inquiry'', ''26''(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2014.940781 Gruber, J., Villanueva, C., Burr, E., Purcell, J. R., & Karoly, H. (2020). Understanding and Taking Stock of Positive Emotion Disturbance. ''Social and personality psychology compass'', ''14''(1), e12515. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12515 Vogel, A. C., Brotman, M. A., Roy, A. K., & Perlman, S. B. (2023). Review: Defining positive emotion dysregulation: Integrating temperamental and clinical perspectives. ''Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry'', ''62''(3), 297–305. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2022.06.019 }} ==External links== * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/everyday-resilience/202404/emotional-well-being-5-healthy-practices-for-regulation Emotional wellbeing] (Psychology today) * [https://www.belonghealth.com.au/emotional-regulation-dysregulation-perth-mandurah.html Emotion dysregulation consequences] (Belong health) * [https://www.londonpsychiatry.clinic/blog/5-evidence-based-emotional-regulation-strategies Emotional regulation strategies] (London psychiatry clinic) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MyfzIQH6YKI Positive emotions with Barbara Fredrickson] (Youtube.com) __TOC__ [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion regulation]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Positive emotion]] g30h6cfri0qrw1kq00p92k3wb7qcqmy 2836438 2836419 2026-10-07T04:34:14Z P U3270518 3106535 wrote environmental and social factor. copilot was used to understand and summarise finding of few articles and to make few arguments. link to the chat:https://copilot.cloud.microsoft/chat/conversation/2f4d5a79-e14c-416c-8dc0-dcb59dd7014f?fromcode=cmmqbg1y3ah&es=UnauthClick 2836438 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Positive emotion dysregulation:<br>What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} [[File:Woman in red sweater with hand in air.jpg|right|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1.''' Grace experiencing happiness and excitement following several positive life events.]] '''Scenario''' Grace is a university student who feels that she has just won the lottery of her life. First, she receives a PhD offer from her dream university. Shortly afterwards, she learns that she has been awarded a scholarship to support her studies. Overwhelmed with happiness, Grace invites her boyfriend over to celebrate. Her boyfriend surprises her by proposing during the celebration, making it the best day of her life. For next several days, Grace feels unusually happy and energised (see Figure 1). She sleeps very little because she believes there is too much to achieve. To celebrate her success, she purchases an expensive laptop, makes an impulsive travel booking and commits to several university projects despite having a full schedule. People close to Grace begin to wonder if something is not right. Her close friends tried to slow her down, but she ignored them. From Grace's perspective, she is just happy, motivated and confident as pieces of her life are finally coming together in a positive way. 💡 What is happening to Grace? Why do her positive emotions become so intense? {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotions]] are a normal and important part of human life. It includes a variety of feelings such as joy, interest, love, contentment, gratitude, awe, and amusement (Campos et al., 2013). These emotions play an important role in expanding people's thoughts and possible actions to help them build lasting psychological and social resources (Fredrickson, 2001). However, positive emotions might not always be beneficial if they are inadequately regulated. A review by Gruber et al. (2020) on positive emotion disturbance suggests that extremely strong or prolonged positive emotional states can sometimes interfere with adaptive functioning. Positive emotion dysregulation helps to explain how positive emotional states can feel initially feel good but can sometimes contribute to harmful thoughts and behaviour. This chapter will explore how positive emotions can shift from being adaptive to maladaptive, and how it can affect psychological functioning. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} 🔎 '''Focus questions''' 1️⃣ What is positive emotion dysregulation, and how can it be distinguished from healthy positive emotions? 2️⃣ What factors contribute to difficulties in regulating positive emotions? 3️⃣ How does positive emotion dysregulation affect psychological functioning and wellbeing? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Positive emotion: From benefit to dysregulation== Understanding positive emotion dysregulation requires more than just identifying whether an emotional experience is pleasant or intense. [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotions]] such as joy, amusement and interest are usually considered pleasant in nature (Fredrickson, 2001). These feelings shape the way people thick, act and connect with world around them. Positive emotion dysregulation refers to difficulties in responding to positive emotions (Mansueto et al., 2025). It involves problems such as accepting, controlling or managing actions while feeling happy or excited (Mansueto et al., 2025). Therefore, positive emotion dysregulation is not simply experiencing strong positive emotions. It is about struggling to regulate those feelings in a way that support effective functioning. This section will consider why positive emotions are important, how they are normally regulated and how difficulties in regulating them can lead to positive emotion dysregulation. === Positive emotions and its adaptive functions === [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotions]] play an important role in psychological functioning. They include numerous experiences such as [[wikipedia:Joy|joy]], [[wikipedia:Interest_(emotion)|interest]], [[wikipedia:Love|love]], [[wikipedia:Contentment|contentment]], [[wikipedia:Gratitude|gratitude]], [[wikipedia:Awe|awe]], and [[wikipedia:Amusement|amusement]] which can influence cognition, behaviour, and social interaction (Campos et al., 2013). Instead of simply producing pleasant effects, positive emotions can encourage individuals to explore their environment, learn from experiences, engage with others and pursue meaningful goals. Positive emotions can broaden people's thoughts, cognition and behaviour. [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions|Broaden-and-Build Theory]] by Fredrickson (2001) proposes that positive emotions broaden momentary thought-action repertoires that encourages exploration, flexibility and engagement. For instance, excitement following major positive events may encourage student such as Grace to pursue new opportunities and get more involved in university. These positive emotions can help to build psychological and social resources, including relationships and coping resources (Fredrickson, 2001). Nevertheless, a network analysis about broaden-and-build theory on two studies (''N'' = 312; ''N''=302) found support for relationships between positive emotions, resources and life outcomes. But the broadening component that this theory proposed consistently deviated from the theory’s predictions, questioning its validity (Roth et al., 2024). However, positive emotions are not always beneficial in every circumstances. Effects of positive emotions may depend on intensity, timing, and context. This provides a foundation for understanding when positive emotion may become less adaptive (Gruber et al., 2011). This review challenges assumption of [[wikipedia:Positive_psychology|positive psychology]] that increasing positive emotion will improve well-being. It does not mean that strong positive emotions are always harmful. Review by Gruber et al. (2020), on positive emotion disturbance highlighted how positive emotion disturbance can interfere with adaptive functioning. Overall, these findings suggest that positive emotions can support adaptive functioning. But positive emotions are not automatic and same for everyone. Kashdan et al. (2015) reviewed myths regarding positive emotion regulation. This article emphasised flexibility in how people regulate emotions. Emotional responses should be adjusted according to the situation and personal goals. Thus, healthy positive emotion is not defined by its intensity alone. It depends on how it can be regulated flexibly without interfering with functioning. === From emotion regulation to positive emotion dysregulation === [[Emotional regulation]] refers to one’s ability to seek control over own emotional state (Gross, 2015). [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Extended process model of emotion regulation|The process model of emotion]] [[File:Positive emotion dysregulation pathway.png|thumb|434x434px|'''Figure 2.''' Applying the emotion regulation process to a positive situation. ''Note''. Some parts of this image has been adapted from Gross (1998) process model of emotion regulation ]][[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Extended process model of emotion regulation|regulation]] by Gross (1998) provides a framework for understanding how individual can modify emotional experiences. This model proposes that regulation occur at different stages which includes situation selection, situation modification, attentional deployment, cognitive appraisal and response modulation. Regulation can occur before an emotional response is fully developed or after anemotion has already been experienced. In Grace’s case, receiving the PhD offer and scholarship shifted her attention shifted towards positive achievement. She appraises the situation positively. According to Gross (1998) process model, emotion regulation then influences how she responds to and manages these emotions (see Figure 2). It also shapes what she does next.   Successful regulation helps individuals to modify their emotional experiences. In contrast, difficulties in managing emotional experiences can lead to [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Emotion dysregulation|emotion dysregulation]]. Difficulties in regulating emotions can lead to interpersonal problems, [[wikipedia:Rumination_(psychology)|rumination]], and several [[wikipedia:Mental_disorder|mental disorders]]. This highlight that it is important to understand how emotions are experienced and also how individuals respond to them. Importantly, positive emotions also require regulation. According to Carl et al., (2013), individuals may need to regulate their positive emotions based on their needs, goals and circumstances. Research has heavily focused on negative emotions and regulation of positive emotion has received less attention. This provides foundation to examine positive emotion dysregulation. === Recognising positive emotion dysregulation === Positive emotion dysregulation is defined as the difficulties in responding and managing positive emotional experiences. It is a multifaced construct that involves difficulty in accepting positive emotions, maintaining goal-directed behaviour, and controlling behaviour when experiencing positive emotions (Weiss et al., 2015). These three elements provide a useful of recognising difficulties in regulating positive emotions (see Table 1). An intense positive emotion does not necessarily means dysregulated. Feelings such as happiness, excitement, or enthusiasm may be well-placed responses to certain life events. Context, intensity, persistence and implications are crucial. Positive emotions can be considered [[wikipedia:Maladaptation|maladaptive]] if are poorly fitted to the situation or if they start to interfere with functioning (Gruber et al., 2011). Positive emotion dysregulation occurs when these feelings are hard to manage and when they disturb behaviour, goals and daily life. In Grace’s scenario, she engages in impulsive behaviour and commits to projects that she will not be able to complete on time. This highlights dysregulation as it affects her daily functioning. A review by Vogel et al. (2023), suggests that there is a need to examine the challenges of regulating positive emotions rather than focusing exclusively on negative emotions. This review also highlights that dysregulation should be understood in relation to the feelings and the way a person behaves. Research by Mansueto et al. (2025) found that stronger [[Metacognition|metacognitive]] beliefs were associated with greater positive emotion dysregulation, suggesting a therapeutic target. Overall, recognising emotional dysregulation means looking past how strong the feeling is and focusing on how person can respond and manage that feeling. '''Table 1''' ''Key elements for recognising positive emotion dysregulation'' ''Note. This table is based on the DERS-Positive dimensions researched by Weiss et al. (2015)'' {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! Dimension !Positive emotion regulation ! Positive emotion dysregulation |- | Accepting positive emotions |Accepts and acknowledges positive emotions without feeling that they are wrong or threatening | Feels uncomfortable or scared when experiencing positive emotions |- |Goal-directed behaviour |Can stay focused on goals while experiencing positive emotions |Difficulty in continuing goal-directed behaviour while experiencing positive emotions |- |Behavioural control |Can control behaviour and avoid acting impulsively when feeling happy or excited |Struggle in controlling behaviour or acts impulsively |} ; {{Robelbox|theme=5|title=Quiz}}[[Image: Hand Gesture - Holding a Magnifying Glass.gif|right|128px]] <quiz display=simple> Which of the following statement best differentiates healthy positive emotion from positive emotion dysregulation? |type="()"} - Healthy positive emotions improves behaviour, whereas dysregulation occurs when positive behaviour becomes excessive - Healthy positive emotions means emotions are freely expressed, whereas dysregulation occurs when they are suppressed + Healthy positive emotions supports functioning and positive emotion dysregulation involves difficulty in managing positive emotions. - Healthy positive emotions are always beneficial and positive emotion dysregulation means positive emotions become negative. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} == Factors underlying positive emotion dysregulation == Positive emotion dysregulation is unlikely result from a single factor. Instead, it is a result of psychological, physiological, biological, individual, and environment factors. All these factors may interact to influence how strongly positive emotions are experienced and how they are regulated. This section will examine biological and environmental influences, ways of coping and regulation of positive emotions, and environmental and social factors. === Biological and temperamental factors === One of the factors for positive emotion dysregulation can be an increased sensitivity to emotional events from a biological and temperamental perspective. Some people might be emotionally more sensitive or find it harder to control their emotional reactions. A review by Vogel et al. (2023) reported that [[wikipedia:Surgency|surgency]] negatively correlated with effortful control and self-regulation in childhood. This may suggests that high surgency can be associated with aggression and externalising behaviours. Nonetheless, surgency has positive implications too and its link with regulation changed at different developmental stages. Therefore, it is hard to make strong conclusion to explain dysregulation only through surgency. Difficulties may also arise if there is high emotional activation that exceeds individual’s cognitive capacity. Additionally, Vogel et al. (2023) review only highlighted that [[wikipedia:Temperament|temperamental]] traits represent a vulnerability but not the exact causes of positive emotion dysregulation. Linehan’s (1993) [[wikipedia:Biosocial_theory|biosocial model]] offers additional perspective where biological emotional sensitivity combined with environmental invalidation leads to emotional dysregulation. It results in difficulties in managing and responding to intense positive emotions. Limitation of this theory is that it is not designed for positive emotions specifically. But it can be used to predict that people with high biological emotional sensitivity will be affected by the way other people perceive their emotions. Taken together, the developmental findings by Vogel et al. (2023) combined with Linehan’s (1993) theory can provide evidence that temperament may create vulnerability. But ability to regulate and environmental experiences determine the impact of excessive positive emotion. === Coping and emotion-regulation strategies === Individual’s ability to cope with their emotions may determine whether their strong emotions remain adaptive or turn into something uncontrollable. The process model of emotion regulation by Gross (1998) provides useful framework for understanding emotion regulation process. According to this model, regulation involves modifying emotional responses according to the situation and goals. Studies that look at emotion regulation back this idea. Livingstone and Srivastava (2012) found three ways to increase the level of positive emotions which are engagement, betterment, and indulgence. This provides evidence that increasing emotions does not necessarily mean dysregulation. [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Coping and emotion|Coping strategies]] may contribute to vulnerability to positive emotion dysregulation. To assess how regulation strategies work in real life conditions, Boemo et al. (2022) undertook a [[wikipedia:Systematic_review|systematic review]] and [[wikipedia:Meta-analysis|meta-analysis]] of experience sampling and daily diary design. The findings showed that [[wikipedia:Appraisal_theory|reappraisal]] was associated with greater positive effect, while [[wikipedia:Rumination_(psychology)|rumination]] and suppression were associated with poorer affective outcomes. Reappraisal prospectively predicted positive affect (''r'' = .34), while rumination prospectively predicted negative affect (''r'' = .16). These results shows that how people manage emotions can influence emotional functioning. The review focused on emotion regulation not on positive emotion dysregulation so it cannot prove that bad regulation leads to positive emotion dysregulation. Haag et al. (2024) conducted systematic review of 11 studies involving 3,775 adolescents (''M'' = 13.4 years) to understand emotion regulation flexibility in adolescents. Results of this study found that greater emotion regulation flexibility is associated with more adaptive outcomes, including higher positive effect and self-worth. The study conceptualised emotion regulation flexibility in two ways which was flexibility in regulating emotions according to the situation and the use of emotion regulation strategies. However, the evidence is limited as most studies were [[wikipedia:Cross-sectional_study|cross-sectional]] and community based. There was also heavy reliance on [[wikipedia:Self-report_study|self-report measures]]. Therfore, the findings suggests that poor regulation may increase vulnerability to emotional difficulties. But the study does not establish that low emotional regulation flexibility directly causes positive emotion dysregulation. Lastly, these studies combined provides foundation to understand relationship between ability to cope with emotions and emotional dysregulation. But direct inferences cannot be made as research is broad and focused only on emotional dysregulation in general. Future research is needed to understand how to cope with intense positive emotions so that does not lead to positive emotion dysregulation. === Environmental and social factors === Social environmental may shape the way positive emotions are expressed and regulated. According to meta-analysis conducted by Zinsser et al. (2021) on 24 studies, small correlation existed between emotion-focused parenting strategies and the emotional skills of children. Correlations were small and significant, ranged from ''r'' = .05 to .19. However, majority of studies used cross-sectional designs. Therefore, parental emotional socialisation may contribute to emotion regulation. But the evidence does not a direct pathway from parenting styles to dysregulation. Similarly, Goagoses et al. (2023) reviewed 27 studies on parenting and emotion dysregulation during childhood and adolescence. Results showed a small positive effect between negative parenting and emotion dysregulation (Δ = .20, ''p'' < .001). Additionally, there was a negative effect between positive parenting and emotion dysregulation (Δ = - .17, ''p'' < .001). But there was a notable heterogeneity in both meta-analyses, meaning that results should be interpreted carefully. Furthermore, emotion dysregulation in this study was evaluated in general and not separated into positive and negative emotion dysregulation.   Breaux et al. (2022) conducted a systematic review of parent emotion socialisation and positive emotions in child and adolescent samples. In seven included studies, the correlational data suggested weak support for association between emotion socialisation behaviour of parents and positive emotions. Intervention studies proved effective increasing both parenting behaviours and positive emotions in children. England-Mason et al. (2023) conducted meta-analysis of twenty-six studies based on fifteen randomised controlled trials. Findings showed that parenting interventions were associated with increased emotion socialisation practices and emotional competence of children. But these findings reflected emotion competence as whole rather than the positive emotion dysregulation. Overall, social and environmental factors seem to be the contributing factor rather than direct cause of positive emotion dysregulation. Parenting could play role in development of emotion regulatory skills, but existing research cannot identify clear association. {{Robelbox|theme=10|title=Quiz}}[[Image: Hand Gesture - Holding a Magnifying Glass.gif|right|128px]] <quiz display=simple> Why high surgency can not be considered as a direct cause of positive emotion dysregulation ? |type="()"} - Surgency only occurs during adulthood - Surgency has only negative effects - Surgency is not related to emotional functioning + The effects of surgency is adaptive and its association with regulation changes across development </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} == Consequences of positive emotion dysregulation on psychological functioning == The regulation of positive emotions may manifest itself through altered thinking processes, decision-making, goals pursued and behaviour of an individual. While positive emotions helps to expand attention and motivate individuals to explore more, strong and poorly regulated emotional activation may influence judgement. This section will discuss the way in which positive experiences may impact cognition, motivation and decision-making processes. === Changes in cognition and decision-making === * Positive emotions can broaden attention and action thought repertoires. Fredrickson and Branigan (2005) found that positive affective states broadened both attention and the range of thought-action responses that the participants gave. It provided empirical support for broaden-and-build theory. * Positive emotion dysregulation can influence decision-making. * The effects of cognitive broadening are context-dependent === Goal pursuit and behavioural activation === * The positive emotions would enhance approach motivation and behavioural activation. * Excessive activation might help achieve goals but could be exaggerated. In case of exaggeration, the activation might make people over-commit. * Grace’s behaviour explains this as initially she was motivated to participate in university opportunities. But repeatedly taking additional projects despite limited time shows that goal directed activation is becoming difficult to regulate. === Risk-taking and Impulsivity === * Presence of positive emotional activation may lead to increased level of impulsivity and risky behaviour. * Positive urgency provides a precise reason for rash behaviour during high levels of positive emotions. Cyders and Smith (2008) define positive urgency as the tendency of behaving rashly during high levels of positive affect. This behavioural trend can be risky as well. * Impulsivity and risk-taking should not be equated with positive emotion dysregulation {{Robelbox|theme=4|title=Quiz}}[[Image: Hand Gesture - Holding a Magnifying Glass.gif|right|128px]] <quiz display=simple> Which of the following is correct regarding positive emotion dysregulation and psychological functioning? |type="()"} + Poorly regulated positive emotions can interfere with attention, wellbeing, relationships and everyday responsibilities - Positive emotions are always harmful - Positive emotions have no effect on behaviour and functioning - Intense positive emotions always indicate dysregulation </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} ==Conclusion== *Positive emotion dysregulation is not simply experiencing intense happiness, but difficulty in regulating positive emotions. *Dysregulation can influence thoughts, decision-making and behaviour. *Difficulty in regulating positive emotions may affect everyday responsibilities and functioning. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} [[File:Nuvola apps kuser.svg|Nuvola apps kuser|left|20px]] ''' Take-home messages:''' - Positive emotion dysregulation occurs when positive emotions are difficult to regulate in ways that are appropriate according to the situation. - When positive emotions are poorly regulated, they can interfere with an individual's wellbeing, attention and everyday functioning. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==See also == *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions|Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions]] (Book chapter, 2016) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Coping and emotion|Coping and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Emotion dysregulation|Emotion dysregulation]] (Book chapter, 2026) *[[wikipedia:Emotional_dysregulation|Emotional dysregulation]] (Wikipedia) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Cyders, M. A., & Smith, G. T. (2008). Emotion-based dispositions to rash action: Positive and negative urgency. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''134''(6), 807–828. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013341 Campos, B., Shiota, M. N., Keltner, D., Gonzaga, G. C., & Goetz, J. L. (2013). What is shared, what is different? Core relational themes and expressive displays of eight positive emotions. ''Cognition and Emotion'', ''27''(1), 37–52. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2012.683852 Carl, J. R., Soskin, D. P., Kerns, C., & Barlow, D. H. (2013). Positive emotion regulation in emotional disorders: A theoretical review. ''Clinical Psychology Review'', ''33''(3), 343–360. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2013.01.003 Fredrickson B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology. The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. ''The American psychologist'', ''56''(3), 218–226. https://doi.org/10.1037//0003-066x.56.3.218 Fredrickson, B. L., & Branigan, C. (2005). Positive emotions broaden the scope of attention and thought‐action repertoires. ''Cognition & Emotion'', ''19''(3), 313–332. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930441000238 Gross, J. J. (1998). The emerging field of emotion regulation: An integrative review. ''Review of General Psychology'', ''2''(3), 271–299. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.2.3.271 Gruber, J., Mauss, I. B., & Tamir, M. (2011). A Dark Side of Happiness? How, When, and Why Happiness Is Not Always Good. ''Perspectives on Psychological Science'', ''6''(3), 222–233. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691611406927 Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion regulation: Current status and future prospects. ''Psychological Inquiry'', ''26''(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2014.940781 Gruber, J., Villanueva, C., Burr, E., Purcell, J. R., & Karoly, H. (2020). Understanding and Taking Stock of Positive Emotion Disturbance. ''Social and personality psychology compass'', ''14''(1), e12515. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12515 Vogel, A. C., Brotman, M. A., Roy, A. K., & Perlman, S. B. (2023). Review: Defining positive emotion dysregulation: Integrating temperamental and clinical perspectives. ''Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry'', ''62''(3), 297–305. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2022.06.019 }} ==External links== * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/everyday-resilience/202404/emotional-well-being-5-healthy-practices-for-regulation Emotional wellbeing] (Psychology today) * [https://www.belonghealth.com.au/emotional-regulation-dysregulation-perth-mandurah.html Emotion dysregulation consequences] (Belong health) * [https://www.londonpsychiatry.clinic/blog/5-evidence-based-emotional-regulation-strategies Emotional regulation strategies] (London psychiatry clinic) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MyfzIQH6YKI Positive emotions with Barbara Fredrickson] (Youtube.com) __TOC__ [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion regulation]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Positive emotion]] dm1751zlxio3ytzban3tbslrg81xioj 2836440 2836438 2026-10-07T04:36:46Z P U3270518 3106535 /* Environmental and social factors */ 2836440 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Positive emotion dysregulation:<br>What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} [[File:Woman in red sweater with hand in air.jpg|right|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1.''' Grace experiencing happiness and excitement following several positive life events.]] '''Scenario''' Grace is a university student who feels that she has just won the lottery of her life. First, she receives a PhD offer from her dream university. Shortly afterwards, she learns that she has been awarded a scholarship to support her studies. Overwhelmed with happiness, Grace invites her boyfriend over to celebrate. Her boyfriend surprises her by proposing during the celebration, making it the best day of her life. For next several days, Grace feels unusually happy and energised (see Figure 1). She sleeps very little because she believes there is too much to achieve. To celebrate her success, she purchases an expensive laptop, makes an impulsive travel booking and commits to several university projects despite having a full schedule. People close to Grace begin to wonder if something is not right. Her close friends tried to slow her down, but she ignored them. From Grace's perspective, she is just happy, motivated and confident as pieces of her life are finally coming together in a positive way. 💡 What is happening to Grace? Why do her positive emotions become so intense? {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotions]] are a normal and important part of human life. It includes a variety of feelings such as joy, interest, love, contentment, gratitude, awe, and amusement (Campos et al., 2013). These emotions play an important role in expanding people's thoughts and possible actions to help them build lasting psychological and social resources (Fredrickson, 2001). However, positive emotions might not always be beneficial if they are inadequately regulated. A review by Gruber et al. (2020) on positive emotion disturbance suggests that extremely strong or prolonged positive emotional states can sometimes interfere with adaptive functioning. Positive emotion dysregulation helps to explain how positive emotional states can feel initially feel good but can sometimes contribute to harmful thoughts and behaviour. This chapter will explore how positive emotions can shift from being adaptive to maladaptive, and how it can affect psychological functioning. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} 🔎 '''Focus questions''' 1️⃣ What is positive emotion dysregulation, and how can it be distinguished from healthy positive emotions? 2️⃣ What factors contribute to difficulties in regulating positive emotions? 3️⃣ How does positive emotion dysregulation affect psychological functioning and wellbeing? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Positive emotion: From benefit to dysregulation== Understanding positive emotion dysregulation requires more than just identifying whether an emotional experience is pleasant or intense. [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotions]] such as joy, amusement and interest are usually considered pleasant in nature (Fredrickson, 2001). These feelings shape the way people thick, act and connect with world around them. Positive emotion dysregulation refers to difficulties in responding to positive emotions (Mansueto et al., 2025). It involves problems such as accepting, controlling or managing actions while feeling happy or excited (Mansueto et al., 2025). Therefore, positive emotion dysregulation is not simply experiencing strong positive emotions. It is about struggling to regulate those feelings in a way that support effective functioning. This section will consider why positive emotions are important, how they are normally regulated and how difficulties in regulating them can lead to positive emotion dysregulation. === Positive emotions and its adaptive functions === [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotions]] play an important role in psychological functioning. They include numerous experiences such as [[wikipedia:Joy|joy]], [[wikipedia:Interest_(emotion)|interest]], [[wikipedia:Love|love]], [[wikipedia:Contentment|contentment]], [[wikipedia:Gratitude|gratitude]], [[wikipedia:Awe|awe]], and [[wikipedia:Amusement|amusement]] which can influence cognition, behaviour, and social interaction (Campos et al., 2013). Instead of simply producing pleasant effects, positive emotions can encourage individuals to explore their environment, learn from experiences, engage with others and pursue meaningful goals. Positive emotions can broaden people's thoughts, cognition and behaviour. [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions|Broaden-and-Build Theory]] by Fredrickson (2001) proposes that positive emotions broaden momentary thought-action repertoires that encourages exploration, flexibility and engagement. For instance, excitement following major positive events may encourage student such as Grace to pursue new opportunities and get more involved in university. These positive emotions can help to build psychological and social resources, including relationships and coping resources (Fredrickson, 2001). Nevertheless, a network analysis about broaden-and-build theory on two studies (''N'' = 312; ''N''=302) found support for relationships between positive emotions, resources and life outcomes. But the broadening component that this theory proposed consistently deviated from the theory’s predictions, questioning its validity (Roth et al., 2024). However, positive emotions are not always beneficial in every circumstances. Effects of positive emotions may depend on intensity, timing, and context. This provides a foundation for understanding when positive emotion may become less adaptive (Gruber et al., 2011). This review challenges assumption of [[wikipedia:Positive_psychology|positive psychology]] that increasing positive emotion will improve well-being. It does not mean that strong positive emotions are always harmful. Review by Gruber et al. (2020), on positive emotion disturbance highlighted how positive emotion disturbance can interfere with adaptive functioning. Overall, these findings suggest that positive emotions can support adaptive functioning. But positive emotions are not automatic and same for everyone. Kashdan et al. (2015) reviewed myths regarding positive emotion regulation. This article emphasised flexibility in how people regulate emotions. Emotional responses should be adjusted according to the situation and personal goals. Thus, healthy positive emotion is not defined by its intensity alone. It depends on how it can be regulated flexibly without interfering with functioning. === From emotion regulation to positive emotion dysregulation === [[Emotional regulation]] refers to one’s ability to seek control over own emotional state (Gross, 2015). [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Extended process model of emotion regulation|The process model of emotion]] [[File:Positive emotion dysregulation pathway.png|thumb|434x434px|'''Figure 2.''' Applying the emotion regulation process to a positive situation. ''Note''. Some parts of this image has been adapted from Gross (1998) process model of emotion regulation ]][[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Extended process model of emotion regulation|regulation]] by Gross (1998) provides a framework for understanding how individual can modify emotional experiences. This model proposes that regulation occur at different stages which includes situation selection, situation modification, attentional deployment, cognitive appraisal and response modulation. Regulation can occur before an emotional response is fully developed or after anemotion has already been experienced. In Grace’s case, receiving the PhD offer and scholarship shifted her attention shifted towards positive achievement. She appraises the situation positively. According to Gross (1998) process model, emotion regulation then influences how she responds to and manages these emotions (see Figure 2). It also shapes what she does next.   Successful regulation helps individuals to modify their emotional experiences. In contrast, difficulties in managing emotional experiences can lead to [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Emotion dysregulation|emotion dysregulation]]. Difficulties in regulating emotions can lead to interpersonal problems, [[wikipedia:Rumination_(psychology)|rumination]], and several [[wikipedia:Mental_disorder|mental disorders]]. This highlight that it is important to understand how emotions are experienced and also how individuals respond to them. Importantly, positive emotions also require regulation. According to Carl et al., (2013), individuals may need to regulate their positive emotions based on their needs, goals and circumstances. Research has heavily focused on negative emotions and regulation of positive emotion has received less attention. This provides foundation to examine positive emotion dysregulation. === Recognising positive emotion dysregulation === Positive emotion dysregulation is defined as the difficulties in responding and managing positive emotional experiences. It is a multifaced construct that involves difficulty in accepting positive emotions, maintaining goal-directed behaviour, and controlling behaviour when experiencing positive emotions (Weiss et al., 2015). These three elements provide a useful of recognising difficulties in regulating positive emotions (see Table 1). An intense positive emotion does not necessarily means dysregulated. Feelings such as happiness, excitement, or enthusiasm may be well-placed responses to certain life events. Context, intensity, persistence and implications are crucial. Positive emotions can be considered [[wikipedia:Maladaptation|maladaptive]] if are poorly fitted to the situation or if they start to interfere with functioning (Gruber et al., 2011). Positive emotion dysregulation occurs when these feelings are hard to manage and when they disturb behaviour, goals and daily life. In Grace’s scenario, she engages in impulsive behaviour and commits to projects that she will not be able to complete on time. This highlights dysregulation as it affects her daily functioning. A review by Vogel et al. (2023), suggests that there is a need to examine the challenges of regulating positive emotions rather than focusing exclusively on negative emotions. This review also highlights that dysregulation should be understood in relation to the feelings and the way a person behaves. Research by Mansueto et al. (2025) found that stronger [[Metacognition|metacognitive]] beliefs were associated with greater positive emotion dysregulation, suggesting a therapeutic target. Overall, recognising emotional dysregulation means looking past how strong the feeling is and focusing on how person can respond and manage that feeling. '''Table 1''' ''Key elements for recognising positive emotion dysregulation'' ''Note. This table is based on the DERS-Positive dimensions researched by Weiss et al. (2015)'' {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! Dimension !Positive emotion regulation ! Positive emotion dysregulation |- | Accepting positive emotions |Accepts and acknowledges positive emotions without feeling that they are wrong or threatening | Feels uncomfortable or scared when experiencing positive emotions |- |Goal-directed behaviour |Can stay focused on goals while experiencing positive emotions |Difficulty in continuing goal-directed behaviour while experiencing positive emotions |- |Behavioural control |Can control behaviour and avoid acting impulsively when feeling happy or excited |Struggle in controlling behaviour or acts impulsively |} ; {{Robelbox|theme=5|title=Quiz}}[[Image: Hand Gesture - Holding a Magnifying Glass.gif|right|128px]] <quiz display=simple> Which of the following statement best differentiates healthy positive emotion from positive emotion dysregulation? |type="()"} - Healthy positive emotions improves behaviour, whereas dysregulation occurs when positive behaviour becomes excessive - Healthy positive emotions means emotions are freely expressed, whereas dysregulation occurs when they are suppressed + Healthy positive emotions supports functioning and positive emotion dysregulation involves difficulty in managing positive emotions. - Healthy positive emotions are always beneficial and positive emotion dysregulation means positive emotions become negative. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} == Factors underlying positive emotion dysregulation == Positive emotion dysregulation is unlikely result from a single factor. Instead, it is a result of psychological, physiological, biological, individual, and environment factors. All these factors may interact to influence how strongly positive emotions are experienced and how they are regulated. This section will examine biological and environmental influences, ways of coping and regulation of positive emotions, and environmental and social factors. === Biological and temperamental factors === One of the factors for positive emotion dysregulation can be an increased sensitivity to emotional events from a biological and temperamental perspective. Some people might be emotionally more sensitive or find it harder to control their emotional reactions. A review by Vogel et al. (2023) reported that [[wikipedia:Surgency|surgency]] negatively correlated with effortful control and self-regulation in childhood. This may suggests that high surgency can be associated with aggression and externalising behaviours. Nonetheless, surgency has positive implications too and its link with regulation changed at different developmental stages. Therefore, it is hard to make strong conclusion to explain dysregulation only through surgency. Difficulties may also arise if there is high emotional activation that exceeds individual’s cognitive capacity. Additionally, Vogel et al. (2023) review only highlighted that [[wikipedia:Temperament|temperamental]] traits represent a vulnerability but not the exact causes of positive emotion dysregulation. Linehan’s (1993) [[wikipedia:Biosocial_theory|biosocial model]] offers additional perspective where biological emotional sensitivity combined with environmental invalidation leads to emotional dysregulation. It results in difficulties in managing and responding to intense positive emotions. Limitation of this theory is that it is not designed for positive emotions specifically. But it can be used to predict that people with high biological emotional sensitivity will be affected by the way other people perceive their emotions. Taken together, the developmental findings by Vogel et al. (2023) combined with Linehan’s (1993) theory can provide evidence that temperament may create vulnerability. But ability to regulate and environmental experiences determine the impact of excessive positive emotion. === Coping and emotion-regulation strategies === Individual’s ability to cope with their emotions may determine whether their strong emotions remain adaptive or turn into something uncontrollable. The process model of emotion regulation by Gross (1998) provides useful framework for understanding emotion regulation process. According to this model, regulation involves modifying emotional responses according to the situation and goals. Studies that look at emotion regulation back this idea. Livingstone and Srivastava (2012) found three ways to increase the level of positive emotions which are engagement, betterment, and indulgence. This provides evidence that increasing emotions does not necessarily mean dysregulation. [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Coping and emotion|Coping strategies]] may contribute to vulnerability to positive emotion dysregulation. To assess how regulation strategies work in real life conditions, Boemo et al. (2022) undertook a [[wikipedia:Systematic_review|systematic review]] and [[wikipedia:Meta-analysis|meta-analysis]] of experience sampling and daily diary design. The findings showed that [[wikipedia:Appraisal_theory|reappraisal]] was associated with greater positive effect, while [[wikipedia:Rumination_(psychology)|rumination]] and suppression were associated with poorer affective outcomes. Reappraisal prospectively predicted positive affect (''r'' = .34), while rumination prospectively predicted negative affect (''r'' = .16). These results shows that how people manage emotions can influence emotional functioning. The review focused on emotion regulation not on positive emotion dysregulation so it cannot prove that bad regulation leads to positive emotion dysregulation. Haag et al. (2024) conducted systematic review of 11 studies involving 3,775 adolescents (''M'' = 13.4 years) to understand emotion regulation flexibility in adolescents. Results of this study found that greater emotion regulation flexibility is associated with more adaptive outcomes, including higher positive effect and self-worth. The study conceptualised emotion regulation flexibility in two ways which was flexibility in regulating emotions according to the situation and the use of emotion regulation strategies. However, the evidence is limited as most studies were [[wikipedia:Cross-sectional_study|cross-sectional]] and community based. There was also heavy reliance on [[wikipedia:Self-report_study|self-report measures]]. Therfore, the findings suggests that poor regulation may increase vulnerability to emotional difficulties. But the study does not establish that low emotional regulation flexibility directly causes positive emotion dysregulation. Lastly, these studies combined provides foundation to understand relationship between ability to cope with emotions and emotional dysregulation. But direct inferences cannot be made as research is broad and focused only on emotional dysregulation in general. Future research is needed to understand how to cope with intense positive emotions so that does not lead to positive emotion dysregulation. === Environmental and social factors === Social environmental may shape the way positive emotions are expressed and regulated. According to meta-analysis conducted by Zinsser et al. (2021) on 24 studies, small correlation existed between emotion-focused parenting strategies and the emotional skills of children. Correlations were small and significant, ranged from ''r'' = .05 to .19. However, majority of studies used cross-sectional designs. Therefore, parental emotional socialisation may contribute to emotion regulation. But the evidence does not a direct pathway from parenting styles to dysregulation. Similarly, Goagoses et al. (2023) reviewed 27 studies on parenting and emotion dysregulation during childhood and adolescence. Results showed a small positive effect between negative parenting and emotion dysregulation (Δ = .20, ''p'' < .001). Additionally, there was a negative effect between positive parenting and emotion dysregulation (Δ = - .17, ''p'' < .001). But there was a notable heterogeneity in both meta-analyses, meaning that results should be interpreted carefully. Furthermore, emotion dysregulation in this study was evaluated in general and not separated into positive and negative emotion dysregulation.   Breaux et al. (2022) conducted a systematic review of parent emotion socialisation and positive emotions in child and adolescent samples. In seven included studies, the [[wikipedia:Correlation|correlational data]] suggested weak support for association between emotion socialisation behaviour of parents and positive emotions. Intervention studies proved effective increasing both parenting behaviours and positive emotions in children. England-Mason et al. (2023) conducted meta-analysis of twenty-six studies based on fifteen randomised controlled trials. Findings showed that parenting interventions were associated with increased emotion socialisation practices and emotional competence of children. But these findings reflected emotion competence as whole rather than the positive emotion dysregulation. Overall, social and environmental factors seem to be the contributing factor rather than direct cause of positive emotion dysregulation. Parenting could play role in development of emotion regulatory skills, but existing research cannot identify clear association. {{Robelbox|theme=10|title=Quiz}}[[Image: Hand Gesture - Holding a Magnifying Glass.gif|right|128px]] <quiz display=simple> Why high surgency can not be considered as a direct cause of positive emotion dysregulation ? |type="()"} - Surgency only occurs during adulthood - Surgency has only negative effects - Surgency is not related to emotional functioning + The effects of surgency is adaptive and its association with regulation changes across development </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} == Consequences of positive emotion dysregulation on psychological functioning == The regulation of positive emotions may manifest itself through altered thinking processes, decision-making, goals pursued and behaviour of an individual. While positive emotions helps to expand attention and motivate individuals to explore more, strong and poorly regulated emotional activation may influence judgement. This section will discuss the way in which positive experiences may impact cognition, motivation and decision-making processes. === Changes in cognition and decision-making === * Positive emotions can broaden attention and action thought repertoires. Fredrickson and Branigan (2005) found that positive affective states broadened both attention and the range of thought-action responses that the participants gave. It provided empirical support for broaden-and-build theory. * Positive emotion dysregulation can influence decision-making. * The effects of cognitive broadening are context-dependent === Goal pursuit and behavioural activation === * The positive emotions would enhance approach motivation and behavioural activation. * Excessive activation might help achieve goals but could be exaggerated. In case of exaggeration, the activation might make people over-commit. * Grace’s behaviour explains this as initially she was motivated to participate in university opportunities. But repeatedly taking additional projects despite limited time shows that goal directed activation is becoming difficult to regulate. === Risk-taking and Impulsivity === * Presence of positive emotional activation may lead to increased level of impulsivity and risky behaviour. * Positive urgency provides a precise reason for rash behaviour during high levels of positive emotions. Cyders and Smith (2008) define positive urgency as the tendency of behaving rashly during high levels of positive affect. This behavioural trend can be risky as well. * Impulsivity and risk-taking should not be equated with positive emotion dysregulation {{Robelbox|theme=4|title=Quiz}}[[Image: Hand Gesture - Holding a Magnifying Glass.gif|right|128px]] <quiz display=simple> Which of the following is correct regarding positive emotion dysregulation and psychological functioning? |type="()"} + Poorly regulated positive emotions can interfere with attention, wellbeing, relationships and everyday responsibilities - Positive emotions are always harmful - Positive emotions have no effect on behaviour and functioning - Intense positive emotions always indicate dysregulation </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} ==Conclusion== *Positive emotion dysregulation is not simply experiencing intense happiness, but difficulty in regulating positive emotions. *Dysregulation can influence thoughts, decision-making and behaviour. *Difficulty in regulating positive emotions may affect everyday responsibilities and functioning. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} [[File:Nuvola apps kuser.svg|Nuvola apps kuser|left|20px]] ''' Take-home messages:''' - Positive emotion dysregulation occurs when positive emotions are difficult to regulate in ways that are appropriate according to the situation. - When positive emotions are poorly regulated, they can interfere with an individual's wellbeing, attention and everyday functioning. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==See also == *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions|Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions]] (Book chapter, 2016) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Coping and emotion|Coping and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Emotion dysregulation|Emotion dysregulation]] (Book chapter, 2026) *[[wikipedia:Emotional_dysregulation|Emotional dysregulation]] (Wikipedia) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Cyders, M. A., & Smith, G. T. (2008). Emotion-based dispositions to rash action: Positive and negative urgency. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''134''(6), 807–828. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013341 Campos, B., Shiota, M. N., Keltner, D., Gonzaga, G. C., & Goetz, J. L. (2013). What is shared, what is different? Core relational themes and expressive displays of eight positive emotions. ''Cognition and Emotion'', ''27''(1), 37–52. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2012.683852 Carl, J. R., Soskin, D. P., Kerns, C., & Barlow, D. H. (2013). Positive emotion regulation in emotional disorders: A theoretical review. ''Clinical Psychology Review'', ''33''(3), 343–360. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2013.01.003 Fredrickson B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology. The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. ''The American psychologist'', ''56''(3), 218–226. https://doi.org/10.1037//0003-066x.56.3.218 Fredrickson, B. L., & Branigan, C. (2005). Positive emotions broaden the scope of attention and thought‐action repertoires. ''Cognition & Emotion'', ''19''(3), 313–332. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930441000238 Gross, J. J. (1998). The emerging field of emotion regulation: An integrative review. ''Review of General Psychology'', ''2''(3), 271–299. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.2.3.271 Gruber, J., Mauss, I. B., & Tamir, M. (2011). A Dark Side of Happiness? How, When, and Why Happiness Is Not Always Good. ''Perspectives on Psychological Science'', ''6''(3), 222–233. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691611406927 Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion regulation: Current status and future prospects. ''Psychological Inquiry'', ''26''(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2014.940781 Gruber, J., Villanueva, C., Burr, E., Purcell, J. R., & Karoly, H. (2020). Understanding and Taking Stock of Positive Emotion Disturbance. ''Social and personality psychology compass'', ''14''(1), e12515. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12515 Vogel, A. C., Brotman, M. A., Roy, A. K., & Perlman, S. B. (2023). Review: Defining positive emotion dysregulation: Integrating temperamental and clinical perspectives. ''Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry'', ''62''(3), 297–305. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2022.06.019 }} ==External links== * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/everyday-resilience/202404/emotional-well-being-5-healthy-practices-for-regulation Emotional wellbeing] (Psychology today) * [https://www.belonghealth.com.au/emotional-regulation-dysregulation-perth-mandurah.html Emotion dysregulation consequences] (Belong health) * [https://www.londonpsychiatry.clinic/blog/5-evidence-based-emotional-regulation-strategies Emotional regulation strategies] (London psychiatry clinic) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MyfzIQH6YKI Positive emotions with Barbara Fredrickson] (Youtube.com) __TOC__ [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion regulation]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Positive emotion]] tfb4p9bxywhi9js04ssgz6x2g9nado8 2836451 2836440 2026-10-07T05:14:26Z P U3270518 3106535 /* Factors underlying positive emotion dysregulation */ 2836451 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Positive emotion dysregulation:<br>What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} [[File:Woman in red sweater with hand in air.jpg|right|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1.''' Grace experiencing happiness and excitement following several positive life events.]] '''Scenario''' Grace is a university student who feels that she has just won the lottery of her life. First, she receives a PhD offer from her dream university. Shortly afterwards, she learns that she has been awarded a scholarship to support her studies. Overwhelmed with happiness, Grace invites her boyfriend over to celebrate. Her boyfriend surprises her by proposing during the celebration, making it the best day of her life. For next several days, Grace feels unusually happy and energised (see Figure 1). She sleeps very little because she believes there is too much to achieve. To celebrate her success, she purchases an expensive laptop, makes an impulsive travel booking and commits to several university projects despite having a full schedule. People close to Grace begin to wonder if something is not right. Her close friends tried to slow her down, but she ignored them. From Grace's perspective, she is just happy, motivated and confident as pieces of her life are finally coming together in a positive way. 💡 What is happening to Grace? Why do her positive emotions become so intense? {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotions]] are a normal and important part of human life. It includes a variety of feelings such as joy, interest, love, contentment, gratitude, awe, and amusement (Campos et al., 2013). These emotions play an important role in expanding people's thoughts and possible actions to help them build lasting psychological and social resources (Fredrickson, 2001). However, positive emotions might not always be beneficial if they are inadequately regulated. A review by Gruber et al. (2020) on positive emotion disturbance suggests that extremely strong or prolonged positive emotional states can sometimes interfere with adaptive functioning. Positive emotion dysregulation helps to explain how positive emotional states can feel initially feel good but can sometimes contribute to harmful thoughts and behaviour. This chapter will explore how positive emotions can shift from being adaptive to maladaptive, and how it can affect psychological functioning. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} 🔎 '''Focus questions''' 1️⃣ What is positive emotion dysregulation, and how can it be distinguished from healthy positive emotions? 2️⃣ What factors contribute to difficulties in regulating positive emotions? 3️⃣ How does positive emotion dysregulation affect psychological functioning and wellbeing? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Positive emotion: From benefit to dysregulation== Understanding positive emotion dysregulation requires more than just identifying whether an emotional experience is pleasant or intense. [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotions]] such as joy, amusement and interest are usually considered pleasant in nature (Fredrickson, 2001). These feelings shape the way people thick, act and connect with world around them. Positive emotion dysregulation refers to difficulties in responding to positive emotions (Mansueto et al., 2025). It involves problems such as accepting, controlling or managing actions while feeling happy or excited (Mansueto et al., 2025). Therefore, positive emotion dysregulation is not simply experiencing strong positive emotions. It is about struggling to regulate those feelings in a way that support effective functioning. This section will consider why positive emotions are important, how they are normally regulated and how difficulties in regulating them can lead to positive emotion dysregulation. === Positive emotions and its adaptive functions === [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotions]] play an important role in psychological functioning. They include numerous experiences such as [[wikipedia:Joy|joy]], [[wikipedia:Interest_(emotion)|interest]], [[wikipedia:Love|love]], [[wikipedia:Contentment|contentment]], [[wikipedia:Gratitude|gratitude]], [[wikipedia:Awe|awe]], and [[wikipedia:Amusement|amusement]] which can influence cognition, behaviour, and social interaction (Campos et al., 2013). Instead of simply producing pleasant effects, positive emotions can encourage individuals to explore their environment, learn from experiences, engage with others and pursue meaningful goals. Positive emotions can broaden people's thoughts, cognition and behaviour. [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions|Broaden-and-Build Theory]] by Fredrickson (2001) proposes that positive emotions broaden momentary thought-action repertoires that encourages exploration, flexibility and engagement. For instance, excitement following major positive events may encourage student such as Grace to pursue new opportunities and get more involved in university. These positive emotions can help to build psychological and social resources, including relationships and coping resources (Fredrickson, 2001). Nevertheless, a network analysis about broaden-and-build theory on two studies (''N'' = 312; ''N''=302) found support for relationships between positive emotions, resources and life outcomes. But the broadening component that this theory proposed consistently deviated from the theory’s predictions, questioning its validity (Roth et al., 2024). However, positive emotions are not always beneficial in every circumstances. Effects of positive emotions may depend on intensity, timing, and context. This provides a foundation for understanding when positive emotion may become less adaptive (Gruber et al., 2011). This review challenges assumption of [[wikipedia:Positive_psychology|positive psychology]] that increasing positive emotion will improve well-being. It does not mean that strong positive emotions are always harmful. Review by Gruber et al. (2020), on positive emotion disturbance highlighted how positive emotion disturbance can interfere with adaptive functioning. Overall, these findings suggest that positive emotions can support adaptive functioning. But positive emotions are not automatic and same for everyone. Kashdan et al. (2015) reviewed myths regarding positive emotion regulation. This article emphasised flexibility in how people regulate emotions. Emotional responses should be adjusted according to the situation and personal goals. Thus, healthy positive emotion is not defined by its intensity alone. It depends on how it can be regulated flexibly without interfering with functioning. === From emotion regulation to positive emotion dysregulation === [[Emotional regulation]] refers to one’s ability to seek control over own emotional state (Gross, 2015). [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Extended process model of emotion regulation|The process model of emotion]] [[File:Positive emotion dysregulation pathway.png|thumb|434x434px|'''Figure 2.''' Applying the emotion regulation process to a positive situation. ''Note''. Some parts of this image has been adapted from Gross (1998) process model of emotion regulation ]][[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Extended process model of emotion regulation|regulation]] by Gross (1998) provides a framework for understanding how individual can modify emotional experiences. This model proposes that regulation occur at different stages which includes situation selection, situation modification, attentional deployment, cognitive appraisal and response modulation. Regulation can occur before an emotional response is fully developed or after anemotion has already been experienced. In Grace’s case, receiving the PhD offer and scholarship shifted her attention shifted towards positive achievement. She appraises the situation positively. According to Gross (1998) process model, emotion regulation then influences how she responds to and manages these emotions (see Figure 2). It also shapes what she does next.   Successful regulation helps individuals to modify their emotional experiences. In contrast, difficulties in managing emotional experiences can lead to [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Emotion dysregulation|emotion dysregulation]]. Difficulties in regulating emotions can lead to interpersonal problems, [[wikipedia:Rumination_(psychology)|rumination]], and several [[wikipedia:Mental_disorder|mental disorders]]. This highlight that it is important to understand how emotions are experienced and also how individuals respond to them. Importantly, positive emotions also require regulation. According to Carl et al., (2013), individuals may need to regulate their positive emotions based on their needs, goals and circumstances. Research has heavily focused on negative emotions and regulation of positive emotion has received less attention. This provides foundation to examine positive emotion dysregulation. === Recognising positive emotion dysregulation === Positive emotion dysregulation is defined as the difficulties in responding and managing positive emotional experiences. It is a multifaced construct that involves difficulty in accepting positive emotions, maintaining goal-directed behaviour, and controlling behaviour when experiencing positive emotions (Weiss et al., 2015). These three elements provide a useful of recognising difficulties in regulating positive emotions (see Table 1). An intense positive emotion does not necessarily means dysregulated. Feelings such as happiness, excitement, or enthusiasm may be well-placed responses to certain life events. Context, intensity, persistence and implications are crucial. Positive emotions can be considered [[wikipedia:Maladaptation|maladaptive]] if are poorly fitted to the situation or if they start to interfere with functioning (Gruber et al., 2011). Positive emotion dysregulation occurs when these feelings are hard to manage and when they disturb behaviour, goals and daily life. In Grace’s scenario, she engages in impulsive behaviour and commits to projects that she will not be able to complete on time. This highlights dysregulation as it affects her daily functioning. A review by Vogel et al. (2023), suggests that there is a need to examine the challenges of regulating positive emotions rather than focusing exclusively on negative emotions. This review also highlights that dysregulation should be understood in relation to the feelings and the way a person behaves. Research by Mansueto et al. (2025) found that stronger [[Metacognition|metacognitive]] beliefs were associated with greater positive emotion dysregulation, suggesting a therapeutic target. Overall, recognising emotional dysregulation means looking past how strong the feeling is and focusing on how person can respond and manage that feeling. '''Table 1''' ''Key elements for recognising positive emotion dysregulation'' ''Note. This table is based on the DERS-Positive dimensions researched by Weiss et al. (2015)'' {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! Dimension !Positive emotion regulation ! Positive emotion dysregulation |- | Accepting positive emotions |Accepts and acknowledges positive emotions without feeling that they are wrong or threatening | Feels uncomfortable or scared when experiencing positive emotions |- |Goal-directed behaviour |Can stay focused on goals while experiencing positive emotions |Difficulty in continuing goal-directed behaviour while experiencing positive emotions |- |Behavioural control |Can control behaviour and avoid acting impulsively when feeling happy or excited |Struggle in controlling behaviour or acts impulsively |} ; {{Robelbox|theme=5|title=Quiz}}[[Image: Hand Gesture - Holding a Magnifying Glass.gif|right|128px]] <quiz display=simple> Which of the following statement best differentiates healthy positive emotion from positive emotion dysregulation? |type="()"} - Healthy positive emotions improves behaviour, whereas dysregulation occurs when positive behaviour becomes excessive - Healthy positive emotions means emotions are freely expressed, whereas dysregulation occurs when they are suppressed + Healthy positive emotions supports functioning and positive emotion dysregulation involves difficulty in managing positive emotions. - Healthy positive emotions are always beneficial and positive emotion dysregulation means positive emotions become negative. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} == Factors underlying positive emotion dysregulation == Positive emotion dysregulation is unlikely result from a single factor. Instead, it is a result of biological, temperamental, coping, social and environment factors (see Figure 3). All these factors may interact to influence how strongly positive emotions are experienced and how they are regulated. This section will examine biological and environmental influences, ways of coping and regulation of positive emotions, and environmental and social factors. === Biological and temperamental factors === One of the factors for positive emotion dysregulation can be an increased sensitivity to emotional events from a biological and temperamental perspective. Some people might be emotionally more sensitive or find it harder to control their emotional reactions. A review by Vogel et al. (2023) reported that [[wikipedia:Surgency|surgency]] negatively correlated with effortful control and self-regulation in childhood. This may suggests that high surgency can be associated with aggression and externalising behaviours. Nonetheless, surgency has positive implications too and its link with regulation changed at different developmental stages. Therefore, it is hard to make strong conclusion to explain dysregulation only through surgency. Difficulties may also arise if there is high emotional activation that exceeds individual’s cognitive capacity. Additionally, Vogel et al. (2023) review only highlighted that [[wikipedia:Temperament|temperamental]] traits represent a vulnerability but not the exact causes of positive emotion dysregulation. Linehan’s (1993) [[wikipedia:Biosocial_theory|biosocial model]] offers additional perspective where biological emotional sensitivity combined with environmental invalidation leads to emotional dysregulation. It results in difficulties in managing and responding to intense positive emotions. Limitation of this theory is that it is not designed for positive emotions specifically. But it can be used to predict that people with high biological emotional sensitivity will be affected by the way other people perceive their emotions. Taken together, the developmental findings by Vogel et al. (2023) combined with Linehan’s (1993) theory can provide evidence that temperament may create vulnerability. But ability to regulate and environmental experiences determine the impact of excessive positive emotion. === Coping and emotion-regulation strategies === Individual’s ability to cope with their emotions may determine whether their strong emotions remain adaptive or turn into something uncontrollable. The process model of emotion regulation by Gross (1998) provides useful framework for understanding emotion regulation process. According to this model, regulation involves modifying emotional responses according to the situation and goals. Studies that look at emotion regulation back this idea. Livingstone and Srivastava (2012) found three ways to increase the level of positive emotions which are engagement, betterment, and indulgence. This provides evidence that increasing emotions does not necessarily mean dysregulation. [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Coping and emotion|Coping strategies]] may contribute to vulnerability to positive emotion dysregulation. To assess how regulation strategies work in real life conditions, Boemo et al. (2022) undertook a [[wikipedia:Systematic_review|systematic review]] and [[wikipedia:Meta-analysis|meta-analysis]] of experience sampling and daily diary design. The findings showed that [[wikipedia:Appraisal_theory|reappraisal]] was associated with greater positive effect, while [[wikipedia:Rumination_(psychology)|rumination]] and suppression were associated with poorer affective outcomes. Reappraisal prospectively predicted positive affect (''r'' = .34), while rumination prospectively predicted negative affect (''r'' = .16). These results shows that how people manage emotions can influence emotional functioning. The review focused on emotion regulation not on positive emotion dysregulation so it cannot prove that bad regulation leads to positive emotion dysregulation. Haag et al. (2024) conducted systematic review of 11 studies involving 3,775 adolescents (''M'' = 13.4 years) to understand emotion regulation flexibility in adolescents. Results of this study found that greater emotion regulation flexibility is associated with more adaptive outcomes, including higher positive effect and self-worth. The study conceptualised emotion regulation flexibility in two ways which was flexibility in regulating emotions according to the situation and the use of emotion regulation strategies. However, the evidence is limited as most studies were [[wikipedia:Cross-sectional_study|cross-sectional]] and community based. There was also heavy reliance on [[wikipedia:Self-report_study|self-report measures]]. Therfore, the findings suggests that poor regulation may increase vulnerability to emotional difficulties. But the study does not establish that low emotional regulation flexibility directly causes positive emotion dysregulation. Lastly, these studies combined provides foundation to understand relationship between ability to cope with emotions and emotional dysregulation. But direct inferences cannot be made as research is broad and focused only on emotional dysregulation in general. Future research is needed to understand how to cope with intense positive emotions so that does not lead to positive emotion dysregulation. === Environmental and social factors === Social environmental may shape the way positive emotions are expressed and regulated. According to meta-analysis conducted by Zinsser et al. (2021) on 24 studies, small correlation existed between emotion-focused parenting strategies and the emotional skills of children. Correlations were small and significant, ranged from ''r'' = .05 to .19. However, majority of studies used cross-sectional designs. Therefore, parental emotional socialisation may contribute to emotion regulation. But the evidence does not a direct pathway from parenting styles to dysregulation. Similarly, Goagoses et al. (2023) reviewed 27 studies on parenting and emotion dysregulation during childhood and adolescence. Results showed a small positive effect between negative parenting and emotion dysregulation (Δ = .20, ''p'' < .001). Additionally, there was a negative effect between positive parenting and emotion dysregulation (Δ = - .17, ''p'' < .001). But there was a notable heterogeneity in both meta-analyses, meaning that results should be interpreted carefully. Furthermore, emotion dysregulation in this study was evaluated in general and not separated into positive and negative emotion dysregulation.   Breaux et al. (2022) conducted a systematic review of parent emotion socialisation and positive emotions in child and adolescent samples. In seven included studies, the [[wikipedia:Correlation|correlational data]] suggested weak support for association between emotion socialisation behaviour of parents and positive emotions. Intervention studies proved effective increasing both parenting behaviours and positive emotions in children. England-Mason et al. (2023) conducted meta-analysis of twenty-six studies based on fifteen randomised controlled trials. Findings showed that parenting interventions were associated with increased emotion socialisation practices and emotional competence of children. But these findings reflected emotion competence as whole rather than the positive emotion dysregulation. Overall, social and environmental factors seem to be the contributing factor rather than direct cause of positive emotion dysregulation. Parenting could play role in development of emotion regulatory skills, but existing research cannot identify clear association. {{Robelbox|theme=10|title=Quiz}}[[Image: Hand Gesture - Holding a Magnifying Glass.gif|right|128px]] <quiz display=simple> Why high surgency can not be considered as a direct cause of positive emotion dysregulation ? |type="()"} - Surgency only occurs during adulthood - Surgency has only negative effects - Surgency is not related to emotional functioning + The effects of surgency is adaptive and its association with regulation changes across development </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} == Consequences of positive emotion dysregulation on psychological functioning == The regulation of positive emotions may manifest itself through altered thinking processes, decision-making, goals pursued and behaviour of an individual. While positive emotions helps to expand attention and motivate individuals to explore more, strong and poorly regulated emotional activation may influence judgement. This section will discuss the way in which positive experiences may impact cognition, motivation and decision-making processes. === Changes in cognition and decision-making === * Positive emotions can broaden attention and action thought repertoires. Fredrickson and Branigan (2005) found that positive affective states broadened both attention and the range of thought-action responses that the participants gave. It provided empirical support for broaden-and-build theory. * Positive emotion dysregulation can influence decision-making. * The effects of cognitive broadening are context-dependent === Goal pursuit and behavioural activation === * The positive emotions would enhance approach motivation and behavioural activation. * Excessive activation might help achieve goals but could be exaggerated. In case of exaggeration, the activation might make people over-commit. * Grace’s behaviour explains this as initially she was motivated to participate in university opportunities. But repeatedly taking additional projects despite limited time shows that goal directed activation is becoming difficult to regulate. === Risk-taking and Impulsivity === * Presence of positive emotional activation may lead to increased level of impulsivity and risky behaviour. * Positive urgency provides a precise reason for rash behaviour during high levels of positive emotions. Cyders and Smith (2008) define positive urgency as the tendency of behaving rashly during high levels of positive affect. This behavioural trend can be risky as well. * Impulsivity and risk-taking should not be equated with positive emotion dysregulation {{Robelbox|theme=4|title=Quiz}}[[Image: Hand Gesture - Holding a Magnifying Glass.gif|right|128px]] <quiz display=simple> Which of the following is correct regarding positive emotion dysregulation and psychological functioning? |type="()"} + Poorly regulated positive emotions can interfere with attention, wellbeing, relationships and everyday responsibilities - Positive emotions are always harmful - Positive emotions have no effect on behaviour and functioning - Intense positive emotions always indicate dysregulation </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} ==Conclusion== *Positive emotion dysregulation is not simply experiencing intense happiness, but difficulty in regulating positive emotions. *Dysregulation can influence thoughts, decision-making and behaviour. *Difficulty in regulating positive emotions may affect everyday responsibilities and functioning. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} [[File:Nuvola apps kuser.svg|Nuvola apps kuser|left|20px]] ''' Take-home messages:''' - Positive emotion dysregulation occurs when positive emotions are difficult to regulate in ways that are appropriate according to the situation. - When positive emotions are poorly regulated, they can interfere with an individual's wellbeing, attention and everyday functioning. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==See also == *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions|Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions]] (Book chapter, 2016) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Coping and emotion|Coping and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Emotion dysregulation|Emotion dysregulation]] (Book chapter, 2026) *[[wikipedia:Emotional_dysregulation|Emotional dysregulation]] (Wikipedia) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Cyders, M. A., & Smith, G. T. (2008). Emotion-based dispositions to rash action: Positive and negative urgency. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''134''(6), 807–828. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013341 Campos, B., Shiota, M. N., Keltner, D., Gonzaga, G. C., & Goetz, J. L. (2013). What is shared, what is different? Core relational themes and expressive displays of eight positive emotions. ''Cognition and Emotion'', ''27''(1), 37–52. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2012.683852 Carl, J. R., Soskin, D. P., Kerns, C., & Barlow, D. H. (2013). Positive emotion regulation in emotional disorders: A theoretical review. ''Clinical Psychology Review'', ''33''(3), 343–360. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2013.01.003 Fredrickson B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology. The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. ''The American psychologist'', ''56''(3), 218–226. https://doi.org/10.1037//0003-066x.56.3.218 Fredrickson, B. L., & Branigan, C. (2005). Positive emotions broaden the scope of attention and thought‐action repertoires. ''Cognition & Emotion'', ''19''(3), 313–332. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930441000238 Gross, J. J. (1998). The emerging field of emotion regulation: An integrative review. ''Review of General Psychology'', ''2''(3), 271–299. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.2.3.271 Gruber, J., Mauss, I. B., & Tamir, M. (2011). A Dark Side of Happiness? How, When, and Why Happiness Is Not Always Good. ''Perspectives on Psychological Science'', ''6''(3), 222–233. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691611406927 Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion regulation: Current status and future prospects. ''Psychological Inquiry'', ''26''(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2014.940781 Gruber, J., Villanueva, C., Burr, E., Purcell, J. R., & Karoly, H. (2020). Understanding and Taking Stock of Positive Emotion Disturbance. ''Social and personality psychology compass'', ''14''(1), e12515. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12515 Vogel, A. C., Brotman, M. A., Roy, A. K., & Perlman, S. B. (2023). Review: Defining positive emotion dysregulation: Integrating temperamental and clinical perspectives. ''Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry'', ''62''(3), 297–305. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2022.06.019 }} ==External links== * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/everyday-resilience/202404/emotional-well-being-5-healthy-practices-for-regulation Emotional wellbeing] (Psychology today) * [https://www.belonghealth.com.au/emotional-regulation-dysregulation-perth-mandurah.html Emotion dysregulation consequences] (Belong health) * [https://www.londonpsychiatry.clinic/blog/5-evidence-based-emotional-regulation-strategies Emotional regulation strategies] (London psychiatry clinic) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MyfzIQH6YKI Positive emotions with Barbara Fredrickson] (Youtube.com) __TOC__ [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion regulation]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Positive emotion]] skhljeal84c7fwucluu9z4ltp7vvj6a 2836454 2836451 2026-10-07T05:20:29Z P U3270518 3106535 /* Factors underlying positive emotion dysregulation */ figure included. copilot was used to get idea on how to create image. link to the chat:https://copilot.cloud.microsoft/chat/conversation/a5c30029-a964-4f93-9903-692d637fd0f3?fromCode=cmcv2&redirectId=CD513693A2474DCBA871AA63AB46901E 2836454 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Positive emotion dysregulation:<br>What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} [[File:Woman in red sweater with hand in air.jpg|right|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1.''' Grace experiencing happiness and excitement following several positive life events.]] '''Scenario''' Grace is a university student who feels that she has just won the lottery of her life. First, she receives a PhD offer from her dream university. Shortly afterwards, she learns that she has been awarded a scholarship to support her studies. Overwhelmed with happiness, Grace invites her boyfriend over to celebrate. Her boyfriend surprises her by proposing during the celebration, making it the best day of her life. For next several days, Grace feels unusually happy and energised (see Figure 1). She sleeps very little because she believes there is too much to achieve. To celebrate her success, she purchases an expensive laptop, makes an impulsive travel booking and commits to several university projects despite having a full schedule. People close to Grace begin to wonder if something is not right. Her close friends tried to slow her down, but she ignored them. From Grace's perspective, she is just happy, motivated and confident as pieces of her life are finally coming together in a positive way. 💡 What is happening to Grace? Why do her positive emotions become so intense? {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotions]] are a normal and important part of human life. It includes a variety of feelings such as joy, interest, love, contentment, gratitude, awe, and amusement (Campos et al., 2013). These emotions play an important role in expanding people's thoughts and possible actions to help them build lasting psychological and social resources (Fredrickson, 2001). However, positive emotions might not always be beneficial if they are inadequately regulated. A review by Gruber et al. (2020) on positive emotion disturbance suggests that extremely strong or prolonged positive emotional states can sometimes interfere with adaptive functioning. Positive emotion dysregulation helps to explain how positive emotional states can feel initially feel good but can sometimes contribute to harmful thoughts and behaviour. This chapter will explore how positive emotions can shift from being adaptive to maladaptive, and how it can affect psychological functioning. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} 🔎 '''Focus questions''' 1️⃣ What is positive emotion dysregulation, and how can it be distinguished from healthy positive emotions? 2️⃣ What factors contribute to difficulties in regulating positive emotions? 3️⃣ How does positive emotion dysregulation affect psychological functioning and wellbeing? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Positive emotion: From benefit to dysregulation== Understanding positive emotion dysregulation requires more than just identifying whether an emotional experience is pleasant or intense. [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotions]] such as joy, amusement and interest are usually considered pleasant in nature (Fredrickson, 2001). These feelings shape the way people thick, act and connect with world around them. Positive emotion dysregulation refers to difficulties in responding to positive emotions (Mansueto et al., 2025). It involves problems such as accepting, controlling or managing actions while feeling happy or excited (Mansueto et al., 2025). Therefore, positive emotion dysregulation is not simply experiencing strong positive emotions. It is about struggling to regulate those feelings in a way that support effective functioning. This section will consider why positive emotions are important, how they are normally regulated and how difficulties in regulating them can lead to positive emotion dysregulation. === Positive emotions and its adaptive functions === [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotions]] play an important role in psychological functioning. They include numerous experiences such as [[wikipedia:Joy|joy]], [[wikipedia:Interest_(emotion)|interest]], [[wikipedia:Love|love]], [[wikipedia:Contentment|contentment]], [[wikipedia:Gratitude|gratitude]], [[wikipedia:Awe|awe]], and [[wikipedia:Amusement|amusement]] which can influence cognition, behaviour, and social interaction (Campos et al., 2013). Instead of simply producing pleasant effects, positive emotions can encourage individuals to explore their environment, learn from experiences, engage with others and pursue meaningful goals. Positive emotions can broaden people's thoughts, cognition and behaviour. [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions|Broaden-and-Build Theory]] by Fredrickson (2001) proposes that positive emotions broaden momentary thought-action repertoires that encourages exploration, flexibility and engagement. For instance, excitement following major positive events may encourage student such as Grace to pursue new opportunities and get more involved in university. These positive emotions can help to build psychological and social resources, including relationships and coping resources (Fredrickson, 2001). Nevertheless, a network analysis about broaden-and-build theory on two studies (''N'' = 312; ''N''=302) found support for relationships between positive emotions, resources and life outcomes. But the broadening component that this theory proposed consistently deviated from the theory’s predictions, questioning its validity (Roth et al., 2024). However, positive emotions are not always beneficial in every circumstances. Effects of positive emotions may depend on intensity, timing, and context. This provides a foundation for understanding when positive emotion may become less adaptive (Gruber et al., 2011). This review challenges assumption of [[wikipedia:Positive_psychology|positive psychology]] that increasing positive emotion will improve well-being. It does not mean that strong positive emotions are always harmful. Review by Gruber et al. (2020), on positive emotion disturbance highlighted how positive emotion disturbance can interfere with adaptive functioning. Overall, these findings suggest that positive emotions can support adaptive functioning. But positive emotions are not automatic and same for everyone. Kashdan et al. (2015) reviewed myths regarding positive emotion regulation. This article emphasised flexibility in how people regulate emotions. Emotional responses should be adjusted according to the situation and personal goals. Thus, healthy positive emotion is not defined by its intensity alone. It depends on how it can be regulated flexibly without interfering with functioning. === From emotion regulation to positive emotion dysregulation === [[Emotional regulation]] refers to one’s ability to seek control over own emotional state (Gross, 2015). [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Extended process model of emotion regulation|The process model of emotion]] [[File:Positive emotion dysregulation pathway.png|thumb|434x434px|'''Figure 2.''' Applying the emotion regulation process to a positive situation. ''Note''. Some parts of this image has been adapted from Gross (1998) process model of emotion regulation ]][[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Extended process model of emotion regulation|regulation]] by Gross (1998) provides a framework for understanding how individual can modify emotional experiences. This model proposes that regulation occur at different stages which includes situation selection, situation modification, attentional deployment, cognitive appraisal and response modulation. Regulation can occur before an emotional response is fully developed or after anemotion has already been experienced. In Grace’s case, receiving the PhD offer and scholarship shifted her attention shifted towards positive achievement. She appraises the situation positively. According to Gross (1998) process model, emotion regulation then influences how she responds to and manages these emotions (see Figure 2). It also shapes what she does next.   Successful regulation helps individuals to modify their emotional experiences. In contrast, difficulties in managing emotional experiences can lead to [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Emotion dysregulation|emotion dysregulation]]. Difficulties in regulating emotions can lead to interpersonal problems, [[wikipedia:Rumination_(psychology)|rumination]], and several [[wikipedia:Mental_disorder|mental disorders]]. This highlight that it is important to understand how emotions are experienced and also how individuals respond to them. Importantly, positive emotions also require regulation. According to Carl et al., (2013), individuals may need to regulate their positive emotions based on their needs, goals and circumstances. Research has heavily focused on negative emotions and regulation of positive emotion has received less attention. This provides foundation to examine positive emotion dysregulation. === Recognising positive emotion dysregulation === Positive emotion dysregulation is defined as the difficulties in responding and managing positive emotional experiences. It is a multifaced construct that involves difficulty in accepting positive emotions, maintaining goal-directed behaviour, and controlling behaviour when experiencing positive emotions (Weiss et al., 2015). These three elements provide a useful of recognising difficulties in regulating positive emotions (see Table 1). An intense positive emotion does not necessarily means dysregulated. Feelings such as happiness, excitement, or enthusiasm may be well-placed responses to certain life events. Context, intensity, persistence and implications are crucial. Positive emotions can be considered [[wikipedia:Maladaptation|maladaptive]] if are poorly fitted to the situation or if they start to interfere with functioning (Gruber et al., 2011). Positive emotion dysregulation occurs when these feelings are hard to manage and when they disturb behaviour, goals and daily life. In Grace’s scenario, she engages in impulsive behaviour and commits to projects that she will not be able to complete on time. This highlights dysregulation as it affects her daily functioning. A review by Vogel et al. (2023), suggests that there is a need to examine the challenges of regulating positive emotions rather than focusing exclusively on negative emotions. This review also highlights that dysregulation should be understood in relation to the feelings and the way a person behaves. Research by Mansueto et al. (2025) found that stronger [[Metacognition|metacognitive]] beliefs were associated with greater positive emotion dysregulation, suggesting a therapeutic target. Overall, recognising emotional dysregulation means looking past how strong the feeling is and focusing on how person can respond and manage that feeling. '''Table 1''' ''Key elements for recognising positive emotion dysregulation'' ''Note. This table is based on the DERS-Positive dimensions researched by Weiss et al. (2015)'' {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! Dimension !Positive emotion regulation ! Positive emotion dysregulation |- | Accepting positive emotions |Accepts and acknowledges positive emotions without feeling that they are wrong or threatening | Feels uncomfortable or scared when experiencing positive emotions |- |Goal-directed behaviour |Can stay focused on goals while experiencing positive emotions |Difficulty in continuing goal-directed behaviour while experiencing positive emotions |- |Behavioural control |Can control behaviour and avoid acting impulsively when feeling happy or excited |Struggle in controlling behaviour or acts impulsively |} ; {{Robelbox|theme=5|title=Quiz}}[[Image: Hand Gesture - Holding a Magnifying Glass.gif|right|128px]] <quiz display=simple> Which of the following statement best differentiates healthy positive emotion from positive emotion dysregulation? |type="()"} - Healthy positive emotions improves behaviour, whereas dysregulation occurs when positive behaviour becomes excessive - Healthy positive emotions means emotions are freely expressed, whereas dysregulation occurs when they are suppressed + Healthy positive emotions supports functioning and positive emotion dysregulation involves difficulty in managing positive emotions. - Healthy positive emotions are always beneficial and positive emotion dysregulation means positive emotions become negative. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} == Factors underlying positive emotion dysregulation == [[File:Positive emotion dysregulation.png|thumb|'''Figure 3.''' Factors that may contribute to positive emotion dysregulation ]] Positive emotion dysregulation is unlikely result from a single factor. Instead, it is a result of biological, temperamental, coping, social and environment factors (see Figure 3). All these factors may interact to influence how strongly positive emotions are experienced and how they are regulated. This section will examine biological and environmental influences, ways of coping and regulation of positive emotions, and environmental and social factors. === Biological and temperamental factors === One of the factors for positive emotion dysregulation can be an increased sensitivity to emotional events from a biological and temperamental perspective. Some people might be emotionally more sensitive or find it harder to control their emotional reactions. A review by Vogel et al. (2023) reported that [[wikipedia:Surgency|surgency]] negatively correlated with effortful control and self-regulation in childhood. This may suggests that high surgency can be associated with aggression and externalising behaviours. Nonetheless, surgency has positive implications too and its link with regulation changed at different developmental stages. Therefore, it is hard to make strong conclusion to explain dysregulation only through surgency. Difficulties may also arise if there is high emotional activation that exceeds individual’s cognitive capacity. Additionally, Vogel et al. (2023) review only highlighted that [[wikipedia:Temperament|temperamental]] traits represent a vulnerability but not the exact causes of positive emotion dysregulation. Linehan’s (1993) [[wikipedia:Biosocial_theory|biosocial model]] offers additional perspective where biological emotional sensitivity combined with environmental invalidation leads to emotional dysregulation. It results in difficulties in managing and responding to intense positive emotions. Limitation of this theory is that it is not designed for positive emotions specifically. But it can be used to predict that people with high biological emotional sensitivity will be affected by the way other people perceive their emotions. Taken together, the developmental findings by Vogel et al. (2023) combined with Linehan’s (1993) theory can provide evidence that temperament may create vulnerability. But ability to regulate and environmental experiences determine the impact of excessive positive emotion. === Coping and emotion-regulation strategies === Individual’s ability to cope with their emotions may determine whether their strong emotions remain adaptive or turn into something uncontrollable. The process model of emotion regulation by Gross (1998) provides useful framework for understanding emotion regulation process. According to this model, regulation involves modifying emotional responses according to the situation and goals. Studies that look at emotion regulation back this idea. Livingstone and Srivastava (2012) found three ways to increase the level of positive emotions which are engagement, betterment, and indulgence. This provides evidence that increasing emotions does not necessarily mean dysregulation. [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Coping and emotion|Coping strategies]] may contribute to vulnerability to positive emotion dysregulation. To assess how regulation strategies work in real life conditions, Boemo et al. (2022) undertook a [[wikipedia:Systematic_review|systematic review]] and [[wikipedia:Meta-analysis|meta-analysis]] of experience sampling and daily diary design. The findings showed that [[wikipedia:Appraisal_theory|reappraisal]] was associated with greater positive effect, while [[wikipedia:Rumination_(psychology)|rumination]] and suppression were associated with poorer affective outcomes. Reappraisal prospectively predicted positive affect (''r'' = .34), while rumination prospectively predicted negative affect (''r'' = .16). These results shows that how people manage emotions can influence emotional functioning. The review focused on emotion regulation not on positive emotion dysregulation so it cannot prove that bad regulation leads to positive emotion dysregulation. Haag et al. (2024) conducted systematic review of 11 studies involving 3,775 adolescents (''M'' = 13.4 years) to understand emotion regulation flexibility in adolescents. Results of this study found that greater emotion regulation flexibility is associated with more adaptive outcomes, including higher positive effect and self-worth. The study conceptualised emotion regulation flexibility in two ways which was flexibility in regulating emotions according to the situation and the use of emotion regulation strategies. However, the evidence is limited as most studies were [[wikipedia:Cross-sectional_study|cross-sectional]] and community based. There was also heavy reliance on [[wikipedia:Self-report_study|self-report measures]]. Therfore, the findings suggests that poor regulation may increase vulnerability to emotional difficulties. But the study does not establish that low emotional regulation flexibility directly causes positive emotion dysregulation. Lastly, these studies combined provides foundation to understand relationship between ability to cope with emotions and emotional dysregulation. But direct inferences cannot be made as research is broad and focused only on emotional dysregulation in general. Future research is needed to understand how to cope with intense positive emotions so that does not lead to positive emotion dysregulation. === Environmental and social factors === Social environmental may shape the way positive emotions are expressed and regulated. According to meta-analysis conducted by Zinsser et al. (2021) on 24 studies, small correlation existed between emotion-focused parenting strategies and the emotional skills of children. Correlations were small and significant, ranged from ''r'' = .05 to .19. However, majority of studies used cross-sectional designs. Therefore, parental emotional socialisation may contribute to emotion regulation. But the evidence does not a direct pathway from parenting styles to dysregulation. Similarly, Goagoses et al. (2023) reviewed 27 studies on parenting and emotion dysregulation during childhood and adolescence. Results showed a small positive effect between negative parenting and emotion dysregulation (Δ = .20, ''p'' < .001). Additionally, there was a negative effect between positive parenting and emotion dysregulation (Δ = - .17, ''p'' < .001). But there was a notable heterogeneity in both meta-analyses, meaning that results should be interpreted carefully. Furthermore, emotion dysregulation in this study was evaluated in general and not separated into positive and negative emotion dysregulation.   Breaux et al. (2022) conducted a systematic review of parent emotion socialisation and positive emotions in child and adolescent samples. In seven included studies, the [[wikipedia:Correlation|correlational data]] suggested weak support for association between emotion socialisation behaviour of parents and positive emotions. Intervention studies proved effective increasing both parenting behaviours and positive emotions in children. England-Mason et al. (2023) conducted meta-analysis of twenty-six studies based on fifteen randomised controlled trials. Findings showed that parenting interventions were associated with increased emotion socialisation practices and emotional competence of children. But these findings reflected emotion competence as whole rather than the positive emotion dysregulation. Overall, social and environmental factors seem to be the contributing factor rather than direct cause of positive emotion dysregulation. Parenting could play role in development of emotion regulatory skills, but existing research cannot identify clear association. {{Robelbox|theme=10|title=Quiz}}[[Image: Hand Gesture - Holding a Magnifying Glass.gif|right|128px]] <quiz display=simple> Why high surgency can not be considered as a direct cause of positive emotion dysregulation ? |type="()"} - Surgency only occurs during adulthood - Surgency has only negative effects - Surgency is not related to emotional functioning + The effects of surgency is adaptive and its association with regulation changes across development </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} == Consequences of positive emotion dysregulation on psychological functioning == The regulation of positive emotions may manifest itself through altered thinking processes, decision-making, goals pursued and behaviour of an individual. While positive emotions helps to expand attention and motivate individuals to explore more, strong and poorly regulated emotional activation may influence judgement. This section will discuss the way in which positive experiences may impact cognition, motivation and decision-making processes. === Changes in cognition and decision-making === * Positive emotions can broaden attention and action thought repertoires. Fredrickson and Branigan (2005) found that positive affective states broadened both attention and the range of thought-action responses that the participants gave. It provided empirical support for broaden-and-build theory. * Positive emotion dysregulation can influence decision-making. * The effects of cognitive broadening are context-dependent === Goal pursuit and behavioural activation === * The positive emotions would enhance approach motivation and behavioural activation. * Excessive activation might help achieve goals but could be exaggerated. In case of exaggeration, the activation might make people over-commit. * Grace’s behaviour explains this as initially she was motivated to participate in university opportunities. But repeatedly taking additional projects despite limited time shows that goal directed activation is becoming difficult to regulate. === Risk-taking and Impulsivity === * Presence of positive emotional activation may lead to increased level of impulsivity and risky behaviour. * Positive urgency provides a precise reason for rash behaviour during high levels of positive emotions. Cyders and Smith (2008) define positive urgency as the tendency of behaving rashly during high levels of positive affect. This behavioural trend can be risky as well. * Impulsivity and risk-taking should not be equated with positive emotion dysregulation {{Robelbox|theme=4|title=Quiz}}[[Image: Hand Gesture - Holding a Magnifying Glass.gif|right|128px]] <quiz display=simple> Which of the following is correct regarding positive emotion dysregulation and psychological functioning? |type="()"} + Poorly regulated positive emotions can interfere with attention, wellbeing, relationships and everyday responsibilities - Positive emotions are always harmful - Positive emotions have no effect on behaviour and functioning - Intense positive emotions always indicate dysregulation </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} ==Conclusion== *Positive emotion dysregulation is not simply experiencing intense happiness, but difficulty in regulating positive emotions. *Dysregulation can influence thoughts, decision-making and behaviour. *Difficulty in regulating positive emotions may affect everyday responsibilities and functioning. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} [[File:Nuvola apps kuser.svg|Nuvola apps kuser|left|20px]] ''' Take-home messages:''' - Positive emotion dysregulation occurs when positive emotions are difficult to regulate in ways that are appropriate according to the situation. - When positive emotions are poorly regulated, they can interfere with an individual's wellbeing, attention and everyday functioning. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==See also == *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions|Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions]] (Book chapter, 2016) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Coping and emotion|Coping and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Emotion dysregulation|Emotion dysregulation]] (Book chapter, 2026) *[[wikipedia:Emotional_dysregulation|Emotional dysregulation]] (Wikipedia) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Cyders, M. A., & Smith, G. T. (2008). Emotion-based dispositions to rash action: Positive and negative urgency. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''134''(6), 807–828. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013341 Campos, B., Shiota, M. N., Keltner, D., Gonzaga, G. C., & Goetz, J. L. (2013). What is shared, what is different? Core relational themes and expressive displays of eight positive emotions. ''Cognition and Emotion'', ''27''(1), 37–52. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2012.683852 Carl, J. R., Soskin, D. P., Kerns, C., & Barlow, D. H. (2013). Positive emotion regulation in emotional disorders: A theoretical review. ''Clinical Psychology Review'', ''33''(3), 343–360. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2013.01.003 Fredrickson B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology. The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. ''The American psychologist'', ''56''(3), 218–226. https://doi.org/10.1037//0003-066x.56.3.218 Fredrickson, B. L., & Branigan, C. (2005). Positive emotions broaden the scope of attention and thought‐action repertoires. ''Cognition & Emotion'', ''19''(3), 313–332. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930441000238 Gross, J. J. (1998). The emerging field of emotion regulation: An integrative review. ''Review of General Psychology'', ''2''(3), 271–299. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.2.3.271 Gruber, J., Mauss, I. B., & Tamir, M. (2011). A Dark Side of Happiness? How, When, and Why Happiness Is Not Always Good. ''Perspectives on Psychological Science'', ''6''(3), 222–233. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691611406927 Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion regulation: Current status and future prospects. ''Psychological Inquiry'', ''26''(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2014.940781 Gruber, J., Villanueva, C., Burr, E., Purcell, J. R., & Karoly, H. (2020). Understanding and Taking Stock of Positive Emotion Disturbance. ''Social and personality psychology compass'', ''14''(1), e12515. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12515 Vogel, A. C., Brotman, M. A., Roy, A. K., & Perlman, S. B. (2023). Review: Defining positive emotion dysregulation: Integrating temperamental and clinical perspectives. ''Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry'', ''62''(3), 297–305. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2022.06.019 }} ==External links== * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/everyday-resilience/202404/emotional-well-being-5-healthy-practices-for-regulation Emotional wellbeing] (Psychology today) * [https://www.belonghealth.com.au/emotional-regulation-dysregulation-perth-mandurah.html Emotion dysregulation consequences] (Belong health) * [https://www.londonpsychiatry.clinic/blog/5-evidence-based-emotional-regulation-strategies Emotional regulation strategies] (London psychiatry clinic) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MyfzIQH6YKI Positive emotions with Barbara Fredrickson] (Youtube.com) __TOC__ [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion regulation]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Positive emotion]] 3wvsdruz0mflneuozaag4hzdpkn9f3n 2836492 2836454 2026-10-07T09:11:00Z P U3270518 3106535 /* Consequences of positive emotion dysregulation on psychological functioning */ 2836492 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Positive emotion dysregulation:<br>What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} [[File:Woman in red sweater with hand in air.jpg|right|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1.''' Grace experiencing happiness and excitement following several positive life events.]] '''Scenario''' Grace is a university student who feels that she has just won the lottery of her life. First, she receives a PhD offer from her dream university. Shortly afterwards, she learns that she has been awarded a scholarship to support her studies. Overwhelmed with happiness, Grace invites her boyfriend over to celebrate. Her boyfriend surprises her by proposing during the celebration, making it the best day of her life. For next several days, Grace feels unusually happy and energised (see Figure 1). She sleeps very little because she believes there is too much to achieve. To celebrate her success, she purchases an expensive laptop, makes an impulsive travel booking and commits to several university projects despite having a full schedule. People close to Grace begin to wonder if something is not right. Her close friends tried to slow her down, but she ignored them. From Grace's perspective, she is just happy, motivated and confident as pieces of her life are finally coming together in a positive way. 💡 What is happening to Grace? Why do her positive emotions become so intense? {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotions]] are a normal and important part of human life. It includes a variety of feelings such as joy, interest, love, contentment, gratitude, awe, and amusement (Campos et al., 2013). These emotions play an important role in expanding people's thoughts and possible actions to help them build lasting psychological and social resources (Fredrickson, 2001). However, positive emotions might not always be beneficial if they are inadequately regulated. A review by Gruber et al. (2020) on positive emotion disturbance suggests that extremely strong or prolonged positive emotional states can sometimes interfere with adaptive functioning. Positive emotion dysregulation helps to explain how positive emotional states can feel initially feel good but can sometimes contribute to harmful thoughts and behaviour. This chapter will explore how positive emotions can shift from being adaptive to maladaptive, and how it can affect psychological functioning. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} 🔎 '''Focus questions''' 1️⃣ What is positive emotion dysregulation, and how can it be distinguished from healthy positive emotions? 2️⃣ What factors contribute to difficulties in regulating positive emotions? 3️⃣ How does positive emotion dysregulation affect psychological functioning and wellbeing? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Positive emotion: From benefit to dysregulation== Understanding positive emotion dysregulation requires more than just identifying whether an emotional experience is pleasant or intense. [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotions]] such as joy, amusement and interest are usually considered pleasant in nature (Fredrickson, 2001). These feelings shape the way people thick, act and connect with world around them. Positive emotion dysregulation refers to difficulties in responding to positive emotions (Mansueto et al., 2025). It involves problems such as accepting, controlling or managing actions while feeling happy or excited (Mansueto et al., 2025). Therefore, positive emotion dysregulation is not simply experiencing strong positive emotions. It is about struggling to regulate those feelings in a way that support effective functioning. This section will consider why positive emotions are important, how they are normally regulated and how difficulties in regulating them can lead to positive emotion dysregulation. === Positive emotions and its adaptive functions === [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotions]] play an important role in psychological functioning. They include numerous experiences such as [[wikipedia:Joy|joy]], [[wikipedia:Interest_(emotion)|interest]], [[wikipedia:Love|love]], [[wikipedia:Contentment|contentment]], [[wikipedia:Gratitude|gratitude]], [[wikipedia:Awe|awe]], and [[wikipedia:Amusement|amusement]] which can influence cognition, behaviour, and social interaction (Campos et al., 2013). Instead of simply producing pleasant effects, positive emotions can encourage individuals to explore their environment, learn from experiences, engage with others and pursue meaningful goals. Positive emotions can broaden people's thoughts, cognition and behaviour. [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions|Broaden-and-Build Theory]] by Fredrickson (2001) proposes that positive emotions broaden momentary thought-action repertoires that encourages exploration, flexibility and engagement. For instance, excitement following major positive events may encourage student such as Grace to pursue new opportunities and get more involved in university. These positive emotions can help to build psychological and social resources, including relationships and coping resources (Fredrickson, 2001). Nevertheless, a network analysis about broaden-and-build theory on two studies (''N'' = 312; ''N''=302) found support for relationships between positive emotions, resources and life outcomes. But the broadening component that this theory proposed consistently deviated from the theory’s predictions, questioning its validity (Roth et al., 2024). However, positive emotions are not always beneficial in every circumstances. Effects of positive emotions may depend on intensity, timing, and context. This provides a foundation for understanding when positive emotion may become less adaptive (Gruber et al., 2011). This review challenges assumption of [[wikipedia:Positive_psychology|positive psychology]] that increasing positive emotion will improve well-being. It does not mean that strong positive emotions are always harmful. Review by Gruber et al. (2020), on positive emotion disturbance highlighted how positive emotion disturbance can interfere with adaptive functioning. Overall, these findings suggest that positive emotions can support adaptive functioning. But positive emotions are not automatic and same for everyone. Kashdan et al. (2015) reviewed myths regarding positive emotion regulation. This article emphasised flexibility in how people regulate emotions. Emotional responses should be adjusted according to the situation and personal goals. Thus, healthy positive emotion is not defined by its intensity alone. It depends on how it can be regulated flexibly without interfering with functioning. === From emotion regulation to positive emotion dysregulation === [[Emotional regulation]] refers to one’s ability to seek control over own emotional state (Gross, 2015). [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Extended process model of emotion regulation|The process model of emotion]] [[File:Positive emotion dysregulation pathway.png|thumb|434x434px|'''Figure 2.''' Applying the emotion regulation process to a positive situation. ''Note''. Some parts of this image has been adapted from Gross (1998) process model of emotion regulation ]][[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Extended process model of emotion regulation|regulation]] by Gross (1998) provides a framework for understanding how individual can modify emotional experiences. This model proposes that regulation occur at different stages which includes situation selection, situation modification, attentional deployment, cognitive appraisal and response modulation. Regulation can occur before an emotional response is fully developed or after anemotion has already been experienced. In Grace’s case, receiving the PhD offer and scholarship shifted her attention shifted towards positive achievement. She appraises the situation positively. According to Gross (1998) process model, emotion regulation then influences how she responds to and manages these emotions (see Figure 2). It also shapes what she does next.   Successful regulation helps individuals to modify their emotional experiences. In contrast, difficulties in managing emotional experiences can lead to [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Emotion dysregulation|emotion dysregulation]]. Difficulties in regulating emotions can lead to interpersonal problems, [[wikipedia:Rumination_(psychology)|rumination]], and several [[wikipedia:Mental_disorder|mental disorders]]. This highlight that it is important to understand how emotions are experienced and also how individuals respond to them. Importantly, positive emotions also require regulation. According to Carl et al., (2013), individuals may need to regulate their positive emotions based on their needs, goals and circumstances. Research has heavily focused on negative emotions and regulation of positive emotion has received less attention. This provides foundation to examine positive emotion dysregulation. === Recognising positive emotion dysregulation === Positive emotion dysregulation is defined as the difficulties in responding and managing positive emotional experiences. It is a multifaced construct that involves difficulty in accepting positive emotions, maintaining goal-directed behaviour, and controlling behaviour when experiencing positive emotions (Weiss et al., 2015). These three elements provide a useful of recognising difficulties in regulating positive emotions (see Table 1). An intense positive emotion does not necessarily means dysregulated. Feelings such as happiness, excitement, or enthusiasm may be well-placed responses to certain life events. Context, intensity, persistence and implications are crucial. Positive emotions can be considered [[wikipedia:Maladaptation|maladaptive]] if are poorly fitted to the situation or if they start to interfere with functioning (Gruber et al., 2011). Positive emotion dysregulation occurs when these feelings are hard to manage and when they disturb behaviour, goals and daily life. In Grace’s scenario, she engages in impulsive behaviour and commits to projects that she will not be able to complete on time. This highlights dysregulation as it affects her daily functioning. A review by Vogel et al. (2023), suggests that there is a need to examine the challenges of regulating positive emotions rather than focusing exclusively on negative emotions. This review also highlights that dysregulation should be understood in relation to the feelings and the way a person behaves. Research by Mansueto et al. (2025) found that stronger [[Metacognition|metacognitive]] beliefs were associated with greater positive emotion dysregulation, suggesting a therapeutic target. Overall, recognising emotional dysregulation means looking past how strong the feeling is and focusing on how person can respond and manage that feeling. '''Table 1''' ''Key elements for recognising positive emotion dysregulation'' ''Note. This table is based on the DERS-Positive dimensions researched by Weiss et al. (2015)'' {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! Dimension !Positive emotion regulation ! Positive emotion dysregulation |- | Accepting positive emotions |Accepts and acknowledges positive emotions without feeling that they are wrong or threatening | Feels uncomfortable or scared when experiencing positive emotions |- |Goal-directed behaviour |Can stay focused on goals while experiencing positive emotions |Difficulty in continuing goal-directed behaviour while experiencing positive emotions |- |Behavioural control |Can control behaviour and avoid acting impulsively when feeling happy or excited |Struggle in controlling behaviour or acts impulsively |} ; {{Robelbox|theme=5|title=Quiz}}[[Image: Hand Gesture - Holding a Magnifying Glass.gif|right|128px]] <quiz display=simple> Which of the following statement best differentiates healthy positive emotion from positive emotion dysregulation? |type="()"} - Healthy positive emotions improves behaviour, whereas dysregulation occurs when positive behaviour becomes excessive - Healthy positive emotions means emotions are freely expressed, whereas dysregulation occurs when they are suppressed + Healthy positive emotions supports functioning and positive emotion dysregulation involves difficulty in managing positive emotions. - Healthy positive emotions are always beneficial and positive emotion dysregulation means positive emotions become negative. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} == Factors underlying positive emotion dysregulation == [[File:Positive emotion dysregulation.png|thumb|'''Figure 3.''' Factors that may contribute to positive emotion dysregulation ]] Positive emotion dysregulation is unlikely result from a single factor. Instead, it is a result of biological, temperamental, coping, social and environment factors (see Figure 3). All these factors may interact to influence how strongly positive emotions are experienced and how they are regulated. This section will examine biological and environmental influences, ways of coping and regulation of positive emotions, and environmental and social factors. === Biological and temperamental factors === One of the factors for positive emotion dysregulation can be an increased sensitivity to emotional events from a biological and temperamental perspective. Some people might be emotionally more sensitive or find it harder to control their emotional reactions. A review by Vogel et al. (2023) reported that [[wikipedia:Surgency|surgency]] negatively correlated with effortful control and self-regulation in childhood. This may suggests that high surgency can be associated with aggression and externalising behaviours. Nonetheless, surgency has positive implications too and its link with regulation changed at different developmental stages. Therefore, it is hard to make strong conclusion to explain dysregulation only through surgency. Difficulties may also arise if there is high emotional activation that exceeds individual’s cognitive capacity. Additionally, Vogel et al. (2023) review only highlighted that [[wikipedia:Temperament|temperamental]] traits represent a vulnerability but not the exact causes of positive emotion dysregulation. Linehan’s (1993) [[wikipedia:Biosocial_theory|biosocial model]] offers additional perspective where biological emotional sensitivity combined with environmental invalidation leads to emotional dysregulation. It results in difficulties in managing and responding to intense positive emotions. Limitation of this theory is that it is not designed for positive emotions specifically. But it can be used to predict that people with high biological emotional sensitivity will be affected by the way other people perceive their emotions. Taken together, the developmental findings by Vogel et al. (2023) combined with Linehan’s (1993) theory can provide evidence that temperament may create vulnerability. But ability to regulate and environmental experiences determine the impact of excessive positive emotion. === Coping and emotion-regulation strategies === Individual’s ability to cope with their emotions may determine whether their strong emotions remain adaptive or turn into something uncontrollable. The process model of emotion regulation by Gross (1998) provides useful framework for understanding emotion regulation process. According to this model, regulation involves modifying emotional responses according to the situation and goals. Studies that look at emotion regulation back this idea. Livingstone and Srivastava (2012) found three ways to increase the level of positive emotions which are engagement, betterment, and indulgence. This provides evidence that increasing emotions does not necessarily mean dysregulation. [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Coping and emotion|Coping strategies]] may contribute to vulnerability to positive emotion dysregulation. To assess how regulation strategies work in real life conditions, Boemo et al. (2022) undertook a [[wikipedia:Systematic_review|systematic review]] and [[wikipedia:Meta-analysis|meta-analysis]] of experience sampling and daily diary design. The findings showed that [[wikipedia:Appraisal_theory|reappraisal]] was associated with greater positive effect, while [[wikipedia:Rumination_(psychology)|rumination]] and suppression were associated with poorer affective outcomes. Reappraisal prospectively predicted positive affect (''r'' = .34), while rumination prospectively predicted negative affect (''r'' = .16). These results shows that how people manage emotions can influence emotional functioning. The review focused on emotion regulation not on positive emotion dysregulation so it cannot prove that bad regulation leads to positive emotion dysregulation. Haag et al. (2024) conducted systematic review of 11 studies involving 3,775 adolescents (''M'' = 13.4 years) to understand emotion regulation flexibility in adolescents. Results of this study found that greater emotion regulation flexibility is associated with more adaptive outcomes, including higher positive effect and self-worth. The study conceptualised emotion regulation flexibility in two ways which was flexibility in regulating emotions according to the situation and the use of emotion regulation strategies. However, the evidence is limited as most studies were [[wikipedia:Cross-sectional_study|cross-sectional]] and community based. There was also heavy reliance on [[wikipedia:Self-report_study|self-report measures]]. Therfore, the findings suggests that poor regulation may increase vulnerability to emotional difficulties. But the study does not establish that low emotional regulation flexibility directly causes positive emotion dysregulation. Lastly, these studies combined provides foundation to understand relationship between ability to cope with emotions and emotional dysregulation. But direct inferences cannot be made as research is broad and focused only on emotional dysregulation in general. Future research is needed to understand how to cope with intense positive emotions so that does not lead to positive emotion dysregulation. === Environmental and social factors === Social environmental may shape the way positive emotions are expressed and regulated. According to meta-analysis conducted by Zinsser et al. (2021) on 24 studies, small correlation existed between emotion-focused parenting strategies and the emotional skills of children. Correlations were small and significant, ranged from ''r'' = .05 to .19. However, majority of studies used cross-sectional designs. Therefore, parental emotional socialisation may contribute to emotion regulation. But the evidence does not a direct pathway from parenting styles to dysregulation. Similarly, Goagoses et al. (2023) reviewed 27 studies on parenting and emotion dysregulation during childhood and adolescence. Results showed a small positive effect between negative parenting and emotion dysregulation (Δ = .20, ''p'' < .001). Additionally, there was a negative effect between positive parenting and emotion dysregulation (Δ = - .17, ''p'' < .001). But there was a notable heterogeneity in both meta-analyses, meaning that results should be interpreted carefully. Furthermore, emotion dysregulation in this study was evaluated in general and not separated into positive and negative emotion dysregulation.   Breaux et al. (2022) conducted a systematic review of parent emotion socialisation and positive emotions in child and adolescent samples. In seven included studies, the [[wikipedia:Correlation|correlational data]] suggested weak support for association between emotion socialisation behaviour of parents and positive emotions. Intervention studies proved effective increasing both parenting behaviours and positive emotions in children. England-Mason et al. (2023) conducted meta-analysis of twenty-six studies based on fifteen randomised controlled trials. Findings showed that parenting interventions were associated with increased emotion socialisation practices and emotional competence of children. But these findings reflected emotion competence as whole rather than the positive emotion dysregulation. Overall, social and environmental factors seem to be the contributing factor rather than direct cause of positive emotion dysregulation. Parenting could play role in development of emotion regulatory skills, but existing research cannot identify clear association. {{Robelbox|theme=10|title=Quiz}}[[Image: Hand Gesture - Holding a Magnifying Glass.gif|right|128px]] <quiz display=simple> Why high surgency can not be considered as a direct cause of positive emotion dysregulation ? |type="()"} - Surgency only occurs during adulthood - Surgency has only negative effects - Surgency is not related to emotional functioning + The effects of surgency is adaptive and its association with regulation changes across development </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} == Consequences of positive emotion dysregulation on psychological functioning == The dysregulation of positive emotions may manifest itself through altered thinking processes, decision-making, goals pursued and behaviour of an individual. While positive emotions helps to expand attention and motivate individuals to explore more, strong and poorly regulated emotional activation may influence judgement. Gruber et al. (2020) proposed that positive emotions may become maladpative when they interfere with an individual's functioning. This section will discuss the way in which positive experiences may impact cognition, behaviour and decision-making processes. === Changes in cognition and decision-making === * Positive emotions can broaden attention and action thought repertoires. Fredrickson and Branigan (2005) found that positive affective states broadened both attention and the range of thought-action responses that the participants gave. It provided empirical support for broaden-and-build theory. * Positive emotion dysregulation can influence decision-making. * The effects of cognitive broadening are context-dependent === Goal pursuit and behavioural activation === * The positive emotions would enhance approach motivation and behavioural activation. * Excessive activation might help achieve goals but could be exaggerated. In case of exaggeration, the activation might make people over-commit. * Grace’s behaviour explains this as initially she was motivated to participate in university opportunities. But repeatedly taking additional projects despite limited time shows that goal directed activation is becoming difficult to regulate. === Risk-taking and Impulsivity === * Presence of positive emotional activation may lead to increased level of impulsivity and risky behaviour. * Positive urgency provides a precise reason for rash behaviour during high levels of positive emotions. Cyders and Smith (2008) define positive urgency as the tendency of behaving rashly during high levels of positive affect. This behavioural trend can be risky as well. * Impulsivity and risk-taking should not be equated with positive emotion dysregulation {{Robelbox|theme=4|title=Quiz}}[[Image: Hand Gesture - Holding a Magnifying Glass.gif|right|128px]] <quiz display=simple> Which of the following is correct regarding positive emotion dysregulation and psychological functioning? |type="()"} + Poorly regulated positive emotions can interfere with attention, wellbeing, relationships and everyday responsibilities - Positive emotions are always harmful - Positive emotions have no effect on behaviour and functioning - Intense positive emotions always indicate dysregulation </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} ==Conclusion== *Positive emotion dysregulation is not simply experiencing intense happiness, but difficulty in regulating positive emotions. *Dysregulation can influence thoughts, decision-making and behaviour. *Difficulty in regulating positive emotions may affect everyday responsibilities and functioning. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} [[File:Nuvola apps kuser.svg|Nuvola apps kuser|left|20px]] ''' Take-home messages:''' - Positive emotion dysregulation occurs when positive emotions are difficult to regulate in ways that are appropriate according to the situation. - When positive emotions are poorly regulated, they can interfere with an individual's wellbeing, attention and everyday functioning. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==See also == *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions|Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions]] (Book chapter, 2016) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Coping and emotion|Coping and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Emotion dysregulation|Emotion dysregulation]] (Book chapter, 2026) *[[wikipedia:Emotional_dysregulation|Emotional dysregulation]] (Wikipedia) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Cyders, M. A., & Smith, G. T. (2008). Emotion-based dispositions to rash action: Positive and negative urgency. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''134''(6), 807–828. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013341 Campos, B., Shiota, M. N., Keltner, D., Gonzaga, G. C., & Goetz, J. L. (2013). What is shared, what is different? Core relational themes and expressive displays of eight positive emotions. ''Cognition and Emotion'', ''27''(1), 37–52. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2012.683852 Carl, J. R., Soskin, D. P., Kerns, C., & Barlow, D. H. (2013). Positive emotion regulation in emotional disorders: A theoretical review. ''Clinical Psychology Review'', ''33''(3), 343–360. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2013.01.003 Fredrickson B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology. The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. ''The American psychologist'', ''56''(3), 218–226. https://doi.org/10.1037//0003-066x.56.3.218 Fredrickson, B. L., & Branigan, C. (2005). Positive emotions broaden the scope of attention and thought‐action repertoires. ''Cognition & Emotion'', ''19''(3), 313–332. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930441000238 Gross, J. J. (1998). The emerging field of emotion regulation: An integrative review. ''Review of General Psychology'', ''2''(3), 271–299. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.2.3.271 Gruber, J., Mauss, I. B., & Tamir, M. (2011). A Dark Side of Happiness? How, When, and Why Happiness Is Not Always Good. ''Perspectives on Psychological Science'', ''6''(3), 222–233. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691611406927 Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion regulation: Current status and future prospects. ''Psychological Inquiry'', ''26''(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2014.940781 Gruber, J., Villanueva, C., Burr, E., Purcell, J. R., & Karoly, H. (2020). Understanding and Taking Stock of Positive Emotion Disturbance. ''Social and personality psychology compass'', ''14''(1), e12515. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12515 Vogel, A. C., Brotman, M. A., Roy, A. K., & Perlman, S. B. (2023). Review: Defining positive emotion dysregulation: Integrating temperamental and clinical perspectives. ''Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry'', ''62''(3), 297–305. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2022.06.019 }} ==External links== * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/everyday-resilience/202404/emotional-well-being-5-healthy-practices-for-regulation Emotional wellbeing] (Psychology today) * [https://www.belonghealth.com.au/emotional-regulation-dysregulation-perth-mandurah.html Emotion dysregulation consequences] (Belong health) * [https://www.londonpsychiatry.clinic/blog/5-evidence-based-emotional-regulation-strategies Emotional regulation strategies] (London psychiatry clinic) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MyfzIQH6YKI Positive emotions with Barbara Fredrickson] (Youtube.com) __TOC__ [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion regulation]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Positive emotion]] nkv1pa731t11nxka23ddnf44hv6wmlu 2836521 2836492 2026-10-07T10:06:03Z P U3270518 3106535 /* Risk-taking and Impulsivity */ 2836521 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Positive emotion dysregulation:<br>What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} [[File:Woman in red sweater with hand in air.jpg|right|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1.''' Grace experiencing happiness and excitement following several positive life events.]] '''Scenario''' Grace is a university student who feels that she has just won the lottery of her life. First, she receives a PhD offer from her dream university. Shortly afterwards, she learns that she has been awarded a scholarship to support her studies. Overwhelmed with happiness, Grace invites her boyfriend over to celebrate. Her boyfriend surprises her by proposing during the celebration, making it the best day of her life. For next several days, Grace feels unusually happy and energised (see Figure 1). She sleeps very little because she believes there is too much to achieve. To celebrate her success, she purchases an expensive laptop, makes an impulsive travel booking and commits to several university projects despite having a full schedule. People close to Grace begin to wonder if something is not right. Her close friends tried to slow her down, but she ignored them. From Grace's perspective, she is just happy, motivated and confident as pieces of her life are finally coming together in a positive way. 💡 What is happening to Grace? Why do her positive emotions become so intense? {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotions]] are a normal and important part of human life. It includes a variety of feelings such as joy, interest, love, contentment, gratitude, awe, and amusement (Campos et al., 2013). These emotions play an important role in expanding people's thoughts and possible actions to help them build lasting psychological and social resources (Fredrickson, 2001). However, positive emotions might not always be beneficial if they are inadequately regulated. A review by Gruber et al. (2020) on positive emotion disturbance suggests that extremely strong or prolonged positive emotional states can sometimes interfere with adaptive functioning. Positive emotion dysregulation helps to explain how positive emotional states can feel initially feel good but can sometimes contribute to harmful thoughts and behaviour. This chapter will explore how positive emotions can shift from being adaptive to maladaptive, and how it can affect psychological functioning. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} 🔎 '''Focus questions''' 1️⃣ What is positive emotion dysregulation, and how can it be distinguished from healthy positive emotions? 2️⃣ What factors contribute to difficulties in regulating positive emotions? 3️⃣ How does positive emotion dysregulation affect psychological functioning and wellbeing? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Positive emotion: From benefit to dysregulation== Understanding positive emotion dysregulation requires more than just identifying whether an emotional experience is pleasant or intense. [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotions]] such as joy, amusement and interest are usually considered pleasant in nature (Fredrickson, 2001). These feelings shape the way people thick, act and connect with world around them. Positive emotion dysregulation refers to difficulties in responding to positive emotions (Mansueto et al., 2025). It involves problems such as accepting, controlling or managing actions while feeling happy or excited (Mansueto et al., 2025). Therefore, positive emotion dysregulation is not simply experiencing strong positive emotions. It is about struggling to regulate those feelings in a way that support effective functioning. This section will consider why positive emotions are important, how they are normally regulated and how difficulties in regulating them can lead to positive emotion dysregulation. === Positive emotions and its adaptive functions === [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotions]] play an important role in psychological functioning. They include numerous experiences such as [[wikipedia:Joy|joy]], [[wikipedia:Interest_(emotion)|interest]], [[wikipedia:Love|love]], [[wikipedia:Contentment|contentment]], [[wikipedia:Gratitude|gratitude]], [[wikipedia:Awe|awe]], and [[wikipedia:Amusement|amusement]] which can influence cognition, behaviour, and social interaction (Campos et al., 2013). Instead of simply producing pleasant effects, positive emotions can encourage individuals to explore their environment, learn from experiences, engage with others and pursue meaningful goals. Positive emotions can broaden people's thoughts, cognition and behaviour. [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions|Broaden-and-Build Theory]] by Fredrickson (2001) proposes that positive emotions broaden momentary thought-action repertoires that encourages exploration, flexibility and engagement. For instance, excitement following major positive events may encourage student such as Grace to pursue new opportunities and get more involved in university. These positive emotions can help to build psychological and social resources, including relationships and coping resources (Fredrickson, 2001). Nevertheless, a network analysis about broaden-and-build theory on two studies (''N'' = 312; ''N''=302) found support for relationships between positive emotions, resources and life outcomes. But the broadening component that this theory proposed consistently deviated from the theory’s predictions, questioning its validity (Roth et al., 2024). However, positive emotions are not always beneficial in every circumstances. Effects of positive emotions may depend on intensity, timing, and context. This provides a foundation for understanding when positive emotion may become less adaptive (Gruber et al., 2011). This review challenges assumption of [[wikipedia:Positive_psychology|positive psychology]] that increasing positive emotion will improve well-being. It does not mean that strong positive emotions are always harmful. Review by Gruber et al. (2020), on positive emotion disturbance highlighted how positive emotion disturbance can interfere with adaptive functioning. Overall, these findings suggest that positive emotions can support adaptive functioning. But positive emotions are not automatic and same for everyone. Kashdan et al. (2015) reviewed myths regarding positive emotion regulation. This article emphasised flexibility in how people regulate emotions. Emotional responses should be adjusted according to the situation and personal goals. Thus, healthy positive emotion is not defined by its intensity alone. It depends on how it can be regulated flexibly without interfering with functioning. === From emotion regulation to positive emotion dysregulation === [[Emotional regulation]] refers to one’s ability to seek control over own emotional state (Gross, 2015). [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Extended process model of emotion regulation|The process model of emotion]] [[File:Positive emotion dysregulation pathway.png|thumb|434x434px|'''Figure 2.''' Applying the emotion regulation process to a positive situation. ''Note''. Some parts of this image has been adapted from Gross (1998) process model of emotion regulation ]][[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Extended process model of emotion regulation|regulation]] by Gross (1998) provides a framework for understanding how individual can modify emotional experiences. This model proposes that regulation occur at different stages which includes situation selection, situation modification, attentional deployment, cognitive appraisal and response modulation. Regulation can occur before an emotional response is fully developed or after anemotion has already been experienced. In Grace’s case, receiving the PhD offer and scholarship shifted her attention shifted towards positive achievement. She appraises the situation positively. According to Gross (1998) process model, emotion regulation then influences how she responds to and manages these emotions (see Figure 2). It also shapes what she does next.   Successful regulation helps individuals to modify their emotional experiences. In contrast, difficulties in managing emotional experiences can lead to [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Emotion dysregulation|emotion dysregulation]]. Difficulties in regulating emotions can lead to interpersonal problems, [[wikipedia:Rumination_(psychology)|rumination]], and several [[wikipedia:Mental_disorder|mental disorders]]. This highlight that it is important to understand how emotions are experienced and also how individuals respond to them. Importantly, positive emotions also require regulation. According to Carl et al., (2013), individuals may need to regulate their positive emotions based on their needs, goals and circumstances. Research has heavily focused on negative emotions and regulation of positive emotion has received less attention. This provides foundation to examine positive emotion dysregulation. === Recognising positive emotion dysregulation === Positive emotion dysregulation is defined as the difficulties in responding and managing positive emotional experiences. It is a multifaced construct that involves difficulty in accepting positive emotions, maintaining goal-directed behaviour, and controlling behaviour when experiencing positive emotions (Weiss et al., 2015). These three elements provide a useful of recognising difficulties in regulating positive emotions (see Table 1). An intense positive emotion does not necessarily means dysregulated. Feelings such as happiness, excitement, or enthusiasm may be well-placed responses to certain life events. Context, intensity, persistence and implications are crucial. Positive emotions can be considered [[wikipedia:Maladaptation|maladaptive]] if are poorly fitted to the situation or if they start to interfere with functioning (Gruber et al., 2011). Positive emotion dysregulation occurs when these feelings are hard to manage and when they disturb behaviour, goals and daily life. In Grace’s scenario, she engages in impulsive behaviour and commits to projects that she will not be able to complete on time. This highlights dysregulation as it affects her daily functioning. A review by Vogel et al. (2023), suggests that there is a need to examine the challenges of regulating positive emotions rather than focusing exclusively on negative emotions. This review also highlights that dysregulation should be understood in relation to the feelings and the way a person behaves. Research by Mansueto et al. (2025) found that stronger [[Metacognition|metacognitive]] beliefs were associated with greater positive emotion dysregulation, suggesting a therapeutic target. Overall, recognising emotional dysregulation means looking past how strong the feeling is and focusing on how person can respond and manage that feeling. '''Table 1''' ''Key elements for recognising positive emotion dysregulation'' ''Note. This table is based on the DERS-Positive dimensions researched by Weiss et al. (2015)'' {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! Dimension !Positive emotion regulation ! Positive emotion dysregulation |- | Accepting positive emotions |Accepts and acknowledges positive emotions without feeling that they are wrong or threatening | Feels uncomfortable or scared when experiencing positive emotions |- |Goal-directed behaviour |Can stay focused on goals while experiencing positive emotions |Difficulty in continuing goal-directed behaviour while experiencing positive emotions |- |Behavioural control |Can control behaviour and avoid acting impulsively when feeling happy or excited |Struggle in controlling behaviour or acts impulsively |} ; {{Robelbox|theme=5|title=Quiz}}[[Image: Hand Gesture - Holding a Magnifying Glass.gif|right|128px]] <quiz display=simple> Which of the following statement best differentiates healthy positive emotion from positive emotion dysregulation? |type="()"} - Healthy positive emotions improves behaviour, whereas dysregulation occurs when positive behaviour becomes excessive - Healthy positive emotions means emotions are freely expressed, whereas dysregulation occurs when they are suppressed + Healthy positive emotions supports functioning and positive emotion dysregulation involves difficulty in managing positive emotions. - Healthy positive emotions are always beneficial and positive emotion dysregulation means positive emotions become negative. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} == Factors underlying positive emotion dysregulation == [[File:Positive emotion dysregulation.png|thumb|'''Figure 3.''' Factors that may contribute to positive emotion dysregulation ]] Positive emotion dysregulation is unlikely result from a single factor. Instead, it is a result of biological, temperamental, coping, social and environment factors (see Figure 3). All these factors may interact to influence how strongly positive emotions are experienced and how they are regulated. This section will examine biological and environmental influences, ways of coping and regulation of positive emotions, and environmental and social factors. === Biological and temperamental factors === One of the factors for positive emotion dysregulation can be an increased sensitivity to emotional events from a biological and temperamental perspective. Some people might be emotionally more sensitive or find it harder to control their emotional reactions. A review by Vogel et al. (2023) reported that [[wikipedia:Surgency|surgency]] negatively correlated with effortful control and self-regulation in childhood. This may suggests that high surgency can be associated with aggression and externalising behaviours. Nonetheless, surgency has positive implications too and its link with regulation changed at different developmental stages. Therefore, it is hard to make strong conclusion to explain dysregulation only through surgency. Difficulties may also arise if there is high emotional activation that exceeds individual’s cognitive capacity. Additionally, Vogel et al. (2023) review only highlighted that [[wikipedia:Temperament|temperamental]] traits represent a vulnerability but not the exact causes of positive emotion dysregulation. Linehan’s (1993) [[wikipedia:Biosocial_theory|biosocial model]] offers additional perspective where biological emotional sensitivity combined with environmental invalidation leads to emotional dysregulation. It results in difficulties in managing and responding to intense positive emotions. Limitation of this theory is that it is not designed for positive emotions specifically. But it can be used to predict that people with high biological emotional sensitivity will be affected by the way other people perceive their emotions. Taken together, the developmental findings by Vogel et al. (2023) combined with Linehan’s (1993) theory can provide evidence that temperament may create vulnerability. But ability to regulate and environmental experiences determine the impact of excessive positive emotion. === Coping and emotion-regulation strategies === Individual’s ability to cope with their emotions may determine whether their strong emotions remain adaptive or turn into something uncontrollable. The process model of emotion regulation by Gross (1998) provides useful framework for understanding emotion regulation process. According to this model, regulation involves modifying emotional responses according to the situation and goals. Studies that look at emotion regulation back this idea. Livingstone and Srivastava (2012) found three ways to increase the level of positive emotions which are engagement, betterment, and indulgence. This provides evidence that increasing emotions does not necessarily mean dysregulation. [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Coping and emotion|Coping strategies]] may contribute to vulnerability to positive emotion dysregulation. To assess how regulation strategies work in real life conditions, Boemo et al. (2022) undertook a [[wikipedia:Systematic_review|systematic review]] and [[wikipedia:Meta-analysis|meta-analysis]] of experience sampling and daily diary design. The findings showed that [[wikipedia:Appraisal_theory|reappraisal]] was associated with greater positive effect, while [[wikipedia:Rumination_(psychology)|rumination]] and suppression were associated with poorer affective outcomes. Reappraisal prospectively predicted positive affect (''r'' = .34), while rumination prospectively predicted negative affect (''r'' = .16). These results shows that how people manage emotions can influence emotional functioning. The review focused on emotion regulation not on positive emotion dysregulation so it cannot prove that bad regulation leads to positive emotion dysregulation. Haag et al. (2024) conducted systematic review of 11 studies involving 3,775 adolescents (''M'' = 13.4 years) to understand emotion regulation flexibility in adolescents. Results of this study found that greater emotion regulation flexibility is associated with more adaptive outcomes, including higher positive effect and self-worth. The study conceptualised emotion regulation flexibility in two ways which was flexibility in regulating emotions according to the situation and the use of emotion regulation strategies. However, the evidence is limited as most studies were [[wikipedia:Cross-sectional_study|cross-sectional]] and community based. There was also heavy reliance on [[wikipedia:Self-report_study|self-report measures]]. Therfore, the findings suggests that poor regulation may increase vulnerability to emotional difficulties. But the study does not establish that low emotional regulation flexibility directly causes positive emotion dysregulation. Lastly, these studies combined provides foundation to understand relationship between ability to cope with emotions and emotional dysregulation. But direct inferences cannot be made as research is broad and focused only on emotional dysregulation in general. Future research is needed to understand how to cope with intense positive emotions so that does not lead to positive emotion dysregulation. === Environmental and social factors === Social environmental may shape the way positive emotions are expressed and regulated. According to meta-analysis conducted by Zinsser et al. (2021) on 24 studies, small correlation existed between emotion-focused parenting strategies and the emotional skills of children. Correlations were small and significant, ranged from ''r'' = .05 to .19. However, majority of studies used cross-sectional designs. Therefore, parental emotional socialisation may contribute to emotion regulation. But the evidence does not a direct pathway from parenting styles to dysregulation. Similarly, Goagoses et al. (2023) reviewed 27 studies on parenting and emotion dysregulation during childhood and adolescence. Results showed a small positive effect between negative parenting and emotion dysregulation (Δ = .20, ''p'' < .001). Additionally, there was a negative effect between positive parenting and emotion dysregulation (Δ = - .17, ''p'' < .001). But there was a notable heterogeneity in both meta-analyses, meaning that results should be interpreted carefully. Furthermore, emotion dysregulation in this study was evaluated in general and not separated into positive and negative emotion dysregulation.   Breaux et al. (2022) conducted a systematic review of parent emotion socialisation and positive emotions in child and adolescent samples. In seven included studies, the [[wikipedia:Correlation|correlational data]] suggested weak support for association between emotion socialisation behaviour of parents and positive emotions. Intervention studies proved effective increasing both parenting behaviours and positive emotions in children. England-Mason et al. (2023) conducted meta-analysis of twenty-six studies based on fifteen randomised controlled trials. Findings showed that parenting interventions were associated with increased emotion socialisation practices and emotional competence of children. But these findings reflected emotion competence as whole rather than the positive emotion dysregulation. Overall, social and environmental factors seem to be the contributing factor rather than direct cause of positive emotion dysregulation. Parenting could play role in development of emotion regulatory skills, but existing research cannot identify clear association. {{Robelbox|theme=10|title=Quiz}}[[Image: Hand Gesture - Holding a Magnifying Glass.gif|right|128px]] <quiz display=simple> Why high surgency can not be considered as a direct cause of positive emotion dysregulation ? |type="()"} - Surgency only occurs during adulthood - Surgency has only negative effects - Surgency is not related to emotional functioning + The effects of surgency is adaptive and its association with regulation changes across development </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} == Consequences of positive emotion dysregulation on psychological functioning == The dysregulation of positive emotions may manifest itself through altered thinking processes, decision-making, goals pursued and behaviour of an individual. While positive emotions helps to expand attention and motivate individuals to explore more, strong and poorly regulated emotional activation may influence judgement. Gruber et al. (2020) proposed that positive emotions may become maladpative when they interfere with an individual's functioning. This section will discuss the way in which positive experiences may impact cognition, behaviour and decision-making processes. === Changes in cognition and decision-making === * Positive emotions can broaden attention and action thought repertoires. Fredrickson and Branigan (2005) found that positive affective states broadened both attention and the range of thought-action responses that the participants gave. It provided empirical support for broaden-and-build theory. * Positive emotion dysregulation can influence decision-making. * The effects of cognitive broadening are context-dependent === Goal pursuit and behavioural activation === * The positive emotions would enhance approach motivation and behavioural activation. * Excessive activation might help achieve goals but could be exaggerated. In case of exaggeration, the activation might make people over-commit. * Grace’s behaviour explains this as initially she was motivated to participate in university opportunities. But repeatedly taking additional projects despite limited time shows that goal directed activation is becoming difficult to regulate. === Risk-taking and Impulsivity === Positive emotion dysregulation may appear as reduced behavioural control specially when individuals experience intense positive emotions. Presence of positive emotional activation may lead to increased level of impulsivity and risky behaviour. Positive urgency provides a precise reason for rash behaviour during high levels of positive emotions. Cyders and Smith (2008) define positive urgency as the tendency of behaving rashly during high levels of positive affect. This behavioural trend can be risky as well. However, positive urgency should not be equated with positive emotion dysregulation as it an impulsive trait itself and not an indicator of positive emotion dysregulation. A more direct study of positive emotion dysregulation and risk taking was conducted by Weiss et al. (2023). The research included 151 women from community who suffered from intimate partner violence and were also consuming drugs and alcohol. Randomised participants underwent positive, negative, and neutral emotion inductions. Self-reported emotion dysregulation after positive emotion induction correlated with increased urges of substance use. Low levels of physiological regulation measured through high-frequency heart-rate variability were associated substance use and risk-taking. This provides evidence that difficulty in regulating positive emotions may contribute to reduced behavioural control. It also increases risk-taking behaviour during heightened positive emotional states. However, this specific sample limits generalisability to the broader population. {{Robelbox|theme=4|title=Quiz}}[[Image: Hand Gesture - Holding a Magnifying Glass.gif|right|128px]] <quiz display=simple> Which of the following is correct regarding positive emotion dysregulation and psychological functioning? |type="()"} + Poorly regulated positive emotions can interfere with attention, wellbeing, relationships and everyday responsibilities - Positive emotions are always harmful - Positive emotions have no effect on behaviour and functioning - Intense positive emotions always indicate dysregulation </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} ==Conclusion== *Positive emotion dysregulation is not simply experiencing intense happiness, but difficulty in regulating positive emotions. *Dysregulation can influence thoughts, decision-making and behaviour. *Difficulty in regulating positive emotions may affect everyday responsibilities and functioning. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} [[File:Nuvola apps kuser.svg|Nuvola apps kuser|left|20px]] ''' Take-home messages:''' - Positive emotion dysregulation occurs when positive emotions are difficult to regulate in ways that are appropriate according to the situation. - When positive emotions are poorly regulated, they can interfere with an individual's wellbeing, attention and everyday functioning. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==See also == *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions|Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions]] (Book chapter, 2016) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Coping and emotion|Coping and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Emotion dysregulation|Emotion dysregulation]] (Book chapter, 2026) *[[wikipedia:Emotional_dysregulation|Emotional dysregulation]] (Wikipedia) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Cyders, M. A., & Smith, G. T. (2008). Emotion-based dispositions to rash action: Positive and negative urgency. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''134''(6), 807–828. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013341 Campos, B., Shiota, M. N., Keltner, D., Gonzaga, G. C., & Goetz, J. L. (2013). What is shared, what is different? Core relational themes and expressive displays of eight positive emotions. ''Cognition and Emotion'', ''27''(1), 37–52. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2012.683852 Carl, J. R., Soskin, D. P., Kerns, C., & Barlow, D. H. (2013). Positive emotion regulation in emotional disorders: A theoretical review. ''Clinical Psychology Review'', ''33''(3), 343–360. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2013.01.003 Fredrickson B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology. The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. ''The American psychologist'', ''56''(3), 218–226. https://doi.org/10.1037//0003-066x.56.3.218 Fredrickson, B. L., & Branigan, C. (2005). Positive emotions broaden the scope of attention and thought‐action repertoires. ''Cognition & Emotion'', ''19''(3), 313–332. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930441000238 Gross, J. J. (1998). The emerging field of emotion regulation: An integrative review. ''Review of General Psychology'', ''2''(3), 271–299. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.2.3.271 Gruber, J., Mauss, I. B., & Tamir, M. (2011). A Dark Side of Happiness? How, When, and Why Happiness Is Not Always Good. ''Perspectives on Psychological Science'', ''6''(3), 222–233. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691611406927 Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion regulation: Current status and future prospects. ''Psychological Inquiry'', ''26''(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2014.940781 Gruber, J., Villanueva, C., Burr, E., Purcell, J. R., & Karoly, H. (2020). Understanding and Taking Stock of Positive Emotion Disturbance. ''Social and personality psychology compass'', ''14''(1), e12515. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12515 Vogel, A. C., Brotman, M. A., Roy, A. K., & Perlman, S. B. (2023). Review: Defining positive emotion dysregulation: Integrating temperamental and clinical perspectives. ''Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry'', ''62''(3), 297–305. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2022.06.019 }} ==External links== * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/everyday-resilience/202404/emotional-well-being-5-healthy-practices-for-regulation Emotional wellbeing] (Psychology today) * [https://www.belonghealth.com.au/emotional-regulation-dysregulation-perth-mandurah.html Emotion dysregulation consequences] (Belong health) * [https://www.londonpsychiatry.clinic/blog/5-evidence-based-emotional-regulation-strategies Emotional regulation strategies] (London psychiatry clinic) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MyfzIQH6YKI Positive emotions with Barbara Fredrickson] (Youtube.com) __TOC__ [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion regulation]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Positive emotion]] awjkerqa36vmqk60hpyvcsai5olbxia 2836528 2836521 2026-10-07T10:10:19Z P U3270518 3106535 /* Goal pursuit and behavioural activation */ 2836528 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Positive emotion dysregulation:<br>What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} [[File:Woman in red sweater with hand in air.jpg|right|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1.''' Grace experiencing happiness and excitement following several positive life events.]] '''Scenario''' Grace is a university student who feels that she has just won the lottery of her life. First, she receives a PhD offer from her dream university. Shortly afterwards, she learns that she has been awarded a scholarship to support her studies. Overwhelmed with happiness, Grace invites her boyfriend over to celebrate. Her boyfriend surprises her by proposing during the celebration, making it the best day of her life. For next several days, Grace feels unusually happy and energised (see Figure 1). She sleeps very little because she believes there is too much to achieve. To celebrate her success, she purchases an expensive laptop, makes an impulsive travel booking and commits to several university projects despite having a full schedule. People close to Grace begin to wonder if something is not right. Her close friends tried to slow her down, but she ignored them. From Grace's perspective, she is just happy, motivated and confident as pieces of her life are finally coming together in a positive way. 💡 What is happening to Grace? Why do her positive emotions become so intense? {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotions]] are a normal and important part of human life. It includes a variety of feelings such as joy, interest, love, contentment, gratitude, awe, and amusement (Campos et al., 2013). These emotions play an important role in expanding people's thoughts and possible actions to help them build lasting psychological and social resources (Fredrickson, 2001). However, positive emotions might not always be beneficial if they are inadequately regulated. A review by Gruber et al. (2020) on positive emotion disturbance suggests that extremely strong or prolonged positive emotional states can sometimes interfere with adaptive functioning. Positive emotion dysregulation helps to explain how positive emotional states can feel initially feel good but can sometimes contribute to harmful thoughts and behaviour. This chapter will explore how positive emotions can shift from being adaptive to maladaptive, and how it can affect psychological functioning. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} 🔎 '''Focus questions''' 1️⃣ What is positive emotion dysregulation, and how can it be distinguished from healthy positive emotions? 2️⃣ What factors contribute to difficulties in regulating positive emotions? 3️⃣ How does positive emotion dysregulation affect psychological functioning and wellbeing? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Positive emotion: From benefit to dysregulation== Understanding positive emotion dysregulation requires more than just identifying whether an emotional experience is pleasant or intense. [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotions]] such as joy, amusement and interest are usually considered pleasant in nature (Fredrickson, 2001). These feelings shape the way people thick, act and connect with world around them. Positive emotion dysregulation refers to difficulties in responding to positive emotions (Mansueto et al., 2025). It involves problems such as accepting, controlling or managing actions while feeling happy or excited (Mansueto et al., 2025). Therefore, positive emotion dysregulation is not simply experiencing strong positive emotions. It is about struggling to regulate those feelings in a way that support effective functioning. This section will consider why positive emotions are important, how they are normally regulated and how difficulties in regulating them can lead to positive emotion dysregulation. === Positive emotions and its adaptive functions === [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotions]] play an important role in psychological functioning. They include numerous experiences such as [[wikipedia:Joy|joy]], [[wikipedia:Interest_(emotion)|interest]], [[wikipedia:Love|love]], [[wikipedia:Contentment|contentment]], [[wikipedia:Gratitude|gratitude]], [[wikipedia:Awe|awe]], and [[wikipedia:Amusement|amusement]] which can influence cognition, behaviour, and social interaction (Campos et al., 2013). Instead of simply producing pleasant effects, positive emotions can encourage individuals to explore their environment, learn from experiences, engage with others and pursue meaningful goals. Positive emotions can broaden people's thoughts, cognition and behaviour. [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions|Broaden-and-Build Theory]] by Fredrickson (2001) proposes that positive emotions broaden momentary thought-action repertoires that encourages exploration, flexibility and engagement. For instance, excitement following major positive events may encourage student such as Grace to pursue new opportunities and get more involved in university. These positive emotions can help to build psychological and social resources, including relationships and coping resources (Fredrickson, 2001). Nevertheless, a network analysis about broaden-and-build theory on two studies (''N'' = 312; ''N''=302) found support for relationships between positive emotions, resources and life outcomes. But the broadening component that this theory proposed consistently deviated from the theory’s predictions, questioning its validity (Roth et al., 2024). However, positive emotions are not always beneficial in every circumstances. Effects of positive emotions may depend on intensity, timing, and context. This provides a foundation for understanding when positive emotion may become less adaptive (Gruber et al., 2011). This review challenges assumption of [[wikipedia:Positive_psychology|positive psychology]] that increasing positive emotion will improve well-being. It does not mean that strong positive emotions are always harmful. Review by Gruber et al. (2020), on positive emotion disturbance highlighted how positive emotion disturbance can interfere with adaptive functioning. Overall, these findings suggest that positive emotions can support adaptive functioning. But positive emotions are not automatic and same for everyone. Kashdan et al. (2015) reviewed myths regarding positive emotion regulation. This article emphasised flexibility in how people regulate emotions. Emotional responses should be adjusted according to the situation and personal goals. Thus, healthy positive emotion is not defined by its intensity alone. It depends on how it can be regulated flexibly without interfering with functioning. === From emotion regulation to positive emotion dysregulation === [[Emotional regulation]] refers to one’s ability to seek control over own emotional state (Gross, 2015). [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Extended process model of emotion regulation|The process model of emotion]] [[File:Positive emotion dysregulation pathway.png|thumb|434x434px|'''Figure 2.''' Applying the emotion regulation process to a positive situation. ''Note''. Some parts of this image has been adapted from Gross (1998) process model of emotion regulation ]][[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Extended process model of emotion regulation|regulation]] by Gross (1998) provides a framework for understanding how individual can modify emotional experiences. This model proposes that regulation occur at different stages which includes situation selection, situation modification, attentional deployment, cognitive appraisal and response modulation. Regulation can occur before an emotional response is fully developed or after anemotion has already been experienced. In Grace’s case, receiving the PhD offer and scholarship shifted her attention shifted towards positive achievement. She appraises the situation positively. According to Gross (1998) process model, emotion regulation then influences how she responds to and manages these emotions (see Figure 2). It also shapes what she does next.   Successful regulation helps individuals to modify their emotional experiences. In contrast, difficulties in managing emotional experiences can lead to [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Emotion dysregulation|emotion dysregulation]]. Difficulties in regulating emotions can lead to interpersonal problems, [[wikipedia:Rumination_(psychology)|rumination]], and several [[wikipedia:Mental_disorder|mental disorders]]. This highlight that it is important to understand how emotions are experienced and also how individuals respond to them. Importantly, positive emotions also require regulation. According to Carl et al., (2013), individuals may need to regulate their positive emotions based on their needs, goals and circumstances. Research has heavily focused on negative emotions and regulation of positive emotion has received less attention. This provides foundation to examine positive emotion dysregulation. === Recognising positive emotion dysregulation === Positive emotion dysregulation is defined as the difficulties in responding and managing positive emotional experiences. It is a multifaced construct that involves difficulty in accepting positive emotions, maintaining goal-directed behaviour, and controlling behaviour when experiencing positive emotions (Weiss et al., 2015). These three elements provide a useful of recognising difficulties in regulating positive emotions (see Table 1). An intense positive emotion does not necessarily means dysregulated. Feelings such as happiness, excitement, or enthusiasm may be well-placed responses to certain life events. Context, intensity, persistence and implications are crucial. Positive emotions can be considered [[wikipedia:Maladaptation|maladaptive]] if are poorly fitted to the situation or if they start to interfere with functioning (Gruber et al., 2011). Positive emotion dysregulation occurs when these feelings are hard to manage and when they disturb behaviour, goals and daily life. In Grace’s scenario, she engages in impulsive behaviour and commits to projects that she will not be able to complete on time. This highlights dysregulation as it affects her daily functioning. A review by Vogel et al. (2023), suggests that there is a need to examine the challenges of regulating positive emotions rather than focusing exclusively on negative emotions. This review also highlights that dysregulation should be understood in relation to the feelings and the way a person behaves. Research by Mansueto et al. (2025) found that stronger [[Metacognition|metacognitive]] beliefs were associated with greater positive emotion dysregulation, suggesting a therapeutic target. Overall, recognising emotional dysregulation means looking past how strong the feeling is and focusing on how person can respond and manage that feeling. '''Table 1''' ''Key elements for recognising positive emotion dysregulation'' ''Note. This table is based on the DERS-Positive dimensions researched by Weiss et al. (2015)'' {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! Dimension !Positive emotion regulation ! Positive emotion dysregulation |- | Accepting positive emotions |Accepts and acknowledges positive emotions without feeling that they are wrong or threatening | Feels uncomfortable or scared when experiencing positive emotions |- |Goal-directed behaviour |Can stay focused on goals while experiencing positive emotions |Difficulty in continuing goal-directed behaviour while experiencing positive emotions |- |Behavioural control |Can control behaviour and avoid acting impulsively when feeling happy or excited |Struggle in controlling behaviour or acts impulsively |} ; {{Robelbox|theme=5|title=Quiz}}[[Image: Hand Gesture - Holding a Magnifying Glass.gif|right|128px]] <quiz display=simple> Which of the following statement best differentiates healthy positive emotion from positive emotion dysregulation? |type="()"} - Healthy positive emotions improves behaviour, whereas dysregulation occurs when positive behaviour becomes excessive - Healthy positive emotions means emotions are freely expressed, whereas dysregulation occurs when they are suppressed + Healthy positive emotions supports functioning and positive emotion dysregulation involves difficulty in managing positive emotions. - Healthy positive emotions are always beneficial and positive emotion dysregulation means positive emotions become negative. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} == Factors underlying positive emotion dysregulation == [[File:Positive emotion dysregulation.png|thumb|'''Figure 3.''' Factors that may contribute to positive emotion dysregulation ]] Positive emotion dysregulation is unlikely result from a single factor. Instead, it is a result of biological, temperamental, coping, social and environment factors (see Figure 3). All these factors may interact to influence how strongly positive emotions are experienced and how they are regulated. This section will examine biological and environmental influences, ways of coping and regulation of positive emotions, and environmental and social factors. === Biological and temperamental factors === One of the factors for positive emotion dysregulation can be an increased sensitivity to emotional events from a biological and temperamental perspective. Some people might be emotionally more sensitive or find it harder to control their emotional reactions. A review by Vogel et al. (2023) reported that [[wikipedia:Surgency|surgency]] negatively correlated with effortful control and self-regulation in childhood. This may suggests that high surgency can be associated with aggression and externalising behaviours. Nonetheless, surgency has positive implications too and its link with regulation changed at different developmental stages. Therefore, it is hard to make strong conclusion to explain dysregulation only through surgency. Difficulties may also arise if there is high emotional activation that exceeds individual’s cognitive capacity. Additionally, Vogel et al. (2023) review only highlighted that [[wikipedia:Temperament|temperamental]] traits represent a vulnerability but not the exact causes of positive emotion dysregulation. Linehan’s (1993) [[wikipedia:Biosocial_theory|biosocial model]] offers additional perspective where biological emotional sensitivity combined with environmental invalidation leads to emotional dysregulation. It results in difficulties in managing and responding to intense positive emotions. Limitation of this theory is that it is not designed for positive emotions specifically. But it can be used to predict that people with high biological emotional sensitivity will be affected by the way other people perceive their emotions. Taken together, the developmental findings by Vogel et al. (2023) combined with Linehan’s (1993) theory can provide evidence that temperament may create vulnerability. But ability to regulate and environmental experiences determine the impact of excessive positive emotion. === Coping and emotion-regulation strategies === Individual’s ability to cope with their emotions may determine whether their strong emotions remain adaptive or turn into something uncontrollable. The process model of emotion regulation by Gross (1998) provides useful framework for understanding emotion regulation process. According to this model, regulation involves modifying emotional responses according to the situation and goals. Studies that look at emotion regulation back this idea. Livingstone and Srivastava (2012) found three ways to increase the level of positive emotions which are engagement, betterment, and indulgence. This provides evidence that increasing emotions does not necessarily mean dysregulation. [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Coping and emotion|Coping strategies]] may contribute to vulnerability to positive emotion dysregulation. To assess how regulation strategies work in real life conditions, Boemo et al. (2022) undertook a [[wikipedia:Systematic_review|systematic review]] and [[wikipedia:Meta-analysis|meta-analysis]] of experience sampling and daily diary design. The findings showed that [[wikipedia:Appraisal_theory|reappraisal]] was associated with greater positive effect, while [[wikipedia:Rumination_(psychology)|rumination]] and suppression were associated with poorer affective outcomes. Reappraisal prospectively predicted positive affect (''r'' = .34), while rumination prospectively predicted negative affect (''r'' = .16). These results shows that how people manage emotions can influence emotional functioning. The review focused on emotion regulation not on positive emotion dysregulation so it cannot prove that bad regulation leads to positive emotion dysregulation. Haag et al. (2024) conducted systematic review of 11 studies involving 3,775 adolescents (''M'' = 13.4 years) to understand emotion regulation flexibility in adolescents. Results of this study found that greater emotion regulation flexibility is associated with more adaptive outcomes, including higher positive effect and self-worth. The study conceptualised emotion regulation flexibility in two ways which was flexibility in regulating emotions according to the situation and the use of emotion regulation strategies. However, the evidence is limited as most studies were [[wikipedia:Cross-sectional_study|cross-sectional]] and community based. There was also heavy reliance on [[wikipedia:Self-report_study|self-report measures]]. Therfore, the findings suggests that poor regulation may increase vulnerability to emotional difficulties. But the study does not establish that low emotional regulation flexibility directly causes positive emotion dysregulation. Lastly, these studies combined provides foundation to understand relationship between ability to cope with emotions and emotional dysregulation. But direct inferences cannot be made as research is broad and focused only on emotional dysregulation in general. Future research is needed to understand how to cope with intense positive emotions so that does not lead to positive emotion dysregulation. === Environmental and social factors === Social environmental may shape the way positive emotions are expressed and regulated. According to meta-analysis conducted by Zinsser et al. (2021) on 24 studies, small correlation existed between emotion-focused parenting strategies and the emotional skills of children. Correlations were small and significant, ranged from ''r'' = .05 to .19. However, majority of studies used cross-sectional designs. Therefore, parental emotional socialisation may contribute to emotion regulation. But the evidence does not a direct pathway from parenting styles to dysregulation. Similarly, Goagoses et al. (2023) reviewed 27 studies on parenting and emotion dysregulation during childhood and adolescence. Results showed a small positive effect between negative parenting and emotion dysregulation (Δ = .20, ''p'' < .001). Additionally, there was a negative effect between positive parenting and emotion dysregulation (Δ = - .17, ''p'' < .001). But there was a notable heterogeneity in both meta-analyses, meaning that results should be interpreted carefully. Furthermore, emotion dysregulation in this study was evaluated in general and not separated into positive and negative emotion dysregulation.   Breaux et al. (2022) conducted a systematic review of parent emotion socialisation and positive emotions in child and adolescent samples. In seven included studies, the [[wikipedia:Correlation|correlational data]] suggested weak support for association between emotion socialisation behaviour of parents and positive emotions. Intervention studies proved effective increasing both parenting behaviours and positive emotions in children. England-Mason et al. (2023) conducted meta-analysis of twenty-six studies based on fifteen randomised controlled trials. Findings showed that parenting interventions were associated with increased emotion socialisation practices and emotional competence of children. But these findings reflected emotion competence as whole rather than the positive emotion dysregulation. Overall, social and environmental factors seem to be the contributing factor rather than direct cause of positive emotion dysregulation. Parenting could play role in development of emotion regulatory skills, but existing research cannot identify clear association. {{Robelbox|theme=10|title=Quiz}}[[Image: Hand Gesture - Holding a Magnifying Glass.gif|right|128px]] <quiz display=simple> Why high surgency can not be considered as a direct cause of positive emotion dysregulation ? |type="()"} - Surgency only occurs during adulthood - Surgency has only negative effects - Surgency is not related to emotional functioning + The effects of surgency is adaptive and its association with regulation changes across development </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} == Consequences of positive emotion dysregulation on psychological functioning == The dysregulation of positive emotions may manifest itself through altered thinking processes, decision-making, and behaviour of an individual. While positive emotions helps to expand attention and motivate individuals to explore more, strong and poorly regulated emotional activation may influence judgement. Gruber et al. (2020) proposed that positive emotions may become maladpative when they interfere with an individual's functioning. This section will discuss the way in which positive experiences may impact cognition, behaviour and decision-making processes. === Changes in cognition and decision-making === * Positive emotions can broaden attention and action thought repertoires. Fredrickson and Branigan (2005) found that positive affective states broadened both attention and the range of thought-action responses that the participants gave. It provided empirical support for broaden-and-build theory. * Positive emotion dysregulation can influence decision-making. * The effects of cognitive broadening are context-dependent === Goal-directed functioning and cognitive control === * The positive emotions would enhance approach motivation and behavioural activation. * Excessive activation might help achieve goals but could be exaggerated. In case of exaggeration, the activation might make people over-commit. * Grace’s behaviour explains this as initially she was motivated to participate in university opportunities. But repeatedly taking additional projects despite limited time shows that goal directed activation is becoming difficult to regulate. === Risk-taking and Impulsivity === Positive emotion dysregulation may appear as reduced behavioural control specially when individuals experience intense positive emotions. Presence of positive emotional activation may lead to increased level of impulsivity and risky behaviour. Positive urgency provides a precise reason for rash behaviour during high levels of positive emotions. Cyders and Smith (2008) define positive urgency as the tendency of behaving rashly during high levels of positive affect. This behavioural trend can be risky as well. However, positive urgency should not be equated with positive emotion dysregulation as it an impulsive trait itself and not an indicator of positive emotion dysregulation. A more direct study of positive emotion dysregulation and risk taking was conducted by Weiss et al. (2023). The research included 151 women from community who suffered from intimate partner violence and were also consuming drugs and alcohol. Randomised participants underwent positive, negative, and neutral emotion inductions. Self-reported emotion dysregulation after positive emotion induction correlated with increased urges of substance use. Low levels of physiological regulation measured through high-frequency heart-rate variability were associated substance use and risk-taking. This provides evidence that difficulty in regulating positive emotions may contribute to reduced behavioural control. It also increases risk-taking behaviour during heightened positive emotional states. However, this specific sample limits generalisability to the broader population. {{Robelbox|theme=4|title=Quiz}}[[Image: Hand Gesture - Holding a Magnifying Glass.gif|right|128px]] <quiz display=simple> Which of the following is correct regarding positive emotion dysregulation and psychological functioning? |type="()"} + Poorly regulated positive emotions can interfere with attention, wellbeing, relationships and everyday responsibilities - Positive emotions are always harmful - Positive emotions have no effect on behaviour and functioning - Intense positive emotions always indicate dysregulation </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} ==Conclusion== *Positive emotion dysregulation is not simply experiencing intense happiness, but difficulty in regulating positive emotions. *Dysregulation can influence thoughts, decision-making and behaviour. *Difficulty in regulating positive emotions may affect everyday responsibilities and functioning. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} [[File:Nuvola apps kuser.svg|Nuvola apps kuser|left|20px]] ''' Take-home messages:''' - Positive emotion dysregulation occurs when positive emotions are difficult to regulate in ways that are appropriate according to the situation. - When positive emotions are poorly regulated, they can interfere with an individual's wellbeing, attention and everyday functioning. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==See also == *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions|Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions]] (Book chapter, 2016) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Coping and emotion|Coping and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Emotion dysregulation|Emotion dysregulation]] (Book chapter, 2026) *[[wikipedia:Emotional_dysregulation|Emotional dysregulation]] (Wikipedia) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Cyders, M. A., & Smith, G. T. (2008). Emotion-based dispositions to rash action: Positive and negative urgency. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''134''(6), 807–828. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013341 Campos, B., Shiota, M. N., Keltner, D., Gonzaga, G. C., & Goetz, J. L. (2013). What is shared, what is different? Core relational themes and expressive displays of eight positive emotions. ''Cognition and Emotion'', ''27''(1), 37–52. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2012.683852 Carl, J. R., Soskin, D. P., Kerns, C., & Barlow, D. H. (2013). Positive emotion regulation in emotional disorders: A theoretical review. ''Clinical Psychology Review'', ''33''(3), 343–360. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2013.01.003 Fredrickson B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology. The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. ''The American psychologist'', ''56''(3), 218–226. https://doi.org/10.1037//0003-066x.56.3.218 Fredrickson, B. L., & Branigan, C. (2005). Positive emotions broaden the scope of attention and thought‐action repertoires. ''Cognition & Emotion'', ''19''(3), 313–332. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930441000238 Gross, J. J. (1998). The emerging field of emotion regulation: An integrative review. ''Review of General Psychology'', ''2''(3), 271–299. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.2.3.271 Gruber, J., Mauss, I. B., & Tamir, M. (2011). A Dark Side of Happiness? How, When, and Why Happiness Is Not Always Good. ''Perspectives on Psychological Science'', ''6''(3), 222–233. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691611406927 Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion regulation: Current status and future prospects. ''Psychological Inquiry'', ''26''(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2014.940781 Gruber, J., Villanueva, C., Burr, E., Purcell, J. R., & Karoly, H. (2020). Understanding and Taking Stock of Positive Emotion Disturbance. ''Social and personality psychology compass'', ''14''(1), e12515. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12515 Vogel, A. C., Brotman, M. A., Roy, A. K., & Perlman, S. B. (2023). Review: Defining positive emotion dysregulation: Integrating temperamental and clinical perspectives. ''Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry'', ''62''(3), 297–305. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2022.06.019 }} ==External links== * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/everyday-resilience/202404/emotional-well-being-5-healthy-practices-for-regulation Emotional wellbeing] (Psychology today) * [https://www.belonghealth.com.au/emotional-regulation-dysregulation-perth-mandurah.html Emotion dysregulation consequences] (Belong health) * [https://www.londonpsychiatry.clinic/blog/5-evidence-based-emotional-regulation-strategies Emotional regulation strategies] (London psychiatry clinic) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MyfzIQH6YKI Positive emotions with Barbara Fredrickson] (Youtube.com) __TOC__ [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion regulation]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Positive emotion]] p405uw72kp7e10tvbo68smfjq29pf6n 2836538 2836528 2026-10-07T10:39:18Z P U3270518 3106535 /* Goal-directed functioning and cognitive control */ Copilot was used to get overview on how i can approach this section and was also used to identify articles and summarise it. Link to the conversation:https://copilot.cloud.microsoft/chat/conversation/c9a8ebc5-e121-4fb7-a117-df3ca3693342 2836538 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Positive emotion dysregulation:<br>What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} [[File:Woman in red sweater with hand in air.jpg|right|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1.''' Grace experiencing happiness and excitement following several positive life events.]] '''Scenario''' Grace is a university student who feels that she has just won the lottery of her life. First, she receives a PhD offer from her dream university. Shortly afterwards, she learns that she has been awarded a scholarship to support her studies. Overwhelmed with happiness, Grace invites her boyfriend over to celebrate. Her boyfriend surprises her by proposing during the celebration, making it the best day of her life. For next several days, Grace feels unusually happy and energised (see Figure 1). She sleeps very little because she believes there is too much to achieve. To celebrate her success, she purchases an expensive laptop, makes an impulsive travel booking and commits to several university projects despite having a full schedule. People close to Grace begin to wonder if something is not right. Her close friends tried to slow her down, but she ignored them. From Grace's perspective, she is just happy, motivated and confident as pieces of her life are finally coming together in a positive way. 💡 What is happening to Grace? Why do her positive emotions become so intense? {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotions]] are a normal and important part of human life. It includes a variety of feelings such as joy, interest, love, contentment, gratitude, awe, and amusement (Campos et al., 2013). These emotions play an important role in expanding people's thoughts and possible actions to help them build lasting psychological and social resources (Fredrickson, 2001). However, positive emotions might not always be beneficial if they are inadequately regulated. A review by Gruber et al. (2020) on positive emotion disturbance suggests that extremely strong or prolonged positive emotional states can sometimes interfere with adaptive functioning. Positive emotion dysregulation helps to explain how positive emotional states can feel initially feel good but can sometimes contribute to harmful thoughts and behaviour. This chapter will explore how positive emotions can shift from being adaptive to maladaptive, and how it can affect psychological functioning. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} 🔎 '''Focus questions''' 1️⃣ What is positive emotion dysregulation, and how can it be distinguished from healthy positive emotions? 2️⃣ What factors contribute to difficulties in regulating positive emotions? 3️⃣ How does positive emotion dysregulation affect psychological functioning and wellbeing? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Positive emotion: From benefit to dysregulation== Understanding positive emotion dysregulation requires more than just identifying whether an emotional experience is pleasant or intense. [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotions]] such as joy, amusement and interest are usually considered pleasant in nature (Fredrickson, 2001). These feelings shape the way people thick, act and connect with world around them. Positive emotion dysregulation refers to difficulties in responding to positive emotions (Mansueto et al., 2025). It involves problems such as accepting, controlling or managing actions while feeling happy or excited (Mansueto et al., 2025). Therefore, positive emotion dysregulation is not simply experiencing strong positive emotions. It is about struggling to regulate those feelings in a way that support effective functioning. This section will consider why positive emotions are important, how they are normally regulated and how difficulties in regulating them can lead to positive emotion dysregulation. === Positive emotions and its adaptive functions === [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotions]] play an important role in psychological functioning. They include numerous experiences such as [[wikipedia:Joy|joy]], [[wikipedia:Interest_(emotion)|interest]], [[wikipedia:Love|love]], [[wikipedia:Contentment|contentment]], [[wikipedia:Gratitude|gratitude]], [[wikipedia:Awe|awe]], and [[wikipedia:Amusement|amusement]] which can influence cognition, behaviour, and social interaction (Campos et al., 2013). Instead of simply producing pleasant effects, positive emotions can encourage individuals to explore their environment, learn from experiences, engage with others and pursue meaningful goals. Positive emotions can broaden people's thoughts, cognition and behaviour. [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions|Broaden-and-Build Theory]] by Fredrickson (2001) proposes that positive emotions broaden momentary thought-action repertoires that encourages exploration, flexibility and engagement. For instance, excitement following major positive events may encourage student such as Grace to pursue new opportunities and get more involved in university. These positive emotions can help to build psychological and social resources, including relationships and coping resources (Fredrickson, 2001). Nevertheless, a network analysis about broaden-and-build theory on two studies (''N'' = 312; ''N''=302) found support for relationships between positive emotions, resources and life outcomes. But the broadening component that this theory proposed consistently deviated from the theory’s predictions, questioning its validity (Roth et al., 2024). However, positive emotions are not always beneficial in every circumstances. Effects of positive emotions may depend on intensity, timing, and context. This provides a foundation for understanding when positive emotion may become less adaptive (Gruber et al., 2011). This review challenges assumption of [[wikipedia:Positive_psychology|positive psychology]] that increasing positive emotion will improve well-being. It does not mean that strong positive emotions are always harmful. Review by Gruber et al. (2020), on positive emotion disturbance highlighted how positive emotion disturbance can interfere with adaptive functioning. Overall, these findings suggest that positive emotions can support adaptive functioning. But positive emotions are not automatic and same for everyone. Kashdan et al. (2015) reviewed myths regarding positive emotion regulation. This article emphasised flexibility in how people regulate emotions. Emotional responses should be adjusted according to the situation and personal goals. Thus, healthy positive emotion is not defined by its intensity alone. It depends on how it can be regulated flexibly without interfering with functioning. === From emotion regulation to positive emotion dysregulation === [[Emotional regulation]] refers to one’s ability to seek control over own emotional state (Gross, 2015). [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Extended process model of emotion regulation|The process model of emotion]] [[File:Positive emotion dysregulation pathway.png|thumb|434x434px|'''Figure 2.''' Applying the emotion regulation process to a positive situation. ''Note''. Some parts of this image has been adapted from Gross (1998) process model of emotion regulation ]][[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Extended process model of emotion regulation|regulation]] by Gross (1998) provides a framework for understanding how individual can modify emotional experiences. This model proposes that regulation occur at different stages which includes situation selection, situation modification, attentional deployment, cognitive appraisal and response modulation. Regulation can occur before an emotional response is fully developed or after anemotion has already been experienced. In Grace’s case, receiving the PhD offer and scholarship shifted her attention shifted towards positive achievement. She appraises the situation positively. According to Gross (1998) process model, emotion regulation then influences how she responds to and manages these emotions (see Figure 2). It also shapes what she does next.   Successful regulation helps individuals to modify their emotional experiences. In contrast, difficulties in managing emotional experiences can lead to [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Emotion dysregulation|emotion dysregulation]]. Difficulties in regulating emotions can lead to interpersonal problems, [[wikipedia:Rumination_(psychology)|rumination]], and several [[wikipedia:Mental_disorder|mental disorders]]. This highlight that it is important to understand how emotions are experienced and also how individuals respond to them. Importantly, positive emotions also require regulation. According to Carl et al., (2013), individuals may need to regulate their positive emotions based on their needs, goals and circumstances. Research has heavily focused on negative emotions and regulation of positive emotion has received less attention. This provides foundation to examine positive emotion dysregulation. === Recognising positive emotion dysregulation === Positive emotion dysregulation is defined as the difficulties in responding and managing positive emotional experiences. It is a multifaced construct that involves difficulty in accepting positive emotions, maintaining goal-directed behaviour, and controlling behaviour when experiencing positive emotions (Weiss et al., 2015). These three elements provide a useful of recognising difficulties in regulating positive emotions (see Table 1). An intense positive emotion does not necessarily means dysregulated. Feelings such as happiness, excitement, or enthusiasm may be well-placed responses to certain life events. Context, intensity, persistence and implications are crucial. Positive emotions can be considered [[wikipedia:Maladaptation|maladaptive]] if are poorly fitted to the situation or if they start to interfere with functioning (Gruber et al., 2011). Positive emotion dysregulation occurs when these feelings are hard to manage and when they disturb behaviour, goals and daily life. In Grace’s scenario, she engages in impulsive behaviour and commits to projects that she will not be able to complete on time. This highlights dysregulation as it affects her daily functioning. A review by Vogel et al. (2023), suggests that there is a need to examine the challenges of regulating positive emotions rather than focusing exclusively on negative emotions. This review also highlights that dysregulation should be understood in relation to the feelings and the way a person behaves. Research by Mansueto et al. (2025) found that stronger [[Metacognition|metacognitive]] beliefs were associated with greater positive emotion dysregulation, suggesting a therapeutic target. Overall, recognising emotional dysregulation means looking past how strong the feeling is and focusing on how person can respond and manage that feeling. '''Table 1''' ''Key elements for recognising positive emotion dysregulation'' ''Note. This table is based on the DERS-Positive dimensions researched by Weiss et al. (2015)'' {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! Dimension !Positive emotion regulation ! Positive emotion dysregulation |- | Accepting positive emotions |Accepts and acknowledges positive emotions without feeling that they are wrong or threatening | Feels uncomfortable or scared when experiencing positive emotions |- |Goal-directed behaviour |Can stay focused on goals while experiencing positive emotions |Difficulty in continuing goal-directed behaviour while experiencing positive emotions |- |Behavioural control |Can control behaviour and avoid acting impulsively when feeling happy or excited |Struggle in controlling behaviour or acts impulsively |} ; {{Robelbox|theme=5|title=Quiz}}[[Image: Hand Gesture - Holding a Magnifying Glass.gif|right|128px]] <quiz display=simple> Which of the following statement best differentiates healthy positive emotion from positive emotion dysregulation? |type="()"} - Healthy positive emotions improves behaviour, whereas dysregulation occurs when positive behaviour becomes excessive - Healthy positive emotions means emotions are freely expressed, whereas dysregulation occurs when they are suppressed + Healthy positive emotions supports functioning and positive emotion dysregulation involves difficulty in managing positive emotions. - Healthy positive emotions are always beneficial and positive emotion dysregulation means positive emotions become negative. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} == Factors underlying positive emotion dysregulation == [[File:Positive emotion dysregulation.png|thumb|'''Figure 3.''' Factors that may contribute to positive emotion dysregulation ]] Positive emotion dysregulation is unlikely result from a single factor. Instead, it is a result of biological, temperamental, coping, social and environment factors (see Figure 3). All these factors may interact to influence how strongly positive emotions are experienced and how they are regulated. This section will examine biological and environmental influences, ways of coping and regulation of positive emotions, and environmental and social factors. === Biological and temperamental factors === One of the factors for positive emotion dysregulation can be an increased sensitivity to emotional events from a biological and temperamental perspective. Some people might be emotionally more sensitive or find it harder to control their emotional reactions. A review by Vogel et al. (2023) reported that [[wikipedia:Surgency|surgency]] negatively correlated with effortful control and self-regulation in childhood. This may suggests that high surgency can be associated with aggression and externalising behaviours. Nonetheless, surgency has positive implications too and its link with regulation changed at different developmental stages. Therefore, it is hard to make strong conclusion to explain dysregulation only through surgency. Difficulties may also arise if there is high emotional activation that exceeds individual’s cognitive capacity. Additionally, Vogel et al. (2023) review only highlighted that [[wikipedia:Temperament|temperamental]] traits represent a vulnerability but not the exact causes of positive emotion dysregulation. Linehan’s (1993) [[wikipedia:Biosocial_theory|biosocial model]] offers additional perspective where biological emotional sensitivity combined with environmental invalidation leads to emotional dysregulation. It results in difficulties in managing and responding to intense positive emotions. Limitation of this theory is that it is not designed for positive emotions specifically. But it can be used to predict that people with high biological emotional sensitivity will be affected by the way other people perceive their emotions. Taken together, the developmental findings by Vogel et al. (2023) combined with Linehan’s (1993) theory can provide evidence that temperament may create vulnerability. But ability to regulate and environmental experiences determine the impact of excessive positive emotion. === Coping and emotion-regulation strategies === Individual’s ability to cope with their emotions may determine whether their strong emotions remain adaptive or turn into something uncontrollable. The process model of emotion regulation by Gross (1998) provides useful framework for understanding emotion regulation process. According to this model, regulation involves modifying emotional responses according to the situation and goals. Studies that look at emotion regulation back this idea. Livingstone and Srivastava (2012) found three ways to increase the level of positive emotions which are engagement, betterment, and indulgence. This provides evidence that increasing emotions does not necessarily mean dysregulation. [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Coping and emotion|Coping strategies]] may contribute to vulnerability to positive emotion dysregulation. To assess how regulation strategies work in real life conditions, Boemo et al. (2022) undertook a [[wikipedia:Systematic_review|systematic review]] and [[wikipedia:Meta-analysis|meta-analysis]] of experience sampling and daily diary design. The findings showed that [[wikipedia:Appraisal_theory|reappraisal]] was associated with greater positive effect, while [[wikipedia:Rumination_(psychology)|rumination]] and suppression were associated with poorer affective outcomes. Reappraisal prospectively predicted positive affect (''r'' = .34), while rumination prospectively predicted negative affect (''r'' = .16). These results shows that how people manage emotions can influence emotional functioning. The review focused on emotion regulation not on positive emotion dysregulation so it cannot prove that bad regulation leads to positive emotion dysregulation. Haag et al. (2024) conducted systematic review of 11 studies involving 3,775 adolescents (''M'' = 13.4 years) to understand emotion regulation flexibility in adolescents. Results of this study found that greater emotion regulation flexibility is associated with more adaptive outcomes, including higher positive effect and self-worth. The study conceptualised emotion regulation flexibility in two ways which was flexibility in regulating emotions according to the situation and the use of emotion regulation strategies. However, the evidence is limited as most studies were [[wikipedia:Cross-sectional_study|cross-sectional]] and community based. There was also heavy reliance on [[wikipedia:Self-report_study|self-report measures]]. Therfore, the findings suggests that poor regulation may increase vulnerability to emotional difficulties. But the study does not establish that low emotional regulation flexibility directly causes positive emotion dysregulation. Lastly, these studies combined provides foundation to understand relationship between ability to cope with emotions and emotional dysregulation. But direct inferences cannot be made as research is broad and focused only on emotional dysregulation in general. Future research is needed to understand how to cope with intense positive emotions so that does not lead to positive emotion dysregulation. === Environmental and social factors === Social environmental may shape the way positive emotions are expressed and regulated. According to meta-analysis conducted by Zinsser et al. (2021) on 24 studies, small correlation existed between emotion-focused parenting strategies and the emotional skills of children. Correlations were small and significant, ranged from ''r'' = .05 to .19. However, majority of studies used cross-sectional designs. Therefore, parental emotional socialisation may contribute to emotion regulation. But the evidence does not a direct pathway from parenting styles to dysregulation. Similarly, Goagoses et al. (2023) reviewed 27 studies on parenting and emotion dysregulation during childhood and adolescence. Results showed a small positive effect between negative parenting and emotion dysregulation (Δ = .20, ''p'' < .001). Additionally, there was a negative effect between positive parenting and emotion dysregulation (Δ = - .17, ''p'' < .001). But there was a notable heterogeneity in both meta-analyses, meaning that results should be interpreted carefully. Furthermore, emotion dysregulation in this study was evaluated in general and not separated into positive and negative emotion dysregulation.   Breaux et al. (2022) conducted a systematic review of parent emotion socialisation and positive emotions in child and adolescent samples. In seven included studies, the [[wikipedia:Correlation|correlational data]] suggested weak support for association between emotion socialisation behaviour of parents and positive emotions. Intervention studies proved effective increasing both parenting behaviours and positive emotions in children. England-Mason et al. (2023) conducted meta-analysis of twenty-six studies based on fifteen randomised controlled trials. Findings showed that parenting interventions were associated with increased emotion socialisation practices and emotional competence of children. But these findings reflected emotion competence as whole rather than the positive emotion dysregulation. Overall, social and environmental factors seem to be the contributing factor rather than direct cause of positive emotion dysregulation. Parenting could play role in development of emotion regulatory skills, but existing research cannot identify clear association. {{Robelbox|theme=10|title=Quiz}}[[Image: Hand Gesture - Holding a Magnifying Glass.gif|right|128px]] <quiz display=simple> Why high surgency can not be considered as a direct cause of positive emotion dysregulation ? |type="()"} - Surgency only occurs during adulthood - Surgency has only negative effects - Surgency is not related to emotional functioning + The effects of surgency is adaptive and its association with regulation changes across development </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} == Consequences of positive emotion dysregulation on psychological functioning == The dysregulation of positive emotions may manifest itself through altered thinking processes, decision-making, and behaviour of an individual. While positive emotions helps to expand attention and motivate individuals to explore more, strong and poorly regulated emotional activation may influence judgement. Gruber et al. (2020) proposed that positive emotions may become maladpative when they interfere with an individual's functioning. This section will discuss the way in which positive experiences may impact cognition, behaviour and decision-making processes. === Changes in cognition and decision-making === * Positive emotions can broaden attention and action thought repertoires. Fredrickson and Branigan (2005) found that positive affective states broadened both attention and the range of thought-action responses that the participants gave. It provided empirical support for broaden-and-build theory. * Positive emotion dysregulation can influence decision-making. * The effects of cognitive broadening are context-dependent === Goal-directed functioning and cognitive control === Positive emotion dysregulation may affect goal-directed behaviour when intense positive emotions become difficult to manage. According to Weiss et al. (2015), impulse control and difficulties with goal-directed behaviour are the dimensions for positive emotion dysregulation. These difficulties arise when people experience positive emotions. This suggests that positive emotion dysregulation is not only characterised by the experience of strong positive emotions. It involves difficulty staying focused on goals and controlling behaviour. Nonetheless, the study was aimed at developing and validating the DERS-P. Hence, it cannot be concluded that positive emotion dysregulation causes difficulty with goal achievement. === Risk-taking and Impulsivity === Positive emotion dysregulation may appear as reduced behavioural control specially when individuals experience intense positive emotions. Presence of positive emotional activation may lead to increased level of impulsivity and risky behaviour. Positive urgency provides a precise reason for rash behaviour during high levels of positive emotions. Cyders and Smith (2008) define positive urgency as the tendency of behaving rashly during high levels of positive affect. This behavioural trend can be risky as well. However, positive urgency should not be equated with positive emotion dysregulation as it an impulsive trait itself and not an indicator of positive emotion dysregulation. A more direct study of positive emotion dysregulation and risk taking was conducted by Weiss et al. (2023). The research included 151 women from community who suffered from intimate partner violence and were also consuming drugs and alcohol. Randomised participants underwent positive, negative, and neutral emotion inductions. Self-reported emotion dysregulation after positive emotion induction correlated with increased urges of substance use. Low levels of physiological regulation measured through high-frequency heart-rate variability were associated substance use and risk-taking. This provides evidence that difficulty in regulating positive emotions may contribute to reduced behavioural control. It also increases risk-taking behaviour during heightened positive emotional states. However, this specific sample limits generalisability to the broader population. {{Robelbox|theme=4|title=Quiz}}[[Image: Hand Gesture - Holding a Magnifying Glass.gif|right|128px]] <quiz display=simple> Which of the following is correct regarding positive emotion dysregulation and psychological functioning? |type="()"} + Poorly regulated positive emotions can interfere with attention, wellbeing, relationships and everyday responsibilities - Positive emotions are always harmful - Positive emotions have no effect on behaviour and functioning - Intense positive emotions always indicate dysregulation </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} ==Conclusion== *Positive emotion dysregulation is not simply experiencing intense happiness, but difficulty in regulating positive emotions. *Dysregulation can influence thoughts, decision-making and behaviour. *Difficulty in regulating positive emotions may affect everyday responsibilities and functioning. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} [[File:Nuvola apps kuser.svg|Nuvola apps kuser|left|20px]] ''' Take-home messages:''' - Positive emotion dysregulation occurs when positive emotions are difficult to regulate in ways that are appropriate according to the situation. - When positive emotions are poorly regulated, they can interfere with an individual's wellbeing, attention and everyday functioning. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==See also == *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions|Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions]] (Book chapter, 2016) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Coping and emotion|Coping and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Emotion dysregulation|Emotion dysregulation]] (Book chapter, 2026) *[[wikipedia:Emotional_dysregulation|Emotional dysregulation]] (Wikipedia) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Cyders, M. A., & Smith, G. T. (2008). Emotion-based dispositions to rash action: Positive and negative urgency. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''134''(6), 807–828. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013341 Campos, B., Shiota, M. N., Keltner, D., Gonzaga, G. C., & Goetz, J. L. (2013). What is shared, what is different? Core relational themes and expressive displays of eight positive emotions. ''Cognition and Emotion'', ''27''(1), 37–52. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2012.683852 Carl, J. R., Soskin, D. P., Kerns, C., & Barlow, D. H. (2013). Positive emotion regulation in emotional disorders: A theoretical review. ''Clinical Psychology Review'', ''33''(3), 343–360. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2013.01.003 Fredrickson B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology. The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. ''The American psychologist'', ''56''(3), 218–226. https://doi.org/10.1037//0003-066x.56.3.218 Fredrickson, B. L., & Branigan, C. (2005). Positive emotions broaden the scope of attention and thought‐action repertoires. ''Cognition & Emotion'', ''19''(3), 313–332. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930441000238 Gross, J. J. (1998). The emerging field of emotion regulation: An integrative review. ''Review of General Psychology'', ''2''(3), 271–299. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.2.3.271 Gruber, J., Mauss, I. B., & Tamir, M. (2011). A Dark Side of Happiness? How, When, and Why Happiness Is Not Always Good. ''Perspectives on Psychological Science'', ''6''(3), 222–233. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691611406927 Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion regulation: Current status and future prospects. ''Psychological Inquiry'', ''26''(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2014.940781 Gruber, J., Villanueva, C., Burr, E., Purcell, J. R., & Karoly, H. (2020). Understanding and Taking Stock of Positive Emotion Disturbance. ''Social and personality psychology compass'', ''14''(1), e12515. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12515 Vogel, A. C., Brotman, M. A., Roy, A. K., & Perlman, S. B. (2023). Review: Defining positive emotion dysregulation: Integrating temperamental and clinical perspectives. ''Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry'', ''62''(3), 297–305. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2022.06.019 }} ==External links== * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/everyday-resilience/202404/emotional-well-being-5-healthy-practices-for-regulation Emotional wellbeing] (Psychology today) * [https://www.belonghealth.com.au/emotional-regulation-dysregulation-perth-mandurah.html Emotion dysregulation consequences] (Belong health) * [https://www.londonpsychiatry.clinic/blog/5-evidence-based-emotional-regulation-strategies Emotional regulation strategies] (London psychiatry clinic) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MyfzIQH6YKI Positive emotions with Barbara Fredrickson] (Youtube.com) __TOC__ [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion regulation]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Positive emotion]] iuqipwdnhjy20vyyn80o2lonrbvxm8p 2836541 2836538 2026-10-07T10:55:15Z P U3270518 3106535 /* Changes in cognition and decision-making */ 2836541 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Positive emotion dysregulation:<br>What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} [[File:Woman in red sweater with hand in air.jpg|right|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1.''' Grace experiencing happiness and excitement following several positive life events.]] '''Scenario''' Grace is a university student who feels that she has just won the lottery of her life. First, she receives a PhD offer from her dream university. Shortly afterwards, she learns that she has been awarded a scholarship to support her studies. Overwhelmed with happiness, Grace invites her boyfriend over to celebrate. Her boyfriend surprises her by proposing during the celebration, making it the best day of her life. For next several days, Grace feels unusually happy and energised (see Figure 1). She sleeps very little because she believes there is too much to achieve. To celebrate her success, she purchases an expensive laptop, makes an impulsive travel booking and commits to several university projects despite having a full schedule. People close to Grace begin to wonder if something is not right. Her close friends tried to slow her down, but she ignored them. From Grace's perspective, she is just happy, motivated and confident as pieces of her life are finally coming together in a positive way. 💡 What is happening to Grace? Why do her positive emotions become so intense? {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotions]] are a normal and important part of human life. It includes a variety of feelings such as joy, interest, love, contentment, gratitude, awe, and amusement (Campos et al., 2013). These emotions play an important role in expanding people's thoughts and possible actions to help them build lasting psychological and social resources (Fredrickson, 2001). However, positive emotions might not always be beneficial if they are inadequately regulated. A review by Gruber et al. (2020) on positive emotion disturbance suggests that extremely strong or prolonged positive emotional states can sometimes interfere with adaptive functioning. Positive emotion dysregulation helps to explain how positive emotional states can feel initially feel good but can sometimes contribute to harmful thoughts and behaviour. This chapter will explore how positive emotions can shift from being adaptive to maladaptive, and how it can affect psychological functioning. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} 🔎 '''Focus questions''' 1️⃣ What is positive emotion dysregulation, and how can it be distinguished from healthy positive emotions? 2️⃣ What factors contribute to difficulties in regulating positive emotions? 3️⃣ How does positive emotion dysregulation affect psychological functioning and wellbeing? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Positive emotion: From benefit to dysregulation== Understanding positive emotion dysregulation requires more than just identifying whether an emotional experience is pleasant or intense. [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotions]] such as joy, amusement and interest are usually considered pleasant in nature (Fredrickson, 2001). These feelings shape the way people thick, act and connect with world around them. Positive emotion dysregulation refers to difficulties in responding to positive emotions (Mansueto et al., 2025). It involves problems such as accepting, controlling or managing actions while feeling happy or excited (Mansueto et al., 2025). Therefore, positive emotion dysregulation is not simply experiencing strong positive emotions. It is about struggling to regulate those feelings in a way that support effective functioning. This section will consider why positive emotions are important, how they are normally regulated and how difficulties in regulating them can lead to positive emotion dysregulation. === Positive emotions and its adaptive functions === [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotions]] play an important role in psychological functioning. They include numerous experiences such as [[wikipedia:Joy|joy]], [[wikipedia:Interest_(emotion)|interest]], [[wikipedia:Love|love]], [[wikipedia:Contentment|contentment]], [[wikipedia:Gratitude|gratitude]], [[wikipedia:Awe|awe]], and [[wikipedia:Amusement|amusement]] which can influence cognition, behaviour, and social interaction (Campos et al., 2013). Instead of simply producing pleasant effects, positive emotions can encourage individuals to explore their environment, learn from experiences, engage with others and pursue meaningful goals. Positive emotions can broaden people's thoughts, cognition and behaviour. [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions|Broaden-and-Build Theory]] by Fredrickson (2001) proposes that positive emotions broaden momentary thought-action repertoires that encourages exploration, flexibility and engagement. For instance, excitement following major positive events may encourage student such as Grace to pursue new opportunities and get more involved in university. These positive emotions can help to build psychological and social resources, including relationships and coping resources (Fredrickson, 2001). Nevertheless, a network analysis about broaden-and-build theory on two studies (''N'' = 312; ''N''=302) found support for relationships between positive emotions, resources and life outcomes. But the broadening component that this theory proposed consistently deviated from the theory’s predictions, questioning its validity (Roth et al., 2024). However, positive emotions are not always beneficial in every circumstances. Effects of positive emotions may depend on intensity, timing, and context. This provides a foundation for understanding when positive emotion may become less adaptive (Gruber et al., 2011). This review challenges assumption of [[wikipedia:Positive_psychology|positive psychology]] that increasing positive emotion will improve well-being. It does not mean that strong positive emotions are always harmful. Review by Gruber et al. (2020), on positive emotion disturbance highlighted how positive emotion disturbance can interfere with adaptive functioning. Overall, these findings suggest that positive emotions can support adaptive functioning. But positive emotions are not automatic and same for everyone. Kashdan et al. (2015) reviewed myths regarding positive emotion regulation. This article emphasised flexibility in how people regulate emotions. Emotional responses should be adjusted according to the situation and personal goals. Thus, healthy positive emotion is not defined by its intensity alone. It depends on how it can be regulated flexibly without interfering with functioning. === From emotion regulation to positive emotion dysregulation === [[Emotional regulation]] refers to one’s ability to seek control over own emotional state (Gross, 2015). [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Extended process model of emotion regulation|The process model of emotion]] [[File:Positive emotion dysregulation pathway.png|thumb|434x434px|'''Figure 2.''' Applying the emotion regulation process to a positive situation. ''Note''. Some parts of this image has been adapted from Gross (1998) process model of emotion regulation ]][[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Extended process model of emotion regulation|regulation]] by Gross (1998) provides a framework for understanding how individual can modify emotional experiences. This model proposes that regulation occur at different stages which includes situation selection, situation modification, attentional deployment, cognitive appraisal and response modulation. Regulation can occur before an emotional response is fully developed or after anemotion has already been experienced. In Grace’s case, receiving the PhD offer and scholarship shifted her attention shifted towards positive achievement. She appraises the situation positively. According to Gross (1998) process model, emotion regulation then influences how she responds to and manages these emotions (see Figure 2). It also shapes what she does next.   Successful regulation helps individuals to modify their emotional experiences. In contrast, difficulties in managing emotional experiences can lead to [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Emotion dysregulation|emotion dysregulation]]. Difficulties in regulating emotions can lead to interpersonal problems, [[wikipedia:Rumination_(psychology)|rumination]], and several [[wikipedia:Mental_disorder|mental disorders]]. This highlight that it is important to understand how emotions are experienced and also how individuals respond to them. Importantly, positive emotions also require regulation. According to Carl et al., (2013), individuals may need to regulate their positive emotions based on their needs, goals and circumstances. Research has heavily focused on negative emotions and regulation of positive emotion has received less attention. This provides foundation to examine positive emotion dysregulation. === Recognising positive emotion dysregulation === Positive emotion dysregulation is defined as the difficulties in responding and managing positive emotional experiences. It is a multifaced construct that involves difficulty in accepting positive emotions, maintaining goal-directed behaviour, and controlling behaviour when experiencing positive emotions (Weiss et al., 2015). These three elements provide a useful of recognising difficulties in regulating positive emotions (see Table 1). An intense positive emotion does not necessarily means dysregulated. Feelings such as happiness, excitement, or enthusiasm may be well-placed responses to certain life events. Context, intensity, persistence and implications are crucial. Positive emotions can be considered [[wikipedia:Maladaptation|maladaptive]] if are poorly fitted to the situation or if they start to interfere with functioning (Gruber et al., 2011). Positive emotion dysregulation occurs when these feelings are hard to manage and when they disturb behaviour, goals and daily life. In Grace’s scenario, she engages in impulsive behaviour and commits to projects that she will not be able to complete on time. This highlights dysregulation as it affects her daily functioning. A review by Vogel et al. (2023), suggests that there is a need to examine the challenges of regulating positive emotions rather than focusing exclusively on negative emotions. This review also highlights that dysregulation should be understood in relation to the feelings and the way a person behaves. Research by Mansueto et al. (2025) found that stronger [[Metacognition|metacognitive]] beliefs were associated with greater positive emotion dysregulation, suggesting a therapeutic target. Overall, recognising emotional dysregulation means looking past how strong the feeling is and focusing on how person can respond and manage that feeling. '''Table 1''' ''Key elements for recognising positive emotion dysregulation'' ''Note. This table is based on the DERS-Positive dimensions researched by Weiss et al. (2015)'' {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! Dimension !Positive emotion regulation ! Positive emotion dysregulation |- | Accepting positive emotions |Accepts and acknowledges positive emotions without feeling that they are wrong or threatening | Feels uncomfortable or scared when experiencing positive emotions |- |Goal-directed behaviour |Can stay focused on goals while experiencing positive emotions |Difficulty in continuing goal-directed behaviour while experiencing positive emotions |- |Behavioural control |Can control behaviour and avoid acting impulsively when feeling happy or excited |Struggle in controlling behaviour or acts impulsively |} ; {{Robelbox|theme=5|title=Quiz}}[[Image: Hand Gesture - Holding a Magnifying Glass.gif|right|128px]] <quiz display=simple> Which of the following statement best differentiates healthy positive emotion from positive emotion dysregulation? |type="()"} - Healthy positive emotions improves behaviour, whereas dysregulation occurs when positive behaviour becomes excessive - Healthy positive emotions means emotions are freely expressed, whereas dysregulation occurs when they are suppressed + Healthy positive emotions supports functioning and positive emotion dysregulation involves difficulty in managing positive emotions. - Healthy positive emotions are always beneficial and positive emotion dysregulation means positive emotions become negative. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} == Factors underlying positive emotion dysregulation == [[File:Positive emotion dysregulation.png|thumb|'''Figure 3.''' Factors that may contribute to positive emotion dysregulation ]] Positive emotion dysregulation is unlikely result from a single factor. Instead, it is a result of biological, temperamental, coping, social and environment factors (see Figure 3). All these factors may interact to influence how strongly positive emotions are experienced and how they are regulated. This section will examine biological and environmental influences, ways of coping and regulation of positive emotions, and environmental and social factors. === Biological and temperamental factors === One of the factors for positive emotion dysregulation can be an increased sensitivity to emotional events from a biological and temperamental perspective. Some people might be emotionally more sensitive or find it harder to control their emotional reactions. A review by Vogel et al. (2023) reported that [[wikipedia:Surgency|surgency]] negatively correlated with effortful control and self-regulation in childhood. This may suggests that high surgency can be associated with aggression and externalising behaviours. Nonetheless, surgency has positive implications too and its link with regulation changed at different developmental stages. Therefore, it is hard to make strong conclusion to explain dysregulation only through surgency. Difficulties may also arise if there is high emotional activation that exceeds individual’s cognitive capacity. Additionally, Vogel et al. (2023) review only highlighted that [[wikipedia:Temperament|temperamental]] traits represent a vulnerability but not the exact causes of positive emotion dysregulation. Linehan’s (1993) [[wikipedia:Biosocial_theory|biosocial model]] offers additional perspective where biological emotional sensitivity combined with environmental invalidation leads to emotional dysregulation. It results in difficulties in managing and responding to intense positive emotions. Limitation of this theory is that it is not designed for positive emotions specifically. But it can be used to predict that people with high biological emotional sensitivity will be affected by the way other people perceive their emotions. Taken together, the developmental findings by Vogel et al. (2023) combined with Linehan’s (1993) theory can provide evidence that temperament may create vulnerability. But ability to regulate and environmental experiences determine the impact of excessive positive emotion. === Coping and emotion-regulation strategies === Individual’s ability to cope with their emotions may determine whether their strong emotions remain adaptive or turn into something uncontrollable. The process model of emotion regulation by Gross (1998) provides useful framework for understanding emotion regulation process. According to this model, regulation involves modifying emotional responses according to the situation and goals. Studies that look at emotion regulation back this idea. Livingstone and Srivastava (2012) found three ways to increase the level of positive emotions which are engagement, betterment, and indulgence. This provides evidence that increasing emotions does not necessarily mean dysregulation. [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Coping and emotion|Coping strategies]] may contribute to vulnerability to positive emotion dysregulation. To assess how regulation strategies work in real life conditions, Boemo et al. (2022) undertook a [[wikipedia:Systematic_review|systematic review]] and [[wikipedia:Meta-analysis|meta-analysis]] of experience sampling and daily diary design. The findings showed that [[wikipedia:Appraisal_theory|reappraisal]] was associated with greater positive effect, while [[wikipedia:Rumination_(psychology)|rumination]] and suppression were associated with poorer affective outcomes. Reappraisal prospectively predicted positive affect (''r'' = .34), while rumination prospectively predicted negative affect (''r'' = .16). These results shows that how people manage emotions can influence emotional functioning. The review focused on emotion regulation not on positive emotion dysregulation so it cannot prove that bad regulation leads to positive emotion dysregulation. Haag et al. (2024) conducted systematic review of 11 studies involving 3,775 adolescents (''M'' = 13.4 years) to understand emotion regulation flexibility in adolescents. Results of this study found that greater emotion regulation flexibility is associated with more adaptive outcomes, including higher positive effect and self-worth. The study conceptualised emotion regulation flexibility in two ways which was flexibility in regulating emotions according to the situation and the use of emotion regulation strategies. However, the evidence is limited as most studies were [[wikipedia:Cross-sectional_study|cross-sectional]] and community based. There was also heavy reliance on [[wikipedia:Self-report_study|self-report measures]]. Therfore, the findings suggests that poor regulation may increase vulnerability to emotional difficulties. But the study does not establish that low emotional regulation flexibility directly causes positive emotion dysregulation. Lastly, these studies combined provides foundation to understand relationship between ability to cope with emotions and emotional dysregulation. But direct inferences cannot be made as research is broad and focused only on emotional dysregulation in general. Future research is needed to understand how to cope with intense positive emotions so that does not lead to positive emotion dysregulation. === Environmental and social factors === Social environmental may shape the way positive emotions are expressed and regulated. According to meta-analysis conducted by Zinsser et al. (2021) on 24 studies, small correlation existed between emotion-focused parenting strategies and the emotional skills of children. Correlations were small and significant, ranged from ''r'' = .05 to .19. However, majority of studies used cross-sectional designs. Therefore, parental emotional socialisation may contribute to emotion regulation. But the evidence does not a direct pathway from parenting styles to dysregulation. Similarly, Goagoses et al. (2023) reviewed 27 studies on parenting and emotion dysregulation during childhood and adolescence. Results showed a small positive effect between negative parenting and emotion dysregulation (Δ = .20, ''p'' < .001). Additionally, there was a negative effect between positive parenting and emotion dysregulation (Δ = - .17, ''p'' < .001). But there was a notable heterogeneity in both meta-analyses, meaning that results should be interpreted carefully. Furthermore, emotion dysregulation in this study was evaluated in general and not separated into positive and negative emotion dysregulation.   Breaux et al. (2022) conducted a systematic review of parent emotion socialisation and positive emotions in child and adolescent samples. In seven included studies, the [[wikipedia:Correlation|correlational data]] suggested weak support for association between emotion socialisation behaviour of parents and positive emotions. Intervention studies proved effective increasing both parenting behaviours and positive emotions in children. England-Mason et al. (2023) conducted meta-analysis of twenty-six studies based on fifteen randomised controlled trials. Findings showed that parenting interventions were associated with increased emotion socialisation practices and emotional competence of children. But these findings reflected emotion competence as whole rather than the positive emotion dysregulation. Overall, social and environmental factors seem to be the contributing factor rather than direct cause of positive emotion dysregulation. Parenting could play role in development of emotion regulatory skills, but existing research cannot identify clear association. {{Robelbox|theme=10|title=Quiz}}[[Image: Hand Gesture - Holding a Magnifying Glass.gif|right|128px]] <quiz display=simple> Why high surgency can not be considered as a direct cause of positive emotion dysregulation ? |type="()"} - Surgency only occurs during adulthood - Surgency has only negative effects - Surgency is not related to emotional functioning + The effects of surgency is adaptive and its association with regulation changes across development </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} == Consequences of positive emotion dysregulation on psychological functioning == The dysregulation of positive emotions may manifest itself through altered thinking processes, decision-making, and behaviour of an individual. While positive emotions helps to expand attention and motivate individuals to explore more, strong and poorly regulated emotional activation may influence judgement. Gruber et al. (2020) proposed that positive emotions may become maladpative when they interfere with an individual's functioning. This section will discuss the way in which positive experiences may impact cognition, behaviour and decision-making processes. === Risk-taking and Impulsivity === Positive emotion dysregulation may appear as reduced behavioural control specially when individuals experience intense positive emotions. Presence of positive emotional activation may lead to increased level of impulsivity and risky behaviour. Positive urgency provides a precise reason for rash behaviour during high levels of positive emotions. Cyders and Smith (2008) define positive urgency as the tendency of behaving rashly during high levels of positive affect. This behavioural trend can be risky as well. However, positive urgency should not be equated with positive emotion dysregulation as it an impulsive trait itself and not an indicator of positive emotion dysregulation. A more direct study of positive emotion dysregulation and risk taking was conducted by Weiss et al. (2023). The research included 151 women from community who suffered from intimate partner violence and were also consuming drugs and alcohol. Randomised participants underwent positive, negative, and neutral emotion inductions. Self-reported emotion dysregulation after positive emotion induction correlated with increased urges of substance use. Low levels of physiological regulation measured through high-frequency heart-rate variability were associated substance use and risk-taking. This provides evidence that difficulty in regulating positive emotions may contribute to reduced behavioural control. It also increases risk-taking behaviour during heightened positive emotional states. However, this specific sample limits generalisability to the broader population. === Goal-directed functioning and cognitive control === Positive emotion dysregulation may affect goal-directed behaviour when intense positive emotions become difficult to manage. According to Weiss et al. (2015), impulse control and difficulties with goal-directed behaviour are the dimensions for positive emotion dysregulation. These difficulties arise when people experience positive emotions. This suggests that positive emotion dysregulation is not only characterised by the experience of strong positive emotions. It involves difficulty staying focused on goals and controlling behaviour. Nonetheless, the study was aimed at developing and validating the DERS-P. Hence, it cannot be concluded that positive emotion dysregulation causes difficulty with goal achievement. === Broader psychological functioning === {{Robelbox|theme=4|title=Quiz}}[[Image: Hand Gesture - Holding a Magnifying Glass.gif|right|128px]] <quiz display=simple> Which of the following is correct regarding positive emotion dysregulation and psychological functioning? |type="()"} + Poorly regulated positive emotions can interfere with attention, wellbeing, relationships and everyday responsibilities - Positive emotions are always harmful - Positive emotions have no effect on behaviour and functioning - Intense positive emotions always indicate dysregulation </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} ==Conclusion== *Positive emotion dysregulation is not simply experiencing intense happiness, but difficulty in regulating positive emotions. *Dysregulation can influence thoughts, decision-making and behaviour. *Difficulty in regulating positive emotions may affect everyday responsibilities and functioning. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} [[File:Nuvola apps kuser.svg|Nuvola apps kuser|left|20px]] ''' Take-home messages:''' - Positive emotion dysregulation occurs when positive emotions are difficult to regulate in ways that are appropriate according to the situation. - When positive emotions are poorly regulated, they can interfere with an individual's wellbeing, attention and everyday functioning. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==See also == *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions|Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions]] (Book chapter, 2016) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Coping and emotion|Coping and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Emotion dysregulation|Emotion dysregulation]] (Book chapter, 2026) *[[wikipedia:Emotional_dysregulation|Emotional dysregulation]] (Wikipedia) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Cyders, M. A., & Smith, G. T. (2008). Emotion-based dispositions to rash action: Positive and negative urgency. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''134''(6), 807–828. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013341 Campos, B., Shiota, M. N., Keltner, D., Gonzaga, G. C., & Goetz, J. L. (2013). What is shared, what is different? Core relational themes and expressive displays of eight positive emotions. ''Cognition and Emotion'', ''27''(1), 37–52. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2012.683852 Carl, J. R., Soskin, D. P., Kerns, C., & Barlow, D. H. (2013). Positive emotion regulation in emotional disorders: A theoretical review. ''Clinical Psychology Review'', ''33''(3), 343–360. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2013.01.003 Fredrickson B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology. The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. ''The American psychologist'', ''56''(3), 218–226. https://doi.org/10.1037//0003-066x.56.3.218 Fredrickson, B. L., & Branigan, C. (2005). Positive emotions broaden the scope of attention and thought‐action repertoires. ''Cognition & Emotion'', ''19''(3), 313–332. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930441000238 Gross, J. J. (1998). The emerging field of emotion regulation: An integrative review. ''Review of General Psychology'', ''2''(3), 271–299. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.2.3.271 Gruber, J., Mauss, I. B., & Tamir, M. (2011). A Dark Side of Happiness? How, When, and Why Happiness Is Not Always Good. ''Perspectives on Psychological Science'', ''6''(3), 222–233. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691611406927 Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion regulation: Current status and future prospects. ''Psychological Inquiry'', ''26''(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2014.940781 Gruber, J., Villanueva, C., Burr, E., Purcell, J. R., & Karoly, H. (2020). Understanding and Taking Stock of Positive Emotion Disturbance. ''Social and personality psychology compass'', ''14''(1), e12515. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12515 Vogel, A. C., Brotman, M. A., Roy, A. K., & Perlman, S. B. (2023). Review: Defining positive emotion dysregulation: Integrating temperamental and clinical perspectives. ''Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry'', ''62''(3), 297–305. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2022.06.019 }} ==External links== * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/everyday-resilience/202404/emotional-well-being-5-healthy-practices-for-regulation Emotional wellbeing] (Psychology today) * [https://www.belonghealth.com.au/emotional-regulation-dysregulation-perth-mandurah.html Emotion dysregulation consequences] (Belong health) * [https://www.londonpsychiatry.clinic/blog/5-evidence-based-emotional-regulation-strategies Emotional regulation strategies] (London psychiatry clinic) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MyfzIQH6YKI Positive emotions with Barbara Fredrickson] (Youtube.com) __TOC__ [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion regulation]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Positive emotion]] pd0jedczwixel81ntckucnaudxpulbx 2836544 2836541 2026-10-07T11:29:03Z P U3270518 3106535 /* Broader psychological functioning */ copilot was used summarise articles and suggestion of title for this section. Link to the chat: https://copilot.cloud.microsoft/chat/conversation/aa278245-0fb0-493e-b139-c9cba1cecb3d 2836544 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Positive emotion dysregulation:<br>What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} [[File:Woman in red sweater with hand in air.jpg|right|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1.''' Grace experiencing happiness and excitement following several positive life events.]] '''Scenario''' Grace is a university student who feels that she has just won the lottery of her life. First, she receives a PhD offer from her dream university. Shortly afterwards, she learns that she has been awarded a scholarship to support her studies. Overwhelmed with happiness, Grace invites her boyfriend over to celebrate. Her boyfriend surprises her by proposing during the celebration, making it the best day of her life. For next several days, Grace feels unusually happy and energised (see Figure 1). She sleeps very little because she believes there is too much to achieve. To celebrate her success, she purchases an expensive laptop, makes an impulsive travel booking and commits to several university projects despite having a full schedule. People close to Grace begin to wonder if something is not right. Her close friends tried to slow her down, but she ignored them. From Grace's perspective, she is just happy, motivated and confident as pieces of her life are finally coming together in a positive way. 💡 What is happening to Grace? Why do her positive emotions become so intense? {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotions]] are a normal and important part of human life. It includes a variety of feelings such as joy, interest, love, contentment, gratitude, awe, and amusement (Campos et al., 2013). These emotions play an important role in expanding people's thoughts and possible actions to help them build lasting psychological and social resources (Fredrickson, 2001). However, positive emotions might not always be beneficial if they are inadequately regulated. A review by Gruber et al. (2020) on positive emotion disturbance suggests that extremely strong or prolonged positive emotional states can sometimes interfere with adaptive functioning. Positive emotion dysregulation helps to explain how positive emotional states can feel initially feel good but can sometimes contribute to harmful thoughts and behaviour. This chapter will explore how positive emotions can shift from being adaptive to maladaptive, and how it can affect psychological functioning. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} 🔎 '''Focus questions''' 1️⃣ What is positive emotion dysregulation, and how can it be distinguished from healthy positive emotions? 2️⃣ What factors contribute to difficulties in regulating positive emotions? 3️⃣ How does positive emotion dysregulation affect psychological functioning and wellbeing? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Positive emotion: From benefit to dysregulation== Understanding positive emotion dysregulation requires more than just identifying whether an emotional experience is pleasant or intense. [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotions]] such as joy, amusement and interest are usually considered pleasant in nature (Fredrickson, 2001). These feelings shape the way people thick, act and connect with world around them. Positive emotion dysregulation refers to difficulties in responding to positive emotions (Mansueto et al., 2025). It involves problems such as accepting, controlling or managing actions while feeling happy or excited (Mansueto et al., 2025). Therefore, positive emotion dysregulation is not simply experiencing strong positive emotions. It is about struggling to regulate those feelings in a way that support effective functioning. This section will consider why positive emotions are important, how they are normally regulated and how difficulties in regulating them can lead to positive emotion dysregulation. === Positive emotions and its adaptive functions === [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotions]] play an important role in psychological functioning. They include numerous experiences such as [[wikipedia:Joy|joy]], [[wikipedia:Interest_(emotion)|interest]], [[wikipedia:Love|love]], [[wikipedia:Contentment|contentment]], [[wikipedia:Gratitude|gratitude]], [[wikipedia:Awe|awe]], and [[wikipedia:Amusement|amusement]] which can influence cognition, behaviour, and social interaction (Campos et al., 2013). Instead of simply producing pleasant effects, positive emotions can encourage individuals to explore their environment, learn from experiences, engage with others and pursue meaningful goals. Positive emotions can broaden people's thoughts, cognition and behaviour. [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions|Broaden-and-Build Theory]] by Fredrickson (2001) proposes that positive emotions broaden momentary thought-action repertoires that encourages exploration, flexibility and engagement. For instance, excitement following major positive events may encourage student such as Grace to pursue new opportunities and get more involved in university. These positive emotions can help to build psychological and social resources, including relationships and coping resources (Fredrickson, 2001). Nevertheless, a network analysis about broaden-and-build theory on two studies (''N'' = 312; ''N''=302) found support for relationships between positive emotions, resources and life outcomes. But the broadening component that this theory proposed consistently deviated from the theory’s predictions, questioning its validity (Roth et al., 2024). However, positive emotions are not always beneficial in every circumstances. Effects of positive emotions may depend on intensity, timing, and context. This provides a foundation for understanding when positive emotion may become less adaptive (Gruber et al., 2011). This review challenges assumption of [[wikipedia:Positive_psychology|positive psychology]] that increasing positive emotion will improve well-being. It does not mean that strong positive emotions are always harmful. Review by Gruber et al. (2020), on positive emotion disturbance highlighted how positive emotion disturbance can interfere with adaptive functioning. Overall, these findings suggest that positive emotions can support adaptive functioning. But positive emotions are not automatic and same for everyone. Kashdan et al. (2015) reviewed myths regarding positive emotion regulation. This article emphasised flexibility in how people regulate emotions. Emotional responses should be adjusted according to the situation and personal goals. Thus, healthy positive emotion is not defined by its intensity alone. It depends on how it can be regulated flexibly without interfering with functioning. === From emotion regulation to positive emotion dysregulation === [[Emotional regulation]] refers to one’s ability to seek control over own emotional state (Gross, 2015). [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Extended process model of emotion regulation|The process model of emotion]] [[File:Positive emotion dysregulation pathway.png|thumb|434x434px|'''Figure 2.''' Applying the emotion regulation process to a positive situation. ''Note''. Some parts of this image has been adapted from Gross (1998) process model of emotion regulation ]][[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Extended process model of emotion regulation|regulation]] by Gross (1998) provides a framework for understanding how individual can modify emotional experiences. This model proposes that regulation occur at different stages which includes situation selection, situation modification, attentional deployment, cognitive appraisal and response modulation. Regulation can occur before an emotional response is fully developed or after anemotion has already been experienced. In Grace’s case, receiving the PhD offer and scholarship shifted her attention shifted towards positive achievement. She appraises the situation positively. According to Gross (1998) process model, emotion regulation then influences how she responds to and manages these emotions (see Figure 2). It also shapes what she does next.   Successful regulation helps individuals to modify their emotional experiences. In contrast, difficulties in managing emotional experiences can lead to [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Emotion dysregulation|emotion dysregulation]]. Difficulties in regulating emotions can lead to interpersonal problems, [[wikipedia:Rumination_(psychology)|rumination]], and several [[wikipedia:Mental_disorder|mental disorders]]. This highlight that it is important to understand how emotions are experienced and also how individuals respond to them. Importantly, positive emotions also require regulation. According to Carl et al., (2013), individuals may need to regulate their positive emotions based on their needs, goals and circumstances. Research has heavily focused on negative emotions and regulation of positive emotion has received less attention. This provides foundation to examine positive emotion dysregulation. === Recognising positive emotion dysregulation === Positive emotion dysregulation is defined as the difficulties in responding and managing positive emotional experiences. It is a multifaced construct that involves difficulty in accepting positive emotions, maintaining goal-directed behaviour, and controlling behaviour when experiencing positive emotions (Weiss et al., 2015). These three elements provide a useful of recognising difficulties in regulating positive emotions (see Table 1). An intense positive emotion does not necessarily means dysregulated. Feelings such as happiness, excitement, or enthusiasm may be well-placed responses to certain life events. Context, intensity, persistence and implications are crucial. Positive emotions can be considered [[wikipedia:Maladaptation|maladaptive]] if are poorly fitted to the situation or if they start to interfere with functioning (Gruber et al., 2011). Positive emotion dysregulation occurs when these feelings are hard to manage and when they disturb behaviour, goals and daily life. In Grace’s scenario, she engages in impulsive behaviour and commits to projects that she will not be able to complete on time. This highlights dysregulation as it affects her daily functioning. A review by Vogel et al. (2023), suggests that there is a need to examine the challenges of regulating positive emotions rather than focusing exclusively on negative emotions. This review also highlights that dysregulation should be understood in relation to the feelings and the way a person behaves. Research by Mansueto et al. (2025) found that stronger [[Metacognition|metacognitive]] beliefs were associated with greater positive emotion dysregulation, suggesting a therapeutic target. Overall, recognising emotional dysregulation means looking past how strong the feeling is and focusing on how person can respond and manage that feeling. '''Table 1''' ''Key elements for recognising positive emotion dysregulation'' ''Note. This table is based on the DERS-Positive dimensions researched by Weiss et al. (2015)'' {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! Dimension !Positive emotion regulation ! Positive emotion dysregulation |- | Accepting positive emotions |Accepts and acknowledges positive emotions without feeling that they are wrong or threatening | Feels uncomfortable or scared when experiencing positive emotions |- |Goal-directed behaviour |Can stay focused on goals while experiencing positive emotions |Difficulty in continuing goal-directed behaviour while experiencing positive emotions |- |Behavioural control |Can control behaviour and avoid acting impulsively when feeling happy or excited |Struggle in controlling behaviour or acts impulsively |} ; {{Robelbox|theme=5|title=Quiz}}[[Image: Hand Gesture - Holding a Magnifying Glass.gif|right|128px]] <quiz display=simple> Which of the following statement best differentiates healthy positive emotion from positive emotion dysregulation? |type="()"} - Healthy positive emotions improves behaviour, whereas dysregulation occurs when positive behaviour becomes excessive - Healthy positive emotions means emotions are freely expressed, whereas dysregulation occurs when they are suppressed + Healthy positive emotions supports functioning and positive emotion dysregulation involves difficulty in managing positive emotions. - Healthy positive emotions are always beneficial and positive emotion dysregulation means positive emotions become negative. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} == Factors underlying positive emotion dysregulation == [[File:Positive emotion dysregulation.png|thumb|'''Figure 3.''' Factors that may contribute to positive emotion dysregulation ]] Positive emotion dysregulation is unlikely result from a single factor. Instead, it is a result of biological, temperamental, coping, social and environment factors (see Figure 3). All these factors may interact to influence how strongly positive emotions are experienced and how they are regulated. This section will examine biological and environmental influences, ways of coping and regulation of positive emotions, and environmental and social factors. === Biological and temperamental factors === One of the factors for positive emotion dysregulation can be an increased sensitivity to emotional events from a biological and temperamental perspective. Some people might be emotionally more sensitive or find it harder to control their emotional reactions. A review by Vogel et al. (2023) reported that [[wikipedia:Surgency|surgency]] negatively correlated with effortful control and self-regulation in childhood. This may suggests that high surgency can be associated with aggression and externalising behaviours. Nonetheless, surgency has positive implications too and its link with regulation changed at different developmental stages. Therefore, it is hard to make strong conclusion to explain dysregulation only through surgency. Difficulties may also arise if there is high emotional activation that exceeds individual’s cognitive capacity. Additionally, Vogel et al. (2023) review only highlighted that [[wikipedia:Temperament|temperamental]] traits represent a vulnerability but not the exact causes of positive emotion dysregulation. Linehan’s (1993) [[wikipedia:Biosocial_theory|biosocial model]] offers additional perspective where biological emotional sensitivity combined with environmental invalidation leads to emotional dysregulation. It results in difficulties in managing and responding to intense positive emotions. Limitation of this theory is that it is not designed for positive emotions specifically. But it can be used to predict that people with high biological emotional sensitivity will be affected by the way other people perceive their emotions. Taken together, the developmental findings by Vogel et al. (2023) combined with Linehan’s (1993) theory can provide evidence that temperament may create vulnerability. But ability to regulate and environmental experiences determine the impact of excessive positive emotion. === Coping and emotion-regulation strategies === Individual’s ability to cope with their emotions may determine whether their strong emotions remain adaptive or turn into something uncontrollable. The process model of emotion regulation by Gross (1998) provides useful framework for understanding emotion regulation process. According to this model, regulation involves modifying emotional responses according to the situation and goals. Studies that look at emotion regulation back this idea. Livingstone and Srivastava (2012) found three ways to increase the level of positive emotions which are engagement, betterment, and indulgence. This provides evidence that increasing emotions does not necessarily mean dysregulation. [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Coping and emotion|Coping strategies]] may contribute to vulnerability to positive emotion dysregulation. To assess how regulation strategies work in real life conditions, Boemo et al. (2022) undertook a [[wikipedia:Systematic_review|systematic review]] and [[wikipedia:Meta-analysis|meta-analysis]] of experience sampling and daily diary design. The findings showed that [[wikipedia:Appraisal_theory|reappraisal]] was associated with greater positive effect, while [[wikipedia:Rumination_(psychology)|rumination]] and suppression were associated with poorer affective outcomes. Reappraisal prospectively predicted positive affect (''r'' = .34), while rumination prospectively predicted negative affect (''r'' = .16). These results shows that how people manage emotions can influence emotional functioning. The review focused on emotion regulation not on positive emotion dysregulation so it cannot prove that bad regulation leads to positive emotion dysregulation. Haag et al. (2024) conducted systematic review of 11 studies involving 3,775 adolescents (''M'' = 13.4 years) to understand emotion regulation flexibility in adolescents. Results of this study found that greater emotion regulation flexibility is associated with more adaptive outcomes, including higher positive effect and self-worth. The study conceptualised emotion regulation flexibility in two ways which was flexibility in regulating emotions according to the situation and the use of emotion regulation strategies. However, the evidence is limited as most studies were [[wikipedia:Cross-sectional_study|cross-sectional]] and community based. There was also heavy reliance on [[wikipedia:Self-report_study|self-report measures]]. Therfore, the findings suggests that poor regulation may increase vulnerability to emotional difficulties. But the study does not establish that low emotional regulation flexibility directly causes positive emotion dysregulation. Lastly, these studies combined provides foundation to understand relationship between ability to cope with emotions and emotional dysregulation. But direct inferences cannot be made as research is broad and focused only on emotional dysregulation in general. Future research is needed to understand how to cope with intense positive emotions so that does not lead to positive emotion dysregulation. === Environmental and social factors === Social environmental may shape the way positive emotions are expressed and regulated. According to meta-analysis conducted by Zinsser et al. (2021) on 24 studies, small correlation existed between emotion-focused parenting strategies and the emotional skills of children. Correlations were small and significant, ranged from ''r'' = .05 to .19. However, majority of studies used cross-sectional designs. Therefore, parental emotional socialisation may contribute to emotion regulation. But the evidence does not a direct pathway from parenting styles to dysregulation. Similarly, Goagoses et al. (2023) reviewed 27 studies on parenting and emotion dysregulation during childhood and adolescence. Results showed a small positive effect between negative parenting and emotion dysregulation (Δ = .20, ''p'' < .001). Additionally, there was a negative effect between positive parenting and emotion dysregulation (Δ = - .17, ''p'' < .001). But there was a notable heterogeneity in both meta-analyses, meaning that results should be interpreted carefully. Furthermore, emotion dysregulation in this study was evaluated in general and not separated into positive and negative emotion dysregulation.   Breaux et al. (2022) conducted a systematic review of parent emotion socialisation and positive emotions in child and adolescent samples. In seven included studies, the [[wikipedia:Correlation|correlational data]] suggested weak support for association between emotion socialisation behaviour of parents and positive emotions. Intervention studies proved effective increasing both parenting behaviours and positive emotions in children. England-Mason et al. (2023) conducted meta-analysis of twenty-six studies based on fifteen randomised controlled trials. Findings showed that parenting interventions were associated with increased emotion socialisation practices and emotional competence of children. But these findings reflected emotion competence as whole rather than the positive emotion dysregulation. Overall, social and environmental factors seem to be the contributing factor rather than direct cause of positive emotion dysregulation. Parenting could play role in development of emotion regulatory skills, but existing research cannot identify clear association. {{Robelbox|theme=10|title=Quiz}}[[Image: Hand Gesture - Holding a Magnifying Glass.gif|right|128px]] <quiz display=simple> Why high surgency can not be considered as a direct cause of positive emotion dysregulation ? |type="()"} - Surgency only occurs during adulthood - Surgency has only negative effects - Surgency is not related to emotional functioning + The effects of surgency is adaptive and its association with regulation changes across development </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} == Consequences of positive emotion dysregulation on psychological functioning == The dysregulation of positive emotions may manifest itself through altered thinking processes, decision-making, and behaviour of an individual. While positive emotions helps to expand attention and motivate individuals to explore more, strong and poorly regulated emotional activation may influence judgement. Gruber et al. (2020) proposed that positive emotions may become maladpative when they interfere with an individual's functioning. This section will discuss the way in which positive experiences may impact cognition, behaviour and decision-making processes. === Risk-taking and Impulsivity === Positive emotion dysregulation may appear as reduced behavioural control specially when individuals experience intense positive emotions. Presence of positive emotional activation may lead to increased level of impulsivity and risky behaviour. Positive urgency provides a precise reason for rash behaviour during high levels of positive emotions. Cyders and Smith (2008) define positive urgency as the tendency of behaving rashly during high levels of positive affect. This behavioural trend can be risky as well. However, positive urgency should not be equated with positive emotion dysregulation as it an impulsive trait itself and not an indicator of positive emotion dysregulation. A more direct study of positive emotion dysregulation and risk taking was conducted by Weiss et al. (2023). The research included 151 women from community who suffered from intimate partner violence and were also consuming drugs and alcohol. Randomised participants underwent positive, negative, and neutral emotion inductions. Self-reported emotion dysregulation after positive emotion induction correlated with increased urges of substance use. Low levels of physiological regulation measured through high-frequency heart-rate variability were associated substance use and risk-taking. This provides evidence that difficulty in regulating positive emotions may contribute to reduced behavioural control. It also increases risk-taking behaviour during heightened positive emotional states. However, this specific sample limits generalisability to the broader population. === Goal-directed functioning and cognitive control === Positive emotion dysregulation may affect goal-directed behaviour when intense positive emotions become difficult to manage. According to Weiss et al. (2015), impulse control and difficulties with goal-directed behaviour are the dimensions for positive emotion dysregulation. These difficulties arise when people experience positive emotions. This suggests that positive emotion dysregulation is not only characterised by the experience of strong positive emotions. It involves difficulty staying focused on goals and controlling behaviour. Nonetheless, the study was aimed at developing and validating the DERS-P. Hence, it cannot be concluded that positive emotion dysregulation causes difficulty with goal achievement. === Broader psychological functioning === The consequences of positive emotion dysregulation may extend beyond individual behaviours to broader mental health functioning. Weiss et al. (2020) compared the outcomes in 400 participants from the community who either experienced or had not experienced trauma and PTSD. Positive emotion dysregulation was found to be higher in individuals who experienced trauma and had probable PTSD than those individuals who experienced trauma but did not have probable PTSD. The effect size was moderate-to-large (''d'' = .66 -.73). This study showed importance of positive emotion regulation in functioning related to PTSD.  However, study used cross-sectional design, thus could not prove the causality. Furthermore, Hechtman et al. (2013) also highlighted that study of positive emotion regulation in the context of psychopathology is crucial. {{Robelbox|theme=4|title=Quiz}}[[Image: Hand Gesture - Holding a Magnifying Glass.gif|right|128px]] <quiz display=simple> Which of the following is correct regarding positive emotion dysregulation and psychological functioning? |type="()"} + Poorly regulated positive emotions can interfere with attention, wellbeing, relationships and everyday responsibilities - Positive emotions are always harmful - Positive emotions have no effect on behaviour and functioning - Intense positive emotions always indicate dysregulation </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} ==Conclusion== *Positive emotion dysregulation is not simply experiencing intense happiness, but difficulty in regulating positive emotions. *Dysregulation can influence thoughts, decision-making and behaviour. *Difficulty in regulating positive emotions may affect everyday responsibilities and functioning. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} [[File:Nuvola apps kuser.svg|Nuvola apps kuser|left|20px]] ''' Take-home messages:''' - Positive emotion dysregulation occurs when positive emotions are difficult to regulate in ways that are appropriate according to the situation. - When positive emotions are poorly regulated, they can interfere with an individual's wellbeing, attention and everyday functioning. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==See also == *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions|Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions]] (Book chapter, 2016) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Coping and emotion|Coping and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Emotion dysregulation|Emotion dysregulation]] (Book chapter, 2026) *[[wikipedia:Emotional_dysregulation|Emotional dysregulation]] (Wikipedia) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Cyders, M. A., & Smith, G. T. (2008). Emotion-based dispositions to rash action: Positive and negative urgency. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''134''(6), 807–828. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013341 Campos, B., Shiota, M. N., Keltner, D., Gonzaga, G. C., & Goetz, J. L. (2013). What is shared, what is different? Core relational themes and expressive displays of eight positive emotions. ''Cognition and Emotion'', ''27''(1), 37–52. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2012.683852 Carl, J. R., Soskin, D. P., Kerns, C., & Barlow, D. H. (2013). Positive emotion regulation in emotional disorders: A theoretical review. ''Clinical Psychology Review'', ''33''(3), 343–360. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2013.01.003 Fredrickson B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology. The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. ''The American psychologist'', ''56''(3), 218–226. https://doi.org/10.1037//0003-066x.56.3.218 Fredrickson, B. L., & Branigan, C. (2005). Positive emotions broaden the scope of attention and thought‐action repertoires. ''Cognition & Emotion'', ''19''(3), 313–332. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930441000238 Gross, J. J. (1998). The emerging field of emotion regulation: An integrative review. ''Review of General Psychology'', ''2''(3), 271–299. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.2.3.271 Gruber, J., Mauss, I. B., & Tamir, M. (2011). A Dark Side of Happiness? How, When, and Why Happiness Is Not Always Good. ''Perspectives on Psychological Science'', ''6''(3), 222–233. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691611406927 Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion regulation: Current status and future prospects. ''Psychological Inquiry'', ''26''(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2014.940781 Gruber, J., Villanueva, C., Burr, E., Purcell, J. R., & Karoly, H. (2020). Understanding and Taking Stock of Positive Emotion Disturbance. ''Social and personality psychology compass'', ''14''(1), e12515. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12515 Vogel, A. C., Brotman, M. A., Roy, A. K., & Perlman, S. B. (2023). Review: Defining positive emotion dysregulation: Integrating temperamental and clinical perspectives. ''Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry'', ''62''(3), 297–305. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2022.06.019 }} ==External links== * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/everyday-resilience/202404/emotional-well-being-5-healthy-practices-for-regulation Emotional wellbeing] (Psychology today) * [https://www.belonghealth.com.au/emotional-regulation-dysregulation-perth-mandurah.html Emotion dysregulation consequences] (Belong health) * [https://www.londonpsychiatry.clinic/blog/5-evidence-based-emotional-regulation-strategies Emotional regulation strategies] (London psychiatry clinic) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MyfzIQH6YKI Positive emotions with Barbara Fredrickson] (Youtube.com) __TOC__ [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion regulation]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Positive emotion]] 31902vhb9j8svp86v99ytr947vvilpn 2836554 2836544 2026-10-07T11:46:31Z P U3270518 3106535 /* References */ 2836554 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Positive emotion dysregulation:<br>What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} [[File:Woman in red sweater with hand in air.jpg|right|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1.''' Grace experiencing happiness and excitement following several positive life events.]] '''Scenario''' Grace is a university student who feels that she has just won the lottery of her life. First, she receives a PhD offer from her dream university. Shortly afterwards, she learns that she has been awarded a scholarship to support her studies. Overwhelmed with happiness, Grace invites her boyfriend over to celebrate. Her boyfriend surprises her by proposing during the celebration, making it the best day of her life. For next several days, Grace feels unusually happy and energised (see Figure 1). She sleeps very little because she believes there is too much to achieve. To celebrate her success, she purchases an expensive laptop, makes an impulsive travel booking and commits to several university projects despite having a full schedule. People close to Grace begin to wonder if something is not right. Her close friends tried to slow her down, but she ignored them. From Grace's perspective, she is just happy, motivated and confident as pieces of her life are finally coming together in a positive way. 💡 What is happening to Grace? Why do her positive emotions become so intense? {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotions]] are a normal and important part of human life. It includes a variety of feelings such as joy, interest, love, contentment, gratitude, awe, and amusement (Campos et al., 2013). These emotions play an important role in expanding people's thoughts and possible actions to help them build lasting psychological and social resources (Fredrickson, 2001). However, positive emotions might not always be beneficial if they are inadequately regulated. A review by Gruber et al. (2020) on positive emotion disturbance suggests that extremely strong or prolonged positive emotional states can sometimes interfere with adaptive functioning. Positive emotion dysregulation helps to explain how positive emotional states can feel initially feel good but can sometimes contribute to harmful thoughts and behaviour. This chapter will explore how positive emotions can shift from being adaptive to maladaptive, and how it can affect psychological functioning. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} 🔎 '''Focus questions''' 1️⃣ What is positive emotion dysregulation, and how can it be distinguished from healthy positive emotions? 2️⃣ What factors contribute to difficulties in regulating positive emotions? 3️⃣ How does positive emotion dysregulation affect psychological functioning and wellbeing? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Positive emotion: From benefit to dysregulation== Understanding positive emotion dysregulation requires more than just identifying whether an emotional experience is pleasant or intense. [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotions]] such as joy, amusement and interest are usually considered pleasant in nature (Fredrickson, 2001). These feelings shape the way people thick, act and connect with world around them. Positive emotion dysregulation refers to difficulties in responding to positive emotions (Mansueto et al., 2025). It involves problems such as accepting, controlling or managing actions while feeling happy or excited (Mansueto et al., 2025). Therefore, positive emotion dysregulation is not simply experiencing strong positive emotions. It is about struggling to regulate those feelings in a way that support effective functioning. This section will consider why positive emotions are important, how they are normally regulated and how difficulties in regulating them can lead to positive emotion dysregulation. === Positive emotions and its adaptive functions === [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotions]] play an important role in psychological functioning. They include numerous experiences such as [[wikipedia:Joy|joy]], [[wikipedia:Interest_(emotion)|interest]], [[wikipedia:Love|love]], [[wikipedia:Contentment|contentment]], [[wikipedia:Gratitude|gratitude]], [[wikipedia:Awe|awe]], and [[wikipedia:Amusement|amusement]] which can influence cognition, behaviour, and social interaction (Campos et al., 2013). Instead of simply producing pleasant effects, positive emotions can encourage individuals to explore their environment, learn from experiences, engage with others and pursue meaningful goals. Positive emotions can broaden people's thoughts, cognition and behaviour. [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions|Broaden-and-Build Theory]] by Fredrickson (2001) proposes that positive emotions broaden momentary thought-action repertoires that encourages exploration, flexibility and engagement. For instance, excitement following major positive events may encourage student such as Grace to pursue new opportunities and get more involved in university. These positive emotions can help to build psychological and social resources, including relationships and coping resources (Fredrickson, 2001). Nevertheless, a network analysis about broaden-and-build theory on two studies (''N'' = 312; ''N''=302) found support for relationships between positive emotions, resources and life outcomes. But the broadening component that this theory proposed consistently deviated from the theory’s predictions, questioning its validity (Roth et al., 2024). However, positive emotions are not always beneficial in every circumstances. Effects of positive emotions may depend on intensity, timing, and context. This provides a foundation for understanding when positive emotion may become less adaptive (Gruber et al., 2011). This review challenges assumption of [[wikipedia:Positive_psychology|positive psychology]] that increasing positive emotion will improve well-being. It does not mean that strong positive emotions are always harmful. Review by Gruber et al. (2020), on positive emotion disturbance highlighted how positive emotion disturbance can interfere with adaptive functioning. Overall, these findings suggest that positive emotions can support adaptive functioning. But positive emotions are not automatic and same for everyone. Kashdan et al. (2015) reviewed myths regarding positive emotion regulation. This article emphasised flexibility in how people regulate emotions. Emotional responses should be adjusted according to the situation and personal goals. Thus, healthy positive emotion is not defined by its intensity alone. It depends on how it can be regulated flexibly without interfering with functioning. === From emotion regulation to positive emotion dysregulation === [[Emotional regulation]] refers to one’s ability to seek control over own emotional state (Gross, 2015). [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Extended process model of emotion regulation|The process model of emotion]] [[File:Positive emotion dysregulation pathway.png|thumb|434x434px|'''Figure 2.''' Applying the emotion regulation process to a positive situation. ''Note''. Some parts of this image has been adapted from Gross (1998) process model of emotion regulation ]][[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Extended process model of emotion regulation|regulation]] by Gross (1998) provides a framework for understanding how individual can modify emotional experiences. This model proposes that regulation occur at different stages which includes situation selection, situation modification, attentional deployment, cognitive appraisal and response modulation. Regulation can occur before an emotional response is fully developed or after anemotion has already been experienced. In Grace’s case, receiving the PhD offer and scholarship shifted her attention shifted towards positive achievement. She appraises the situation positively. According to Gross (1998) process model, emotion regulation then influences how she responds to and manages these emotions (see Figure 2). It also shapes what she does next.   Successful regulation helps individuals to modify their emotional experiences. In contrast, difficulties in managing emotional experiences can lead to [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Emotion dysregulation|emotion dysregulation]]. Difficulties in regulating emotions can lead to interpersonal problems, [[wikipedia:Rumination_(psychology)|rumination]], and several [[wikipedia:Mental_disorder|mental disorders]]. This highlight that it is important to understand how emotions are experienced and also how individuals respond to them. Importantly, positive emotions also require regulation. According to Carl et al., (2013), individuals may need to regulate their positive emotions based on their needs, goals and circumstances. Research has heavily focused on negative emotions and regulation of positive emotion has received less attention. This provides foundation to examine positive emotion dysregulation. === Recognising positive emotion dysregulation === Positive emotion dysregulation is defined as the difficulties in responding and managing positive emotional experiences. It is a multifaced construct that involves difficulty in accepting positive emotions, maintaining goal-directed behaviour, and controlling behaviour when experiencing positive emotions (Weiss et al., 2015). These three elements provide a useful of recognising difficulties in regulating positive emotions (see Table 1). An intense positive emotion does not necessarily means dysregulated. Feelings such as happiness, excitement, or enthusiasm may be well-placed responses to certain life events. Context, intensity, persistence and implications are crucial. Positive emotions can be considered [[wikipedia:Maladaptation|maladaptive]] if are poorly fitted to the situation or if they start to interfere with functioning (Gruber et al., 2011). Positive emotion dysregulation occurs when these feelings are hard to manage and when they disturb behaviour, goals and daily life. In Grace’s scenario, she engages in impulsive behaviour and commits to projects that she will not be able to complete on time. This highlights dysregulation as it affects her daily functioning. A review by Vogel et al. (2023), suggests that there is a need to examine the challenges of regulating positive emotions rather than focusing exclusively on negative emotions. This review also highlights that dysregulation should be understood in relation to the feelings and the way a person behaves. Research by Mansueto et al. (2025) found that stronger [[Metacognition|metacognitive]] beliefs were associated with greater positive emotion dysregulation, suggesting a therapeutic target. Overall, recognising emotional dysregulation means looking past how strong the feeling is and focusing on how person can respond and manage that feeling. '''Table 1''' ''Key elements for recognising positive emotion dysregulation'' ''Note. This table is based on the DERS-Positive dimensions researched by Weiss et al. (2015)'' {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! Dimension !Positive emotion regulation ! Positive emotion dysregulation |- | Accepting positive emotions |Accepts and acknowledges positive emotions without feeling that they are wrong or threatening | Feels uncomfortable or scared when experiencing positive emotions |- |Goal-directed behaviour |Can stay focused on goals while experiencing positive emotions |Difficulty in continuing goal-directed behaviour while experiencing positive emotions |- |Behavioural control |Can control behaviour and avoid acting impulsively when feeling happy or excited |Struggle in controlling behaviour or acts impulsively |} ; {{Robelbox|theme=5|title=Quiz}}[[Image: Hand Gesture - Holding a Magnifying Glass.gif|right|128px]] <quiz display=simple> Which of the following statement best differentiates healthy positive emotion from positive emotion dysregulation? |type="()"} - Healthy positive emotions improves behaviour, whereas dysregulation occurs when positive behaviour becomes excessive - Healthy positive emotions means emotions are freely expressed, whereas dysregulation occurs when they are suppressed + Healthy positive emotions supports functioning and positive emotion dysregulation involves difficulty in managing positive emotions. - Healthy positive emotions are always beneficial and positive emotion dysregulation means positive emotions become negative. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} == Factors underlying positive emotion dysregulation == [[File:Positive emotion dysregulation.png|thumb|'''Figure 3.''' Factors that may contribute to positive emotion dysregulation ]] Positive emotion dysregulation is unlikely result from a single factor. Instead, it is a result of biological, temperamental, coping, social and environment factors (see Figure 3). All these factors may interact to influence how strongly positive emotions are experienced and how they are regulated. This section will examine biological and environmental influences, ways of coping and regulation of positive emotions, and environmental and social factors. === Biological and temperamental factors === One of the factors for positive emotion dysregulation can be an increased sensitivity to emotional events from a biological and temperamental perspective. Some people might be emotionally more sensitive or find it harder to control their emotional reactions. A review by Vogel et al. (2023) reported that [[wikipedia:Surgency|surgency]] negatively correlated with effortful control and self-regulation in childhood. This may suggests that high surgency can be associated with aggression and externalising behaviours. Nonetheless, surgency has positive implications too and its link with regulation changed at different developmental stages. Therefore, it is hard to make strong conclusion to explain dysregulation only through surgency. Difficulties may also arise if there is high emotional activation that exceeds individual’s cognitive capacity. Additionally, Vogel et al. (2023) review only highlighted that [[wikipedia:Temperament|temperamental]] traits represent a vulnerability but not the exact causes of positive emotion dysregulation. Linehan’s (1993) [[wikipedia:Biosocial_theory|biosocial model]] offers additional perspective where biological emotional sensitivity combined with environmental invalidation leads to emotional dysregulation. It results in difficulties in managing and responding to intense positive emotions. Limitation of this theory is that it is not designed for positive emotions specifically. But it can be used to predict that people with high biological emotional sensitivity will be affected by the way other people perceive their emotions. Taken together, the developmental findings by Vogel et al. (2023) combined with Linehan’s (1993) theory can provide evidence that temperament may create vulnerability. But ability to regulate and environmental experiences determine the impact of excessive positive emotion. === Coping and emotion-regulation strategies === Individual’s ability to cope with their emotions may determine whether their strong emotions remain adaptive or turn into something uncontrollable. The process model of emotion regulation by Gross (1998) provides useful framework for understanding emotion regulation process. According to this model, regulation involves modifying emotional responses according to the situation and goals. Studies that look at emotion regulation back this idea. Livingstone and Srivastava (2012) found three ways to increase the level of positive emotions which are engagement, betterment, and indulgence. This provides evidence that increasing emotions does not necessarily mean dysregulation. [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Coping and emotion|Coping strategies]] may contribute to vulnerability to positive emotion dysregulation. To assess how regulation strategies work in real life conditions, Boemo et al. (2022) undertook a [[wikipedia:Systematic_review|systematic review]] and [[wikipedia:Meta-analysis|meta-analysis]] of experience sampling and daily diary design. The findings showed that [[wikipedia:Appraisal_theory|reappraisal]] was associated with greater positive effect, while [[wikipedia:Rumination_(psychology)|rumination]] and suppression were associated with poorer affective outcomes. Reappraisal prospectively predicted positive affect (''r'' = .34), while rumination prospectively predicted negative affect (''r'' = .16). These results shows that how people manage emotions can influence emotional functioning. The review focused on emotion regulation not on positive emotion dysregulation so it cannot prove that bad regulation leads to positive emotion dysregulation. Haag et al. (2024) conducted systematic review of 11 studies involving 3,775 adolescents (''M'' = 13.4 years) to understand emotion regulation flexibility in adolescents. Results of this study found that greater emotion regulation flexibility is associated with more adaptive outcomes, including higher positive effect and self-worth. The study conceptualised emotion regulation flexibility in two ways which was flexibility in regulating emotions according to the situation and the use of emotion regulation strategies. However, the evidence is limited as most studies were [[wikipedia:Cross-sectional_study|cross-sectional]] and community based. There was also heavy reliance on [[wikipedia:Self-report_study|self-report measures]]. Therfore, the findings suggests that poor regulation may increase vulnerability to emotional difficulties. But the study does not establish that low emotional regulation flexibility directly causes positive emotion dysregulation. Lastly, these studies combined provides foundation to understand relationship between ability to cope with emotions and emotional dysregulation. But direct inferences cannot be made as research is broad and focused only on emotional dysregulation in general. Future research is needed to understand how to cope with intense positive emotions so that does not lead to positive emotion dysregulation. === Environmental and social factors === Social environmental may shape the way positive emotions are expressed and regulated. According to meta-analysis conducted by Zinsser et al. (2021) on 24 studies, small correlation existed between emotion-focused parenting strategies and the emotional skills of children. Correlations were small and significant, ranged from ''r'' = .05 to .19. However, majority of studies used cross-sectional designs. Therefore, parental emotional socialisation may contribute to emotion regulation. But the evidence does not a direct pathway from parenting styles to dysregulation. Similarly, Goagoses et al. (2023) reviewed 27 studies on parenting and emotion dysregulation during childhood and adolescence. Results showed a small positive effect between negative parenting and emotion dysregulation (Δ = .20, ''p'' < .001). Additionally, there was a negative effect between positive parenting and emotion dysregulation (Δ = - .17, ''p'' < .001). But there was a notable heterogeneity in both meta-analyses, meaning that results should be interpreted carefully. Furthermore, emotion dysregulation in this study was evaluated in general and not separated into positive and negative emotion dysregulation.   Breaux et al. (2022) conducted a systematic review of parent emotion socialisation and positive emotions in child and adolescent samples. In seven included studies, the [[wikipedia:Correlation|correlational data]] suggested weak support for association between emotion socialisation behaviour of parents and positive emotions. Intervention studies proved effective increasing both parenting behaviours and positive emotions in children. England-Mason et al. (2023) conducted meta-analysis of twenty-six studies based on fifteen randomised controlled trials. Findings showed that parenting interventions were associated with increased emotion socialisation practices and emotional competence of children. But these findings reflected emotion competence as whole rather than the positive emotion dysregulation. Overall, social and environmental factors seem to be the contributing factor rather than direct cause of positive emotion dysregulation. Parenting could play role in development of emotion regulatory skills, but existing research cannot identify clear association. {{Robelbox|theme=10|title=Quiz}}[[Image: Hand Gesture - Holding a Magnifying Glass.gif|right|128px]] <quiz display=simple> Why high surgency can not be considered as a direct cause of positive emotion dysregulation ? |type="()"} - Surgency only occurs during adulthood - Surgency has only negative effects - Surgency is not related to emotional functioning + The effects of surgency is adaptive and its association with regulation changes across development </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} == Consequences of positive emotion dysregulation on psychological functioning == The dysregulation of positive emotions may manifest itself through altered thinking processes, decision-making, and behaviour of an individual. While positive emotions helps to expand attention and motivate individuals to explore more, strong and poorly regulated emotional activation may influence judgement. Gruber et al. (2020) proposed that positive emotions may become maladpative when they interfere with an individual's functioning. This section will discuss the way in which positive experiences may impact cognition, behaviour and decision-making processes. === Risk-taking and Impulsivity === Positive emotion dysregulation may appear as reduced behavioural control specially when individuals experience intense positive emotions. Presence of positive emotional activation may lead to increased level of impulsivity and risky behaviour. Positive urgency provides a precise reason for rash behaviour during high levels of positive emotions. Cyders and Smith (2008) define positive urgency as the tendency of behaving rashly during high levels of positive affect. This behavioural trend can be risky as well. However, positive urgency should not be equated with positive emotion dysregulation as it an impulsive trait itself and not an indicator of positive emotion dysregulation. A more direct study of positive emotion dysregulation and risk taking was conducted by Weiss et al. (2023). The research included 151 women from community who suffered from intimate partner violence and were also consuming drugs and alcohol. Randomised participants underwent positive, negative, and neutral emotion inductions. Self-reported emotion dysregulation after positive emotion induction correlated with increased urges of substance use. Low levels of physiological regulation measured through high-frequency heart-rate variability were associated substance use and risk-taking. This provides evidence that difficulty in regulating positive emotions may contribute to reduced behavioural control. It also increases risk-taking behaviour during heightened positive emotional states. However, this specific sample limits generalisability to the broader population. === Goal-directed functioning and cognitive control === Positive emotion dysregulation may affect goal-directed behaviour when intense positive emotions become difficult to manage. According to Weiss et al. (2015), impulse control and difficulties with goal-directed behaviour are the dimensions for positive emotion dysregulation. These difficulties arise when people experience positive emotions. This suggests that positive emotion dysregulation is not only characterised by the experience of strong positive emotions. It involves difficulty staying focused on goals and controlling behaviour. Nonetheless, the study was aimed at developing and validating the DERS-P. Hence, it cannot be concluded that positive emotion dysregulation causes difficulty with goal achievement. === Broader psychological functioning === The consequences of positive emotion dysregulation may extend beyond individual behaviours to broader mental health functioning. Weiss et al. (2020) compared the outcomes in 400 participants from the community who either experienced or had not experienced trauma and PTSD. Positive emotion dysregulation was found to be higher in individuals who experienced trauma and had probable PTSD than those individuals who experienced trauma but did not have probable PTSD. The effect size was moderate-to-large (''d'' = .66 -.73). This study showed importance of positive emotion regulation in functioning related to PTSD.  However, study used cross-sectional design, thus could not prove the causality. Furthermore, Hechtman et al. (2013) also highlighted that study of positive emotion regulation in the context of psychopathology is crucial. {{Robelbox|theme=4|title=Quiz}}[[Image: Hand Gesture - Holding a Magnifying Glass.gif|right|128px]] <quiz display=simple> Which of the following is correct regarding positive emotion dysregulation and psychological functioning? |type="()"} + Poorly regulated positive emotions can interfere with attention, wellbeing, relationships and everyday responsibilities - Positive emotions are always harmful - Positive emotions have no effect on behaviour and functioning - Intense positive emotions always indicate dysregulation </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} ==Conclusion== *Positive emotion dysregulation is not simply experiencing intense happiness, but difficulty in regulating positive emotions. *Dysregulation can influence thoughts, decision-making and behaviour. *Difficulty in regulating positive emotions may affect everyday responsibilities and functioning. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} [[File:Nuvola apps kuser.svg|Nuvola apps kuser|left|20px]] ''' Take-home messages:''' - Positive emotion dysregulation occurs when positive emotions are difficult to regulate in ways that are appropriate according to the situation. - When positive emotions are poorly regulated, they can interfere with an individual's wellbeing, attention and everyday functioning. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==See also == *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions|Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions]] (Book chapter, 2016) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Coping and emotion|Coping and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Emotion dysregulation|Emotion dysregulation]] (Book chapter, 2026) *[[wikipedia:Emotional_dysregulation|Emotional dysregulation]] (Wikipedia) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Boemo, T., Nieto, I., Vazquez, C., & Sanchez-Lopez, A. (2022). Relations between emotion regulation strategies and affect in daily life: A systematic review and meta-analysis of studies using ecological momentary assessments. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 139, 104747. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.104747 Breaux, R., Lewis, J., Cash, A. R., Shroff, D. M., Burkhouse, K. L., & Kujawa, A. (2022). Parent Emotion Socialization and Positive Emotions in Child and Adolescent Clinical Samples: A Systematic Review and Call to Action. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 25(1), 204–221. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-022-00388-2 Cyders, M. A., & Smith, G. T. (2008). Emotion-based dispositions to rash action: Positive and negative urgency. Psychological Bulletin, 134(6), 807–828. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013341 Campos, B., Shiota, M. N., Keltner, D., Gonzaga, G. C., & Goetz, J. L. (2013). What is shared, what is different? Core relational themes and expressive displays of eight positive emotions. Cognition and Emotion, 27(1), 37–52. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2012.683852 Carl, J. R., Soskin, D. P., Kerns, C., & Barlow, D. H. (2013). Positive emotion regulation in emotional disorders: A theoretical review. Clinical Psychology Review, 33(3), 343–360. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2013.01.003 England-Mason, G., Andrews, K., Atkinson, L., & Gonzalez, A. (2023). Emotion socialization parenting interventions targeting emotional competence in young children: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Clinical Psychology Review, 100, 102252. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2023.102252 Fredrickson B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology. The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. The American psychologist, 56(3), 218–226. https://doi.org/10.1037//0003-066x.56.3.218 Gross, J. J. (1998). The emerging field of emotion regulation: An integrative review. Review of General Psychology, 2(3), 271–299. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.2.3.271 Gruber, J., Mauss, I. B., & Tamir, M. (2011). A Dark Side of Happiness? How, When, and Why Happiness Is Not Always Good. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 6(3), 222–233. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691611406927 Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion regulation: Current status and future prospects. Psychological Inquiry, 26(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2014.940781 Gruber, J., Villanueva, C., Burr, E., Purcell, J. R., & Karoly, H. (2020). Understanding and Taking Stock of Positive Emotion Disturbance. Social and personality psychology compass, 14(1), e12515. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12515 Goagoses, N., Bolz, T., Eilts, J., Schipper, N., Schütz, J., Rademacher, A., Vesterling, C., & Koglin, U. (2022). Parenting dimensions/styles and emotion dysregulation in childhood and adolescence: a systematic review and Meta-analysis. Current Psychology, 42, 18798–18822. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-022-03037-7 Hechtman, L. A., Raila, H., Chiao, J. Y., & Gruber, J. (2013). Positive Emotion Regulation and Psychopathology: A Transdiagnostic Cultural Neuroscience Approach. Journal of Experimental Psychopathology, 4(5), 502–528. https://doi.org/10.5127/jep.030412 Haag, A.-C., Bagrodia, R., & Bonanno, G. A. (2024). Emotion Regulation Flexibility in Adolescents: A Systematic Review from Conceptualization to Methodology. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 27(3), 697–713. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-024-00483-6 Kashdan, T. B., Young, K. C., & Machell, K. A. (2015). Positive emotion regulation: addressing two myths. Current Opinion in Psychology, 3, 117–121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2014.12.012 Linehan, M. (1993). Cognitive-behavioral treatment of borderline personality disorder. Guilford Press Livingstone, K. M., & Srivastava, S. (2012). Up-regulating positive emotions in everyday life: Strategies, individual differences, and associations with positive emotion and well-being. Journal of Research in Personality, 46(5), 504–516. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2012.05.009 Mansueto, G., Palmieri, S., Salatini, L., Piccioni, S., Ruggiero, G. M., Sassaroli, S., Spada, M. M., & Caselli, G. (2025). Positive Emotion Dysregulation: A Metacognitive Perspective. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 32(4). https://doi.org/10.1002/cpp.70109 Roth, L. H. O., Bencker, C., Lorenz, J., & Laireiter, A.-R. (2024). Testing the validity of the broaden-and build theory of positive emotions: a network analytic approach. Frontiers in Psychology, 15. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1405272 Vogel, A. C., Brotman, M. A., Roy, A. K., & Perlman, S. B. (2023). Review: Defining positive emotion dysregulation: Integrating temperamental and clinical perspectives. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 62(3), 297–305. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2022.06.019 Weiss, N. H., Gratz, K. L., & Lavender, J. M. (2015). Factor Structure and Initial Validation of a Multidimensional Measure of Difficulties in the Regulation of Positive Emotions. Behavior Modification, 39(3), 431–453. https://doi.org/10.1177/0145445514566504 Weiss, N. H., Contractor, A. A., Forkus, S. R., Goncharenko, S., & Raudales, A. M. (2020). Positive Emotion Dysregulation Among Community Individuals: The Role of Trauma Exposure and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 33(5), 741–749. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.22497 Weiss, N. H., Schick, M. R., Raudales, A. M., Forkus, S. R., Thomas, E. D., Contractor, A. A., & Sullivan, T. P. (2023). Experimental Investigation of the Influence of Positive Emotion Dysregulation on Risky Behavior Following Idiographic Emotion Inductions. Clinical Psychological Science, 11(3), 490–508. https://doi.org/10.1177/21677026221133295 Zinsser, K. M., Gordon, R. A., & Jiang, X. (2021). Parents’ socialization of preschool-aged children’s emotion skills: A meta-analysis using an emotion-focused parenting practices framework. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 55, 377–390. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2021.02.001 }} ==External links== * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/everyday-resilience/202404/emotional-well-being-5-healthy-practices-for-regulation Emotional wellbeing] (Psychology today) * [https://www.belonghealth.com.au/emotional-regulation-dysregulation-perth-mandurah.html Emotion dysregulation consequences] (Belong health) * [https://www.londonpsychiatry.clinic/blog/5-evidence-based-emotional-regulation-strategies Emotional regulation strategies] (London psychiatry clinic) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MyfzIQH6YKI Positive emotions with Barbara Fredrickson] (Youtube.com) __TOC__ [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion regulation]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Positive emotion]] 3fxqtpi7spmsi48amnizgztcbae7iks 2836555 2836554 2026-10-07T11:49:57Z P U3270518 3106535 removed few words to make it shorter 2836555 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Positive emotion dysregulation:<br>What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} [[File:Woman in red sweater with hand in air.jpg|right|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1.''' Grace experiencing happiness and excitement following several positive life events.]] '''Scenario''' Grace is a university student who feels that she has just won the lottery of her life. First, she receives a PhD offer from her dream university. Shortly afterwards, she learns that she has been awarded a scholarship to support her studies. For next several days, Grace feels unusually happy and energised (see Figure 1). She sleeps very little because she believes there is too much to achieve. To celebrate her success, she purchases an expensive laptop, makes an impulsive travel booking and commits to several university projects despite having a full schedule. People close to Grace begin to wonder if something is not right. Her close friends tried to slow her down, but she ignored them. From Grace's perspective, she is just happy, motivated and confident as pieces of her life are finally coming together in a positive way. 💡 What is happening to Grace? Why do her positive emotions become so intense? {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotions]] are a normal and important part of human life. It includes a variety of feelings such as joy, interest, love, contentment, gratitude, awe, and amusement (Campos et al., 2013). These emotions play an important role in expanding people's thoughts and possible actions to help them build lasting psychological and social resources (Fredrickson, 2001). However, positive emotions might not always be beneficial if they are inadequately regulated. A review by Gruber et al. (2020) on positive emotion disturbance suggests that extremely strong or prolonged positive emotional states can sometimes interfere with adaptive functioning. Positive emotion dysregulation helps to explain how positive emotional states can feel initially feel good but can sometimes contribute to harmful thoughts and behaviour. This chapter will explore how positive emotions can shift from being adaptive to maladaptive, and how it can affect psychological functioning. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} 🔎 '''Focus questions''' 1️⃣ What is positive emotion dysregulation, and how can it be distinguished from healthy positive emotions? 2️⃣ What factors contribute to difficulties in regulating positive emotions? 3️⃣ How does positive emotion dysregulation affect psychological functioning and wellbeing? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Positive emotion: From benefit to dysregulation== Understanding positive emotion dysregulation requires more than just identifying whether an emotional experience is pleasant or intense. [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotions]] such as joy, amusement and interest are usually considered pleasant in nature (Fredrickson, 2001). These feelings shape the way people thick, act and connect with world around them. Positive emotion dysregulation refers to difficulties in responding to positive emotions (Mansueto et al., 2025). It involves problems such as accepting, controlling or managing actions while feeling happy or excited (Mansueto et al., 2025). Therefore, positive emotion dysregulation is not simply experiencing strong positive emotions. It is about struggling to regulate those feelings in a way that support effective functioning. This section will consider why positive emotions are important, how they are normally regulated and how difficulties in regulating them can lead to positive emotion dysregulation. === Positive emotions and its adaptive functions === [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotions]] play an important role in psychological functioning. They include numerous experiences such as [[wikipedia:Joy|joy]], [[wikipedia:Interest_(emotion)|interest]], [[wikipedia:Love|love]], [[wikipedia:Contentment|contentment]], [[wikipedia:Gratitude|gratitude]], [[wikipedia:Awe|awe]], and [[wikipedia:Amusement|amusement]] which can influence cognition, behaviour, and social interaction (Campos et al., 2013). Instead of simply producing pleasant effects, positive emotions can encourage individuals to explore their environment, learn from experiences, engage with others and pursue meaningful goals. Positive emotions can broaden people's thoughts, cognition and behaviour. [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions|Broaden-and-Build Theory]] by Fredrickson (2001) proposes that positive emotions broaden momentary thought-action repertoires that encourages exploration, flexibility and engagement. For instance, excitement following major positive events may encourage student such as Grace to pursue new opportunities and get more involved in university. These positive emotions can help to build psychological and social resources, including relationships and coping resources (Fredrickson, 2001). Nevertheless, a network analysis about broaden-and-build theory on two studies (''N'' = 312; ''N''=302) found support for relationships between positive emotions, resources and life outcomes. But the broadening component that this theory proposed consistently deviated from the theory’s predictions, questioning its validity (Roth et al., 2024). However, positive emotions are not always beneficial in every circumstances. Effects of positive emotions may depend on intensity, timing, and context. This provides a foundation for understanding when positive emotion may become less adaptive (Gruber et al., 2011). This review challenges assumption of [[wikipedia:Positive_psychology|positive psychology]] that increasing positive emotion will improve well-being. It does not mean that strong positive emotions are always harmful. Review by Gruber et al. (2020), on positive emotion disturbance highlighted how positive emotion disturbance can interfere with adaptive functioning. Overall, these findings suggest that positive emotions can support adaptive functioning. But positive emotions are not automatic and same for everyone. Kashdan et al. (2015) reviewed myths regarding positive emotion regulation. This article emphasised flexibility in how people regulate emotions. Emotional responses should be adjusted according to the situation and personal goals. Thus, healthy positive emotion is not defined by its intensity alone. It depends on how it can be regulated flexibly without interfering with functioning. === From emotion regulation to positive emotion dysregulation === [[Emotional regulation]] refers to one’s ability to seek control over own emotional state (Gross, 2015). [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Extended process model of emotion regulation|The process model of emotion]] [[File:Positive emotion dysregulation pathway.png|thumb|434x434px|'''Figure 2.''' Applying the emotion regulation process to a positive situation. ''Note''. Some parts of this image has been adapted from Gross (1998) process model of emotion regulation ]][[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Extended process model of emotion regulation|regulation]] by Gross (1998) provides a framework for understanding how individual can modify emotional experiences. This model proposes that regulation occur at different stages which includes situation selection, situation modification, attentional deployment, cognitive appraisal and response modulation. Regulation can occur before an emotional response is fully developed or after anemotion has already been experienced. In Grace’s case, receiving the PhD offer and scholarship shifted her attention shifted towards positive achievement. She appraises the situation positively. According to Gross (1998) process model, emotion regulation then influences how she responds to and manages these emotions (see Figure 2). It also shapes what she does next.   Successful regulation helps individuals to modify their emotional experiences. In contrast, difficulties in managing emotional experiences can lead to [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Emotion dysregulation|emotion dysregulation]]. Difficulties in regulating emotions can lead to interpersonal problems, [[wikipedia:Rumination_(psychology)|rumination]], and several [[wikipedia:Mental_disorder|mental disorders]]. This highlight that it is important to understand how emotions are experienced and also how individuals respond to them. Importantly, positive emotions also require regulation. According to Carl et al., (2013), individuals may need to regulate their positive emotions based on their needs, goals and circumstances. Research has heavily focused on negative emotions and regulation of positive emotion has received less attention. This provides foundation to examine positive emotion dysregulation. === Recognising positive emotion dysregulation === Positive emotion dysregulation is defined as the difficulties in responding and managing positive emotional experiences. It is a multifaced construct that involves difficulty in accepting positive emotions, maintaining goal-directed behaviour, and controlling behaviour when experiencing positive emotions (Weiss et al., 2015). These three elements provide a useful of recognising difficulties in regulating positive emotions (see Table 1). An intense positive emotion does not necessarily means dysregulated. Feelings such as happiness, excitement, or enthusiasm may be well-placed responses to certain life events. Context, intensity, persistence and implications are crucial. Positive emotions can be considered [[wikipedia:Maladaptation|maladaptive]] if are poorly fitted to the situation or if they start to interfere with functioning (Gruber et al., 2011). Positive emotion dysregulation occurs when these feelings are hard to manage and when they disturb behaviour, goals and daily life. In Grace’s scenario, she engages in impulsive behaviour and commits to projects that she will not be able to complete on time. This highlights dysregulation as it affects her daily functioning. A review by Vogel et al. (2023), suggests that there is a need to examine the challenges of regulating positive emotions rather than focusing exclusively on negative emotions. This review also highlights that dysregulation should be understood in relation to the feelings and the way a person behaves. Research by Mansueto et al. (2025) found that stronger [[Metacognition|metacognitive]] beliefs were associated with greater positive emotion dysregulation, suggesting a therapeutic target. Overall, recognising emotional dysregulation means looking past how strong the feeling is and focusing on how person can respond and manage that feeling. '''Table 1''' ''Key elements for recognising positive emotion dysregulation'' ''Note. This table is based on the DERS-Positive dimensions researched by Weiss et al. (2015)'' {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! Dimension !Positive emotion regulation ! Positive emotion dysregulation |- | Accepting positive emotions |Accepts and acknowledges positive emotions without feeling that they are wrong or threatening | Feels uncomfortable or scared when experiencing positive emotions |- |Goal-directed behaviour |Can stay focused on goals while experiencing positive emotions |Difficulty in continuing goal-directed behaviour while experiencing positive emotions |- |Behavioural control |Can control behaviour and avoid acting impulsively when feeling happy or excited |Struggle in controlling behaviour or acts impulsively |} ; {{Robelbox|theme=5|title=Quiz}}[[Image: Hand Gesture - Holding a Magnifying Glass.gif|right|128px]] <quiz display=simple> Which of the following statement best differentiates healthy positive emotion from positive emotion dysregulation? |type="()"} - Healthy positive emotions improves behaviour, whereas dysregulation occurs when positive behaviour becomes excessive - Healthy positive emotions means emotions are freely expressed, whereas dysregulation occurs when they are suppressed + Healthy positive emotions supports functioning and positive emotion dysregulation involves difficulty in managing positive emotions. - Healthy positive emotions are always beneficial and positive emotion dysregulation means positive emotions become negative. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} == Factors underlying positive emotion dysregulation == [[File:Positive emotion dysregulation.png|thumb|'''Figure 3.''' Factors that may contribute to positive emotion dysregulation ]] Positive emotion dysregulation is unlikely result from a single factor. Instead, it is a result of biological, temperamental, coping, social and environment factors (see Figure 3). All these factors may interact to influence how strongly positive emotions are experienced and how they are regulated. This section will examine biological and environmental influences, ways of coping and regulation of positive emotions, and environmental and social factors. === Biological and temperamental factors === One of the factors for positive emotion dysregulation can be an increased sensitivity to emotional events from a biological and temperamental perspective. Some people might be emotionally more sensitive or find it harder to control their emotional reactions. A review by Vogel et al. (2023) reported that [[wikipedia:Surgency|surgency]] negatively correlated with effortful control and self-regulation in childhood. This may suggests that high surgency can be associated with aggression and externalising behaviours. Nonetheless, surgency has positive implications too and its link with regulation changed at different developmental stages. Therefore, it is hard to make strong conclusion to explain dysregulation only through surgency. Difficulties may also arise if there is high emotional activation that exceeds individual’s cognitive capacity. Additionally, Vogel et al. (2023) review only highlighted that [[wikipedia:Temperament|temperamental]] traits represent a vulnerability but not the exact causes of positive emotion dysregulation. Linehan’s (1993) [[wikipedia:Biosocial_theory|biosocial model]] offers additional perspective where biological emotional sensitivity combined with environmental invalidation leads to emotional dysregulation. It results in difficulties in managing and responding to intense positive emotions. Limitation of this theory is that it is not designed for positive emotions specifically. But it can be used to predict that people with high biological emotional sensitivity will be affected by the way other people perceive their emotions. Taken together, the developmental findings by Vogel et al. (2023) combined with Linehan’s (1993) theory can provide evidence that temperament may create vulnerability. But ability to regulate and environmental experiences determine the impact of excessive positive emotion. === Coping and emotion-regulation strategies === Individual’s ability to cope with their emotions may determine whether their strong emotions remain adaptive or turn into something uncontrollable. The process model of emotion regulation by Gross (1998) provides useful framework for understanding emotion regulation process. According to this model, regulation involves modifying emotional responses according to the situation and goals. Studies that look at emotion regulation back this idea. Livingstone and Srivastava (2012) found three ways to increase the level of positive emotions which are engagement, betterment, and indulgence. This provides evidence that increasing emotions does not necessarily mean dysregulation. [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Coping and emotion|Coping strategies]] may contribute to vulnerability to positive emotion dysregulation. To assess how regulation strategies work in real life conditions, Boemo et al. (2022) undertook a [[wikipedia:Systematic_review|systematic review]] and [[wikipedia:Meta-analysis|meta-analysis]] of experience sampling and daily diary design. The findings showed that [[wikipedia:Appraisal_theory|reappraisal]] was associated with greater positive effect, while [[wikipedia:Rumination_(psychology)|rumination]] and suppression were associated with poorer affective outcomes. Reappraisal prospectively predicted positive affect (''r'' = .34), while rumination prospectively predicted negative affect (''r'' = .16). These results shows that how people manage emotions can influence emotional functioning. The review focused on emotion regulation not on positive emotion dysregulation so it cannot prove that bad regulation leads to positive emotion dysregulation. Haag et al. (2024) conducted systematic review of 11 studies involving 3,775 adolescents (''M'' = 13.4 years) to understand emotion regulation flexibility in adolescents. Results of this study found that greater emotion regulation flexibility is associated with more adaptive outcomes, including higher positive effect and self-worth. The study conceptualised emotion regulation flexibility in two ways which was flexibility in regulating emotions according to the situation and the use of emotion regulation strategies. However, the evidence is limited as most studies were [[wikipedia:Cross-sectional_study|cross-sectional]] and community based. There was also heavy reliance on [[wikipedia:Self-report_study|self-report measures]]. Therfore, the findings suggests that poor regulation may increase vulnerability to emotional difficulties. But the study does not establish that low emotional regulation flexibility directly causes positive emotion dysregulation. Lastly, these studies combined provides foundation to understand relationship between ability to cope with emotions and emotional dysregulation. But direct inferences cannot be made as research is broad and focused only on emotional dysregulation in general. Future research is needed to understand how to cope with intense positive emotions so that does not lead to positive emotion dysregulation. === Environmental and social factors === Social environmental may shape the way positive emotions are expressed and regulated. According to meta-analysis conducted by Zinsser et al. (2021) on 24 studies, small correlation existed between emotion-focused parenting strategies and the emotional skills of children. Correlations were small and significant, ranged from ''r'' = .05 to .19. However, majority of studies used cross-sectional designs. Therefore, parental emotional socialisation may contribute to emotion regulation. But the evidence does not a direct pathway from parenting styles to dysregulation. Similarly, Goagoses et al. (2023) reviewed 27 studies on parenting and emotion dysregulation during childhood and adolescence. Results showed a small positive effect between negative parenting and emotion dysregulation (Δ = .20, ''p'' < .001). Additionally, there was a negative effect between positive parenting and emotion dysregulation (Δ = - .17, ''p'' < .001). But there was a notable heterogeneity in both meta-analyses, meaning that results should be interpreted carefully. Furthermore, emotion dysregulation in this study was evaluated in general and not separated into positive and negative emotion dysregulation.   Breaux et al. (2022) conducted a systematic review of parent emotion socialisation and positive emotions in child and adolescent samples. In seven included studies, the [[wikipedia:Correlation|correlational data]] suggested weak support for association between emotion socialisation behaviour of parents and positive emotions. Intervention studies proved effective increasing both parenting behaviours and positive emotions in children. England-Mason et al. (2023) conducted meta-analysis of twenty-six studies based on fifteen randomised controlled trials. Findings showed that parenting interventions were associated with increased emotion socialisation practices and emotional competence of children. But these findings reflected emotion competence as whole rather than the positive emotion dysregulation. Overall, social and environmental factors seem to be the contributing factor rather than direct cause of positive emotion dysregulation. Parenting could play role in development of emotion regulatory skills, but existing research cannot identify clear association. {{Robelbox|theme=10|title=Quiz}}[[Image: Hand Gesture - Holding a Magnifying Glass.gif|right|128px]] <quiz display=simple> Why high surgency can not be considered as a direct cause of positive emotion dysregulation ? |type="()"} - Surgency only occurs during adulthood - Surgency has only negative effects - Surgency is not related to emotional functioning + The effects of surgency is adaptive and its association with regulation changes across development </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} == Consequences of positive emotion dysregulation on psychological functioning == The dysregulation of positive emotions may manifest itself through altered thinking processes, decision-making, and behaviour of an individual. While positive emotions helps to expand attention and motivate individuals to explore more, strong and poorly regulated emotional activation may influence judgement. Gruber et al. (2020) proposed that positive emotions may become maladpative when they interfere with an individual's functioning. This section will discuss the way in which positive experiences may impact cognition, behaviour and decision-making processes. === Risk-taking and Impulsivity === Positive emotion dysregulation may appear as reduced behavioural control specially when individuals experience intense positive emotions. Presence of positive emotional activation may lead to increased level of impulsivity and risky behaviour. Positive urgency provides a precise reason for rash behaviour during high levels of positive emotions. Cyders and Smith (2008) define positive urgency as the tendency of behaving rashly during high levels of positive affect. This behavioural trend can be risky as well. However, positive urgency should not be equated with positive emotion dysregulation as it an impulsive trait itself and not an indicator of positive emotion dysregulation. A more direct study of positive emotion dysregulation and risk taking was conducted by Weiss et al. (2023). The research included 151 women from community who suffered from intimate partner violence and were also consuming drugs and alcohol. Randomised participants underwent positive, negative, and neutral emotion inductions. Self-reported emotion dysregulation after positive emotion induction correlated with increased urges of substance use. Low levels of physiological regulation measured through high-frequency heart-rate variability were associated substance use and risk-taking. This provides evidence that difficulty in regulating positive emotions may contribute to reduced behavioural control. It also increases risk-taking behaviour during heightened positive emotional states. However, this specific sample limits generalisability to the broader population. === Goal-directed functioning and cognitive control === Positive emotion dysregulation may affect goal-directed behaviour when intense positive emotions become difficult to manage. According to Weiss et al. (2015), impulse control and difficulties with goal-directed behaviour are the dimensions for positive emotion dysregulation. These difficulties arise when people experience positive emotions. This suggests that positive emotion dysregulation is not only characterised by the experience of strong positive emotions. It involves difficulty staying focused on goals and controlling behaviour. Nonetheless, the study was aimed at developing and validating the DERS-P. Hence, it cannot be concluded that positive emotion dysregulation causes difficulty with goal achievement. === Broader psychological functioning === The consequences of positive emotion dysregulation may extend beyond individual behaviours to broader mental health functioning. Weiss et al. (2020) compared the outcomes in 400 participants from the community who either experienced or had not experienced trauma and PTSD. Positive emotion dysregulation was found to be higher in individuals who experienced trauma and had probable PTSD than those individuals who experienced trauma but did not have probable PTSD. The effect size was moderate-to-large (''d'' = .66 -.73). This study showed importance of positive emotion regulation in functioning related to PTSD.  However, study used cross-sectional design, thus could not prove the causality. Furthermore, Hechtman et al. (2013) also highlighted that study of positive emotion regulation in the context of psychopathology is crucial. {{Robelbox|theme=4|title=Quiz}}[[Image: Hand Gesture - Holding a Magnifying Glass.gif|right|128px]] <quiz display=simple> Which of the following is correct regarding positive emotion dysregulation and psychological functioning? |type="()"} + Poorly regulated positive emotions can interfere with attention, wellbeing, relationships and everyday responsibilities - Positive emotions are always harmful - Positive emotions have no effect on behaviour and functioning - Intense positive emotions always indicate dysregulation </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} ==Conclusion== *Positive emotion dysregulation is not simply experiencing intense happiness, but difficulty in regulating positive emotions. *Dysregulation can influence thoughts, decision-making and behaviour. *Difficulty in regulating positive emotions may affect everyday responsibilities and functioning. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} [[File:Nuvola apps kuser.svg|Nuvola apps kuser|left|20px]] ''' Take-home messages:''' - Positive emotion dysregulation occurs when positive emotions are difficult to regulate in ways that are appropriate according to the situation. - When positive emotions are poorly regulated, they can interfere with an individual's wellbeing, attention and everyday functioning. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==See also == *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions|Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions]] (Book chapter, 2016) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Coping and emotion|Coping and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Emotion dysregulation|Emotion dysregulation]] (Book chapter, 2026) *[[wikipedia:Emotional_dysregulation|Emotional dysregulation]] (Wikipedia) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Boemo, T., Nieto, I., Vazquez, C., & Sanchez-Lopez, A. (2022). Relations between emotion regulation strategies and affect in daily life: A systematic review and meta-analysis of studies using ecological momentary assessments. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 139, 104747. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.104747 Breaux, R., Lewis, J., Cash, A. R., Shroff, D. M., Burkhouse, K. L., & Kujawa, A. (2022). Parent Emotion Socialization and Positive Emotions in Child and Adolescent Clinical Samples: A Systematic Review and Call to Action. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 25(1), 204–221. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-022-00388-2 Cyders, M. A., & Smith, G. T. (2008). Emotion-based dispositions to rash action: Positive and negative urgency. Psychological Bulletin, 134(6), 807–828. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013341 Campos, B., Shiota, M. N., Keltner, D., Gonzaga, G. C., & Goetz, J. L. (2013). What is shared, what is different? Core relational themes and expressive displays of eight positive emotions. 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Current Psychology, 42, 18798–18822. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-022-03037-7 Hechtman, L. A., Raila, H., Chiao, J. Y., & Gruber, J. (2013). Positive Emotion Regulation and Psychopathology: A Transdiagnostic Cultural Neuroscience Approach. Journal of Experimental Psychopathology, 4(5), 502–528. https://doi.org/10.5127/jep.030412 Haag, A.-C., Bagrodia, R., & Bonanno, G. A. (2024). Emotion Regulation Flexibility in Adolescents: A Systematic Review from Conceptualization to Methodology. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 27(3), 697–713. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-024-00483-6 Kashdan, T. B., Young, K. C., & Machell, K. A. (2015). Positive emotion regulation: addressing two myths. Current Opinion in Psychology, 3, 117–121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2014.12.012 Linehan, M. (1993). Cognitive-behavioral treatment of borderline personality disorder. Guilford Press Livingstone, K. M., & Srivastava, S. (2012). Up-regulating positive emotions in everyday life: Strategies, individual differences, and associations with positive emotion and well-being. Journal of Research in Personality, 46(5), 504–516. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2012.05.009 Mansueto, G., Palmieri, S., Salatini, L., Piccioni, S., Ruggiero, G. M., Sassaroli, S., Spada, M. M., & Caselli, G. (2025). Positive Emotion Dysregulation: A Metacognitive Perspective. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 32(4). https://doi.org/10.1002/cpp.70109 Roth, L. H. O., Bencker, C., Lorenz, J., & Laireiter, A.-R. (2024). Testing the validity of the broaden-and build theory of positive emotions: a network analytic approach. Frontiers in Psychology, 15. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1405272 Vogel, A. C., Brotman, M. A., Roy, A. K., & Perlman, S. B. (2023). Review: Defining positive emotion dysregulation: Integrating temperamental and clinical perspectives. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 62(3), 297–305. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2022.06.019 Weiss, N. H., Gratz, K. L., & Lavender, J. M. (2015). Factor Structure and Initial Validation of a Multidimensional Measure of Difficulties in the Regulation of Positive Emotions. Behavior Modification, 39(3), 431–453. https://doi.org/10.1177/0145445514566504 Weiss, N. H., Contractor, A. A., Forkus, S. R., Goncharenko, S., & Raudales, A. M. (2020). Positive Emotion Dysregulation Among Community Individuals: The Role of Trauma Exposure and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 33(5), 741–749. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.22497 Weiss, N. H., Schick, M. R., Raudales, A. M., Forkus, S. R., Thomas, E. D., Contractor, A. A., & Sullivan, T. P. (2023). Experimental Investigation of the Influence of Positive Emotion Dysregulation on Risky Behavior Following Idiographic Emotion Inductions. Clinical Psychological Science, 11(3), 490–508. https://doi.org/10.1177/21677026221133295 Zinsser, K. M., Gordon, R. A., & Jiang, X. (2021). Parents’ socialization of preschool-aged children’s emotion skills: A meta-analysis using an emotion-focused parenting practices framework. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 55, 377–390. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2021.02.001 }} ==External links== * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/everyday-resilience/202404/emotional-well-being-5-healthy-practices-for-regulation Emotional wellbeing] (Psychology today) * [https://www.belonghealth.com.au/emotional-regulation-dysregulation-perth-mandurah.html Emotion dysregulation consequences] (Belong health) * [https://www.londonpsychiatry.clinic/blog/5-evidence-based-emotional-regulation-strategies Emotional regulation strategies] (London psychiatry clinic) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MyfzIQH6YKI Positive emotions with Barbara Fredrickson] (Youtube.com) __TOC__ [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion regulation]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Positive emotion]] az158kx246cu22c4g4fdsy95w3w5pmh 0 331038 2836363 2836170 2026-10-07T00:23:52Z ChelsSchofield 3106760 /* Applications and tools */ changed tool and application to support the picture present showing the brain pathways to better explain their effects for the pain experience . 2836363 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Technology-based pain management:<br>How can technology-based tools alter pain perception and pain management?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:Headache touching forehead.jpg|thumb|326x326px|'''Figure 1'''. Headache]] '''Case study: Elena's shift in pain perception''' Elena is a 35-year-old graphic designer living with chronic neuropathic pain following a viral infection. For years, her pain felt unpredictable and overwhelming, some days she could work normally, while other days even holding a pencil felt impossible. What frightened her most wasn’t the pain itself, but the random timing and the belief that she had no control over it. Her pain specialist introduced her to a set of perception altering technologies: VR program designed to redirect attention and reduce pain intensity through immersive environments a wearable sensor that tracked muscle tension and autonomic arousal a mobile app that visualised her pain patterns using predictive coding algorithms Within two weeks, Elena noticed something she didn’t expect: her pain felt less threatening. The VR sessions helped her shift attention away from the pain, reducing the “alarm” response in her brain. The wearable showed spikes in tension before flare ups, helping her intervene early. The app revealed consistent patterns stress, poor sleep, and long work sessions transforming what once felt random into something understandable and predictable. As Elena’s understanding changed, her perception changed. Pain episodes felt less catastrophic, shorter, and easier to manage. Technology didn’t eliminate her pain it altered the way her brain interpreted it, giving her a sense of agency she hadn’t felt in years. {{RoundBoxBottom}} *Technology-based pain interventions are receiving increasing research attention across healthcare settings, including postoperative care, rehabilitation, and labour wards (Musters et al., 2023; Yang et al., 2023).The pain technology market is projected to increase by '''USD $70.2 billion''' over the 10 years (Statifacts.com)see annual [https://www.statifacts.com/outlook/chronic-pain-treatment-devices-market report]. Virtual reality can redirect attention away from pain, TENS devices can modulate pain-signal transmission, and biofeedback systems help individuals regulate physiological arousal.Virtual reality can redirect attention away from pain, TENS devices can modulate pain-signal transmission, and biofeedback systems can help individuals regulate physiological arousal. Wearables, mobile applications, and telehealth platforms are also becoming more widely used, giving people accessible ways to track pain patterns and engage in self-management (Green & Chakravarthy, 2025; Li et al., 2024). Technology has therefore become increasingly influential in how pain is monitored, interpreted and managed across healthcare. For people with chronic pain, catastrophic thoughts and fear of further pain or injury may lead to avoidance of movement and meaningful activities, contributing to reduced functioning and increased distress (Gatchel, 2016; Vlaeyen & Linton, 2000). This chapter explores how technology-based interventions may interrupt this cycle by influencing pain signals, attention, emotions, thoughts, motivation and perceived control. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Focus questions''' {{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}} •How does technology alter the way people perceive and respond to pain? •How do psychological processes such as attention, emotion and cognitive appraisal contribute to technology-based pain management? •How do different technologies influence people's sense of control, engagement and motivation when managing pain? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Understanding pain perception and management with technology == [[Pain]] is not determined solely by physical injury. It is a personal sensory and emotional experience influenced by biological, psychological and social factors (Raja et al., 2020). Understanding the distinction between pain and nociception helps explain why technology can change a person’s pain experience even when it does not remove the original injury or health condition. Pain perception is shaped by how the brain interprets nociceptive signals alongside attention, emotions, memories, beliefs, expectations and the surrounding context (Bushnell et al., 2013; Tracey & Mantyh, 2007). Technology can alter this interpretation by redirecting attention, regulating physiological arousal, modifying pain-signal transmission or changing catastrophic thoughts about pain. It may also influence how a person responds by encouraging movement, coping and active self-management rather than fear and avoidance. Technology can therefore reduce the intensity, unpleasantness or perceived threat of pain while supporting greater confidence and control over pain-management behaviour. ==== Pain and nociception ==== Nociception is the nervous systems detection system of potentially harmful event, such as heat or pressure. Pain is the sensory and emotional experience that follows. The two are closely related but they are not the same for example: detecting the danger does not always produce conscious pain, and pain can occur without damage (Raja et al.,2009). ==== Physiology of pain and pain perception ==== Nociceptive information acts as a pain message to the brains "pain central pathways" Called ascending pathways. One important pathway is the Spinothalamic tract. It carries the pain messages to the Thalamus, the part of the brain That helps further send information to the other parts of the brain (Basbaum et al.,2013). The Brain then works out various parts of the pain experience. Areas of the somatosensory system aid the brain to identify where the pain associates to and its intensity. Other areas, including the Insula and anterior cingulate cortex, help the brain recognise how the feels and how the body should respond. The messages can also travel in the opposite direction down descending pathways the signals act to either increase or reduce pain. This process is called Descending modulation. This process is assistance to help us explain why attention, expectations and emotions can change how much pain an individual experiences (Tracey & Mantyh, 2007). It also explains how Pain is not controlled by one singular "pain centre". Instead, several areas on the brain work together to create the pain experience (Bushnell et al.,2013). ==== '''Connecting the pathways to technology''' ==== These pathways help explain how technologies can influence different parts of the pain experience. TENS stimulates sensory nerves and may alter how nociceptive information is processed in the spinal cord, linking electrical stimulation with transmission and modulation (Moayedi & Davis, 2013). VR engages attention in an immersive environment, changing how much attention is available for pain during the experience (Malloy & Milling, 2010).Biofeedback makes selected bodily responses visible so users can practise self-regulation. Experimental research has examined whether this practice can influence both perceived pain and spinal nociceptive responses, although genuine feedback did not produce greater benefits than the comparison conditions (Arsenault et al., 2013). Connected stimulation systems can combine treatment with recorded feedback and remote monitoring to help guide treatment adjustments (Green & Chakravarthy, 2025). Monitoring therefore supports management decisions, but collecting information alone does not establish that pain processing has changed.Digital psychological programmes address thoughts, emotions and coping behaviour. Their effects may appear in emotional wellbeing even when daily interference from pain does not improve. For example, the EPIO app trial found improvements in depression and self-regulatory fatigue, but no significant improvement in pain interference at three months (Bostrøm et al., 2023). Across these approaches, pain intensity, unpleasantness, emotional distress and everyday functioning should be considered separately. === Chronic pain and avoidance === [[File:Pain cycle.jpg|thumb|326x326px|'''Figure 2'''. The avoidance pain [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3820295/ cycle]]] * Chronic pain refers to pain that persists or recurs for longer than three months. Chronic pain may affect attention, memory, mood, sleep, motivation, relationships and participation in daily activities (Gatchel,2016). Avoidance can lead to reduced activity, physical fitness and confidence. If avoidance persists it can lead to long term impacts such as limiting functional capacity and cause long term disability. * Catastrophising, involves a form of catastrophic thinking where pain is interpreted as a fearful experience leading to fear of movement or reinjury. Pain Catastrophising is known to be both psychologically and physically damaging if not addressed This is explained by the fear- avoidance model. Technology based interventions may target different parts of the pain avoidance cycle. * Digital CBT targets catastrophic thinking by challenging the thoughts in the self -help program. An example of the program would include, recording harmful thoughts evidence or challenge the belief to develop a balanced thought. (Bostrom et al.,2023). Digital ACT is a guided online Self-help program targeting the link between fear and avoidance an example of the program would include noticing harmful thoughts, stepping back, allowing feeling, identify the value and choosing a more meaningful action. By targeting '''avoidance behaviours''' through guided online programs, delivered technologies can alter perception of pain as a barrier to activity, helping people take manageable steps towards more meaningful activities despite discomfort ( Trompetter et al.,2015 ). * '''See Figure 2''' One The Avoidance Pain Cyle === Understanding pain management === * Pain management as strategies used to reduce pain, distress and interference with daily life. * Chronic pain management may improve coping, functioning and participation without completely eliminating pain. * Refer to the biopsychosocial approach, which considers biological, psychological and social influences on pain (Raja, 2020). * Technology may support pain management through symptom monitoring, coping strategies and improved access to care (Li,2024). == How does technology alter pain perception? == {{ic|Include an introductory paragraph before branching into sub-sections}} === VR and attention modulation === * Refer to VR immerse user effecting attention - Limited capacity theory of attention (de Araujo, Zeferino, & Galas, 2026) === Biofeedback and autonomic regulation === *How biofeedback provides information about physiological pain responses, enabling users to practise regulating these responses and develop greater control over their pain experience. Related to self-regulation theory (Arsenault,2013). === Cognitive Digital CBT and ACT tools === * How CBT can modify unhelpful pain-related thoughts and behaviours, while ACT can increase pain acceptance and engagement in valued activities. These processes may reduce distress and improve functioning even when pain is not eliminated. Related - to cognitive appraisal theory and the psychological flexibility mode'''l''' (Hysing,2017; Neblett,2016).- Beneficial for catastrophic thinking, === Wearable sensors === * Wearable systems that collect pain ratings, adherence information and physiological data to personalise treatment and help users identify patterns in their pain. Related to self-regulation theory, particularly monitoring, feedback and behavioural adjustment (Green & Chakravarthy, 2025). === TENS === * Low-voltage electrical stimulation activating non-painful sensory fibres and reducing the transmission of pain signals. Relate this to gate control theory and endogenous pain inhibition (Blincoe,2007; Green & Chakravarthy,2025). === Telehealth and remote monitoring === * Clinicians monitoring pain ratings, treatment use and progress from a distance. Feedback and support may improve confidence, access and treatment adjustment. Relate this to self-efficacy and self-regulation (Green & Chakravarthy,2025). === Mobile applications === * Apps recording pain ratings, showing patterns, providing education or coping activities, and reminding users to practise pain-management strategies. Relate this to self-regulation theory. A dedicated mobile pain-application study is still required. == Psychological theories behind technology‑based pain management == * '''Psychological theories behind technology‑based pain management:'''Technology‑based pain interventions draw on established psychological theories explaining how cognition, emotion, attention and behaviour shape pain perception. These mechanisms help explain how tools such as VR, wearables and AI‑guided apps influence pain experience (Gatchel et al., 2007; Eccleston & Crombez, 1999). * '''Biopsychosocial model of pain:'''The biopsychosocial model proposes that pain arises from interactions between biological processes, psychological factors and social context. Technology‑based interventions align with this model by targeting multiple domains simultaneously, such as emotional regulation, behavioural change and physiological monitoring (Gatchel et al., 2007; Williams & Craig, 2016). * '''Limited‑capacity theory of attention:'''Pain captures limited attentional resources, increasing perceived intensity. VR and immersive technologies reduce pain by redirecting attention away from nociceptive input, supporting the theory’s predictions (Eccleston & Crombez, 1999; Malloy & Milling, 2010). * '''Gate control theory of pain:'''Gate control theory suggests that cognitive and emotional factors modulate nociceptive signals at the spinal level. Technologies such as TENS, VR and biofeedback influence these gates by altering attention and emotional state (Melzack & Wall, 1965; Moayedi & Davis, 2013). * '''Neuromodulation and neuroplasticity:'''Pain perception is shaped by dynamic neural networks that reorganise with experience. VR, neurofeedback and AI‑guided training promote adaptive neuroplasticity by reducing maladaptive signalling and strengthening regulatory pathways (Apkarian et al., 2009; Kutch & Apkarian, 2018). * '''Self‑regulation theory:'''Self‑regulation theory emphasises managing thoughts, emotions and behaviours to achieve desired outcomes. Technology‑based pain tools enhance self‑regulation through real‑time feedback, guided breathing and emotional tracking (Karoly, 1993; Jensen et al., 2014). * '''Operant conditioning:'''Pain behaviours can be reinforced by environmental responses. Technology‑based interventions apply operant principles by rewarding adaptive behaviours such as movement, pacing and relaxation (Fordyce, 1976; Vlaeyen & Linton, 2000). * '''Fear‑avoidance model of pain:'''Fear of pain leads to avoidance, deconditioning and increased disability. Graded VR exposure and movement‑tracking apps reduce fear by providing safe exposure and positive reinforcement (Vlaeyen & Linton, 2000; Crombez et al., 2012). * '''Cognitive appraisal and reframing:'''Pain intensity is influenced by how individuals interpret symptoms. Digital CBT tools help reframe catastrophic thoughts, reduce threat appraisal and promote adaptive interpretations of pain (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984; Turk & Wilson, 2010). * '''Psychological flexibility model:'''Psychological flexibility involves adapting behaviour in alignment with values despite discomfort. ACT‑based digital interventions enhance flexibility through acceptance, present‑moment awareness and committed action (Hayes et al., 2012; Trompetter et al., 2016). * '''Social cognitive theory and self‑efficacy:'''Self‑efficacy predicts pain coping and functional outcomes. Technology‑based interventions increase self‑efficacy through mastery experiences, modelling and feedback (Bandura, 1997; Jackson et al., 2014). * '''Affective‑motivational modulation of pain:'''Pain is shaped by emotional and motivational states such as fear, anxiety and goal orientation. Negative affect amplifies pain through enhanced salience and descending facilitation, while positive affect reduces pain via prefrontal‑limbic modulation. Technologies such as VR, AI‑guided relaxation and biofeedback apps modulate affective‑motivational systems by reducing threat cues and enhancing emotional regulation (Modernell et al., 2026; Vervoort & Trost, 2018; Garcia‑Larrea & Fauchon, 2023; ''Current Opinion in Psychology'', 2025). == Connecting the technologies to the pain pathways == [[File:Pain pathway diagram showing transduction, transmission, modulation, and perception.png|thumb|293x293px|Figure 2: Brain Pain Pathways ]] *The figure Shown as '''Figure 2: The Brains Pain Pathways''' Shows how the pain experience occurs. Potentially harmful Stimuli is converted into nerve Signals '''Transduction''' carried through '''Transmission''' and processed into '''Perception''' experience , increasing or reducing during '''Modulation'''(Tracey & Mantyh,2007 ).See the following examples :VR - Perception via immersive Experiences to redirects attention which can reduce intensity during use (Malloy & Milling, 2010)TENS - Transmission and modulation Via electrical stimulation works by activating sensory nerves and can reduce the onward transmission of nociceptive information to the spinal cord (Moayedi & Davis , 2013 )Wearables, Gamification, Telehealth and digital psychological programs can support management and coping throughout the whole pain experience. == Future Applications and Emerging Technologies == * List Of Various Cutting edge * Emerging technologies * futuristics applications == Limitations and ethical considerations == * Effectiveness differs between users, technologies and pain conditions. * Refer to barriers including cost, access, digital skills and user engagement (Li,2024). * Possible side effects, privacy concerns and increased attention to symptoms. ==Learning features== '''Table 1''' See The Summary Table below : {{ic|Provide a more descriptive caption}} {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! Technology !! How it alters pain perception !! Theory / Model |- | VR || Redirects attention || Limited-capacity attention |- | TENS || Modulates pain signals || Gate control theory |- |Biofeedback |Support regulation of arousal |Self-regulation, conditioning |- |CBT/ACT tools |Changes to coping, appraisal and avoidance |Fear avoidance, flexibility |- |Wearables/apps |Records patterns and provides feedback |Self-regulation |- |Telehealth |Remote support, health access and treatment |Self-efficacy |} ;Quizzes * Why might VR reduce the amount of attention given to pain? See: * Which theory best explains how TENS may reduce pain-signal transmission? * How can feedback from a wearable device support self-regulation? * How might catastrophic thinking contribute to the fear-avoidance cycle? <quiz display="simple"> {Virtual reality (VR) can reduce pain by redirecting a person’s attention away from painful stimuli?: |type="()"} + True - False {TENS devices work by increasing the intensity of pain signals sent to the brain. Answer?: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Pain is interpreted by the brain and is influenced by attention, emotion, appraisal, behaviour and social support, not only by signals from the body. * Different technologies alter pain perception through different pathways: VR redirects attention, TENS modulates signals, and feedback or cognitive tools influence arousal, appraisal and control. * Technology is most useful as part of individualised, biopsychosocial pain management rather than as a replacement for all existing care (Hysing,2017; Li,2024). * Effectiveness depends on the user, pain condition, technology, level of support and quality of available evidence. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[wikipedia:Virtual_reality_therapy|Virtual reality therapy]] (Wikipedia) [[wikipedia:Transcutaneous_electrical_nerve_stimulation|Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation]] (Wikipedia) * https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pain {{ic|Create internal link}} * https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_reality {{ic|Create internal link}} * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Self-regulation|Self-regulation]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[wikipedia:Transcutaneous_electrical_nerve_stimulation|Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Cognitive_behavioral_therapy|Cognitive behavioral therapy]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Biopsychosocial_model|Biopsychosocial model]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Gate_control_theory|Gate control theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. {{Hanging indent|1=1. 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Fear of pain as a prognostic factor in chronic pain: Conceptual models, assessment, and treatment implications. Current Pain and Headache Reports, 14(2), 88–95. 33. Veehof, M. M., Trompetter, H. R., Bohlmeijer, E. T., & Schreurs, K. M. G. (2016). Acceptance- and mindfulness-based interventions for the treatment of chronic pain: A meta-analytic review. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy, 45(1), 5–31. 34. Williams, A. C. de C., & Craig, K. D. (2016). Updating the definition of pain. Pain, 157(11), 2420–2423. 35. Yang, X., Zhong, S., Yang, S., He, M., Xu, X., He, S., Fan, G., & Liu, L. (2023). Global scientific trends in virtual reality for pain treatment from 2000 to 2022: Bibliometric analysis. JMIR Serious Games, 11, Article e48354. 36. Li, A., Montaño, Z., Chen, V. J., & Gold, J. I. (2011). Virtual reality and pain management: Current trends and future directions. Pain Management, 1(2), 147–157. 37. Hamilton, N. A., Karoly, P., & Kitzman, H. (2004). Self-regulation and chronic pain: The role of emotion. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 28(5), 559–576. 38. Jackson, T., Wang, Y., Wang, Y., & Fan, H. (2014). Self-efficacy and chronic pain outcomes: A meta-analytic review. The Journal of Pain, 15(8), 800–814. 39. Modernell, L. M., Faillenot, I., Garcia-Larrea, L., & Fauchon, C. (2026). The multifaceted neural architecture of pain modulation by emotion and cognition: A systematic review and meta-analysis. British Journal of Anaesthesia, 136(6), 1894–1909. 40. Vervoort, T., & Trost, Z. (2018). An affective-motivational account of interpersonal dynamics in pain. In T. Vervoort, K. Karos, Z. Trost, & K. M. Prkachin (Eds.), Social and interpersonal dynamics in pain: We don’t suffer alone (pp. 57–75). Springer. }} * {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== * https://www.iasp-pain.org/resources/terminology/ * https://www.qld.gov.au/health/services/specialists/persistent-pain/understanding-pain/managing-your-pain * https://aci.health.nsw.gov.au/chronic-pain/painbytes/pain-and-mind-body-connection {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Pain]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Technology]] 6pusi3rf26gfvwv8e1177bcinrebnnj 2836434 2836363 2026-10-07T04:11:56Z ChelsSchofield 3106760 /* Connecting the technologies to the pain pathways */ changed section heading 2836434 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Technology-based pain management:<br>How can technology-based tools alter pain perception and pain management?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:Headache touching forehead.jpg|thumb|326x326px|'''Figure 1'''. Headache]] '''Case study: Elena's shift in pain perception''' Elena is a 35-year-old graphic designer living with chronic neuropathic pain following a viral infection. For years, her pain felt unpredictable and overwhelming, some days she could work normally, while other days even holding a pencil felt impossible. What frightened her most wasn’t the pain itself, but the random timing and the belief that she had no control over it. Her pain specialist introduced her to a set of perception altering technologies: VR program designed to redirect attention and reduce pain intensity through immersive environments a wearable sensor that tracked muscle tension and autonomic arousal a mobile app that visualised her pain patterns using predictive coding algorithms Within two weeks, Elena noticed something she didn’t expect: her pain felt less threatening. The VR sessions helped her shift attention away from the pain, reducing the “alarm” response in her brain. The wearable showed spikes in tension before flare ups, helping her intervene early. The app revealed consistent patterns stress, poor sleep, and long work sessions transforming what once felt random into something understandable and predictable. As Elena’s understanding changed, her perception changed. Pain episodes felt less catastrophic, shorter, and easier to manage. Technology didn’t eliminate her pain it altered the way her brain interpreted it, giving her a sense of agency she hadn’t felt in years. {{RoundBoxBottom}} *Technology-based pain interventions are receiving increasing research attention across healthcare settings, including postoperative care, rehabilitation, and labour wards (Musters et al., 2023; Yang et al., 2023).The pain technology market is projected to increase by '''USD $70.2 billion''' over the 10 years (Statifacts.com)see annual [https://www.statifacts.com/outlook/chronic-pain-treatment-devices-market report]. Virtual reality can redirect attention away from pain, TENS devices can modulate pain-signal transmission, and biofeedback systems help individuals regulate physiological arousal.Virtual reality can redirect attention away from pain, TENS devices can modulate pain-signal transmission, and biofeedback systems can help individuals regulate physiological arousal. Wearables, mobile applications, and telehealth platforms are also becoming more widely used, giving people accessible ways to track pain patterns and engage in self-management (Green & Chakravarthy, 2025; Li et al., 2024). Technology has therefore become increasingly influential in how pain is monitored, interpreted and managed across healthcare. For people with chronic pain, catastrophic thoughts and fear of further pain or injury may lead to avoidance of movement and meaningful activities, contributing to reduced functioning and increased distress (Gatchel, 2016; Vlaeyen & Linton, 2000). This chapter explores how technology-based interventions may interrupt this cycle by influencing pain signals, attention, emotions, thoughts, motivation and perceived control. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Focus questions''' {{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}} •How does technology alter the way people perceive and respond to pain? •How do psychological processes such as attention, emotion and cognitive appraisal contribute to technology-based pain management? •How do different technologies influence people's sense of control, engagement and motivation when managing pain? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Understanding pain perception and management with technology == [[Pain]] is not determined solely by physical injury. It is a personal sensory and emotional experience influenced by biological, psychological and social factors (Raja et al., 2020). Understanding the distinction between pain and nociception helps explain why technology can change a person’s pain experience even when it does not remove the original injury or health condition. Pain perception is shaped by how the brain interprets nociceptive signals alongside attention, emotions, memories, beliefs, expectations and the surrounding context (Bushnell et al., 2013; Tracey & Mantyh, 2007). Technology can alter this interpretation by redirecting attention, regulating physiological arousal, modifying pain-signal transmission or changing catastrophic thoughts about pain. It may also influence how a person responds by encouraging movement, coping and active self-management rather than fear and avoidance. Technology can therefore reduce the intensity, unpleasantness or perceived threat of pain while supporting greater confidence and control over pain-management behaviour. ==== Pain and nociception ==== Nociception is the nervous systems detection system of potentially harmful event, such as heat or pressure. Pain is the sensory and emotional experience that follows. The two are closely related but they are not the same for example: detecting the danger does not always produce conscious pain, and pain can occur without damage (Raja et al.,2009). ==== Physiology of pain and pain perception ==== Nociceptive information acts as a pain message to the brains "pain central pathways" Called ascending pathways. One important pathway is the Spinothalamic tract. It carries the pain messages to the Thalamus, the part of the brain That helps further send information to the other parts of the brain (Basbaum et al.,2013). The Brain then works out various parts of the pain experience. Areas of the somatosensory system aid the brain to identify where the pain associates to and its intensity. Other areas, including the Insula and anterior cingulate cortex, help the brain recognise how the feels and how the body should respond. The messages can also travel in the opposite direction down descending pathways the signals act to either increase or reduce pain. This process is called Descending modulation. This process is assistance to help us explain why attention, expectations and emotions can change how much pain an individual experiences (Tracey & Mantyh, 2007). It also explains how Pain is not controlled by one singular "pain centre". Instead, several areas on the brain work together to create the pain experience (Bushnell et al.,2013). ==== '''Connecting the pathways to technology''' ==== These pathways help explain how technologies can influence different parts of the pain experience. TENS stimulates sensory nerves and may alter how nociceptive information is processed in the spinal cord, linking electrical stimulation with transmission and modulation (Moayedi & Davis, 2013). VR engages attention in an immersive environment, changing how much attention is available for pain during the experience (Malloy & Milling, 2010).Biofeedback makes selected bodily responses visible so users can practise self-regulation. Experimental research has examined whether this practice can influence both perceived pain and spinal nociceptive responses, although genuine feedback did not produce greater benefits than the comparison conditions (Arsenault et al., 2013). Connected stimulation systems can combine treatment with recorded feedback and remote monitoring to help guide treatment adjustments (Green & Chakravarthy, 2025). Monitoring therefore supports management decisions, but collecting information alone does not establish that pain processing has changed.Digital psychological programmes address thoughts, emotions and coping behaviour. Their effects may appear in emotional wellbeing even when daily interference from pain does not improve. For example, the EPIO app trial found improvements in depression and self-regulatory fatigue, but no significant improvement in pain interference at three months (Bostrøm et al., 2023). Across these approaches, pain intensity, unpleasantness, emotional distress and everyday functioning should be considered separately. === Chronic pain and avoidance === [[File:Pain cycle.jpg|thumb|326x326px|'''Figure 2'''. The avoidance pain [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3820295/ cycle]]] * Chronic pain refers to pain that persists or recurs for longer than three months. Chronic pain may affect attention, memory, mood, sleep, motivation, relationships and participation in daily activities (Gatchel,2016). Avoidance can lead to reduced activity, physical fitness and confidence. If avoidance persists it can lead to long term impacts such as limiting functional capacity and cause long term disability. * Catastrophising, involves a form of catastrophic thinking where pain is interpreted as a fearful experience leading to fear of movement or reinjury. Pain Catastrophising is known to be both psychologically and physically damaging if not addressed This is explained by the fear- avoidance model. Technology based interventions may target different parts of the pain avoidance cycle. * Digital CBT targets catastrophic thinking by challenging the thoughts in the self -help program. An example of the program would include, recording harmful thoughts evidence or challenge the belief to develop a balanced thought. (Bostrom et al.,2023). Digital ACT is a guided online Self-help program targeting the link between fear and avoidance an example of the program would include noticing harmful thoughts, stepping back, allowing feeling, identify the value and choosing a more meaningful action. By targeting '''avoidance behaviours''' through guided online programs, delivered technologies can alter perception of pain as a barrier to activity, helping people take manageable steps towards more meaningful activities despite discomfort ( Trompetter et al.,2015 ). * '''See Figure 2''' One The Avoidance Pain Cyle === Understanding pain management === * Pain management as strategies used to reduce pain, distress and interference with daily life. * Chronic pain management may improve coping, functioning and participation without completely eliminating pain. * Refer to the biopsychosocial approach, which considers biological, psychological and social influences on pain (Raja, 2020). * Technology may support pain management through symptom monitoring, coping strategies and improved access to care (Li,2024). == How does technology alter pain perception? == {{ic|Include an introductory paragraph before branching into sub-sections}} === VR and attention modulation === * Refer to VR immerse user effecting attention - Limited capacity theory of attention (de Araujo, Zeferino, & Galas, 2026) === Biofeedback and autonomic regulation === *How biofeedback provides information about physiological pain responses, enabling users to practise regulating these responses and develop greater control over their pain experience. Related to self-regulation theory (Arsenault,2013). === Cognitive Digital CBT and ACT tools === * How CBT can modify unhelpful pain-related thoughts and behaviours, while ACT can increase pain acceptance and engagement in valued activities. These processes may reduce distress and improve functioning even when pain is not eliminated. Related - to cognitive appraisal theory and the psychological flexibility mode'''l''' (Hysing,2017; Neblett,2016).- Beneficial for catastrophic thinking, === Wearable sensors === * Wearable systems that collect pain ratings, adherence information and physiological data to personalise treatment and help users identify patterns in their pain. Related to self-regulation theory, particularly monitoring, feedback and behavioural adjustment (Green & Chakravarthy, 2025). === TENS === * Low-voltage electrical stimulation activating non-painful sensory fibres and reducing the transmission of pain signals. Relate this to gate control theory and endogenous pain inhibition (Blincoe,2007; Green & Chakravarthy,2025). === Telehealth and remote monitoring === * Clinicians monitoring pain ratings, treatment use and progress from a distance. Feedback and support may improve confidence, access and treatment adjustment. Relate this to self-efficacy and self-regulation (Green & Chakravarthy,2025). === Mobile applications === * Apps recording pain ratings, showing patterns, providing education or coping activities, and reminding users to practise pain-management strategies. Relate this to self-regulation theory. A dedicated mobile pain-application study is still required. == Psychological theories behind technology‑based pain management == * '''Psychological theories behind technology‑based pain management:'''Technology‑based pain interventions draw on established psychological theories explaining how cognition, emotion, attention and behaviour shape pain perception. These mechanisms help explain how tools such as VR, wearables and AI‑guided apps influence pain experience (Gatchel et al., 2007; Eccleston & Crombez, 1999). * '''Biopsychosocial model of pain:'''The biopsychosocial model proposes that pain arises from interactions between biological processes, psychological factors and social context. Technology‑based interventions align with this model by targeting multiple domains simultaneously, such as emotional regulation, behavioural change and physiological monitoring (Gatchel et al., 2007; Williams & Craig, 2016). * '''Limited‑capacity theory of attention:'''Pain captures limited attentional resources, increasing perceived intensity. VR and immersive technologies reduce pain by redirecting attention away from nociceptive input, supporting the theory’s predictions (Eccleston & Crombez, 1999; Malloy & Milling, 2010). * '''Gate control theory of pain:'''Gate control theory suggests that cognitive and emotional factors modulate nociceptive signals at the spinal level. Technologies such as TENS, VR and biofeedback influence these gates by altering attention and emotional state (Melzack & Wall, 1965; Moayedi & Davis, 2013). * '''Neuromodulation and neuroplasticity:'''Pain perception is shaped by dynamic neural networks that reorganise with experience. VR, neurofeedback and AI‑guided training promote adaptive neuroplasticity by reducing maladaptive signalling and strengthening regulatory pathways (Apkarian et al., 2009; Kutch & Apkarian, 2018). * '''Self‑regulation theory:'''Self‑regulation theory emphasises managing thoughts, emotions and behaviours to achieve desired outcomes. Technology‑based pain tools enhance self‑regulation through real‑time feedback, guided breathing and emotional tracking (Karoly, 1993; Jensen et al., 2014). * '''Operant conditioning:'''Pain behaviours can be reinforced by environmental responses. Technology‑based interventions apply operant principles by rewarding adaptive behaviours such as movement, pacing and relaxation (Fordyce, 1976; Vlaeyen & Linton, 2000). * '''Fear‑avoidance model of pain:'''Fear of pain leads to avoidance, deconditioning and increased disability. Graded VR exposure and movement‑tracking apps reduce fear by providing safe exposure and positive reinforcement (Vlaeyen & Linton, 2000; Crombez et al., 2012). * '''Cognitive appraisal and reframing:'''Pain intensity is influenced by how individuals interpret symptoms. Digital CBT tools help reframe catastrophic thoughts, reduce threat appraisal and promote adaptive interpretations of pain (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984; Turk & Wilson, 2010). * '''Psychological flexibility model:'''Psychological flexibility involves adapting behaviour in alignment with values despite discomfort. ACT‑based digital interventions enhance flexibility through acceptance, present‑moment awareness and committed action (Hayes et al., 2012; Trompetter et al., 2016). * '''Social cognitive theory and self‑efficacy:'''Self‑efficacy predicts pain coping and functional outcomes. Technology‑based interventions increase self‑efficacy through mastery experiences, modelling and feedback (Bandura, 1997; Jackson et al., 2014). * '''Affective‑motivational modulation of pain:'''Pain is shaped by emotional and motivational states such as fear, anxiety and goal orientation. Negative affect amplifies pain through enhanced salience and descending facilitation, while positive affect reduces pain via prefrontal‑limbic modulation. Technologies such as VR, AI‑guided relaxation and biofeedback apps modulate affective‑motivational systems by reducing threat cues and enhancing emotional regulation (Modernell et al., 2026; Vervoort & Trost, 2018; Garcia‑Larrea & Fauchon, 2023; ''Current Opinion in Psychology'', 2025). == Visualising the brain's pain pathways == [[File:Pain pathway diagram showing transduction, transmission, modulation, and perception.png|thumb|293x293px|Figure 2: The Brain's Pain Pathways ]] *The figure Shown as '''Figure 2: The Brains Pain Pathways''' Shows how the pain experience occurs. Potentially harmful Stimuli is converted into nerve Signals '''Transduction''' carried through '''Transmission''' and processed into '''Perception''' experience , increasing or reducing during '''Modulation'''(Tracey & Mantyh,2007 ).See the following examples :VR - Perception via immersive Experiences to redirects attention which can reduce intensity during use (Malloy & Milling, 2010)TENS - Transmission and modulation Via electrical stimulation works by activating sensory nerves and can reduce the onward transmission of nociceptive information to the spinal cord (Moayedi & Davis , 2013 )Wearables, Gamification, Telehealth and digital psychological programs can support management and coping throughout the whole pain experience. == Future Applications and Emerging Technologies == * List Of Various Cutting edge * Emerging technologies * futuristics applications == Limitations and ethical considerations == * Effectiveness differs between users, technologies and pain conditions. * Refer to barriers including cost, access, digital skills and user engagement (Li,2024). * Possible side effects, privacy concerns and increased attention to symptoms. ==Learning features== '''Table 1''' See The Summary Table below : {{ic|Provide a more descriptive caption}} {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! Technology !! How it alters pain perception !! Theory / Model |- | VR || Redirects attention || Limited-capacity attention |- | TENS || Modulates pain signals || Gate control theory |- |Biofeedback |Support regulation of arousal |Self-regulation, conditioning |- |CBT/ACT tools |Changes to coping, appraisal and avoidance |Fear avoidance, flexibility |- |Wearables/apps |Records patterns and provides feedback |Self-regulation |- |Telehealth |Remote support, health access and treatment |Self-efficacy |} ;Quizzes * Why might VR reduce the amount of attention given to pain? See: * Which theory best explains how TENS may reduce pain-signal transmission? * How can feedback from a wearable device support self-regulation? * How might catastrophic thinking contribute to the fear-avoidance cycle? <quiz display="simple"> {Virtual reality (VR) can reduce pain by redirecting a person’s attention away from painful stimuli?: |type="()"} + True - False {TENS devices work by increasing the intensity of pain signals sent to the brain. Answer?: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Pain is interpreted by the brain and is influenced by attention, emotion, appraisal, behaviour and social support, not only by signals from the body. * Different technologies alter pain perception through different pathways: VR redirects attention, TENS modulates signals, and feedback or cognitive tools influence arousal, appraisal and control. * Technology is most useful as part of individualised, biopsychosocial pain management rather than as a replacement for all existing care (Hysing,2017; Li,2024). * Effectiveness depends on the user, pain condition, technology, level of support and quality of available evidence. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[wikipedia:Virtual_reality_therapy|Virtual reality therapy]] (Wikipedia) [[wikipedia:Transcutaneous_electrical_nerve_stimulation|Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation]] (Wikipedia) * https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pain {{ic|Create internal link}} * https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_reality {{ic|Create internal link}} * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Self-regulation|Self-regulation]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[wikipedia:Transcutaneous_electrical_nerve_stimulation|Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Cognitive_behavioral_therapy|Cognitive behavioral therapy]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Biopsychosocial_model|Biopsychosocial model]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Gate_control_theory|Gate control theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. {{Hanging indent|1=1. Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman. 2. Fordyce, W. E. (1976). Behavioral methods for chronic pain and illness. Mosby. 3. Hayes, S. C., Strosahl, K. D., & Wilson, K. G. (2012). Acceptance and commitment therapy: The process and practice of mindful change (2nd ed.). Guilford Press. 4. Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. Springer Publishing Company. 5. Alotaibi, N. H., Alromaih, S., Alshenaifi, L., Alshareef, N., & Alkhashan, R. (2026). The role of virtual reality in nasal procedures: A randomized controlled trial. Annals of Medicine & Surgery, 88(1), 321–326. 6. Apkarian, A. V., Baliki, M. N., & Geha, P. Y. (2009). Towards a theory of chronic pain. Progress in Neurobiology, 87(2), 81–97. 7. Arsenault, M., Piché, M., Duncan, G. H., & Rainville, P. (2013). Self-regulation of acute experimental pain with and without biofeedback using spinal nociceptive responses. Neuroscience, 231, 102–110. 8. Basbaum, A. I., Bautista, D. M., Scherrer, G., & Julius, D. (2009). Cellular and molecular mechanisms of pain. Cell, 139(2), 267–284. 9. Blincoe, A. J. (2007). TENS machines and their use in managing labour pain. British Journal of Midwifery, 15(8), 516–519. 10. Boersma, K., & Flink, I. K. (2025). Key aspects concerning the role of emotion in the chronic pain experience. Current Opinion in Psychology, 62, Article 102000. 11. Bostrøm, K., Børøsund, E., Eide, H., Varsi, C., Kristjansdottir, Ó. B., Schreurs, K. M. G., Waxenberg, L. B., Weiss, K. E., Morrison, E. J., Stavenes Støle, H., Cvancarova Småstuen, M., Stubhaug, A., & Solberg Nes, L. (2023). Short-term findings from testing EPIO, a digital self-management program for people living with chronic pain: Randomized controlled trial. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 25, Article e47284. 12. Bushnell, M. C., Čeko, M., & Low, L. A. (2013). Cognitive and emotional control of pain and its disruption in chronic pain. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 14(7), 502–511. 13. Crombez, G., Eccleston, C., Van Damme, S., Vlaeyen, J. W. S., & Karoly, P. (2012). Fear-avoidance model of chronic pain: The next generation. The Clinical Journal of Pain, 28(6), 475–483. 14. de Araujo, D. D., Zeferino, S. P., & Galas, F. R. B. G. (2026). Virtual reality for opioid reduction in postoperative cardiac and thoracic surgery: A randomized controlled trial protocol. MethodsX, 17, Article 104029. 15. Eccleston, C., & Crombez, G. (1999). Pain demands attention: A cognitive–affective model of the interruptive function of pain. Psychological Bulletin, 125(3), 356–366. 16. Eller-Smith, O. C., Nicol, A. L., & Christianson, J. A. (2018). Potential mechanisms underlying centralized pain and emerging therapeutic interventions. Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience, 12, Article 35. 17. Gatchel, R. J., Neblett, R., Kishino, N., & Ray, C. T. (2016). Fear-avoidance beliefs and chronic pain. 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The fear-avoidance model of musculoskeletal pain: Current state of scientific evidence. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 30(1), 77–94. 23. Li, L. W., Yi, T. H., & Khaing, N. E. E. (2024). Chronic pain healthcare workers’ challenges in pain management and receptiveness towards VR as an adjunct management tool. BMC Digital Health, 2, Article 26. 24. Malloy, K. M., & Milling, L. S. (2010). The effectiveness of virtual reality distraction for pain reduction: A systematic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 30(8), 1011–1018. 25. Melzack, R., & Wall, P. D. (1965). Pain mechanisms: A new theory. Science, 150(3699), 971–979. 26. Moayedi, M., & Davis, K. D. (2013). Theories of pain: From specificity to gate control. Journal of Neurophysiology, 109(1), 5–12. 27. Musters, A., Vandevenne, A. S., Franx, A., & Wassen, M. M. L. H. (2023). Virtual Reality Experience during Labour (VIREL): A qualitative study. BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth, 23, Article 283. 28. Neblett, R., Mayer, T. G., Hartzell, M. M., Williams, M. J., & Gatchel, R. J. (2016). The Fear-Avoidance Components Scale (FACS): Development and psychometric evaluation of a new measure of pain-related fear avoidance. Pain Practice, 16(4), 435–450. 29. Raja, S. N., Carr, D. B., Cohen, M., Finnerup, N. B., Flor, H., Gibson, S., Keefe, F. J., Mogil, J. S., Ringkamp, M., Sluka, K. A., Song, X.-J., Stevens, B., Sullivan, M. D., Tutelman, P. R., Ushida, T., & Vader, K. (2020). The revised International Association for the Study of Pain definition of pain: Concepts, challenges, and compromises. Pain, 161(9), 1976–1982. 30. Sharp, T. J. (2001). Chronic pain: A reformulation of the cognitive-behavioural model. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 39(7), 787–800. 31. Tracey, I., & Mantyh, P. W. (2007). The cerebral signature for pain perception and its modulation. Neuron, 55(3), 377–391. 32. Turk, D. C., & Wilson, H. D. (2010). Fear of pain as a prognostic factor in chronic pain: Conceptual models, assessment, and treatment implications. Current Pain and Headache Reports, 14(2), 88–95. 33. Veehof, M. M., Trompetter, H. R., Bohlmeijer, E. T., & Schreurs, K. M. G. (2016). Acceptance- and mindfulness-based interventions for the treatment of chronic pain: A meta-analytic review. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy, 45(1), 5–31. 34. Williams, A. C. de C., & Craig, K. D. (2016). Updating the definition of pain. Pain, 157(11), 2420–2423. 35. Yang, X., Zhong, S., Yang, S., He, M., Xu, X., He, S., Fan, G., & Liu, L. (2023). Global scientific trends in virtual reality for pain treatment from 2000 to 2022: Bibliometric analysis. JMIR Serious Games, 11, Article e48354. 36. Li, A., Montaño, Z., Chen, V. J., & Gold, J. I. (2011). Virtual reality and pain management: Current trends and future directions. Pain Management, 1(2), 147–157. 37. Hamilton, N. A., Karoly, P., & Kitzman, H. (2004). Self-regulation and chronic pain: The role of emotion. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 28(5), 559–576. 38. Jackson, T., Wang, Y., Wang, Y., & Fan, H. (2014). Self-efficacy and chronic pain outcomes: A meta-analytic review. The Journal of Pain, 15(8), 800–814. 39. Modernell, L. M., Faillenot, I., Garcia-Larrea, L., & Fauchon, C. (2026). The multifaceted neural architecture of pain modulation by emotion and cognition: A systematic review and meta-analysis. British Journal of Anaesthesia, 136(6), 1894–1909. 40. Vervoort, T., & Trost, Z. (2018). An affective-motivational account of interpersonal dynamics in pain. In T. Vervoort, K. Karos, Z. Trost, & K. M. Prkachin (Eds.), Social and interpersonal dynamics in pain: We don’t suffer alone (pp. 57–75). Springer. }} * {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== * https://www.iasp-pain.org/resources/terminology/ * https://www.qld.gov.au/health/services/specialists/persistent-pain/understanding-pain/managing-your-pain * https://aci.health.nsw.gov.au/chronic-pain/painbytes/pain-and-mind-body-connection {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Pain]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Technology]] rty1svmxrqygu60g5p99jmyon7zww4w 0 331072 2836489 2836254 2026-10-07T09:07:08Z LazPulch 3105917 /* Overview */ Corrected links as per feedback 2836489 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Apocalyptic fear:<br>What is apocalyptic fear, what are its consequences, and how can it be dealt with?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:F5 tornado Elie Manitoba 2007.jpg|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1'''. Natural disasters are commonly featured in apocalyptic films]] In the next 30 seconds, try to list 5 end-of-the-world movies or TV shows. ...was that easier than you expected? Have you noticed that film, TV and pop culture gravitate towards producing media with doomsday themes? The end of the world, the (very un-natural) natural disaster, a zombie apocalypse or [[Artificial Intelligence]] (AI) taking over the world! Audience love doomsday media. Why do we love to consume objectively terrifying stories exploring mass destruction and the end of existence as we know it? Apocalyptic fear is more common than you'd this and a quick review of today's media landscape is evidence of that. This book chapter is going to follow the case study of Evan, a (describe Evan in line with findings relating to who is susceptible to apocalyptic fear). It's 2023, and Evan has just watched [[w: Leave the World Behind (Film)|Leave the World Behind]] (Wikipedia) a modern day psychological, apocalyptic thriller regarding a mass cyber attack on the United States (US). Throughout this chapter we will evaluate Evan's own experience of Apocalyptic Fear informed by the movie, psychological theories underpinning this phenomenon, its consequences and how it can be managed. {{RoundBoxBottom}} '''I'''n the literature, Apocalyptic Fear is also referred to as ‘Apocalyptic Thinking, ‘End of World Beliefs’, ‘Existential Fear’, ‘Catastrophic Thinking’ and ‘Doomsday Thinking’. Whilst Apocalyptic Fear is not a mental health diagnosis, it is apparent that those experiencing these thought patterns are associated with diagnosis of and experiences of other mental health related struggles (Fetterman et al., 2019). Apocalyptic Fear is primarily observable in cultural subgroups known as ‘Doomsday Preppers’ (Preppers). Preppers are people who practice the anticipation of and adapting to impending conditions of calamity (Garret, 2020). There are several types of Apocalyptic Fear and psychological theories that underpin the phenomenon and its consequences. Garret (2020) explains that the inability for Preppers to know when disaster is going to strike, coupled with the perceived inevitability of a catastrophe has effects of dread which manifests in prepping behaviour. But are the consequences of apocalyptic thinking a problem or is it a coping strategy to protect us from mortality salience? Is prepping itself a bad manifestation of a preppers psyche that needs management? This chapter will review the consequences of Apocalyptic Fear, including prepping, maladaptive behaviours, out-group hate, and anti-social behaviour. We will also examine the reciprocal influences of Apocalyptic Thinking of culture and politics. Finally, the chapter will explore strategies to manage Apocalyptic Fear including psychotherapies and more practice remedies such as media literacy, training and education.   * {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' *What is Apocalyptic Fear? *What are the consequences of Apocalyptic Fear? *What can be done to manage Apocalyptic Fear? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What is Apocalyptic Fear?== Apocalyptic Fear has been described as fear relating to the end of the world as we know it, usually though catastrophic means, both secular and religious (Garret, 2021). Apocalyptic fear has resurged in recent years from sociopolitical events, such as the COVID-19 pandemic, Russian Invasion of Ukraine, threats of nuclear war and even the climate change crisis (Davidson, 2025). These events are demonstrations of the reciprocal relationship between end-of-world thinking, the sociopolitical environment and our behaviour. Historically, Apocalyptic themes were previously associated with fundamentalist religious positions, conspiracy mentality, paranoia and conservative. However, with the occurrence of world-wide disruptions to our way of comprehending the world like through the pandemic, the apocalypse has become a much more mainstream concern (Nair, 2023). In fact, 50% of American children have reportedly declared that they’re afraid of a climate crisis that will cause the Earth to be uninhabitable (Hornfeldt, 2018; as city in Guthrie, 2022). Apocalyptic fear is only exacerbated with media covering distressing events that is more available than ever. It should be noted that literature regarding Apocalyptic Fear is primarily derived from contexts in the United States (US), likely due to the prevalence of Christian Nationalism, conservatism, consumerism and individualism making the research relevant to the population (Nair, 2023). This should be taken into consideration when applying the research to other contexts. === Psychological Theories === Apocalyptic fear can be understood through several psychological theories that explain why individuals become preoccupied with catastrophic futures and engage in behaviours such as prepping. While these theories offer different explanations, they collectively suggest that apocalyptic thinking is motivated by a desire to manage threats, uncertainty, and mortality. The existential psychological perspective focuses on how individuals create meaning in life despite the inevitability of death. According to Guthrie (2022), apocalyptic thinking reflects a struggle with fundamental existential concerns, particularly mortality and the search for purpose. Similarly, Terror Management Theory (TMT) argues that awareness of death creates psychological terror, which people manage by investing in belief systems that provide meaning, self-worth, and a sense of symbolic immortality (Parsons, 2013). From this perspective, prepping behaviours function as a strategy to reduce death anxiety by increasing feelings of survival capability and personal significance. Both theories emphasise mortality as a central driver of apocalyptic fear; however, existential psychology focuses more broadly on meaning-making, whereas TMT specifically explains the defensive mechanisms used to suppress death-related anxiety. In contrast, Instinct Theory of Motivation explains apocalyptic fear from an evolutionary perspective. Rather than viewing fear as a response to existential concerns, instinct theory suggests that apocalyptic thinking arises from innate survival mechanisms activated when threats are perceived (Turner & Walsmley, 2020). Prepping behaviours therefore represent adaptive responses designed to enhance survival. While TMT and existential psychology emphasise symbolic and cognitive responses to mortality, instinct theory focuses on biological preparedness and self-preservation. A related but distinct explanation is provided by Social Dominance Orientation (SDO) and Darwinistic worldviews. These perspectives suggest that apocalyptic fear is linked to beliefs about competition, hierarchy, and survival of the fittest. Research by Fetterman et al. (2019) found that individuals who endorse post-apocalyptic survival mindsets often score highly in social dominance traits. Unlike existential and evolutionary theories, which focus on managing fear or ensuring survival, SDO emphasises power dynamics and the expectation that social order will become competitive during crises. Consequently, prepping may be motivated not only by fear of catastrophe but also by beliefs about gaining an advantage over others. The Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) offers a different explanation by focusing on the processes that translate intention into actions. According to TPB, attitudes toward potential disasters, perceived social norms, and perceived behavioural control influence intentions to prepare, which then predict actual prepping behaviour (Fetterman et al., 2019). Unlike the other theories, TPB does not explain the origin of apocalyptic fear itself. Instead, it explains how fear becomes behavioural action. For example, a person who believes an apocalypse is likely, perceives that others support preparedness, and feels capable of preparing is more likely to engage in prepping activities. These theories can be integrated into a comprehensive understanding of apocalyptic fear. Existential psychology and TMT explain the underlying anxiety created by mortality awareness. Instinct theory suggests that perceived threats activate evolved survival responses. SDO highlights how competitive and hierarchical worldviews shape interpretations of catastrophic scenarios, while TPB explains how these beliefs and fears are translated into concrete preparedness behaviours. Fetterman et al. (2019) further support this integration by demonstrating that prepping beliefs are associated with individuals' daily thoughts, emotions, behavioural tendencies, and perceived sense of control. When people experience uncertainty or feel a loss of control, preparedness behaviours may serve both practical and psychological functions. === Who is susceptible? === As previously mentioned, research exploring the demographic experiencing apocalyptic fear and engaging in prepping behaviours is primarily based in the US. Apocalyptic fear in the US is particularly popular in the literature as factors such as Christian Nationalism, Conservatism, Consumerism and Individualism are highly valued and contribute to prepping beliefs and behaviour (Nair, 2023). Contrary to popular belief, in the literature, religious variables are not commonly among the key predictors of preparedness behaviour (Adkins et al., 2023), likely because religious people do not feel the need to prepare as it will be a divine entity’s will to end the world (Adkins et al., 2023). Research by Fetterman et al. (2019) draws on information from social media discussion platforms and conversations with doomsday believers to develop the Post-Apocalyptic and Doomsday Prepping Belief Scale (PAPBS) to predict prepping behaviours. The validity and reliability of the PABS have been demonstrated throughout other cultures, such as Turkey (Alban & Arkan, 2024). Fetterman et al. (2019) identifies three themes underpinning prepping beliefs. Underlying all of these themes, is a pessimistic world view. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Theme !Explanation |- |Human Nature |General distrust of humans in a post-apocalyptic environment, in that they will resort to natural violent instincts with the absence of man-made law. |- |Resource Availability |Anxiety regarding a lack of resources available in a post-apocalyptic world. |- |Competitive Survival |In a post-apocalyptic world, humans will be competitive rather than cooperative, and will adopt a survival of the fittest mindset. |} ''Table 1: Predictive believes contributing to Apocalyptic Beliefs: Derived from Fetterman et al. (2019).'' Results from the study found that the three themes were all positively and significantly inter-correlated with each other, post-apocalyptic pessimism (PA pessimism) and prepping beliefs. Paranoia was positively related to PA pessimism and competitive survival. Positive correlations between conservatism and PA pessimism. Fetterman’s study also compares PAPBS with the HEXACO model of personality. From this research preppers tend to be: ·      Highly extroverted: outgoing, expressive and sociable. ·      Highly Neurotic: frequency experience negative emotions. ·      Low in Agreeableness: not cooperative, empathetic or considerate towards others. ·      Low in Honesty/humility: inflated sense of self importance. Furthermore, daily thoughts of death and cynicism were consistent predictors of daily prepping. Daily negative emotions, stress, uncertainty and negative events were less consistent positive predictors of daily prepping thoughts. However, the only consistent predictor of prepping behaviour was belief in the need to prep. This aligns with Ajzen’s (1991) Theory of Planned behaviour that has been used to explain prepping behaviour. Finally, apocalypticism was correlated with social dominance orientation (SDO), which is a personality trait that devalues social equality and reinforces ideology regarding social outgroup’s lack of right to respect. This highlights possible societal consequences of apocalyptic thinking. Alternatively, a study by Adkins et al. (2023) investigates the relationship between political and religious beliefs amongst American preppers. They found that a large proportion of Americans believe that prophecy and supernatural beings are involved in world affairs. Like previous studies, Christian Nationalism and Apocalypticism were significantly correlated. Interestingly white Christian Nationalists were found to be in an apocalyptic panic as they feel as though they are “losing ground” in comparison to non-white people in America. This suggests a racial bias common amongst preppers and proposes a social consequence. === What are environmental triggers of Apocalyptic Fear? === Stiger et al. (2023) explains that there are several triggers in society which cause mortality salience, and consequently apocalyptic fear. Table 2 details common religious and secular apocalypse scenarios believed to trigger existential fear. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Name !Description |- |Political |Civil wars and breakdown of political systems. |- |Economic |Inequality undermining economic systems. |- |Nuclear |Nuclear war that destroys civilisations. |- |Climate Change |Destruction of civilisation due to global warming. |- |Racism |Social collapse due to racial discrimination. |- |Immigration |Societal destruction due to large scale immigration. |- |Family Breakdown |Social collapse due to the dissolution of family structures. |- |Rapture |Destruction of the world from the second coming of Christ and divine judgement. |} ''Table 2: Types of religious and secular apocalyptic triggers derived from works by Davidson (2025).'' * Reflection of catastrophe's in pop culture. It has been argued that the presence of apocalyptic themes in media is a tangible reflection (project test) of personality (Fetterman, 2019) * Post COVID-19 anxiety was found to be a motivator of prepping behaviour in a study of 126 self-identified doomsday peppers. Other motivators included fear about security in sociopoltiical landscape and person crises. The online prepper communities demonstrated 4 themes: social learning of prepping behaviour online, within-group differences in personal views, sense of community, and lack of engagement (Marshe, 2025). * War and political unrest. Mass broadcasting and accessibility to distressing media around the world. {{RoundBoxTop}} Case Study Continued. This aim of this feature box is to continue the story of Evan who has watched the Apocalyptic movie to put into action how Apocalyptic Fear can develop through cognition/psychology and who is susceptible. The case study will include more background on Evan's sociocultural background, political/religious beliefs etc. Evan's demographics will align with the findings of the literature identified in my preliminary view. Furthermore, the case study will provide insight into Evan's internal thoughts, beliefs, and attitudes. Once again, this will align with the literature where his personality traits and anxious rumination suggests that he is more susceptible to apocalyptic fear. I also want this part of the case study to demonstrate how a piece of media can influence the internal thinking patterns, leading to apocalyptic fear {{RoundBoxBottom}} <quiz> {According to Terror Management Theory, Evan is experiencing Apocalyptic Fear because |type="()"} + He is grappling with anxieties regarding death being inevitable. - The characters in the film modelled the appropriate response to anxiety inducing environment. - Evans survival instincts kicked in. - Evan believes the film is predicting the future. </quiz> <quiz> {What are all of the triggers that may have initiated Evan's Apocalyptic Fear? |type="[]"} + The movie + Engaging in reddit threads about end-of-world conspiracy theories + Media reporting on the Ukraine War + Covid-19 Lockdown </quiz> ==Consequences of Apocalyptic Fear== Introductory section before breaking into sub-sections === The Individual === Apocalyptic fear can significantly affect an individual's thoughts, emotions, and behaviours. TMT argues that awareness of death creates anxiety, motivating people to seek ways to regain control and meaning in life (Guthrie, 2022). One common response is prepping, which can function as an 'immortality project' by helping individuals feel more prepared for uncertain futures (Guthrie, 2022). Prepping is the management of stockpiled household items in anticipation of market disruption (Nair, 2023). When people perceived their lives as 'not going well', prepping increases to regain feeling of control. Mortality salience often leads people to defend their existing beliefs more strongly and become more hostile towards those with opposing worldviews. This protects self-esteem and reduces existential anxiety, but can also increase mistrust and social division (Guthrie, 2022). Individuals may engage in experiential avoidance, denying information that reminds them of mortality or distracting themselves from uncomfortable thoughts and emotions. Apocalyptic fear is also associated with higher anxiety, neuroticism, pessimistic future thinking, and frequent thoughts of death. Research suggests that greater engagement in prepping correlates with increased catastrophising and conspiracy thinking, as individuals attempt to make sense of uncertain threats (Fetterman et al., 2019). Stieger et al. (2023) similarly found that existential threats can produce immediate increases in anxiety. Prepping itself is not necessarily always harmful. Nair (2023) defines prepping as stockpiling resources and developing skills to prepare for potential disruptions, often focusing on medicine, security, shelter, nutrition, hydration, and hygiene. It can provide a sense of control, self-sufficiency, and emotional regulation during periods of uncertainty. However, when taken to extremes, prepping may reduce quality of life, encourage excessive consumerism, and foster distrust and competition over perceived scarce resources. === Politics, Society and Culture === Apocalyptic fear has had a significant influence on politics, society, and culture. One of the clearest examples is the popularity of post-apocalyptic literature, which reflects society's ongoing fascination with end-of-the-world scenarios and collective anxieties about the future (Paul & Alan, 2024). While traditional apocalyptic beliefs were largely rooted in religion, contemporary apocalyptic narratives have become increasingly secularised, focusing on threats such as climate change, nuclear war, and environmental collapse (Davidson, 2025). These issues are closely tied to political debates, allowing apocalyptic themes to shape public discourse and policy discussions. Apocalyptic narratives are often used as political tools to influence public opinion and mobilise action. Davidson argues that the apocalypse can be weaponised by dominant social groups to portray the future as inevitable and beyond human control, allowing those in positions of power to avoid responsibility for addressing social inequalities and injustices. At the same time, oppressed groups have also drawn on apocalyptic imagery to express dissatisfaction with existing social conditions and imagine alternative futures. In this way, apocalyptic movements can both inspire demands for social change and reflect feelings of powerlessness in the face of oppression. However, apocalyptic thinking can also have negative consequences for democratic societies. Davidson suggests that framing the future as fixed and unavoidable discourages debate and critical engagement, potentially fostering authoritarian attitudes. Similarly, Furse (2022) argues that apocalyptic narratives are effective at rallying political action because they present issues in urgent, moralistic terms. In the United States, Christian nationalist movements have used apocalyptic themes to emphasise moral decline and portray the nation as under threat, encouraging support for political agendas framed as necessary for survival (Furse, 2022). Research by Piazza (2026) further highlights the dangers of apocalyptic beliefs in politics. Surveying over 1,300 White Americans, Piazza found that Christian nationalism significantly predicted apocalyptic beliefs, support for political violence, and hostility towards social outgroups. Apocalypticism itself was a significant predictor of outgroup hate, as believers often divided society into forces of "good" and "evil." Existential fears associated with apocalyptic thinking increased mistrust and dehumanisation of outsiders, particularly racial minorities, which in turn normalised support for political violence (Piazza, 2026). These findings suggest that apocalyptic fear can contribute to social polarisation, prejudice, and the justification of violence against perceived threats. Despite these risks, apocalyptic thinking is not entirely negative. Garrett (2021) argues that apocalyptic narratives often emerge during periods of crisis because they can inspire hope for transformation and survival. For example, preppers may view societal collapse as an opportunity to demonstrate resilience and create a better future. However, these hopes are often centred on individual survival rather than collective solutions. Furthermore, collective avoidance of discussions about climate change and eco-anxiety has been linked to increased societal anxiety over time, suggesting that confronting threats openly may be more constructive than denying them (Guthrie, 2022). {{RoundBoxTop}} Case Study continued: Maladaptive and adaptive behaviours Evan is displaying to cope with his uncomfortable anxieties about the end of the world {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Managing Apocalyptic Fear== One may question whether behaviours associated with Apocalyptic Fear need to be managed. Does it actually need to be treated or managed? Prepping behaviour as a result of apocalyptic fear is not inherently 'bad'. However, it can become maladaptive. It should be noted that a change in this phenomenon can only occur once the individual innately want to commit to the change. === Strategies === *Cognitive restructuring to challenge thought patterns that reinforce catastrophic predictions and exaggeration of non-existent threats. *A 2022 Study by Sabzevari demonstrated that existential therapy is a tool to reduce anxiety related to COVID-19 and death. This type of therapy helps individuals develop sincere and real relationships with life and death. Describe and critique the therapy. *Acceptance & Commitment therapy. Guthrie (2022) studied how acceptance and commitment therapy can support individuals coping with climate-related apocalyptic fear. Describe and critique the therapy. *Strengthening social cohesion and community resilience. === Media Literacy === * Media hygiene. Reduce exposure to sensationalist apocalyptic content (Menzies & Menzies, 2024). * Importance of sharing of accurate information. * Limiting antisocial media use. {{RoundBoxTop}} Final part of case study. Going to explain maladaptive symptoms and suggestions that his friend, Ricki, has made to help him combat his apocalyptic fear. This may include activities that increase social cohesion, media hygiene, and education. Case study will ask audience to reflect on what they would suggest Evan does to manage his apocalyptic fear. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Conclusion== * Apocalyptic fear is common and emerges from evolutionary instincts, existential concerns, personality traits, and especially environmental triggers. * It has meaningful consequences that impact individuals, their mental health and coping mechanisms, societies social cohesion and polarisation, and political violence. * Psychological science provides effective tools for managing apocalyptic thinking patterns. Science not only helps us understand how apocalyptic fear develops, but provides strategies and therapies to combat it. Existential therapies, acceptance therapy, and increased media education and literacy helps people manage in health ways. * Reducing apocalyptic fear requires both internal straggles of change (cognitive, emotional, and existential) and external strategies (accurate information, social connect, and media hygiene). {{tip|Suggestions for this section: LEAVING THIS SECTION FOR FUTURE REFERENCE * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} * {{tip|Suggestions for this section: LEAVING THIS SECTION FOR FUTURE REFERENCE * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==See also== {{expand}} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. {{Hanging indent|1= Adkins, J., Djupe, P. A., & Neiheisel, J. R. (2023). Preparedness Behavior and the apocalypse: religion and politics in the post 2020 election era. Politics and Religion, 16(4), 585–604. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/politics-and-religion/article/preparedness-behavior-and-the-apocalypse-religion-and-politics-in-the-post-2020-election-era/39FA605571043F7C03281B5B15C2C9E4 Davison, J. (2025). The Apocalypse from Below: The Dangerous Idea of the End of the World, the Politics of the Oppressed, and Anti-Anti-Apocalypticism. American Political Science Review, 119(1), 479–491. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/american-political-science-review/article/apocalypse-from-below-the-dangerous-idea-of-the-end-of-the-world-the-politics-of-the-oppressed-and-antiantiapocalypticism/054311423D0D7BC9E3B7586C894F0CAB Fetterman, A., et al. (2019). On Post-apocalyptic and Doomsday Prepping Beliefs: A New Measure, its Correlates and the Motivation to Prep. European Journal of Personality, 33(4), 506-525. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2216 Furse, T. (2022). ‘Let us go out to the Field’: Apocalyptic Thinking in Christian Nationalism. Politics, Religion & Ideology, 23(3), 306–326. https://doi.org/10.1080/21567689.2022.2123802 Garret, B. (2020). Doomsday preppers and the architecture of dread. Geoforum, 127(1), 401-411. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7151311/ Guthrie, D. (2023). How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Eco-Apocalypse: An Existential Approach to Accepting Eco-Anxiety. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 18(1), 210-223. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/17456916221093613 Menzies, R. & Menzies, R. (2024). Existential therapies and the extended evolutionary meta-model: Turning existential philosophy into process-based therapy. Journal of Contextual Behaviour Science, 34(1). https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2212144724001200 Nair, T. (2023). Doomsday Prepping: Reactionary Behaviour or Inherited Instinct? Seattle Anxiety. https://seattleanxiety.com/psychiatrist/2023/1/12/doomsday-prepping-reactionary-behavior-or-inherited-instinct Parsons, S. (2022). Terror Management Theory. EBSCO.com https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/social-sciences-and-humanities/terror-management-theory Piazza, J. A. (2026). Christian nationalism, apocalypticism, outgroup hate, and support for violent extremism.Defence and Peace Economics, 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1080/10242694.2026.2613902 Sabzevari, P. (2022). The Effectiveness of Existential Therapy Intervention on Anxiety Caused by Coronavirus and Death. Clinical Cancer Investigation Journal, 11(1). https://ccij-online.org/article/the-effectiveness-of-existential-therapy-intervention-on-anxiety-caused-by-coronavirus-and-death-ec5qns1rnmgi9ju Stieger, S. et al. (2023). Examining terror management theory in Ukraine: impact of air-raid alarms and explosions on mental health, somatic symptoms and well-being. Front. Psychiatry, 14(1). https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychiatry/articles/10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1244335/full Strozier, S. (2017). The Apocalyptic Imagination and Fundamentalist Mindset. New England Journal of Public Policy, 29(1). https://scholarworks.umb.edu/nejpp/vol29/iss1/7/ }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== * [https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20211014-agents-of-doom-who-is-hastening-the-apocalypse-and-why Agents of Doom: Who is creating the apocalypse and why] (Luke Kemp) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=idMobTOh0kY Addicted to Apocalypse: Our Psychological Need for the End] (The Living Philosophy) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SKBTrMH7SeI&list=PLivjPDlt6ApT_2pW5HJl9GnMaNgJO6AgK Doomsday Preppers] (National Geographic) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Fear]] 7rf5v2xo15cirz1ndvvb55atlwppgqj 2836490 2836489 2026-10-07T09:08:57Z LazPulch 3105917 /* Overview */ 2836490 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Apocalyptic fear:<br>What is apocalyptic fear, what are its consequences, and how can it be dealt with?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:F5 tornado Elie Manitoba 2007.jpg|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1'''. Natural disasters are commonly featured in apocalyptic films]] In the next 30 seconds, try to list 5 end-of-the-world movies or TV shows. ...was that easier than you expected? Have you noticed that film, TV and pop culture gravitate towards producing media with doomsday themes? The end of the world, the (very un-natural) natural disaster, a zombie apocalypse or [[w: Artificial Intelligence| Artificial Intelligence]] (AI) taking over the world! Audience love doomsday media. Why do we love to consume objectively terrifying stories exploring mass destruction and the end of existence as we know it? Apocalyptic fear is more common than you'd this and a quick review of today's media landscape is evidence of that. This book chapter is going to follow the case study of Evan, a (describe Evan in line with findings relating to who is susceptible to apocalyptic fear). It's 2023, and Evan has just watched [[w: Leave the World Behind (Film)|Leave the World Behind]] (Wikipedia) a modern day psychological, apocalyptic thriller regarding a mass cyber attack on the United States (US). Throughout this chapter we will evaluate Evan's own experience of Apocalyptic Fear informed by the movie, psychological theories underpinning this phenomenon, its consequences and how it can be managed. {{RoundBoxBottom}} '''I'''n the literature, Apocalyptic Fear is also referred to as ‘Apocalyptic Thinking, ‘End of World Beliefs’, ‘Existential Fear’, ‘Catastrophic Thinking’ and ‘Doomsday Thinking’. Whilst Apocalyptic Fear is not a mental health diagnosis, it is apparent that those experiencing these thought patterns are associated with diagnosis of and experiences of other mental health related struggles (Fetterman et al., 2019). Apocalyptic Fear is primarily observable in cultural subgroups known as ‘Doomsday Preppers’ (Preppers). Preppers are people who practice the anticipation of and adapting to impending conditions of calamity (Garret, 2020). There are several types of Apocalyptic Fear and psychological theories that underpin the phenomenon and its consequences. Garret (2020) explains that the inability for Preppers to know when disaster is going to strike, coupled with the perceived inevitability of a catastrophe has effects of dread which manifests in prepping behaviour. But are the consequences of apocalyptic thinking a problem or is it a coping strategy to protect us from mortality salience? Is prepping itself a bad manifestation of a preppers psyche that needs management? This chapter will review the consequences of Apocalyptic Fear, including prepping, maladaptive behaviours, out-group hate, and anti-social behaviour. We will also examine the reciprocal influences of Apocalyptic Thinking of culture and politics. Finally, the chapter will explore strategies to manage Apocalyptic Fear including psychotherapies and more practice remedies such as media literacy, training and education.   * {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' *What is Apocalyptic Fear? *What are the consequences of Apocalyptic Fear? *What can be done to manage Apocalyptic Fear? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What is Apocalyptic Fear?== Apocalyptic Fear has been described as fear relating to the end of the world as we know it, usually though catastrophic means, both secular and religious (Garret, 2021). Apocalyptic fear has resurged in recent years from sociopolitical events, such as the COVID-19 pandemic, Russian Invasion of Ukraine, threats of nuclear war and even the climate change crisis (Davidson, 2025). These events are demonstrations of the reciprocal relationship between end-of-world thinking, the sociopolitical environment and our behaviour. Historically, Apocalyptic themes were previously associated with fundamentalist religious positions, conspiracy mentality, paranoia and conservative. However, with the occurrence of world-wide disruptions to our way of comprehending the world like through the pandemic, the apocalypse has become a much more mainstream concern (Nair, 2023). In fact, 50% of American children have reportedly declared that they’re afraid of a climate crisis that will cause the Earth to be uninhabitable (Hornfeldt, 2018; as city in Guthrie, 2022). Apocalyptic fear is only exacerbated with media covering distressing events that is more available than ever. It should be noted that literature regarding Apocalyptic Fear is primarily derived from contexts in the United States (US), likely due to the prevalence of Christian Nationalism, conservatism, consumerism and individualism making the research relevant to the population (Nair, 2023). This should be taken into consideration when applying the research to other contexts. === Psychological Theories === Apocalyptic fear can be understood through several psychological theories that explain why individuals become preoccupied with catastrophic futures and engage in behaviours such as prepping. While these theories offer different explanations, they collectively suggest that apocalyptic thinking is motivated by a desire to manage threats, uncertainty, and mortality. The existential psychological perspective focuses on how individuals create meaning in life despite the inevitability of death. According to Guthrie (2022), apocalyptic thinking reflects a struggle with fundamental existential concerns, particularly mortality and the search for purpose. Similarly, Terror Management Theory (TMT) argues that awareness of death creates psychological terror, which people manage by investing in belief systems that provide meaning, self-worth, and a sense of symbolic immortality (Parsons, 2013). From this perspective, prepping behaviours function as a strategy to reduce death anxiety by increasing feelings of survival capability and personal significance. Both theories emphasise mortality as a central driver of apocalyptic fear; however, existential psychology focuses more broadly on meaning-making, whereas TMT specifically explains the defensive mechanisms used to suppress death-related anxiety. In contrast, Instinct Theory of Motivation explains apocalyptic fear from an evolutionary perspective. Rather than viewing fear as a response to existential concerns, instinct theory suggests that apocalyptic thinking arises from innate survival mechanisms activated when threats are perceived (Turner & Walsmley, 2020). Prepping behaviours therefore represent adaptive responses designed to enhance survival. While TMT and existential psychology emphasise symbolic and cognitive responses to mortality, instinct theory focuses on biological preparedness and self-preservation. A related but distinct explanation is provided by Social Dominance Orientation (SDO) and Darwinistic worldviews. These perspectives suggest that apocalyptic fear is linked to beliefs about competition, hierarchy, and survival of the fittest. Research by Fetterman et al. (2019) found that individuals who endorse post-apocalyptic survival mindsets often score highly in social dominance traits. Unlike existential and evolutionary theories, which focus on managing fear or ensuring survival, SDO emphasises power dynamics and the expectation that social order will become competitive during crises. Consequently, prepping may be motivated not only by fear of catastrophe but also by beliefs about gaining an advantage over others. The Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) offers a different explanation by focusing on the processes that translate intention into actions. According to TPB, attitudes toward potential disasters, perceived social norms, and perceived behavioural control influence intentions to prepare, which then predict actual prepping behaviour (Fetterman et al., 2019). Unlike the other theories, TPB does not explain the origin of apocalyptic fear itself. Instead, it explains how fear becomes behavioural action. For example, a person who believes an apocalypse is likely, perceives that others support preparedness, and feels capable of preparing is more likely to engage in prepping activities. These theories can be integrated into a comprehensive understanding of apocalyptic fear. Existential psychology and TMT explain the underlying anxiety created by mortality awareness. Instinct theory suggests that perceived threats activate evolved survival responses. SDO highlights how competitive and hierarchical worldviews shape interpretations of catastrophic scenarios, while TPB explains how these beliefs and fears are translated into concrete preparedness behaviours. Fetterman et al. (2019) further support this integration by demonstrating that prepping beliefs are associated with individuals' daily thoughts, emotions, behavioural tendencies, and perceived sense of control. When people experience uncertainty or feel a loss of control, preparedness behaviours may serve both practical and psychological functions. === Who is susceptible? === As previously mentioned, research exploring the demographic experiencing apocalyptic fear and engaging in prepping behaviours is primarily based in the US. Apocalyptic fear in the US is particularly popular in the literature as factors such as Christian Nationalism, Conservatism, Consumerism and Individualism are highly valued and contribute to prepping beliefs and behaviour (Nair, 2023). Contrary to popular belief, in the literature, religious variables are not commonly among the key predictors of preparedness behaviour (Adkins et al., 2023), likely because religious people do not feel the need to prepare as it will be a divine entity’s will to end the world (Adkins et al., 2023). Research by Fetterman et al. (2019) draws on information from social media discussion platforms and conversations with doomsday believers to develop the Post-Apocalyptic and Doomsday Prepping Belief Scale (PAPBS) to predict prepping behaviours. The validity and reliability of the PABS have been demonstrated throughout other cultures, such as Turkey (Alban & Arkan, 2024). Fetterman et al. (2019) identifies three themes underpinning prepping beliefs. Underlying all of these themes, is a pessimistic world view. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Theme !Explanation |- |Human Nature |General distrust of humans in a post-apocalyptic environment, in that they will resort to natural violent instincts with the absence of man-made law. |- |Resource Availability |Anxiety regarding a lack of resources available in a post-apocalyptic world. |- |Competitive Survival |In a post-apocalyptic world, humans will be competitive rather than cooperative, and will adopt a survival of the fittest mindset. |} ''Table 1: Predictive believes contributing to Apocalyptic Beliefs: Derived from Fetterman et al. (2019).'' Results from the study found that the three themes were all positively and significantly inter-correlated with each other, post-apocalyptic pessimism (PA pessimism) and prepping beliefs. Paranoia was positively related to PA pessimism and competitive survival. Positive correlations between conservatism and PA pessimism. Fetterman’s study also compares PAPBS with the HEXACO model of personality. From this research preppers tend to be: ·      Highly extroverted: outgoing, expressive and sociable. ·      Highly Neurotic: frequency experience negative emotions. ·      Low in Agreeableness: not cooperative, empathetic or considerate towards others. ·      Low in Honesty/humility: inflated sense of self importance. Furthermore, daily thoughts of death and cynicism were consistent predictors of daily prepping. Daily negative emotions, stress, uncertainty and negative events were less consistent positive predictors of daily prepping thoughts. However, the only consistent predictor of prepping behaviour was belief in the need to prep. This aligns with Ajzen’s (1991) Theory of Planned behaviour that has been used to explain prepping behaviour. Finally, apocalypticism was correlated with social dominance orientation (SDO), which is a personality trait that devalues social equality and reinforces ideology regarding social outgroup’s lack of right to respect. This highlights possible societal consequences of apocalyptic thinking. Alternatively, a study by Adkins et al. (2023) investigates the relationship between political and religious beliefs amongst American preppers. They found that a large proportion of Americans believe that prophecy and supernatural beings are involved in world affairs. Like previous studies, Christian Nationalism and Apocalypticism were significantly correlated. Interestingly white Christian Nationalists were found to be in an apocalyptic panic as they feel as though they are “losing ground” in comparison to non-white people in America. This suggests a racial bias common amongst preppers and proposes a social consequence. === What are environmental triggers of Apocalyptic Fear? === Stiger et al. (2023) explains that there are several triggers in society which cause mortality salience, and consequently apocalyptic fear. Table 2 details common religious and secular apocalypse scenarios believed to trigger existential fear. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Name !Description |- |Political |Civil wars and breakdown of political systems. |- |Economic |Inequality undermining economic systems. |- |Nuclear |Nuclear war that destroys civilisations. |- |Climate Change |Destruction of civilisation due to global warming. |- |Racism |Social collapse due to racial discrimination. |- |Immigration |Societal destruction due to large scale immigration. |- |Family Breakdown |Social collapse due to the dissolution of family structures. |- |Rapture |Destruction of the world from the second coming of Christ and divine judgement. |} ''Table 2: Types of religious and secular apocalyptic triggers derived from works by Davidson (2025).'' * Reflection of catastrophe's in pop culture. It has been argued that the presence of apocalyptic themes in media is a tangible reflection (project test) of personality (Fetterman, 2019) * Post COVID-19 anxiety was found to be a motivator of prepping behaviour in a study of 126 self-identified doomsday peppers. Other motivators included fear about security in sociopoltiical landscape and person crises. The online prepper communities demonstrated 4 themes: social learning of prepping behaviour online, within-group differences in personal views, sense of community, and lack of engagement (Marshe, 2025). * War and political unrest. Mass broadcasting and accessibility to distressing media around the world. {{RoundBoxTop}} Case Study Continued. This aim of this feature box is to continue the story of Evan who has watched the Apocalyptic movie to put into action how Apocalyptic Fear can develop through cognition/psychology and who is susceptible. The case study will include more background on Evan's sociocultural background, political/religious beliefs etc. Evan's demographics will align with the findings of the literature identified in my preliminary view. Furthermore, the case study will provide insight into Evan's internal thoughts, beliefs, and attitudes. Once again, this will align with the literature where his personality traits and anxious rumination suggests that he is more susceptible to apocalyptic fear. I also want this part of the case study to demonstrate how a piece of media can influence the internal thinking patterns, leading to apocalyptic fear {{RoundBoxBottom}} <quiz> {According to Terror Management Theory, Evan is experiencing Apocalyptic Fear because |type="()"} + He is grappling with anxieties regarding death being inevitable. - The characters in the film modelled the appropriate response to anxiety inducing environment. - Evans survival instincts kicked in. - Evan believes the film is predicting the future. </quiz> <quiz> {What are all of the triggers that may have initiated Evan's Apocalyptic Fear? |type="[]"} + The movie + Engaging in reddit threads about end-of-world conspiracy theories + Media reporting on the Ukraine War + Covid-19 Lockdown </quiz> ==Consequences of Apocalyptic Fear== Introductory section before breaking into sub-sections === The Individual === Apocalyptic fear can significantly affect an individual's thoughts, emotions, and behaviours. TMT argues that awareness of death creates anxiety, motivating people to seek ways to regain control and meaning in life (Guthrie, 2022). One common response is prepping, which can function as an 'immortality project' by helping individuals feel more prepared for uncertain futures (Guthrie, 2022). Prepping is the management of stockpiled household items in anticipation of market disruption (Nair, 2023). When people perceived their lives as 'not going well', prepping increases to regain feeling of control. Mortality salience often leads people to defend their existing beliefs more strongly and become more hostile towards those with opposing worldviews. This protects self-esteem and reduces existential anxiety, but can also increase mistrust and social division (Guthrie, 2022). Individuals may engage in experiential avoidance, denying information that reminds them of mortality or distracting themselves from uncomfortable thoughts and emotions. Apocalyptic fear is also associated with higher anxiety, neuroticism, pessimistic future thinking, and frequent thoughts of death. Research suggests that greater engagement in prepping correlates with increased catastrophising and conspiracy thinking, as individuals attempt to make sense of uncertain threats (Fetterman et al., 2019). Stieger et al. (2023) similarly found that existential threats can produce immediate increases in anxiety. Prepping itself is not necessarily always harmful. Nair (2023) defines prepping as stockpiling resources and developing skills to prepare for potential disruptions, often focusing on medicine, security, shelter, nutrition, hydration, and hygiene. It can provide a sense of control, self-sufficiency, and emotional regulation during periods of uncertainty. However, when taken to extremes, prepping may reduce quality of life, encourage excessive consumerism, and foster distrust and competition over perceived scarce resources. === Politics, Society and Culture === Apocalyptic fear has had a significant influence on politics, society, and culture. One of the clearest examples is the popularity of post-apocalyptic literature, which reflects society's ongoing fascination with end-of-the-world scenarios and collective anxieties about the future (Paul & Alan, 2024). While traditional apocalyptic beliefs were largely rooted in religion, contemporary apocalyptic narratives have become increasingly secularised, focusing on threats such as climate change, nuclear war, and environmental collapse (Davidson, 2025). These issues are closely tied to political debates, allowing apocalyptic themes to shape public discourse and policy discussions. Apocalyptic narratives are often used as political tools to influence public opinion and mobilise action. Davidson argues that the apocalypse can be weaponised by dominant social groups to portray the future as inevitable and beyond human control, allowing those in positions of power to avoid responsibility for addressing social inequalities and injustices. At the same time, oppressed groups have also drawn on apocalyptic imagery to express dissatisfaction with existing social conditions and imagine alternative futures. In this way, apocalyptic movements can both inspire demands for social change and reflect feelings of powerlessness in the face of oppression. However, apocalyptic thinking can also have negative consequences for democratic societies. Davidson suggests that framing the future as fixed and unavoidable discourages debate and critical engagement, potentially fostering authoritarian attitudes. Similarly, Furse (2022) argues that apocalyptic narratives are effective at rallying political action because they present issues in urgent, moralistic terms. In the United States, Christian nationalist movements have used apocalyptic themes to emphasise moral decline and portray the nation as under threat, encouraging support for political agendas framed as necessary for survival (Furse, 2022). Research by Piazza (2026) further highlights the dangers of apocalyptic beliefs in politics. Surveying over 1,300 White Americans, Piazza found that Christian nationalism significantly predicted apocalyptic beliefs, support for political violence, and hostility towards social outgroups. Apocalypticism itself was a significant predictor of outgroup hate, as believers often divided society into forces of "good" and "evil." Existential fears associated with apocalyptic thinking increased mistrust and dehumanisation of outsiders, particularly racial minorities, which in turn normalised support for political violence (Piazza, 2026). These findings suggest that apocalyptic fear can contribute to social polarisation, prejudice, and the justification of violence against perceived threats. Despite these risks, apocalyptic thinking is not entirely negative. Garrett (2021) argues that apocalyptic narratives often emerge during periods of crisis because they can inspire hope for transformation and survival. For example, preppers may view societal collapse as an opportunity to demonstrate resilience and create a better future. However, these hopes are often centred on individual survival rather than collective solutions. Furthermore, collective avoidance of discussions about climate change and eco-anxiety has been linked to increased societal anxiety over time, suggesting that confronting threats openly may be more constructive than denying them (Guthrie, 2022). {{RoundBoxTop}} Case Study continued: Maladaptive and adaptive behaviours Evan is displaying to cope with his uncomfortable anxieties about the end of the world {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Managing Apocalyptic Fear== One may question whether behaviours associated with Apocalyptic Fear need to be managed. Does it actually need to be treated or managed? Prepping behaviour as a result of apocalyptic fear is not inherently 'bad'. However, it can become maladaptive. It should be noted that a change in this phenomenon can only occur once the individual innately want to commit to the change. === Strategies === *Cognitive restructuring to challenge thought patterns that reinforce catastrophic predictions and exaggeration of non-existent threats. *A 2022 Study by Sabzevari demonstrated that existential therapy is a tool to reduce anxiety related to COVID-19 and death. This type of therapy helps individuals develop sincere and real relationships with life and death. Describe and critique the therapy. *Acceptance & Commitment therapy. Guthrie (2022) studied how acceptance and commitment therapy can support individuals coping with climate-related apocalyptic fear. Describe and critique the therapy. *Strengthening social cohesion and community resilience. === Media Literacy === * Media hygiene. Reduce exposure to sensationalist apocalyptic content (Menzies & Menzies, 2024). * Importance of sharing of accurate information. * Limiting antisocial media use. {{RoundBoxTop}} Final part of case study. Going to explain maladaptive symptoms and suggestions that his friend, Ricki, has made to help him combat his apocalyptic fear. This may include activities that increase social cohesion, media hygiene, and education. Case study will ask audience to reflect on what they would suggest Evan does to manage his apocalyptic fear. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Conclusion== * Apocalyptic fear is common and emerges from evolutionary instincts, existential concerns, personality traits, and especially environmental triggers. * It has meaningful consequences that impact individuals, their mental health and coping mechanisms, societies social cohesion and polarisation, and political violence. * Psychological science provides effective tools for managing apocalyptic thinking patterns. Science not only helps us understand how apocalyptic fear develops, but provides strategies and therapies to combat it. Existential therapies, acceptance therapy, and increased media education and literacy helps people manage in health ways. * Reducing apocalyptic fear requires both internal straggles of change (cognitive, emotional, and existential) and external strategies (accurate information, social connect, and media hygiene). {{tip|Suggestions for this section: LEAVING THIS SECTION FOR FUTURE REFERENCE * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} * {{tip|Suggestions for this section: LEAVING THIS SECTION FOR FUTURE REFERENCE * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==See also== {{expand}} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. {{Hanging indent|1= Adkins, J., Djupe, P. A., & Neiheisel, J. R. (2023). Preparedness Behavior and the apocalypse: religion and politics in the post 2020 election era. Politics and Religion, 16(4), 585–604. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/politics-and-religion/article/preparedness-behavior-and-the-apocalypse-religion-and-politics-in-the-post-2020-election-era/39FA605571043F7C03281B5B15C2C9E4 Davison, J. (2025). The Apocalypse from Below: The Dangerous Idea of the End of the World, the Politics of the Oppressed, and Anti-Anti-Apocalypticism. American Political Science Review, 119(1), 479–491. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/american-political-science-review/article/apocalypse-from-below-the-dangerous-idea-of-the-end-of-the-world-the-politics-of-the-oppressed-and-antiantiapocalypticism/054311423D0D7BC9E3B7586C894F0CAB Fetterman, A., et al. (2019). On Post-apocalyptic and Doomsday Prepping Beliefs: A New Measure, its Correlates and the Motivation to Prep. European Journal of Personality, 33(4), 506-525. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2216 Furse, T. (2022). ‘Let us go out to the Field’: Apocalyptic Thinking in Christian Nationalism. Politics, Religion & Ideology, 23(3), 306–326. https://doi.org/10.1080/21567689.2022.2123802 Garret, B. (2020). Doomsday preppers and the architecture of dread. Geoforum, 127(1), 401-411. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7151311/ Guthrie, D. (2023). How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Eco-Apocalypse: An Existential Approach to Accepting Eco-Anxiety. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 18(1), 210-223. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/17456916221093613 Menzies, R. & Menzies, R. (2024). Existential therapies and the extended evolutionary meta-model: Turning existential philosophy into process-based therapy. Journal of Contextual Behaviour Science, 34(1). https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2212144724001200 Nair, T. (2023). Doomsday Prepping: Reactionary Behaviour or Inherited Instinct? Seattle Anxiety. https://seattleanxiety.com/psychiatrist/2023/1/12/doomsday-prepping-reactionary-behavior-or-inherited-instinct Parsons, S. (2022). Terror Management Theory. EBSCO.com https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/social-sciences-and-humanities/terror-management-theory Piazza, J. A. (2026). Christian nationalism, apocalypticism, outgroup hate, and support for violent extremism.Defence and Peace Economics, 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1080/10242694.2026.2613902 Sabzevari, P. (2022). The Effectiveness of Existential Therapy Intervention on Anxiety Caused by Coronavirus and Death. Clinical Cancer Investigation Journal, 11(1). https://ccij-online.org/article/the-effectiveness-of-existential-therapy-intervention-on-anxiety-caused-by-coronavirus-and-death-ec5qns1rnmgi9ju Stieger, S. et al. (2023). Examining terror management theory in Ukraine: impact of air-raid alarms and explosions on mental health, somatic symptoms and well-being. Front. Psychiatry, 14(1). https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychiatry/articles/10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1244335/full Strozier, S. (2017). The Apocalyptic Imagination and Fundamentalist Mindset. New England Journal of Public Policy, 29(1). https://scholarworks.umb.edu/nejpp/vol29/iss1/7/ }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== * [https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20211014-agents-of-doom-who-is-hastening-the-apocalypse-and-why Agents of Doom: Who is creating the apocalypse and why] (Luke Kemp) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=idMobTOh0kY Addicted to Apocalypse: Our Psychological Need for the End] (The Living Philosophy) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SKBTrMH7SeI&list=PLivjPDlt6ApT_2pW5HJl9GnMaNgJO6AgK Doomsday Preppers] (National Geographic) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Fear]] add7ggvxua40v0wnkwlh21sbugzq6e3 2836493 2836490 2026-10-07T09:11:37Z LazPulch 3105917 /* Overview */ finalised first feature box 2836493 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Apocalyptic fear:<br>What is apocalyptic fear, what are its consequences, and how can it be dealt with?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:F5 tornado Elie Manitoba 2007.jpg|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1'''. Natural disasters are commonly featured in apocalyptic films]] In the next 30 seconds, try to list 5 end-of-the-world movies or TV shows. ...was that easier than you expected? Have you noticed that film, TV and pop culture gravitate towards producing media with doomsday themes? The end of the world, the (very un-natural) natural disaster, a zombie apocalypse or [[w: Artificial Intelligence| Artificial Intelligence]] (AI) taking over the world! Audiences love doomsday media. Why do we love to consume objectively terrifying stories exploring mass destruction and the end of existence as we know it? Apocalyptic fear is more common than you'd think and a quick review of today's media landscape is evidence of that. This book chapter is going to follow the case study of Evan a Christian man living in the United States (US). It's 2023, and Evan has just watched [[w: Leave the World Behind (Film)|Leave the World Behind]] (Wikipedia) a modern day psychological, apocalyptic thriller regarding a mass cyber attack on the United States (US). Throughout this chapter we will evaluate Evan's own experience of Apocalyptic Fear informed by the movie, psychological theories underpinning this phenomenon, its consequences and how it can be managed. {{RoundBoxBottom}} '''I'''n the literature, Apocalyptic Fear is also referred to as ‘Apocalyptic Thinking, ‘End of World Beliefs’, ‘Existential Fear’, ‘Catastrophic Thinking’ and ‘Doomsday Thinking’. Whilst Apocalyptic Fear is not a mental health diagnosis, it is apparent that those experiencing these thought patterns are associated with diagnosis of and experiences of other mental health related struggles (Fetterman et al., 2019). Apocalyptic Fear is primarily observable in cultural subgroups known as ‘Doomsday Preppers’ (Preppers). Preppers are people who practice the anticipation of and adapting to impending conditions of calamity (Garret, 2020). There are several types of Apocalyptic Fear and psychological theories that underpin the phenomenon and its consequences. Garret (2020) explains that the inability for Preppers to know when disaster is going to strike, coupled with the perceived inevitability of a catastrophe has effects of dread which manifests in prepping behaviour. But are the consequences of apocalyptic thinking a problem or is it a coping strategy to protect us from mortality salience? Is prepping itself a bad manifestation of a preppers psyche that needs management? This chapter will review the consequences of Apocalyptic Fear, including prepping, maladaptive behaviours, out-group hate, and anti-social behaviour. We will also examine the reciprocal influences of Apocalyptic Thinking of culture and politics. Finally, the chapter will explore strategies to manage Apocalyptic Fear including psychotherapies and more practice remedies such as media literacy, training and education.   * {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' *What is Apocalyptic Fear? *What are the consequences of Apocalyptic Fear? *What can be done to manage Apocalyptic Fear? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What is Apocalyptic Fear?== Apocalyptic Fear has been described as fear relating to the end of the world as we know it, usually though catastrophic means, both secular and religious (Garret, 2021). Apocalyptic fear has resurged in recent years from sociopolitical events, such as the COVID-19 pandemic, Russian Invasion of Ukraine, threats of nuclear war and even the climate change crisis (Davidson, 2025). These events are demonstrations of the reciprocal relationship between end-of-world thinking, the sociopolitical environment and our behaviour. Historically, Apocalyptic themes were previously associated with fundamentalist religious positions, conspiracy mentality, paranoia and conservative. However, with the occurrence of world-wide disruptions to our way of comprehending the world like through the pandemic, the apocalypse has become a much more mainstream concern (Nair, 2023). In fact, 50% of American children have reportedly declared that they’re afraid of a climate crisis that will cause the Earth to be uninhabitable (Hornfeldt, 2018; as city in Guthrie, 2022). Apocalyptic fear is only exacerbated with media covering distressing events that is more available than ever. It should be noted that literature regarding Apocalyptic Fear is primarily derived from contexts in the United States (US), likely due to the prevalence of Christian Nationalism, conservatism, consumerism and individualism making the research relevant to the population (Nair, 2023). This should be taken into consideration when applying the research to other contexts. === Psychological Theories === Apocalyptic fear can be understood through several psychological theories that explain why individuals become preoccupied with catastrophic futures and engage in behaviours such as prepping. While these theories offer different explanations, they collectively suggest that apocalyptic thinking is motivated by a desire to manage threats, uncertainty, and mortality. The existential psychological perspective focuses on how individuals create meaning in life despite the inevitability of death. According to Guthrie (2022), apocalyptic thinking reflects a struggle with fundamental existential concerns, particularly mortality and the search for purpose. Similarly, Terror Management Theory (TMT) argues that awareness of death creates psychological terror, which people manage by investing in belief systems that provide meaning, self-worth, and a sense of symbolic immortality (Parsons, 2013). From this perspective, prepping behaviours function as a strategy to reduce death anxiety by increasing feelings of survival capability and personal significance. Both theories emphasise mortality as a central driver of apocalyptic fear; however, existential psychology focuses more broadly on meaning-making, whereas TMT specifically explains the defensive mechanisms used to suppress death-related anxiety. In contrast, Instinct Theory of Motivation explains apocalyptic fear from an evolutionary perspective. Rather than viewing fear as a response to existential concerns, instinct theory suggests that apocalyptic thinking arises from innate survival mechanisms activated when threats are perceived (Turner & Walsmley, 2020). Prepping behaviours therefore represent adaptive responses designed to enhance survival. While TMT and existential psychology emphasise symbolic and cognitive responses to mortality, instinct theory focuses on biological preparedness and self-preservation. A related but distinct explanation is provided by Social Dominance Orientation (SDO) and Darwinistic worldviews. These perspectives suggest that apocalyptic fear is linked to beliefs about competition, hierarchy, and survival of the fittest. Research by Fetterman et al. (2019) found that individuals who endorse post-apocalyptic survival mindsets often score highly in social dominance traits. Unlike existential and evolutionary theories, which focus on managing fear or ensuring survival, SDO emphasises power dynamics and the expectation that social order will become competitive during crises. Consequently, prepping may be motivated not only by fear of catastrophe but also by beliefs about gaining an advantage over others. The Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) offers a different explanation by focusing on the processes that translate intention into actions. According to TPB, attitudes toward potential disasters, perceived social norms, and perceived behavioural control influence intentions to prepare, which then predict actual prepping behaviour (Fetterman et al., 2019). Unlike the other theories, TPB does not explain the origin of apocalyptic fear itself. Instead, it explains how fear becomes behavioural action. For example, a person who believes an apocalypse is likely, perceives that others support preparedness, and feels capable of preparing is more likely to engage in prepping activities. These theories can be integrated into a comprehensive understanding of apocalyptic fear. Existential psychology and TMT explain the underlying anxiety created by mortality awareness. Instinct theory suggests that perceived threats activate evolved survival responses. SDO highlights how competitive and hierarchical worldviews shape interpretations of catastrophic scenarios, while TPB explains how these beliefs and fears are translated into concrete preparedness behaviours. Fetterman et al. (2019) further support this integration by demonstrating that prepping beliefs are associated with individuals' daily thoughts, emotions, behavioural tendencies, and perceived sense of control. When people experience uncertainty or feel a loss of control, preparedness behaviours may serve both practical and psychological functions. === Who is susceptible? === As previously mentioned, research exploring the demographic experiencing apocalyptic fear and engaging in prepping behaviours is primarily based in the US. Apocalyptic fear in the US is particularly popular in the literature as factors such as Christian Nationalism, Conservatism, Consumerism and Individualism are highly valued and contribute to prepping beliefs and behaviour (Nair, 2023). Contrary to popular belief, in the literature, religious variables are not commonly among the key predictors of preparedness behaviour (Adkins et al., 2023), likely because religious people do not feel the need to prepare as it will be a divine entity’s will to end the world (Adkins et al., 2023). Research by Fetterman et al. (2019) draws on information from social media discussion platforms and conversations with doomsday believers to develop the Post-Apocalyptic and Doomsday Prepping Belief Scale (PAPBS) to predict prepping behaviours. The validity and reliability of the PABS have been demonstrated throughout other cultures, such as Turkey (Alban & Arkan, 2024). Fetterman et al. (2019) identifies three themes underpinning prepping beliefs. Underlying all of these themes, is a pessimistic world view. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Theme !Explanation |- |Human Nature |General distrust of humans in a post-apocalyptic environment, in that they will resort to natural violent instincts with the absence of man-made law. |- |Resource Availability |Anxiety regarding a lack of resources available in a post-apocalyptic world. |- |Competitive Survival |In a post-apocalyptic world, humans will be competitive rather than cooperative, and will adopt a survival of the fittest mindset. |} ''Table 1: Predictive believes contributing to Apocalyptic Beliefs: Derived from Fetterman et al. (2019).'' Results from the study found that the three themes were all positively and significantly inter-correlated with each other, post-apocalyptic pessimism (PA pessimism) and prepping beliefs. Paranoia was positively related to PA pessimism and competitive survival. Positive correlations between conservatism and PA pessimism. Fetterman’s study also compares PAPBS with the HEXACO model of personality. From this research preppers tend to be: ·      Highly extroverted: outgoing, expressive and sociable. ·      Highly Neurotic: frequency experience negative emotions. ·      Low in Agreeableness: not cooperative, empathetic or considerate towards others. ·      Low in Honesty/humility: inflated sense of self importance. Furthermore, daily thoughts of death and cynicism were consistent predictors of daily prepping. Daily negative emotions, stress, uncertainty and negative events were less consistent positive predictors of daily prepping thoughts. However, the only consistent predictor of prepping behaviour was belief in the need to prep. This aligns with Ajzen’s (1991) Theory of Planned behaviour that has been used to explain prepping behaviour. Finally, apocalypticism was correlated with social dominance orientation (SDO), which is a personality trait that devalues social equality and reinforces ideology regarding social outgroup’s lack of right to respect. This highlights possible societal consequences of apocalyptic thinking. Alternatively, a study by Adkins et al. (2023) investigates the relationship between political and religious beliefs amongst American preppers. They found that a large proportion of Americans believe that prophecy and supernatural beings are involved in world affairs. Like previous studies, Christian Nationalism and Apocalypticism were significantly correlated. Interestingly white Christian Nationalists were found to be in an apocalyptic panic as they feel as though they are “losing ground” in comparison to non-white people in America. This suggests a racial bias common amongst preppers and proposes a social consequence. === What are environmental triggers of Apocalyptic Fear? === Stiger et al. (2023) explains that there are several triggers in society which cause mortality salience, and consequently apocalyptic fear. Table 2 details common religious and secular apocalypse scenarios believed to trigger existential fear. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Name !Description |- |Political |Civil wars and breakdown of political systems. |- |Economic |Inequality undermining economic systems. |- |Nuclear |Nuclear war that destroys civilisations. |- |Climate Change |Destruction of civilisation due to global warming. |- |Racism |Social collapse due to racial discrimination. |- |Immigration |Societal destruction due to large scale immigration. |- |Family Breakdown |Social collapse due to the dissolution of family structures. |- |Rapture |Destruction of the world from the second coming of Christ and divine judgement. |} ''Table 2: Types of religious and secular apocalyptic triggers derived from works by Davidson (2025).'' * Reflection of catastrophe's in pop culture. It has been argued that the presence of apocalyptic themes in media is a tangible reflection (project test) of personality (Fetterman, 2019) * Post COVID-19 anxiety was found to be a motivator of prepping behaviour in a study of 126 self-identified doomsday peppers. Other motivators included fear about security in sociopoltiical landscape and person crises. The online prepper communities demonstrated 4 themes: social learning of prepping behaviour online, within-group differences in personal views, sense of community, and lack of engagement (Marshe, 2025). * War and political unrest. Mass broadcasting and accessibility to distressing media around the world. {{RoundBoxTop}} Case Study Continued. This aim of this feature box is to continue the story of Evan who has watched the Apocalyptic movie to put into action how Apocalyptic Fear can develop through cognition/psychology and who is susceptible. The case study will include more background on Evan's sociocultural background, political/religious beliefs etc. Evan's demographics will align with the findings of the literature identified in my preliminary view. Furthermore, the case study will provide insight into Evan's internal thoughts, beliefs, and attitudes. Once again, this will align with the literature where his personality traits and anxious rumination suggests that he is more susceptible to apocalyptic fear. I also want this part of the case study to demonstrate how a piece of media can influence the internal thinking patterns, leading to apocalyptic fear {{RoundBoxBottom}} <quiz> {According to Terror Management Theory, Evan is experiencing Apocalyptic Fear because |type="()"} + He is grappling with anxieties regarding death being inevitable. - The characters in the film modelled the appropriate response to anxiety inducing environment. - Evans survival instincts kicked in. - Evan believes the film is predicting the future. </quiz> <quiz> {What are all of the triggers that may have initiated Evan's Apocalyptic Fear? |type="[]"} + The movie + Engaging in reddit threads about end-of-world conspiracy theories + Media reporting on the Ukraine War + Covid-19 Lockdown </quiz> ==Consequences of Apocalyptic Fear== Introductory section before breaking into sub-sections === The Individual === Apocalyptic fear can significantly affect an individual's thoughts, emotions, and behaviours. TMT argues that awareness of death creates anxiety, motivating people to seek ways to regain control and meaning in life (Guthrie, 2022). One common response is prepping, which can function as an 'immortality project' by helping individuals feel more prepared for uncertain futures (Guthrie, 2022). Prepping is the management of stockpiled household items in anticipation of market disruption (Nair, 2023). When people perceived their lives as 'not going well', prepping increases to regain feeling of control. Mortality salience often leads people to defend their existing beliefs more strongly and become more hostile towards those with opposing worldviews. This protects self-esteem and reduces existential anxiety, but can also increase mistrust and social division (Guthrie, 2022). Individuals may engage in experiential avoidance, denying information that reminds them of mortality or distracting themselves from uncomfortable thoughts and emotions. Apocalyptic fear is also associated with higher anxiety, neuroticism, pessimistic future thinking, and frequent thoughts of death. Research suggests that greater engagement in prepping correlates with increased catastrophising and conspiracy thinking, as individuals attempt to make sense of uncertain threats (Fetterman et al., 2019). Stieger et al. (2023) similarly found that existential threats can produce immediate increases in anxiety. Prepping itself is not necessarily always harmful. Nair (2023) defines prepping as stockpiling resources and developing skills to prepare for potential disruptions, often focusing on medicine, security, shelter, nutrition, hydration, and hygiene. It can provide a sense of control, self-sufficiency, and emotional regulation during periods of uncertainty. However, when taken to extremes, prepping may reduce quality of life, encourage excessive consumerism, and foster distrust and competition over perceived scarce resources. === Politics, Society and Culture === Apocalyptic fear has had a significant influence on politics, society, and culture. One of the clearest examples is the popularity of post-apocalyptic literature, which reflects society's ongoing fascination with end-of-the-world scenarios and collective anxieties about the future (Paul & Alan, 2024). While traditional apocalyptic beliefs were largely rooted in religion, contemporary apocalyptic narratives have become increasingly secularised, focusing on threats such as climate change, nuclear war, and environmental collapse (Davidson, 2025). These issues are closely tied to political debates, allowing apocalyptic themes to shape public discourse and policy discussions. Apocalyptic narratives are often used as political tools to influence public opinion and mobilise action. Davidson argues that the apocalypse can be weaponised by dominant social groups to portray the future as inevitable and beyond human control, allowing those in positions of power to avoid responsibility for addressing social inequalities and injustices. At the same time, oppressed groups have also drawn on apocalyptic imagery to express dissatisfaction with existing social conditions and imagine alternative futures. In this way, apocalyptic movements can both inspire demands for social change and reflect feelings of powerlessness in the face of oppression. However, apocalyptic thinking can also have negative consequences for democratic societies. Davidson suggests that framing the future as fixed and unavoidable discourages debate and critical engagement, potentially fostering authoritarian attitudes. Similarly, Furse (2022) argues that apocalyptic narratives are effective at rallying political action because they present issues in urgent, moralistic terms. In the United States, Christian nationalist movements have used apocalyptic themes to emphasise moral decline and portray the nation as under threat, encouraging support for political agendas framed as necessary for survival (Furse, 2022). Research by Piazza (2026) further highlights the dangers of apocalyptic beliefs in politics. Surveying over 1,300 White Americans, Piazza found that Christian nationalism significantly predicted apocalyptic beliefs, support for political violence, and hostility towards social outgroups. Apocalypticism itself was a significant predictor of outgroup hate, as believers often divided society into forces of "good" and "evil." Existential fears associated with apocalyptic thinking increased mistrust and dehumanisation of outsiders, particularly racial minorities, which in turn normalised support for political violence (Piazza, 2026). These findings suggest that apocalyptic fear can contribute to social polarisation, prejudice, and the justification of violence against perceived threats. Despite these risks, apocalyptic thinking is not entirely negative. Garrett (2021) argues that apocalyptic narratives often emerge during periods of crisis because they can inspire hope for transformation and survival. For example, preppers may view societal collapse as an opportunity to demonstrate resilience and create a better future. However, these hopes are often centred on individual survival rather than collective solutions. Furthermore, collective avoidance of discussions about climate change and eco-anxiety has been linked to increased societal anxiety over time, suggesting that confronting threats openly may be more constructive than denying them (Guthrie, 2022). {{RoundBoxTop}} Case Study continued: Maladaptive and adaptive behaviours Evan is displaying to cope with his uncomfortable anxieties about the end of the world {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Managing Apocalyptic Fear== One may question whether behaviours associated with Apocalyptic Fear need to be managed. Does it actually need to be treated or managed? Prepping behaviour as a result of apocalyptic fear is not inherently 'bad'. However, it can become maladaptive. It should be noted that a change in this phenomenon can only occur once the individual innately want to commit to the change. === Strategies === *Cognitive restructuring to challenge thought patterns that reinforce catastrophic predictions and exaggeration of non-existent threats. *A 2022 Study by Sabzevari demonstrated that existential therapy is a tool to reduce anxiety related to COVID-19 and death. This type of therapy helps individuals develop sincere and real relationships with life and death. Describe and critique the therapy. *Acceptance & Commitment therapy. Guthrie (2022) studied how acceptance and commitment therapy can support individuals coping with climate-related apocalyptic fear. Describe and critique the therapy. *Strengthening social cohesion and community resilience. === Media Literacy === * Media hygiene. Reduce exposure to sensationalist apocalyptic content (Menzies & Menzies, 2024). * Importance of sharing of accurate information. * Limiting antisocial media use. {{RoundBoxTop}} Final part of case study. Going to explain maladaptive symptoms and suggestions that his friend, Ricki, has made to help him combat his apocalyptic fear. This may include activities that increase social cohesion, media hygiene, and education. Case study will ask audience to reflect on what they would suggest Evan does to manage his apocalyptic fear. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Conclusion== * Apocalyptic fear is common and emerges from evolutionary instincts, existential concerns, personality traits, and especially environmental triggers. * It has meaningful consequences that impact individuals, their mental health and coping mechanisms, societies social cohesion and polarisation, and political violence. * Psychological science provides effective tools for managing apocalyptic thinking patterns. Science not only helps us understand how apocalyptic fear develops, but provides strategies and therapies to combat it. Existential therapies, acceptance therapy, and increased media education and literacy helps people manage in health ways. * Reducing apocalyptic fear requires both internal straggles of change (cognitive, emotional, and existential) and external strategies (accurate information, social connect, and media hygiene). {{tip|Suggestions for this section: LEAVING THIS SECTION FOR FUTURE REFERENCE * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} * {{tip|Suggestions for this section: LEAVING THIS SECTION FOR FUTURE REFERENCE * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==See also== {{expand}} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. {{Hanging indent|1= Adkins, J., Djupe, P. A., & Neiheisel, J. R. (2023). Preparedness Behavior and the apocalypse: religion and politics in the post 2020 election era. Politics and Religion, 16(4), 585–604. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/politics-and-religion/article/preparedness-behavior-and-the-apocalypse-religion-and-politics-in-the-post-2020-election-era/39FA605571043F7C03281B5B15C2C9E4 Davison, J. (2025). The Apocalypse from Below: The Dangerous Idea of the End of the World, the Politics of the Oppressed, and Anti-Anti-Apocalypticism. American Political Science Review, 119(1), 479–491. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/american-political-science-review/article/apocalypse-from-below-the-dangerous-idea-of-the-end-of-the-world-the-politics-of-the-oppressed-and-antiantiapocalypticism/054311423D0D7BC9E3B7586C894F0CAB Fetterman, A., et al. (2019). On Post-apocalyptic and Doomsday Prepping Beliefs: A New Measure, its Correlates and the Motivation to Prep. European Journal of Personality, 33(4), 506-525. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2216 Furse, T. (2022). ‘Let us go out to the Field’: Apocalyptic Thinking in Christian Nationalism. Politics, Religion & Ideology, 23(3), 306–326. https://doi.org/10.1080/21567689.2022.2123802 Garret, B. (2020). Doomsday preppers and the architecture of dread. Geoforum, 127(1), 401-411. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7151311/ Guthrie, D. (2023). How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Eco-Apocalypse: An Existential Approach to Accepting Eco-Anxiety. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 18(1), 210-223. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/17456916221093613 Menzies, R. & Menzies, R. (2024). Existential therapies and the extended evolutionary meta-model: Turning existential philosophy into process-based therapy. Journal of Contextual Behaviour Science, 34(1). https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2212144724001200 Nair, T. (2023). Doomsday Prepping: Reactionary Behaviour or Inherited Instinct? Seattle Anxiety. https://seattleanxiety.com/psychiatrist/2023/1/12/doomsday-prepping-reactionary-behavior-or-inherited-instinct Parsons, S. (2022). Terror Management Theory. EBSCO.com https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/social-sciences-and-humanities/terror-management-theory Piazza, J. A. (2026). Christian nationalism, apocalypticism, outgroup hate, and support for violent extremism.Defence and Peace Economics, 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1080/10242694.2026.2613902 Sabzevari, P. (2022). The Effectiveness of Existential Therapy Intervention on Anxiety Caused by Coronavirus and Death. Clinical Cancer Investigation Journal, 11(1). https://ccij-online.org/article/the-effectiveness-of-existential-therapy-intervention-on-anxiety-caused-by-coronavirus-and-death-ec5qns1rnmgi9ju Stieger, S. et al. (2023). Examining terror management theory in Ukraine: impact of air-raid alarms and explosions on mental health, somatic symptoms and well-being. Front. Psychiatry, 14(1). https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychiatry/articles/10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1244335/full Strozier, S. (2017). The Apocalyptic Imagination and Fundamentalist Mindset. New England Journal of Public Policy, 29(1). https://scholarworks.umb.edu/nejpp/vol29/iss1/7/ }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== * [https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20211014-agents-of-doom-who-is-hastening-the-apocalypse-and-why Agents of Doom: Who is creating the apocalypse and why] (Luke Kemp) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=idMobTOh0kY Addicted to Apocalypse: Our Psychological Need for the End] (The Living Philosophy) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SKBTrMH7SeI&list=PLivjPDlt6ApT_2pW5HJl9GnMaNgJO6AgK Doomsday Preppers] (National Geographic) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Fear]] 25h0nkl4am96w3p4v2hs5wahzq157t0 2836500 2836493 2026-10-07T09:19:07Z LazPulch 3105917 /* Overview */ Added figure 2 and grammatical check of what is apocalyptic fear section 2836500 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Apocalyptic fear:<br>What is apocalyptic fear, what are its consequences, and how can it be dealt with?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:F5 tornado Elie Manitoba 2007.jpg|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1'''. Natural disasters are commonly featured in apocalyptic films]] In the next 30 seconds, try to list 5 end-of-the-world movies or TV shows. ...was that easier than you expected? Have you noticed that film, TV and pop culture gravitate towards producing media with doomsday themes? The end of the world, the (very un-natural) natural disaster, a zombie apocalypse or [[w: Artificial Intelligence| Artificial Intelligence]] (AI) taking over the world! Audiences love doomsday media. Why do we love to consume objectively terrifying stories exploring mass destruction and the end of existence as we know it? Apocalyptic fear is more common than you'd think and a quick review of today's media landscape is evidence of that. This book chapter is going to follow the case study of Evan a Christian man living in the United States (US). It's 2023, and Evan has just watched [[w: Leave the World Behind (Film)|Leave the World Behind]] (Wikipedia) a modern day psychological, apocalyptic thriller regarding a mass cyber attack on the United States (US). Throughout this chapter we will evaluate Evan's own experience of Apocalyptic Fear informed by the movie, psychological theories underpinning this phenomenon, its consequences and how it can be managed. {{RoundBoxBottom}} In the literature, apocalyptic fear is also referred to as ‘apocalyptic thinking, ‘end of world beliefs’, ‘existential fear’, ‘catastrophic thinking’ and ‘doomsday thinking’. Whilst apocalyptic fear is not a mental health diagnosis, it is apparent that those experiencing these thought patterns are associated with diagnosis of and experiences of other mental health related struggles (Fetterman et al., 2019). Apocalyptic fear is primarily observable in cultural subgroups known as ‘Doomsday Preppers’ (Preppers). Preppers are people who practice the anticipation of and adapting to impending conditions of calamity (Garret, 2020). There are several types of apocalyptic fear and psychological theories that underpin the phenomenon and its consequences. Garret (2020) explains that the inability for Preppers to know when disaster is going to strike, coupled with the perceived inevitability of a catastrophe has effects of dread which manifests in prepping behaviour. But are the consequences of apocalyptic thinking a problem or is it a coping strategy to protect us from mortality salience? Is prepping itself a bad manifestation of a preppers psyche that needs management? This chapter will review the consequences of apocalyptic fear, including prepping, maladaptive behaviours, out-group hate, and anti-social behaviour. We will also examine the reciprocal influences of apocalyptic thinking of culture and politics. Finally, the chapter will explore strategies to manage apocalyptic fear including psychotherapies and more practice remedies such as media literacy, training and education.  {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' *What is Apocalyptic Fear? *What are the consequences of Apocalyptic Fear? *What can be done to manage Apocalyptic Fear? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What is Apocalyptic Fear?== [[File:Protokol Kesehatan.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2''': Harsh changes to reality like COVID-19 pandemic evokes apocalyptic fear]] Apocalyptic fear has been described as fear relating to the end of the world as we know it, usually through catastrophic means, both secular and religious (Garret, 2021). Apocalyptic fear has resurged in recent years from sociopolitical events, such as the COVID-19 pandemic, the Russian invasion of Ukraine, threats of nuclear war and even the climate change crisis (Davidson, 2025). These events are demonstrations of the reciprocal relationship between end-of-world thinking, the sociopolitical environment and our behaviour. Historically, apocalyptic themes were previously associated with fundamentalist religious positions, conspiracy mentality, paranoia and conservatism. However, with the occurrence of world-wide disruptions to our way of comprehending the world like through the pandemic, the apocalypse has become a much more mainstream concern (Nair, 2023). In fact, 50% of American children have reportedly declared that they’re afraid of a climate crisis that will cause the Earth to be uninhabitable (Hornfeldt, 2018; as city in Guthrie, 2022). Apocalyptic fear is only exacerbated with media covering distressing events that is more accessible than ever. It should be noted that literature regarding apocalyptic fear is primarily derived from contexts in the US, likely due to the prevalence of Christian Nationalism, conservatism, consumerism and individualism making the research relevant to the population (Nair, 2023). This should be taken into consideration when applying the research to other contexts. === Psychological Theories === Apocalyptic fear can be understood through several psychological theories that explain why individuals become preoccupied with catastrophic futures and engage in behaviours such as prepping. While these theories offer different explanations, they collectively suggest that apocalyptic thinking is motivated by a desire to manage threats, uncertainty, and mortality. The existential psychological perspective focuses on how individuals create meaning in life despite the inevitability of death. According to Guthrie (2022), apocalyptic thinking reflects a struggle with fundamental existential concerns, particularly mortality and the search for purpose. Similarly, Terror Management Theory (TMT) argues that awareness of death creates psychological terror, which people manage by investing in belief systems that provide meaning, self-worth, and a sense of symbolic immortality (Parsons, 2013). From this perspective, prepping behaviours function as a strategy to reduce death anxiety by increasing feelings of survival capability and personal significance. Both theories emphasise mortality as a central driver of apocalyptic fear; however, existential psychology focuses more broadly on meaning-making, whereas TMT specifically explains the defensive mechanisms used to suppress death-related anxiety. In contrast, Instinct Theory of Motivation explains apocalyptic fear from an evolutionary perspective. Rather than viewing fear as a response to existential concerns, instinct theory suggests that apocalyptic thinking arises from innate survival mechanisms activated when threats are perceived (Turner & Walsmley, 2020). Prepping behaviours therefore represent adaptive responses designed to enhance survival. While TMT and existential psychology emphasise symbolic and cognitive responses to mortality, instinct theory focuses on biological preparedness and self-preservation. A related but distinct explanation is provided by Social Dominance Orientation (SDO) and Darwinistic worldviews. These perspectives suggest that apocalyptic fear is linked to beliefs about competition, hierarchy, and survival of the fittest. Research by Fetterman et al. (2019) found that individuals who endorse post-apocalyptic survival mindsets often score highly in social dominance traits. Unlike existential and evolutionary theories, which focus on managing fear or ensuring survival, SDO emphasises power dynamics and the expectation that social order will become competitive during crises. Consequently, prepping may be motivated not only by fear of catastrophe but also by beliefs about gaining an advantage over others. The Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) offers a different explanation by focusing on the processes that translate intention into actions. According to TPB, attitudes toward potential disasters, perceived social norms, and perceived behavioural control influence intentions to prepare, which then predict actual prepping behaviour (Fetterman et al., 2019). Unlike the other theories, TPB does not explain the origin of apocalyptic fear itself. Instead, it explains how fear becomes behavioural action. For example, a person who believes an apocalypse is likely, perceives that others support preparedness, and feels capable of preparing is more likely to engage in prepping activities. These theories can be integrated into a comprehensive understanding of apocalyptic fear. Existential psychology and TMT explain the underlying anxiety created by mortality awareness. Instinct theory suggests that perceived threats activate evolved survival responses. SDO highlights how competitive and hierarchical worldviews shape interpretations of catastrophic scenarios, while TPB explains how these beliefs and fears are translated into concrete preparedness behaviours. Fetterman et al. (2019) further support this integration by demonstrating that prepping beliefs are associated with individuals' daily thoughts, emotions, behavioural tendencies, and perceived sense of control. When people experience uncertainty or feel a loss of control, preparedness behaviours may serve both practical and psychological functions. === Who is susceptible? === As previously mentioned, research exploring the demographic experiencing apocalyptic fear and engaging in prepping behaviours is primarily based in the US. Apocalyptic fear in the US is particularly popular in the literature as factors such as Christian Nationalism, Conservatism, Consumerism and Individualism are highly valued and contribute to prepping beliefs and behaviour (Nair, 2023). Contrary to popular belief, in the literature, religious variables are not commonly among the key predictors of preparedness behaviour (Adkins et al., 2023), likely because religious people do not feel the need to prepare as it will be a divine entity’s will to end the world (Adkins et al., 2023). Research by Fetterman et al. (2019) draws on information from social media discussion platforms and conversations with doomsday believers to develop the Post-Apocalyptic and Doomsday Prepping Belief Scale (PAPBS) to predict prepping behaviours. The validity and reliability of the PABS have been demonstrated throughout other cultures, such as Turkey (Alban & Arkan, 2024). Fetterman et al. (2019) identifies three themes underpinning prepping beliefs. Underlying all of these themes, is a pessimistic world view. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Theme !Explanation |- |Human Nature |General distrust of humans in a post-apocalyptic environment, in that they will resort to natural violent instincts with the absence of man-made law. |- |Resource Availability |Anxiety regarding a lack of resources available in a post-apocalyptic world. |- |Competitive Survival |In a post-apocalyptic world, humans will be competitive rather than cooperative, and will adopt a survival of the fittest mindset. |} ''Table 1: Predictive believes contributing to Apocalyptic Beliefs: Derived from Fetterman et al. (2019).'' Results from the study found that the three themes were all positively and significantly inter-correlated with each other, post-apocalyptic pessimism (PA pessimism) and prepping beliefs. Paranoia was positively related to PA pessimism and competitive survival. Positive correlations between conservatism and PA pessimism. Fetterman’s study also compares PAPBS with the HEXACO model of personality. From this research preppers tend to be: ·      Highly extroverted: outgoing, expressive and sociable. ·      Highly Neurotic: frequency experience negative emotions. ·      Low in Agreeableness: not cooperative, empathetic or considerate towards others. ·      Low in Honesty/humility: inflated sense of self importance. Furthermore, daily thoughts of death and cynicism were consistent predictors of daily prepping. Daily negative emotions, stress, uncertainty and negative events were less consistent positive predictors of daily prepping thoughts. However, the only consistent predictor of prepping behaviour was belief in the need to prep. This aligns with Ajzen’s (1991) Theory of Planned behaviour that has been used to explain prepping behaviour. Finally, apocalypticism was correlated with social dominance orientation (SDO), which is a personality trait that devalues social equality and reinforces ideology regarding social outgroup’s lack of right to respect. This highlights possible societal consequences of apocalyptic thinking. Alternatively, a study by Adkins et al. (2023) investigates the relationship between political and religious beliefs amongst American preppers. They found that a large proportion of Americans believe that prophecy and supernatural beings are involved in world affairs. Like previous studies, Christian Nationalism and Apocalypticism were significantly correlated. Interestingly white Christian Nationalists were found to be in an apocalyptic panic as they feel as though they are “losing ground” in comparison to non-white people in America. This suggests a racial bias common amongst preppers and proposes a social consequence. === What are environmental triggers of Apocalyptic Fear? === Stiger et al. (2023) explains that there are several triggers in society which cause mortality salience, and consequently apocalyptic fear. Table 2 details common religious and secular apocalypse scenarios believed to trigger existential fear. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Name !Description |- |Political |Civil wars and breakdown of political systems. |- |Economic |Inequality undermining economic systems. |- |Nuclear |Nuclear war that destroys civilisations. |- |Climate Change |Destruction of civilisation due to global warming. |- |Racism |Social collapse due to racial discrimination. |- |Immigration |Societal destruction due to large scale immigration. |- |Family Breakdown |Social collapse due to the dissolution of family structures. |- |Rapture |Destruction of the world from the second coming of Christ and divine judgement. |} ''Table 2: Types of religious and secular apocalyptic triggers derived from works by Davidson (2025).'' * Reflection of catastrophe's in pop culture. It has been argued that the presence of apocalyptic themes in media is a tangible reflection (project test) of personality (Fetterman, 2019) * Post COVID-19 anxiety was found to be a motivator of prepping behaviour in a study of 126 self-identified doomsday peppers. Other motivators included fear about security in sociopoltiical landscape and person crises. The online prepper communities demonstrated 4 themes: social learning of prepping behaviour online, within-group differences in personal views, sense of community, and lack of engagement (Marshe, 2025). * War and political unrest. Mass broadcasting and accessibility to distressing media around the world. {{RoundBoxTop}} Case Study Continued. This aim of this feature box is to continue the story of Evan who has watched the Apocalyptic movie to put into action how Apocalyptic Fear can develop through cognition/psychology and who is susceptible. The case study will include more background on Evan's sociocultural background, political/religious beliefs etc. Evan's demographics will align with the findings of the literature identified in my preliminary view. Furthermore, the case study will provide insight into Evan's internal thoughts, beliefs, and attitudes. Once again, this will align with the literature where his personality traits and anxious rumination suggests that he is more susceptible to apocalyptic fear. I also want this part of the case study to demonstrate how a piece of media can influence the internal thinking patterns, leading to apocalyptic fear {{RoundBoxBottom}} <quiz> {According to Terror Management Theory, Evan is experiencing Apocalyptic Fear because |type="()"} + He is grappling with anxieties regarding death being inevitable. - The characters in the film modelled the appropriate response to anxiety inducing environment. - Evans survival instincts kicked in. - Evan believes the film is predicting the future. </quiz> <quiz> {What are all of the triggers that may have initiated Evan's Apocalyptic Fear? |type="[]"} + The movie + Engaging in reddit threads about end-of-world conspiracy theories + Media reporting on the Ukraine War + Covid-19 Lockdown </quiz> ==Consequences of Apocalyptic Fear== Introductory section before breaking into sub-sections === The Individual === Apocalyptic fear can significantly affect an individual's thoughts, emotions, and behaviours. TMT argues that awareness of death creates anxiety, motivating people to seek ways to regain control and meaning in life (Guthrie, 2022). One common response is prepping, which can function as an 'immortality project' by helping individuals feel more prepared for uncertain futures (Guthrie, 2022). Prepping is the management of stockpiled household items in anticipation of market disruption (Nair, 2023). When people perceived their lives as 'not going well', prepping increases to regain feeling of control. Mortality salience often leads people to defend their existing beliefs more strongly and become more hostile towards those with opposing worldviews. This protects self-esteem and reduces existential anxiety, but can also increase mistrust and social division (Guthrie, 2022). Individuals may engage in experiential avoidance, denying information that reminds them of mortality or distracting themselves from uncomfortable thoughts and emotions. Apocalyptic fear is also associated with higher anxiety, neuroticism, pessimistic future thinking, and frequent thoughts of death. Research suggests that greater engagement in prepping correlates with increased catastrophising and conspiracy thinking, as individuals attempt to make sense of uncertain threats (Fetterman et al., 2019). Stieger et al. (2023) similarly found that existential threats can produce immediate increases in anxiety. Prepping itself is not necessarily always harmful. Nair (2023) defines prepping as stockpiling resources and developing skills to prepare for potential disruptions, often focusing on medicine, security, shelter, nutrition, hydration, and hygiene. It can provide a sense of control, self-sufficiency, and emotional regulation during periods of uncertainty. However, when taken to extremes, prepping may reduce quality of life, encourage excessive consumerism, and foster distrust and competition over perceived scarce resources. === Politics, Society and Culture === Apocalyptic fear has had a significant influence on politics, society, and culture. One of the clearest examples is the popularity of post-apocalyptic literature, which reflects society's ongoing fascination with end-of-the-world scenarios and collective anxieties about the future (Paul & Alan, 2024). While traditional apocalyptic beliefs were largely rooted in religion, contemporary apocalyptic narratives have become increasingly secularised, focusing on threats such as climate change, nuclear war, and environmental collapse (Davidson, 2025). These issues are closely tied to political debates, allowing apocalyptic themes to shape public discourse and policy discussions. Apocalyptic narratives are often used as political tools to influence public opinion and mobilise action. Davidson argues that the apocalypse can be weaponised by dominant social groups to portray the future as inevitable and beyond human control, allowing those in positions of power to avoid responsibility for addressing social inequalities and injustices. At the same time, oppressed groups have also drawn on apocalyptic imagery to express dissatisfaction with existing social conditions and imagine alternative futures. In this way, apocalyptic movements can both inspire demands for social change and reflect feelings of powerlessness in the face of oppression. However, apocalyptic thinking can also have negative consequences for democratic societies. Davidson suggests that framing the future as fixed and unavoidable discourages debate and critical engagement, potentially fostering authoritarian attitudes. Similarly, Furse (2022) argues that apocalyptic narratives are effective at rallying political action because they present issues in urgent, moralistic terms. In the United States, Christian nationalist movements have used apocalyptic themes to emphasise moral decline and portray the nation as under threat, encouraging support for political agendas framed as necessary for survival (Furse, 2022). Research by Piazza (2026) further highlights the dangers of apocalyptic beliefs in politics. Surveying over 1,300 White Americans, Piazza found that Christian nationalism significantly predicted apocalyptic beliefs, support for political violence, and hostility towards social outgroups. Apocalypticism itself was a significant predictor of outgroup hate, as believers often divided society into forces of "good" and "evil." Existential fears associated with apocalyptic thinking increased mistrust and dehumanisation of outsiders, particularly racial minorities, which in turn normalised support for political violence (Piazza, 2026). These findings suggest that apocalyptic fear can contribute to social polarisation, prejudice, and the justification of violence against perceived threats. Despite these risks, apocalyptic thinking is not entirely negative. Garrett (2021) argues that apocalyptic narratives often emerge during periods of crisis because they can inspire hope for transformation and survival. For example, preppers may view societal collapse as an opportunity to demonstrate resilience and create a better future. However, these hopes are often centred on individual survival rather than collective solutions. Furthermore, collective avoidance of discussions about climate change and eco-anxiety has been linked to increased societal anxiety over time, suggesting that confronting threats openly may be more constructive than denying them (Guthrie, 2022). {{RoundBoxTop}} Case Study continued: Maladaptive and adaptive behaviours Evan is displaying to cope with his uncomfortable anxieties about the end of the world {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Managing Apocalyptic Fear== One may question whether behaviours associated with Apocalyptic Fear need to be managed. Does it actually need to be treated or managed? Prepping behaviour as a result of apocalyptic fear is not inherently 'bad'. However, it can become maladaptive. It should be noted that a change in this phenomenon can only occur once the individual innately want to commit to the change. === Strategies === *Cognitive restructuring to challenge thought patterns that reinforce catastrophic predictions and exaggeration of non-existent threats. *A 2022 Study by Sabzevari demonstrated that existential therapy is a tool to reduce anxiety related to COVID-19 and death. This type of therapy helps individuals develop sincere and real relationships with life and death. Describe and critique the therapy. *Acceptance & Commitment therapy. Guthrie (2022) studied how acceptance and commitment therapy can support individuals coping with climate-related apocalyptic fear. Describe and critique the therapy. *Strengthening social cohesion and community resilience. === Media Literacy === * Media hygiene. Reduce exposure to sensationalist apocalyptic content (Menzies & Menzies, 2024). * Importance of sharing of accurate information. * Limiting antisocial media use. {{RoundBoxTop}} Final part of case study. Going to explain maladaptive symptoms and suggestions that his friend, Ricki, has made to help him combat his apocalyptic fear. This may include activities that increase social cohesion, media hygiene, and education. Case study will ask audience to reflect on what they would suggest Evan does to manage his apocalyptic fear. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Conclusion== * Apocalyptic fear is common and emerges from evolutionary instincts, existential concerns, personality traits, and especially environmental triggers. * It has meaningful consequences that impact individuals, their mental health and coping mechanisms, societies social cohesion and polarisation, and political violence. * Psychological science provides effective tools for managing apocalyptic thinking patterns. Science not only helps us understand how apocalyptic fear develops, but provides strategies and therapies to combat it. Existential therapies, acceptance therapy, and increased media education and literacy helps people manage in health ways. * Reducing apocalyptic fear requires both internal straggles of change (cognitive, emotional, and existential) and external strategies (accurate information, social connect, and media hygiene). {{tip|Suggestions for this section: LEAVING THIS SECTION FOR FUTURE REFERENCE * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} * {{tip|Suggestions for this section: LEAVING THIS SECTION FOR FUTURE REFERENCE * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==See also== {{expand}} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. {{Hanging indent|1= Adkins, J., Djupe, P. A., & Neiheisel, J. R. (2023). Preparedness Behavior and the apocalypse: religion and politics in the post 2020 election era. Politics and Religion, 16(4), 585–604. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/politics-and-religion/article/preparedness-behavior-and-the-apocalypse-religion-and-politics-in-the-post-2020-election-era/39FA605571043F7C03281B5B15C2C9E4 Davison, J. (2025). The Apocalypse from Below: The Dangerous Idea of the End of the World, the Politics of the Oppressed, and Anti-Anti-Apocalypticism. American Political Science Review, 119(1), 479–491. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/american-political-science-review/article/apocalypse-from-below-the-dangerous-idea-of-the-end-of-the-world-the-politics-of-the-oppressed-and-antiantiapocalypticism/054311423D0D7BC9E3B7586C894F0CAB Fetterman, A., et al. (2019). On Post-apocalyptic and Doomsday Prepping Beliefs: A New Measure, its Correlates and the Motivation to Prep. European Journal of Personality, 33(4), 506-525. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2216 Furse, T. (2022). ‘Let us go out to the Field’: Apocalyptic Thinking in Christian Nationalism. Politics, Religion & Ideology, 23(3), 306–326. https://doi.org/10.1080/21567689.2022.2123802 Garret, B. (2020). Doomsday preppers and the architecture of dread. Geoforum, 127(1), 401-411. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7151311/ Guthrie, D. (2023). How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Eco-Apocalypse: An Existential Approach to Accepting Eco-Anxiety. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 18(1), 210-223. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/17456916221093613 Menzies, R. & Menzies, R. (2024). Existential therapies and the extended evolutionary meta-model: Turning existential philosophy into process-based therapy. Journal of Contextual Behaviour Science, 34(1). https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2212144724001200 Nair, T. (2023). Doomsday Prepping: Reactionary Behaviour or Inherited Instinct? Seattle Anxiety. https://seattleanxiety.com/psychiatrist/2023/1/12/doomsday-prepping-reactionary-behavior-or-inherited-instinct Parsons, S. (2022). Terror Management Theory. EBSCO.com https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/social-sciences-and-humanities/terror-management-theory Piazza, J. A. (2026). Christian nationalism, apocalypticism, outgroup hate, and support for violent extremism.Defence and Peace Economics, 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1080/10242694.2026.2613902 Sabzevari, P. (2022). The Effectiveness of Existential Therapy Intervention on Anxiety Caused by Coronavirus and Death. Clinical Cancer Investigation Journal, 11(1). https://ccij-online.org/article/the-effectiveness-of-existential-therapy-intervention-on-anxiety-caused-by-coronavirus-and-death-ec5qns1rnmgi9ju Stieger, S. et al. (2023). Examining terror management theory in Ukraine: impact of air-raid alarms and explosions on mental health, somatic symptoms and well-being. Front. Psychiatry, 14(1). https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychiatry/articles/10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1244335/full Strozier, S. (2017). The Apocalyptic Imagination and Fundamentalist Mindset. New England Journal of Public Policy, 29(1). https://scholarworks.umb.edu/nejpp/vol29/iss1/7/ }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== * [https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20211014-agents-of-doom-who-is-hastening-the-apocalypse-and-why Agents of Doom: Who is creating the apocalypse and why] (Luke Kemp) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=idMobTOh0kY Addicted to Apocalypse: Our Psychological Need for the End] (The Living Philosophy) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SKBTrMH7SeI&list=PLivjPDlt6ApT_2pW5HJl9GnMaNgJO6AgK Doomsday Preppers] (National Geographic) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Fear]] 4b0djjfmk2cukckkvvk0caue1zul7sz 2836501 2836500 2026-10-07T09:32:42Z LazPulch 3105917 Re-order and case study 1 2836501 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Apocalyptic fear:<br>What is apocalyptic fear, what are its consequences, and how can it be dealt with?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:F5 tornado Elie Manitoba 2007.jpg|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1'''. Natural disasters are commonly featured in apocalyptic films]] In the next 30 seconds, try to list 5 end-of-the-world movies or TV shows. ...was that easier than you expected? Have you noticed that film, TV and pop culture gravitate towards producing media with doomsday themes? The end of the world, the (very un-natural) natural disaster, a zombie apocalypse or [[w: Artificial Intelligence| Artificial Intelligence]] (AI) taking over the world! Audiences love doomsday media. Why do we love to consume objectively terrifying stories exploring mass destruction and the end of existence as we know it? Apocalyptic fear is more common than you'd think and a quick review of today's media landscape is evidence of that. This book chapter is going to follow the case study of Evan a Christian man living in the United States (US). It's 2023, and Evan has just watched [[w: Leave the World Behind (Film)|Leave the World Behind]] (Wikipedia) a modern day psychological, apocalyptic thriller regarding a mass cyber attack on the United States (US). Throughout this chapter we will evaluate Evan's own experience of Apocalyptic Fear informed by the movie, psychological theories underpinning this phenomenon, its consequences and how it can be managed. {{RoundBoxBottom}} In the literature, apocalyptic fear is also referred to as ‘apocalyptic thinking, ‘end of world beliefs’, ‘existential fear’, ‘catastrophic thinking’ and ‘doomsday thinking’. Whilst apocalyptic fear is not a mental health diagnosis, it is apparent that those experiencing these thought patterns are associated with diagnosis of and experiences of other mental health related struggles (Fetterman et al., 2019). Apocalyptic fear is primarily observable in cultural subgroups known as ‘Doomsday Preppers’ (Preppers). Preppers are people who practice the anticipation of and adapting to impending conditions of calamity (Garret, 2020). There are several types of apocalyptic fear and psychological theories that underpin the phenomenon and its consequences. Garret (2020) explains that the inability for Preppers to know when disaster is going to strike, coupled with the perceived inevitability of a catastrophe has effects of dread which manifests in prepping behaviour. But are the consequences of apocalyptic thinking a problem or is it a coping strategy to protect us from mortality salience? Is prepping itself a bad manifestation of a preppers psyche that needs management? This chapter will review the consequences of apocalyptic fear, including prepping, maladaptive behaviours, out-group hate, and anti-social behaviour. We will also examine the reciprocal influences of apocalyptic thinking of culture and politics. Finally, the chapter will explore strategies to manage apocalyptic fear including psychotherapies and more practice remedies such as media literacy, training and education.  {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' *What is Apocalyptic Fear? *What are the consequences of Apocalyptic Fear? *What can be done to manage Apocalyptic Fear? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What is Apocalyptic Fear?== [[File:Protokol Kesehatan.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2''': Harsh changes to reality like COVID-19 pandemic evokes apocalyptic fear]] Apocalyptic fear has been described as fear relating to the end of the world as we know it, usually through catastrophic means, both secular and religious (Garret, 2021). Apocalyptic fear has resurged in recent years from sociopolitical events, such as the COVID-19 pandemic, the Russian invasion of Ukraine, threats of nuclear war and even the climate change crisis (Davidson, 2025). These events are demonstrations of the reciprocal relationship between end-of-world thinking, the sociopolitical environment and our behaviour. Historically, apocalyptic themes were previously associated with fundamentalist religious positions, conspiracy mentality, paranoia and conservatism. However, with the occurrence of world-wide disruptions to our way of comprehending the world like through the pandemic, the apocalypse has become a much more mainstream concern (Nair, 2023). In fact, 50% of American children have reportedly declared that they’re afraid of a climate crisis that will cause the Earth to be uninhabitable (Hornfeldt, 2018; as city in Guthrie, 2022). Apocalyptic fear is only exacerbated with media covering distressing events that is more accessible than ever. It should be noted that literature regarding apocalyptic fear is primarily derived from contexts in the US, likely due to the prevalence of Christian Nationalism, conservatism, consumerism and individualism making the research relevant to the population (Nair, 2023). This should be taken into consideration when applying the research to other contexts. === Who is susceptible? === As previously mentioned, research exploring the demographic experiencing apocalyptic fear and engaging in prepping behaviours is primarily based in the US. Apocalyptic fear in the US is particularly popular in the literature as factors such as Christian Nationalism, Conservatism, Consumerism and Individualism are highly valued and contribute to prepping beliefs and behaviour (Nair, 2023). Contrary to popular belief, in the literature, religious variables are not commonly among the key predictors of preparedness behaviour (Adkins et al., 2023), likely because religious people do not feel the need to prepare as it will be a divine entity’s will to end the world (Adkins et al., 2023). Research by Fetterman et al. (2019) draws on information from social media discussion platforms and conversations with doomsday believers to develop the Post-Apocalyptic and Doomsday Prepping Belief Scale (PAPBS) to predict prepping behaviours. The validity and reliability of the PABS have been demonstrated throughout other cultures, such as Turkey (Alban & Arkan, 2024). Fetterman et al. (2019) identifies three themes underpinning prepping beliefs. Underlying all of these themes, is a pessimistic world view. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Theme !Explanation |- |Human Nature |General distrust of humans in a post-apocalyptic environment, in that they will resort to natural violent instincts with the absence of man-made law. |- |Resource Availability |Anxiety regarding a lack of resources available in a post-apocalyptic world. |- |Competitive Survival |In a post-apocalyptic world, humans will be competitive rather than cooperative, and will adopt a survival of the fittest mindset. |} ''Table 1: Predictive believes contributing to Apocalyptic Beliefs: Derived from Fetterman et al. (2019).'' Results from the study found that the three themes were all positively and significantly inter-correlated with each other, post-apocalyptic pessimism (PA pessimism) and prepping beliefs. Paranoia was positively related to PA pessimism and competitive survival. Positive correlations between conservatism and PA pessimism. Fetterman’s study also compares PAPBS with the HEXACO model of personality. From this research preppers tend to be: ·      Highly extroverted: outgoing, expressive and sociable. ·      Highly Neurotic: frequency experience negative emotions. ·      Low in Agreeableness: not cooperative, empathetic or considerate towards others. ·      Low in Honesty/humility: inflated sense of self importance. Furthermore, daily thoughts of death and cynicism were consistent predictors of daily prepping. Daily negative emotions, stress, uncertainty and negative events were less consistent positive predictors of daily prepping thoughts. However, the only consistent predictor of prepping behaviour was belief in the need to prep. This aligns with Ajzen’s (1991) Theory of Planned behaviour that has been used to explain prepping behaviour. Finally, apocalypticism was correlated with social dominance orientation (SDO), which is a personality trait that devalues social equality and reinforces ideology regarding social outgroup’s lack of right to respect. This highlights possible societal consequences of apocalyptic thinking. Alternatively, a study by Adkins et al. (2023) investigates the relationship between political and religious beliefs amongst American preppers. They found that a large proportion of Americans believe that prophecy and supernatural beings are involved in world affairs. Like previous studies, Christian Nationalism and Apocalypticism were significantly correlated. Interestingly white Christian Nationalists were found to be in an apocalyptic panic as they feel as though they are “losing ground” in comparison to non-white people in America. This suggests a racial bias common amongst preppers and proposes a social consequence. {{RoundBoxTop}}Case study continued: Evan is a 38-year-old tradesman living in a small town in the US. Raised in a conservative Christian household, he grew up valuing hard work, self-reliance, and personal responsibility. Although he no longer attends church regularly, many of these beliefs still shape how he views the world. Politically, he leans conservative and often feels concerned about growing political division, social change, and global instability.{{RoundBoxBottom}} === Psychological Theories === Apocalyptic fear can be understood through several psychological theories that explain why individuals become preoccupied with catastrophic futures and engage in behaviours such as prepping. While these theories offer different explanations, they collectively suggest that apocalyptic thinking is motivated by a desire to manage threats, uncertainty, and mortality. The existential psychological perspective focuses on how individuals create meaning in life despite the inevitability of death. According to Guthrie (2022), apocalyptic thinking reflects a struggle with fundamental existential concerns, particularly mortality and the search for purpose. Similarly, Terror Management Theory (TMT) argues that awareness of death creates psychological terror, which people manage by investing in belief systems that provide meaning, self-worth, and a sense of symbolic immortality (Parsons, 2013). From this perspective, prepping behaviours function as a strategy to reduce death anxiety by increasing feelings of survival capability and personal significance. Both theories emphasise mortality as a central driver of apocalyptic fear; however, existential psychology focuses more broadly on meaning-making, whereas TMT specifically explains the defensive mechanisms used to suppress death-related anxiety. In contrast, Instinct Theory of Motivation explains apocalyptic fear from an evolutionary perspective. Rather than viewing fear as a response to existential concerns, instinct theory suggests that apocalyptic thinking arises from innate survival mechanisms activated when threats are perceived (Turner & Walsmley, 2020). Prepping behaviours therefore represent adaptive responses designed to enhance survival. While TMT and existential psychology emphasise symbolic and cognitive responses to mortality, instinct theory focuses on biological preparedness and self-preservation. A related but distinct explanation is provided by Social Dominance Orientation (SDO) and Darwinistic worldviews. These perspectives suggest that apocalyptic fear is linked to beliefs about competition, hierarchy, and survival of the fittest. Research by Fetterman et al. (2019) found that individuals who endorse post-apocalyptic survival mindsets often score highly in social dominance traits. Unlike existential and evolutionary theories, which focus on managing fear or ensuring survival, SDO emphasises power dynamics and the expectation that social order will become competitive during crises. Consequently, prepping may be motivated not only by fear of catastrophe but also by beliefs about gaining an advantage over others. The Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) offers a different explanation by focusing on the processes that translate intention into actions. According to TPB, attitudes toward potential disasters, perceived social norms, and perceived behavioural control influence intentions to prepare, which then predict actual prepping behaviour (Fetterman et al., 2019). Unlike the other theories, TPB does not explain the origin of apocalyptic fear itself. Instead, it explains how fear becomes behavioural action. For example, a person who believes an apocalypse is likely, perceives that others support preparedness, and feels capable of preparing is more likely to engage in prepping activities. These theories can be integrated into a comprehensive understanding of apocalyptic fear. Existential psychology and TMT explain the underlying anxiety created by mortality awareness. Instinct theory suggests that perceived threats activate evolved survival responses. SDO highlights how competitive and hierarchical worldviews shape interpretations of catastrophic scenarios, while TPB explains how these beliefs and fears are translated into concrete preparedness behaviours. Fetterman et al. (2019) further support this integration by demonstrating that prepping beliefs are associated with individuals' daily thoughts, emotions, behavioural tendencies, and perceived sense of control. When people experience uncertainty or feel a loss of control, preparedness behaviours may serve both practical and psychological functions. {{RoundBoxTop}} Case Study Continued. This aim of this feature box is to continue the story of Evan who has watched the Apocalyptic movie to put into action how Apocalyptic Fear can develop through cognition/psychology and who is susceptible. The case study will include more background on Evan's sociocultural background, political/religious beliefs etc. Evan's demographics will align with the findings of the literature identified in my preliminary view. Furthermore, the case study will provide insight into Evan's internal thoughts, beliefs, and attitudes. Once again, this will align with the literature where his personality traits and anxious rumination suggests that he is more susceptible to apocalyptic fear. I also want this part of the case study to demonstrate how a piece of media can influence the internal thinking patterns, leading to apocalyptic fear {{RoundBoxBottom}} <quiz> {According to Terror Management Theory, Evan is experiencing Apocalyptic Fear because |type="()"} + He is grappling with anxieties regarding death being inevitable. - The characters in the film modelled the appropriate response to anxiety inducing environment. - Evans survival instincts kicked in. - Evan believes the film is predicting the future. </quiz> === What are environmental triggers of Apocalyptic Fear? === Stiger et al. (2023) explains that there are several triggers in society which cause mortality salience, and consequently apocalyptic fear. Table 2 details common religious and secular apocalypse scenarios believed to trigger existential fear. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Name !Description |- |Political |Civil wars and breakdown of political systems. |- |Economic |Inequality undermining economic systems. |- |Nuclear |Nuclear war that destroys civilisations. |- |Climate Change |Destruction of civilisation due to global warming. |- |Racism |Social collapse due to racial discrimination. |- |Immigration |Societal destruction due to large scale immigration. |- |Family Breakdown |Social collapse due to the dissolution of family structures. |- |Rapture |Destruction of the world from the second coming of Christ and divine judgement. |} ''Table 2: Types of religious and secular apocalyptic triggers derived from works by Davidson (2025).'' * Reflection of catastrophe's in pop culture. It has been argued that the presence of apocalyptic themes in media is a tangible reflection (project test) of personality (Fetterman, 2019) * Post COVID-19 anxiety was found to be a motivator of prepping behaviour in a study of 126 self-identified doomsday peppers. Other motivators included fear about security in sociopoltiical landscape and person crises. The online prepper communities demonstrated 4 themes: social learning of prepping behaviour online, within-group differences in personal views, sense of community, and lack of engagement (Marshe, 2025). * War and political unrest. Mass broadcasting and accessibility to distressing media around the world.{{RoundBoxTop}} Case Study Continued. This aim of this feature box is to continue the story of Evan who has watched the Apocalyptic movie to put into action how Apocalyptic Fear can develop through cognition/psychology and who is susceptible. The case study will include more background on Evan's sociocultural background, political/religious beliefs etc. Evan's demographics will align with the findings of the literature identified in my preliminary view. Furthermore, the case study will provide insight into Evan's internal thoughts, beliefs, and attitudes. Once again, this will align with the literature where his personality traits and anxious rumination suggests that he is more susceptible to apocalyptic fear. I also want this part of the case study to demonstrate how a piece of media can influence the internal thinking patterns, leading to apocalyptic fear {{RoundBoxBottom}} <quiz> {What are all of the triggers that may have initiated Evan's Apocalyptic Fear? |type="[]"} + The movie + Engaging in reddit threads about end-of-world conspiracy theories + Media reporting on the Ukraine War + Covid-19 Lockdown </quiz> ==Consequences of Apocalyptic Fear== Introductory section before breaking into sub-sections === The Individual === Apocalyptic fear can significantly affect an individual's thoughts, emotions, and behaviours. TMT argues that awareness of death creates anxiety, motivating people to seek ways to regain control and meaning in life (Guthrie, 2022). One common response is prepping, which can function as an 'immortality project' by helping individuals feel more prepared for uncertain futures (Guthrie, 2022). Prepping is the management of stockpiled household items in anticipation of market disruption (Nair, 2023). When people perceived their lives as 'not going well', prepping increases to regain feeling of control. Mortality salience often leads people to defend their existing beliefs more strongly and become more hostile towards those with opposing worldviews. This protects self-esteem and reduces existential anxiety, but can also increase mistrust and social division (Guthrie, 2022). Individuals may engage in experiential avoidance, denying information that reminds them of mortality or distracting themselves from uncomfortable thoughts and emotions. Apocalyptic fear is also associated with higher anxiety, neuroticism, pessimistic future thinking, and frequent thoughts of death. Research suggests that greater engagement in prepping correlates with increased catastrophising and conspiracy thinking, as individuals attempt to make sense of uncertain threats (Fetterman et al., 2019). Stieger et al. (2023) similarly found that existential threats can produce immediate increases in anxiety. Prepping itself is not necessarily always harmful. Nair (2023) defines prepping as stockpiling resources and developing skills to prepare for potential disruptions, often focusing on medicine, security, shelter, nutrition, hydration, and hygiene. It can provide a sense of control, self-sufficiency, and emotional regulation during periods of uncertainty. However, when taken to extremes, prepping may reduce quality of life, encourage excessive consumerism, and foster distrust and competition over perceived scarce resources. === Politics, Society and Culture === Apocalyptic fear has had a significant influence on politics, society, and culture. One of the clearest examples is the popularity of post-apocalyptic literature, which reflects society's ongoing fascination with end-of-the-world scenarios and collective anxieties about the future (Paul & Alan, 2024). While traditional apocalyptic beliefs were largely rooted in religion, contemporary apocalyptic narratives have become increasingly secularised, focusing on threats such as climate change, nuclear war, and environmental collapse (Davidson, 2025). These issues are closely tied to political debates, allowing apocalyptic themes to shape public discourse and policy discussions. Apocalyptic narratives are often used as political tools to influence public opinion and mobilise action. Davidson argues that the apocalypse can be weaponised by dominant social groups to portray the future as inevitable and beyond human control, allowing those in positions of power to avoid responsibility for addressing social inequalities and injustices. At the same time, oppressed groups have also drawn on apocalyptic imagery to express dissatisfaction with existing social conditions and imagine alternative futures. In this way, apocalyptic movements can both inspire demands for social change and reflect feelings of powerlessness in the face of oppression. However, apocalyptic thinking can also have negative consequences for democratic societies. Davidson suggests that framing the future as fixed and unavoidable discourages debate and critical engagement, potentially fostering authoritarian attitudes. Similarly, Furse (2022) argues that apocalyptic narratives are effective at rallying political action because they present issues in urgent, moralistic terms. In the United States, Christian nationalist movements have used apocalyptic themes to emphasise moral decline and portray the nation as under threat, encouraging support for political agendas framed as necessary for survival (Furse, 2022). Research by Piazza (2026) further highlights the dangers of apocalyptic beliefs in politics. Surveying over 1,300 White Americans, Piazza found that Christian nationalism significantly predicted apocalyptic beliefs, support for political violence, and hostility towards social outgroups. Apocalypticism itself was a significant predictor of outgroup hate, as believers often divided society into forces of "good" and "evil." Existential fears associated with apocalyptic thinking increased mistrust and dehumanisation of outsiders, particularly racial minorities, which in turn normalised support for political violence (Piazza, 2026). These findings suggest that apocalyptic fear can contribute to social polarisation, prejudice, and the justification of violence against perceived threats. Despite these risks, apocalyptic thinking is not entirely negative. Garrett (2021) argues that apocalyptic narratives often emerge during periods of crisis because they can inspire hope for transformation and survival. For example, preppers may view societal collapse as an opportunity to demonstrate resilience and create a better future. However, these hopes are often centred on individual survival rather than collective solutions. Furthermore, collective avoidance of discussions about climate change and eco-anxiety has been linked to increased societal anxiety over time, suggesting that confronting threats openly may be more constructive than denying them (Guthrie, 2022). {{RoundBoxTop}} Case Study continued: Maladaptive and adaptive behaviours Evan is displaying to cope with his uncomfortable anxieties about the end of the world {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Managing Apocalyptic Fear== One may question whether behaviours associated with Apocalyptic Fear need to be managed. Does it actually need to be treated or managed? Prepping behaviour as a result of apocalyptic fear is not inherently 'bad'. However, it can become maladaptive. It should be noted that a change in this phenomenon can only occur once the individual innately want to commit to the change. === Strategies === *Cognitive restructuring to challenge thought patterns that reinforce catastrophic predictions and exaggeration of non-existent threats. *A 2022 Study by Sabzevari demonstrated that existential therapy is a tool to reduce anxiety related to COVID-19 and death. This type of therapy helps individuals develop sincere and real relationships with life and death. Describe and critique the therapy. *Acceptance & Commitment therapy. Guthrie (2022) studied how acceptance and commitment therapy can support individuals coping with climate-related apocalyptic fear. Describe and critique the therapy. *Strengthening social cohesion and community resilience. === Media Literacy === * Media hygiene. Reduce exposure to sensationalist apocalyptic content (Menzies & Menzies, 2024). * Importance of sharing of accurate information. * Limiting antisocial media use. {{RoundBoxTop}} Final part of case study. Going to explain maladaptive symptoms and suggestions that his friend, Ricki, has made to help him combat his apocalyptic fear. This may include activities that increase social cohesion, media hygiene, and education. Case study will ask audience to reflect on what they would suggest Evan does to manage his apocalyptic fear. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Conclusion== * Apocalyptic fear is common and emerges from evolutionary instincts, existential concerns, personality traits, and especially environmental triggers. * It has meaningful consequences that impact individuals, their mental health and coping mechanisms, societies social cohesion and polarisation, and political violence. * Psychological science provides effective tools for managing apocalyptic thinking patterns. Science not only helps us understand how apocalyptic fear develops, but provides strategies and therapies to combat it. Existential therapies, acceptance therapy, and increased media education and literacy helps people manage in health ways. * Reducing apocalyptic fear requires both internal straggles of change (cognitive, emotional, and existential) and external strategies (accurate information, social connect, and media hygiene). {{tip|Suggestions for this section: LEAVING THIS SECTION FOR FUTURE REFERENCE * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} * {{tip|Suggestions for this section: LEAVING THIS SECTION FOR FUTURE REFERENCE * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==See also== {{expand}} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. {{Hanging indent|1= Adkins, J., Djupe, P. A., & Neiheisel, J. R. (2023). Preparedness Behavior and the apocalypse: religion and politics in the post 2020 election era. Politics and Religion, 16(4), 585–604. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/politics-and-religion/article/preparedness-behavior-and-the-apocalypse-religion-and-politics-in-the-post-2020-election-era/39FA605571043F7C03281B5B15C2C9E4 Davison, J. (2025). The Apocalypse from Below: The Dangerous Idea of the End of the World, the Politics of the Oppressed, and Anti-Anti-Apocalypticism. American Political Science Review, 119(1), 479–491. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/american-political-science-review/article/apocalypse-from-below-the-dangerous-idea-of-the-end-of-the-world-the-politics-of-the-oppressed-and-antiantiapocalypticism/054311423D0D7BC9E3B7586C894F0CAB Fetterman, A., et al. (2019). On Post-apocalyptic and Doomsday Prepping Beliefs: A New Measure, its Correlates and the Motivation to Prep. European Journal of Personality, 33(4), 506-525. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2216 Furse, T. (2022). ‘Let us go out to the Field’: Apocalyptic Thinking in Christian Nationalism. Politics, Religion & Ideology, 23(3), 306–326. https://doi.org/10.1080/21567689.2022.2123802 Garret, B. (2020). Doomsday preppers and the architecture of dread. Geoforum, 127(1), 401-411. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7151311/ Guthrie, D. (2023). How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Eco-Apocalypse: An Existential Approach to Accepting Eco-Anxiety. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 18(1), 210-223. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/17456916221093613 Menzies, R. & Menzies, R. (2024). Existential therapies and the extended evolutionary meta-model: Turning existential philosophy into process-based therapy. Journal of Contextual Behaviour Science, 34(1). https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2212144724001200 Nair, T. (2023). Doomsday Prepping: Reactionary Behaviour or Inherited Instinct? Seattle Anxiety. https://seattleanxiety.com/psychiatrist/2023/1/12/doomsday-prepping-reactionary-behavior-or-inherited-instinct Parsons, S. (2022). Terror Management Theory. EBSCO.com https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/social-sciences-and-humanities/terror-management-theory Piazza, J. A. (2026). Christian nationalism, apocalypticism, outgroup hate, and support for violent extremism.Defence and Peace Economics, 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1080/10242694.2026.2613902 Sabzevari, P. (2022). The Effectiveness of Existential Therapy Intervention on Anxiety Caused by Coronavirus and Death. Clinical Cancer Investigation Journal, 11(1). https://ccij-online.org/article/the-effectiveness-of-existential-therapy-intervention-on-anxiety-caused-by-coronavirus-and-death-ec5qns1rnmgi9ju Stieger, S. et al. (2023). Examining terror management theory in Ukraine: impact of air-raid alarms and explosions on mental health, somatic symptoms and well-being. Front. Psychiatry, 14(1). https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychiatry/articles/10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1244335/full Strozier, S. (2017). The Apocalyptic Imagination and Fundamentalist Mindset. New England Journal of Public Policy, 29(1). https://scholarworks.umb.edu/nejpp/vol29/iss1/7/ }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== * [https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20211014-agents-of-doom-who-is-hastening-the-apocalypse-and-why Agents of Doom: Who is creating the apocalypse and why] (Luke Kemp) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=idMobTOh0kY Addicted to Apocalypse: Our Psychological Need for the End] (The Living Philosophy) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SKBTrMH7SeI&list=PLivjPDlt6ApT_2pW5HJl9GnMaNgJO6AgK Doomsday Preppers] (National Geographic) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Fear]] 0qjr5eyycpsji5t1wpeoxaazw21y3cs 2836502 2836501 2026-10-07T09:35:13Z LazPulch 3105917 /* Overview */ Case study 1 improvement 2836502 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Apocalyptic fear:<br>What is apocalyptic fear, what are its consequences, and how can it be dealt with?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:F5 tornado Elie Manitoba 2007.jpg|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1'''. Natural disasters are commonly featured in apocalyptic films]] In the next 30 seconds, try to list 5 end-of-the-world movies or TV shows. ...was that easier than you expected? Have you noticed that film, TV and pop culture gravitate towards producing media with doomsday themes? The end of the world, the (very un-natural) natural disaster, a zombie apocalypse or [[w: Artificial Intelligence| Artificial Intelligence]] (AI) taking over the world! Audiences love doomsday media. Why do we love to consume objectively terrifying stories exploring mass destruction and the end of existence as we know it? Apocalyptic fear is more common than you'd think and a quick review of today's media landscape is evidence of that. This book chapter is going to follow the case study of Evan a Christian man living in the United States (US). It's 2023, and Evan has just watched [[w: Leave the World Behind (Film)|Leave the World Behind]] (Wikipedia) a modern day psychological, apocalyptic thriller regarding a mass cyber attack on the United States (US). Throughout this chapter we will evaluate Evan's own experience of Apocalyptic Fear informed by the movie, psychological theories underpinning this phenomenon, its consequences and how it can be managed. {{RoundBoxBottom}} In the literature, apocalyptic fear is also referred to as ‘apocalyptic thinking, ‘end of world beliefs’, ‘existential fear’, ‘catastrophic thinking’ and ‘doomsday thinking’. Whilst apocalyptic fear is not a mental health diagnosis, it is apparent that those experiencing these thought patterns are associated with diagnosis of and experiences of other mental health related struggles (Fetterman et al., 2019). Apocalyptic fear is primarily observable in cultural subgroups known as ‘Doomsday Preppers’ (Preppers). Preppers are people who practice the anticipation of and adapting to impending conditions of calamity (Garret, 2020). There are several types of apocalyptic fear and psychological theories that underpin the phenomenon and its consequences. Garret (2020) explains that the inability for Preppers to know when disaster is going to strike, coupled with the perceived inevitability of a catastrophe has effects of dread which manifests in prepping behaviour. But are the consequences of apocalyptic thinking a problem or is it a coping strategy to protect us from mortality salience? Is prepping itself a bad manifestation of a preppers psyche that needs management? This chapter will review the consequences of apocalyptic fear, including prepping, maladaptive behaviours, out-group hate, and anti-social behaviour. We will also examine the reciprocal influences of apocalyptic thinking of culture and politics. Finally, the chapter will explore strategies to manage apocalyptic fear including psychotherapies and more practice remedies such as media literacy, training and education.  {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' *What is Apocalyptic Fear? *What are the consequences of Apocalyptic Fear? *What can be done to manage Apocalyptic Fear? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What is Apocalyptic Fear?== [[File:Protokol Kesehatan.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2''': Harsh changes to reality like COVID-19 pandemic evokes apocalyptic fear]] Apocalyptic fear has been described as fear relating to the end of the world as we know it, usually through catastrophic means, both secular and religious (Garret, 2021). Apocalyptic fear has resurged in recent years from sociopolitical events, such as the COVID-19 pandemic, the Russian invasion of Ukraine, threats of nuclear war and even the climate change crisis (Davidson, 2025). These events are demonstrations of the reciprocal relationship between end-of-world thinking, the sociopolitical environment and our behaviour. Historically, apocalyptic themes were previously associated with fundamentalist religious positions, conspiracy mentality, paranoia and conservatism. However, with the occurrence of world-wide disruptions to our way of comprehending the world like through the pandemic, the apocalypse has become a much more mainstream concern (Nair, 2023). In fact, 50% of American children have reportedly declared that they’re afraid of a climate crisis that will cause the Earth to be uninhabitable (Hornfeldt, 2018; as city in Guthrie, 2022). Apocalyptic fear is only exacerbated with media covering distressing events that is more accessible than ever. It should be noted that literature regarding apocalyptic fear is primarily derived from contexts in the US, likely due to the prevalence of Christian Nationalism, conservatism, consumerism and individualism making the research relevant to the population (Nair, 2023). This should be taken into consideration when applying the research to other contexts. === Who is susceptible? === As previously mentioned, research exploring the demographic experiencing apocalyptic fear and engaging in prepping behaviours is primarily based in the US. Apocalyptic fear in the US is particularly popular in the literature as factors such as Christian Nationalism, Conservatism, Consumerism and Individualism are highly valued and contribute to prepping beliefs and behaviour (Nair, 2023). Contrary to popular belief, in the literature, religious variables are not commonly among the key predictors of preparedness behaviour (Adkins et al., 2023), likely because religious people do not feel the need to prepare as it will be a divine entity’s will to end the world (Adkins et al., 2023). Research by Fetterman et al. (2019) draws on information from social media discussion platforms and conversations with doomsday believers to develop the Post-Apocalyptic and Doomsday Prepping Belief Scale (PAPBS) to predict prepping behaviours. The validity and reliability of the PABS have been demonstrated throughout other cultures, such as Turkey (Alban & Arkan, 2024). Fetterman et al. (2019) identifies three themes underpinning prepping beliefs. Underlying all of these themes, is a pessimistic world view. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Theme !Explanation |- |Human Nature |General distrust of humans in a post-apocalyptic environment, in that they will resort to natural violent instincts with the absence of man-made law. |- |Resource Availability |Anxiety regarding a lack of resources available in a post-apocalyptic world. |- |Competitive Survival |In a post-apocalyptic world, humans will be competitive rather than cooperative, and will adopt a survival of the fittest mindset. |} ''Table 1: Predictive believes contributing to Apocalyptic Beliefs: Derived from Fetterman et al. (2019).'' Results from the study found that the three themes were all positively and significantly inter-correlated with each other, post-apocalyptic pessimism (PA pessimism) and prepping beliefs. Paranoia was positively related to PA pessimism and competitive survival. Positive correlations between conservatism and PA pessimism. Fetterman’s study also compares PAPBS with the HEXACO model of personality. From this research preppers tend to be: ·      Highly extroverted: outgoing, expressive and sociable. ·      Highly Neurotic: frequency experience negative emotions. ·      Low in Agreeableness: not cooperative, empathetic or considerate towards others. ·      Low in Honesty/humility: inflated sense of self importance. Furthermore, daily thoughts of death and cynicism were consistent predictors of daily prepping. Daily negative emotions, stress, uncertainty and negative events were less consistent positive predictors of daily prepping thoughts. However, the only consistent predictor of prepping behaviour was belief in the need to prep. This aligns with Ajzen’s (1991) Theory of Planned behaviour that has been used to explain prepping behaviour. Finally, apocalypticism was correlated with social dominance orientation (SDO), which is a personality trait that devalues social equality and reinforces ideology regarding social outgroup’s lack of right to respect. This highlights possible societal consequences of apocalyptic thinking. Alternatively, a study by Adkins et al. (2023) investigates the relationship between political and religious beliefs amongst American preppers. They found that a large proportion of Americans believe that prophecy and supernatural beings are involved in world affairs. Like previous studies, Christian Nationalism and Apocalypticism were significantly correlated. Interestingly white Christian Nationalists were found to be in an apocalyptic panic as they feel as though they are “losing ground” in comparison to non-white people in America. This suggests a racial bias common amongst preppers and proposes a social consequence. {{RoundBoxTop}}Case study continued: Evan is a 39-year-old White American man living in the US. Raised in a conservative Christian household, he values self-reliance, personal responsibility, and independence. Although religion is not central to his daily life, his political views remain conservative, and he often feels concerned about the future of society. Evan is outgoing and enjoys discussing current events with friends and online communities. However, he is also prone to anxiety and frequently worries about what might go wrong in the future. When faced with uncertainty, he tends to focus on worst-case scenarios and finds it difficult to stop thinking about potential threats. He believes that society is becoming increasingly unstable and is sceptical that governments or institutions can effectively manage future crises. Evan also holds a pessimistic view of human nature, believing that people would become selfish and competitive if resources became scarce. He expects cooperation to break down during major disasters and thinks survival would depend on being better prepared than others.{{RoundBoxBottom}} === Psychological Theories === Apocalyptic fear can be understood through several psychological theories that explain why individuals become preoccupied with catastrophic futures and engage in behaviours such as prepping. While these theories offer different explanations, they collectively suggest that apocalyptic thinking is motivated by a desire to manage threats, uncertainty, and mortality. The existential psychological perspective focuses on how individuals create meaning in life despite the inevitability of death. According to Guthrie (2022), apocalyptic thinking reflects a struggle with fundamental existential concerns, particularly mortality and the search for purpose. Similarly, Terror Management Theory (TMT) argues that awareness of death creates psychological terror, which people manage by investing in belief systems that provide meaning, self-worth, and a sense of symbolic immortality (Parsons, 2013). From this perspective, prepping behaviours function as a strategy to reduce death anxiety by increasing feelings of survival capability and personal significance. Both theories emphasise mortality as a central driver of apocalyptic fear; however, existential psychology focuses more broadly on meaning-making, whereas TMT specifically explains the defensive mechanisms used to suppress death-related anxiety. In contrast, Instinct Theory of Motivation explains apocalyptic fear from an evolutionary perspective. Rather than viewing fear as a response to existential concerns, instinct theory suggests that apocalyptic thinking arises from innate survival mechanisms activated when threats are perceived (Turner & Walsmley, 2020). Prepping behaviours therefore represent adaptive responses designed to enhance survival. While TMT and existential psychology emphasise symbolic and cognitive responses to mortality, instinct theory focuses on biological preparedness and self-preservation. A related but distinct explanation is provided by Social Dominance Orientation (SDO) and Darwinistic worldviews. These perspectives suggest that apocalyptic fear is linked to beliefs about competition, hierarchy, and survival of the fittest. Research by Fetterman et al. (2019) found that individuals who endorse post-apocalyptic survival mindsets often score highly in social dominance traits. Unlike existential and evolutionary theories, which focus on managing fear or ensuring survival, SDO emphasises power dynamics and the expectation that social order will become competitive during crises. Consequently, prepping may be motivated not only by fear of catastrophe but also by beliefs about gaining an advantage over others. The Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) offers a different explanation by focusing on the processes that translate intention into actions. According to TPB, attitudes toward potential disasters, perceived social norms, and perceived behavioural control influence intentions to prepare, which then predict actual prepping behaviour (Fetterman et al., 2019). Unlike the other theories, TPB does not explain the origin of apocalyptic fear itself. Instead, it explains how fear becomes behavioural action. For example, a person who believes an apocalypse is likely, perceives that others support preparedness, and feels capable of preparing is more likely to engage in prepping activities. These theories can be integrated into a comprehensive understanding of apocalyptic fear. Existential psychology and TMT explain the underlying anxiety created by mortality awareness. Instinct theory suggests that perceived threats activate evolved survival responses. SDO highlights how competitive and hierarchical worldviews shape interpretations of catastrophic scenarios, while TPB explains how these beliefs and fears are translated into concrete preparedness behaviours. Fetterman et al. (2019) further support this integration by demonstrating that prepping beliefs are associated with individuals' daily thoughts, emotions, behavioural tendencies, and perceived sense of control. When people experience uncertainty or feel a loss of control, preparedness behaviours may serve both practical and psychological functions. {{RoundBoxTop}} Case Study Continued. This aim of this feature box is to continue the story of Evan who has watched the Apocalyptic movie to put into action how Apocalyptic Fear can develop through cognition/psychology and who is susceptible. The case study will include more background on Evan's sociocultural background, political/religious beliefs etc. Evan's demographics will align with the findings of the literature identified in my preliminary view. Furthermore, the case study will provide insight into Evan's internal thoughts, beliefs, and attitudes. Once again, this will align with the literature where his personality traits and anxious rumination suggests that he is more susceptible to apocalyptic fear. I also want this part of the case study to demonstrate how a piece of media can influence the internal thinking patterns, leading to apocalyptic fear {{RoundBoxBottom}} <quiz> {According to Terror Management Theory, Evan is experiencing Apocalyptic Fear because |type="()"} + He is grappling with anxieties regarding death being inevitable. - The characters in the film modelled the appropriate response to anxiety inducing environment. - Evans survival instincts kicked in. - Evan believes the film is predicting the future. </quiz> === What are environmental triggers of Apocalyptic Fear? === Stiger et al. (2023) explains that there are several triggers in society which cause mortality salience, and consequently apocalyptic fear. Table 2 details common religious and secular apocalypse scenarios believed to trigger existential fear. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Name !Description |- |Political |Civil wars and breakdown of political systems. |- |Economic |Inequality undermining economic systems. |- |Nuclear |Nuclear war that destroys civilisations. |- |Climate Change |Destruction of civilisation due to global warming. |- |Racism |Social collapse due to racial discrimination. |- |Immigration |Societal destruction due to large scale immigration. |- |Family Breakdown |Social collapse due to the dissolution of family structures. |- |Rapture |Destruction of the world from the second coming of Christ and divine judgement. |} ''Table 2: Types of religious and secular apocalyptic triggers derived from works by Davidson (2025).'' * Reflection of catastrophe's in pop culture. It has been argued that the presence of apocalyptic themes in media is a tangible reflection (project test) of personality (Fetterman, 2019) * Post COVID-19 anxiety was found to be a motivator of prepping behaviour in a study of 126 self-identified doomsday peppers. Other motivators included fear about security in sociopoltiical landscape and person crises. The online prepper communities demonstrated 4 themes: social learning of prepping behaviour online, within-group differences in personal views, sense of community, and lack of engagement (Marshe, 2025). * War and political unrest. Mass broadcasting and accessibility to distressing media around the world.{{RoundBoxTop}} Case Study Continued. This aim of this feature box is to continue the story of Evan who has watched the Apocalyptic movie to put into action how Apocalyptic Fear can develop through cognition/psychology and who is susceptible. The case study will include more background on Evan's sociocultural background, political/religious beliefs etc. Evan's demographics will align with the findings of the literature identified in my preliminary view. Furthermore, the case study will provide insight into Evan's internal thoughts, beliefs, and attitudes. Once again, this will align with the literature where his personality traits and anxious rumination suggests that he is more susceptible to apocalyptic fear. I also want this part of the case study to demonstrate how a piece of media can influence the internal thinking patterns, leading to apocalyptic fear {{RoundBoxBottom}} <quiz> {What are all of the triggers that may have initiated Evan's Apocalyptic Fear? |type="[]"} + The movie + Engaging in reddit threads about end-of-world conspiracy theories + Media reporting on the Ukraine War + Covid-19 Lockdown </quiz> ==Consequences of Apocalyptic Fear== Introductory section before breaking into sub-sections === The Individual === Apocalyptic fear can significantly affect an individual's thoughts, emotions, and behaviours. TMT argues that awareness of death creates anxiety, motivating people to seek ways to regain control and meaning in life (Guthrie, 2022). One common response is prepping, which can function as an 'immortality project' by helping individuals feel more prepared for uncertain futures (Guthrie, 2022). Prepping is the management of stockpiled household items in anticipation of market disruption (Nair, 2023). When people perceived their lives as 'not going well', prepping increases to regain feeling of control. Mortality salience often leads people to defend their existing beliefs more strongly and become more hostile towards those with opposing worldviews. This protects self-esteem and reduces existential anxiety, but can also increase mistrust and social division (Guthrie, 2022). Individuals may engage in experiential avoidance, denying information that reminds them of mortality or distracting themselves from uncomfortable thoughts and emotions. Apocalyptic fear is also associated with higher anxiety, neuroticism, pessimistic future thinking, and frequent thoughts of death. Research suggests that greater engagement in prepping correlates with increased catastrophising and conspiracy thinking, as individuals attempt to make sense of uncertain threats (Fetterman et al., 2019). Stieger et al. (2023) similarly found that existential threats can produce immediate increases in anxiety. Prepping itself is not necessarily always harmful. Nair (2023) defines prepping as stockpiling resources and developing skills to prepare for potential disruptions, often focusing on medicine, security, shelter, nutrition, hydration, and hygiene. It can provide a sense of control, self-sufficiency, and emotional regulation during periods of uncertainty. However, when taken to extremes, prepping may reduce quality of life, encourage excessive consumerism, and foster distrust and competition over perceived scarce resources. === Politics, Society and Culture === Apocalyptic fear has had a significant influence on politics, society, and culture. One of the clearest examples is the popularity of post-apocalyptic literature, which reflects society's ongoing fascination with end-of-the-world scenarios and collective anxieties about the future (Paul & Alan, 2024). While traditional apocalyptic beliefs were largely rooted in religion, contemporary apocalyptic narratives have become increasingly secularised, focusing on threats such as climate change, nuclear war, and environmental collapse (Davidson, 2025). These issues are closely tied to political debates, allowing apocalyptic themes to shape public discourse and policy discussions. Apocalyptic narratives are often used as political tools to influence public opinion and mobilise action. Davidson argues that the apocalypse can be weaponised by dominant social groups to portray the future as inevitable and beyond human control, allowing those in positions of power to avoid responsibility for addressing social inequalities and injustices. At the same time, oppressed groups have also drawn on apocalyptic imagery to express dissatisfaction with existing social conditions and imagine alternative futures. In this way, apocalyptic movements can both inspire demands for social change and reflect feelings of powerlessness in the face of oppression. However, apocalyptic thinking can also have negative consequences for democratic societies. Davidson suggests that framing the future as fixed and unavoidable discourages debate and critical engagement, potentially fostering authoritarian attitudes. Similarly, Furse (2022) argues that apocalyptic narratives are effective at rallying political action because they present issues in urgent, moralistic terms. In the United States, Christian nationalist movements have used apocalyptic themes to emphasise moral decline and portray the nation as under threat, encouraging support for political agendas framed as necessary for survival (Furse, 2022). Research by Piazza (2026) further highlights the dangers of apocalyptic beliefs in politics. Surveying over 1,300 White Americans, Piazza found that Christian nationalism significantly predicted apocalyptic beliefs, support for political violence, and hostility towards social outgroups. Apocalypticism itself was a significant predictor of outgroup hate, as believers often divided society into forces of "good" and "evil." Existential fears associated with apocalyptic thinking increased mistrust and dehumanisation of outsiders, particularly racial minorities, which in turn normalised support for political violence (Piazza, 2026). These findings suggest that apocalyptic fear can contribute to social polarisation, prejudice, and the justification of violence against perceived threats. Despite these risks, apocalyptic thinking is not entirely negative. Garrett (2021) argues that apocalyptic narratives often emerge during periods of crisis because they can inspire hope for transformation and survival. For example, preppers may view societal collapse as an opportunity to demonstrate resilience and create a better future. However, these hopes are often centred on individual survival rather than collective solutions. Furthermore, collective avoidance of discussions about climate change and eco-anxiety has been linked to increased societal anxiety over time, suggesting that confronting threats openly may be more constructive than denying them (Guthrie, 2022). {{RoundBoxTop}} Case Study continued: Maladaptive and adaptive behaviours Evan is displaying to cope with his uncomfortable anxieties about the end of the world {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Managing Apocalyptic Fear== One may question whether behaviours associated with Apocalyptic Fear need to be managed. Does it actually need to be treated or managed? Prepping behaviour as a result of apocalyptic fear is not inherently 'bad'. However, it can become maladaptive. It should be noted that a change in this phenomenon can only occur once the individual innately want to commit to the change. === Strategies === *Cognitive restructuring to challenge thought patterns that reinforce catastrophic predictions and exaggeration of non-existent threats. *A 2022 Study by Sabzevari demonstrated that existential therapy is a tool to reduce anxiety related to COVID-19 and death. This type of therapy helps individuals develop sincere and real relationships with life and death. Describe and critique the therapy. *Acceptance & Commitment therapy. Guthrie (2022) studied how acceptance and commitment therapy can support individuals coping with climate-related apocalyptic fear. Describe and critique the therapy. *Strengthening social cohesion and community resilience. === Media Literacy === * Media hygiene. Reduce exposure to sensationalist apocalyptic content (Menzies & Menzies, 2024). * Importance of sharing of accurate information. * Limiting antisocial media use. {{RoundBoxTop}} Final part of case study. Going to explain maladaptive symptoms and suggestions that his friend, Ricki, has made to help him combat his apocalyptic fear. This may include activities that increase social cohesion, media hygiene, and education. Case study will ask audience to reflect on what they would suggest Evan does to manage his apocalyptic fear. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Conclusion== * Apocalyptic fear is common and emerges from evolutionary instincts, existential concerns, personality traits, and especially environmental triggers. * It has meaningful consequences that impact individuals, their mental health and coping mechanisms, societies social cohesion and polarisation, and political violence. * Psychological science provides effective tools for managing apocalyptic thinking patterns. Science not only helps us understand how apocalyptic fear develops, but provides strategies and therapies to combat it. Existential therapies, acceptance therapy, and increased media education and literacy helps people manage in health ways. * Reducing apocalyptic fear requires both internal straggles of change (cognitive, emotional, and existential) and external strategies (accurate information, social connect, and media hygiene). {{tip|Suggestions for this section: LEAVING THIS SECTION FOR FUTURE REFERENCE * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} * {{tip|Suggestions for this section: LEAVING THIS SECTION FOR FUTURE REFERENCE * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==See also== {{expand}} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. {{Hanging indent|1= Adkins, J., Djupe, P. A., & Neiheisel, J. R. (2023). Preparedness Behavior and the apocalypse: religion and politics in the post 2020 election era. Politics and Religion, 16(4), 585–604. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/politics-and-religion/article/preparedness-behavior-and-the-apocalypse-religion-and-politics-in-the-post-2020-election-era/39FA605571043F7C03281B5B15C2C9E4 Davison, J. (2025). The Apocalypse from Below: The Dangerous Idea of the End of the World, the Politics of the Oppressed, and Anti-Anti-Apocalypticism. American Political Science Review, 119(1), 479–491. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/american-political-science-review/article/apocalypse-from-below-the-dangerous-idea-of-the-end-of-the-world-the-politics-of-the-oppressed-and-antiantiapocalypticism/054311423D0D7BC9E3B7586C894F0CAB Fetterman, A., et al. (2019). On Post-apocalyptic and Doomsday Prepping Beliefs: A New Measure, its Correlates and the Motivation to Prep. European Journal of Personality, 33(4), 506-525. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2216 Furse, T. (2022). ‘Let us go out to the Field’: Apocalyptic Thinking in Christian Nationalism. Politics, Religion & Ideology, 23(3), 306–326. https://doi.org/10.1080/21567689.2022.2123802 Garret, B. (2020). Doomsday preppers and the architecture of dread. Geoforum, 127(1), 401-411. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7151311/ Guthrie, D. (2023). How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Eco-Apocalypse: An Existential Approach to Accepting Eco-Anxiety. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 18(1), 210-223. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/17456916221093613 Menzies, R. & Menzies, R. (2024). Existential therapies and the extended evolutionary meta-model: Turning existential philosophy into process-based therapy. Journal of Contextual Behaviour Science, 34(1). https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2212144724001200 Nair, T. (2023). Doomsday Prepping: Reactionary Behaviour or Inherited Instinct? Seattle Anxiety. https://seattleanxiety.com/psychiatrist/2023/1/12/doomsday-prepping-reactionary-behavior-or-inherited-instinct Parsons, S. (2022). Terror Management Theory. EBSCO.com https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/social-sciences-and-humanities/terror-management-theory Piazza, J. A. (2026). Christian nationalism, apocalypticism, outgroup hate, and support for violent extremism.Defence and Peace Economics, 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1080/10242694.2026.2613902 Sabzevari, P. (2022). The Effectiveness of Existential Therapy Intervention on Anxiety Caused by Coronavirus and Death. Clinical Cancer Investigation Journal, 11(1). https://ccij-online.org/article/the-effectiveness-of-existential-therapy-intervention-on-anxiety-caused-by-coronavirus-and-death-ec5qns1rnmgi9ju Stieger, S. et al. (2023). Examining terror management theory in Ukraine: impact of air-raid alarms and explosions on mental health, somatic symptoms and well-being. Front. Psychiatry, 14(1). https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychiatry/articles/10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1244335/full Strozier, S. (2017). The Apocalyptic Imagination and Fundamentalist Mindset. New England Journal of Public Policy, 29(1). https://scholarworks.umb.edu/nejpp/vol29/iss1/7/ }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== * [https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20211014-agents-of-doom-who-is-hastening-the-apocalypse-and-why Agents of Doom: Who is creating the apocalypse and why] (Luke Kemp) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=idMobTOh0kY Addicted to Apocalypse: Our Psychological Need for the End] (The Living Philosophy) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SKBTrMH7SeI&list=PLivjPDlt6ApT_2pW5HJl9GnMaNgJO6AgK Doomsday Preppers] (National Geographic) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Fear]] 6wda3nicb4wvemue5sxej6gikyexsgp 2836507 2836502 2026-10-07T09:43:27Z LazPulch 3105917 /* Psychological Theories */ Case study 2 2836507 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Apocalyptic fear:<br>What is apocalyptic fear, what are its consequences, and how can it be dealt with?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:F5 tornado Elie Manitoba 2007.jpg|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1'''. Natural disasters are commonly featured in apocalyptic films]] In the next 30 seconds, try to list 5 end-of-the-world movies or TV shows. ...was that easier than you expected? Have you noticed that film, TV and pop culture gravitate towards producing media with doomsday themes? The end of the world, the (very un-natural) natural disaster, a zombie apocalypse or [[w: Artificial Intelligence| Artificial Intelligence]] (AI) taking over the world! Audiences love doomsday media. Why do we love to consume objectively terrifying stories exploring mass destruction and the end of existence as we know it? Apocalyptic fear is more common than you'd think and a quick review of today's media landscape is evidence of that. This book chapter is going to follow the case study of Evan a Christian man living in the United States (US). It's 2023, and Evan has just watched [[w: Leave the World Behind (Film)|Leave the World Behind]] (Wikipedia) a modern day psychological, apocalyptic thriller regarding a mass cyber attack on the United States (US). Throughout this chapter we will evaluate Evan's own experience of Apocalyptic Fear informed by the movie, psychological theories underpinning this phenomenon, its consequences and how it can be managed. {{RoundBoxBottom}} In the literature, apocalyptic fear is also referred to as ‘apocalyptic thinking, ‘end of world beliefs’, ‘existential fear’, ‘catastrophic thinking’ and ‘doomsday thinking’. Whilst apocalyptic fear is not a mental health diagnosis, it is apparent that those experiencing these thought patterns are associated with diagnosis of and experiences of other mental health related struggles (Fetterman et al., 2019). Apocalyptic fear is primarily observable in cultural subgroups known as ‘Doomsday Preppers’ (Preppers). Preppers are people who practice the anticipation of and adapting to impending conditions of calamity (Garret, 2020). There are several types of apocalyptic fear and psychological theories that underpin the phenomenon and its consequences. Garret (2020) explains that the inability for Preppers to know when disaster is going to strike, coupled with the perceived inevitability of a catastrophe has effects of dread which manifests in prepping behaviour. But are the consequences of apocalyptic thinking a problem or is it a coping strategy to protect us from mortality salience? Is prepping itself a bad manifestation of a preppers psyche that needs management? This chapter will review the consequences of apocalyptic fear, including prepping, maladaptive behaviours, out-group hate, and anti-social behaviour. We will also examine the reciprocal influences of apocalyptic thinking of culture and politics. Finally, the chapter will explore strategies to manage apocalyptic fear including psychotherapies and more practice remedies such as media literacy, training and education.  {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' *What is Apocalyptic Fear? *What are the consequences of Apocalyptic Fear? *What can be done to manage Apocalyptic Fear? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What is Apocalyptic Fear?== [[File:Protokol Kesehatan.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2''': Harsh changes to reality like COVID-19 pandemic evokes apocalyptic fear]] Apocalyptic fear has been described as fear relating to the end of the world as we know it, usually through catastrophic means, both secular and religious (Garret, 2021). Apocalyptic fear has resurged in recent years from sociopolitical events, such as the COVID-19 pandemic, the Russian invasion of Ukraine, threats of nuclear war and even the climate change crisis (Davidson, 2025). These events are demonstrations of the reciprocal relationship between end-of-world thinking, the sociopolitical environment and our behaviour. Historically, apocalyptic themes were previously associated with fundamentalist religious positions, conspiracy mentality, paranoia and conservatism. However, with the occurrence of world-wide disruptions to our way of comprehending the world like through the pandemic, the apocalypse has become a much more mainstream concern (Nair, 2023). In fact, 50% of American children have reportedly declared that they’re afraid of a climate crisis that will cause the Earth to be uninhabitable (Hornfeldt, 2018; as city in Guthrie, 2022). Apocalyptic fear is only exacerbated with media covering distressing events that is more accessible than ever. It should be noted that literature regarding apocalyptic fear is primarily derived from contexts in the US, likely due to the prevalence of Christian Nationalism, conservatism, consumerism and individualism making the research relevant to the population (Nair, 2023). This should be taken into consideration when applying the research to other contexts. === Who is susceptible? === As previously mentioned, research exploring the demographic experiencing apocalyptic fear and engaging in prepping behaviours is primarily based in the US. Apocalyptic fear in the US is particularly popular in the literature as factors such as Christian Nationalism, Conservatism, Consumerism and Individualism are highly valued and contribute to prepping beliefs and behaviour (Nair, 2023). Contrary to popular belief, in the literature, religious variables are not commonly among the key predictors of preparedness behaviour (Adkins et al., 2023), likely because religious people do not feel the need to prepare as it will be a divine entity’s will to end the world (Adkins et al., 2023). Research by Fetterman et al. (2019) draws on information from social media discussion platforms and conversations with doomsday believers to develop the Post-Apocalyptic and Doomsday Prepping Belief Scale (PAPBS) to predict prepping behaviours. The validity and reliability of the PABS have been demonstrated throughout other cultures, such as Turkey (Alban & Arkan, 2024). Fetterman et al. (2019) identifies three themes underpinning prepping beliefs. Underlying all of these themes, is a pessimistic world view. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Theme !Explanation |- |Human Nature |General distrust of humans in a post-apocalyptic environment, in that they will resort to natural violent instincts with the absence of man-made law. |- |Resource Availability |Anxiety regarding a lack of resources available in a post-apocalyptic world. |- |Competitive Survival |In a post-apocalyptic world, humans will be competitive rather than cooperative, and will adopt a survival of the fittest mindset. |} ''Table 1: Predictive believes contributing to Apocalyptic Beliefs: Derived from Fetterman et al. (2019).'' Results from the study found that the three themes were all positively and significantly inter-correlated with each other, post-apocalyptic pessimism (PA pessimism) and prepping beliefs. Paranoia was positively related to PA pessimism and competitive survival. Positive correlations between conservatism and PA pessimism. Fetterman’s study also compares PAPBS with the HEXACO model of personality. From this research preppers tend to be: ·      Highly extroverted: outgoing, expressive and sociable. ·      Highly Neurotic: frequency experience negative emotions. ·      Low in Agreeableness: not cooperative, empathetic or considerate towards others. ·      Low in Honesty/humility: inflated sense of self importance. Furthermore, daily thoughts of death and cynicism were consistent predictors of daily prepping. Daily negative emotions, stress, uncertainty and negative events were less consistent positive predictors of daily prepping thoughts. However, the only consistent predictor of prepping behaviour was belief in the need to prep. This aligns with Ajzen’s (1991) Theory of Planned behaviour that has been used to explain prepping behaviour. Finally, apocalypticism was correlated with social dominance orientation (SDO), which is a personality trait that devalues social equality and reinforces ideology regarding social outgroup’s lack of right to respect. This highlights possible societal consequences of apocalyptic thinking. Alternatively, a study by Adkins et al. (2023) investigates the relationship between political and religious beliefs amongst American preppers. They found that a large proportion of Americans believe that prophecy and supernatural beings are involved in world affairs. Like previous studies, Christian Nationalism and Apocalypticism were significantly correlated. Interestingly white Christian Nationalists were found to be in an apocalyptic panic as they feel as though they are “losing ground” in comparison to non-white people in America. This suggests a racial bias common amongst preppers and proposes a social consequence. {{RoundBoxTop}}Case study continued: Evan is a 39-year-old White American man living in the US. Raised in a conservative Christian household, he values self-reliance, personal responsibility, and independence. Although religion is not central to his daily life, his political views remain conservative, and he often feels concerned about the future of society. Evan is outgoing and enjoys discussing current events with friends and online communities. However, he is also prone to anxiety and frequently worries about what might go wrong in the future. When faced with uncertainty, he tends to focus on worst-case scenarios and finds it difficult to stop thinking about potential threats. He believes that society is becoming increasingly unstable and is sceptical that governments or institutions can effectively manage future crises. Evan also holds a pessimistic view of human nature, believing that people would become selfish and competitive if resources became scarce. He expects cooperation to break down during major disasters and thinks survival would depend on being better prepared than others.{{RoundBoxBottom}} === Psychological Theories === Apocalyptic fear can be understood through several psychological theories that explain why individuals become preoccupied with catastrophic futures and engage in behaviours such as prepping. While these theories offer different explanations, they collectively suggest that apocalyptic thinking is motivated by a desire to manage threats, uncertainty, and mortality. The existential psychological perspective focuses on how individuals create meaning in life despite the inevitability of death. According to Guthrie (2022), apocalyptic thinking reflects a struggle with fundamental existential concerns, particularly mortality and the search for purpose. Similarly, Terror Management Theory (TMT) argues that awareness of death creates psychological terror, which people manage by investing in belief systems that provide meaning, self-worth, and a sense of symbolic immortality (Parsons, 2013). From this perspective, prepping behaviours function as a strategy to reduce death anxiety by increasing feelings of survival capability and personal significance. Both theories emphasise mortality as a central driver of apocalyptic fear; however, existential psychology focuses more broadly on meaning-making, whereas TMT specifically explains the defensive mechanisms used to suppress death-related anxiety. In contrast, Instinct Theory of Motivation explains apocalyptic fear from an evolutionary perspective. Rather than viewing fear as a response to existential concerns, instinct theory suggests that apocalyptic thinking arises from innate survival mechanisms activated when threats are perceived (Turner & Walsmley, 2020). Prepping behaviours therefore represent adaptive responses designed to enhance survival. While TMT and existential psychology emphasise symbolic and cognitive responses to mortality, instinct theory focuses on biological preparedness and self-preservation. A related but distinct explanation is provided by Social Dominance Orientation (SDO) and Darwinistic worldviews. These perspectives suggest that apocalyptic fear is linked to beliefs about competition, hierarchy, and survival of the fittest. Research by Fetterman et al. (2019) found that individuals who endorse post-apocalyptic survival mindsets often score highly in social dominance traits. Unlike existential and evolutionary theories, which focus on managing fear or ensuring survival, SDO emphasises power dynamics and the expectation that social order will become competitive during crises. Consequently, prepping may be motivated not only by fear of catastrophe but also by beliefs about gaining an advantage over others. The Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) offers a different explanation by focusing on the processes that translate intention into actions. According to TPB, attitudes toward potential disasters, perceived social norms, and perceived behavioural control influence intentions to prepare, which then predict actual prepping behaviour (Fetterman et al., 2019). Unlike the other theories, TPB does not explain the origin of apocalyptic fear itself. Instead, it explains how fear becomes behavioural action. For example, a person who believes an apocalypse is likely, perceives that others support preparedness, and feels capable of preparing is more likely to engage in prepping activities. These theories can be integrated into a comprehensive understanding of apocalyptic fear. Existential psychology and TMT explain the underlying anxiety created by mortality awareness. Instinct theory suggests that perceived threats activate evolved survival responses. SDO highlights how competitive and hierarchical worldviews shape interpretations of catastrophic scenarios, while TPB explains how these beliefs and fears are translated into concrete preparedness behaviours. Fetterman et al. (2019) further support this integration by demonstrating that prepping beliefs are associated with individuals' daily thoughts, emotions, behavioural tendencies, and perceived sense of control. When people experience uncertainty or feel a loss of control, preparedness behaviours may serve both practical and psychological functions. {{RoundBoxTop}} Case study continued: Evan often finds himself thinking about how quickly life could change. News stories about political conflict, economic uncertainty, and environmental disasters leave him feeling that society is far more fragile than most people realise. These events cause him to reflect on his own vulnerability and the possibility of losing the stability and security he depends on. After watching [[w: Leave the World Behind (Film)|Leave the World Behind]], Evan has been left feeling out of control and helpless. To cope with these feelings, Evan spends considerable time planning for future disasters, stockpiling emergency supplies, and imagining how he would survive if society were to collapse. These preparations provide him with a sense of control, purpose, and confidence in his ability to protect himself and his family. {{RoundBoxBottom}} <quiz> {According to Terror Management Theory, Evan is experiencing Apocalyptic Fear because |type="()"} + He is grappling with anxieties regarding death being inevitable. - The characters in the film modelled the appropriate response to anxiety inducing environment. - Evans survival instincts kicked in. - Evan believes the film is predicting the future. </quiz> === What are environmental triggers of Apocalyptic Fear? === Stiger et al. (2023) explains that there are several triggers in society which cause mortality salience, and consequently apocalyptic fear. Table 2 details common religious and secular apocalypse scenarios believed to trigger existential fear. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Name !Description |- |Political |Civil wars and breakdown of political systems. |- |Economic |Inequality undermining economic systems. |- |Nuclear |Nuclear war that destroys civilisations. |- |Climate Change |Destruction of civilisation due to global warming. |- |Racism |Social collapse due to racial discrimination. |- |Immigration |Societal destruction due to large scale immigration. |- |Family Breakdown |Social collapse due to the dissolution of family structures. |- |Rapture |Destruction of the world from the second coming of Christ and divine judgement. |} ''Table 2: Types of religious and secular apocalyptic triggers derived from works by Davidson (2025).''<quiz> {What are all of the triggers that may have initiated Evan's Apocalyptic Fear? |type="[]"} + The movie + Engaging in reddit threads about end-of-world conspiracy theories + Media reporting on the Ukraine War + Covid-19 Lockdown </quiz> {{RoundBoxTop}} Case Study Continued. This aim of this feature box is to continue the story of Evan who has watched the Apocalyptic movie to put into action how Apocalyptic Fear can develop through cognition/psychology and who is susceptible. The case study will include more background on Evan's sociocultural background, political/religious beliefs etc. Evan's demographics will align with the findings of the literature identified in my preliminary view. Furthermore, the case study will provide insight into Evan's internal thoughts, beliefs, and attitudes. Once again, this will align with the literature where his personality traits and anxious rumination suggests that he is more susceptible to apocalyptic fear. I also want this part of the case study to demonstrate how a piece of media can influence the internal thinking patterns, leading to apocalyptic fear {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Consequences of Apocalyptic Fear== Introductory section before breaking into sub-sections === The Individual === Apocalyptic fear can significantly affect an individual's thoughts, emotions, and behaviours. TMT argues that awareness of death creates anxiety, motivating people to seek ways to regain control and meaning in life (Guthrie, 2022). One common response is prepping, which can function as an 'immortality project' by helping individuals feel more prepared for uncertain futures (Guthrie, 2022). Prepping is the management of stockpiled household items in anticipation of market disruption (Nair, 2023). When people perceived their lives as 'not going well', prepping increases to regain feeling of control. Mortality salience often leads people to defend their existing beliefs more strongly and become more hostile towards those with opposing worldviews. This protects self-esteem and reduces existential anxiety, but can also increase mistrust and social division (Guthrie, 2022). Individuals may engage in experiential avoidance, denying information that reminds them of mortality or distracting themselves from uncomfortable thoughts and emotions. Apocalyptic fear is also associated with higher anxiety, neuroticism, pessimistic future thinking, and frequent thoughts of death. Research suggests that greater engagement in prepping correlates with increased catastrophising and conspiracy thinking, as individuals attempt to make sense of uncertain threats (Fetterman et al., 2019). Stieger et al. (2023) similarly found that existential threats can produce immediate increases in anxiety. Prepping itself is not necessarily always harmful. Nair (2023) defines prepping as stockpiling resources and developing skills to prepare for potential disruptions, often focusing on medicine, security, shelter, nutrition, hydration, and hygiene. It can provide a sense of control, self-sufficiency, and emotional regulation during periods of uncertainty. However, when taken to extremes, prepping may reduce quality of life, encourage excessive consumerism, and foster distrust and competition over perceived scarce resources. === Politics, Society and Culture === Apocalyptic fear has had a significant influence on politics, society, and culture. One of the clearest examples is the popularity of post-apocalyptic literature, which reflects society's ongoing fascination with end-of-the-world scenarios and collective anxieties about the future (Paul & Alan, 2024). While traditional apocalyptic beliefs were largely rooted in religion, contemporary apocalyptic narratives have become increasingly secularised, focusing on threats such as climate change, nuclear war, and environmental collapse (Davidson, 2025). These issues are closely tied to political debates, allowing apocalyptic themes to shape public discourse and policy discussions. Apocalyptic narratives are often used as political tools to influence public opinion and mobilise action. Davidson argues that the apocalypse can be weaponised by dominant social groups to portray the future as inevitable and beyond human control, allowing those in positions of power to avoid responsibility for addressing social inequalities and injustices. At the same time, oppressed groups have also drawn on apocalyptic imagery to express dissatisfaction with existing social conditions and imagine alternative futures. In this way, apocalyptic movements can both inspire demands for social change and reflect feelings of powerlessness in the face of oppression. However, apocalyptic thinking can also have negative consequences for democratic societies. Davidson suggests that framing the future as fixed and unavoidable discourages debate and critical engagement, potentially fostering authoritarian attitudes. Similarly, Furse (2022) argues that apocalyptic narratives are effective at rallying political action because they present issues in urgent, moralistic terms. In the United States, Christian nationalist movements have used apocalyptic themes to emphasise moral decline and portray the nation as under threat, encouraging support for political agendas framed as necessary for survival (Furse, 2022). Research by Piazza (2026) further highlights the dangers of apocalyptic beliefs in politics. Surveying over 1,300 White Americans, Piazza found that Christian nationalism significantly predicted apocalyptic beliefs, support for political violence, and hostility towards social outgroups. Apocalypticism itself was a significant predictor of outgroup hate, as believers often divided society into forces of "good" and "evil." Existential fears associated with apocalyptic thinking increased mistrust and dehumanisation of outsiders, particularly racial minorities, which in turn normalised support for political violence (Piazza, 2026). These findings suggest that apocalyptic fear can contribute to social polarisation, prejudice, and the justification of violence against perceived threats. Despite these risks, apocalyptic thinking is not entirely negative. Garrett (2021) argues that apocalyptic narratives often emerge during periods of crisis because they can inspire hope for transformation and survival. For example, preppers may view societal collapse as an opportunity to demonstrate resilience and create a better future. However, these hopes are often centred on individual survival rather than collective solutions. Furthermore, collective avoidance of discussions about climate change and eco-anxiety has been linked to increased societal anxiety over time, suggesting that confronting threats openly may be more constructive than denying them (Guthrie, 2022). {{RoundBoxTop}} Case Study continued: Maladaptive and adaptive behaviours Evan is displaying to cope with his uncomfortable anxieties about the end of the world {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Managing Apocalyptic Fear== One may question whether behaviours associated with Apocalyptic Fear need to be managed. Does it actually need to be treated or managed? Prepping behaviour as a result of apocalyptic fear is not inherently 'bad'. However, it can become maladaptive. It should be noted that a change in this phenomenon can only occur once the individual innately want to commit to the change. === Strategies === *Cognitive restructuring to challenge thought patterns that reinforce catastrophic predictions and exaggeration of non-existent threats. *A 2022 Study by Sabzevari demonstrated that existential therapy is a tool to reduce anxiety related to COVID-19 and death. This type of therapy helps individuals develop sincere and real relationships with life and death. Describe and critique the therapy. *Acceptance & Commitment therapy. Guthrie (2022) studied how acceptance and commitment therapy can support individuals coping with climate-related apocalyptic fear. Describe and critique the therapy. *Strengthening social cohesion and community resilience. === Media Literacy === * Media hygiene. Reduce exposure to sensationalist apocalyptic content (Menzies & Menzies, 2024). * Importance of sharing of accurate information. * Limiting antisocial media use. {{RoundBoxTop}} Final part of case study. Going to explain maladaptive symptoms and suggestions that his friend, Ricki, has made to help him combat his apocalyptic fear. This may include activities that increase social cohesion, media hygiene, and education. Case study will ask audience to reflect on what they would suggest Evan does to manage his apocalyptic fear. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Conclusion== * Apocalyptic fear is common and emerges from evolutionary instincts, existential concerns, personality traits, and especially environmental triggers. * It has meaningful consequences that impact individuals, their mental health and coping mechanisms, societies social cohesion and polarisation, and political violence. * Psychological science provides effective tools for managing apocalyptic thinking patterns. Science not only helps us understand how apocalyptic fear develops, but provides strategies and therapies to combat it. Existential therapies, acceptance therapy, and increased media education and literacy helps people manage in health ways. * Reducing apocalyptic fear requires both internal straggles of change (cognitive, emotional, and existential) and external strategies (accurate information, social connect, and media hygiene). {{tip|Suggestions for this section: LEAVING THIS SECTION FOR FUTURE REFERENCE * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} * {{tip|Suggestions for this section: LEAVING THIS SECTION FOR FUTURE REFERENCE * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==See also== {{expand}} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. {{Hanging indent|1= Adkins, J., Djupe, P. A., & Neiheisel, J. R. (2023). Preparedness Behavior and the apocalypse: religion and politics in the post 2020 election era. Politics and Religion, 16(4), 585–604. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/politics-and-religion/article/preparedness-behavior-and-the-apocalypse-religion-and-politics-in-the-post-2020-election-era/39FA605571043F7C03281B5B15C2C9E4 Davison, J. (2025). The Apocalypse from Below: The Dangerous Idea of the End of the World, the Politics of the Oppressed, and Anti-Anti-Apocalypticism. American Political Science Review, 119(1), 479–491. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/american-political-science-review/article/apocalypse-from-below-the-dangerous-idea-of-the-end-of-the-world-the-politics-of-the-oppressed-and-antiantiapocalypticism/054311423D0D7BC9E3B7586C894F0CAB Fetterman, A., et al. (2019). On Post-apocalyptic and Doomsday Prepping Beliefs: A New Measure, its Correlates and the Motivation to Prep. European Journal of Personality, 33(4), 506-525. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2216 Furse, T. (2022). ‘Let us go out to the Field’: Apocalyptic Thinking in Christian Nationalism. Politics, Religion & Ideology, 23(3), 306–326. https://doi.org/10.1080/21567689.2022.2123802 Garret, B. (2020). Doomsday preppers and the architecture of dread. Geoforum, 127(1), 401-411. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7151311/ Guthrie, D. (2023). How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Eco-Apocalypse: An Existential Approach to Accepting Eco-Anxiety. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 18(1), 210-223. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/17456916221093613 Menzies, R. & Menzies, R. (2024). Existential therapies and the extended evolutionary meta-model: Turning existential philosophy into process-based therapy. Journal of Contextual Behaviour Science, 34(1). https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2212144724001200 Nair, T. (2023). Doomsday Prepping: Reactionary Behaviour or Inherited Instinct? Seattle Anxiety. https://seattleanxiety.com/psychiatrist/2023/1/12/doomsday-prepping-reactionary-behavior-or-inherited-instinct Parsons, S. (2022). Terror Management Theory. EBSCO.com https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/social-sciences-and-humanities/terror-management-theory Piazza, J. A. (2026). Christian nationalism, apocalypticism, outgroup hate, and support for violent extremism.Defence and Peace Economics, 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1080/10242694.2026.2613902 Sabzevari, P. (2022). The Effectiveness of Existential Therapy Intervention on Anxiety Caused by Coronavirus and Death. Clinical Cancer Investigation Journal, 11(1). https://ccij-online.org/article/the-effectiveness-of-existential-therapy-intervention-on-anxiety-caused-by-coronavirus-and-death-ec5qns1rnmgi9ju Stieger, S. et al. (2023). Examining terror management theory in Ukraine: impact of air-raid alarms and explosions on mental health, somatic symptoms and well-being. Front. Psychiatry, 14(1). https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychiatry/articles/10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1244335/full Strozier, S. (2017). The Apocalyptic Imagination and Fundamentalist Mindset. New England Journal of Public Policy, 29(1). https://scholarworks.umb.edu/nejpp/vol29/iss1/7/ }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== * [https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20211014-agents-of-doom-who-is-hastening-the-apocalypse-and-why Agents of Doom: Who is creating the apocalypse and why] (Luke Kemp) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=idMobTOh0kY Addicted to Apocalypse: Our Psychological Need for the End] (The Living Philosophy) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SKBTrMH7SeI&list=PLivjPDlt6ApT_2pW5HJl9GnMaNgJO6AgK Doomsday Preppers] (National Geographic) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Fear]] efeozlt4d9jrrujvqxlt8vjwe0e9mrd 2836511 2836507 2026-10-07T09:51:55Z LazPulch 3105917 /* What are environmental triggers of Apocalyptic Fear? */ Environmental triggers 2836511 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Apocalyptic fear:<br>What is apocalyptic fear, what are its consequences, and how can it be dealt with?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:F5 tornado Elie Manitoba 2007.jpg|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1'''. Natural disasters are commonly featured in apocalyptic films]] In the next 30 seconds, try to list 5 end-of-the-world movies or TV shows. ...was that easier than you expected? Have you noticed that film, TV and pop culture gravitate towards producing media with doomsday themes? The end of the world, the (very un-natural) natural disaster, a zombie apocalypse or [[w: Artificial Intelligence| Artificial Intelligence]] (AI) taking over the world! Audiences love doomsday media. Why do we love to consume objectively terrifying stories exploring mass destruction and the end of existence as we know it? Apocalyptic fear is more common than you'd think and a quick review of today's media landscape is evidence of that. This book chapter is going to follow the case study of Evan a Christian man living in the United States (US). It's 2023, and Evan has just watched [[w: Leave the World Behind (Film)|Leave the World Behind]] (Wikipedia) a modern day psychological, apocalyptic thriller regarding a mass cyber attack on the United States (US). Throughout this chapter we will evaluate Evan's own experience of Apocalyptic Fear informed by the movie, psychological theories underpinning this phenomenon, its consequences and how it can be managed. {{RoundBoxBottom}} In the literature, apocalyptic fear is also referred to as ‘apocalyptic thinking, ‘end of world beliefs’, ‘existential fear’, ‘catastrophic thinking’ and ‘doomsday thinking’. Whilst apocalyptic fear is not a mental health diagnosis, it is apparent that those experiencing these thought patterns are associated with diagnosis of and experiences of other mental health related struggles (Fetterman et al., 2019). Apocalyptic fear is primarily observable in cultural subgroups known as ‘Doomsday Preppers’ (Preppers). Preppers are people who practice the anticipation of and adapting to impending conditions of calamity (Garret, 2020). There are several types of apocalyptic fear and psychological theories that underpin the phenomenon and its consequences. Garret (2020) explains that the inability for Preppers to know when disaster is going to strike, coupled with the perceived inevitability of a catastrophe has effects of dread which manifests in prepping behaviour. But are the consequences of apocalyptic thinking a problem or is it a coping strategy to protect us from mortality salience? Is prepping itself a bad manifestation of a preppers psyche that needs management? This chapter will review the consequences of apocalyptic fear, including prepping, maladaptive behaviours, out-group hate, and anti-social behaviour. We will also examine the reciprocal influences of apocalyptic thinking of culture and politics. Finally, the chapter will explore strategies to manage apocalyptic fear including psychotherapies and more practice remedies such as media literacy, training and education.  {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' *What is Apocalyptic Fear? *What are the consequences of Apocalyptic Fear? *What can be done to manage Apocalyptic Fear? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What is Apocalyptic Fear?== [[File:Protokol Kesehatan.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2''': Harsh changes to reality like COVID-19 pandemic evokes apocalyptic fear]] Apocalyptic fear has been described as fear relating to the end of the world as we know it, usually through catastrophic means, both secular and religious (Garret, 2021). Apocalyptic fear has resurged in recent years from sociopolitical events, such as the COVID-19 pandemic, the Russian invasion of Ukraine, threats of nuclear war and even the climate change crisis (Davidson, 2025). These events are demonstrations of the reciprocal relationship between end-of-world thinking, the sociopolitical environment and our behaviour. Historically, apocalyptic themes were previously associated with fundamentalist religious positions, conspiracy mentality, paranoia and conservatism. However, with the occurrence of world-wide disruptions to our way of comprehending the world like through the pandemic, the apocalypse has become a much more mainstream concern (Nair, 2023). In fact, 50% of American children have reportedly declared that they’re afraid of a climate crisis that will cause the Earth to be uninhabitable (Hornfeldt, 2018; as city in Guthrie, 2022). Apocalyptic fear is only exacerbated with media covering distressing events that is more accessible than ever. It should be noted that literature regarding apocalyptic fear is primarily derived from contexts in the US, likely due to the prevalence of Christian Nationalism, conservatism, consumerism and individualism making the research relevant to the population (Nair, 2023). This should be taken into consideration when applying the research to other contexts. === Who is susceptible? === As previously mentioned, research exploring the demographic experiencing apocalyptic fear and engaging in prepping behaviours is primarily based in the US. Apocalyptic fear in the US is particularly popular in the literature as factors such as Christian Nationalism, Conservatism, Consumerism and Individualism are highly valued and contribute to prepping beliefs and behaviour (Nair, 2023). Contrary to popular belief, in the literature, religious variables are not commonly among the key predictors of preparedness behaviour (Adkins et al., 2023), likely because religious people do not feel the need to prepare as it will be a divine entity’s will to end the world (Adkins et al., 2023). Research by Fetterman et al. (2019) draws on information from social media discussion platforms and conversations with doomsday believers to develop the Post-Apocalyptic and Doomsday Prepping Belief Scale (PAPBS) to predict prepping behaviours. The validity and reliability of the PABS have been demonstrated throughout other cultures, such as Turkey (Alban & Arkan, 2024). Fetterman et al. (2019) identifies three themes underpinning prepping beliefs. Underlying all of these themes, is a pessimistic world view. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Theme !Explanation |- |Human Nature |General distrust of humans in a post-apocalyptic environment, in that they will resort to natural violent instincts with the absence of man-made law. |- |Resource Availability |Anxiety regarding a lack of resources available in a post-apocalyptic world. |- |Competitive Survival |In a post-apocalyptic world, humans will be competitive rather than cooperative, and will adopt a survival of the fittest mindset. |} ''Table 1: Predictive believes contributing to Apocalyptic Beliefs: Derived from Fetterman et al. (2019).'' Results from the study found that the three themes were all positively and significantly inter-correlated with each other, post-apocalyptic pessimism (PA pessimism) and prepping beliefs. Paranoia was positively related to PA pessimism and competitive survival. Positive correlations between conservatism and PA pessimism. Fetterman’s study also compares PAPBS with the HEXACO model of personality. From this research preppers tend to be: ·      Highly extroverted: outgoing, expressive and sociable. ·      Highly Neurotic: frequency experience negative emotions. ·      Low in Agreeableness: not cooperative, empathetic or considerate towards others. ·      Low in Honesty/humility: inflated sense of self importance. Furthermore, daily thoughts of death and cynicism were consistent predictors of daily prepping. Daily negative emotions, stress, uncertainty and negative events were less consistent positive predictors of daily prepping thoughts. However, the only consistent predictor of prepping behaviour was belief in the need to prep. This aligns with Ajzen’s (1991) Theory of Planned behaviour that has been used to explain prepping behaviour. Finally, apocalypticism was correlated with social dominance orientation (SDO), which is a personality trait that devalues social equality and reinforces ideology regarding social outgroup’s lack of right to respect. This highlights possible societal consequences of apocalyptic thinking. Alternatively, a study by Adkins et al. (2023) investigates the relationship between political and religious beliefs amongst American preppers. They found that a large proportion of Americans believe that prophecy and supernatural beings are involved in world affairs. Like previous studies, Christian Nationalism and Apocalypticism were significantly correlated. Interestingly white Christian Nationalists were found to be in an apocalyptic panic as they feel as though they are “losing ground” in comparison to non-white people in America. This suggests a racial bias common amongst preppers and proposes a social consequence. {{RoundBoxTop}}Case study continued: Evan is a 39-year-old White American man living in the US. Raised in a conservative Christian household, he values self-reliance, personal responsibility, and independence. Although religion is not central to his daily life, his political views remain conservative, and he often feels concerned about the future of society. Evan is outgoing and enjoys discussing current events with friends and online communities. However, he is also prone to anxiety and frequently worries about what might go wrong in the future. When faced with uncertainty, he tends to focus on worst-case scenarios and finds it difficult to stop thinking about potential threats. He believes that society is becoming increasingly unstable and is sceptical that governments or institutions can effectively manage future crises. Evan also holds a pessimistic view of human nature, believing that people would become selfish and competitive if resources became scarce. He expects cooperation to break down during major disasters and thinks survival would depend on being better prepared than others.{{RoundBoxBottom}} === Psychological Theories === Apocalyptic fear can be understood through several psychological theories that explain why individuals become preoccupied with catastrophic futures and engage in behaviours such as prepping. While these theories offer different explanations, they collectively suggest that apocalyptic thinking is motivated by a desire to manage threats, uncertainty, and mortality. The existential psychological perspective focuses on how individuals create meaning in life despite the inevitability of death. According to Guthrie (2022), apocalyptic thinking reflects a struggle with fundamental existential concerns, particularly mortality and the search for purpose. Similarly, Terror Management Theory (TMT) argues that awareness of death creates psychological terror, which people manage by investing in belief systems that provide meaning, self-worth, and a sense of symbolic immortality (Parsons, 2013). From this perspective, prepping behaviours function as a strategy to reduce death anxiety by increasing feelings of survival capability and personal significance. Both theories emphasise mortality as a central driver of apocalyptic fear; however, existential psychology focuses more broadly on meaning-making, whereas TMT specifically explains the defensive mechanisms used to suppress death-related anxiety. In contrast, Instinct Theory of Motivation explains apocalyptic fear from an evolutionary perspective. Rather than viewing fear as a response to existential concerns, instinct theory suggests that apocalyptic thinking arises from innate survival mechanisms activated when threats are perceived (Turner & Walsmley, 2020). Prepping behaviours therefore represent adaptive responses designed to enhance survival. While TMT and existential psychology emphasise symbolic and cognitive responses to mortality, instinct theory focuses on biological preparedness and self-preservation. A related but distinct explanation is provided by Social Dominance Orientation (SDO) and Darwinistic worldviews. These perspectives suggest that apocalyptic fear is linked to beliefs about competition, hierarchy, and survival of the fittest. Research by Fetterman et al. (2019) found that individuals who endorse post-apocalyptic survival mindsets often score highly in social dominance traits. Unlike existential and evolutionary theories, which focus on managing fear or ensuring survival, SDO emphasises power dynamics and the expectation that social order will become competitive during crises. Consequently, prepping may be motivated not only by fear of catastrophe but also by beliefs about gaining an advantage over others. The Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) offers a different explanation by focusing on the processes that translate intention into actions. According to TPB, attitudes toward potential disasters, perceived social norms, and perceived behavioural control influence intentions to prepare, which then predict actual prepping behaviour (Fetterman et al., 2019). Unlike the other theories, TPB does not explain the origin of apocalyptic fear itself. Instead, it explains how fear becomes behavioural action. For example, a person who believes an apocalypse is likely, perceives that others support preparedness, and feels capable of preparing is more likely to engage in prepping activities. These theories can be integrated into a comprehensive understanding of apocalyptic fear. Existential psychology and TMT explain the underlying anxiety created by mortality awareness. Instinct theory suggests that perceived threats activate evolved survival responses. SDO highlights how competitive and hierarchical worldviews shape interpretations of catastrophic scenarios, while TPB explains how these beliefs and fears are translated into concrete preparedness behaviours. Fetterman et al. (2019) further support this integration by demonstrating that prepping beliefs are associated with individuals' daily thoughts, emotions, behavioural tendencies, and perceived sense of control. When people experience uncertainty or feel a loss of control, preparedness behaviours may serve both practical and psychological functions. {{RoundBoxTop}} Case study continued: Evan often finds himself thinking about how quickly life could change. News stories about political conflict, economic uncertainty, and environmental disasters leave him feeling that society is far more fragile than most people realise. These events cause him to reflect on his own vulnerability and the possibility of losing the stability and security he depends on. After watching [[w: Leave the World Behind (Film)|Leave the World Behind]], Evan has been left feeling out of control and helpless. To cope with these feelings, Evan spends considerable time planning for future disasters, stockpiling emergency supplies, and imagining how he would survive if society were to collapse. These preparations provide him with a sense of control, purpose, and confidence in his ability to protect himself and his family. {{RoundBoxBottom}} <quiz> {According to Terror Management Theory, Evan is experiencing Apocalyptic Fear because |type="()"} + He is grappling with anxieties regarding death being inevitable. - The characters in the film modelled the appropriate response to anxiety inducing environment. - Evans survival instincts kicked in. - Evan believes the film is predicting the future. </quiz> === What are environmental triggers of Apocalyptic Fear? === Apocalyptic fear is often triggered by social, political, and cultural events that increase awareness of uncertainty, vulnerability, and mortality. Stiger et al. (2023) explains that there are several triggers in society which cause mortality salience, and consequently apocalyptic fear. Table 2 details common religious and secular apocalypse scenarios believed to trigger existential fear. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Name !Description |- |Political |Civil wars and breakdown of political systems. |- |Economic |Inequality undermining economic systems. |- |Nuclear |Nuclear war that destroys civilisations. |- |Climate Change |Destruction of civilisation due to global warming. |- |Racism |Social collapse due to racial discrimination. |- |Immigration |Societal destruction due to large scale immigration. |- |Family Breakdown |Social collapse due to the dissolution of family structures. |- |Rapture |Destruction of the world from the second coming of Christ and divine judgement. |} ''Table 2: Types of religious and secular apocalyptic triggers derived from works by Davidson (2025).'' Popular culture also contributes to apocalyptic thinking. Films, television programs, books, and video games frequently depict pandemics, societal collapse, and end-of-world scenarios. Fetterman et al. (2019) argue that engagement with apocalyptic media may reflect and reinforce apocalyptic beliefs. Together, global crises, media exposure, and online communities can interact to strengthen perceptions that societal collapse is possible, increasing susceptibility to apocalyptic fear and preparedness behaviours. Recent global events have contributed to a resurgence of apocalyptic fear. The COVID-19 pandemic disrupted daily life and exposed the vulnerability of social institutions, leading many individuals to question how secure society really is. Marshe (2025) found that post-pandemic anxiety, concerns about political instability, and personal crises were common motivators of prepping behaviours among self-identified doomsday preppers. Such events can increase feelings of uncertainty and a perceived need to prepare for future catastrophes (Marshe, 2025). Media exposure further amplifies these fears. Continuous access to news coverage of wars, climate disasters, political conflict, and economic crises can create the impression that catastrophe is both imminent and unavoidable. The widespread broadcasting of global crises means individuals are regularly exposed to distressing events, reinforcing feelings of fear and helplessness.<quiz> {What are all of the triggers that may have initiated Evan's Apocalyptic Fear? |type="[]"} + The movie + Engaging in reddit threads about end-of-world conspiracy theories + Media reporting on the Ukraine War + Covid-19 Lockdown </quiz> {{RoundBoxTop}} Case Study Continued. This aim of this feature box is to continue the story of Evan who has watched the Apocalyptic movie to put into action how Apocalyptic Fear can develop through cognition/psychology and who is susceptible. The case study will include more background on Evan's sociocultural background, political/religious beliefs etc. Evan's demographics will align with the findings of the literature identified in my preliminary view. Furthermore, the case study will provide insight into Evan's internal thoughts, beliefs, and attitudes. Once again, this will align with the literature where his personality traits and anxious rumination suggests that he is more susceptible to apocalyptic fear. I also want this part of the case study to demonstrate how a piece of media can influence the internal thinking patterns, leading to apocalyptic fear {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Consequences of Apocalyptic Fear== Introductory section before breaking into sub-sections === The Individual === Apocalyptic fear can significantly affect an individual's thoughts, emotions, and behaviours. TMT argues that awareness of death creates anxiety, motivating people to seek ways to regain control and meaning in life (Guthrie, 2022). One common response is prepping, which can function as an 'immortality project' by helping individuals feel more prepared for uncertain futures (Guthrie, 2022). Prepping is the management of stockpiled household items in anticipation of market disruption (Nair, 2023). When people perceived their lives as 'not going well', prepping increases to regain feeling of control. Mortality salience often leads people to defend their existing beliefs more strongly and become more hostile towards those with opposing worldviews. This protects self-esteem and reduces existential anxiety, but can also increase mistrust and social division (Guthrie, 2022). Individuals may engage in experiential avoidance, denying information that reminds them of mortality or distracting themselves from uncomfortable thoughts and emotions. Apocalyptic fear is also associated with higher anxiety, neuroticism, pessimistic future thinking, and frequent thoughts of death. Research suggests that greater engagement in prepping correlates with increased catastrophising and conspiracy thinking, as individuals attempt to make sense of uncertain threats (Fetterman et al., 2019). Stieger et al. (2023) similarly found that existential threats can produce immediate increases in anxiety. Prepping itself is not necessarily always harmful. Nair (2023) defines prepping as stockpiling resources and developing skills to prepare for potential disruptions, often focusing on medicine, security, shelter, nutrition, hydration, and hygiene. It can provide a sense of control, self-sufficiency, and emotional regulation during periods of uncertainty. However, when taken to extremes, prepping may reduce quality of life, encourage excessive consumerism, and foster distrust and competition over perceived scarce resources. === Politics, Society and Culture === Apocalyptic fear has had a significant influence on politics, society, and culture. One of the clearest examples is the popularity of post-apocalyptic literature, which reflects society's ongoing fascination with end-of-the-world scenarios and collective anxieties about the future (Paul & Alan, 2024). While traditional apocalyptic beliefs were largely rooted in religion, contemporary apocalyptic narratives have become increasingly secularised, focusing on threats such as climate change, nuclear war, and environmental collapse (Davidson, 2025). These issues are closely tied to political debates, allowing apocalyptic themes to shape public discourse and policy discussions. Apocalyptic narratives are often used as political tools to influence public opinion and mobilise action. Davidson argues that the apocalypse can be weaponised by dominant social groups to portray the future as inevitable and beyond human control, allowing those in positions of power to avoid responsibility for addressing social inequalities and injustices. At the same time, oppressed groups have also drawn on apocalyptic imagery to express dissatisfaction with existing social conditions and imagine alternative futures. In this way, apocalyptic movements can both inspire demands for social change and reflect feelings of powerlessness in the face of oppression. However, apocalyptic thinking can also have negative consequences for democratic societies. Davidson suggests that framing the future as fixed and unavoidable discourages debate and critical engagement, potentially fostering authoritarian attitudes. Similarly, Furse (2022) argues that apocalyptic narratives are effective at rallying political action because they present issues in urgent, moralistic terms. In the United States, Christian nationalist movements have used apocalyptic themes to emphasise moral decline and portray the nation as under threat, encouraging support for political agendas framed as necessary for survival (Furse, 2022). Research by Piazza (2026) further highlights the dangers of apocalyptic beliefs in politics. Surveying over 1,300 White Americans, Piazza found that Christian nationalism significantly predicted apocalyptic beliefs, support for political violence, and hostility towards social outgroups. Apocalypticism itself was a significant predictor of outgroup hate, as believers often divided society into forces of "good" and "evil." Existential fears associated with apocalyptic thinking increased mistrust and dehumanisation of outsiders, particularly racial minorities, which in turn normalised support for political violence (Piazza, 2026). These findings suggest that apocalyptic fear can contribute to social polarisation, prejudice, and the justification of violence against perceived threats. Despite these risks, apocalyptic thinking is not entirely negative. Garrett (2021) argues that apocalyptic narratives often emerge during periods of crisis because they can inspire hope for transformation and survival. For example, preppers may view societal collapse as an opportunity to demonstrate resilience and create a better future. However, these hopes are often centred on individual survival rather than collective solutions. Furthermore, collective avoidance of discussions about climate change and eco-anxiety has been linked to increased societal anxiety over time, suggesting that confronting threats openly may be more constructive than denying them (Guthrie, 2022). {{RoundBoxTop}} Case Study continued: Maladaptive and adaptive behaviours Evan is displaying to cope with his uncomfortable anxieties about the end of the world {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Managing Apocalyptic Fear== One may question whether behaviours associated with Apocalyptic Fear need to be managed. Does it actually need to be treated or managed? Prepping behaviour as a result of apocalyptic fear is not inherently 'bad'. However, it can become maladaptive. It should be noted that a change in this phenomenon can only occur once the individual innately want to commit to the change. === Strategies === *Cognitive restructuring to challenge thought patterns that reinforce catastrophic predictions and exaggeration of non-existent threats. *A 2022 Study by Sabzevari demonstrated that existential therapy is a tool to reduce anxiety related to COVID-19 and death. This type of therapy helps individuals develop sincere and real relationships with life and death. Describe and critique the therapy. *Acceptance & Commitment therapy. Guthrie (2022) studied how acceptance and commitment therapy can support individuals coping with climate-related apocalyptic fear. Describe and critique the therapy. *Strengthening social cohesion and community resilience. === Media Literacy === * Media hygiene. Reduce exposure to sensationalist apocalyptic content (Menzies & Menzies, 2024). * Importance of sharing of accurate information. * Limiting antisocial media use. {{RoundBoxTop}} Final part of case study. Going to explain maladaptive symptoms and suggestions that his friend, Ricki, has made to help him combat his apocalyptic fear. This may include activities that increase social cohesion, media hygiene, and education. Case study will ask audience to reflect on what they would suggest Evan does to manage his apocalyptic fear. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Conclusion== * Apocalyptic fear is common and emerges from evolutionary instincts, existential concerns, personality traits, and especially environmental triggers. * It has meaningful consequences that impact individuals, their mental health and coping mechanisms, societies social cohesion and polarisation, and political violence. * Psychological science provides effective tools for managing apocalyptic thinking patterns. Science not only helps us understand how apocalyptic fear develops, but provides strategies and therapies to combat it. Existential therapies, acceptance therapy, and increased media education and literacy helps people manage in health ways. * Reducing apocalyptic fear requires both internal straggles of change (cognitive, emotional, and existential) and external strategies (accurate information, social connect, and media hygiene). {{tip|Suggestions for this section: LEAVING THIS SECTION FOR FUTURE REFERENCE * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} * {{tip|Suggestions for this section: LEAVING THIS SECTION FOR FUTURE REFERENCE * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==See also== {{expand}} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. {{Hanging indent|1= Adkins, J., Djupe, P. A., & Neiheisel, J. R. (2023). Preparedness Behavior and the apocalypse: religion and politics in the post 2020 election era. Politics and Religion, 16(4), 585–604. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/politics-and-religion/article/preparedness-behavior-and-the-apocalypse-religion-and-politics-in-the-post-2020-election-era/39FA605571043F7C03281B5B15C2C9E4 Davison, J. (2025). The Apocalypse from Below: The Dangerous Idea of the End of the World, the Politics of the Oppressed, and Anti-Anti-Apocalypticism. American Political Science Review, 119(1), 479–491. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/american-political-science-review/article/apocalypse-from-below-the-dangerous-idea-of-the-end-of-the-world-the-politics-of-the-oppressed-and-antiantiapocalypticism/054311423D0D7BC9E3B7586C894F0CAB Fetterman, A., et al. (2019). On Post-apocalyptic and Doomsday Prepping Beliefs: A New Measure, its Correlates and the Motivation to Prep. European Journal of Personality, 33(4), 506-525. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2216 Furse, T. (2022). ‘Let us go out to the Field’: Apocalyptic Thinking in Christian Nationalism. Politics, Religion & Ideology, 23(3), 306–326. https://doi.org/10.1080/21567689.2022.2123802 Garret, B. (2020). Doomsday preppers and the architecture of dread. Geoforum, 127(1), 401-411. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7151311/ Guthrie, D. (2023). How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Eco-Apocalypse: An Existential Approach to Accepting Eco-Anxiety. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 18(1), 210-223. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/17456916221093613 Menzies, R. & Menzies, R. (2024). Existential therapies and the extended evolutionary meta-model: Turning existential philosophy into process-based therapy. Journal of Contextual Behaviour Science, 34(1). https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2212144724001200 Nair, T. (2023). Doomsday Prepping: Reactionary Behaviour or Inherited Instinct? Seattle Anxiety. https://seattleanxiety.com/psychiatrist/2023/1/12/doomsday-prepping-reactionary-behavior-or-inherited-instinct Parsons, S. (2022). Terror Management Theory. EBSCO.com https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/social-sciences-and-humanities/terror-management-theory Piazza, J. A. (2026). Christian nationalism, apocalypticism, outgroup hate, and support for violent extremism.Defence and Peace Economics, 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1080/10242694.2026.2613902 Sabzevari, P. (2022). The Effectiveness of Existential Therapy Intervention on Anxiety Caused by Coronavirus and Death. Clinical Cancer Investigation Journal, 11(1). https://ccij-online.org/article/the-effectiveness-of-existential-therapy-intervention-on-anxiety-caused-by-coronavirus-and-death-ec5qns1rnmgi9ju Stieger, S. et al. (2023). Examining terror management theory in Ukraine: impact of air-raid alarms and explosions on mental health, somatic symptoms and well-being. Front. Psychiatry, 14(1). https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychiatry/articles/10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1244335/full Strozier, S. (2017). The Apocalyptic Imagination and Fundamentalist Mindset. New England Journal of Public Policy, 29(1). https://scholarworks.umb.edu/nejpp/vol29/iss1/7/ }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== * [https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20211014-agents-of-doom-who-is-hastening-the-apocalypse-and-why Agents of Doom: Who is creating the apocalypse and why] (Luke Kemp) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=idMobTOh0kY Addicted to Apocalypse: Our Psychological Need for the End] (The Living Philosophy) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SKBTrMH7SeI&list=PLivjPDlt6ApT_2pW5HJl9GnMaNgJO6AgK Doomsday Preppers] (National Geographic) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Fear]] py3sbmfmn79u45me3hqfojxx1pypnw0 2836512 2836511 2026-10-07T09:55:26Z LazPulch 3105917 /* What are environmental triggers of Apocalyptic Fear? */ Case study 3 2836512 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Apocalyptic fear:<br>What is apocalyptic fear, what are its consequences, and how can it be dealt with?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:F5 tornado Elie Manitoba 2007.jpg|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1'''. Natural disasters are commonly featured in apocalyptic films]] In the next 30 seconds, try to list 5 end-of-the-world movies or TV shows. ...was that easier than you expected? Have you noticed that film, TV and pop culture gravitate towards producing media with doomsday themes? The end of the world, the (very un-natural) natural disaster, a zombie apocalypse or [[w: Artificial Intelligence| Artificial Intelligence]] (AI) taking over the world! Audiences love doomsday media. Why do we love to consume objectively terrifying stories exploring mass destruction and the end of existence as we know it? Apocalyptic fear is more common than you'd think and a quick review of today's media landscape is evidence of that. This book chapter is going to follow the case study of Evan a Christian man living in the United States (US). It's 2023, and Evan has just watched [[w: Leave the World Behind (Film)|Leave the World Behind]] (Wikipedia) a modern day psychological, apocalyptic thriller regarding a mass cyber attack on the United States (US). Throughout this chapter we will evaluate Evan's own experience of Apocalyptic Fear informed by the movie, psychological theories underpinning this phenomenon, its consequences and how it can be managed. {{RoundBoxBottom}} In the literature, apocalyptic fear is also referred to as ‘apocalyptic thinking, ‘end of world beliefs’, ‘existential fear’, ‘catastrophic thinking’ and ‘doomsday thinking’. Whilst apocalyptic fear is not a mental health diagnosis, it is apparent that those experiencing these thought patterns are associated with diagnosis of and experiences of other mental health related struggles (Fetterman et al., 2019). Apocalyptic fear is primarily observable in cultural subgroups known as ‘Doomsday Preppers’ (Preppers). Preppers are people who practice the anticipation of and adapting to impending conditions of calamity (Garret, 2020). There are several types of apocalyptic fear and psychological theories that underpin the phenomenon and its consequences. Garret (2020) explains that the inability for Preppers to know when disaster is going to strike, coupled with the perceived inevitability of a catastrophe has effects of dread which manifests in prepping behaviour. But are the consequences of apocalyptic thinking a problem or is it a coping strategy to protect us from mortality salience? Is prepping itself a bad manifestation of a preppers psyche that needs management? This chapter will review the consequences of apocalyptic fear, including prepping, maladaptive behaviours, out-group hate, and anti-social behaviour. We will also examine the reciprocal influences of apocalyptic thinking of culture and politics. Finally, the chapter will explore strategies to manage apocalyptic fear including psychotherapies and more practice remedies such as media literacy, training and education.  {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' *What is Apocalyptic Fear? *What are the consequences of Apocalyptic Fear? *What can be done to manage Apocalyptic Fear? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What is Apocalyptic Fear?== [[File:Protokol Kesehatan.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2''': Harsh changes to reality like COVID-19 pandemic evokes apocalyptic fear]] Apocalyptic fear has been described as fear relating to the end of the world as we know it, usually through catastrophic means, both secular and religious (Garret, 2021). Apocalyptic fear has resurged in recent years from sociopolitical events, such as the COVID-19 pandemic, the Russian invasion of Ukraine, threats of nuclear war and even the climate change crisis (Davidson, 2025). These events are demonstrations of the reciprocal relationship between end-of-world thinking, the sociopolitical environment and our behaviour. Historically, apocalyptic themes were previously associated with fundamentalist religious positions, conspiracy mentality, paranoia and conservatism. However, with the occurrence of world-wide disruptions to our way of comprehending the world like through the pandemic, the apocalypse has become a much more mainstream concern (Nair, 2023). In fact, 50% of American children have reportedly declared that they’re afraid of a climate crisis that will cause the Earth to be uninhabitable (Hornfeldt, 2018; as city in Guthrie, 2022). Apocalyptic fear is only exacerbated with media covering distressing events that is more accessible than ever. It should be noted that literature regarding apocalyptic fear is primarily derived from contexts in the US, likely due to the prevalence of Christian Nationalism, conservatism, consumerism and individualism making the research relevant to the population (Nair, 2023). This should be taken into consideration when applying the research to other contexts. === Who is susceptible? === As previously mentioned, research exploring the demographic experiencing apocalyptic fear and engaging in prepping behaviours is primarily based in the US. Apocalyptic fear in the US is particularly popular in the literature as factors such as Christian Nationalism, Conservatism, Consumerism and Individualism are highly valued and contribute to prepping beliefs and behaviour (Nair, 2023). Contrary to popular belief, in the literature, religious variables are not commonly among the key predictors of preparedness behaviour (Adkins et al., 2023), likely because religious people do not feel the need to prepare as it will be a divine entity’s will to end the world (Adkins et al., 2023). Research by Fetterman et al. (2019) draws on information from social media discussion platforms and conversations with doomsday believers to develop the Post-Apocalyptic and Doomsday Prepping Belief Scale (PAPBS) to predict prepping behaviours. The validity and reliability of the PABS have been demonstrated throughout other cultures, such as Turkey (Alban & Arkan, 2024). Fetterman et al. (2019) identifies three themes underpinning prepping beliefs. Underlying all of these themes, is a pessimistic world view. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Theme !Explanation |- |Human Nature |General distrust of humans in a post-apocalyptic environment, in that they will resort to natural violent instincts with the absence of man-made law. |- |Resource Availability |Anxiety regarding a lack of resources available in a post-apocalyptic world. |- |Competitive Survival |In a post-apocalyptic world, humans will be competitive rather than cooperative, and will adopt a survival of the fittest mindset. |} ''Table 1: Predictive believes contributing to Apocalyptic Beliefs: Derived from Fetterman et al. (2019).'' Results from the study found that the three themes were all positively and significantly inter-correlated with each other, post-apocalyptic pessimism (PA pessimism) and prepping beliefs. Paranoia was positively related to PA pessimism and competitive survival. Positive correlations between conservatism and PA pessimism. Fetterman’s study also compares PAPBS with the HEXACO model of personality. From this research preppers tend to be: ·      Highly extroverted: outgoing, expressive and sociable. ·      Highly Neurotic: frequency experience negative emotions. ·      Low in Agreeableness: not cooperative, empathetic or considerate towards others. ·      Low in Honesty/humility: inflated sense of self importance. Furthermore, daily thoughts of death and cynicism were consistent predictors of daily prepping. Daily negative emotions, stress, uncertainty and negative events were less consistent positive predictors of daily prepping thoughts. However, the only consistent predictor of prepping behaviour was belief in the need to prep. This aligns with Ajzen’s (1991) Theory of Planned behaviour that has been used to explain prepping behaviour. Finally, apocalypticism was correlated with social dominance orientation (SDO), which is a personality trait that devalues social equality and reinforces ideology regarding social outgroup’s lack of right to respect. This highlights possible societal consequences of apocalyptic thinking. Alternatively, a study by Adkins et al. (2023) investigates the relationship between political and religious beliefs amongst American preppers. They found that a large proportion of Americans believe that prophecy and supernatural beings are involved in world affairs. Like previous studies, Christian Nationalism and Apocalypticism were significantly correlated. Interestingly white Christian Nationalists were found to be in an apocalyptic panic as they feel as though they are “losing ground” in comparison to non-white people in America. This suggests a racial bias common amongst preppers and proposes a social consequence. {{RoundBoxTop}}Case study continued: Evan is a 39-year-old White American man living in the US. Raised in a conservative Christian household, he values self-reliance, personal responsibility, and independence. Although religion is not central to his daily life, his political views remain conservative, and he often feels concerned about the future of society. Evan is outgoing and enjoys discussing current events with friends and online communities. However, he is also prone to anxiety and frequently worries about what might go wrong in the future. When faced with uncertainty, he tends to focus on worst-case scenarios and finds it difficult to stop thinking about potential threats. He believes that society is becoming increasingly unstable and is sceptical that governments or institutions can effectively manage future crises. Evan also holds a pessimistic view of human nature, believing that people would become selfish and competitive if resources became scarce. He expects cooperation to break down during major disasters and thinks survival would depend on being better prepared than others.{{RoundBoxBottom}} === Psychological Theories === Apocalyptic fear can be understood through several psychological theories that explain why individuals become preoccupied with catastrophic futures and engage in behaviours such as prepping. While these theories offer different explanations, they collectively suggest that apocalyptic thinking is motivated by a desire to manage threats, uncertainty, and mortality. The existential psychological perspective focuses on how individuals create meaning in life despite the inevitability of death. According to Guthrie (2022), apocalyptic thinking reflects a struggle with fundamental existential concerns, particularly mortality and the search for purpose. Similarly, Terror Management Theory (TMT) argues that awareness of death creates psychological terror, which people manage by investing in belief systems that provide meaning, self-worth, and a sense of symbolic immortality (Parsons, 2013). From this perspective, prepping behaviours function as a strategy to reduce death anxiety by increasing feelings of survival capability and personal significance. Both theories emphasise mortality as a central driver of apocalyptic fear; however, existential psychology focuses more broadly on meaning-making, whereas TMT specifically explains the defensive mechanisms used to suppress death-related anxiety. In contrast, Instinct Theory of Motivation explains apocalyptic fear from an evolutionary perspective. Rather than viewing fear as a response to existential concerns, instinct theory suggests that apocalyptic thinking arises from innate survival mechanisms activated when threats are perceived (Turner & Walsmley, 2020). Prepping behaviours therefore represent adaptive responses designed to enhance survival. While TMT and existential psychology emphasise symbolic and cognitive responses to mortality, instinct theory focuses on biological preparedness and self-preservation. A related but distinct explanation is provided by Social Dominance Orientation (SDO) and Darwinistic worldviews. These perspectives suggest that apocalyptic fear is linked to beliefs about competition, hierarchy, and survival of the fittest. Research by Fetterman et al. (2019) found that individuals who endorse post-apocalyptic survival mindsets often score highly in social dominance traits. Unlike existential and evolutionary theories, which focus on managing fear or ensuring survival, SDO emphasises power dynamics and the expectation that social order will become competitive during crises. Consequently, prepping may be motivated not only by fear of catastrophe but also by beliefs about gaining an advantage over others. The Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) offers a different explanation by focusing on the processes that translate intention into actions. According to TPB, attitudes toward potential disasters, perceived social norms, and perceived behavioural control influence intentions to prepare, which then predict actual prepping behaviour (Fetterman et al., 2019). Unlike the other theories, TPB does not explain the origin of apocalyptic fear itself. Instead, it explains how fear becomes behavioural action. For example, a person who believes an apocalypse is likely, perceives that others support preparedness, and feels capable of preparing is more likely to engage in prepping activities. These theories can be integrated into a comprehensive understanding of apocalyptic fear. Existential psychology and TMT explain the underlying anxiety created by mortality awareness. Instinct theory suggests that perceived threats activate evolved survival responses. SDO highlights how competitive and hierarchical worldviews shape interpretations of catastrophic scenarios, while TPB explains how these beliefs and fears are translated into concrete preparedness behaviours. Fetterman et al. (2019) further support this integration by demonstrating that prepping beliefs are associated with individuals' daily thoughts, emotions, behavioural tendencies, and perceived sense of control. When people experience uncertainty or feel a loss of control, preparedness behaviours may serve both practical and psychological functions. {{RoundBoxTop}} Case study continued: Evan often finds himself thinking about how quickly life could change. News stories about political conflict, economic uncertainty, and environmental disasters leave him feeling that society is far more fragile than most people realise. These events cause him to reflect on his own vulnerability and the possibility of losing the stability and security he depends on. After watching [[w: Leave the World Behind (Film)|Leave the World Behind]], Evan has been left feeling out of control and helpless. To cope with these feelings, Evan spends considerable time planning for future disasters, stockpiling emergency supplies, and imagining how he would survive if society were to collapse. These preparations provide him with a sense of control, purpose, and confidence in his ability to protect himself and his family. {{RoundBoxBottom}} <quiz> {According to Terror Management Theory, Evan is experiencing Apocalyptic Fear because |type="()"} + He is grappling with anxieties regarding death being inevitable. - The characters in the film modelled the appropriate response to anxiety inducing environment. - Evans survival instincts kicked in. - Evan believes the film is predicting the future. </quiz> === What are environmental triggers of Apocalyptic Fear? === Apocalyptic fear is often triggered by social, political, and cultural events that increase awareness of uncertainty, vulnerability, and mortality. Stiger et al. (2023) explains that there are several triggers in society which cause mortality salience, and consequently apocalyptic fear. Table 2 details common religious and secular apocalypse scenarios believed to trigger existential fear. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Name !Description |- |Political |Civil wars and breakdown of political systems. |- |Economic |Inequality undermining economic systems. |- |Nuclear |Nuclear war that destroys civilisations. |- |Climate Change |Destruction of civilisation due to global warming. |- |Racism |Social collapse due to racial discrimination. |- |Immigration |Societal destruction due to large scale immigration. |- |Family Breakdown |Social collapse due to the dissolution of family structures. |- |Rapture |Destruction of the world from the second coming of Christ and divine judgement. |} ''Table 2: Types of religious and secular apocalyptic triggers derived from works by Davidson (2025).'' Popular culture also contributes to apocalyptic thinking. Films, television programs, books, and video games frequently depict pandemics, societal collapse, and end-of-world scenarios. Fetterman et al. (2019) argue that engagement with apocalyptic media may reflect and reinforce apocalyptic beliefs. Together, global crises, media exposure, and online communities can interact to strengthen perceptions that societal collapse is possible, increasing susceptibility to apocalyptic fear and preparedness behaviours. Recent global events have contributed to a resurgence of apocalyptic fear. The COVID-19 pandemic disrupted daily life and exposed the vulnerability of social institutions, leading many individuals to question how secure society really is. Marshe (2025) found that post-pandemic anxiety, concerns about political instability, and personal crises were common motivators of prepping behaviours among self-identified doomsday preppers. Such events can increase feelings of uncertainty and a perceived need to prepare for future catastrophes (Marshe, 2025). Media exposure further amplifies these fears. Continuous access to news coverage of wars, climate disasters, political conflict, and economic crises can create the impression that catastrophe is both imminent and unavoidable. The widespread broadcasting of global crises means individuals are regularly exposed to distressing events, reinforcing feelings of fear and helplessness. {{RoundBoxTop}}Case study continued: Following the COVID-19 pandemic, Evan became increasingly concerned about the stability of society. He regularly followed media coverage of the Ukraine war, particularly stories about military escalation and nuclear threats, which reinforced his fears about the future. After watching Leave the World Behind, a film depicting the sudden collapse of modern society, he found himself repeatedly imagining similar scenarios occurring in real life. Seeking answers, Evan began reading Reddit discussions focused on preparedness and end-of-world conspiracy theories. Rather than reducing his anxiety, these communities often reinforced his concerns. Combined with constant exposure to alarming news and online discussions, Evan gradually came to view global events as interconnected signs that society was becoming increasingly fragile and vulnerable to collapse.{{RoundBoxBottom}}<quiz> {What are all of the triggers that may have initiated Evan's Apocalyptic Fear? |type="[]"} + The movie + Engaging in reddit threads about end-of-world conspiracy theories + Media reporting on the Ukraine War + Covid-19 Lockdown </quiz> ==Consequences of Apocalyptic Fear== Apocalyptic fear has multifaceted consequences on an individual, political, societal and cultural level. === The Individual === Apocalyptic fear can significantly affect an individual's thoughts, emotions, and behaviours. TMT argues that awareness of death creates anxiety, motivating people to seek ways to regain control and meaning in life (Guthrie, 2022). One common response is prepping, which can function as an 'immortality project' by helping individuals feel more prepared for uncertain futures (Guthrie, 2022). Prepping is the management of stockpiled household items in anticipation of market disruption (Nair, 2023). When people perceived their lives as 'not going well', prepping increases to regain feeling of control. Mortality salience often leads people to defend their existing beliefs more strongly and become more hostile towards those with opposing worldviews. This protects self-esteem and reduces existential anxiety, but can also increase mistrust and social division (Guthrie, 2022). Individuals may engage in experiential avoidance, denying information that reminds them of mortality or distracting themselves from uncomfortable thoughts and emotions. Apocalyptic fear is also associated with higher anxiety, neuroticism, pessimistic future thinking, and frequent thoughts of death. Research suggests that greater engagement in prepping correlates with increased catastrophising and conspiracy thinking, as individuals attempt to make sense of uncertain threats (Fetterman et al., 2019). Stieger et al. (2023) similarly found that existential threats can produce immediate increases in anxiety. Prepping itself is not necessarily always harmful. Nair (2023) defines prepping as stockpiling resources and developing skills to prepare for potential disruptions, often focusing on medicine, security, shelter, nutrition, hydration, and hygiene. It can provide a sense of control, self-sufficiency, and emotional regulation during periods of uncertainty. However, when taken to extremes, prepping may reduce quality of life, encourage excessive consumerism, and foster distrust and competition over perceived scarce resources. === Politics, Society and Culture === Apocalyptic fear has had a significant influence on politics, society, and culture. One of the clearest examples is the popularity of post-apocalyptic literature, which reflects society's ongoing fascination with end-of-the-world scenarios and collective anxieties about the future (Paul & Alan, 2024). While traditional apocalyptic beliefs were largely rooted in religion, contemporary apocalyptic narratives have become increasingly secularised, focusing on threats such as climate change, nuclear war, and environmental collapse (Davidson, 2025). These issues are closely tied to political debates, allowing apocalyptic themes to shape public discourse and policy discussions. Apocalyptic narratives are often used as political tools to influence public opinion and mobilise action. Davidson argues that the apocalypse can be weaponised by dominant social groups to portray the future as inevitable and beyond human control, allowing those in positions of power to avoid responsibility for addressing social inequalities and injustices. At the same time, oppressed groups have also drawn on apocalyptic imagery to express dissatisfaction with existing social conditions and imagine alternative futures. In this way, apocalyptic movements can both inspire demands for social change and reflect feelings of powerlessness in the face of oppression. However, apocalyptic thinking can also have negative consequences for democratic societies. Davidson suggests that framing the future as fixed and unavoidable discourages debate and critical engagement, potentially fostering authoritarian attitudes. Similarly, Furse (2022) argues that apocalyptic narratives are effective at rallying political action because they present issues in urgent, moralistic terms. In the United States, Christian nationalist movements have used apocalyptic themes to emphasise moral decline and portray the nation as under threat, encouraging support for political agendas framed as necessary for survival (Furse, 2022). Research by Piazza (2026) further highlights the dangers of apocalyptic beliefs in politics. Surveying over 1,300 White Americans, Piazza found that Christian nationalism significantly predicted apocalyptic beliefs, support for political violence, and hostility towards social outgroups. Apocalypticism itself was a significant predictor of outgroup hate, as believers often divided society into forces of "good" and "evil." Existential fears associated with apocalyptic thinking increased mistrust and dehumanisation of outsiders, particularly racial minorities, which in turn normalised support for political violence (Piazza, 2026). These findings suggest that apocalyptic fear can contribute to social polarisation, prejudice, and the justification of violence against perceived threats. Despite these risks, apocalyptic thinking is not entirely negative. Garrett (2021) argues that apocalyptic narratives often emerge during periods of crisis because they can inspire hope for transformation and survival. For example, preppers may view societal collapse as an opportunity to demonstrate resilience and create a better future. However, these hopes are often centred on individual survival rather than collective solutions. Furthermore, collective avoidance of discussions about climate change and eco-anxiety has been linked to increased societal anxiety over time, suggesting that confronting threats openly may be more constructive than denying them (Guthrie, 2022). {{RoundBoxTop}} Case Study continued: Maladaptive and adaptive behaviours Evan is displaying to cope with his uncomfortable anxieties about the end of the world {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Managing Apocalyptic Fear== One may question whether behaviours associated with Apocalyptic Fear need to be managed. Does it actually need to be treated or managed? Prepping behaviour as a result of apocalyptic fear is not inherently 'bad'. However, it can become maladaptive. It should be noted that a change in this phenomenon can only occur once the individual innately want to commit to the change. === Strategies === *Cognitive restructuring to challenge thought patterns that reinforce catastrophic predictions and exaggeration of non-existent threats. *A 2022 Study by Sabzevari demonstrated that existential therapy is a tool to reduce anxiety related to COVID-19 and death. This type of therapy helps individuals develop sincere and real relationships with life and death. Describe and critique the therapy. *Acceptance & Commitment therapy. Guthrie (2022) studied how acceptance and commitment therapy can support individuals coping with climate-related apocalyptic fear. Describe and critique the therapy. *Strengthening social cohesion and community resilience. === Media Literacy === * Media hygiene. Reduce exposure to sensationalist apocalyptic content (Menzies & Menzies, 2024). * Importance of sharing of accurate information. * Limiting antisocial media use. {{RoundBoxTop}} Final part of case study. Going to explain maladaptive symptoms and suggestions that his friend, Ricki, has made to help him combat his apocalyptic fear. This may include activities that increase social cohesion, media hygiene, and education. Case study will ask audience to reflect on what they would suggest Evan does to manage his apocalyptic fear. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Conclusion== * Apocalyptic fear is common and emerges from evolutionary instincts, existential concerns, personality traits, and especially environmental triggers. * It has meaningful consequences that impact individuals, their mental health and coping mechanisms, societies social cohesion and polarisation, and political violence. * Psychological science provides effective tools for managing apocalyptic thinking patterns. Science not only helps us understand how apocalyptic fear develops, but provides strategies and therapies to combat it. Existential therapies, acceptance therapy, and increased media education and literacy helps people manage in health ways. * Reducing apocalyptic fear requires both internal straggles of change (cognitive, emotional, and existential) and external strategies (accurate information, social connect, and media hygiene). {{tip|Suggestions for this section: LEAVING THIS SECTION FOR FUTURE REFERENCE * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} * {{tip|Suggestions for this section: LEAVING THIS SECTION FOR FUTURE REFERENCE * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==See also== {{expand}} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. {{Hanging indent|1= Adkins, J., Djupe, P. A., & Neiheisel, J. R. (2023). Preparedness Behavior and the apocalypse: religion and politics in the post 2020 election era. Politics and Religion, 16(4), 585–604. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/politics-and-religion/article/preparedness-behavior-and-the-apocalypse-religion-and-politics-in-the-post-2020-election-era/39FA605571043F7C03281B5B15C2C9E4 Davison, J. (2025). The Apocalypse from Below: The Dangerous Idea of the End of the World, the Politics of the Oppressed, and Anti-Anti-Apocalypticism. American Political Science Review, 119(1), 479–491. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/american-political-science-review/article/apocalypse-from-below-the-dangerous-idea-of-the-end-of-the-world-the-politics-of-the-oppressed-and-antiantiapocalypticism/054311423D0D7BC9E3B7586C894F0CAB Fetterman, A., et al. (2019). On Post-apocalyptic and Doomsday Prepping Beliefs: A New Measure, its Correlates and the Motivation to Prep. European Journal of Personality, 33(4), 506-525. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2216 Furse, T. (2022). ‘Let us go out to the Field’: Apocalyptic Thinking in Christian Nationalism. Politics, Religion & Ideology, 23(3), 306–326. https://doi.org/10.1080/21567689.2022.2123802 Garret, B. (2020). Doomsday preppers and the architecture of dread. Geoforum, 127(1), 401-411. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7151311/ Guthrie, D. (2023). How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Eco-Apocalypse: An Existential Approach to Accepting Eco-Anxiety. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 18(1), 210-223. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/17456916221093613 Menzies, R. & Menzies, R. (2024). Existential therapies and the extended evolutionary meta-model: Turning existential philosophy into process-based therapy. Journal of Contextual Behaviour Science, 34(1). https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2212144724001200 Nair, T. (2023). Doomsday Prepping: Reactionary Behaviour or Inherited Instinct? Seattle Anxiety. https://seattleanxiety.com/psychiatrist/2023/1/12/doomsday-prepping-reactionary-behavior-or-inherited-instinct Parsons, S. (2022). Terror Management Theory. EBSCO.com https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/social-sciences-and-humanities/terror-management-theory Piazza, J. A. (2026). Christian nationalism, apocalypticism, outgroup hate, and support for violent extremism.Defence and Peace Economics, 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1080/10242694.2026.2613902 Sabzevari, P. (2022). The Effectiveness of Existential Therapy Intervention on Anxiety Caused by Coronavirus and Death. Clinical Cancer Investigation Journal, 11(1). https://ccij-online.org/article/the-effectiveness-of-existential-therapy-intervention-on-anxiety-caused-by-coronavirus-and-death-ec5qns1rnmgi9ju Stieger, S. et al. (2023). Examining terror management theory in Ukraine: impact of air-raid alarms and explosions on mental health, somatic symptoms and well-being. Front. Psychiatry, 14(1). https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychiatry/articles/10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1244335/full Strozier, S. (2017). The Apocalyptic Imagination and Fundamentalist Mindset. New England Journal of Public Policy, 29(1). https://scholarworks.umb.edu/nejpp/vol29/iss1/7/ }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== * [https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20211014-agents-of-doom-who-is-hastening-the-apocalypse-and-why Agents of Doom: Who is creating the apocalypse and why] (Luke Kemp) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=idMobTOh0kY Addicted to Apocalypse: Our Psychological Need for the End] (The Living Philosophy) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SKBTrMH7SeI&list=PLivjPDlt6ApT_2pW5HJl9GnMaNgJO6AgK Doomsday Preppers] (National Geographic) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Fear]] gap3kez5yebv47holdwsdexcu3cw2xd 0 331099 2836532 2836291 2026-10-07T10:27:30Z U3285438 3103750 /* Overview */ simplified description of problem/topic 2836532 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Emotion dysregulation:<br>What is emotion dysregulation, what are its consequences, and how can it be managed?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:Burnout At Work - Occupational Burnout.jpg|Burnout_At_Work_-_Occupational_Burnout|250px|right|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' Taylor feels frustrated after the submissions portal froze at a critical moment.]] '''Scenario''' Taylor is trying to upload an assignment last minute but the submissions portal freezes exactly as he presses “submit”. He watches the cursor’s loading icon spin again and again, likely because the portal is overwhelmed by other last minute submissions. Though there is still 15 minutes before the deadline, Taylor finds himself continuing to aggressively click the laptop trackpad and becoming consumed by a feeling of frustration. Taylor can feel his heart rate increase, jaw tighten and leg shake. Then the trackpad becomes unresponsive. Taylor shoves his laptop aside and drops his head onto the table, angrily questioning why nothing ever seems to go his way (see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} From moments of [[wikipedia:Happiness|happiness]] and excitement to [[wikipedia:Sadness|sadness]] or irritation, [[w:emotions|emotions]] are an integral aspect of being human, and it is expected that these emotions fluctuate as we navigate the complexity of our everyday lives. Emotions are neither ‘good’ nor ‘bad’, rather emotions have a specific [[wikipedia:Evolution|evolutionary]] purpose that has helped us survive, adapt and interact with others (Šimić et al., 2021). Nonetheless, there are times when strong and overwhelming emotions can impair our daily functioning. This is called [[wikipedia:Emotional_dysregulation|emotion dysregulation]]. Emotion dysregulation can be defined as the difficulty to cope with intense emotions, to the extent that an individual's [[wikipedia:Emotional_responsivity|emotional response]] is disproportionate to the situation and they have difficulty implementing adaptive [[wikipedia:Coping|coping strategies]] (Gross & Thompson, 2007, as cited in Aslan et al., 2024). This chapter investigates the processes underlying emotion dysregulation, its behavioural and psychological consequences, and practical approaches to facilitate [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|emotion regulation]]. Through understanding these ideas, individuals can be better prepared to identify and respond to emotion dysregulation in [[wikipedia:Adaptive_behavior|adaptive ways]]. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Focus questions''' * How can emotion dysregulation be understood? *How does emotion dysregulation impact daily functioning and psychological well-being? *What approaches can help manage emotion dysregulation?{{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What is emotion dysregulation? == * Emotions can be described as complex and dynamic psychological states that integrate subjective experiences, physiological responses and behavioural responses (Hockenbury & Hockenbury, 2007 as cited in D’Agostino et al., 2017). * Emotion regulation is the ability to understand and cope with the onset, intensity and expression of these emotional states (Grecucci et al., 2020). ** Aldao and colleagues (2010) conceptualised emotion regulation as the “processes through which individuals modulate their emotions consciously and subconsciously to respond to environmental demands”. * Individuals usually develop more effective emotion regulation strategies with age (Kaufman et al., 2026). Nonetheless, impairments in emotion regulation are observed at all stages of development (Kaufman et al., 2026). So, what happens when we cannot regulate our emotions? * Despite the term being incorporated into vernacular, there is still much conceptual ambiguity surrounding the definition of emotion dysregulation due to its complexity. D’Agostino and colleagues (2017) identified five overlapping dimensions of emotion dysregulation that appear across research; reduced emotional awareness, decreased emotional reactivity, intense experiences and expression of emotion, emotional rigidity, and impaired cognitive reappraisals. * Comparatively, Beauchaine (2015, p.876) posits that emotion dysregulation constitutes “a pattern of emotional experience and/or expression that interferes with appropriate goal-directed behavior”. * These conceptualisations of emotion dysregulation emphasise deficits in emotion recognition, inability to inhibit impulsive emotional reactions, and the subsequent challenge to respond in ways that support goal attainment.   * Alongside its impact on general well-being, pervasive emotion dysregulation is considered an important factor in the development and maintenance of psychological disorders (Yalvaç & Gaynor, 2021; Beauchaine & Dante Cicchetti, 2019). (''Author note:'' will include another section on outlining the core features/signs of emotion dysregulation. May delve into the different maladaptive strategies characteristic of emotion dysregulation. Then will include a sentence on using psychological frameworks to help our understanding.) === Extended process model of emotion regulation === * Gross’s [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Extended process model of emotion regulation|extended process model of emotion regulation]] (EMP) is grounded in appraisal theory, positing that emotions emerge from the cognitive evaluations individuals make in response to events (Grecucci et al., 2020). This model emphasises a process-orientated framework for emotion [dys]regulation (Gross, 2015). * Gross (2015) defines emotion regulation as “a particular type of interaction between valuation systems”. * Gross (2015) proposes three distinct stages of emotion regulation; identification, selection and implementation. Emotion dysregulation may occur at any of these stages. * Sheppes et al. (2015): ** Identification-stage failures: difficulty reading emotional cues, leading to challenges initiating emotion regulation strategies and/or overidentification of emotions. ** Selection-stage failures: difficulties selecting an appropriate regulation strategy and/or a lack of access to adaptive strategies. ** Implementation-stage failures: impaired ability to carry-out a selected regulation strategy. * Comment on the limitations of this model. ** e.g., focus on emotion regulation rather than emotion dysregulation? === Biosocial model === * Linehan’s (1993) biosocial model proposes that emotion dysregulation constitutes the dynamic interactions between an individual’s biological emotional vulnerability and an invalidating environment during development. This model was initially developed within the context of [[wikipedia:Borderline_personality_disorder|Borderline Personality Disorder]].[[File:DBT Biosocial model.png|thumb|304x304px|'''Figure 2.''' Linehan's (1993) biosocial model of emotion dysregulation. ]] * Emotional vulnerability refers to the genetic predisposition toward emotional hypersensitivity, hyperreactivity and long-lasting emotional reactions (Bemmouna & Weiner, 2023). The [[wikipedia:Prefrontal_cortex|prefrontal cortex]] and [[wikipedia:Amygdala|amygdala]] are brain regions often implicated in the genetic disruption of emotional processing, contributing to increased emotional vulnerability (Bemmouna & Weiner, 2023). * Invalidating environments are characterised as insufficient environmental responses to a child’s emotional needs, thereby the child does not learn to understand, recognise or appropriately react to emotional responses (Cronwell et al., 2009). * Linehan (1993) argues that an individual is more likely to develop pervasive emotion dysregulation if they have an emotionally sensitive temperament and receive persistent invalidating responses. Individuals may feel compelled to escalate their emotional reactions to communicate their unmet needs (Linehan, 1993). * Linehan (1993) suggests that emotion dysregulation will lead to maladaptive response patterns when individuals are faced with challenging experiences. * Comment on the limitations of this model (e.g., developed based on BPD?) {{robelbox|theme=3|title=Let's do a quick knowledge check!|icon=Paomedia small-n-flat light-bulb.svg|iconwidth=68px}}<div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> <quiz display=simple header=none> {Which model links emotion dysregulation to emotional vulnerability and invalidating environments? | type="(+)"} - Gross’s extended process model + Linehan’s biosocial model {Which model defines emotion dysregulation as “a particular type of interaction between valuation systems"? | type="(+)"} - Linehan’s biosocial model + Gross’s extended process model } </quiz> </div> {{Robelbox/close}} ==Impact of emotion dysregulation on daily functioning and psychological well-being== *Describe/argue how emotion dysregulation impacts individuals daily functioning – making sure to define daily functioning and why this could be problematic to overall well-being. **Tani and colleagues (2015) identified that increased levels of emotion dysregulation were associated with lower satisfaction in couples’ relationship quality. **Those that struggle to modulate their emotional responses often experience prolonged and more severe periods of distress (Boemo et al., 2022). **Samea and colleagues (2025) performed a meta-analysis on the relationship between emotion dysregulation and sleep deprivation. *Emphasise that emotion dysregulation negatively impacts multiple domains of daily functioning (decision-making, stress-responses, quality of life, etc.) – therefore addressing the importance of addressing emotion dysregulation. (''Author note:'' should this section be expanded using subheadings? For example, interpersonal conflict, impaired academic/occupational performance, and impact on general health/well-being. Need to make sure enough literature is available with non-clinical populations - or maybe I can include research from clinical populations?) '''(SECTION ON PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING)''' *Alongside its impact on everyday functioning, emotion dysregulation is increasingly recognised as a transdiagnostic factor in the development and maintenance of psychological disorders (Yalvaç & Gaynor, 2021; Beauchaine & Cicchetti, 2019). *Transdiagnostic factors refer to underlying risk, maintenance or protective factors that are implicated across a diverse range psychological disorders, transcending diagnostic categories (Dalgeish et al., 2020). *Beauchaine and Cicchetti (2019) observed that emotion dysregulation has been associated with [[wikipedia:Internalizing_disorder|internalizing disorders]], [[wikipedia:Externalizing_disorder|externalizing disorders]], [[wikipedia:Personality_disorder|personality disorders]] and [[wikipedia:Psychosis|psychotic disorders]]. Further, impairments in top-down processing of emotional reactivity are evident across many psychological disorders (Beauchaine & Cicchetti, 2019). *Emotion dysregulation in children and adolescents may be a predisposing factor to the emergence of psychological disorders in adulthood (Cole et al. 2017). === Emotion dysregulation in borderline personality disorder === * Borderline personality disorder (BPD) is a psychological disorder defined by an enduring pattern of emotion dysregulation, impaired interpersonal functioning and an unstable sense of self (Bohus et al., 2021). * Refer back to Linehan’s (1993) biosocial model ---> developed for BPD. ** According to Linehan (1933), emotion dysregulation is a core feature of borderline personality disorder, accounting for most of its symptomology. * Borderline personality disorder is associated with low emotional awareness, persistent [[wikipedia:Negative_affectivity|negative affect]] and the use of ineffective strategies to regulate emotions (Fitzpatrick et al., 2023). * Among those with borderline personality disorder, impulsivity and dysfunctional behaviour is associated with experiences of increased emotional distress (Bohus et al., 2021).   (''Author note:'' will expand upon the role of emotion dysregulation as the driving factor of BPD symptomology (e.g., risk or maintaining factor) and touch on how individuals with BPD use strategies that elicit short-term relief but perpetuate difficulties over time.) === Emotion dysregulation in bipolar disorder === * [[wikipedia:Bipolar_disorder|Bipolar disorder]] is a psychological disorder associated with extreme changes in mood, energy and activity levels (Singh et al., 2025). Bipolar disorder is defined by recurrent episodes of [[wikipedia:Mania|mania]] or [[wikipedia:Hypomania|hypomania]] and [[wikipedia:Depression_(mood)|depression]] (Singh et al., 2025). * Difficulties in emotion regulation are correlated with depressive and (hypo)manic episodes (Oliva et al., 2023). * Those with bipolar disorder exhibit a reduced capacity to recognise and accept their emotions during both acute (hypo)manic and depressive episodes (Oliva et al., 2023). * M’Bailara and colleagues (2009) found that even during [[wikipedia:Euthymia_(medicine)|euthymia]], participants with bipolar disorder experienced greater emotional reactivity and emotional intensity than control participants. This suggests that emotion dysregulation persists beyond acute symptoms and may account for the increased vulnerability to minor stressful events observed among those with bipolar (M’Bailara et al., 2009). (''Author note:'' will expand upon the role of emotion dysregulation in BD symptomology (e.g., risk or maintaining factor) and touch on how individuals with BD use maladaptive emotion regulation strategies. Additionally, will look for a more recent study on euthymia and emotion dysregulation). === Emotion dysregulation in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder === * [[wikipedia:Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder|Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder]] (ADHD) is [[wikipedia:Neurodevelopmental_disorder|neurodevelopmental disorder]] defined by persistent patterns of inattention, hyperactivity and impulsivity (Bodalski et al., 2019). * Emerging research has indicated that emotion regulation difficulties in ADHD cannot be explained fully by the presence of [[wikipedia:Comorbidity|comorbid]] disorders, rather emotion dysregulation itself may be a distinct feature of ADHD (Bodalski et al., 2019). * In 2014, Bunford and colleagues found that emotion dysregulation predicted social impairments among adolescents with ADHD, particularly emotional excitability, impulsivity and prolonged emotional responses. * Barkley (1997) proposed the executive functioning theory of ADHD, arguing that ADHD can be attributed to impairments in the behavioural inhibition processes that govern self-regulation and goal-directed behaviour. ** Disruptions in emotional inhibition processes are among the executive functions implicated in ADHD, contributing to emotion dysregulation (Mitchell et al., 2012). (''Author note:'' will expand upon the role of emotion dysregulation in ADHD and touch on how individuals with ADHD use maladaptive emotion regulation strategies. Additionally, will give examples on how emotion dysregulation presents in ADHD). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}'''Scenario: ''' {{em|(Author note: will refer back to Taylor?)}}{{RoundBoxBottom}} == How can emotion dysregulation be managed? == *Research indicates that emotion regulation is a learned skill that develops with practice over the lifespan (Wright et al., 2025). **[[File:Practicing mindfulness promotes creativity.png|thumb|180x180px|'''Figure 3.''' Emotion regulation skills promote general well-being. ]]Individuals emotion regulation capabilities are shaped through learning processes, including parental modelling and [[wikipedia:Co-regulation|co-regulation]] during childhood (Wright et al., 2025) * [[wikipedia:Psychotherapy|Psychotherapy]] interventions or management strategies that build emotion regulation skills are integral to reducing emotion dysregulation and maladaptive strategies among those with psychological disorders. * Outside of professional support, there are a range of practical everyday strategies that can assist in reducing emotion dysregulation and promoting general well-being (see Figure 3).   === Dialectical behaviour therapy approaches to emotion dysregulation === * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Dialectical behaviour therapy and emotion regulation|Dialectical behaviour therapy (DBT)]] emerged as a psychological treatment approach rooted in behaviourism to address self-harm behaviours in borderline personality disorder (Linehan & Wilks, 2015). * DBT focuses on developing practical skills across the four modules of [[wikipedia:Mindfulness|mindfulness]], interpersonal effectiveness, emotional regulation and distress tolerance (Linehan & Wilks, 2015). * Abundant empirical research found that DBT was clinically relevant in reducing emotion dysregulation and maladaptive coping strategies among those with borderline personality disorder (Lenz et al., 2016). ** Emotional regulation is considered a key mechanism of change in DBT outcomes (Lenz et al., 2016). * DBT has broader clinical applications – will incorporate research on DBT’s effectiveness across other psychological disorders in which emotion dysregulation is a key component. * Comment on how DBT relates to/addresses to both Linehan’s biosocial model and Gross’s extended process model. (''Author note'': will further expand upon the emotion dysregulation skills-training involved in DBT and further emphasis will be placed on evidence from literature.) === Cognitive behavioural therapy approaches to emotion dysregulation === * [[File:Beck's CognitiveTriad.png|thumb|279x279px|'''Figure 4.''' Representation of Beck's (1976) cognitive triad. ]][[wikipedia:Cognitive_behavioral_therapy|Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT)]] is grounded on the premise that thoughts, behaviours and emotions are intrinsically intertwined (Preece & Gross, 2026). *Cognitive reappraisal is an important technique used in CBT to regulate emotions (Wang & Yin, 2023). *Preece and Gross (2026) posit that CBT should be understood through the lens of emotion regulation. *Compare/link back to Gross's (2015) extended process model of emotion regulation and reference Beck’s (1976) cognitive triad (see Figure 4). ''(Author note: the cognitive triangle might be more relevant than the cognitive triad here).'' === Physiological approaches to managing emotion dysregulation === * Briefly cover emotion regulation through exercise – include research on how exercise can reduce emotion dysregulation through physiological mechanisms. ** Thayer and Lane (2000) posited the neurovisceral integration model to account for the observed relationship between physiological feedback circuits and affective systems. * Briefly cover [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Guided meditation and emotion regulation|emotion regulation through meditation]]/mindfulness - technique used to elicit the relaxation response which facilitates emotion regulation through physiological mechanisms. ** Benson and colleagues (1974) relaxation response theory. ** Emphasise the accessibility of meditation/mindfulness. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}'''Scenario: ''' {{em|(Author note: will refer back to Taylor - what strategy could he use to cope?)}}{{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Conclusion== * Summarise emotion dysregulation, including its core features, conceptualisation as multidimensional construct and how psychological models can guide our understanding (despite diverse approaches/definitions). * Emphasise the influence and impact of emotion dysregulation on our day-to-day lives. Comment on the effect of emotion dysregulation on our well-being. * Restate how increasing evidence highlights emotion dysregulation as a transdiagnostic factor across many psychological disorders, thereby emotion dysregulation has important clinical applications in the treatment of these disorders. * Provide a practical summary of the strategies that can reduce dysregulation. Aim to encourage the reader to try implement these strategies themselves to improve emotion self-regulation skills. ** Comment again on the importance of emotion regulation skills, particularly when confronted with challenging or distressing situations (leads to overall healthier behaviours and well-being). ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/ADHD and emotional regulation|ADHD and emotional regulation]] (Book chapter, 2024) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Cognitive strategies and emotion regulation|Cognitive strategies and emotion regulation]] (Book chapter, 2025) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Dialectical behaviour therapy and emotion regulation|Dialectical behaviour therapy and emotion regulation]] (Book chapter, 2025) * [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Extended process model of emotion regulation|Extended process model of emotion regulation]] (Book chapter, 2026) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Social media and emotional dysregulation|Social media and emotional dysregulation]] (Book chapter, 2025) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Aldao, A., Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Schweizer, S. 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M., Ebneabbasi, A., Zarei, M., Khazaie, H., Goldstein-Piekarski, A. N., Spiegelhalder, K., Baglioni, C., Sepehry, A. A., & Tahmasian, M. (2025). Insomnia and emotion dysregulation: A meta-analytical perspective integrating regulatory strategies and dispositional difficulties. {{em|Sleep medicine reviews, 82}}, Article 102111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smrv.2025.102111 Sheppes, G., Suri, G., & Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion regulation and psychopathology. {{em|Annual review of clinical psychology, 11}}, 379–405. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032814-112739 Šimić, G., Tkalčić, M., Vukić, V., Mulc, D., Španić, E., Šagud, M., Olucha-Bordonau, F. E., Vukšić, M., & Hof, P. R. (2021). Understanding emotions: Origins and roles of the amygdala. {{em|Biomolecules, 11}}(6), Article 823. https://doi.org/10.3390/biom11060823 Singh, B., Swartz, H. A., Cuellar-Barboza, A. B., Schaffer, A., Kato, T., Dols, A., Sperry, S. H., Vassilev, A. B., Burdick, K. E., & Frye, M. A. (2025). Bipolar disorder. {{em|The Lancet, 406}}(10506), 963–978. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(25)01140-7 Tani, F., Pascuzzi, D., & Raffagnino, R. (2015). Emotion regulation and quality of close relationship: The effects of emotion dysregulation processes on couple intimacy. {{em|Applied Psychology Bulletin, 272}}(63), 3–15. Thayer, J. F., & Lane, R. D. (2000). A model of neurovisceral integration in emotion regulation and dysregulation. {{em|Journal of Affective Disorders, 61}}(3), 201-216. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0165-0327(00)00338-4. Wang, Y. X., & Yin, B. (2023). A new understanding of the cognitive reappraisal technique: an extension based on the schema theory. {{em|Frontiers in behavioral neuroscience, 17}}, Article 1174585. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2023.1174585 Wright. R. N., Adock, R. A., & LaBar, K. S. (2025). Learning emotion regulation: An integrative framework. {{em|The Psychological Review, 132}}(1), 172-203. https://doi.org/10.1037/rev0000506 Yalvaç, E. B. K., & Gaynor, K. (2021). Emotional dysregulation in adults: The influence of rumination and negative secondary appraisals of emotion. {{em|Journal of Affective Disorders, 282}}, 656-661. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2020.12.194 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xNY0AAUtH3g Emotions and the brain] (Sentis) * [https://www.healthline.com/health/how-to-control-your-emotions How to become the boss of your emotions] (Healthline) * [https://www.ted.com/talks/ted_ed_how_to_manage_your_emotions How to manage your emotions] (TED-Ed) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SWvHZkkrAjc How to master your emotions & never get angry or bothered by anyone] (The Mel Robbins Podcast) * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/click-here-for-happiness/202108/what-is-emotional-dysregulation What is emotional dysregulation?] (Psychology Today) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotional self-regulation]] 1uaxgaqdap82uu0zzxmutbsqkkue2tl 2836539 2836532 2026-10-07T10:45:10Z U3285438 3103750 /* Overview */ decreased figure 1 size slightly 2836539 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Emotion dysregulation:<br>What is emotion dysregulation, what are its consequences, and how can it be managed?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:Burnout At Work - Occupational Burnout.jpg|Burnout_At_Work_-_Occupational_Burnout|220px|right|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' Taylor feels frustrated after the submissions portal froze at a critical moment.]] '''Scenario''' Taylor is trying to upload an assignment last minute but the submissions portal freezes exactly as he presses “submit”. He watches the cursor’s loading icon spin again and again, likely because the portal is overwhelmed by other last minute submissions. Though there is still 15 minutes before the deadline, Taylor finds himself continuing to aggressively click the laptop trackpad and becoming consumed by a feeling of frustration. Taylor can feel his heart rate increase, jaw tighten and leg shake. Then the trackpad becomes unresponsive. Taylor shoves his laptop aside and drops his head onto the table, angrily questioning why nothing ever seems to go his way (see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} From moments of [[wikipedia:Happiness|happiness]] and excitement to [[wikipedia:Sadness|sadness]] or irritation, [[w:emotions|emotions]] are an integral aspect of being human, and it is expected that these emotions fluctuate as we navigate the complexity of our everyday lives. Emotions are neither ‘good’ nor ‘bad’, rather emotions have a specific [[wikipedia:Evolution|evolutionary]] purpose that has helped us survive, adapt and interact with others (Šimić et al., 2021). Nonetheless, there are times when strong and overwhelming emotions can impair our daily functioning. This is called [[wikipedia:Emotional_dysregulation|emotion dysregulation]]. Emotion dysregulation can be defined as the difficulty to cope with intense emotions, to the extent that an individual's [[wikipedia:Emotional_responsivity|emotional response]] is disproportionate to the situation and they have difficulty implementing adaptive [[wikipedia:Coping|coping strategies]] (Gross & Thompson, 2007, as cited in Aslan et al., 2024). This chapter investigates the processes underlying emotion dysregulation, its behavioural and psychological consequences, and practical approaches to facilitate [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|emotion regulation]]. Through understanding these ideas, individuals can be better prepared to identify and respond to emotion dysregulation in [[wikipedia:Adaptive_behavior|adaptive ways]]. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Focus questions''' * How can emotion dysregulation be understood? *How does emotion dysregulation impact daily functioning and psychological well-being? *What approaches can help manage emotion dysregulation?{{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What is emotion dysregulation? == * Emotions can be described as complex and dynamic psychological states that integrate subjective experiences, physiological responses and behavioural responses (Hockenbury & Hockenbury, 2007 as cited in D’Agostino et al., 2017). * Emotion regulation is the ability to understand and cope with the onset, intensity and expression of these emotional states (Grecucci et al., 2020). ** Aldao and colleagues (2010) conceptualised emotion regulation as the “processes through which individuals modulate their emotions consciously and subconsciously to respond to environmental demands”. * Individuals usually develop more effective emotion regulation strategies with age (Kaufman et al., 2026). Nonetheless, impairments in emotion regulation are observed at all stages of development (Kaufman et al., 2026). So, what happens when we cannot regulate our emotions? * Despite the term being incorporated into vernacular, there is still much conceptual ambiguity surrounding the definition of emotion dysregulation due to its complexity. D’Agostino and colleagues (2017) identified five overlapping dimensions of emotion dysregulation that appear across research; reduced emotional awareness, decreased emotional reactivity, intense experiences and expression of emotion, emotional rigidity, and impaired cognitive reappraisals. * Comparatively, Beauchaine (2015, p.876) posits that emotion dysregulation constitutes “a pattern of emotional experience and/or expression that interferes with appropriate goal-directed behavior”. * These conceptualisations of emotion dysregulation emphasise deficits in emotion recognition, inability to inhibit impulsive emotional reactions, and the subsequent challenge to respond in ways that support goal attainment.   * Alongside its impact on general well-being, pervasive emotion dysregulation is considered an important factor in the development and maintenance of psychological disorders (Yalvaç & Gaynor, 2021; Beauchaine & Dante Cicchetti, 2019). (''Author note:'' will include another section on outlining the core features/signs of emotion dysregulation. May delve into the different maladaptive strategies characteristic of emotion dysregulation. Then will include a sentence on using psychological frameworks to help our understanding.) === Extended process model of emotion regulation === * Gross’s [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Extended process model of emotion regulation|extended process model of emotion regulation]] (EMP) is grounded in appraisal theory, positing that emotions emerge from the cognitive evaluations individuals make in response to events (Grecucci et al., 2020). This model emphasises a process-orientated framework for emotion [dys]regulation (Gross, 2015). * Gross (2015) defines emotion regulation as “a particular type of interaction between valuation systems”. * Gross (2015) proposes three distinct stages of emotion regulation; identification, selection and implementation. Emotion dysregulation may occur at any of these stages. * Sheppes et al. (2015): ** Identification-stage failures: difficulty reading emotional cues, leading to challenges initiating emotion regulation strategies and/or overidentification of emotions. ** Selection-stage failures: difficulties selecting an appropriate regulation strategy and/or a lack of access to adaptive strategies. ** Implementation-stage failures: impaired ability to carry-out a selected regulation strategy. * Comment on the limitations of this model. ** e.g., focus on emotion regulation rather than emotion dysregulation? === Biosocial model === * Linehan’s (1993) biosocial model proposes that emotion dysregulation constitutes the dynamic interactions between an individual’s biological emotional vulnerability and an invalidating environment during development. This model was initially developed within the context of [[wikipedia:Borderline_personality_disorder|Borderline Personality Disorder]].[[File:DBT Biosocial model.png|thumb|304x304px|'''Figure 2.''' Linehan's (1993) biosocial model of emotion dysregulation. ]] * Emotional vulnerability refers to the genetic predisposition toward emotional hypersensitivity, hyperreactivity and long-lasting emotional reactions (Bemmouna & Weiner, 2023). The [[wikipedia:Prefrontal_cortex|prefrontal cortex]] and [[wikipedia:Amygdala|amygdala]] are brain regions often implicated in the genetic disruption of emotional processing, contributing to increased emotional vulnerability (Bemmouna & Weiner, 2023). * Invalidating environments are characterised as insufficient environmental responses to a child’s emotional needs, thereby the child does not learn to understand, recognise or appropriately react to emotional responses (Cronwell et al., 2009). * Linehan (1993) argues that an individual is more likely to develop pervasive emotion dysregulation if they have an emotionally sensitive temperament and receive persistent invalidating responses. Individuals may feel compelled to escalate their emotional reactions to communicate their unmet needs (Linehan, 1993). * Linehan (1993) suggests that emotion dysregulation will lead to maladaptive response patterns when individuals are faced with challenging experiences. * Comment on the limitations of this model (e.g., developed based on BPD?) {{robelbox|theme=3|title=Let's do a quick knowledge check!|icon=Paomedia small-n-flat light-bulb.svg|iconwidth=68px}}<div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> <quiz display=simple header=none> {Which model links emotion dysregulation to emotional vulnerability and invalidating environments? | type="(+)"} - Gross’s extended process model + Linehan’s biosocial model {Which model defines emotion dysregulation as “a particular type of interaction between valuation systems"? | type="(+)"} - Linehan’s biosocial model + Gross’s extended process model } </quiz> </div> {{Robelbox/close}} ==Impact of emotion dysregulation on daily functioning and psychological well-being== *Describe/argue how emotion dysregulation impacts individuals daily functioning – making sure to define daily functioning and why this could be problematic to overall well-being. **Tani and colleagues (2015) identified that increased levels of emotion dysregulation were associated with lower satisfaction in couples’ relationship quality. **Those that struggle to modulate their emotional responses often experience prolonged and more severe periods of distress (Boemo et al., 2022). **Samea and colleagues (2025) performed a meta-analysis on the relationship between emotion dysregulation and sleep deprivation. *Emphasise that emotion dysregulation negatively impacts multiple domains of daily functioning (decision-making, stress-responses, quality of life, etc.) – therefore addressing the importance of addressing emotion dysregulation. (''Author note:'' should this section be expanded using subheadings? For example, interpersonal conflict, impaired academic/occupational performance, and impact on general health/well-being. Need to make sure enough literature is available with non-clinical populations - or maybe I can include research from clinical populations?) '''(SECTION ON PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING)''' *Alongside its impact on everyday functioning, emotion dysregulation is increasingly recognised as a transdiagnostic factor in the development and maintenance of psychological disorders (Yalvaç & Gaynor, 2021; Beauchaine & Cicchetti, 2019). *Transdiagnostic factors refer to underlying risk, maintenance or protective factors that are implicated across a diverse range psychological disorders, transcending diagnostic categories (Dalgeish et al., 2020). *Beauchaine and Cicchetti (2019) observed that emotion dysregulation has been associated with [[wikipedia:Internalizing_disorder|internalizing disorders]], [[wikipedia:Externalizing_disorder|externalizing disorders]], [[wikipedia:Personality_disorder|personality disorders]] and [[wikipedia:Psychosis|psychotic disorders]]. Further, impairments in top-down processing of emotional reactivity are evident across many psychological disorders (Beauchaine & Cicchetti, 2019). *Emotion dysregulation in children and adolescents may be a predisposing factor to the emergence of psychological disorders in adulthood (Cole et al. 2017). === Emotion dysregulation in borderline personality disorder === * Borderline personality disorder (BPD) is a psychological disorder defined by an enduring pattern of emotion dysregulation, impaired interpersonal functioning and an unstable sense of self (Bohus et al., 2021). * Refer back to Linehan’s (1993) biosocial model ---> developed for BPD. ** According to Linehan (1933), emotion dysregulation is a core feature of borderline personality disorder, accounting for most of its symptomology. * Borderline personality disorder is associated with low emotional awareness, persistent [[wikipedia:Negative_affectivity|negative affect]] and the use of ineffective strategies to regulate emotions (Fitzpatrick et al., 2023). * Among those with borderline personality disorder, impulsivity and dysfunctional behaviour is associated with experiences of increased emotional distress (Bohus et al., 2021).   (''Author note:'' will expand upon the role of emotion dysregulation as the driving factor of BPD symptomology (e.g., risk or maintaining factor) and touch on how individuals with BPD use strategies that elicit short-term relief but perpetuate difficulties over time.) === Emotion dysregulation in bipolar disorder === * [[wikipedia:Bipolar_disorder|Bipolar disorder]] is a psychological disorder associated with extreme changes in mood, energy and activity levels (Singh et al., 2025). Bipolar disorder is defined by recurrent episodes of [[wikipedia:Mania|mania]] or [[wikipedia:Hypomania|hypomania]] and [[wikipedia:Depression_(mood)|depression]] (Singh et al., 2025). * Difficulties in emotion regulation are correlated with depressive and (hypo)manic episodes (Oliva et al., 2023). * Those with bipolar disorder exhibit a reduced capacity to recognise and accept their emotions during both acute (hypo)manic and depressive episodes (Oliva et al., 2023). * M’Bailara and colleagues (2009) found that even during [[wikipedia:Euthymia_(medicine)|euthymia]], participants with bipolar disorder experienced greater emotional reactivity and emotional intensity than control participants. This suggests that emotion dysregulation persists beyond acute symptoms and may account for the increased vulnerability to minor stressful events observed among those with bipolar (M’Bailara et al., 2009). (''Author note:'' will expand upon the role of emotion dysregulation in BD symptomology (e.g., risk or maintaining factor) and touch on how individuals with BD use maladaptive emotion regulation strategies. Additionally, will look for a more recent study on euthymia and emotion dysregulation). === Emotion dysregulation in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder === * [[wikipedia:Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder|Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder]] (ADHD) is [[wikipedia:Neurodevelopmental_disorder|neurodevelopmental disorder]] defined by persistent patterns of inattention, hyperactivity and impulsivity (Bodalski et al., 2019). * Emerging research has indicated that emotion regulation difficulties in ADHD cannot be explained fully by the presence of [[wikipedia:Comorbidity|comorbid]] disorders, rather emotion dysregulation itself may be a distinct feature of ADHD (Bodalski et al., 2019). * In 2014, Bunford and colleagues found that emotion dysregulation predicted social impairments among adolescents with ADHD, particularly emotional excitability, impulsivity and prolonged emotional responses. * Barkley (1997) proposed the executive functioning theory of ADHD, arguing that ADHD can be attributed to impairments in the behavioural inhibition processes that govern self-regulation and goal-directed behaviour. ** Disruptions in emotional inhibition processes are among the executive functions implicated in ADHD, contributing to emotion dysregulation (Mitchell et al., 2012). (''Author note:'' will expand upon the role of emotion dysregulation in ADHD and touch on how individuals with ADHD use maladaptive emotion regulation strategies. Additionally, will give examples on how emotion dysregulation presents in ADHD). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}'''Scenario: ''' {{em|(Author note: will refer back to Taylor?)}}{{RoundBoxBottom}} == How can emotion dysregulation be managed? == *Research indicates that emotion regulation is a learned skill that develops with practice over the lifespan (Wright et al., 2025). **[[File:Practicing mindfulness promotes creativity.png|thumb|180x180px|'''Figure 3.''' Emotion regulation skills promote general well-being. ]]Individuals emotion regulation capabilities are shaped through learning processes, including parental modelling and [[wikipedia:Co-regulation|co-regulation]] during childhood (Wright et al., 2025) * [[wikipedia:Psychotherapy|Psychotherapy]] interventions or management strategies that build emotion regulation skills are integral to reducing emotion dysregulation and maladaptive strategies among those with psychological disorders. * Outside of professional support, there are a range of practical everyday strategies that can assist in reducing emotion dysregulation and promoting general well-being (see Figure 3).   === Dialectical behaviour therapy approaches to emotion dysregulation === * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Dialectical behaviour therapy and emotion regulation|Dialectical behaviour therapy (DBT)]] emerged as a psychological treatment approach rooted in behaviourism to address self-harm behaviours in borderline personality disorder (Linehan & Wilks, 2015). * DBT focuses on developing practical skills across the four modules of [[wikipedia:Mindfulness|mindfulness]], interpersonal effectiveness, emotional regulation and distress tolerance (Linehan & Wilks, 2015). * Abundant empirical research found that DBT was clinically relevant in reducing emotion dysregulation and maladaptive coping strategies among those with borderline personality disorder (Lenz et al., 2016). ** Emotional regulation is considered a key mechanism of change in DBT outcomes (Lenz et al., 2016). * DBT has broader clinical applications – will incorporate research on DBT’s effectiveness across other psychological disorders in which emotion dysregulation is a key component. * Comment on how DBT relates to/addresses to both Linehan’s biosocial model and Gross’s extended process model. (''Author note'': will further expand upon the emotion dysregulation skills-training involved in DBT and further emphasis will be placed on evidence from literature.) === Cognitive behavioural therapy approaches to emotion dysregulation === * [[File:Beck's CognitiveTriad.png|thumb|279x279px|'''Figure 4.''' Representation of Beck's (1976) cognitive triad. ]][[wikipedia:Cognitive_behavioral_therapy|Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT)]] is grounded on the premise that thoughts, behaviours and emotions are intrinsically intertwined (Preece & Gross, 2026). *Cognitive reappraisal is an important technique used in CBT to regulate emotions (Wang & Yin, 2023). *Preece and Gross (2026) posit that CBT should be understood through the lens of emotion regulation. *Compare/link back to Gross's (2015) extended process model of emotion regulation and reference Beck’s (1976) cognitive triad (see Figure 4). ''(Author note: the cognitive triangle might be more relevant than the cognitive triad here).'' === Physiological approaches to managing emotion dysregulation === * Briefly cover emotion regulation through exercise – include research on how exercise can reduce emotion dysregulation through physiological mechanisms. ** Thayer and Lane (2000) posited the neurovisceral integration model to account for the observed relationship between physiological feedback circuits and affective systems. * Briefly cover [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Guided meditation and emotion regulation|emotion regulation through meditation]]/mindfulness - technique used to elicit the relaxation response which facilitates emotion regulation through physiological mechanisms. ** Benson and colleagues (1974) relaxation response theory. ** Emphasise the accessibility of meditation/mindfulness. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}'''Scenario: ''' {{em|(Author note: will refer back to Taylor - what strategy could he use to cope?)}}{{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Conclusion== * Summarise emotion dysregulation, including its core features, conceptualisation as multidimensional construct and how psychological models can guide our understanding (despite diverse approaches/definitions). * Emphasise the influence and impact of emotion dysregulation on our day-to-day lives. Comment on the effect of emotion dysregulation on our well-being. * Restate how increasing evidence highlights emotion dysregulation as a transdiagnostic factor across many psychological disorders, thereby emotion dysregulation has important clinical applications in the treatment of these disorders. * Provide a practical summary of the strategies that can reduce dysregulation. Aim to encourage the reader to try implement these strategies themselves to improve emotion self-regulation skills. ** Comment again on the importance of emotion regulation skills, particularly when confronted with challenging or distressing situations (leads to overall healthier behaviours and well-being). ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/ADHD and emotional regulation|ADHD and emotional regulation]] (Book chapter, 2024) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Cognitive strategies and emotion regulation|Cognitive strategies and emotion regulation]] (Book chapter, 2025) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Dialectical behaviour therapy and emotion regulation|Dialectical behaviour therapy and emotion regulation]] (Book chapter, 2025) * [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Extended process model of emotion regulation|Extended process model of emotion regulation]] (Book chapter, 2026) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Social media and emotional dysregulation|Social media and emotional dysregulation]] (Book chapter, 2025) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Aldao, A., Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Schweizer, S. (2010). Emotion-regulation strategies across psychopathology: A meta-analytic review. {{em|Clinical psychology review, 30}}(2), 217–237. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2009.11.004 Aslan, I. H., Dorey, L., Grant, J. E., & Chamberlain, S. R. (2024). Emotion regulation across psychiatric disorders. {{em|CNS spectrums, 29}}(3), 215–220. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1092852924000270 Barkley, R. A. (1997). Behavioral inhibition, sustained attention, and executive functions: Constructing a unifying theory of ADHD. {{em|Psychological Bulletin, 121}}(1), 65–94. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.121.1.65 Beauchaine, T. P. (2015). Future directions in emotion dysregulation and youth psychopathology. {{em|Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 44}}(5), 875–896. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2015.1038827 Beauchaine, T. P., & Cicchetti, D. (2019). 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Emotion dysregulation and emotional impulsivity among adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Results of a preliminary study. {{em|Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 34}}(4), 510–519. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-012-9297-2 Oliva, V., De Prisco, M., Fico, G., Possidente, C., Fortea, L., Montejo, L., Anmella, G., Hidalgo-Mazzei, D., Grande, I., Murru, A., Fornaro, M., de Bartolomeis, A., Dodd, A., Fanelli, G., Fabbri, C., Serretti, A., Vieta, E., & Radua, J. (2023). Correlation between emotion dysregulation and mood symptoms of bipolar disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis. {{em|Acta psychiatrica Scandinavica, 148}}(6), 472–490. https://doi.org/10.1111/acps.1361 Preece, D. A., & Gross, J. J. (2026). Cognitive behavior therapy: An emotion regulation perspective. {{em|Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice}}. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1037/cps0000327 Samea, F., Mortazavi, N., Reimann, G. M., Ebneabbasi, A., Zarei, M., Khazaie, H., Goldstein-Piekarski, A. N., Spiegelhalder, K., Baglioni, C., Sepehry, A. A., & Tahmasian, M. (2025). Insomnia and emotion dysregulation: A meta-analytical perspective integrating regulatory strategies and dispositional difficulties. {{em|Sleep medicine reviews, 82}}, Article 102111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smrv.2025.102111 Sheppes, G., Suri, G., & Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion regulation and psychopathology. {{em|Annual review of clinical psychology, 11}}, 379–405. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032814-112739 Šimić, G., Tkalčić, M., Vukić, V., Mulc, D., Španić, E., Šagud, M., Olucha-Bordonau, F. E., Vukšić, M., & Hof, P. R. (2021). Understanding emotions: Origins and roles of the amygdala. {{em|Biomolecules, 11}}(6), Article 823. https://doi.org/10.3390/biom11060823 Singh, B., Swartz, H. A., Cuellar-Barboza, A. B., Schaffer, A., Kato, T., Dols, A., Sperry, S. H., Vassilev, A. B., Burdick, K. E., & Frye, M. A. (2025). Bipolar disorder. {{em|The Lancet, 406}}(10506), 963–978. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(25)01140-7 Tani, F., Pascuzzi, D., & Raffagnino, R. (2015). Emotion regulation and quality of close relationship: The effects of emotion dysregulation processes on couple intimacy. {{em|Applied Psychology Bulletin, 272}}(63), 3–15. Thayer, J. F., & Lane, R. D. (2000). A model of neurovisceral integration in emotion regulation and dysregulation. {{em|Journal of Affective Disorders, 61}}(3), 201-216. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0165-0327(00)00338-4. Wang, Y. X., & Yin, B. (2023). A new understanding of the cognitive reappraisal technique: an extension based on the schema theory. {{em|Frontiers in behavioral neuroscience, 17}}, Article 1174585. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2023.1174585 Wright. R. N., Adock, R. A., & LaBar, K. S. (2025). Learning emotion regulation: An integrative framework. {{em|The Psychological Review, 132}}(1), 172-203. https://doi.org/10.1037/rev0000506 Yalvaç, E. B. K., & Gaynor, K. (2021). Emotional dysregulation in adults: The influence of rumination and negative secondary appraisals of emotion. {{em|Journal of Affective Disorders, 282}}, 656-661. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2020.12.194 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xNY0AAUtH3g Emotions and the brain] (Sentis) * [https://www.healthline.com/health/how-to-control-your-emotions How to become the boss of your emotions] (Healthline) * [https://www.ted.com/talks/ted_ed_how_to_manage_your_emotions How to manage your emotions] (TED-Ed) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SWvHZkkrAjc How to master your emotions & never get angry or bothered by anyone] (The Mel Robbins Podcast) * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/click-here-for-happiness/202108/what-is-emotional-dysregulation What is emotional dysregulation?] (Psychology Today) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotional self-regulation]] okjwlmuy549uwhhprsel4o1n76zu811 2836543 2836539 2026-10-07T11:18:52Z U3285438 3103750 /* What is emotion dysregulation? */ added heading 2836543 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Emotion dysregulation:<br>What is emotion dysregulation, what are its consequences, and how can it be managed?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:Burnout At Work - Occupational Burnout.jpg|Burnout_At_Work_-_Occupational_Burnout|220px|right|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' Taylor feels frustrated after the submissions portal froze at a critical moment.]] '''Scenario''' Taylor is trying to upload an assignment last minute but the submissions portal freezes exactly as he presses “submit”. He watches the cursor’s loading icon spin again and again, likely because the portal is overwhelmed by other last minute submissions. Though there is still 15 minutes before the deadline, Taylor finds himself continuing to aggressively click the laptop trackpad and becoming consumed by a feeling of frustration. Taylor can feel his heart rate increase, jaw tighten and leg shake. Then the trackpad becomes unresponsive. Taylor shoves his laptop aside and drops his head onto the table, angrily questioning why nothing ever seems to go his way (see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} From moments of [[wikipedia:Happiness|happiness]] and excitement to [[wikipedia:Sadness|sadness]] or irritation, [[w:emotions|emotions]] are an integral aspect of being human, and it is expected that these emotions fluctuate as we navigate the complexity of our everyday lives. Emotions are neither ‘good’ nor ‘bad’, rather emotions have a specific [[wikipedia:Evolution|evolutionary]] purpose that has helped us survive, adapt and interact with others (Šimić et al., 2021). Nonetheless, there are times when strong and overwhelming emotions can impair our daily functioning. This is called [[wikipedia:Emotional_dysregulation|emotion dysregulation]]. Emotion dysregulation can be defined as the difficulty to cope with intense emotions, to the extent that an individual's [[wikipedia:Emotional_responsivity|emotional response]] is disproportionate to the situation and they have difficulty implementing adaptive [[wikipedia:Coping|coping strategies]] (Gross & Thompson, 2007, as cited in Aslan et al., 2024). This chapter investigates the processes underlying emotion dysregulation, its behavioural and psychological consequences, and practical approaches to facilitate [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|emotion regulation]]. Through understanding these ideas, individuals can be better prepared to identify and respond to emotion dysregulation in [[wikipedia:Adaptive_behavior|adaptive ways]]. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Focus questions''' * How can emotion dysregulation be understood? *How does emotion dysregulation impact daily functioning and psychological well-being? *What approaches can help manage emotion dysregulation?{{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What is emotion dysregulation? == * Emotions can be described as complex and dynamic psychological states that integrate subjective experiences, physiological responses and behavioural responses (Hockenbury & Hockenbury, 2007 as cited in D’Agostino et al., 2017). * Emotion regulation is the ability to understand and cope with the onset, intensity and expression of these emotional states (Grecucci et al., 2020). ** Aldao and colleagues (2010) conceptualised emotion regulation as the “processes through which individuals modulate their emotions consciously and subconsciously to respond to environmental demands”. * Individuals usually develop more effective emotion regulation strategies with age (Kaufman et al., 2026). Nonetheless, impairments in emotion regulation are observed at all stages of development (Kaufman et al., 2026). So, what happens when we cannot regulate our emotions? * Despite the term being incorporated into vernacular, there is still much conceptual ambiguity surrounding the definition of emotion dysregulation due to its complexity. D’Agostino and colleagues (2017) identified five overlapping dimensions of emotion dysregulation that appear across research; reduced emotional awareness, decreased emotional reactivity, intense experiences and expression of emotion, emotional rigidity, and impaired cognitive reappraisals. * Comparatively, Beauchaine (2015, p.876) posits that emotion dysregulation constitutes “a pattern of emotional experience and/or expression that interferes with appropriate goal-directed behavior”. * These conceptualisations of emotion dysregulation emphasise deficits in emotion recognition, inability to inhibit impulsive emotional reactions, and the subsequent challenge to respond in ways that support goal attainment.   * Alongside its impact on general well-being, pervasive emotion dysregulation is considered an important factor in the development and maintenance of psychological disorders (Yalvaç & Gaynor, 2021; Beauchaine & Dante Cicchetti, 2019). (''Author note:'' will include another section on outlining the core features/signs of emotion dysregulation. May delve into the different maladaptive strategies characteristic of emotion dysregulation. Then will include a sentence on using psychological frameworks to help our understanding.) === Process model of emotion regulation === * === Extended process model of emotion regulation === * Gross’s [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Extended process model of emotion regulation|extended process model of emotion regulation]] (EMP) is grounded in appraisal theory, positing that emotions emerge from the cognitive evaluations individuals make in response to events (Grecucci et al., 2020). This model emphasises a process-orientated framework for emotion [dys]regulation (Gross, 2015). * Gross (2015) defines emotion regulation as “a particular type of interaction between valuation systems”. * Gross (2015) proposes three distinct stages of emotion regulation; identification, selection and implementation. Emotion dysregulation may occur at any of these stages. * Sheppes et al. (2015): ** Identification-stage failures: difficulty reading emotional cues, leading to challenges initiating emotion regulation strategies and/or overidentification of emotions. ** Selection-stage failures: difficulties selecting an appropriate regulation strategy and/or a lack of access to adaptive strategies. ** Implementation-stage failures: impaired ability to carry-out a selected regulation strategy. * Comment on the limitations of this model. ** e.g., focus on emotion regulation rather than emotion dysregulation? === Biosocial model === * Linehan’s (1993) biosocial model proposes that emotion dysregulation constitutes the dynamic interactions between an individual’s biological emotional vulnerability and an invalidating environment during development. This model was initially developed within the context of [[wikipedia:Borderline_personality_disorder|Borderline Personality Disorder]].[[File:DBT Biosocial model.png|thumb|304x304px|'''Figure 2.''' Linehan's (1993) biosocial model of emotion dysregulation. ]] * Emotional vulnerability refers to the genetic predisposition toward emotional hypersensitivity, hyperreactivity and long-lasting emotional reactions (Bemmouna & Weiner, 2023). The [[wikipedia:Prefrontal_cortex|prefrontal cortex]] and [[wikipedia:Amygdala|amygdala]] are brain regions often implicated in the genetic disruption of emotional processing, contributing to increased emotional vulnerability (Bemmouna & Weiner, 2023). * Invalidating environments are characterised as insufficient environmental responses to a child’s emotional needs, thereby the child does not learn to understand, recognise or appropriately react to emotional responses (Cronwell et al., 2009). * Linehan (1993) argues that an individual is more likely to develop pervasive emotion dysregulation if they have an emotionally sensitive temperament and receive persistent invalidating responses. Individuals may feel compelled to escalate their emotional reactions to communicate their unmet needs (Linehan, 1993). * Linehan (1993) suggests that emotion dysregulation will lead to maladaptive response patterns when individuals are faced with challenging experiences. * Comment on the limitations of this model (e.g., developed based on BPD?) {{robelbox|theme=3|title=Let's do a quick knowledge check!|icon=Paomedia small-n-flat light-bulb.svg|iconwidth=68px}}<div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> <quiz display=simple header=none> {Which model links emotion dysregulation to emotional vulnerability and invalidating environments? | type="(+)"} - Gross’s extended process model + Linehan’s biosocial model {Which model defines emotion dysregulation as “a particular type of interaction between valuation systems"? | type="(+)"} - Linehan’s biosocial model + Gross’s extended process model } </quiz> </div> {{Robelbox/close}} ==Impact of emotion dysregulation on daily functioning and psychological well-being== *Describe/argue how emotion dysregulation impacts individuals daily functioning – making sure to define daily functioning and why this could be problematic to overall well-being. **Tani and colleagues (2015) identified that increased levels of emotion dysregulation were associated with lower satisfaction in couples’ relationship quality. **Those that struggle to modulate their emotional responses often experience prolonged and more severe periods of distress (Boemo et al., 2022). **Samea and colleagues (2025) performed a meta-analysis on the relationship between emotion dysregulation and sleep deprivation. *Emphasise that emotion dysregulation negatively impacts multiple domains of daily functioning (decision-making, stress-responses, quality of life, etc.) – therefore addressing the importance of addressing emotion dysregulation. (''Author note:'' should this section be expanded using subheadings? For example, interpersonal conflict, impaired academic/occupational performance, and impact on general health/well-being. Need to make sure enough literature is available with non-clinical populations - or maybe I can include research from clinical populations?) '''(SECTION ON PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING)''' *Alongside its impact on everyday functioning, emotion dysregulation is increasingly recognised as a transdiagnostic factor in the development and maintenance of psychological disorders (Yalvaç & Gaynor, 2021; Beauchaine & Cicchetti, 2019). *Transdiagnostic factors refer to underlying risk, maintenance or protective factors that are implicated across a diverse range psychological disorders, transcending diagnostic categories (Dalgeish et al., 2020). *Beauchaine and Cicchetti (2019) observed that emotion dysregulation has been associated with [[wikipedia:Internalizing_disorder|internalizing disorders]], [[wikipedia:Externalizing_disorder|externalizing disorders]], [[wikipedia:Personality_disorder|personality disorders]] and [[wikipedia:Psychosis|psychotic disorders]]. Further, impairments in top-down processing of emotional reactivity are evident across many psychological disorders (Beauchaine & Cicchetti, 2019). *Emotion dysregulation in children and adolescents may be a predisposing factor to the emergence of psychological disorders in adulthood (Cole et al. 2017). === Emotion dysregulation in borderline personality disorder === * Borderline personality disorder (BPD) is a psychological disorder defined by an enduring pattern of emotion dysregulation, impaired interpersonal functioning and an unstable sense of self (Bohus et al., 2021). * Refer back to Linehan’s (1993) biosocial model ---> developed for BPD. ** According to Linehan (1933), emotion dysregulation is a core feature of borderline personality disorder, accounting for most of its symptomology. * Borderline personality disorder is associated with low emotional awareness, persistent [[wikipedia:Negative_affectivity|negative affect]] and the use of ineffective strategies to regulate emotions (Fitzpatrick et al., 2023). * Among those with borderline personality disorder, impulsivity and dysfunctional behaviour is associated with experiences of increased emotional distress (Bohus et al., 2021).   (''Author note:'' will expand upon the role of emotion dysregulation as the driving factor of BPD symptomology (e.g., risk or maintaining factor) and touch on how individuals with BPD use strategies that elicit short-term relief but perpetuate difficulties over time.) === Emotion dysregulation in bipolar disorder === * [[wikipedia:Bipolar_disorder|Bipolar disorder]] is a psychological disorder associated with extreme changes in mood, energy and activity levels (Singh et al., 2025). Bipolar disorder is defined by recurrent episodes of [[wikipedia:Mania|mania]] or [[wikipedia:Hypomania|hypomania]] and [[wikipedia:Depression_(mood)|depression]] (Singh et al., 2025). * Difficulties in emotion regulation are correlated with depressive and (hypo)manic episodes (Oliva et al., 2023). * Those with bipolar disorder exhibit a reduced capacity to recognise and accept their emotions during both acute (hypo)manic and depressive episodes (Oliva et al., 2023). * M’Bailara and colleagues (2009) found that even during [[wikipedia:Euthymia_(medicine)|euthymia]], participants with bipolar disorder experienced greater emotional reactivity and emotional intensity than control participants. This suggests that emotion dysregulation persists beyond acute symptoms and may account for the increased vulnerability to minor stressful events observed among those with bipolar (M’Bailara et al., 2009). (''Author note:'' will expand upon the role of emotion dysregulation in BD symptomology (e.g., risk or maintaining factor) and touch on how individuals with BD use maladaptive emotion regulation strategies. Additionally, will look for a more recent study on euthymia and emotion dysregulation). === Emotion dysregulation in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder === * [[wikipedia:Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder|Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder]] (ADHD) is [[wikipedia:Neurodevelopmental_disorder|neurodevelopmental disorder]] defined by persistent patterns of inattention, hyperactivity and impulsivity (Bodalski et al., 2019). * Emerging research has indicated that emotion regulation difficulties in ADHD cannot be explained fully by the presence of [[wikipedia:Comorbidity|comorbid]] disorders, rather emotion dysregulation itself may be a distinct feature of ADHD (Bodalski et al., 2019). * In 2014, Bunford and colleagues found that emotion dysregulation predicted social impairments among adolescents with ADHD, particularly emotional excitability, impulsivity and prolonged emotional responses. * Barkley (1997) proposed the executive functioning theory of ADHD, arguing that ADHD can be attributed to impairments in the behavioural inhibition processes that govern self-regulation and goal-directed behaviour. ** Disruptions in emotional inhibition processes are among the executive functions implicated in ADHD, contributing to emotion dysregulation (Mitchell et al., 2012). (''Author note:'' will expand upon the role of emotion dysregulation in ADHD and touch on how individuals with ADHD use maladaptive emotion regulation strategies. Additionally, will give examples on how emotion dysregulation presents in ADHD). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}'''Scenario: ''' {{em|(Author note: will refer back to Taylor?)}}{{RoundBoxBottom}} == How can emotion dysregulation be managed? == *Research indicates that emotion regulation is a learned skill that develops with practice over the lifespan (Wright et al., 2025). **[[File:Practicing mindfulness promotes creativity.png|thumb|180x180px|'''Figure 3.''' Emotion regulation skills promote general well-being. ]]Individuals emotion regulation capabilities are shaped through learning processes, including parental modelling and [[wikipedia:Co-regulation|co-regulation]] during childhood (Wright et al., 2025) * [[wikipedia:Psychotherapy|Psychotherapy]] interventions or management strategies that build emotion regulation skills are integral to reducing emotion dysregulation and maladaptive strategies among those with psychological disorders. * Outside of professional support, there are a range of practical everyday strategies that can assist in reducing emotion dysregulation and promoting general well-being (see Figure 3).   === Dialectical behaviour therapy approaches to emotion dysregulation === * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Dialectical behaviour therapy and emotion regulation|Dialectical behaviour therapy (DBT)]] emerged as a psychological treatment approach rooted in behaviourism to address self-harm behaviours in borderline personality disorder (Linehan & Wilks, 2015). * DBT focuses on developing practical skills across the four modules of [[wikipedia:Mindfulness|mindfulness]], interpersonal effectiveness, emotional regulation and distress tolerance (Linehan & Wilks, 2015). * Abundant empirical research found that DBT was clinically relevant in reducing emotion dysregulation and maladaptive coping strategies among those with borderline personality disorder (Lenz et al., 2016). ** Emotional regulation is considered a key mechanism of change in DBT outcomes (Lenz et al., 2016). * DBT has broader clinical applications – will incorporate research on DBT’s effectiveness across other psychological disorders in which emotion dysregulation is a key component. * Comment on how DBT relates to/addresses to both Linehan’s biosocial model and Gross’s extended process model. (''Author note'': will further expand upon the emotion dysregulation skills-training involved in DBT and further emphasis will be placed on evidence from literature.) === Cognitive behavioural therapy approaches to emotion dysregulation === * [[File:Beck's CognitiveTriad.png|thumb|279x279px|'''Figure 4.''' Representation of Beck's (1976) cognitive triad. ]][[wikipedia:Cognitive_behavioral_therapy|Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT)]] is grounded on the premise that thoughts, behaviours and emotions are intrinsically intertwined (Preece & Gross, 2026). *Cognitive reappraisal is an important technique used in CBT to regulate emotions (Wang & Yin, 2023). *Preece and Gross (2026) posit that CBT should be understood through the lens of emotion regulation. *Compare/link back to Gross's (2015) extended process model of emotion regulation and reference Beck’s (1976) cognitive triad (see Figure 4). ''(Author note: the cognitive triangle might be more relevant than the cognitive triad here).'' === Physiological approaches to managing emotion dysregulation === * Briefly cover emotion regulation through exercise – include research on how exercise can reduce emotion dysregulation through physiological mechanisms. ** Thayer and Lane (2000) posited the neurovisceral integration model to account for the observed relationship between physiological feedback circuits and affective systems. * Briefly cover [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Guided meditation and emotion regulation|emotion regulation through meditation]]/mindfulness - technique used to elicit the relaxation response which facilitates emotion regulation through physiological mechanisms. ** Benson and colleagues (1974) relaxation response theory. ** Emphasise the accessibility of meditation/mindfulness. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}'''Scenario: ''' {{em|(Author note: will refer back to Taylor - what strategy could he use to cope?)}}{{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Conclusion== * Summarise emotion dysregulation, including its core features, conceptualisation as multidimensional construct and how psychological models can guide our understanding (despite diverse approaches/definitions). * Emphasise the influence and impact of emotion dysregulation on our day-to-day lives. Comment on the effect of emotion dysregulation on our well-being. * Restate how increasing evidence highlights emotion dysregulation as a transdiagnostic factor across many psychological disorders, thereby emotion dysregulation has important clinical applications in the treatment of these disorders. * Provide a practical summary of the strategies that can reduce dysregulation. Aim to encourage the reader to try implement these strategies themselves to improve emotion self-regulation skills. ** Comment again on the importance of emotion regulation skills, particularly when confronted with challenging or distressing situations (leads to overall healthier behaviours and well-being). ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/ADHD and emotional regulation|ADHD and emotional regulation]] (Book chapter, 2024) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Cognitive strategies and emotion regulation|Cognitive strategies and emotion regulation]] (Book chapter, 2025) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Dialectical behaviour therapy and emotion regulation|Dialectical behaviour therapy and emotion regulation]] (Book chapter, 2025) * [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Extended process model of emotion regulation|Extended process model of emotion regulation]] (Book chapter, 2026) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Social media and emotional dysregulation|Social media and emotional dysregulation]] (Book chapter, 2025) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Aldao, A., Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Schweizer, S. (2010). Emotion-regulation strategies across psychopathology: A meta-analytic review. {{em|Clinical psychology review, 30}}(2), 217–237. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2009.11.004 Aslan, I. H., Dorey, L., Grant, J. E., & Chamberlain, S. R. (2024). Emotion regulation across psychiatric disorders. {{em|CNS spectrums, 29}}(3), 215–220. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1092852924000270 Barkley, R. A. (1997). Behavioral inhibition, sustained attention, and executive functions: Constructing a unifying theory of ADHD. {{em|Psychological Bulletin, 121}}(1), 65–94. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.121.1.65 Beauchaine, T. P. (2015). Future directions in emotion dysregulation and youth psychopathology. {{em|Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 44}}(5), 875–896. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2015.1038827 Beauchaine, T. P., & Cicchetti, D. (2019). Emotion dysregulation and emerging psychopathology: A transdiagnostic, transdisciplinary perspective. {{em|Development and Psychopathology, 31}}, 799–804. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579419000671 Beck, A. T. (1976). {{em|Cognitive therapy and the emotional disorders}}. International Universities Press. Bemmouna, D., & Weiner, L. (2023). Linehan's biosocial model applied to emotion dysregulation in autism: A narrative review of the literature and an illustrative case conceptualization. {{em|Frontiers in psychiatry, 14}}, Article 1238116. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1238116 Benson, H., Beary, J. F., & Carol, M. P. (1974). The relaxation response. {{em|Psychiatry, 37}}(1), 37–46. https://doi.org/10.1080/00332747.1974.11023785 Bodalski, E. A., Knouse, L. E., & Kovalev, D. (2019). 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Emotion dysregulation is associated with social impairment among young adolescents with ADHD. {{em|Journal of Attention Disorders, 22}}(1), 66–82. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054714527793 Cole, P. M., Hall, S. E., & Hajal, N. J. (2017). Emotion dysregulation as a vulnerability to psychopathology. In T. P. Beauchaine and S. P. Hinshaw (Eds), {{em|Child and adolescent psychopathology}}, (3rd ed., 346-386). Wiley & Sons. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781394258932.ch11 D’Agostino, A., Covanti, S., Rossi Monti, M., & Starcevic, V. (2017). Reconsidering emotion dysregulation. {{em|Psychiatric Quarterly, 88}}, 807-825. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11126-017-9499-6 Dalgleish, T., Black, M., Johnston, D., & Bevan, A. (2020). Transdiagnostic approaches to mental health problems: Current status and future directions. {{em|Journal of consulting and clinical psychology, 88}}(3), 179–195. https://doi.org/10.1037/ccp0000482 Fitzpatrick, S., Dixon-Gordon, K.L., Turner, C.J., Chen, S. X., & Chapman, A. (2023). 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Emotional regulation and interpersonal effectiveness as mechanisms of change for treatment outcomes within a DBT program for adolescents. {{em|Counseling Outcome Research and Evaluation, 7}}(2), 73–85. https://doi.org/10.1177/2150137816642439 Linehan, M. M. (1993). {{em|Cognitive-behavioral treatment of borderline personality disorder}}. Guilford Press. Linehan, M. M., & Wilks, C. R. (2015). The course and evolution of dialectical behavior therapy. {{em|The American Journal of Psychotherapy, 69}}(2), 97-110. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.psychotherapy.2015.69.2.97 M’Bailara, K., Demotes-Mainard, J., Swendsen, J., Mathieu, F., Leboyer, M., & Henry, C. (2009). Emotional hyper-reactivity in normothymic bipolar patients. {{em|Bipolar Disorders, 11}}(1), 63-69. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1399-5618.2008.00656.x Mitchell, J. T., Robertson, C. D., Anastopolous, A. D., Nelson-Gray, R. O., & Kollins, S. H. (2012). 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K., & Gaynor, K. (2021). Emotional dysregulation in adults: The influence of rumination and negative secondary appraisals of emotion. {{em|Journal of Affective Disorders, 282}}, 656-661. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2020.12.194 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xNY0AAUtH3g Emotions and the brain] (Sentis) * [https://www.healthline.com/health/how-to-control-your-emotions How to become the boss of your emotions] (Healthline) * [https://www.ted.com/talks/ted_ed_how_to_manage_your_emotions How to manage your emotions] (TED-Ed) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SWvHZkkrAjc How to master your emotions & never get angry or bothered by anyone] (The Mel Robbins Podcast) * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/click-here-for-happiness/202108/what-is-emotional-dysregulation What is emotional dysregulation?] (Psychology Today) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotional self-regulation]] gxot91qkbsrw9kjtxk6oa1w3o6amj2i 0 331105 2836387 2836214 2026-10-07T02:15:05Z U3261376 3106964 2836387 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Sex work motivation:<br>What motivates sex work and how does this impact worker experiences?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} [[File:“Sex workers rights are human rights” - Europride 2019.jpg|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. Prostitution in Sao Paulo, Brazil]] '''What would you do if you found yourself in this scenario?''' Feeling lost and left with little money of your own, but you have to make ends meet. What will you do when you have to pay your rent? What if you have a child? Would you turn to sex work to make ends meet? If you did... would that make your rights to a safe and trustworthy work environment just disappear? Sex work itself is illegal. Having been driven to such means to make ends meet, you must register as self-employed to pay taxes, buy a house, or even just be considered an employee. [https://doi.org/10.1080/14427591.2020.1830841. (Huglstad et al., 2020)]. Sex workers rights activists proclaim that sex work is work, that they are not victims in need of help, and that they are entitled to any basic human right (see Figure 1). That in itself poses another scenario: What drives people into sex work? Is it finance and convenience? Or is it pleasure and fun? {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[Sex education|Sex]] work or [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/10.1086/324390.pdf?casa_token=lfbXJZ0pqcQAAAAA:Y2KROCBvBcyTR_OkV9GU9nGAnh5lp0VKsrro0wiLqGF_MeXybi6-z3pvrxj97OM6GMvGv6r_Zbmt_s9RvHKDiUw3JzDhAPWvsSz3uzNI4nXa_mNdM5o prostitution] is a broad topic which includes many elements of sexual activities. In 2005, Harcourt defined "prostitution, [as] the provision of sexual services for money or its equivalent," ([https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1744977/pdf/v081p00201.pdf Harcourt, 2005]). To understand sex work as a concept it is important to first understand why people may turn to sex work for an income to begin with. This topic has been discussed at nauseum however often in a negative and clouded light. As stated in The Journal of Sex Research in 2013, it wasn't until the 1990's that literature that looked into this topic stopped looking at prostitutes as "predominantly... ‘‘evil characters’’ or ‘‘sick personalities.’’" ([https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00224499.2012.696285?casa_token=wgasXeCYwFAAAAAA:0Iuwx4QzcbYP0ZAj6GISEX5oDHr4t-phuo4VUxmwfMIVjTrLXaTBhIoYpXtC9r0WaeYaxII3ObSZ Vanwesenbeeck, 2013]) and carrying a lense of ""simmering abhorrence, incomprehension, and fascination" (Vanwesenbeeck, 2013) towards these individuals. Some of the main concepts that will be unpacked below are what motivates people to go into sex work, answers are commonly, "financial, sexual, recreational motives, and coercion (i.e., [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/30048506.pdf?casa_token=pqlPp6XrnF0AAAAA:SFSvr6r_WKbLtO638dPPYk35oZFz9anPcub1Be7iUjk9AMX7a4h73yPLMJ6efSSxWVK7Az4Upc3UgohFYtht3QViGNIyTXPWCkBaY5lhRS_RGNFzUoA trafficking])" (Vanwesenbeeck, 2013), these experiences can often lead to negative workplace satisfaction. External influences like the adult entertainment industry and whorephobia can also heavily influence an individual's workplace satisfaction when working in the prostitution industry. To learn the in depth relationship between motivation to join sex work and the quality of said workplace satisfaction continue reading below! {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} '''Focus questions''' * What are the main driving forces causing people to turn to sex work? * What is the condition of work place satisfaction for sex workers? * How does whorephobia and others' actions towards sex workers effect their work place? * Do those who turn to sex work for pleasure have different experiences to those who do so for money alone? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Driving forces pushing people towards sex work == There are many driving forces that can influence someone's motivation to enter any kind of work force. Unfortunatly financial motives are often what pushes people to turn to the sex trade. Although there is evidence that some do find pleasure and positive experiences through sex work. So, those who turn to sex work for pleasure have different experiences to those who do so for money alone? === Intrinsic motivation === It would be irresponsible to look at motivation without first adressing key theories that may explain why a person would perform any behaviour. By looking at [[Intrinsic motivation|intrinsic motivational]] forces that may influence someone into the sex trade it can give a fuller explination of their actions. What internal need are they fulfilling by performing these actions? Intrinsic motivation falls under the "definition of [an] action as rewarding in itself" (Fishbach & Woolley, 2021), not nesseserily the outcome/ final goal. Although economic needs are a common factor of joining the sex trade — and is considered an extrinsically motivating factor — there is "research confirming that individuals sometimes enter this occupation for reasons of personal fulfillment" ([https://pdf.sciencedirectassets.com/271730/1-s2.0-S0925753520X00063/1-s2.0-S0925753520301922/main.pdf?X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEBEaCXVzLWVhc3QtMSJHMEUCIDrCbvs%2F7w0X0S3yCXuLyXMAVemZDC49LGi7ggPpj1wjAiEA6QCj0FxUNyErmwrB1VC%2BreVNTnWp6Ks7KsE3E7x391YqvAUI2v%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2FARAFGgwwNTkwMDM1NDY4NjUiDBNmdKhbptxvmOh4WSqQBXwnDyLbNEknRXvNDbinpDHQJUc%2FGchy79eEQNCK1aSExCTctRYZQfwSEb%2Blh%2BiqbpjqVmEmUyRYf9MjZRPISeI7qTxt6LEBsCMnLF85bPAwYdGBfemRX8rc2OUulZ8aFuPFw9ziwJVX0xGOlL5Rd1U%2FQufCATv6aU7%2FSuTu8Q89bqP6QVUlA4xPEcFnI0goxABkBfBZbPck5FgRkP65OLSbAQp%2FTwaKssf1N6S4QrpAPOLv3QqrtkKp%2BVAMRhaO9PgKBdkfLjm80Y%2FiXp4uxBeV0BPtLbJ61mFI8bUMWZu5W5sqYj%2B5UL5hcCmxXUgwRFyyoA8gE5sed%2BFUeNfW2JLXEE5Q%2BNNF55gtEwlVuknu%2Bu2wArB0x3VI3rsqxqG5xR4%2Bog7yLIJGThjLd%2BHycAsCqk103w7YpMEIYoHkSkipbn0dCSgA5ug33kze8NIuJGVOC9KI5Sql2O0g%2BXm1KkgAbUPlicrcBkhAHsm9vVLDTlqD3A2tztVsuByRGY0pYATYVpazB3ko56XjIRXCGtS0csSYOzNwf3mp5H1fSXlb%2Ftrc10dBfF%2FKu5rFoq2%2FEgSXeYfm1DKiJVUzd%2Bxx53KtVsjK87FTifPGFRQP4I%2BJ483CjmXgkOanXoyr5MGNMMpEtVjp7%2F%2FW0wSJ383dYolbBYuHMBwlfKjAAHks1xMD8VXgIG%2F6xqVG5jrxBzRSHDBeIJ8vkm6IiNvwI%2FWzkUt2wsEncVyoGFXUCwqND6hPtOkPqEgG7gLE1p17r7GSYBppEUhY4B8jyjQV%2FJ%2BWpHdTtBQnuyziu3o9rzjidaLTGmC5oxy9xnpkiQboG7dckbBDn6Rt6qKGrlXfbsVt9dZgJZds7A5TZZCUxhX%2BEL4KMPbCjdYGOrEBjBdYKKt7s3fLZAAb%2BiGijeb%2F2xjDDXXLUCBygZL%2FcKAqstp0xG22ToNSpMyp5dpak9949g%2FQkiLxNJAxuvhKSUMDRB9GWxHspz8wjagXVBuuYkLPx3pkL5ul2Zzg3usF6OVvQR%2BFA8YlnaycMT44jQbz%2FAfU3SDfSJls72IGy3l4Mh%2BjsaohXm8yVtiLd%2BLj3bqX08ml35Lp3%2BGdZe3%2BZotYzxQjGzbK7i3WdrNHOWKR&X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Date=20261005T090336Z&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&X-Amz-Expires=300&X-Amz-Credential=ASIAQ3PHCVTY2P7Y2UF6%2F20261005%2Fus-east-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Signature=94bcb1072eb8f4f5725e7945b8a9ce58dfa3e490385104eaec2eb25f622762f8&hash=212a8d38d7e3c70d0609d9375b9ee0e51905cc164ffcd1ac8b4b7e37ea99e04a&host=68042c943591013ac2b2430a89b270f6af2c76d8dfd086a07176afe7c76c2c61&pii=S0925753520301922&tid=spdf-a8772b34-02ec-4ab0-b162-7ce50de56625&sid=000ad11f535f4044542b07711eb49dbf8ff1gxrqa&type=client&tsoh=d3d3LnNjaWVuY2VkaXJlY3QuY29t&rh=d3d3LnNjaWVuY2VkaXJlY3QuY29t&ua=1b13065557075052530452&rr=a45b410e1b13f6f7&cc=au Arnold et al., 2020]) which more closly alligns into intrinsic motives. === Extrinsic motivation === Influences that effect people on an external level, or [[Extrinsic motivation|extrinsic motivations]], are influences that effect people outwardly, forces that are harder for an individual to control. A common driving factor for joining sex work, as stated above, is earning money — an outward influence. A paper published in 2021 by [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.586235/full Ernst, et al]. shows evidence to support the link between monetary needs and sex work by looking at the topic from the lense of a student in debt. === Maslow's hierarchy of needs === [[File:Maslow's hierarchy of needs.svg|thumb|290x290px|'''Figure 2'''. Maslow's Heirarchy of Needs]] Having covered the basics of what forces both internal and external drive people into the sex work industry, the lense of [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's heirarchy of needs]] – refer to Figure. 2 for reference photo – can now be applied. A. H. Maslow drew from both intrinsic and extrinsic influences when making the heirarchy of needs. However Maslow defines a difference in the prevelence of a need and states that some needs will draw motivation for action then others, fr exsmple "A person who is lacking food, safety, love, and esteem would most probably hunger for food more strongly than for anything else" (Maslow, 1987). A possible reason for those who become sex workers through external motives – needing food, water or shelter – may find themselves in more compromising positions then those who enter through intrinsic fulfilment. A study collected data over a 3 year period and focused on data collected from over 100 prostitues in Denvour Colarado, this study stated "most of whom struggle with homelessness, addiction, and compromised mental and physical health" ([https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s13178-014-0163-8.pdf Dewey & St. Germain, 2014]). Because of there place on Maslow's model, extrinsicly motivated people may be trying to go from physiological to saftey. Where as, intrinsic may be seeking love/belonging possibly leading to more positive work satisfaction then others. == How does the sex work industry differ when looking at male sex workers == {| class="wikitable" |+Percentages showing [https://www.annualreviews.org/docserver/fulltext/psych/65/1/annurev-psych-010213-115057.pdf?expires=1790841225&id=id&accname=au&checksum=112378A7023548A83B7DDDA7288D0EA0 gender differences] in paying for vs working in sex ! !Participate in sex work !Pay for sex work |- |Men |20% |12% |- |Women |80% |1% |} In past years the sex trade has been veiwed as a primerily female dominated career, though men and women to take part in the transaction of sexual favours. In 2006 a study in the netherlands concluded that "3% of both men and women in the adult population (19 to 69 years of age) reported ever having received money for sex" ([https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/19317610903425571?casa_token=sDZAxkVnpLsAAAAA:8IjuI8blrONnsvny4LV0C2Vk4C2ltfOlOt2_Kkf-G1EfBgrGwdhCLxG7959b6OAMuelLbyed8bd3 Bakker & Vanwesenbeeck, 2006]). Although both sexes take part, how does the gender divide split worker satisfaction? It is important to mention that the research of [[transgender]] individuals in the sex trade is highly limited and needs to be more heavily researched. === The difference in male sex workers === Male sex workers often get overlooked in media as well as acedemically, an "analysis of 166 social science academic articles on sex work found that a majority did not mention male sex workers" ([http://cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/3EE28F1EAC9594C89B21F8E47C42D106/S0887536724000564a.pdf/is-sex-work-inherently-gendered.pdf McKeever, 2025]). Not only does gender tell a part in this story but so does sexuality. The stigma of male sex workers was rampent during the [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/24987949.pdf?refreqid=fastly-default%3Af21bffe92b59f3868c81a7143b186da7&ab_segments=&initiator=&acceptTC=1 aids] crisis when male sex workers were seen as problamatic to spreading the disease. Older papers of male sex workers characterizes them as more faminine and rooted in homosexuality, in the 20th century they are "characterized as young, heterosexual, and innocent victims of older, predatory perverts" ([https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00224499.2012.760189?casa_token=MwObuzJvcRUAAAAA:y2bj4pT8W0FJZBr3AYul37bEqXRu_jKD8-CBJDOU1N3Z_Y4WuAixv5SF9F0RPZVeCSrD3Ew5fSl9 Minichiello et al., 2013]). The experience of male sex workers is vastly influenced by external influences (ie. gender, sexuality, clientel) however when compared to women in how they are veiwed "female but not male sex work [is] degrading, causing deep feelings of shame and remorse" ([https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s12147-008-9051-y.pdf Dennis, 2008]). Those influences also dictate the quality of male prostitutes workplace experiences and satisfation. Minichiello et al. (2013), in a paper focusing on the changes in the male sex work industry states that the "intrinsic nature of sex work is not oppressive, and that there are different kinds of worker and client experiences and varying degrees of victimization, exploitation, agency, and choice".<quiz display="simple"> {There are more women in the sex trade then there are men: |type="()"} - True + False {Men also experience negative stereotypes when participating in the sex trade: |type="()"} - False + True </quiz>{{Robelbox|title=Future directions|theme=5}}[[File:“Sex work is work” - Europride 2019.jpg|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. Sex work is work]] ;Where to next? Although in recent years, studies like a paper writtencby McKeever in 2025 titled, 'Is Sex Work Inherently Gendered?', have produced a more wholistic perspective in the research of prostitution – considering the sexes (male and female) as a factor – more research must be undertaken. Importantly from an unbiased perspective. To fully understand the stigmatised occupation, one must first have all the information from all percectives to make a truly informed oppinion. Enacting change, if warented, should be done from an unbiased party with an informed understanding of the profession.{{Robelbox/close}} == Whorephobia and how it influences workplace satisfaction == [https://www.jrc-concordia.ca/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/Journal-of-Religion-and-Culture-Vol-27-no-1.pdf#page=13 Whorephobia] is ever present in the line of sex work, unfavorable opinions of sex workers has influenced others' behaviour towards them as well as their treatment in their workplace. Arnold et al. in 2020 said in their paper that "on a continuum from amotivation through extrinsic to intrinsic motivation. We consider this as an individual difference variable that changes the relationship between perceived physical danger and desire to leave the sex work occupation". This study provides evidence that sex workers may change their line of work based on their perceved physical danger – tieing back into the earlier topic of Maslow's heirarchy of needs. A prostitues' workplace satisfsction heavily relies of their clientels; oppinions, behaviour, beliefs, and actions. These external factors can be influenced by whorephobia. This negative stigma has been seen throughout time and was seen in The Holy [[Bible]] when refrencing [[wikipedia:Mary_Magdalene|Mary Magdalene]] and her sexual transactions. Despite her depiction as a prostitue has been renounced by the Roman [[wikipedia:Catholic_Church|Catholic Church]], the foundation of sin was already engrained in many Catholic's mind. How does this widley held belief and stigma towards prostitutes/ sex workers effect their workplace satisfaction and saftey? === Sex trafficing === One of the downsides to prostitution and transactional sexual exchanges being illegal is there being a high demand for [[wikipedia:Sex_trafficking|sex trafficking]]. Recent studies "show that criminalization and the imposition of governmental restrictions on (otherwise legal) prostitution markets, respectively, induce exit of (voluntary) sex workers" ([https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/110505/1/MPRA_paper_110505.pdf Azam et al., 2021]) which there for produces demand of illegal sexual extortion. Sex trafficking is a social issue that spans the globe, it is the illegal sexual exploitation of individuals who are often unwilling. Individuals who are subjected to this trafficking are often coerced into participating through control over legal documents, threats of physical harm, isolation, and even legal threats. In a paper titled '<nowiki/>''Human Trafficking and Regulating Prostitution''' written by [https://www.ifn.se/media/f00drmqb/2022-lee-persson-human-trafficking-and-regulating-prostitution.pdf Lee & Persson] in 2022 speaks to the issue. Through review of past studdies they are able to succinctly infer that "coercion means that employees’ participation constraints need not be fully respected" (Lee & Persson, 2022). === Police force practices and criminalisation === A factor that historically has negativley influenced prostitutes' workplaces' saftey is the neglagence of police officers towards sex workers. In Denver Colarado "policing practices, and the legislation that informs them, criminalize women for engaging in the street-based sex work and drug use activities that make up the majority of their everyday lives" (Dewey & St. Germain, 2014). This unfortunate criminalisation of prostitues has lead to individuals who participate in sex work to take riskier actions to ensure their way of life. This criminalisation of prostitution leads to a volitile and unsafe workplace, leading to unsatisfactory workplace satisfaction. In the past, the neglegence of police officers in taking concerns into the welbeing of sex workers has directly lead to serial killings to occur. In the case of [[wikipedia:Robert_Pickton|Robert Pickton]], many prostitues who worked along [[wikipedia:Downtown_Eastside|Vancouvers Downtown Eastside]] – a location infamous for its prostitution activity with "estimated... numbers rangng in the thousands, with their drug addiction regularly posited as an explanation for their cheap tricks" ([[doi:10.29173/invoke48990|Dusome, 2020]]) – had reported that their friends/ colleuges were going missing when leaving with Pickton. If the police had take action towards Picktons' behaviuor many lives would hae been spared. Unfortunatly this is just one example of the past indifference police officers have had towards people who participate in the sex trade. In a paper published in 2018 by Platt et al. assessed in a meta-analysis of work spanning information, both qualitatinve and quantitative, collected between 1 January 1990 and 9 May 2018. This meta-analysis saw the interation between police misstreatment and the health/ quality of life of sex workers. Platt et al. states their data "showed that in contexts of criminalisation, the threat and enactment of police harassment and arrest of sex workers or their clients displaced sex workers into isolated work locations, disrupting peer support networks and service access, and limiting risk reduction opportunities" (Platt et al., 2018). This past of violence and displacement negativly impacts not only sex workers occupation, but also their general wellbeing. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}'''Real world example of the injustice of the justice system''' 'Sarah de Vries is among the women in the second set of murder charges against Pickton. A 1995 entry in her diary revealed the prostitute was aware of the dangers she faced working the streets of Downtown Eastside. "Am I next?" she wrote. "Is he watching me now? Is he stalking me like a predator and his prey? Waiting, waiting for some perfect spot, time or my stupid mistake."... It was not the first time Pickton has appeared before a judge. He was charged with attempted murder and unlawful confinement in 1997 in the case of sex worker Wendy Lynn Eistetter. She claimed she had been handcuffed and attacked at the farm, but Pickton countered he acted in self-defense and for reasons that remain unclear, the charges were dropped.' (CBS, 2007){{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Conclusion== The line of sex work is littered with personal dangers and a vast amount of extrinsic motivation. Through looking at Maslow's hierarchy of needs (Maslow, 1987) as well as scientific papers which undergo much needed research into what societal pressures push people into the prostitution industry (Dewey & St. Germain, 2014) – different motivations into sex work does have an impact on workplace satisfation. Extrinsic motivation was seen as being the most common influence to those who tur to sex work, often out of desperation. Recent research has depicted that the current condition of prostitues' workplace satisfaction is, unfortunatly, minimal. With whorephobia and predjudice towards those who turn to prostitution negatively effecting their ability to perform or safely earn money, not many are happy with their current situation (Dusome, 2020). However, research preformed by Arnold et al. in 2020 also shows that the motivations that push someone into the sex work industry can influence their workplace satisfation – regardless of the unpredictable environment they are still subjected too. Factors such as internal needs for love and connection can influence some to seek out prostitution. On the other end of the spectrum some seek sex work out as a means to make ends meet, earning enough money to get by while also putting themselves at risk. These two distinct drives have a direct impact on the quality of workplace satisfaction however these two influsences overlap and mix together in the melting pot that is the human psyche. Now having read this chapter and hopefully now having a fuller picture of what may motivate people to turn to sex work, you can make yout own informed oppinions about those who seek out this profesion. ==See also== * [[Bible]] (Wikiversity) * [[Extrinsic motivation|Extrincis motivation]] (Wikiversity) * [[Intrinsic motivation]] (Wikiversity) * [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikiversity) * [[Sex education]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Sex worker motivation|Sex work motivation]] (Book chapter, 2015) * [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.586235/full Students in the Sex Industry: Motivations, Feelings, Risks, and Judgments] (Fronteirs in Psychology) * [[Transgender]] (Wikiversity) ==References == {{Hanging indent|1=Arnold, K. A., Turner, N., Barling, J., & Iverson, R. D. (2020). Feeling safe while doing sex work: Motivation for entering sex work moderates the relationship between perceptions of physical danger and desire to leave sex work. Safety science, 129, 104795.[https://pdf.sciencedirectassets.com/271730/1-s2.0-S0925753520X00063/1-s2.0-S0925753520301922/main.pdf?X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEDgaCXVzLWVhc3QtMSJIMEYCIQDLwNUlkBLTVH2W9sUG%2FL8xBiniafqj2YjDThRYfM8j7gIhAPpb6usou%2FCfun2GlN94HXvsSkZFNyb27ndcS5LYkmOqKrIFCAEQBRoMMDU5MDAzNTQ2ODY1IgwVqu3mdLMxIbQQT4EqjwVyEzAMhHQLz8i1mRyce46T7kq8nFGMPfsWbvGbIjwD5sTztgejH2H6uoazHE3ceLn%2BHJAMU2gcjulIYqlqCSyvPuWe%2BScfjOHfBfQZnctFdUl2oWqaahIi9YzAVcTWeftoZk%2FylcCfLerGklhqD7HwVv2vZdBzsx94xmqQ1V1uUbIbAIkJ30NfSj00z1cSaUL1q96wM120kL%2By3Fd%2FYRnMyLzgn343yVJM%2BYWksKgOiezOVEa%2BhmIbNUYzcpb%2Fkcah8UWIgZWXjdLp2fZTJB2yCYbj091PqbNLxbKvPvqaCnGI%2BSTaCPpupfKIdR02m2jepxiZI8%2FZrLGy71f0vYzU%2Be120AQZZCPdjTZZAOP9xB%2Bvfpp48EyclSYmN0rSn2bZcMSiqosJl%2Bz6BiiW3J9SmbZXGNWeECGltEiG%2FP%2FRiZ0uB94c2nIGVzBsfJ4fe7UAD3mlWR9UBCT5FirlPE3Dzap%2BH1xnOe%2BGN481xmH1YSoL3FACDW8J5HUez%2BURv5vTzFDq4nON4cFWhMdgPNfu8v%2BjU35utqWccWAfsows5CFE%2FdiNDUQa7EI1XwF00wtRp2k06DjOWBl%2FggL2duXPWFHHaJnOEovHXAGzQUl%2FzBocvEbkU%2BstJU3AjUwCqbrDZRVZay0dd7OLQ6NCZTFxvZrhEoOwYukzgYt02XtXs23oNKc8QK8jPBsjSx8K1Xj9V9tPB5eBTptias5DuJnme5GPMo0H0rehhAFIbH1iz5aLEJ2WFAs2YMajNB9b8K9hsdcsufqw3IWvDgGjJl491SPFYv4AkHpfF%2B2OEEmH9hDMp3rnzv686gQ5u2%2FmSKrDsChJ2JSpJUuTnHdHBZrk%2Fwzx%2BpsfpZ4zLVgKx0K6MJOGtdQGOrAB7mHiroFpJKweD4wGdVv4twWKj65wn3ZS715WCDMXnol3ZjKerxKwtTiAS8MYNXREK5yRc6R%2BCtHqgkfO1QIL6y35fyD0iOWFO6ZYrI1IePcEupQe4Ao%2B8i5%2Bz9PydRXrVVCjz1A9o6ZcLX9dN59jVDboJOpZsOpXxuErU9LEKNKGTqVoHfJq%2FpKSdZkltmLsDvSAgBZORP2gpikUUQyl6A0CxzJ3SGD1ZrqXN39XlWY%3D&X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Date=20260825T084050Z&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&X-Amz-Expires=300&X-Amz-Credential=ASIAQ3PHCVTYZDNOMNKH%2F20260825%2Fus-east-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Signature=222054776072dd684a9220ca5e137f808570de2f4b46a74fc1fac36b8741d31e&hash=9077aea1050680fe483f80515f312051569ddf0b7a50ba90c1511bc6ef136d06&host=68042c943591013ac2b2430a89b270f6af2c76d8dfd086a07176afe7c76c2c61&pii=S0925753520301922&tid=spdf-2823bc10-4a39-4f2b-8a32-7409653a6f56&sid=6bbf6c2f3a5ff545d91b09f2929365875304gxrqa&type=client&tsoh=d3d3LnNjaWVuY2VkaXJlY3QuY29t&rh=d3d3LnNjaWVuY2VkaXJlY3QuY29t&ua=1b130057565d500d535050&rr=a3094b5109a37504&cc=au] Azam, A., Hendrickx, J., & Adriaenssens, S. (2021). Estimating the Prostitution Population in the Netherlands and Belgium: A Capture-Recapture Application to Online Data. Munich Personal RePEc Archive (MPRA). https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/110505/ ‌ Canada’s Largest-Ever Murder Trial Begins. (2007, January 22). CBS News. https://www.cbsnews.com/news/canadas-largest-ever-murder-trial-begins/ ‌ Dennis, J. P. (2008). Women are Victims, Men Make Choices: The Invisibility of Men and Boys in the Global Sex Trade. Gender Issues, 25(1), 11–25. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12147-008-9051-y ‌ Dewey, S., & St. Germain, T. (2014). “It Depends on the Cop:” Street-Based Sex Workers’ Perspectives on Police Patrol Officers. Sexuality Research and Social Policy, 11(3), 256–270. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13178-014-0163-8 ‌ Dusome, J. (2020). Lost and Forgotten: Missing and Murdered Sex Workers on Vancouver's Downtown Eastside. INVOKE, 6. Ernst, F., Romanczuk-Seiferth, N., Köhler, S., Amelung, T., & Betzler, F. (2021). Students in the sex industry: Motivations, feelings, risks, and judgments. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 586235. Fishbach, A., & Woolley, K. (2021). Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior The Structure of Intrinsic Motivation. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012420- ‌ Footer, K. H. A., White, R. H., Park, J. N., Decker, M. R., Lutnick, A., & Sherman, S. G. (2020). Entry to Sex Trade and Long-Term Vulnerabilities of Female Sex Workers Who Enter the Sex Trade Before the Age of Eighteen. Journal of Urban Health, 97(3), 406–417. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7305278/ Harcourt, C. (2005). The many faces of sex work. Sexually Transmitted Infections, 81(3), 201–206. https://doi.org/10.1136/sti.2004.012468 ‌ Huglstad, M., Halvorsen, I. L. I., Jonsson, H., & Nielsen, K. T. (2020). “Some of us actually choose to do this”: The meanings of sex work from the perspective of female sex workers in Denmark. Journal of Occupational Science, 29(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/14427591.2020.1830841. Lee, S., & Persson, P. (2022). Human Trafficking and Regulating Prostitution. American Economic Journal: Economic Policy, 14(3), 87–127. https://doi.org/10.1257/pol.20180622 ‌ Platt, L. P., Grenfell, P., Meiksin, R., Elmes, J., Sherman, S. G., Sanders, T., Mwangi, P., & Crago, A.-L. (2018). Associations between sex work laws and sex workers’ health: A systematic review and meta-analysis of quantitative and qualitative studies. PLoS Medicine, 15(12). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1002680 ‌ Vanwesenbeeck, I., Bakker, F., & Gesell, S. (2010). Sexual Health in the Netherlands: Main Results of a Population Survey Among Dutch Adults. International Journal of Sexual Health, 22(2), 55–71. https://doi.org/10.1080/19317610903425571 ‌ Vanwesenbeeck, I. (2013). Prostitution push and pull: Male and female perspectives. Journal of Sex Research, 50(1), 11-16. Maslow, A., & Lewis, K. J. (1987). Maslow's hierarchy of needs. Salenger Incorporated, 14(17), 987-990. https://www.justiceacademy.am/assets/uploads/Maslow.pdf McNamara, R. (2016). The trouble with whorephobia. Journal of Religion and Culture, 27(1), 13-34. McKeever, N. (2025). Is Sex Work Inherently Gendered? Hypatia, 40(3), 633–652. doi:10.1017/hyp.2024.56 ‌Redwood, R. (2018). Myths and Realities of Male Sex Work. Red light labour: Sex work regulation, agency, and resistance, 167-180.[https://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&lr=&id=8GJoDwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA167&dq=Myths+and+Realities+of+Male+Sex+Work&ots=mQOUglmuLU&sig=XHi0ybe124LABeHMulfVUMeYsxw#v=onepage&q=Myths%20and%20Realities%20of%20Male%20Sex%20Work&f=false] Sex worker - Wikipedia. (2023). Wikipedia.Org. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sex_worker}} ==External links== [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/10.1086/324390.pdf?casa_token=lfbXJZ0pqcQAAAAA:Y2KROCBvBcyTR_OkV9GU9nGAnh5lp0VKsrro0wiLqGF_MeXybi6-z3pvrxj97OM6GMvGv6r_Zbmt_s9RvHKDiUw3JzDhAPWvsSz3uzNI4nXa_mNdM5o A Theory of Prostitution] (The University of Chicago Press) [https://www.cdc.gov/sexual-violence/about/about-sex-trafficking.html About Sex Trafficing] (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention) [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/24987949.pdf?refreqid=fastly-default%3Af21bffe92b59f3868c81a7143b186da7&ab_segments=&initiator=&acceptTC=1 AIDS in 1988] (JSTOR) [[wikipedia:Catholic_Church|Catholic Church]] (Wikipedia) [[wikipedia:Downtown_Eastside|Downtown Eastside]] (Wikipedia) [https://www.annualreviews.org/docserver/fulltext/psych/65/1/annurev-psych-010213-115057.pdf?expires=1790841225&id=id&accname=au&checksum=112378A7023548A83B7DDDA7288D0EA0 Gender Similarities and Differences] (The Annual Review of Psychology) [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/30048506.pdf?refreqid=fastly-default%3Abdd06e603789b9df6429bacfd93907fe&ab_segments=&initiator=&acceptTC=1 Human Trafficking] (JSTOR)‌ [http://cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/3EE28F1EAC9594C89B21F8E47C42D106/S0887536724000564a.pdf/is-sex-work-inherently-gendered.pdf Is Sex Work Inherently Gendered?] (Cambridge University Press) [[wikipedia:Mary_Magdalene|Mary Magdalene]] (Wikipedia) [[wikipedia:Robert_Pickton|Robert Pickton]] (Wikipedia) [[wikipedia:Sex_trafficking|Sex Trafficking]] (Wikipedia) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Sex]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Work motivation]] rrjn267nf183lhignj1b1znj1fznxof 2836388 2836387 2026-10-07T02:15:25Z U3261376 3106964 2836388 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Sex work motivation:<br>What motivates sex work and how does this impact worker experiences?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} [[File:“Sex workers rights are human rights” - Europride 2019.jpg|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. Prostitution in Sao Paulo, Brazil]] '''What would you do if you found yourself in this scenario?''' Feeling lost and left with little money of your own, but you have to make ends meet. What will you do when you have to pay your rent? What if you have a child? Would you turn to sex work to make ends meet? If you did... would that make your rights to a safe and trustworthy work environment just disappear? Sex work itself is illegal. Having been driven to such means to make ends meet, you must register as self-employed to pay taxes, buy a house, or even just be considered an employee. [https://doi.org/10.1080/14427591.2020.1830841. (Huglstad et al., 2020)]. Sex workers rights activists proclaim that sex work is work, that they are not victims in need of help, and that they are entitled to any basic human right (see Figure 1). That in itself poses another scenario: What drives people into sex work? Is it finance and convenience? Or is it pleasure and fun? {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[Sex education|Sex]] work or [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/10.1086/324390.pdf?casa_token=lfbXJZ0pqcQAAAAA:Y2KROCBvBcyTR_OkV9GU9nGAnh5lp0VKsrro0wiLqGF_MeXybi6-z3pvrxj97OM6GMvGv6r_Zbmt_s9RvHKDiUw3JzDhAPWvsSz3uzNI4nXa_mNdM5o prostitution] is a broad topic which includes many elements of sexual activities. In 2005, Harcourt defined "prostitution, [as] the provision of sexual services for money or its equivalent," ([https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1744977/pdf/v081p00201.pdf Harcourt, 2005]). To understand sex work as a concept it is important to first understand why people may turn to sex work for an income to begin with. This topic has been discussed at nauseum however often in a negative and clouded light. As stated in The Journal of Sex Research in 2013, it wasn't until the 1990's that literature that looked into this topic stopped looking at prostitutes as "predominantly... ‘‘evil characters’’ or ‘‘sick personalities.’’" ([https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00224499.2012.696285?casa_token=wgasXeCYwFAAAAAA:0Iuwx4QzcbYP0ZAj6GISEX5oDHr4t-phuo4VUxmwfMIVjTrLXaTBhIoYpXtC9r0WaeYaxII3ObSZ Vanwesenbeeck, 2013]) and carrying a lense of ""simmering abhorrence, incomprehension, and fascination" (Vanwesenbeeck, 2013) towards these individuals. Some of the main concepts that will be unpacked below are what motivates people to go into sex work, answers are commonly, "financial, sexual, recreational motives, and coercion (i.e., [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/30048506.pdf?casa_token=pqlPp6XrnF0AAAAA:SFSvr6r_WKbLtO638dPPYk35oZFz9anPcub1Be7iUjk9AMX7a4h73yPLMJ6efSSxWVK7Az4Upc3UgohFYtht3QViGNIyTXPWCkBaY5lhRS_RGNFzUoA trafficking])" (Vanwesenbeeck, 2013), these experiences can often lead to negative workplace satisfaction. External influences like the adult entertainment industry and whorephobia can also heavily influence an individual's workplace satisfaction when working in the prostitution industry. To learn the in depth relationship between motivation to join sex work and the quality of said workplace satisfaction continue reading below! {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} '''Focus questions''' * What are the main driving forces causing people to turn to sex work? * What is the condition of work place satisfaction for sex workers? * How does whorephobia and others' actions towards sex workers effect their work place? * Do those who turn to sex work for pleasure have different experiences to those who do so for money alone? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Driving forces pushing people towards sex work == There are many driving forces that can influence someone's motivation to enter any kind of work force. Unfortunatly financial motives are often what pushes people to turn to the sex trade. Although there is evidence that some do find pleasure and positive experiences through sex work. So, those who turn to sex work for pleasure have different experiences to those who do so for money alone? === Intrinsic motivation === It would be irresponsible to look at motivation without first adressing key theories that may explain why a person would perform any behaviour. By looking at [[Intrinsic motivation|intrinsic motivational]] forces that may influence someone into the sex trade it can give a fuller explination of their actions. What internal need are they fulfilling by performing these actions? Intrinsic motivation falls under the "definition of [an] action as rewarding in itself" (Fishbach & Woolley, 2021), not nesseserily the outcome/ final goal. Although economic needs are a common factor of joining the sex trade — and is considered an extrinsically motivating factor — there is "research confirming that individuals sometimes enter this occupation for reasons of personal fulfillment" ([https://pdf.sciencedirectassets.com/271730/1-s2.0-S0925753520X00063/1-s2.0-S0925753520301922/main.pdf?X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEBEaCXVzLWVhc3QtMSJHMEUCIDrCbvs%2F7w0X0S3yCXuLyXMAVemZDC49LGi7ggPpj1wjAiEA6QCj0FxUNyErmwrB1VC%2BreVNTnWp6Ks7KsE3E7x391YqvAUI2v%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2FARAFGgwwNTkwMDM1NDY4NjUiDBNmdKhbptxvmOh4WSqQBXwnDyLbNEknRXvNDbinpDHQJUc%2FGchy79eEQNCK1aSExCTctRYZQfwSEb%2Blh%2BiqbpjqVmEmUyRYf9MjZRPISeI7qTxt6LEBsCMnLF85bPAwYdGBfemRX8rc2OUulZ8aFuPFw9ziwJVX0xGOlL5Rd1U%2FQufCATv6aU7%2FSuTu8Q89bqP6QVUlA4xPEcFnI0goxABkBfBZbPck5FgRkP65OLSbAQp%2FTwaKssf1N6S4QrpAPOLv3QqrtkKp%2BVAMRhaO9PgKBdkfLjm80Y%2FiXp4uxBeV0BPtLbJ61mFI8bUMWZu5W5sqYj%2B5UL5hcCmxXUgwRFyyoA8gE5sed%2BFUeNfW2JLXEE5Q%2BNNF55gtEwlVuknu%2Bu2wArB0x3VI3rsqxqG5xR4%2Bog7yLIJGThjLd%2BHycAsCqk103w7YpMEIYoHkSkipbn0dCSgA5ug33kze8NIuJGVOC9KI5Sql2O0g%2BXm1KkgAbUPlicrcBkhAHsm9vVLDTlqD3A2tztVsuByRGY0pYATYVpazB3ko56XjIRXCGtS0csSYOzNwf3mp5H1fSXlb%2Ftrc10dBfF%2FKu5rFoq2%2FEgSXeYfm1DKiJVUzd%2Bxx53KtVsjK87FTifPGFRQP4I%2BJ483CjmXgkOanXoyr5MGNMMpEtVjp7%2F%2FW0wSJ383dYolbBYuHMBwlfKjAAHks1xMD8VXgIG%2F6xqVG5jrxBzRSHDBeIJ8vkm6IiNvwI%2FWzkUt2wsEncVyoGFXUCwqND6hPtOkPqEgG7gLE1p17r7GSYBppEUhY4B8jyjQV%2FJ%2BWpHdTtBQnuyziu3o9rzjidaLTGmC5oxy9xnpkiQboG7dckbBDn6Rt6qKGrlXfbsVt9dZgJZds7A5TZZCUxhX%2BEL4KMPbCjdYGOrEBjBdYKKt7s3fLZAAb%2BiGijeb%2F2xjDDXXLUCBygZL%2FcKAqstp0xG22ToNSpMyp5dpak9949g%2FQkiLxNJAxuvhKSUMDRB9GWxHspz8wjagXVBuuYkLPx3pkL5ul2Zzg3usF6OVvQR%2BFA8YlnaycMT44jQbz%2FAfU3SDfSJls72IGy3l4Mh%2BjsaohXm8yVtiLd%2BLj3bqX08ml35Lp3%2BGdZe3%2BZotYzxQjGzbK7i3WdrNHOWKR&X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Date=20261005T090336Z&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&X-Amz-Expires=300&X-Amz-Credential=ASIAQ3PHCVTY2P7Y2UF6%2F20261005%2Fus-east-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Signature=94bcb1072eb8f4f5725e7945b8a9ce58dfa3e490385104eaec2eb25f622762f8&hash=212a8d38d7e3c70d0609d9375b9ee0e51905cc164ffcd1ac8b4b7e37ea99e04a&host=68042c943591013ac2b2430a89b270f6af2c76d8dfd086a07176afe7c76c2c61&pii=S0925753520301922&tid=spdf-a8772b34-02ec-4ab0-b162-7ce50de56625&sid=000ad11f535f4044542b07711eb49dbf8ff1gxrqa&type=client&tsoh=d3d3LnNjaWVuY2VkaXJlY3QuY29t&rh=d3d3LnNjaWVuY2VkaXJlY3QuY29t&ua=1b13065557075052530452&rr=a45b410e1b13f6f7&cc=au Arnold et al., 2020]) which more closly alligns into intrinsic motives. === Extrinsic motivation === Influences that effect people on an external level, or [[Extrinsic motivation|extrinsic motivations]], are influences that effect people outwardly, forces that are harder for an individual to control. A common driving factor for joining sex work, as stated above, is earning money — an outward influence. A paper published in 2021 by [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.586235/full Ernst, et al]. shows evidence to support the link between monetary needs and sex work by looking at the topic from the lense of a student in debt. === Maslow's hierarchy of needs === [[File:Maslow's hierarchy of needs.svg|thumb|290x290px|'''Figure 2'''. Maslow's Heirarchy of Needs]] Having covered the basics of what forces both internal and external drive people into the sex work industry, the lense of [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's heirarchy of needs]] – refer to Figure. 2 for reference photo – can now be applied. A. H. Maslow drew from both intrinsic and extrinsic influences when making the heirarchy of needs. However Maslow defines a difference in the prevelence of a need and states that some needs will draw motivation for action then others, fr exsmple "A person who is lacking food, safety, love, and esteem would most probably hunger for food more strongly than for anything else" (Maslow, 1987). A possible reason for those who become sex workers through external motives – needing food, water or shelter – may find themselves in more compromising positions then those who enter through intrinsic fulfilment. A study collected data over a 3 year period and focused on data collected from over 100 prostitues in Denvour Colarado, this study stated "most of whom struggle with homelessness, addiction, and compromised mental and physical health" ([https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s13178-014-0163-8.pdf Dewey & St. Germain, 2014]). Because of there place on Maslow's model, extrinsicly motivated people may be trying to go from physiological to saftey. Where as, intrinsic may be seeking love/belonging possibly leading to more positive work satisfaction then others. == How does the sex work industry differ when looking at male sex workers == {| class="wikitable" |+Percentages showing [https://www.annualreviews.org/docserver/fulltext/psych/65/1/annurev-psych-010213-115057.pdf?expires=1790841225&id=id&accname=au&checksum=112378A7023548A83B7DDDA7288D0EA0 gender differences] in paying for vs working in sex ! !Participate in sex work !Pay for sex work |- |Men |20% |12% |- |Women |80% |1% |} In past years the sex trade has been veiwed as a primerily female dominated career, though men and women to take part in the transaction of sexual favours. In 2006 a study in the netherlands concluded that "3% of both men and women in the adult population (19 to 69 years of age) reported ever having received money for sex" ([https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/19317610903425571?casa_token=sDZAxkVnpLsAAAAA:8IjuI8blrONnsvny4LV0C2Vk4C2ltfOlOt2_Kkf-G1EfBgrGwdhCLxG7959b6OAMuelLbyed8bd3 Bakker & Vanwesenbeeck, 2006]). Although both sexes take part, how does the gender divide split worker satisfaction? It is important to mention that the research of [[transgender]] individuals in the sex trade is highly limited and needs to be more heavily researched. === The difference in male sex workers === Male sex workers often get overlooked in media as well as acedemically, an "analysis of 166 social science academic articles on sex work found that a majority did not mention male sex workers" ([http://cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/3EE28F1EAC9594C89B21F8E47C42D106/S0887536724000564a.pdf/is-sex-work-inherently-gendered.pdf McKeever, 2025]). Not only does gender tell a part in this story but so does sexuality. The stigma of male sex workers was rampent during the [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/24987949.pdf?refreqid=fastly-default%3Af21bffe92b59f3868c81a7143b186da7&ab_segments=&initiator=&acceptTC=1 aids] crisis when male sex workers were seen as problamatic to spreading the disease. Older papers of male sex workers characterizes them as more faminine and rooted in homosexuality, in the 20th century they are "characterized as young, heterosexual, and innocent victims of older, predatory perverts" ([https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00224499.2012.760189?casa_token=MwObuzJvcRUAAAAA:y2bj4pT8W0FJZBr3AYul37bEqXRu_jKD8-CBJDOU1N3Z_Y4WuAixv5SF9F0RPZVeCSrD3Ew5fSl9 Minichiello et al., 2013]). The experience of male sex workers is vastly influenced by external influences (ie. gender, sexuality, clientel) however when compared to women in how they are veiwed "female but not male sex work [is] degrading, causing deep feelings of shame and remorse" ([https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s12147-008-9051-y.pdf Dennis, 2008]). Those influences also dictate the quality of male prostitutes workplace experiences and satisfation. Minichiello et al. (2013), in a paper focusing on the changes in the male sex work industry states that the "intrinsic nature of sex work is not oppressive, and that there are different kinds of worker and client experiences and varying degrees of victimization, exploitation, agency, and choice".<quiz display="simple"> {There are more women in the sex trade then there are men: |type="()"} - True + False {Men also experience negative stereotypes when participating in the sex trade: |type="()"} - False + True </quiz>{{Robelbox|title=Future directions|theme=5}}[[File:“Sex work is work” - Europride 2019.jpg|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. Sex work is work]] ;Where to next? Although in recent years, studies like a paper writtencby McKeever in 2025 titled, 'Is Sex Work Inherently Gendered?', have produced a more wholistic perspective in the research of prostitution – considering the sexes (male and female) as a factor – more research must be undertaken. Importantly from an unbiased perspective. To fully understand the stigmatised occupation, one must first have all the information from all percectives to make a truly informed oppinion. Enacting change, if warented, should be done from an unbiased party with an informed understanding of the profession.{{Robelbox/close}} == Whorephobia and how it influences workplace satisfaction == [https://www.jrc-concordia.ca/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/Journal-of-Religion-and-Culture-Vol-27-no-1.pdf#page=13 Whorephobia] is ever present in the line of sex work, unfavorable opinions of sex workers has influenced others' behaviour towards them as well as their treatment in their workplace. Arnold et al. in 2020 said in their paper that "on a continuum from amotivation through extrinsic to intrinsic motivation. We consider this as an individual difference variable that changes the relationship between perceived physical danger and desire to leave the sex work occupation". This study provides evidence that sex workers may change their line of work based on their perceved physical danger – tieing back into the earlier topic of Maslow's heirarchy of needs. A prostitues' workplace satisfsction heavily relies of their clientels; oppinions, behaviour, beliefs, and actions. These external factors can be influenced by whorephobia. This negative stigma has been seen throughout time and was seen in The Holy [[Bible]] when refrencing [[wikipedia:Mary_Magdalene|Mary Magdalene]] and her sexual transactions. Despite her depiction as a prostitue has been renounced by the Roman [[wikipedia:Catholic_Church|Catholic Church]], the foundation of sin was already engrained in many Catholic's mind. How does this widley held belief and stigma towards prostitutes/ sex workers effect their workplace satisfaction and saftey? === Sex trafficing === One of the downsides to prostitution and transactional sexual exchanges being illegal is there being a high demand for [[wikipedia:Sex_trafficking|sex trafficking]]. Recent studies "show that criminalization and the imposition of governmental restrictions on (otherwise legal) prostitution markets, respectively, induce exit of (voluntary) sex workers" ([https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/110505/1/MPRA_paper_110505.pdf Azam et al., 2021]) which there for produces demand of illegal sexual extortion. Sex trafficking is a social issue that spans the globe, it is the illegal sexual exploitation of individuals who are often unwilling. Individuals who are subjected to this trafficking are often coerced into participating through control over legal documents, threats of physical harm, isolation, and even legal threats. In a paper titled '<nowiki/>''Human Trafficking and Regulating Prostitution''' written by [https://www.ifn.se/media/f00drmqb/2022-lee-persson-human-trafficking-and-regulating-prostitution.pdf Lee & Persson] in 2022 speaks to the issue. Through review of past studdies they are able to succinctly infer that "coercion means that employees’ participation constraints need not be fully respected" (Lee & Persson, 2022). === Police force practices and criminalisation === A factor that historically has negativley influenced prostitutes' workplaces' saftey is the neglagence of police officers towards sex workers. In Denver Colarado "policing practices, and the legislation that informs them, criminalize women for engaging in the street-based sex work and drug use activities that make up the majority of their everyday lives" (Dewey & St. Germain, 2014). This unfortunate criminalisation of prostitues has lead to individuals who participate in sex work to take riskier actions to ensure their way of life. This criminalisation of prostitution leads to a volitile and unsafe workplace, leading to unsatisfactory workplace satisfaction. In the past, the neglegence of police officers in taking concerns into the welbeing of sex workers has directly lead to serial killings to occur. In the case of [[wikipedia:Robert_Pickton|Robert Pickton]], many prostitues who worked along [[wikipedia:Downtown_Eastside|Vancouvers Downtown Eastside]] – a location infamous for its prostitution activity with "estimated... numbers rangng in the thousands, with their drug addiction regularly posited as an explanation for their cheap tricks" ([[doi:10.29173/invoke48990|Dusome, 2020]]) – had reported that their friends/ colleuges were going missing when leaving with Pickton. If the police had take action towards Picktons' behaviuor many lives would hae been spared. Unfortunatly this is just one example of the past indifference police officers have had towards people who participate in the sex trade. In a paper published in 2018 by Platt et al. assessed in a meta-analysis of work spanning information, both qualitatinve and quantitative, collected between 1 January 1990 and 9 May 2018. This meta-analysis saw the interation between police misstreatment and the health/ quality of life of sex workers. Platt et al. states their data "showed that in contexts of criminalisation, the threat and enactment of police harassment and arrest of sex workers or their clients displaced sex workers into isolated work locations, disrupting peer support networks and service access, and limiting risk reduction opportunities" (Platt et al., 2018). This past of violence and displacement negativly impacts not only sex workers occupation, but also their general wellbeing. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}'''Real world example of the injustice of the justice system''' 'Sarah de Vries is among the women in the second set of murder charges against Pickton. A 1995 entry in her diary revealed the prostitute was aware of the dangers she faced working the streets of Downtown Eastside. "Am I next?" she wrote. "Is he watching me now? Is he stalking me like a predator and his prey? Waiting, waiting for some perfect spot, time or my stupid mistake."... It was not the first time Pickton has appeared before a judge. He was charged with attempted murder and unlawful confinement in 1997 in the case of sex worker Wendy Lynn Eistetter. She claimed she had been handcuffed and attacked at the farm, but Pickton countered he acted in self-defense and for reasons that remain unclear, the charges were dropped.' (CBS, 2007){{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Conclusion== The line of sex work is littered with personal dangers and a vast amount of extrinsic motivation. Through looking at Maslow's hierarchy of needs (Maslow, 1987) as well as scientific papers which undergo much needed research into what societal pressures push people into the prostitution industry (Dewey & St. Germain, 2014) – different motivations into sex work does have an impact on workplace satisfation. Extrinsic motivation was seen as being the most common influence to those who tur to sex work, often out of desperation. Recent research has depicted that the current condition of prostitues' workplace satisfaction is, unfortunatly, minimal. With whorephobia and predjudice towards those who turn to prostitution negatively effecting their ability to perform or safely earn money, not many are happy with their current situation (Dusome, 2020). However, research preformed by Arnold et al. in 2020 also shows that the motivations that push someone into the sex work industry can influence their workplace satisfation – regardless of the unpredictable environment they are still subjected too. Factors such as internal needs for love and connection can influence some to seek out prostitution. On the other end of the spectrum some seek sex work out as a means to make ends meet, earning enough money to get by while also putting themselves at risk. These two distinct drives have a direct impact on the quality of workplace satisfaction however these two influsences overlap and mix together in the melting pot that is the human psyche. Now having read this chapter and hopefully now having a fuller picture of what may motivate people to turn to sex work, you can make yout own informed oppinions about those who seek out this profesion. ==See also== * [[Bible]] (Wikiversity) * [[Extrinsic motivation|Extrincis motivation]] (Wikiversity) * [[Intrinsic motivation]] (Wikiversity) * [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikiversity) * [[Sex education]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Sex worker motivation|Sex work motivation]] (Book chapter, 2015) * [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.586235/full Students in the Sex Industry: Motivations, Feelings, Risks, and Judgments] (Fronteirs in Psychology) * [[Transgender]] (Wikiversity) ==References == {{Hanging indent|1=Arnold, K. A., Turner, N., Barling, J., & Iverson, R. D. (2020). Feeling safe while doing sex work: Motivation for entering sex work moderates the relationship between perceptions of physical danger and desire to leave sex work. Safety science, 129, 104795.[https://pdf.sciencedirectassets.com/271730/1-s2.0-S0925753520X00063/1-s2.0-S0925753520301922/main.pdf?X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEDgaCXVzLWVhc3QtMSJIMEYCIQDLwNUlkBLTVH2W9sUG%2FL8xBiniafqj2YjDThRYfM8j7gIhAPpb6usou%2FCfun2GlN94HXvsSkZFNyb27ndcS5LYkmOqKrIFCAEQBRoMMDU5MDAzNTQ2ODY1IgwVqu3mdLMxIbQQT4EqjwVyEzAMhHQLz8i1mRyce46T7kq8nFGMPfsWbvGbIjwD5sTztgejH2H6uoazHE3ceLn%2BHJAMU2gcjulIYqlqCSyvPuWe%2BScfjOHfBfQZnctFdUl2oWqaahIi9YzAVcTWeftoZk%2FylcCfLerGklhqD7HwVv2vZdBzsx94xmqQ1V1uUbIbAIkJ30NfSj00z1cSaUL1q96wM120kL%2By3Fd%2FYRnMyLzgn343yVJM%2BYWksKgOiezOVEa%2BhmIbNUYzcpb%2Fkcah8UWIgZWXjdLp2fZTJB2yCYbj091PqbNLxbKvPvqaCnGI%2BSTaCPpupfKIdR02m2jepxiZI8%2FZrLGy71f0vYzU%2Be120AQZZCPdjTZZAOP9xB%2Bvfpp48EyclSYmN0rSn2bZcMSiqosJl%2Bz6BiiW3J9SmbZXGNWeECGltEiG%2FP%2FRiZ0uB94c2nIGVzBsfJ4fe7UAD3mlWR9UBCT5FirlPE3Dzap%2BH1xnOe%2BGN481xmH1YSoL3FACDW8J5HUez%2BURv5vTzFDq4nON4cFWhMdgPNfu8v%2BjU35utqWccWAfsows5CFE%2FdiNDUQa7EI1XwF00wtRp2k06DjOWBl%2FggL2duXPWFHHaJnOEovHXAGzQUl%2FzBocvEbkU%2BstJU3AjUwCqbrDZRVZay0dd7OLQ6NCZTFxvZrhEoOwYukzgYt02XtXs23oNKc8QK8jPBsjSx8K1Xj9V9tPB5eBTptias5DuJnme5GPMo0H0rehhAFIbH1iz5aLEJ2WFAs2YMajNB9b8K9hsdcsufqw3IWvDgGjJl491SPFYv4AkHpfF%2B2OEEmH9hDMp3rnzv686gQ5u2%2FmSKrDsChJ2JSpJUuTnHdHBZrk%2Fwzx%2BpsfpZ4zLVgKx0K6MJOGtdQGOrAB7mHiroFpJKweD4wGdVv4twWKj65wn3ZS715WCDMXnol3ZjKerxKwtTiAS8MYNXREK5yRc6R%2BCtHqgkfO1QIL6y35fyD0iOWFO6ZYrI1IePcEupQe4Ao%2B8i5%2Bz9PydRXrVVCjz1A9o6ZcLX9dN59jVDboJOpZsOpXxuErU9LEKNKGTqVoHfJq%2FpKSdZkltmLsDvSAgBZORP2gpikUUQyl6A0CxzJ3SGD1ZrqXN39XlWY%3D&X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Date=20260825T084050Z&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&X-Amz-Expires=300&X-Amz-Credential=ASIAQ3PHCVTYZDNOMNKH%2F20260825%2Fus-east-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Signature=222054776072dd684a9220ca5e137f808570de2f4b46a74fc1fac36b8741d31e&hash=9077aea1050680fe483f80515f312051569ddf0b7a50ba90c1511bc6ef136d06&host=68042c943591013ac2b2430a89b270f6af2c76d8dfd086a07176afe7c76c2c61&pii=S0925753520301922&tid=spdf-2823bc10-4a39-4f2b-8a32-7409653a6f56&sid=6bbf6c2f3a5ff545d91b09f2929365875304gxrqa&type=client&tsoh=d3d3LnNjaWVuY2VkaXJlY3QuY29t&rh=d3d3LnNjaWVuY2VkaXJlY3QuY29t&ua=1b130057565d500d535050&rr=a3094b5109a37504&cc=au] Azam, A., Hendrickx, J., & Adriaenssens, S. (2021). Estimating the Prostitution Population in the Netherlands and Belgium: A Capture-Recapture Application to Online Data. Munich Personal RePEc Archive (MPRA). https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/110505/ ‌ Canada’s Largest-Ever Murder Trial Begins. (2007, January 22). CBS News. https://www.cbsnews.com/news/canadas-largest-ever-murder-trial-begins/ ‌ Dennis, J. P. (2008). Women are Victims, Men Make Choices: The Invisibility of Men and Boys in the Global Sex Trade. Gender Issues, 25(1), 11–25. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12147-008-9051-y ‌ Dewey, S., & St. Germain, T. (2014). “It Depends on the Cop:” Street-Based Sex Workers’ Perspectives on Police Patrol Officers. Sexuality Research and Social Policy, 11(3), 256–270. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13178-014-0163-8 ‌ Dusome, J. (2020). Lost and Forgotten: Missing and Murdered Sex Workers on Vancouver's Downtown Eastside. INVOKE, 6. Ernst, F., Romanczuk-Seiferth, N., Köhler, S., Amelung, T., & Betzler, F. (2021). Students in the sex industry: Motivations, feelings, risks, and judgments. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 586235. Fishbach, A., & Woolley, K. (2021). Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior The Structure of Intrinsic Motivation. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012420- ‌ Footer, K. H. A., White, R. H., Park, J. N., Decker, M. R., Lutnick, A., & Sherman, S. G. (2020). Entry to Sex Trade and Long-Term Vulnerabilities of Female Sex Workers Who Enter the Sex Trade Before the Age of Eighteen. Journal of Urban Health, 97(3), 406–417. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7305278/ Harcourt, C. (2005). The many faces of sex work. Sexually Transmitted Infections, 81(3), 201–206. https://doi.org/10.1136/sti.2004.012468 ‌ Huglstad, M., Halvorsen, I. L. I., Jonsson, H., & Nielsen, K. T. (2020). “Some of us actually choose to do this”: The meanings of sex work from the perspective of female sex workers in Denmark. Journal of Occupational Science, 29(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/14427591.2020.1830841. Lee, S., & Persson, P. (2022). Human Trafficking and Regulating Prostitution. American Economic Journal: Economic Policy, 14(3), 87–127. https://doi.org/10.1257/pol.20180622 ‌ Platt, L. P., Grenfell, P., Meiksin, R., Elmes, J., Sherman, S. G., Sanders, T., Mwangi, P., & Crago, A.-L. (2018). Associations between sex work laws and sex workers’ health: A systematic review and meta-analysis of quantitative and qualitative studies. PLoS Medicine, 15(12). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1002680 ‌ Vanwesenbeeck, I., Bakker, F., & Gesell, S. (2010). Sexual Health in the Netherlands: Main Results of a Population Survey Among Dutch Adults. International Journal of Sexual Health, 22(2), 55–71. https://doi.org/10.1080/19317610903425571 ‌ Vanwesenbeeck, I. (2013). Prostitution push and pull: Male and female perspectives. Journal of Sex Research, 50(1), 11-16. Maslow, A., & Lewis, K. J. (1987). Maslow's hierarchy of needs. Salenger Incorporated, 14(17), 987-990. https://www.justiceacademy.am/assets/uploads/Maslow.pdf McNamara, R. (2016). The trouble with whorephobia. Journal of Religion and Culture, 27(1), 13-34. McKeever, N. (2025). Is Sex Work Inherently Gendered? Hypatia, 40(3), 633–652. doi:10.1017/hyp.2024.56 ‌Redwood, R. (2018). Myths and Realities of Male Sex Work. Red light labour: Sex work regulation, agency, and resistance, 167-180.[https://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&lr=&id=8GJoDwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA167&dq=Myths+and+Realities+of+Male+Sex+Work&ots=mQOUglmuLU&sig=XHi0ybe124LABeHMulfVUMeYsxw#v=onepage&q=Myths%20and%20Realities%20of%20Male%20Sex%20Work&f=false] Sex worker - Wikipedia. (2023). Wikipedia.Org. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sex_worker}} ==External links== [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/10.1086/324390.pdf?casa_token=lfbXJZ0pqcQAAAAA:Y2KROCBvBcyTR_OkV9GU9nGAnh5lp0VKsrro0wiLqGF_MeXybi6-z3pvrxj97OM6GMvGv6r_Zbmt_s9RvHKDiUw3JzDhAPWvsSz3uzNI4nXa_mNdM5o A Theory of Prostitution] (The University of Chicago Press) [https://www.cdc.gov/sexual-violence/about/about-sex-trafficking.html About Sex Trafficing] (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention) [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/24987949.pdf?refreqid=fastly-default%3Af21bffe92b59f3868c81a7143b186da7&ab_segments=&initiator=&acceptTC=1 AIDS in 1988] (JSTOR) [[wikipedia:Catholic_Church|Catholic Church]] (Wikipedia) [[wikipedia:Downtown_Eastside|Downtown Eastside]] (Wikipedia) [https://www.annualreviews.org/docserver/fulltext/psych/65/1/annurev-psych-010213-115057.pdf?expires=1790841225&id=id&accname=au&checksum=112378A7023548A83B7DDDA7288D0EA0 Gender Similarities and Differences] (The Annual Review of Psychology) [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/30048506.pdf?refreqid=fastly-default%3Abdd06e603789b9df6429bacfd93907fe&ab_segments=&initiator=&acceptTC=1 Human Trafficking] (JSTOR)‌ [http://cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/3EE28F1EAC9594C89B21F8E47C42D106/S0887536724000564a.pdf/is-sex-work-inherently-gendered.pdf Is Sex Work Inherently Gendered?] (Cambridge University Press) [[wikipedia:Mary_Magdalene|Mary Magdalene]] (Wikipedia) [[wikipedia:Robert_Pickton|Robert Pickton]] (Wikipedia) [[wikipedia:Sex_trafficking|Sex Trafficking]] (Wikipedia) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Sex]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Work motivation]] rhpfzcbxred5qwtfmxa5o0yp2ywebbt 2836390 2836388 2026-10-07T02:16:00Z U3261376 3106964 2836390 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Sex work motivation:<br>What motivates sex work and how does this impact worker experiences?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} [[File:“Sex workers rights are human rights” - Europride 2019.jpg|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. Prostitution in Sao Paulo, Brazil]] '''What would you do if you found yourself in this scenario?''' Feeling lost and left with little money of your own, but you have to make ends meet. What will you do when you have to pay your rent? What if you have a child? Would you turn to sex work to make ends meet? If you did... would that make your rights to a safe and trustworthy work environment just disappear? Sex work itself is illegal. Having been driven to such means to make ends meet, you must register as self-employed to pay taxes, buy a house, or even just be considered an employee. [https://doi.org/10.1080/14427591.2020.1830841. (Huglstad et al., 2020)]. Sex workers rights activists proclaim that sex work is work, that they are not victims in need of help, and that they are entitled to any basic human right (see Figure 1). That in itself poses another scenario: What drives people into sex work? Is it finance and convenience? Or is it pleasure and fun? {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[Sex education|Sex]] work or [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/10.1086/324390.pdf?casa_token=lfbXJZ0pqcQAAAAA:Y2KROCBvBcyTR_OkV9GU9nGAnh5lp0VKsrro0wiLqGF_MeXybi6-z3pvrxj97OM6GMvGv6r_Zbmt_s9RvHKDiUw3JzDhAPWvsSz3uzNI4nXa_mNdM5o prostitution] is a broad topic which includes many elements of sexual activities. In 2005, Harcourt defined "prostitution, [as] the provision of sexual services for money or its equivalent," ([https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1744977/pdf/v081p00201.pdf Harcourt, 2005]). To understand sex work as a concept it is important to first understand why people may turn to sex work for an income to begin with. This topic has been discussed at nauseum however often in a negative and clouded light. As stated in The Journal of Sex Research in 2013, it wasn't until the 1990's that literature that looked into this topic stopped looking at prostitutes as "predominantly... ‘‘evil characters’’ or ‘‘sick personalities.’’" ([https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00224499.2012.696285?casa_token=wgasXeCYwFAAAAAA:0Iuwx4QzcbYP0ZAj6GISEX5oDHr4t-phuo4VUxmwfMIVjTrLXaTBhIoYpXtC9r0WaeYaxII3ObSZ Vanwesenbeeck, 2013]) and carrying a lense of ""simmering abhorrence, incomprehension, and fascination" (Vanwesenbeeck, 2013) towards these individuals. Some of the main concepts that will be unpacked below are what motivates people to go into sex work, answers are commonly, "financial, sexual, recreational motives, and coercion (i.e., [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/30048506.pdf?casa_token=pqlPp6XrnF0AAAAA:SFSvr6r_WKbLtO638dPPYk35oZFz9anPcub1Be7iUjk9AMX7a4h73yPLMJ6efSSxWVK7Az4Upc3UgohFYtht3QViGNIyTXPWCkBaY5lhRS_RGNFzUoA trafficking])" (Vanwesenbeeck, 2013), these experiences can often lead to negative workplace satisfaction. External influences like the adult entertainment industry and whorephobia can also heavily influence an individual's workplace satisfaction when working in the prostitution industry. To learn the in depth relationship between motivation to join sex work and the quality of said workplace satisfaction continue reading below! {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} '''Focus questions''' * What are the main driving forces causing people to turn to sex work? * What is the condition of work place satisfaction for sex workers? * How does whorephobia and others' actions towards sex workers effect their work place? * Do those who turn to sex work for pleasure have different experiences to those who do so for money alone? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Driving forces pushing people towards sex work == There are many driving forces that can influence someone's motivation to enter any kind of work force. Unfortunatly financial motives are often what pushes people to turn to the sex trade. Although there is evidence that some do find pleasure and positive experiences through sex work. So, those who turn to sex work for pleasure have different experiences to those who do so for money alone? === Intrinsic motivation === It would be irresponsible to look at motivation without first adressing key theories that may explain why a person would perform any behaviour. By looking at [[Intrinsic motivation|intrinsic motivational]] forces that may influence someone into the sex trade it can give a fuller explination of their actions. What internal need are they fulfilling by performing these actions? Intrinsic motivation falls under the "definition of [an] action as rewarding in itself" (Fishbach & Woolley, 2021), not nesseserily the outcome/ final goal. Although economic needs are a common factor of joining the sex trade — and is considered an extrinsically motivating factor — there is "research confirming that individuals sometimes enter this occupation for reasons of personal fulfillment" ([https://pdf.sciencedirectassets.com/271730/1-s2.0-S0925753520X00063/1-s2.0-S0925753520301922/main.pdf?X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEBEaCXVzLWVhc3QtMSJHMEUCIDrCbvs%2F7w0X0S3yCXuLyXMAVemZDC49LGi7ggPpj1wjAiEA6QCj0FxUNyErmwrB1VC%2BreVNTnWp6Ks7KsE3E7x391YqvAUI2v%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2FARAFGgwwNTkwMDM1NDY4NjUiDBNmdKhbptxvmOh4WSqQBXwnDyLbNEknRXvNDbinpDHQJUc%2FGchy79eEQNCK1aSExCTctRYZQfwSEb%2Blh%2BiqbpjqVmEmUyRYf9MjZRPISeI7qTxt6LEBsCMnLF85bPAwYdGBfemRX8rc2OUulZ8aFuPFw9ziwJVX0xGOlL5Rd1U%2FQufCATv6aU7%2FSuTu8Q89bqP6QVUlA4xPEcFnI0goxABkBfBZbPck5FgRkP65OLSbAQp%2FTwaKssf1N6S4QrpAPOLv3QqrtkKp%2BVAMRhaO9PgKBdkfLjm80Y%2FiXp4uxBeV0BPtLbJ61mFI8bUMWZu5W5sqYj%2B5UL5hcCmxXUgwRFyyoA8gE5sed%2BFUeNfW2JLXEE5Q%2BNNF55gtEwlVuknu%2Bu2wArB0x3VI3rsqxqG5xR4%2Bog7yLIJGThjLd%2BHycAsCqk103w7YpMEIYoHkSkipbn0dCSgA5ug33kze8NIuJGVOC9KI5Sql2O0g%2BXm1KkgAbUPlicrcBkhAHsm9vVLDTlqD3A2tztVsuByRGY0pYATYVpazB3ko56XjIRXCGtS0csSYOzNwf3mp5H1fSXlb%2Ftrc10dBfF%2FKu5rFoq2%2FEgSXeYfm1DKiJVUzd%2Bxx53KtVsjK87FTifPGFRQP4I%2BJ483CjmXgkOanXoyr5MGNMMpEtVjp7%2F%2FW0wSJ383dYolbBYuHMBwlfKjAAHks1xMD8VXgIG%2F6xqVG5jrxBzRSHDBeIJ8vkm6IiNvwI%2FWzkUt2wsEncVyoGFXUCwqND6hPtOkPqEgG7gLE1p17r7GSYBppEUhY4B8jyjQV%2FJ%2BWpHdTtBQnuyziu3o9rzjidaLTGmC5oxy9xnpkiQboG7dckbBDn6Rt6qKGrlXfbsVt9dZgJZds7A5TZZCUxhX%2BEL4KMPbCjdYGOrEBjBdYKKt7s3fLZAAb%2BiGijeb%2F2xjDDXXLUCBygZL%2FcKAqstp0xG22ToNSpMyp5dpak9949g%2FQkiLxNJAxuvhKSUMDRB9GWxHspz8wjagXVBuuYkLPx3pkL5ul2Zzg3usF6OVvQR%2BFA8YlnaycMT44jQbz%2FAfU3SDfSJls72IGy3l4Mh%2BjsaohXm8yVtiLd%2BLj3bqX08ml35Lp3%2BGdZe3%2BZotYzxQjGzbK7i3WdrNHOWKR&X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Date=20261005T090336Z&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&X-Amz-Expires=300&X-Amz-Credential=ASIAQ3PHCVTY2P7Y2UF6%2F20261005%2Fus-east-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Signature=94bcb1072eb8f4f5725e7945b8a9ce58dfa3e490385104eaec2eb25f622762f8&hash=212a8d38d7e3c70d0609d9375b9ee0e51905cc164ffcd1ac8b4b7e37ea99e04a&host=68042c943591013ac2b2430a89b270f6af2c76d8dfd086a07176afe7c76c2c61&pii=S0925753520301922&tid=spdf-a8772b34-02ec-4ab0-b162-7ce50de56625&sid=000ad11f535f4044542b07711eb49dbf8ff1gxrqa&type=client&tsoh=d3d3LnNjaWVuY2VkaXJlY3QuY29t&rh=d3d3LnNjaWVuY2VkaXJlY3QuY29t&ua=1b13065557075052530452&rr=a45b410e1b13f6f7&cc=au Arnold et al., 2020]) which more closly alligns into intrinsic motives. === Extrinsic motivation === Influences that effect people on an external level, or [[Extrinsic motivation|extrinsic motivations]], are influences that effect people outwardly, forces that are harder for an individual to control. A common driving factor for joining sex work, as stated above, is earning money — an outward influence. A paper published in 2021 by [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.586235/full Ernst, et al]. shows evidence to support the link between monetary needs and sex work by looking at the topic from the lense of a student in debt. === Maslow's hierarchy of needs === [[File:Maslow's hierarchy of needs.svg|thumb|290x290px|'''Figure 2'''. Maslow's Heirarchy of Needs]] Having covered the basics of what forces both internal and external drive people into the sex work industry, the lense of [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's heirarchy of needs]] – refer to Figure. 2 for reference photo – can now be applied. A. H. Maslow drew from both intrinsic and extrinsic influences when making the heirarchy of needs. However Maslow defines a difference in the prevelence of a need and states that some needs will draw motivation for action then others, fr exsmple "A person who is lacking food, safety, love, and esteem would most probably hunger for food more strongly than for anything else" (Maslow, 1987). A possible reason for those who become sex workers through external motives – needing food, water or shelter – may find themselves in more compromising positions then those who enter through intrinsic fulfilment. A study collected data over a 3 year period and focused on data collected from over 100 prostitues in Denvour Colarado, this study stated "most of whom struggle with homelessness, addiction, and compromised mental and physical health" ([https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s13178-014-0163-8.pdf Dewey & St. Germain, 2014]). Because of there place on Maslow's model, extrinsicly motivated people may be trying to go from physiological to saftey. Where as, intrinsic may be seeking love/belonging possibly leading to more positive work satisfaction then others. == How does the sex work industry differ when looking at male sex workers == {| class="wikitable" |+Percentages showing [https://www.annualreviews.org/docserver/fulltext/psych/65/1/annurev-psych-010213-115057.pdf?expires=1790841225&id=id&accname=au&checksum=112378A7023548A83B7DDDA7288D0EA0 gender differences] in paying for vs working in sex ! !Participate in sex work !Pay for sex work |- |Men |20% |12% |- |Women |80% |1% |} In past years the sex trade has been veiwed as a primerily female dominated career, though men and women to take part in the transaction of sexual favours. In 2006 a study in the netherlands concluded that "3% of both men and women in the adult population (19 to 69 years of age) reported ever having received money for sex" ([https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/19317610903425571?casa_token=sDZAxkVnpLsAAAAA:8IjuI8blrONnsvny4LV0C2Vk4C2ltfOlOt2_Kkf-G1EfBgrGwdhCLxG7959b6OAMuelLbyed8bd3 Bakker & Vanwesenbeeck, 2006]). Although both sexes take part, how does the gender divide split worker satisfaction? It is important to mention that the research of [[transgender]] individuals in the sex trade is highly limited and needs to be more heavily researched. === The difference in male sex workers === Male sex workers often get overlooked in media as well as acedemically, an "analysis of 166 social science academic articles on sex work found that a majority did not mention male sex workers" ([http://cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/3EE28F1EAC9594C89B21F8E47C42D106/S0887536724000564a.pdf/is-sex-work-inherently-gendered.pdf McKeever, 2025]). Not only does gender tell a part in this story but so does sexuality. The stigma of male sex workers was rampent during the [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/24987949.pdf?refreqid=fastly-default%3Af21bffe92b59f3868c81a7143b186da7&ab_segments=&initiator=&acceptTC=1 aids] crisis when male sex workers were seen as problamatic to spreading the disease. Older papers of male sex workers characterizes them as more faminine and rooted in homosexuality, in the 20th century they are "characterized as young, heterosexual, and innocent victims of older, predatory perverts" ([https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00224499.2012.760189?casa_token=MwObuzJvcRUAAAAA:y2bj4pT8W0FJZBr3AYul37bEqXRu_jKD8-CBJDOU1N3Z_Y4WuAixv5SF9F0RPZVeCSrD3Ew5fSl9 Minichiello et al., 2013]). The experience of male sex workers is vastly influenced by external influences (ie. gender, sexuality, clientel) however when compared to women in how they are veiwed "female but not male sex work [is] degrading, causing deep feelings of shame and remorse" ([https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s12147-008-9051-y.pdf Dennis, 2008]). Those influences also dictate the quality of male prostitutes workplace experiences and satisfation. Minichiello et al. (2013), in a paper focusing on the changes in the male sex work industry states that the "intrinsic nature of sex work is not oppressive, and that there are different kinds of worker and client experiences and varying degrees of victimization, exploitation, agency, and choice".{{Robelbox|title=Future directions|theme=5}}[[File:“Sex work is work” - Europride 2019.jpg|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. Sex work is work]] ;Where to next? Although in recent years, studies like a paper writtencby McKeever in 2025 titled, 'Is Sex Work Inherently Gendered?', have produced a more wholistic perspective in the research of prostitution – considering the sexes (male and female) as a factor – more research must be undertaken. Importantly from an unbiased perspective. To fully understand the stigmatised occupation, one must first have all the information from all percectives to make a truly informed oppinion. Enacting change, if warented, should be done from an unbiased party with an informed understanding of the profession.{{Robelbox/close}}<quiz display="simple"> {There are more women in the sex trade then there are men: |type="()"} - True + False {Men also experience negative stereotypes when participating in the sex trade: |type="()"} - False + True </quiz> == Whorephobia and how it influences workplace satisfaction == [https://www.jrc-concordia.ca/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/Journal-of-Religion-and-Culture-Vol-27-no-1.pdf#page=13 Whorephobia] is ever present in the line of sex work, unfavorable opinions of sex workers has influenced others' behaviour towards them as well as their treatment in their workplace. Arnold et al. in 2020 said in their paper that "on a continuum from amotivation through extrinsic to intrinsic motivation. We consider this as an individual difference variable that changes the relationship between perceived physical danger and desire to leave the sex work occupation". This study provides evidence that sex workers may change their line of work based on their perceved physical danger – tieing back into the earlier topic of Maslow's heirarchy of needs. A prostitues' workplace satisfsction heavily relies of their clientels; oppinions, behaviour, beliefs, and actions. These external factors can be influenced by whorephobia. This negative stigma has been seen throughout time and was seen in The Holy [[Bible]] when refrencing [[wikipedia:Mary_Magdalene|Mary Magdalene]] and her sexual transactions. Despite her depiction as a prostitue has been renounced by the Roman [[wikipedia:Catholic_Church|Catholic Church]], the foundation of sin was already engrained in many Catholic's mind. How does this widley held belief and stigma towards prostitutes/ sex workers effect their workplace satisfaction and saftey? === Sex trafficing === One of the downsides to prostitution and transactional sexual exchanges being illegal is there being a high demand for [[wikipedia:Sex_trafficking|sex trafficking]]. Recent studies "show that criminalization and the imposition of governmental restrictions on (otherwise legal) prostitution markets, respectively, induce exit of (voluntary) sex workers" ([https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/110505/1/MPRA_paper_110505.pdf Azam et al., 2021]) which there for produces demand of illegal sexual extortion. Sex trafficking is a social issue that spans the globe, it is the illegal sexual exploitation of individuals who are often unwilling. Individuals who are subjected to this trafficking are often coerced into participating through control over legal documents, threats of physical harm, isolation, and even legal threats. In a paper titled '<nowiki/>''Human Trafficking and Regulating Prostitution''' written by [https://www.ifn.se/media/f00drmqb/2022-lee-persson-human-trafficking-and-regulating-prostitution.pdf Lee & Persson] in 2022 speaks to the issue. Through review of past studdies they are able to succinctly infer that "coercion means that employees’ participation constraints need not be fully respected" (Lee & Persson, 2022). === Police force practices and criminalisation === A factor that historically has negativley influenced prostitutes' workplaces' saftey is the neglagence of police officers towards sex workers. In Denver Colarado "policing practices, and the legislation that informs them, criminalize women for engaging in the street-based sex work and drug use activities that make up the majority of their everyday lives" (Dewey & St. Germain, 2014). This unfortunate criminalisation of prostitues has lead to individuals who participate in sex work to take riskier actions to ensure their way of life. This criminalisation of prostitution leads to a volitile and unsafe workplace, leading to unsatisfactory workplace satisfaction. In the past, the neglegence of police officers in taking concerns into the welbeing of sex workers has directly lead to serial killings to occur. In the case of [[wikipedia:Robert_Pickton|Robert Pickton]], many prostitues who worked along [[wikipedia:Downtown_Eastside|Vancouvers Downtown Eastside]] – a location infamous for its prostitution activity with "estimated... numbers rangng in the thousands, with their drug addiction regularly posited as an explanation for their cheap tricks" ([[doi:10.29173/invoke48990|Dusome, 2020]]) – had reported that their friends/ colleuges were going missing when leaving with Pickton. If the police had take action towards Picktons' behaviuor many lives would hae been spared. Unfortunatly this is just one example of the past indifference police officers have had towards people who participate in the sex trade. In a paper published in 2018 by Platt et al. assessed in a meta-analysis of work spanning information, both qualitatinve and quantitative, collected between 1 January 1990 and 9 May 2018. This meta-analysis saw the interation between police misstreatment and the health/ quality of life of sex workers. Platt et al. states their data "showed that in contexts of criminalisation, the threat and enactment of police harassment and arrest of sex workers or their clients displaced sex workers into isolated work locations, disrupting peer support networks and service access, and limiting risk reduction opportunities" (Platt et al., 2018). This past of violence and displacement negativly impacts not only sex workers occupation, but also their general wellbeing. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}'''Real world example of the injustice of the justice system''' 'Sarah de Vries is among the women in the second set of murder charges against Pickton. A 1995 entry in her diary revealed the prostitute was aware of the dangers she faced working the streets of Downtown Eastside. "Am I next?" she wrote. "Is he watching me now? Is he stalking me like a predator and his prey? Waiting, waiting for some perfect spot, time or my stupid mistake."... It was not the first time Pickton has appeared before a judge. He was charged with attempted murder and unlawful confinement in 1997 in the case of sex worker Wendy Lynn Eistetter. She claimed she had been handcuffed and attacked at the farm, but Pickton countered he acted in self-defense and for reasons that remain unclear, the charges were dropped.' (CBS, 2007){{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Conclusion== The line of sex work is littered with personal dangers and a vast amount of extrinsic motivation. Through looking at Maslow's hierarchy of needs (Maslow, 1987) as well as scientific papers which undergo much needed research into what societal pressures push people into the prostitution industry (Dewey & St. Germain, 2014) – different motivations into sex work does have an impact on workplace satisfation. Extrinsic motivation was seen as being the most common influence to those who tur to sex work, often out of desperation. Recent research has depicted that the current condition of prostitues' workplace satisfaction is, unfortunatly, minimal. With whorephobia and predjudice towards those who turn to prostitution negatively effecting their ability to perform or safely earn money, not many are happy with their current situation (Dusome, 2020). However, research preformed by Arnold et al. in 2020 also shows that the motivations that push someone into the sex work industry can influence their workplace satisfation – regardless of the unpredictable environment they are still subjected too. Factors such as internal needs for love and connection can influence some to seek out prostitution. On the other end of the spectrum some seek sex work out as a means to make ends meet, earning enough money to get by while also putting themselves at risk. These two distinct drives have a direct impact on the quality of workplace satisfaction however these two influsences overlap and mix together in the melting pot that is the human psyche. Now having read this chapter and hopefully now having a fuller picture of what may motivate people to turn to sex work, you can make yout own informed oppinions about those who seek out this profesion. ==See also== * [[Bible]] (Wikiversity) * [[Extrinsic motivation|Extrincis motivation]] (Wikiversity) * [[Intrinsic motivation]] (Wikiversity) * [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikiversity) * [[Sex education]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Sex worker motivation|Sex work motivation]] (Book chapter, 2015) * [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.586235/full Students in the Sex Industry: Motivations, Feelings, Risks, and Judgments] (Fronteirs in Psychology) * [[Transgender]] (Wikiversity) ==References == {{Hanging indent|1=Arnold, K. A., Turner, N., Barling, J., & Iverson, R. D. (2020). Feeling safe while doing sex work: Motivation for entering sex work moderates the relationship between perceptions of physical danger and desire to leave sex work. Safety science, 129, 104795.[https://pdf.sciencedirectassets.com/271730/1-s2.0-S0925753520X00063/1-s2.0-S0925753520301922/main.pdf?X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEDgaCXVzLWVhc3QtMSJIMEYCIQDLwNUlkBLTVH2W9sUG%2FL8xBiniafqj2YjDThRYfM8j7gIhAPpb6usou%2FCfun2GlN94HXvsSkZFNyb27ndcS5LYkmOqKrIFCAEQBRoMMDU5MDAzNTQ2ODY1IgwVqu3mdLMxIbQQT4EqjwVyEzAMhHQLz8i1mRyce46T7kq8nFGMPfsWbvGbIjwD5sTztgejH2H6uoazHE3ceLn%2BHJAMU2gcjulIYqlqCSyvPuWe%2BScfjOHfBfQZnctFdUl2oWqaahIi9YzAVcTWeftoZk%2FylcCfLerGklhqD7HwVv2vZdBzsx94xmqQ1V1uUbIbAIkJ30NfSj00z1cSaUL1q96wM120kL%2By3Fd%2FYRnMyLzgn343yVJM%2BYWksKgOiezOVEa%2BhmIbNUYzcpb%2Fkcah8UWIgZWXjdLp2fZTJB2yCYbj091PqbNLxbKvPvqaCnGI%2BSTaCPpupfKIdR02m2jepxiZI8%2FZrLGy71f0vYzU%2Be120AQZZCPdjTZZAOP9xB%2Bvfpp48EyclSYmN0rSn2bZcMSiqosJl%2Bz6BiiW3J9SmbZXGNWeECGltEiG%2FP%2FRiZ0uB94c2nIGVzBsfJ4fe7UAD3mlWR9UBCT5FirlPE3Dzap%2BH1xnOe%2BGN481xmH1YSoL3FACDW8J5HUez%2BURv5vTzFDq4nON4cFWhMdgPNfu8v%2BjU35utqWccWAfsows5CFE%2FdiNDUQa7EI1XwF00wtRp2k06DjOWBl%2FggL2duXPWFHHaJnOEovHXAGzQUl%2FzBocvEbkU%2BstJU3AjUwCqbrDZRVZay0dd7OLQ6NCZTFxvZrhEoOwYukzgYt02XtXs23oNKc8QK8jPBsjSx8K1Xj9V9tPB5eBTptias5DuJnme5GPMo0H0rehhAFIbH1iz5aLEJ2WFAs2YMajNB9b8K9hsdcsufqw3IWvDgGjJl491SPFYv4AkHpfF%2B2OEEmH9hDMp3rnzv686gQ5u2%2FmSKrDsChJ2JSpJUuTnHdHBZrk%2Fwzx%2BpsfpZ4zLVgKx0K6MJOGtdQGOrAB7mHiroFpJKweD4wGdVv4twWKj65wn3ZS715WCDMXnol3ZjKerxKwtTiAS8MYNXREK5yRc6R%2BCtHqgkfO1QIL6y35fyD0iOWFO6ZYrI1IePcEupQe4Ao%2B8i5%2Bz9PydRXrVVCjz1A9o6ZcLX9dN59jVDboJOpZsOpXxuErU9LEKNKGTqVoHfJq%2FpKSdZkltmLsDvSAgBZORP2gpikUUQyl6A0CxzJ3SGD1ZrqXN39XlWY%3D&X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Date=20260825T084050Z&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&X-Amz-Expires=300&X-Amz-Credential=ASIAQ3PHCVTYZDNOMNKH%2F20260825%2Fus-east-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Signature=222054776072dd684a9220ca5e137f808570de2f4b46a74fc1fac36b8741d31e&hash=9077aea1050680fe483f80515f312051569ddf0b7a50ba90c1511bc6ef136d06&host=68042c943591013ac2b2430a89b270f6af2c76d8dfd086a07176afe7c76c2c61&pii=S0925753520301922&tid=spdf-2823bc10-4a39-4f2b-8a32-7409653a6f56&sid=6bbf6c2f3a5ff545d91b09f2929365875304gxrqa&type=client&tsoh=d3d3LnNjaWVuY2VkaXJlY3QuY29t&rh=d3d3LnNjaWVuY2VkaXJlY3QuY29t&ua=1b130057565d500d535050&rr=a3094b5109a37504&cc=au] Azam, A., Hendrickx, J., & Adriaenssens, S. 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Students in the sex industry: Motivations, feelings, risks, and judgments. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 586235. Fishbach, A., & Woolley, K. (2021). Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior The Structure of Intrinsic Motivation. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012420- ‌ Footer, K. H. A., White, R. H., Park, J. N., Decker, M. R., Lutnick, A., & Sherman, S. G. (2020). Entry to Sex Trade and Long-Term Vulnerabilities of Female Sex Workers Who Enter the Sex Trade Before the Age of Eighteen. Journal of Urban Health, 97(3), 406–417. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7305278/ Harcourt, C. (2005). The many faces of sex work. Sexually Transmitted Infections, 81(3), 201–206. https://doi.org/10.1136/sti.2004.012468 ‌ Huglstad, M., Halvorsen, I. L. I., Jonsson, H., & Nielsen, K. T. (2020). “Some of us actually choose to do this”: The meanings of sex work from the perspective of female sex workers in Denmark. Journal of Occupational Science, 29(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/14427591.2020.1830841. Lee, S., & Persson, P. (2022). Human Trafficking and Regulating Prostitution. American Economic Journal: Economic Policy, 14(3), 87–127. https://doi.org/10.1257/pol.20180622 ‌ Platt, L. P., Grenfell, P., Meiksin, R., Elmes, J., Sherman, S. G., Sanders, T., Mwangi, P., & Crago, A.-L. (2018). Associations between sex work laws and sex workers’ health: A systematic review and meta-analysis of quantitative and qualitative studies. PLoS Medicine, 15(12). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1002680 ‌ Vanwesenbeeck, I., Bakker, F., & Gesell, S. (2010). Sexual Health in the Netherlands: Main Results of a Population Survey Among Dutch Adults. International Journal of Sexual Health, 22(2), 55–71. https://doi.org/10.1080/19317610903425571 ‌ Vanwesenbeeck, I. (2013). Prostitution push and pull: Male and female perspectives. Journal of Sex Research, 50(1), 11-16. Maslow, A., & Lewis, K. J. (1987). Maslow's hierarchy of needs. Salenger Incorporated, 14(17), 987-990. https://www.justiceacademy.am/assets/uploads/Maslow.pdf McNamara, R. (2016). The trouble with whorephobia. Journal of Religion and Culture, 27(1), 13-34. McKeever, N. (2025). Is Sex Work Inherently Gendered? Hypatia, 40(3), 633–652. doi:10.1017/hyp.2024.56 ‌Redwood, R. (2018). Myths and Realities of Male Sex Work. Red light labour: Sex work regulation, agency, and resistance, 167-180.[https://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&lr=&id=8GJoDwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA167&dq=Myths+and+Realities+of+Male+Sex+Work&ots=mQOUglmuLU&sig=XHi0ybe124LABeHMulfVUMeYsxw#v=onepage&q=Myths%20and%20Realities%20of%20Male%20Sex%20Work&f=false] Sex worker - Wikipedia. (2023). Wikipedia.Org. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sex_worker}} ==External links== [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/10.1086/324390.pdf?casa_token=lfbXJZ0pqcQAAAAA:Y2KROCBvBcyTR_OkV9GU9nGAnh5lp0VKsrro0wiLqGF_MeXybi6-z3pvrxj97OM6GMvGv6r_Zbmt_s9RvHKDiUw3JzDhAPWvsSz3uzNI4nXa_mNdM5o A Theory of Prostitution] (The University of Chicago Press) [https://www.cdc.gov/sexual-violence/about/about-sex-trafficking.html About Sex Trafficing] (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention) [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/24987949.pdf?refreqid=fastly-default%3Af21bffe92b59f3868c81a7143b186da7&ab_segments=&initiator=&acceptTC=1 AIDS in 1988] (JSTOR) [[wikipedia:Catholic_Church|Catholic Church]] (Wikipedia) [[wikipedia:Downtown_Eastside|Downtown Eastside]] (Wikipedia) [https://www.annualreviews.org/docserver/fulltext/psych/65/1/annurev-psych-010213-115057.pdf?expires=1790841225&id=id&accname=au&checksum=112378A7023548A83B7DDDA7288D0EA0 Gender Similarities and Differences] (The Annual Review of Psychology) [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/30048506.pdf?refreqid=fastly-default%3Abdd06e603789b9df6429bacfd93907fe&ab_segments=&initiator=&acceptTC=1 Human Trafficking] (JSTOR)‌ [http://cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/3EE28F1EAC9594C89B21F8E47C42D106/S0887536724000564a.pdf/is-sex-work-inherently-gendered.pdf Is Sex Work Inherently Gendered?] (Cambridge University Press) [[wikipedia:Mary_Magdalene|Mary Magdalene]] (Wikipedia) [[wikipedia:Robert_Pickton|Robert Pickton]] (Wikipedia) [[wikipedia:Sex_trafficking|Sex Trafficking]] (Wikipedia) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Sex]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Work motivation]] e9kvs966xhssyk2di7vz0fszqq8qfu3 2836397 2836390 2026-10-07T02:26:29Z U3261376 3106964 2836397 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Sex work motivation:<br>What motivates sex work and how does this impact worker experiences?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} [[File:“Sex workers rights are human rights” - Europride 2019.jpg|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. Prostitution in Sao Paulo, Brazil]] '''What would you do if you found yourself in this scenario?''' Feeling lost and left with little money of your own, but you have to make ends meet. What will you do when you have to pay your rent? What if you have a child? Would you turn to sex work to make ends meet? If you did... would that make your rights to a safe and trustworthy work environment just disappear? Sex work itself is illegal. Having been driven to such means to make ends meet, you must register as self-employed to pay taxes, buy a house, or even just be considered an employee. [https://doi.org/10.1080/14427591.2020.1830841. (Huglstad et al., 2020)]. Sex workers rights activists proclaim that sex work is work, that they are not victims in need of help, and that they are entitled to any basic human right (see Figure 1). That in itself poses another scenario: What drives people into sex work? Is it finance and convenience? Or is it pleasure and fun? {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[Sex education|Sex]] work or [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/10.1086/324390.pdf?casa_token=lfbXJZ0pqcQAAAAA:Y2KROCBvBcyTR_OkV9GU9nGAnh5lp0VKsrro0wiLqGF_MeXybi6-z3pvrxj97OM6GMvGv6r_Zbmt_s9RvHKDiUw3JzDhAPWvsSz3uzNI4nXa_mNdM5o prostitution] is a broad topic which includes many elements of sexual activities. In 2005, Harcourt defined "prostitution, [as] the provision of sexual services for money or its equivalent," ([https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1744977/pdf/v081p00201.pdf Harcourt, 2005]). To understand sex work as a concept it is important to first understand why people may turn to sex work for an income to begin with. This topic has been discussed at nauseum however often in a negative and clouded light. As stated in The Journal of Sex Research in 2013, it wasn't until the 1990's that literature that looked into this topic stopped looking at prostitutes as "predominantly... ‘‘evil characters’’ or ‘‘sick personalities.’’" ([https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00224499.2012.696285?casa_token=wgasXeCYwFAAAAAA:0Iuwx4QzcbYP0ZAj6GISEX5oDHr4t-phuo4VUxmwfMIVjTrLXaTBhIoYpXtC9r0WaeYaxII3ObSZ Vanwesenbeeck, 2013]) and carrying a lense of ""simmering abhorrence, incomprehension, and fascination" (Vanwesenbeeck, 2013) towards these individuals. Some of the main concepts that will be unpacked below are what motivates people to go into sex work, answers are commonly, "financial, sexual, recreational motives, and coercion (i.e., [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/30048506.pdf?casa_token=pqlPp6XrnF0AAAAA:SFSvr6r_WKbLtO638dPPYk35oZFz9anPcub1Be7iUjk9AMX7a4h73yPLMJ6efSSxWVK7Az4Upc3UgohFYtht3QViGNIyTXPWCkBaY5lhRS_RGNFzUoA trafficking])" (Vanwesenbeeck, 2013), these experiences can often lead to negative workplace satisfaction. External influences like the adult entertainment industry and whorephobia can also heavily influence an individual's workplace satisfaction when working in the prostitution industry. To learn the in depth relationship between motivation to join sex work and the quality of said workplace satisfaction continue reading below! {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} '''Focus questions''' * What are the main driving forces causing people to turn to sex work? * What is the condition of work place satisfaction for sex workers? * How does whorephobia and others' actions towards sex workers effect their work place? * Do those who turn to sex work for pleasure have different experiences to those who do so for money alone? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Driving forces pushing people towards sex work == There are many driving forces that can influence someone's motivation to enter any kind of work force. Unfortunatly financial motives are often what pushes people to turn to the sex trade. Although there is evidence that some do find pleasure and positive experiences through sex work. So, those who turn to sex work for pleasure have different experiences to those who do so for money alone? === Intrinsic motivation === It would be irresponsible to look at motivation without first adressing key theories that may explain why a person would perform any behaviour. By looking at [[Intrinsic motivation|intrinsic motivational]] forces that may influence someone into the sex trade it can give a fuller explination of their actions. What internal need are they fulfilling by performing these actions? Intrinsic motivation falls under the "definition of [an] action as rewarding in itself" (Fishbach & Woolley, 2021), not nesseserily the outcome/ final goal. Although economic needs are a common factor of joining the sex trade — and is considered an extrinsically motivating factor — there is "research confirming that individuals sometimes enter this occupation for reasons of personal fulfillment" ([https://pdf.sciencedirectassets.com/271730/1-s2.0-S0925753520X00063/1-s2.0-S0925753520301922/main.pdf?X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEBEaCXVzLWVhc3QtMSJHMEUCIDrCbvs%2F7w0X0S3yCXuLyXMAVemZDC49LGi7ggPpj1wjAiEA6QCj0FxUNyErmwrB1VC%2BreVNTnWp6Ks7KsE3E7x391YqvAUI2v%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2FARAFGgwwNTkwMDM1NDY4NjUiDBNmdKhbptxvmOh4WSqQBXwnDyLbNEknRXvNDbinpDHQJUc%2FGchy79eEQNCK1aSExCTctRYZQfwSEb%2Blh%2BiqbpjqVmEmUyRYf9MjZRPISeI7qTxt6LEBsCMnLF85bPAwYdGBfemRX8rc2OUulZ8aFuPFw9ziwJVX0xGOlL5Rd1U%2FQufCATv6aU7%2FSuTu8Q89bqP6QVUlA4xPEcFnI0goxABkBfBZbPck5FgRkP65OLSbAQp%2FTwaKssf1N6S4QrpAPOLv3QqrtkKp%2BVAMRhaO9PgKBdkfLjm80Y%2FiXp4uxBeV0BPtLbJ61mFI8bUMWZu5W5sqYj%2B5UL5hcCmxXUgwRFyyoA8gE5sed%2BFUeNfW2JLXEE5Q%2BNNF55gtEwlVuknu%2Bu2wArB0x3VI3rsqxqG5xR4%2Bog7yLIJGThjLd%2BHycAsCqk103w7YpMEIYoHkSkipbn0dCSgA5ug33kze8NIuJGVOC9KI5Sql2O0g%2BXm1KkgAbUPlicrcBkhAHsm9vVLDTlqD3A2tztVsuByRGY0pYATYVpazB3ko56XjIRXCGtS0csSYOzNwf3mp5H1fSXlb%2Ftrc10dBfF%2FKu5rFoq2%2FEgSXeYfm1DKiJVUzd%2Bxx53KtVsjK87FTifPGFRQP4I%2BJ483CjmXgkOanXoyr5MGNMMpEtVjp7%2F%2FW0wSJ383dYolbBYuHMBwlfKjAAHks1xMD8VXgIG%2F6xqVG5jrxBzRSHDBeIJ8vkm6IiNvwI%2FWzkUt2wsEncVyoGFXUCwqND6hPtOkPqEgG7gLE1p17r7GSYBppEUhY4B8jyjQV%2FJ%2BWpHdTtBQnuyziu3o9rzjidaLTGmC5oxy9xnpkiQboG7dckbBDn6Rt6qKGrlXfbsVt9dZgJZds7A5TZZCUxhX%2BEL4KMPbCjdYGOrEBjBdYKKt7s3fLZAAb%2BiGijeb%2F2xjDDXXLUCBygZL%2FcKAqstp0xG22ToNSpMyp5dpak9949g%2FQkiLxNJAxuvhKSUMDRB9GWxHspz8wjagXVBuuYkLPx3pkL5ul2Zzg3usF6OVvQR%2BFA8YlnaycMT44jQbz%2FAfU3SDfSJls72IGy3l4Mh%2BjsaohXm8yVtiLd%2BLj3bqX08ml35Lp3%2BGdZe3%2BZotYzxQjGzbK7i3WdrNHOWKR&X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Date=20261005T090336Z&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&X-Amz-Expires=300&X-Amz-Credential=ASIAQ3PHCVTY2P7Y2UF6%2F20261005%2Fus-east-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Signature=94bcb1072eb8f4f5725e7945b8a9ce58dfa3e490385104eaec2eb25f622762f8&hash=212a8d38d7e3c70d0609d9375b9ee0e51905cc164ffcd1ac8b4b7e37ea99e04a&host=68042c943591013ac2b2430a89b270f6af2c76d8dfd086a07176afe7c76c2c61&pii=S0925753520301922&tid=spdf-a8772b34-02ec-4ab0-b162-7ce50de56625&sid=000ad11f535f4044542b07711eb49dbf8ff1gxrqa&type=client&tsoh=d3d3LnNjaWVuY2VkaXJlY3QuY29t&rh=d3d3LnNjaWVuY2VkaXJlY3QuY29t&ua=1b13065557075052530452&rr=a45b410e1b13f6f7&cc=au Arnold et al., 2020]) which more closly alligns into intrinsic motives. === Extrinsic motivation === Influences that effect people on an external level, or [[Extrinsic motivation|extrinsic motivations]], are influences that effect people outwardly, forces that are harder for an individual to control. A common driving factor for joining sex work, as stated above, is earning money — an outward influence. A paper published in 2021 by [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.586235/full Ernst, et al]. shows evidence to support the link between monetary needs and sex work by looking at the topic from the lense of a student in debt. === Maslow's hierarchy of needs === [[File:Maslow's hierarchy of needs.svg|thumb|290x290px|'''Figure 2'''. Maslow's Heirarchy of Needs]] Having covered the basics of what forces both internal and external drive people into the sex work industry, the lense of [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's heirarchy of needs]] – refer to Figure. 2 for reference photo – can now be applied. A. H. Maslow drew from both intrinsic and extrinsic influences when making the heirarchy of needs. However Maslow defines a difference in the prevelence of a need and states that some needs will draw motivation for action then others, fr exsmple "A person who is lacking food, safety, love, and esteem would most probably hunger for food more strongly than for anything else" (Maslow, 1987). A possible reason for those who become sex workers through external motives – needing food, water or shelter – may find themselves in more compromising positions then those who enter through intrinsic fulfilment. A study collected data over a 3 year period and focused on data collected from over 100 prostitues in Denvour Colarado, this study stated "most of whom struggle with homelessness, addiction, and compromised mental and physical health" ([https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s13178-014-0163-8.pdf Dewey & St. Germain, 2014]). Because of there place on Maslow's model, extrinsicly motivated people may be trying to go from physiological to saftey. Where as, intrinsic may be seeking love/belonging possibly leading to more positive work satisfaction then others. == How does the sex work industry differ when looking at male sex workers == {| class="wikitable" |+Percentages showing [https://www.annualreviews.org/docserver/fulltext/psych/65/1/annurev-psych-010213-115057.pdf?expires=1790841225&id=id&accname=au&checksum=112378A7023548A83B7DDDA7288D0EA0 gender differences] in paying for vs working in sex ! !Participate in sex work !Pay for sex work |- |Men |20% |12% |- |Women |80% |1% |} In past years the sex trade has been veiwed as a primerily female dominated career, though men and women to take part in the transaction of sexual favours. In 2006 a study in the netherlands concluded that "3% of both men and women in the adult population (19 to 69 years of age) reported ever having received money for sex" ([https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/19317610903425571?casa_token=sDZAxkVnpLsAAAAA:8IjuI8blrONnsvny4LV0C2Vk4C2ltfOlOt2_Kkf-G1EfBgrGwdhCLxG7959b6OAMuelLbyed8bd3 Bakker & Vanwesenbeeck, 2006]). Although both sexes take part, how does the gender divide split worker satisfaction? It is important to mention that the research of [[transgender]] individuals in the sex trade is highly limited and needs to be more heavily researched. === The difference in male sex workers === Male sex workers often get overlooked in media as well as acedemically, an "analysis of 166 social science academic articles on sex work found that a majority did not mention male sex workers" ([http://cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/3EE28F1EAC9594C89B21F8E47C42D106/S0887536724000564a.pdf/is-sex-work-inherently-gendered.pdf McKeever, 2025]). Not only does gender tell a part in this story but so does sexuality. The stigma of male sex workers was rampent during the [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/24987949.pdf?refreqid=fastly-default%3Af21bffe92b59f3868c81a7143b186da7&ab_segments=&initiator=&acceptTC=1 aids] crisis when male sex workers were seen as problamatic to spreading the disease. Older papers of male sex workers characterizes them as more faminine and rooted in homosexuality, in the 20th century they are "characterized as young, heterosexual, and innocent victims of older, predatory perverts" ([https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00224499.2012.760189?casa_token=MwObuzJvcRUAAAAA:y2bj4pT8W0FJZBr3AYul37bEqXRu_jKD8-CBJDOU1N3Z_Y4WuAixv5SF9F0RPZVeCSrD3Ew5fSl9 Minichiello et al., 2013]). The experience of male sex workers is vastly influenced by external influences (ie. gender, sexuality, clientel) however when compared to women in how they are veiwed "female but not male sex work [is] degrading, causing deep feelings of shame and remorse" ([https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s12147-008-9051-y.pdf Dennis, 2008]). Those influences also dictate the quality of male prostitutes workplace experiences and satisfation. Minichiello et al. (2013), in a paper focusing on the changes in the male sex work industry states that the "intrinsic nature of sex work is not oppressive, and that there are different kinds of worker and client experiences and varying degrees of victimization, exploitation, agency, and choice". {{Robelbox|title=Future directions|theme=5}}[[File:“Sex work is work” - Europride 2019.jpg|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. Sex work is work]] ;Where to next? Although in recent years, studies like a paper writtencby McKeever in 2025 titled, 'Is Sex Work Inherently Gendered?', have produced a more wholistic perspective in the research of prostitution – considering the sexes (male and female) as a factor – more research must be undertaken. Importantly from an unbiased perspective. To fully understand the stigmatised occupation, one must first have all the information from all percectives to make a truly informed oppinion. Enacting change, if warented, should be done from an unbiased party with an informed understanding of the profession.{{Robelbox/close}}<quiz display="simple"> {There are more women in the sex trade then there are men: |type="()"} - True + False {Men also experience negative stereotypes when participating in the sex trade: |type="()"} - False + True </quiz> == Whorephobia and how it influences workplace satisfaction == [https://www.jrc-concordia.ca/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/Journal-of-Religion-and-Culture-Vol-27-no-1.pdf#page=13 Whorephobia] is ever present in the line of sex work, unfavorable opinions of sex workers has influenced others' behaviour towards them as well as their treatment in their workplace. Arnold et al. in 2020 said in their paper that "on a continuum from amotivation through extrinsic to intrinsic motivation. We consider this as an individual difference variable that changes the relationship between perceived physical danger and desire to leave the sex work occupation". This study provides evidence that sex workers may change their line of work based on their perceved physical danger – tieing back into the earlier topic of Maslow's heirarchy of needs. A prostitues' workplace satisfsction heavily relies of their clientels; oppinions, behaviour, beliefs, and actions. These external factors can be influenced by whorephobia. This negative stigma has been seen throughout time and was seen in The Holy [[Bible]] when refrencing [[wikipedia:Mary_Magdalene|Mary Magdalene]] and her sexual transactions. Despite her depiction as a prostitue has been renounced by the Roman [[wikipedia:Catholic_Church|Catholic Church]], the foundation of sin was already engrained in many Catholic's mind. How does this widley held belief and stigma towards prostitutes/ sex workers effect their workplace satisfaction and saftey? === Sex trafficing === One of the downsides to prostitution and transactional sexual exchanges being illegal is there being a high demand for [[wikipedia:Sex_trafficking|sex trafficking]]. Recent studies "show that criminalization and the imposition of governmental restrictions on (otherwise legal) prostitution markets, respectively, induce exit of (voluntary) sex workers" ([https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/110505/1/MPRA_paper_110505.pdf Azam et al., 2021]) which there for produces demand of illegal sexual extortion. Sex trafficking is a social issue that spans the globe, it is the illegal sexual exploitation of individuals who are often unwilling. Individuals who are subjected to this trafficking are often coerced into participating through control over legal documents, threats of physical harm, isolation, and even legal threats. In a paper titled '<nowiki/>''Human Trafficking and Regulating Prostitution''' written by [https://www.ifn.se/media/f00drmqb/2022-lee-persson-human-trafficking-and-regulating-prostitution.pdf Lee & Persson] in 2022 speaks to the issue. Through review of past studdies they are able to succinctly infer that "coercion means that employees’ participation constraints need not be fully respected" (Lee & Persson, 2022). === Police force practices and criminalisation === A factor that historically has negativley influenced prostitutes' workplaces' saftey is the neglagence of police officers towards sex workers. In Denver Colarado "policing practices, and the legislation that informs them, criminalize women for engaging in the street-based sex work and drug use activities that make up the majority of their everyday lives" (Dewey & St. Germain, 2014). This unfortunate criminalisation of prostitues has lead to individuals who participate in sex work to take riskier actions to ensure their way of life. This criminalisation of prostitution leads to a volitile and unsafe workplace, leading to unsatisfactory workplace satisfaction. In the past, the neglegence of police officers in taking concerns into the welbeing of sex workers has directly lead to serial killings to occur. In the case of [[wikipedia:Robert_Pickton|Robert Pickton]], many prostitues who worked along [[wikipedia:Downtown_Eastside|Vancouvers Downtown Eastside]] – a location infamous for its prostitution activity with "estimated... numbers rangng in the thousands, with their drug addiction regularly posited as an explanation for their cheap tricks" ([[doi:10.29173/invoke48990|Dusome, 2020]]) – had reported that their friends/ colleuges were going missing when leaving with Pickton. If the police had take action towards Picktons' behaviuor many lives would hae been spared. Unfortunatly this is just one example of the past indifference police officers have had towards people who participate in the sex trade. In a paper published in 2018 by Platt et al. assessed in a meta-analysis of work spanning information, both qualitatinve and quantitative, collected between 1 January 1990 and 9 May 2018. This meta-analysis saw the interation between police misstreatment and the health/ quality of life of sex workers. Platt et al. states their data "showed that in contexts of criminalisation, the threat and enactment of police harassment and arrest of sex workers or their clients displaced sex workers into isolated work locations, disrupting peer support networks and service access, and limiting risk reduction opportunities" (Platt et al., 2018). This past of violence and displacement negativly impacts not only sex workers occupation, but also their general wellbeing. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}'''Real world example of the injustice of the justice system''' 'Sarah de Vries is among the women in the second set of murder charges against Pickton. A 1995 entry in her diary revealed the prostitute was aware of the dangers she faced working the streets of Downtown Eastside. "Am I next?" she wrote. "Is he watching me now? Is he stalking me like a predator and his prey? Waiting, waiting for some perfect spot, time or my stupid mistake."... It was not the first time Pickton has appeared before a judge. He was charged with attempted murder and unlawful confinement in 1997 in the case of sex worker Wendy Lynn Eistetter. She claimed she had been handcuffed and attacked at the farm, but Pickton countered he acted in self-defense and for reasons that remain unclear, the charges were dropped.' (CBS, 2007){{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Conclusion== The line of sex work is littered with personal dangers and a vast amount of extrinsic motivation. Through looking at Maslow's hierarchy of needs (Maslow, 1987) as well as scientific papers which undergo much needed research into what societal pressures push people into the prostitution industry (Dewey & St. Germain, 2014) – different motivations into sex work does have an impact on workplace satisfation. Extrinsic motivation was seen as being the most common influence to those who tur to sex work, often out of desperation. Recent research has depicted that the current condition of prostitues' workplace satisfaction is, unfortunatly, minimal. With whorephobia and predjudice towards those who turn to prostitution negatively effecting their ability to perform or safely earn money, not many are happy with their current situation (Dusome, 2020). However, research preformed by Arnold et al. in 2020 also shows that the motivations that push someone into the sex work industry can influence their workplace satisfation – regardless of the unpredictable environment they are still subjected too. Factors such as internal needs for love and connection can influence some to seek out prostitution. On the other end of the spectrum some seek sex work out as a means to make ends meet, earning enough money to get by while also putting themselves at risk. These two distinct drives have a direct impact on the quality of workplace satisfaction however these two influsences overlap and mix together in the melting pot that is the human psyche. Now having read this chapter and hopefully now having a fuller picture of what may motivate people to turn to sex work, you can make yout own informed oppinions about those who seek out this profesion. ==See also== * [[Bible]] (Wikiversity) * [[Extrinsic motivation|Extrincis motivation]] (Wikiversity) * [[Intrinsic motivation]] (Wikiversity) * [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikiversity) * [[Sex education]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Sex worker motivation|Sex work motivation]] (Book chapter, 2015) * [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.586235/full Students in the Sex Industry: Motivations, Feelings, Risks, and Judgments] (Fronteirs in Psychology) * [[Transgender]] (Wikiversity) ==References == {{Hanging indent|1=Arnold, K. A., Turner, N., Barling, J., & Iverson, R. D. (2020). Feeling safe while doing sex work: Motivation for entering sex work moderates the relationship between perceptions of physical danger and desire to leave sex work. Safety science, 129, 104795.[https://pdf.sciencedirectassets.com/271730/1-s2.0-S0925753520X00063/1-s2.0-S0925753520301922/main.pdf?X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEDgaCXVzLWVhc3QtMSJIMEYCIQDLwNUlkBLTVH2W9sUG%2FL8xBiniafqj2YjDThRYfM8j7gIhAPpb6usou%2FCfun2GlN94HXvsSkZFNyb27ndcS5LYkmOqKrIFCAEQBRoMMDU5MDAzNTQ2ODY1IgwVqu3mdLMxIbQQT4EqjwVyEzAMhHQLz8i1mRyce46T7kq8nFGMPfsWbvGbIjwD5sTztgejH2H6uoazHE3ceLn%2BHJAMU2gcjulIYqlqCSyvPuWe%2BScfjOHfBfQZnctFdUl2oWqaahIi9YzAVcTWeftoZk%2FylcCfLerGklhqD7HwVv2vZdBzsx94xmqQ1V1uUbIbAIkJ30NfSj00z1cSaUL1q96wM120kL%2By3Fd%2FYRnMyLzgn343yVJM%2BYWksKgOiezOVEa%2BhmIbNUYzcpb%2Fkcah8UWIgZWXjdLp2fZTJB2yCYbj091PqbNLxbKvPvqaCnGI%2BSTaCPpupfKIdR02m2jepxiZI8%2FZrLGy71f0vYzU%2Be120AQZZCPdjTZZAOP9xB%2Bvfpp48EyclSYmN0rSn2bZcMSiqosJl%2Bz6BiiW3J9SmbZXGNWeECGltEiG%2FP%2FRiZ0uB94c2nIGVzBsfJ4fe7UAD3mlWR9UBCT5FirlPE3Dzap%2BH1xnOe%2BGN481xmH1YSoL3FACDW8J5HUez%2BURv5vTzFDq4nON4cFWhMdgPNfu8v%2BjU35utqWccWAfsows5CFE%2FdiNDUQa7EI1XwF00wtRp2k06DjOWBl%2FggL2duXPWFHHaJnOEovHXAGzQUl%2FzBocvEbkU%2BstJU3AjUwCqbrDZRVZay0dd7OLQ6NCZTFxvZrhEoOwYukzgYt02XtXs23oNKc8QK8jPBsjSx8K1Xj9V9tPB5eBTptias5DuJnme5GPMo0H0rehhAFIbH1iz5aLEJ2WFAs2YMajNB9b8K9hsdcsufqw3IWvDgGjJl491SPFYv4AkHpfF%2B2OEEmH9hDMp3rnzv686gQ5u2%2FmSKrDsChJ2JSpJUuTnHdHBZrk%2Fwzx%2BpsfpZ4zLVgKx0K6MJOGtdQGOrAB7mHiroFpJKweD4wGdVv4twWKj65wn3ZS715WCDMXnol3ZjKerxKwtTiAS8MYNXREK5yRc6R%2BCtHqgkfO1QIL6y35fyD0iOWFO6ZYrI1IePcEupQe4Ao%2B8i5%2Bz9PydRXrVVCjz1A9o6ZcLX9dN59jVDboJOpZsOpXxuErU9LEKNKGTqVoHfJq%2FpKSdZkltmLsDvSAgBZORP2gpikUUQyl6A0CxzJ3SGD1ZrqXN39XlWY%3D&X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Date=20260825T084050Z&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&X-Amz-Expires=300&X-Amz-Credential=ASIAQ3PHCVTYZDNOMNKH%2F20260825%2Fus-east-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Signature=222054776072dd684a9220ca5e137f808570de2f4b46a74fc1fac36b8741d31e&hash=9077aea1050680fe483f80515f312051569ddf0b7a50ba90c1511bc6ef136d06&host=68042c943591013ac2b2430a89b270f6af2c76d8dfd086a07176afe7c76c2c61&pii=S0925753520301922&tid=spdf-2823bc10-4a39-4f2b-8a32-7409653a6f56&sid=6bbf6c2f3a5ff545d91b09f2929365875304gxrqa&type=client&tsoh=d3d3LnNjaWVuY2VkaXJlY3QuY29t&rh=d3d3LnNjaWVuY2VkaXJlY3QuY29t&ua=1b130057565d500d535050&rr=a3094b5109a37504&cc=au] Azam, A., Hendrickx, J., & Adriaenssens, S. (2021). Estimating the Prostitution Population in the Netherlands and Belgium: A Capture-Recapture Application to Online Data. Munich Personal RePEc Archive (MPRA). https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/110505/ ‌ Canada’s Largest-Ever Murder Trial Begins. (2007, January 22). CBS News. https://www.cbsnews.com/news/canadas-largest-ever-murder-trial-begins/ ‌ Dennis, J. P. (2008). Women are Victims, Men Make Choices: The Invisibility of Men and Boys in the Global Sex Trade. Gender Issues, 25(1), 11–25. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12147-008-9051-y ‌ Dewey, S., & St. Germain, T. (2014). “It Depends on the Cop:” Street-Based Sex Workers’ Perspectives on Police Patrol Officers. Sexuality Research and Social Policy, 11(3), 256–270. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13178-014-0163-8 ‌ Dusome, J. (2020). Lost and Forgotten: Missing and Murdered Sex Workers on Vancouver's Downtown Eastside. INVOKE, 6. Ernst, F., Romanczuk-Seiferth, N., Köhler, S., Amelung, T., & Betzler, F. (2021). Students in the sex industry: Motivations, feelings, risks, and judgments. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 586235. Fishbach, A., & Woolley, K. (2021). Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior The Structure of Intrinsic Motivation. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012420- ‌ Footer, K. H. A., White, R. H., Park, J. N., Decker, M. R., Lutnick, A., & Sherman, S. G. (2020). Entry to Sex Trade and Long-Term Vulnerabilities of Female Sex Workers Who Enter the Sex Trade Before the Age of Eighteen. Journal of Urban Health, 97(3), 406–417. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7305278/ Harcourt, C. (2005). The many faces of sex work. Sexually Transmitted Infections, 81(3), 201–206. https://doi.org/10.1136/sti.2004.012468 ‌ Huglstad, M., Halvorsen, I. L. I., Jonsson, H., & Nielsen, K. T. (2020). “Some of us actually choose to do this”: The meanings of sex work from the perspective of female sex workers in Denmark. Journal of Occupational Science, 29(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/14427591.2020.1830841. Lee, S., & Persson, P. (2022). Human Trafficking and Regulating Prostitution. American Economic Journal: Economic Policy, 14(3), 87–127. https://doi.org/10.1257/pol.20180622 ‌ Platt, L. P., Grenfell, P., Meiksin, R., Elmes, J., Sherman, S. G., Sanders, T., Mwangi, P., & Crago, A.-L. (2018). Associations between sex work laws and sex workers’ health: A systematic review and meta-analysis of quantitative and qualitative studies. PLoS Medicine, 15(12). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1002680 ‌ Vanwesenbeeck, I., Bakker, F., & Gesell, S. (2010). Sexual Health in the Netherlands: Main Results of a Population Survey Among Dutch Adults. International Journal of Sexual Health, 22(2), 55–71. https://doi.org/10.1080/19317610903425571 ‌ Vanwesenbeeck, I. (2013). Prostitution push and pull: Male and female perspectives. Journal of Sex Research, 50(1), 11-16. Maslow, A., & Lewis, K. J. (1987). Maslow's hierarchy of needs. Salenger Incorporated, 14(17), 987-990. https://www.justiceacademy.am/assets/uploads/Maslow.pdf McNamara, R. (2016). The trouble with whorephobia. Journal of Religion and Culture, 27(1), 13-34. McKeever, N. (2025). Is Sex Work Inherently Gendered? Hypatia, 40(3), 633–652. doi:10.1017/hyp.2024.56 ‌Redwood, R. (2018). Myths and Realities of Male Sex Work. Red light labour: Sex work regulation, agency, and resistance, 167-180.[https://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&lr=&id=8GJoDwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA167&dq=Myths+and+Realities+of+Male+Sex+Work&ots=mQOUglmuLU&sig=XHi0ybe124LABeHMulfVUMeYsxw#v=onepage&q=Myths%20and%20Realities%20of%20Male%20Sex%20Work&f=false] Sex worker - Wikipedia. (2023). Wikipedia.Org. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sex_worker}} ==External links== [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/10.1086/324390.pdf?casa_token=lfbXJZ0pqcQAAAAA:Y2KROCBvBcyTR_OkV9GU9nGAnh5lp0VKsrro0wiLqGF_MeXybi6-z3pvrxj97OM6GMvGv6r_Zbmt_s9RvHKDiUw3JzDhAPWvsSz3uzNI4nXa_mNdM5o A Theory of Prostitution] (The University of Chicago Press) [https://www.cdc.gov/sexual-violence/about/about-sex-trafficking.html About Sex Trafficing] (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention) [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/24987949.pdf?refreqid=fastly-default%3Af21bffe92b59f3868c81a7143b186da7&ab_segments=&initiator=&acceptTC=1 AIDS in 1988] (JSTOR) [[wikipedia:Catholic_Church|Catholic Church]] (Wikipedia) [[wikipedia:Downtown_Eastside|Downtown Eastside]] (Wikipedia) [https://www.annualreviews.org/docserver/fulltext/psych/65/1/annurev-psych-010213-115057.pdf?expires=1790841225&id=id&accname=au&checksum=112378A7023548A83B7DDDA7288D0EA0 Gender Similarities and Differences] (The Annual Review of Psychology) [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/30048506.pdf?refreqid=fastly-default%3Abdd06e603789b9df6429bacfd93907fe&ab_segments=&initiator=&acceptTC=1 Human Trafficking] (JSTOR)‌ [http://cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/3EE28F1EAC9594C89B21F8E47C42D106/S0887536724000564a.pdf/is-sex-work-inherently-gendered.pdf Is Sex Work Inherently Gendered?] (Cambridge University Press) [[wikipedia:Mary_Magdalene|Mary Magdalene]] (Wikipedia) [[wikipedia:Robert_Pickton|Robert Pickton]] (Wikipedia) [[wikipedia:Sex_trafficking|Sex Trafficking]] (Wikipedia) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Sex]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Work motivation]] r9vg40fzurb18b0yqjhvxa2v44ycjpl 2836399 2836397 2026-10-07T02:27:51Z U3261376 3106964 2836399 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Sex work motivation:<br>What motivates sex work and how does this impact worker experiences?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} [[File:“Sex workers rights are human rights” - Europride 2019.jpg|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. Prostitution in Sao Paulo, Brazil]] '''What would you do if you found yourself in this scenario?''' Feeling lost and left with little money of your own, but you have to make ends meet. What will you do when you have to pay your rent? What if you have a child? Would you turn to sex work to make ends meet? If you did... would that make your rights to a safe and trustworthy work environment just disappear? Sex work itself is illegal. Having been driven to such means to make ends meet, you must register as self-employed to pay taxes, buy a house, or even just be considered an employee. [https://doi.org/10.1080/14427591.2020.1830841. (Huglstad et al., 2020)]. Sex workers rights activists proclaim that sex work is work, that they are not victims in need of help, and that they are entitled to any basic human right (see Figure 1). That in itself poses another scenario: What drives people into sex work? Is it finance and convenience? Or is it pleasure and fun? {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[Sex education|Sex]] work or [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/10.1086/324390.pdf?casa_token=lfbXJZ0pqcQAAAAA:Y2KROCBvBcyTR_OkV9GU9nGAnh5lp0VKsrro0wiLqGF_MeXybi6-z3pvrxj97OM6GMvGv6r_Zbmt_s9RvHKDiUw3JzDhAPWvsSz3uzNI4nXa_mNdM5o prostitution] is a broad topic which includes many elements of sexual activities. In 2005, Harcourt defined "prostitution, [as] the provision of sexual services for money or its equivalent," ([https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1744977/pdf/v081p00201.pdf Harcourt, 2005]). To understand sex work as a concept it is important to first understand why people may turn to sex work for an income to begin with. This topic has been discussed at nauseum however often in a negative and clouded light. As stated in The Journal of Sex Research in 2013, it wasn't until the 1990's that literature that looked into this topic stopped looking at prostitutes as "predominantly... ‘‘evil characters’’ or ‘‘sick personalities.’’" ([https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00224499.2012.696285?casa_token=wgasXeCYwFAAAAAA:0Iuwx4QzcbYP0ZAj6GISEX5oDHr4t-phuo4VUxmwfMIVjTrLXaTBhIoYpXtC9r0WaeYaxII3ObSZ Vanwesenbeeck, 2013]) and carrying a lense of ""simmering abhorrence, incomprehension, and fascination" (Vanwesenbeeck, 2013) towards these individuals. Some of the main concepts that will be unpacked below are what motivates people to go into sex work, answers are commonly, "financial, sexual, recreational motives, and coercion (i.e., [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/30048506.pdf?casa_token=pqlPp6XrnF0AAAAA:SFSvr6r_WKbLtO638dPPYk35oZFz9anPcub1Be7iUjk9AMX7a4h73yPLMJ6efSSxWVK7Az4Upc3UgohFYtht3QViGNIyTXPWCkBaY5lhRS_RGNFzUoA trafficking])" (Vanwesenbeeck, 2013), these experiences can often lead to negative workplace satisfaction. External influences like the adult entertainment industry and whorephobia can also heavily influence an individual's workplace satisfaction when working in the prostitution industry. To learn the in depth relationship between motivation to join sex work and the quality of said workplace satisfaction continue reading below! {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} '''Focus questions''' * What are the main driving forces causing people to turn to sex work? * What is the condition of work place satisfaction for sex workers? * How does whorephobia and others' actions towards sex workers effect their work place? * Do those who turn to sex work for pleasure have different experiences to those who do so for money alone? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Driving forces pushing people towards sex work == There are many driving forces that can influence someone's motivation to enter any kind of work force. Unfortunatly financial motives are often what pushes people to turn to the sex trade. Although there is evidence that some do find pleasure and positive experiences through sex work. So, those who turn to sex work for pleasure have different experiences to those who do so for money alone? === Intrinsic motivation === It would be irresponsible to look at motivation without first adressing key theories that may explain why a person would perform any behaviour. By looking at [[Intrinsic motivation|intrinsic motivational]] forces that may influence someone into the sex trade it can give a fuller explination of their actions. What internal need are they fulfilling by performing these actions? Intrinsic motivation falls under the "definition of [an] action as rewarding in itself" (Fishbach & Woolley, 2021), not nesseserily the outcome/ final goal. Although economic needs are a common factor of joining the sex trade — and is considered an extrinsically motivating factor — there is "research confirming that individuals sometimes enter this occupation for reasons of personal fulfillment" ([https://pdf.sciencedirectassets.com/271730/1-s2.0-S0925753520X00063/1-s2.0-S0925753520301922/main.pdf?X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEBEaCXVzLWVhc3QtMSJHMEUCIDrCbvs%2F7w0X0S3yCXuLyXMAVemZDC49LGi7ggPpj1wjAiEA6QCj0FxUNyErmwrB1VC%2BreVNTnWp6Ks7KsE3E7x391YqvAUI2v%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2FARAFGgwwNTkwMDM1NDY4NjUiDBNmdKhbptxvmOh4WSqQBXwnDyLbNEknRXvNDbinpDHQJUc%2FGchy79eEQNCK1aSExCTctRYZQfwSEb%2Blh%2BiqbpjqVmEmUyRYf9MjZRPISeI7qTxt6LEBsCMnLF85bPAwYdGBfemRX8rc2OUulZ8aFuPFw9ziwJVX0xGOlL5Rd1U%2FQufCATv6aU7%2FSuTu8Q89bqP6QVUlA4xPEcFnI0goxABkBfBZbPck5FgRkP65OLSbAQp%2FTwaKssf1N6S4QrpAPOLv3QqrtkKp%2BVAMRhaO9PgKBdkfLjm80Y%2FiXp4uxBeV0BPtLbJ61mFI8bUMWZu5W5sqYj%2B5UL5hcCmxXUgwRFyyoA8gE5sed%2BFUeNfW2JLXEE5Q%2BNNF55gtEwlVuknu%2Bu2wArB0x3VI3rsqxqG5xR4%2Bog7yLIJGThjLd%2BHycAsCqk103w7YpMEIYoHkSkipbn0dCSgA5ug33kze8NIuJGVOC9KI5Sql2O0g%2BXm1KkgAbUPlicrcBkhAHsm9vVLDTlqD3A2tztVsuByRGY0pYATYVpazB3ko56XjIRXCGtS0csSYOzNwf3mp5H1fSXlb%2Ftrc10dBfF%2FKu5rFoq2%2FEgSXeYfm1DKiJVUzd%2Bxx53KtVsjK87FTifPGFRQP4I%2BJ483CjmXgkOanXoyr5MGNMMpEtVjp7%2F%2FW0wSJ383dYolbBYuHMBwlfKjAAHks1xMD8VXgIG%2F6xqVG5jrxBzRSHDBeIJ8vkm6IiNvwI%2FWzkUt2wsEncVyoGFXUCwqND6hPtOkPqEgG7gLE1p17r7GSYBppEUhY4B8jyjQV%2FJ%2BWpHdTtBQnuyziu3o9rzjidaLTGmC5oxy9xnpkiQboG7dckbBDn6Rt6qKGrlXfbsVt9dZgJZds7A5TZZCUxhX%2BEL4KMPbCjdYGOrEBjBdYKKt7s3fLZAAb%2BiGijeb%2F2xjDDXXLUCBygZL%2FcKAqstp0xG22ToNSpMyp5dpak9949g%2FQkiLxNJAxuvhKSUMDRB9GWxHspz8wjagXVBuuYkLPx3pkL5ul2Zzg3usF6OVvQR%2BFA8YlnaycMT44jQbz%2FAfU3SDfSJls72IGy3l4Mh%2BjsaohXm8yVtiLd%2BLj3bqX08ml35Lp3%2BGdZe3%2BZotYzxQjGzbK7i3WdrNHOWKR&X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Date=20261005T090336Z&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&X-Amz-Expires=300&X-Amz-Credential=ASIAQ3PHCVTY2P7Y2UF6%2F20261005%2Fus-east-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Signature=94bcb1072eb8f4f5725e7945b8a9ce58dfa3e490385104eaec2eb25f622762f8&hash=212a8d38d7e3c70d0609d9375b9ee0e51905cc164ffcd1ac8b4b7e37ea99e04a&host=68042c943591013ac2b2430a89b270f6af2c76d8dfd086a07176afe7c76c2c61&pii=S0925753520301922&tid=spdf-a8772b34-02ec-4ab0-b162-7ce50de56625&sid=000ad11f535f4044542b07711eb49dbf8ff1gxrqa&type=client&tsoh=d3d3LnNjaWVuY2VkaXJlY3QuY29t&rh=d3d3LnNjaWVuY2VkaXJlY3QuY29t&ua=1b13065557075052530452&rr=a45b410e1b13f6f7&cc=au Arnold et al., 2020]) which more closly alligns into intrinsic motives. === Extrinsic motivation === Influences that effect people on an external level, or [[Extrinsic motivation|extrinsic motivations]], are influences that effect people outwardly, forces that are harder for an individual to control. A common driving factor for joining sex work, as stated above, is earning money — an outward influence. A paper published in 2021 by [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.586235/full Ernst, et al]. shows evidence to support the link between monetary needs and sex work by looking at the topic from the lense of a student in debt. === Maslow's hierarchy of needs === [[File:Maslow's hierarchy of needs.svg|thumb|290x290px|'''Figure 2'''. Maslow's Heirarchy of Needs]] Having covered the basics of what forces both internal and external drive people into the sex work industry, the lense of [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's heirarchy of needs]] – refer to Figure. 2 for reference photo – can now be applied. A. H. Maslow drew from both intrinsic and extrinsic influences when making the heirarchy of needs. However Maslow defines a difference in the prevelence of a need and states that some needs will draw motivation for action then others, fr exsmple "A person who is lacking food, safety, love, and esteem would most probably hunger for food more strongly than for anything else" (Maslow, 1987). A possible reason for those who become sex workers through external motives – needing food, water or shelter – may find themselves in more compromising positions then those who enter through intrinsic fulfilment. A study collected data over a 3 year period and focused on data collected from over 100 prostitues in Denvour Colarado, this study stated "most of whom struggle with homelessness, addiction, and compromised mental and physical health" ([https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s13178-014-0163-8.pdf Dewey & St. Germain, 2014]). Because of there place on Maslow's model, extrinsicly motivated people may be trying to go from physiological to saftey. Where as, intrinsic may be seeking love/belonging possibly leading to more positive work satisfaction then others. == How does the sex work industry differ when looking at male sex workers == {| class="wikitable" |+Percentages showing [https://www.annualreviews.org/docserver/fulltext/psych/65/1/annurev-psych-010213-115057.pdf?expires=1790841225&id=id&accname=au&checksum=112378A7023548A83B7DDDA7288D0EA0 gender differences] in paying for vs working in sex ! !Participate in sex work !Pay for sex work |- |Men |20% |12% |- |Women |80% |1% |} In past years the sex trade has been veiwed as a primerily female dominated career, though men and women to take part in the transaction of sexual favours. In 2006 a study in the netherlands concluded that "3% of both men and women in the adult population (19 to 69 years of age) reported ever having received money for sex" ([https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/19317610903425571?casa_token=sDZAxkVnpLsAAAAA:8IjuI8blrONnsvny4LV0C2Vk4C2ltfOlOt2_Kkf-G1EfBgrGwdhCLxG7959b6OAMuelLbyed8bd3 Bakker & Vanwesenbeeck, 2006]). Although both sexes take part, how does the gender divide split worker satisfaction? It is important to mention that the research of [[transgender]] individuals in the sex trade is highly limited and needs to be more heavily researched. === The difference in male sex workers === Male sex workers often get overlooked in media as well as acedemically, an "analysis of 166 social science academic articles on sex work found that a majority did not mention male sex workers" ([http://cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/3EE28F1EAC9594C89B21F8E47C42D106/S0887536724000564a.pdf/is-sex-work-inherently-gendered.pdf McKeever, 2025]). Not only does gender tell a part in this story but so does sexuality. The stigma of male sex workers was rampent during the [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/24987949.pdf?refreqid=fastly-default%3Af21bffe92b59f3868c81a7143b186da7&ab_segments=&initiator=&acceptTC=1 aids] crisis when male sex workers were seen as problamatic to spreading the disease. Older papers of male sex workers characterizes them as more faminine and rooted in homosexuality, in the 20th century they are "characterized as young, heterosexual, and innocent victims of older, predatory perverts" ([https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00224499.2012.760189?casa_token=MwObuzJvcRUAAAAA:y2bj4pT8W0FJZBr3AYul37bEqXRu_jKD8-CBJDOU1N3Z_Y4WuAixv5SF9F0RPZVeCSrD3Ew5fSl9 Minichiello et al., 2013]). The experience of male sex workers is vastly influenced by external influences (ie. gender, sexuality, clientel) however when compared to women in how they are veiwed "female but not male sex work [is] degrading, causing deep feelings of shame and remorse" ([https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s12147-008-9051-y.pdf Dennis, 2008]). Those influences also dictate the quality of male prostitutes workplace experiences and satisfation. Minichiello et al. (2013), in a paper focusing on the changes in the male sex work industry states that the "intrinsic nature of sex work is not oppressive, and that there are different kinds of worker and client experiences and varying degrees of victimization, exploitation, agency, and choice". {{Robelbox|title=Future directions|theme=5}}[[File:“Sex work is work” - Europride 2019.jpg|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. Sex work is work]] ;Where to next? Although in recent years, studies like a paper written by McKeever in 2025 titled, 'Is Sex Work Inherently Gendered?', have produced a more wholistic perspective in the research of prostitution – considering the sexes (male and female) as a factor – more research must be undertaken. Importantly from an unbiased perspective. To fully understand the stigmatised occupation, one must first have all the information from all percectives to make a truly informed oppinion. Enacting change, if warented, should be done from an unbiased party with an informed understanding of the profession.{{Robelbox/close}}<quiz display="simple"> {There are more women in the sex trade then there are men: |type="()"} - True + False {Men also experience negative stereotypes when participating in the sex trade: |type="()"} - False + True </quiz> == Whorephobia and how it influences workplace satisfaction == [https://www.jrc-concordia.ca/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/Journal-of-Religion-and-Culture-Vol-27-no-1.pdf#page=13 Whorephobia] is ever present in the line of sex work, unfavorable opinions of sex workers has influenced others' behaviour towards them as well as their treatment in their workplace. Arnold et al. in 2020 said in their paper that "on a continuum from amotivation through extrinsic to intrinsic motivation. We consider this as an individual difference variable that changes the relationship between perceived physical danger and desire to leave the sex work occupation". This study provides evidence that sex workers may change their line of work based on their perceved physical danger – tieing back into the earlier topic of Maslow's heirarchy of needs. A prostitues' workplace satisfsction heavily relies of their clientels; oppinions, behaviour, beliefs, and actions. These external factors can be influenced by whorephobia. This negative stigma has been seen throughout time and was seen in The Holy [[Bible]] when refrencing [[wikipedia:Mary_Magdalene|Mary Magdalene]] and her sexual transactions. Despite her depiction as a prostitue has been renounced by the Roman [[wikipedia:Catholic_Church|Catholic Church]], the foundation of sin was already engrained in many Catholic's mind. How does this widley held belief and stigma towards prostitutes/ sex workers effect their workplace satisfaction and saftey? === Sex trafficing === One of the downsides to prostitution and transactional sexual exchanges being illegal is there being a high demand for [[wikipedia:Sex_trafficking|sex trafficking]]. Recent studies "show that criminalization and the imposition of governmental restrictions on (otherwise legal) prostitution markets, respectively, induce exit of (voluntary) sex workers" ([https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/110505/1/MPRA_paper_110505.pdf Azam et al., 2021]) which there for produces demand of illegal sexual extortion. Sex trafficking is a social issue that spans the globe, it is the illegal sexual exploitation of individuals who are often unwilling. Individuals who are subjected to this trafficking are often coerced into participating through control over legal documents, threats of physical harm, isolation, and even legal threats. In a paper titled '<nowiki/>''Human Trafficking and Regulating Prostitution''' written by [https://www.ifn.se/media/f00drmqb/2022-lee-persson-human-trafficking-and-regulating-prostitution.pdf Lee & Persson] in 2022 speaks to the issue. Through review of past studdies they are able to succinctly infer that "coercion means that employees’ participation constraints need not be fully respected" (Lee & Persson, 2022). === Police force practices and criminalisation === A factor that historically has negativley influenced prostitutes' workplaces' saftey is the neglagence of police officers towards sex workers. In Denver Colarado "policing practices, and the legislation that informs them, criminalize women for engaging in the street-based sex work and drug use activities that make up the majority of their everyday lives" (Dewey & St. Germain, 2014). This unfortunate criminalisation of prostitues has lead to individuals who participate in sex work to take riskier actions to ensure their way of life. This criminalisation of prostitution leads to a volitile and unsafe workplace, leading to unsatisfactory workplace satisfaction. In the past, the neglegence of police officers in taking concerns into the welbeing of sex workers has directly lead to serial killings to occur. In the case of [[wikipedia:Robert_Pickton|Robert Pickton]], many prostitues who worked along [[wikipedia:Downtown_Eastside|Vancouvers Downtown Eastside]] – a location infamous for its prostitution activity with "estimated... numbers rangng in the thousands, with their drug addiction regularly posited as an explanation for their cheap tricks" ([[doi:10.29173/invoke48990|Dusome, 2020]]) – had reported that their friends/ colleuges were going missing when leaving with Pickton. If the police had take action towards Picktons' behaviuor many lives would hae been spared. Unfortunatly this is just one example of the past indifference police officers have had towards people who participate in the sex trade. In a paper published in 2018 by Platt et al. assessed in a meta-analysis of work spanning information, both qualitatinve and quantitative, collected between 1 January 1990 and 9 May 2018. This meta-analysis saw the interation between police misstreatment and the health/ quality of life of sex workers. Platt et al. states their data "showed that in contexts of criminalisation, the threat and enactment of police harassment and arrest of sex workers or their clients displaced sex workers into isolated work locations, disrupting peer support networks and service access, and limiting risk reduction opportunities" (Platt et al., 2018). This past of violence and displacement negativly impacts not only sex workers occupation, but also their general wellbeing. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}'''Real world example of the injustice of the justice system''' 'Sarah de Vries is among the women in the second set of murder charges against Pickton. A 1995 entry in her diary revealed the prostitute was aware of the dangers she faced working the streets of Downtown Eastside. "Am I next?" she wrote. "Is he watching me now? Is he stalking me like a predator and his prey? Waiting, waiting for some perfect spot, time or my stupid mistake."... It was not the first time Pickton has appeared before a judge. He was charged with attempted murder and unlawful confinement in 1997 in the case of sex worker Wendy Lynn Eistetter. She claimed she had been handcuffed and attacked at the farm, but Pickton countered he acted in self-defense and for reasons that remain unclear, the charges were dropped.' (CBS, 2007){{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Conclusion== The line of sex work is littered with personal dangers and a vast amount of extrinsic motivation. Through looking at Maslow's hierarchy of needs (Maslow, 1987) as well as scientific papers which undergo much needed research into what societal pressures push people into the prostitution industry (Dewey & St. Germain, 2014) – different motivations into sex work does have an impact on workplace satisfation. Extrinsic motivation was seen as being the most common influence to those who tur to sex work, often out of desperation. Recent research has depicted that the current condition of prostitues' workplace satisfaction is, unfortunatly, minimal. With whorephobia and predjudice towards those who turn to prostitution negatively effecting their ability to perform or safely earn money, not many are happy with their current situation (Dusome, 2020). However, research preformed by Arnold et al. in 2020 also shows that the motivations that push someone into the sex work industry can influence their workplace satisfation – regardless of the unpredictable environment they are still subjected too. Factors such as internal needs for love and connection can influence some to seek out prostitution. On the other end of the spectrum some seek sex work out as a means to make ends meet, earning enough money to get by while also putting themselves at risk. These two distinct drives have a direct impact on the quality of workplace satisfaction however these two influsences overlap and mix together in the melting pot that is the human psyche. Now having read this chapter and hopefully now having a fuller picture of what may motivate people to turn to sex work, you can make yout own informed oppinions about those who seek out this profesion. ==See also== * [[Bible]] (Wikiversity) * [[Extrinsic motivation|Extrincis motivation]] (Wikiversity) * [[Intrinsic motivation]] (Wikiversity) * [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikiversity) * [[Sex education]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Sex worker motivation|Sex work motivation]] (Book chapter, 2015) * [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.586235/full Students in the Sex Industry: Motivations, Feelings, Risks, and Judgments] (Fronteirs in Psychology) * [[Transgender]] (Wikiversity) ==References == {{Hanging indent|1=Arnold, K. A., Turner, N., Barling, J., & Iverson, R. D. (2020). Feeling safe while doing sex work: Motivation for entering sex work moderates the relationship between perceptions of physical danger and desire to leave sex work. Safety science, 129, 104795.[https://pdf.sciencedirectassets.com/271730/1-s2.0-S0925753520X00063/1-s2.0-S0925753520301922/main.pdf?X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEDgaCXVzLWVhc3QtMSJIMEYCIQDLwNUlkBLTVH2W9sUG%2FL8xBiniafqj2YjDThRYfM8j7gIhAPpb6usou%2FCfun2GlN94HXvsSkZFNyb27ndcS5LYkmOqKrIFCAEQBRoMMDU5MDAzNTQ2ODY1IgwVqu3mdLMxIbQQT4EqjwVyEzAMhHQLz8i1mRyce46T7kq8nFGMPfsWbvGbIjwD5sTztgejH2H6uoazHE3ceLn%2BHJAMU2gcjulIYqlqCSyvPuWe%2BScfjOHfBfQZnctFdUl2oWqaahIi9YzAVcTWeftoZk%2FylcCfLerGklhqD7HwVv2vZdBzsx94xmqQ1V1uUbIbAIkJ30NfSj00z1cSaUL1q96wM120kL%2By3Fd%2FYRnMyLzgn343yVJM%2BYWksKgOiezOVEa%2BhmIbNUYzcpb%2Fkcah8UWIgZWXjdLp2fZTJB2yCYbj091PqbNLxbKvPvqaCnGI%2BSTaCPpupfKIdR02m2jepxiZI8%2FZrLGy71f0vYzU%2Be120AQZZCPdjTZZAOP9xB%2Bvfpp48EyclSYmN0rSn2bZcMSiqosJl%2Bz6BiiW3J9SmbZXGNWeECGltEiG%2FP%2FRiZ0uB94c2nIGVzBsfJ4fe7UAD3mlWR9UBCT5FirlPE3Dzap%2BH1xnOe%2BGN481xmH1YSoL3FACDW8J5HUez%2BURv5vTzFDq4nON4cFWhMdgPNfu8v%2BjU35utqWccWAfsows5CFE%2FdiNDUQa7EI1XwF00wtRp2k06DjOWBl%2FggL2duXPWFHHaJnOEovHXAGzQUl%2FzBocvEbkU%2BstJU3AjUwCqbrDZRVZay0dd7OLQ6NCZTFxvZrhEoOwYukzgYt02XtXs23oNKc8QK8jPBsjSx8K1Xj9V9tPB5eBTptias5DuJnme5GPMo0H0rehhAFIbH1iz5aLEJ2WFAs2YMajNB9b8K9hsdcsufqw3IWvDgGjJl491SPFYv4AkHpfF%2B2OEEmH9hDMp3rnzv686gQ5u2%2FmSKrDsChJ2JSpJUuTnHdHBZrk%2Fwzx%2BpsfpZ4zLVgKx0K6MJOGtdQGOrAB7mHiroFpJKweD4wGdVv4twWKj65wn3ZS715WCDMXnol3ZjKerxKwtTiAS8MYNXREK5yRc6R%2BCtHqgkfO1QIL6y35fyD0iOWFO6ZYrI1IePcEupQe4Ao%2B8i5%2Bz9PydRXrVVCjz1A9o6ZcLX9dN59jVDboJOpZsOpXxuErU9LEKNKGTqVoHfJq%2FpKSdZkltmLsDvSAgBZORP2gpikUUQyl6A0CxzJ3SGD1ZrqXN39XlWY%3D&X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Date=20260825T084050Z&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&X-Amz-Expires=300&X-Amz-Credential=ASIAQ3PHCVTYZDNOMNKH%2F20260825%2Fus-east-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Signature=222054776072dd684a9220ca5e137f808570de2f4b46a74fc1fac36b8741d31e&hash=9077aea1050680fe483f80515f312051569ddf0b7a50ba90c1511bc6ef136d06&host=68042c943591013ac2b2430a89b270f6af2c76d8dfd086a07176afe7c76c2c61&pii=S0925753520301922&tid=spdf-2823bc10-4a39-4f2b-8a32-7409653a6f56&sid=6bbf6c2f3a5ff545d91b09f2929365875304gxrqa&type=client&tsoh=d3d3LnNjaWVuY2VkaXJlY3QuY29t&rh=d3d3LnNjaWVuY2VkaXJlY3QuY29t&ua=1b130057565d500d535050&rr=a3094b5109a37504&cc=au] Azam, A., Hendrickx, J., & Adriaenssens, S. (2021). Estimating the Prostitution Population in the Netherlands and Belgium: A Capture-Recapture Application to Online Data. Munich Personal RePEc Archive (MPRA). https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/110505/ ‌ Canada’s Largest-Ever Murder Trial Begins. (2007, January 22). CBS News. https://www.cbsnews.com/news/canadas-largest-ever-murder-trial-begins/ ‌ Dennis, J. P. (2008). Women are Victims, Men Make Choices: The Invisibility of Men and Boys in the Global Sex Trade. Gender Issues, 25(1), 11–25. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12147-008-9051-y ‌ Dewey, S., & St. Germain, T. (2014). “It Depends on the Cop:” Street-Based Sex Workers’ Perspectives on Police Patrol Officers. Sexuality Research and Social Policy, 11(3), 256–270. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13178-014-0163-8 ‌ Dusome, J. (2020). Lost and Forgotten: Missing and Murdered Sex Workers on Vancouver's Downtown Eastside. INVOKE, 6. Ernst, F., Romanczuk-Seiferth, N., Köhler, S., Amelung, T., & Betzler, F. (2021). Students in the sex industry: Motivations, feelings, risks, and judgments. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 586235. Fishbach, A., & Woolley, K. (2021). Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior The Structure of Intrinsic Motivation. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012420- ‌ Footer, K. H. A., White, R. H., Park, J. N., Decker, M. R., Lutnick, A., & Sherman, S. G. (2020). Entry to Sex Trade and Long-Term Vulnerabilities of Female Sex Workers Who Enter the Sex Trade Before the Age of Eighteen. Journal of Urban Health, 97(3), 406–417. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7305278/ Harcourt, C. (2005). The many faces of sex work. Sexually Transmitted Infections, 81(3), 201–206. https://doi.org/10.1136/sti.2004.012468 ‌ Huglstad, M., Halvorsen, I. L. I., Jonsson, H., & Nielsen, K. T. (2020). “Some of us actually choose to do this”: The meanings of sex work from the perspective of female sex workers in Denmark. Journal of Occupational Science, 29(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/14427591.2020.1830841. Lee, S., & Persson, P. (2022). Human Trafficking and Regulating Prostitution. American Economic Journal: Economic Policy, 14(3), 87–127. https://doi.org/10.1257/pol.20180622 ‌ Platt, L. P., Grenfell, P., Meiksin, R., Elmes, J., Sherman, S. G., Sanders, T., Mwangi, P., & Crago, A.-L. (2018). Associations between sex work laws and sex workers’ health: A systematic review and meta-analysis of quantitative and qualitative studies. PLoS Medicine, 15(12). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1002680 ‌ Vanwesenbeeck, I., Bakker, F., & Gesell, S. (2010). Sexual Health in the Netherlands: Main Results of a Population Survey Among Dutch Adults. International Journal of Sexual Health, 22(2), 55–71. https://doi.org/10.1080/19317610903425571 ‌ Vanwesenbeeck, I. (2013). Prostitution push and pull: Male and female perspectives. Journal of Sex Research, 50(1), 11-16. Maslow, A., & Lewis, K. J. (1987). Maslow's hierarchy of needs. Salenger Incorporated, 14(17), 987-990. https://www.justiceacademy.am/assets/uploads/Maslow.pdf McNamara, R. (2016). The trouble with whorephobia. Journal of Religion and Culture, 27(1), 13-34. McKeever, N. (2025). Is Sex Work Inherently Gendered? Hypatia, 40(3), 633–652. doi:10.1017/hyp.2024.56 ‌Redwood, R. (2018). Myths and Realities of Male Sex Work. Red light labour: Sex work regulation, agency, and resistance, 167-180.[https://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&lr=&id=8GJoDwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA167&dq=Myths+and+Realities+of+Male+Sex+Work&ots=mQOUglmuLU&sig=XHi0ybe124LABeHMulfVUMeYsxw#v=onepage&q=Myths%20and%20Realities%20of%20Male%20Sex%20Work&f=false] Sex worker - Wikipedia. (2023). Wikipedia.Org. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sex_worker}} ==External links== [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/10.1086/324390.pdf?casa_token=lfbXJZ0pqcQAAAAA:Y2KROCBvBcyTR_OkV9GU9nGAnh5lp0VKsrro0wiLqGF_MeXybi6-z3pvrxj97OM6GMvGv6r_Zbmt_s9RvHKDiUw3JzDhAPWvsSz3uzNI4nXa_mNdM5o A Theory of Prostitution] (The University of Chicago Press) [https://www.cdc.gov/sexual-violence/about/about-sex-trafficking.html About Sex Trafficing] (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention) [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/24987949.pdf?refreqid=fastly-default%3Af21bffe92b59f3868c81a7143b186da7&ab_segments=&initiator=&acceptTC=1 AIDS in 1988] (JSTOR) [[wikipedia:Catholic_Church|Catholic Church]] (Wikipedia) [[wikipedia:Downtown_Eastside|Downtown Eastside]] (Wikipedia) [https://www.annualreviews.org/docserver/fulltext/psych/65/1/annurev-psych-010213-115057.pdf?expires=1790841225&id=id&accname=au&checksum=112378A7023548A83B7DDDA7288D0EA0 Gender Similarities and Differences] (The Annual Review of Psychology) [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/30048506.pdf?refreqid=fastly-default%3Abdd06e603789b9df6429bacfd93907fe&ab_segments=&initiator=&acceptTC=1 Human Trafficking] (JSTOR)‌ [http://cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/3EE28F1EAC9594C89B21F8E47C42D106/S0887536724000564a.pdf/is-sex-work-inherently-gendered.pdf Is Sex Work Inherently Gendered?] (Cambridge University Press) [[wikipedia:Mary_Magdalene|Mary Magdalene]] (Wikipedia) [[wikipedia:Robert_Pickton|Robert Pickton]] (Wikipedia) [[wikipedia:Sex_trafficking|Sex Trafficking]] (Wikipedia) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Sex]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Work motivation]] qfcjx08xkewwq13rs0w6im7i94g9v6u 2836400 2836399 2026-10-07T02:28:24Z U3261376 3106964 2836400 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Sex work motivation:<br>What motivates sex work and how does this impact worker experiences?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} [[File:“Sex workers rights are human rights” - Europride 2019.jpg|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. Prostitution in Sao Paulo, Brazil]] '''What would you do if you found yourself in this scenario?''' Feeling lost and left with little money of your own, but you have to make ends meet. What will you do when you have to pay your rent? What if you have a child? Would you turn to sex work to make ends meet? If you did... would that make your rights to a safe and trustworthy work environment just disappear? Sex work itself is illegal. Having been driven to such means to make ends meet, you must register as self-employed to pay taxes, buy a house, or even just be considered an employee. [https://doi.org/10.1080/14427591.2020.1830841. (Huglstad et al., 2020)]. Sex workers rights activists proclaim that sex work is work, that they are not victims in need of help, and that they are entitled to any basic human right (see Figure 1). That in itself poses another scenario: What drives people into sex work? Is it finance and convenience? Or is it pleasure and fun? {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[Sex education|Sex]] work or [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/10.1086/324390.pdf?casa_token=lfbXJZ0pqcQAAAAA:Y2KROCBvBcyTR_OkV9GU9nGAnh5lp0VKsrro0wiLqGF_MeXybi6-z3pvrxj97OM6GMvGv6r_Zbmt_s9RvHKDiUw3JzDhAPWvsSz3uzNI4nXa_mNdM5o prostitution] is a broad topic which includes many elements of sexual activities. In 2005, Harcourt defined "prostitution, [as] the provision of sexual services for money or its equivalent," ([https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1744977/pdf/v081p00201.pdf Harcourt, 2005]). To understand sex work as a concept it is important to first understand why people may turn to sex work for an income to begin with. This topic has been discussed at nauseum however often in a negative and clouded light. As stated in The Journal of Sex Research in 2013, it wasn't until the 1990's that literature that looked into this topic stopped looking at prostitutes as "predominantly... ‘‘evil characters’’ or ‘‘sick personalities.’’" ([https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00224499.2012.696285?casa_token=wgasXeCYwFAAAAAA:0Iuwx4QzcbYP0ZAj6GISEX5oDHr4t-phuo4VUxmwfMIVjTrLXaTBhIoYpXtC9r0WaeYaxII3ObSZ Vanwesenbeeck, 2013]) and carrying a lense of ""simmering abhorrence, incomprehension, and fascination" (Vanwesenbeeck, 2013) towards these individuals. Some of the main concepts that will be unpacked below are what motivates people to go into sex work, answers are commonly, "financial, sexual, recreational motives, and coercion (i.e., [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/30048506.pdf?casa_token=pqlPp6XrnF0AAAAA:SFSvr6r_WKbLtO638dPPYk35oZFz9anPcub1Be7iUjk9AMX7a4h73yPLMJ6efSSxWVK7Az4Upc3UgohFYtht3QViGNIyTXPWCkBaY5lhRS_RGNFzUoA trafficking])" (Vanwesenbeeck, 2013), these experiences can often lead to negative workplace satisfaction. External influences like the adult entertainment industry and whorephobia can also heavily influence an individual's workplace satisfaction when working in the prostitution industry. To learn the in depth relationship between motivation to join sex work and the quality of said workplace satisfaction continue reading below! {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} '''Focus questions''' * What are the main driving forces causing people to turn to sex work? * What is the condition of work place satisfaction for sex workers? * How does whorephobia and others' actions towards sex workers effect their work place? * Do those who turn to sex work for pleasure have different experiences to those who do so for money alone? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Driving forces pushing people towards sex work == There are many driving forces that can influence someone's motivation to enter any kind of work force. Unfortunatly financial motives are often what pushes people to turn to the sex trade. Although there is evidence that some do find pleasure and positive experiences through sex work. So, those who turn to sex work for pleasure have different experiences to those who do so for money alone? === Intrinsic motivation === It would be irresponsible to look at motivation without first adressing key theories that may explain why a person would perform any behaviour. By looking at [[Intrinsic motivation|intrinsic motivational]] forces that may influence someone into the sex trade it can give a fuller explination of their actions. What internal need are they fulfilling by performing these actions? Intrinsic motivation falls under the "definition of [an] action as rewarding in itself" (Fishbach & Woolley, 2021), not nesseserily the outcome/ final goal. Although economic needs are a common factor of joining the sex trade — and is considered an extrinsically motivating factor — there is "research confirming that individuals sometimes enter this occupation for reasons of personal fulfillment" ([https://pdf.sciencedirectassets.com/271730/1-s2.0-S0925753520X00063/1-s2.0-S0925753520301922/main.pdf?X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEBEaCXVzLWVhc3QtMSJHMEUCIDrCbvs%2F7w0X0S3yCXuLyXMAVemZDC49LGi7ggPpj1wjAiEA6QCj0FxUNyErmwrB1VC%2BreVNTnWp6Ks7KsE3E7x391YqvAUI2v%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2FARAFGgwwNTkwMDM1NDY4NjUiDBNmdKhbptxvmOh4WSqQBXwnDyLbNEknRXvNDbinpDHQJUc%2FGchy79eEQNCK1aSExCTctRYZQfwSEb%2Blh%2BiqbpjqVmEmUyRYf9MjZRPISeI7qTxt6LEBsCMnLF85bPAwYdGBfemRX8rc2OUulZ8aFuPFw9ziwJVX0xGOlL5Rd1U%2FQufCATv6aU7%2FSuTu8Q89bqP6QVUlA4xPEcFnI0goxABkBfBZbPck5FgRkP65OLSbAQp%2FTwaKssf1N6S4QrpAPOLv3QqrtkKp%2BVAMRhaO9PgKBdkfLjm80Y%2FiXp4uxBeV0BPtLbJ61mFI8bUMWZu5W5sqYj%2B5UL5hcCmxXUgwRFyyoA8gE5sed%2BFUeNfW2JLXEE5Q%2BNNF55gtEwlVuknu%2Bu2wArB0x3VI3rsqxqG5xR4%2Bog7yLIJGThjLd%2BHycAsCqk103w7YpMEIYoHkSkipbn0dCSgA5ug33kze8NIuJGVOC9KI5Sql2O0g%2BXm1KkgAbUPlicrcBkhAHsm9vVLDTlqD3A2tztVsuByRGY0pYATYVpazB3ko56XjIRXCGtS0csSYOzNwf3mp5H1fSXlb%2Ftrc10dBfF%2FKu5rFoq2%2FEgSXeYfm1DKiJVUzd%2Bxx53KtVsjK87FTifPGFRQP4I%2BJ483CjmXgkOanXoyr5MGNMMpEtVjp7%2F%2FW0wSJ383dYolbBYuHMBwlfKjAAHks1xMD8VXgIG%2F6xqVG5jrxBzRSHDBeIJ8vkm6IiNvwI%2FWzkUt2wsEncVyoGFXUCwqND6hPtOkPqEgG7gLE1p17r7GSYBppEUhY4B8jyjQV%2FJ%2BWpHdTtBQnuyziu3o9rzjidaLTGmC5oxy9xnpkiQboG7dckbBDn6Rt6qKGrlXfbsVt9dZgJZds7A5TZZCUxhX%2BEL4KMPbCjdYGOrEBjBdYKKt7s3fLZAAb%2BiGijeb%2F2xjDDXXLUCBygZL%2FcKAqstp0xG22ToNSpMyp5dpak9949g%2FQkiLxNJAxuvhKSUMDRB9GWxHspz8wjagXVBuuYkLPx3pkL5ul2Zzg3usF6OVvQR%2BFA8YlnaycMT44jQbz%2FAfU3SDfSJls72IGy3l4Mh%2BjsaohXm8yVtiLd%2BLj3bqX08ml35Lp3%2BGdZe3%2BZotYzxQjGzbK7i3WdrNHOWKR&X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Date=20261005T090336Z&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&X-Amz-Expires=300&X-Amz-Credential=ASIAQ3PHCVTY2P7Y2UF6%2F20261005%2Fus-east-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Signature=94bcb1072eb8f4f5725e7945b8a9ce58dfa3e490385104eaec2eb25f622762f8&hash=212a8d38d7e3c70d0609d9375b9ee0e51905cc164ffcd1ac8b4b7e37ea99e04a&host=68042c943591013ac2b2430a89b270f6af2c76d8dfd086a07176afe7c76c2c61&pii=S0925753520301922&tid=spdf-a8772b34-02ec-4ab0-b162-7ce50de56625&sid=000ad11f535f4044542b07711eb49dbf8ff1gxrqa&type=client&tsoh=d3d3LnNjaWVuY2VkaXJlY3QuY29t&rh=d3d3LnNjaWVuY2VkaXJlY3QuY29t&ua=1b13065557075052530452&rr=a45b410e1b13f6f7&cc=au Arnold et al., 2020]) which more closly alligns into intrinsic motives. === Extrinsic motivation === Influences that effect people on an external level, or [[Extrinsic motivation|extrinsic motivations]], are influences that effect people outwardly, forces that are harder for an individual to control. A common driving factor for joining sex work, as stated above, is earning money — an outward influence. A paper published in 2021 by [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.586235/full Ernst, et al]. shows evidence to support the link between monetary needs and sex work by looking at the topic from the lense of a student in debt. === Maslow's hierarchy of needs === [[File:Maslow's hierarchy of needs.svg|thumb|290x290px|'''Figure 2'''. Maslow's Heirarchy of Needs]] Having covered the basics of what forces both internal and external drive people into the sex work industry, the lense of [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's heirarchy of needs]] – refer to Figure. 2 for reference photo – can now be applied. A. H. Maslow drew from both intrinsic and extrinsic influences when making the heirarchy of needs. However Maslow defines a difference in the prevelence of a need and states that some needs will draw motivation for action then others, fr exsmple "A person who is lacking food, safety, love, and esteem would most probably hunger for food more strongly than for anything else" (Maslow, 1987). A possible reason for those who become sex workers through external motives – needing food, water or shelter – may find themselves in more compromising positions then those who enter through intrinsic fulfilment. A study collected data over a 3 year period and focused on data collected from over 100 prostitues in Denvour Colarado, this study stated "most of whom struggle with homelessness, addiction, and compromised mental and physical health" ([https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s13178-014-0163-8.pdf Dewey & St. Germain, 2014]). Because of there place on Maslow's model, extrinsicly motivated people may be trying to go from physiological to saftey. Where as, intrinsic may be seeking love/belonging possibly leading to more positive work satisfaction then others. == How does the sex work industry differ when looking at male sex workers == {| class="wikitable" |+Percentages showing [https://www.annualreviews.org/docserver/fulltext/psych/65/1/annurev-psych-010213-115057.pdf?expires=1790841225&id=id&accname=au&checksum=112378A7023548A83B7DDDA7288D0EA0 gender differences] in paying for vs working in sex ! !Participate in sex work !Pay for sex work |- |Men |20% |12% |- |Women |80% |1% |} In past years the sex trade has been veiwed as a primerily female dominated career, though men and women to take part in the transaction of sexual favours. In 2006 a study in the netherlands concluded that "3% of both men and women in the adult population (19 to 69 years of age) reported ever having received money for sex" ([https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/19317610903425571?casa_token=sDZAxkVnpLsAAAAA:8IjuI8blrONnsvny4LV0C2Vk4C2ltfOlOt2_Kkf-G1EfBgrGwdhCLxG7959b6OAMuelLbyed8bd3 Bakker & Vanwesenbeeck, 2006]). Although both sexes take part, how does the gender divide split worker satisfaction? It is important to mention that the research of [[transgender]] individuals in the sex trade is highly limited and needs to be more heavily researched. === The difference in male sex workers === Male sex workers often get overlooked in media as well as acedemically, an "analysis of 166 social science academic articles on sex work found that a majority did not mention male sex workers" ([http://cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/3EE28F1EAC9594C89B21F8E47C42D106/S0887536724000564a.pdf/is-sex-work-inherently-gendered.pdf McKeever, 2025]). Not only does gender tell a part in this story but so does sexuality. The stigma of male sex workers was rampent during the [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/24987949.pdf?refreqid=fastly-default%3Af21bffe92b59f3868c81a7143b186da7&ab_segments=&initiator=&acceptTC=1 aids] crisis when male sex workers were seen as problamatic to spreading the disease. Older papers of male sex workers characterizes them as more faminine and rooted in homosexuality, in the 20th century they are "characterized as young, heterosexual, and innocent victims of older, predatory perverts" ([https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00224499.2012.760189?casa_token=MwObuzJvcRUAAAAA:y2bj4pT8W0FJZBr3AYul37bEqXRu_jKD8-CBJDOU1N3Z_Y4WuAixv5SF9F0RPZVeCSrD3Ew5fSl9 Minichiello et al., 2013]). The experience of male sex workers is vastly influenced by external influences (ie. gender, sexuality, clientel) however when compared to women in how they are veiwed "female but not male sex work [is] degrading, causing deep feelings of shame and remorse" ([https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s12147-008-9051-y.pdf Dennis, 2008]). Those influences also dictate the quality of male prostitutes workplace experiences and satisfation. Minichiello et al. (2013), in a paper focusing on the changes in the male sex work industry states that the "intrinsic nature of sex work is not oppressive, and that there are different kinds of worker and client experiences and varying degrees of victimization, exploitation, agency, and choice". <quiz display="simple"> {There are more women in the sex trade then there are men: |type="()"} - True + False {Men also experience negative stereotypes when participating in the sex trade: |type="()"} - False + True </quiz>{{Robelbox|title=Future directions|theme=5}}[[File:“Sex work is work” - Europride 2019.jpg|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. Sex work is work]] ;Where to next? Although in recent years, studies like a paper written by McKeever in 2025 titled, 'Is Sex Work Inherently Gendered?', have produced a more wholistic perspective in the research of prostitution – considering the sexes (male and female) as a factor – more research must be undertaken. Importantly from an unbiased perspective. To fully understand the stigmatised occupation, one must first have all the information from all percectives to make a truly informed oppinion. Enacting change, if warented, should be done from an unbiased party with an informed understanding of the profession.{{Robelbox/close}} == Whorephobia and how it influences workplace satisfaction == [https://www.jrc-concordia.ca/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/Journal-of-Religion-and-Culture-Vol-27-no-1.pdf#page=13 Whorephobia] is ever present in the line of sex work, unfavorable opinions of sex workers has influenced others' behaviour towards them as well as their treatment in their workplace. Arnold et al. in 2020 said in their paper that "on a continuum from amotivation through extrinsic to intrinsic motivation. We consider this as an individual difference variable that changes the relationship between perceived physical danger and desire to leave the sex work occupation". This study provides evidence that sex workers may change their line of work based on their perceved physical danger – tieing back into the earlier topic of Maslow's heirarchy of needs. A prostitues' workplace satisfsction heavily relies of their clientels; oppinions, behaviour, beliefs, and actions. These external factors can be influenced by whorephobia. This negative stigma has been seen throughout time and was seen in The Holy [[Bible]] when refrencing [[wikipedia:Mary_Magdalene|Mary Magdalene]] and her sexual transactions. Despite her depiction as a prostitue has been renounced by the Roman [[wikipedia:Catholic_Church|Catholic Church]], the foundation of sin was already engrained in many Catholic's mind. How does this widley held belief and stigma towards prostitutes/ sex workers effect their workplace satisfaction and saftey? === Sex trafficing === One of the downsides to prostitution and transactional sexual exchanges being illegal is there being a high demand for [[wikipedia:Sex_trafficking|sex trafficking]]. Recent studies "show that criminalization and the imposition of governmental restrictions on (otherwise legal) prostitution markets, respectively, induce exit of (voluntary) sex workers" ([https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/110505/1/MPRA_paper_110505.pdf Azam et al., 2021]) which there for produces demand of illegal sexual extortion. Sex trafficking is a social issue that spans the globe, it is the illegal sexual exploitation of individuals who are often unwilling. Individuals who are subjected to this trafficking are often coerced into participating through control over legal documents, threats of physical harm, isolation, and even legal threats. In a paper titled '<nowiki/>''Human Trafficking and Regulating Prostitution''' written by [https://www.ifn.se/media/f00drmqb/2022-lee-persson-human-trafficking-and-regulating-prostitution.pdf Lee & Persson] in 2022 speaks to the issue. Through review of past studdies they are able to succinctly infer that "coercion means that employees’ participation constraints need not be fully respected" (Lee & Persson, 2022). === Police force practices and criminalisation === A factor that historically has negativley influenced prostitutes' workplaces' saftey is the neglagence of police officers towards sex workers. In Denver Colarado "policing practices, and the legislation that informs them, criminalize women for engaging in the street-based sex work and drug use activities that make up the majority of their everyday lives" (Dewey & St. Germain, 2014). This unfortunate criminalisation of prostitues has lead to individuals who participate in sex work to take riskier actions to ensure their way of life. This criminalisation of prostitution leads to a volitile and unsafe workplace, leading to unsatisfactory workplace satisfaction. In the past, the neglegence of police officers in taking concerns into the welbeing of sex workers has directly lead to serial killings to occur. In the case of [[wikipedia:Robert_Pickton|Robert Pickton]], many prostitues who worked along [[wikipedia:Downtown_Eastside|Vancouvers Downtown Eastside]] – a location infamous for its prostitution activity with "estimated... numbers rangng in the thousands, with their drug addiction regularly posited as an explanation for their cheap tricks" ([[doi:10.29173/invoke48990|Dusome, 2020]]) – had reported that their friends/ colleuges were going missing when leaving with Pickton. If the police had take action towards Picktons' behaviuor many lives would hae been spared. Unfortunatly this is just one example of the past indifference police officers have had towards people who participate in the sex trade. In a paper published in 2018 by Platt et al. assessed in a meta-analysis of work spanning information, both qualitatinve and quantitative, collected between 1 January 1990 and 9 May 2018. This meta-analysis saw the interation between police misstreatment and the health/ quality of life of sex workers. Platt et al. states their data "showed that in contexts of criminalisation, the threat and enactment of police harassment and arrest of sex workers or their clients displaced sex workers into isolated work locations, disrupting peer support networks and service access, and limiting risk reduction opportunities" (Platt et al., 2018). This past of violence and displacement negativly impacts not only sex workers occupation, but also their general wellbeing. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}'''Real world example of the injustice of the justice system''' 'Sarah de Vries is among the women in the second set of murder charges against Pickton. A 1995 entry in her diary revealed the prostitute was aware of the dangers she faced working the streets of Downtown Eastside. "Am I next?" she wrote. "Is he watching me now? Is he stalking me like a predator and his prey? Waiting, waiting for some perfect spot, time or my stupid mistake."... It was not the first time Pickton has appeared before a judge. He was charged with attempted murder and unlawful confinement in 1997 in the case of sex worker Wendy Lynn Eistetter. She claimed she had been handcuffed and attacked at the farm, but Pickton countered he acted in self-defense and for reasons that remain unclear, the charges were dropped.' (CBS, 2007){{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Conclusion== The line of sex work is littered with personal dangers and a vast amount of extrinsic motivation. Through looking at Maslow's hierarchy of needs (Maslow, 1987) as well as scientific papers which undergo much needed research into what societal pressures push people into the prostitution industry (Dewey & St. Germain, 2014) – different motivations into sex work does have an impact on workplace satisfation. Extrinsic motivation was seen as being the most common influence to those who tur to sex work, often out of desperation. Recent research has depicted that the current condition of prostitues' workplace satisfaction is, unfortunatly, minimal. With whorephobia and predjudice towards those who turn to prostitution negatively effecting their ability to perform or safely earn money, not many are happy with their current situation (Dusome, 2020). However, research preformed by Arnold et al. in 2020 also shows that the motivations that push someone into the sex work industry can influence their workplace satisfation – regardless of the unpredictable environment they are still subjected too. Factors such as internal needs for love and connection can influence some to seek out prostitution. On the other end of the spectrum some seek sex work out as a means to make ends meet, earning enough money to get by while also putting themselves at risk. These two distinct drives have a direct impact on the quality of workplace satisfaction however these two influsences overlap and mix together in the melting pot that is the human psyche. Now having read this chapter and hopefully now having a fuller picture of what may motivate people to turn to sex work, you can make yout own informed oppinions about those who seek out this profesion. ==See also== * [[Bible]] (Wikiversity) * [[Extrinsic motivation|Extrincis motivation]] (Wikiversity) * [[Intrinsic motivation]] (Wikiversity) * [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikiversity) * [[Sex education]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Sex worker motivation|Sex work motivation]] (Book chapter, 2015) * [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.586235/full Students in the Sex Industry: Motivations, Feelings, Risks, and Judgments] (Fronteirs in Psychology) * [[Transgender]] (Wikiversity) ==References == {{Hanging indent|1=Arnold, K. A., Turner, N., Barling, J., & Iverson, R. D. (2020). Feeling safe while doing sex work: Motivation for entering sex work moderates the relationship between perceptions of physical danger and desire to leave sex work. Safety science, 129, 104795.[https://pdf.sciencedirectassets.com/271730/1-s2.0-S0925753520X00063/1-s2.0-S0925753520301922/main.pdf?X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEDgaCXVzLWVhc3QtMSJIMEYCIQDLwNUlkBLTVH2W9sUG%2FL8xBiniafqj2YjDThRYfM8j7gIhAPpb6usou%2FCfun2GlN94HXvsSkZFNyb27ndcS5LYkmOqKrIFCAEQBRoMMDU5MDAzNTQ2ODY1IgwVqu3mdLMxIbQQT4EqjwVyEzAMhHQLz8i1mRyce46T7kq8nFGMPfsWbvGbIjwD5sTztgejH2H6uoazHE3ceLn%2BHJAMU2gcjulIYqlqCSyvPuWe%2BScfjOHfBfQZnctFdUl2oWqaahIi9YzAVcTWeftoZk%2FylcCfLerGklhqD7HwVv2vZdBzsx94xmqQ1V1uUbIbAIkJ30NfSj00z1cSaUL1q96wM120kL%2By3Fd%2FYRnMyLzgn343yVJM%2BYWksKgOiezOVEa%2BhmIbNUYzcpb%2Fkcah8UWIgZWXjdLp2fZTJB2yCYbj091PqbNLxbKvPvqaCnGI%2BSTaCPpupfKIdR02m2jepxiZI8%2FZrLGy71f0vYzU%2Be120AQZZCPdjTZZAOP9xB%2Bvfpp48EyclSYmN0rSn2bZcMSiqosJl%2Bz6BiiW3J9SmbZXGNWeECGltEiG%2FP%2FRiZ0uB94c2nIGVzBsfJ4fe7UAD3mlWR9UBCT5FirlPE3Dzap%2BH1xnOe%2BGN481xmH1YSoL3FACDW8J5HUez%2BURv5vTzFDq4nON4cFWhMdgPNfu8v%2BjU35utqWccWAfsows5CFE%2FdiNDUQa7EI1XwF00wtRp2k06DjOWBl%2FggL2duXPWFHHaJnOEovHXAGzQUl%2FzBocvEbkU%2BstJU3AjUwCqbrDZRVZay0dd7OLQ6NCZTFxvZrhEoOwYukzgYt02XtXs23oNKc8QK8jPBsjSx8K1Xj9V9tPB5eBTptias5DuJnme5GPMo0H0rehhAFIbH1iz5aLEJ2WFAs2YMajNB9b8K9hsdcsufqw3IWvDgGjJl491SPFYv4AkHpfF%2B2OEEmH9hDMp3rnzv686gQ5u2%2FmSKrDsChJ2JSpJUuTnHdHBZrk%2Fwzx%2BpsfpZ4zLVgKx0K6MJOGtdQGOrAB7mHiroFpJKweD4wGdVv4twWKj65wn3ZS715WCDMXnol3ZjKerxKwtTiAS8MYNXREK5yRc6R%2BCtHqgkfO1QIL6y35fyD0iOWFO6ZYrI1IePcEupQe4Ao%2B8i5%2Bz9PydRXrVVCjz1A9o6ZcLX9dN59jVDboJOpZsOpXxuErU9LEKNKGTqVoHfJq%2FpKSdZkltmLsDvSAgBZORP2gpikUUQyl6A0CxzJ3SGD1ZrqXN39XlWY%3D&X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Date=20260825T084050Z&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&X-Amz-Expires=300&X-Amz-Credential=ASIAQ3PHCVTYZDNOMNKH%2F20260825%2Fus-east-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Signature=222054776072dd684a9220ca5e137f808570de2f4b46a74fc1fac36b8741d31e&hash=9077aea1050680fe483f80515f312051569ddf0b7a50ba90c1511bc6ef136d06&host=68042c943591013ac2b2430a89b270f6af2c76d8dfd086a07176afe7c76c2c61&pii=S0925753520301922&tid=spdf-2823bc10-4a39-4f2b-8a32-7409653a6f56&sid=6bbf6c2f3a5ff545d91b09f2929365875304gxrqa&type=client&tsoh=d3d3LnNjaWVuY2VkaXJlY3QuY29t&rh=d3d3LnNjaWVuY2VkaXJlY3QuY29t&ua=1b130057565d500d535050&rr=a3094b5109a37504&cc=au] Azam, A., Hendrickx, J., & Adriaenssens, S. 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Students in the sex industry: Motivations, feelings, risks, and judgments. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 586235. Fishbach, A., & Woolley, K. (2021). Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior The Structure of Intrinsic Motivation. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012420- ‌ Footer, K. H. A., White, R. H., Park, J. N., Decker, M. R., Lutnick, A., & Sherman, S. G. (2020). Entry to Sex Trade and Long-Term Vulnerabilities of Female Sex Workers Who Enter the Sex Trade Before the Age of Eighteen. Journal of Urban Health, 97(3), 406–417. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7305278/ Harcourt, C. (2005). The many faces of sex work. Sexually Transmitted Infections, 81(3), 201–206. https://doi.org/10.1136/sti.2004.012468 ‌ Huglstad, M., Halvorsen, I. L. I., Jonsson, H., & Nielsen, K. T. (2020). “Some of us actually choose to do this”: The meanings of sex work from the perspective of female sex workers in Denmark. Journal of Occupational Science, 29(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/14427591.2020.1830841. Lee, S., & Persson, P. (2022). Human Trafficking and Regulating Prostitution. American Economic Journal: Economic Policy, 14(3), 87–127. https://doi.org/10.1257/pol.20180622 ‌ Platt, L. P., Grenfell, P., Meiksin, R., Elmes, J., Sherman, S. G., Sanders, T., Mwangi, P., & Crago, A.-L. (2018). Associations between sex work laws and sex workers’ health: A systematic review and meta-analysis of quantitative and qualitative studies. PLoS Medicine, 15(12). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1002680 ‌ Vanwesenbeeck, I., Bakker, F., & Gesell, S. (2010). Sexual Health in the Netherlands: Main Results of a Population Survey Among Dutch Adults. International Journal of Sexual Health, 22(2), 55–71. https://doi.org/10.1080/19317610903425571 ‌ Vanwesenbeeck, I. (2013). Prostitution push and pull: Male and female perspectives. Journal of Sex Research, 50(1), 11-16. Maslow, A., & Lewis, K. J. (1987). Maslow's hierarchy of needs. Salenger Incorporated, 14(17), 987-990. https://www.justiceacademy.am/assets/uploads/Maslow.pdf McNamara, R. (2016). The trouble with whorephobia. Journal of Religion and Culture, 27(1), 13-34. McKeever, N. (2025). Is Sex Work Inherently Gendered? Hypatia, 40(3), 633–652. doi:10.1017/hyp.2024.56 ‌Redwood, R. (2018). Myths and Realities of Male Sex Work. Red light labour: Sex work regulation, agency, and resistance, 167-180.[https://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&lr=&id=8GJoDwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA167&dq=Myths+and+Realities+of+Male+Sex+Work&ots=mQOUglmuLU&sig=XHi0ybe124LABeHMulfVUMeYsxw#v=onepage&q=Myths%20and%20Realities%20of%20Male%20Sex%20Work&f=false] Sex worker - Wikipedia. (2023). Wikipedia.Org. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sex_worker}} ==External links== [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/10.1086/324390.pdf?casa_token=lfbXJZ0pqcQAAAAA:Y2KROCBvBcyTR_OkV9GU9nGAnh5lp0VKsrro0wiLqGF_MeXybi6-z3pvrxj97OM6GMvGv6r_Zbmt_s9RvHKDiUw3JzDhAPWvsSz3uzNI4nXa_mNdM5o A Theory of Prostitution] (The University of Chicago Press) [https://www.cdc.gov/sexual-violence/about/about-sex-trafficking.html About Sex Trafficing] (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention) [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/24987949.pdf?refreqid=fastly-default%3Af21bffe92b59f3868c81a7143b186da7&ab_segments=&initiator=&acceptTC=1 AIDS in 1988] (JSTOR) [[wikipedia:Catholic_Church|Catholic Church]] (Wikipedia) [[wikipedia:Downtown_Eastside|Downtown Eastside]] (Wikipedia) [https://www.annualreviews.org/docserver/fulltext/psych/65/1/annurev-psych-010213-115057.pdf?expires=1790841225&id=id&accname=au&checksum=112378A7023548A83B7DDDA7288D0EA0 Gender Similarities and Differences] (The Annual Review of Psychology) [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/30048506.pdf?refreqid=fastly-default%3Abdd06e603789b9df6429bacfd93907fe&ab_segments=&initiator=&acceptTC=1 Human Trafficking] (JSTOR)‌ [http://cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/3EE28F1EAC9594C89B21F8E47C42D106/S0887536724000564a.pdf/is-sex-work-inherently-gendered.pdf Is Sex Work Inherently Gendered?] (Cambridge University Press) [[wikipedia:Mary_Magdalene|Mary Magdalene]] (Wikipedia) [[wikipedia:Robert_Pickton|Robert Pickton]] (Wikipedia) [[wikipedia:Sex_trafficking|Sex Trafficking]] (Wikipedia) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Sex]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Work motivation]] m8olg4acei3ug480qfmc917pcpvsog4 2836401 2836400 2026-10-07T02:29:08Z U3261376 3106964 2836401 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Sex work motivation:<br>What motivates sex work and how does this impact worker experiences?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} [[File:“Sex workers rights are human rights” - Europride 2019.jpg|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. Prostitution in Sao Paulo, Brazil]] '''What would you do if you found yourself in this scenario?''' Feeling lost and left with little money of your own, but you have to make ends meet. What will you do when you have to pay your rent? What if you have a child? Would you turn to sex work to make ends meet? If you did... would that make your rights to a safe and trustworthy work environment just disappear? Sex work itself is illegal. Having been driven to such means to make ends meet, you must register as self-employed to pay taxes, buy a house, or even just be considered an employee. [https://doi.org/10.1080/14427591.2020.1830841. (Huglstad et al., 2020)]. Sex workers rights activists proclaim that sex work is work, that they are not victims in need of help, and that they are entitled to any basic human right (see Figure 1). That in itself poses another scenario: What drives people into sex work? Is it finance and convenience? Or is it pleasure and fun? {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[Sex education|Sex]] work or [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/10.1086/324390.pdf?casa_token=lfbXJZ0pqcQAAAAA:Y2KROCBvBcyTR_OkV9GU9nGAnh5lp0VKsrro0wiLqGF_MeXybi6-z3pvrxj97OM6GMvGv6r_Zbmt_s9RvHKDiUw3JzDhAPWvsSz3uzNI4nXa_mNdM5o prostitution] is a broad topic which includes many elements of sexual activities. In 2005, Harcourt defined "prostitution, [as] the provision of sexual services for money or its equivalent," ([https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1744977/pdf/v081p00201.pdf Harcourt, 2005]). To understand sex work as a concept it is important to first understand why people may turn to sex work for an income to begin with. This topic has been discussed at nauseum however often in a negative and clouded light. As stated in The Journal of Sex Research in 2013, it wasn't until the 1990's that literature that looked into this topic stopped looking at prostitutes as "predominantly... ‘‘evil characters’’ or ‘‘sick personalities.’’" ([https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00224499.2012.696285?casa_token=wgasXeCYwFAAAAAA:0Iuwx4QzcbYP0ZAj6GISEX5oDHr4t-phuo4VUxmwfMIVjTrLXaTBhIoYpXtC9r0WaeYaxII3ObSZ Vanwesenbeeck, 2013]) and carrying a lense of ""simmering abhorrence, incomprehension, and fascination" (Vanwesenbeeck, 2013) towards these individuals. Some of the main concepts that will be unpacked below are what motivates people to go into sex work, answers are commonly, "financial, sexual, recreational motives, and coercion (i.e., [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/30048506.pdf?casa_token=pqlPp6XrnF0AAAAA:SFSvr6r_WKbLtO638dPPYk35oZFz9anPcub1Be7iUjk9AMX7a4h73yPLMJ6efSSxWVK7Az4Upc3UgohFYtht3QViGNIyTXPWCkBaY5lhRS_RGNFzUoA trafficking])" (Vanwesenbeeck, 2013), these experiences can often lead to negative workplace satisfaction. External influences like the adult entertainment industry and whorephobia can also heavily influence an individual's workplace satisfaction when working in the prostitution industry. To learn the in depth relationship between motivation to join sex work and the quality of said workplace satisfaction continue reading below! {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} '''Focus questions''' * What are the main driving forces causing people to turn to sex work? * What is the condition of work place satisfaction for sex workers? * How does whorephobia and others' actions towards sex workers effect their work place? * Do those who turn to sex work for pleasure have different experiences to those who do so for money alone? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Driving forces pushing people towards sex work == There are many driving forces that can influence someone's motivation to enter any kind of work force. Unfortunatly financial motives are often what pushes people to turn to the sex trade. Although there is evidence that some do find pleasure and positive experiences through sex work. So, those who turn to sex work for pleasure have different experiences to those who do so for money alone? === Intrinsic motivation === It would be irresponsible to look at motivation without first adressing key theories that may explain why a person would perform any behaviour. By looking at [[Intrinsic motivation|intrinsic motivational]] forces that may influence someone into the sex trade it can give a fuller explination of their actions. What internal need are they fulfilling by performing these actions? Intrinsic motivation falls under the "definition of [an] action as rewarding in itself" (Fishbach & Woolley, 2021), not nesseserily the outcome/ final goal. Although economic needs are a common factor of joining the sex trade — and is considered an extrinsically motivating factor — there is "research confirming that individuals sometimes enter this occupation for reasons of personal fulfillment" ([https://pdf.sciencedirectassets.com/271730/1-s2.0-S0925753520X00063/1-s2.0-S0925753520301922/main.pdf?X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEBEaCXVzLWVhc3QtMSJHMEUCIDrCbvs%2F7w0X0S3yCXuLyXMAVemZDC49LGi7ggPpj1wjAiEA6QCj0FxUNyErmwrB1VC%2BreVNTnWp6Ks7KsE3E7x391YqvAUI2v%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2FARAFGgwwNTkwMDM1NDY4NjUiDBNmdKhbptxvmOh4WSqQBXwnDyLbNEknRXvNDbinpDHQJUc%2FGchy79eEQNCK1aSExCTctRYZQfwSEb%2Blh%2BiqbpjqVmEmUyRYf9MjZRPISeI7qTxt6LEBsCMnLF85bPAwYdGBfemRX8rc2OUulZ8aFuPFw9ziwJVX0xGOlL5Rd1U%2FQufCATv6aU7%2FSuTu8Q89bqP6QVUlA4xPEcFnI0goxABkBfBZbPck5FgRkP65OLSbAQp%2FTwaKssf1N6S4QrpAPOLv3QqrtkKp%2BVAMRhaO9PgKBdkfLjm80Y%2FiXp4uxBeV0BPtLbJ61mFI8bUMWZu5W5sqYj%2B5UL5hcCmxXUgwRFyyoA8gE5sed%2BFUeNfW2JLXEE5Q%2BNNF55gtEwlVuknu%2Bu2wArB0x3VI3rsqxqG5xR4%2Bog7yLIJGThjLd%2BHycAsCqk103w7YpMEIYoHkSkipbn0dCSgA5ug33kze8NIuJGVOC9KI5Sql2O0g%2BXm1KkgAbUPlicrcBkhAHsm9vVLDTlqD3A2tztVsuByRGY0pYATYVpazB3ko56XjIRXCGtS0csSYOzNwf3mp5H1fSXlb%2Ftrc10dBfF%2FKu5rFoq2%2FEgSXeYfm1DKiJVUzd%2Bxx53KtVsjK87FTifPGFRQP4I%2BJ483CjmXgkOanXoyr5MGNMMpEtVjp7%2F%2FW0wSJ383dYolbBYuHMBwlfKjAAHks1xMD8VXgIG%2F6xqVG5jrxBzRSHDBeIJ8vkm6IiNvwI%2FWzkUt2wsEncVyoGFXUCwqND6hPtOkPqEgG7gLE1p17r7GSYBppEUhY4B8jyjQV%2FJ%2BWpHdTtBQnuyziu3o9rzjidaLTGmC5oxy9xnpkiQboG7dckbBDn6Rt6qKGrlXfbsVt9dZgJZds7A5TZZCUxhX%2BEL4KMPbCjdYGOrEBjBdYKKt7s3fLZAAb%2BiGijeb%2F2xjDDXXLUCBygZL%2FcKAqstp0xG22ToNSpMyp5dpak9949g%2FQkiLxNJAxuvhKSUMDRB9GWxHspz8wjagXVBuuYkLPx3pkL5ul2Zzg3usF6OVvQR%2BFA8YlnaycMT44jQbz%2FAfU3SDfSJls72IGy3l4Mh%2BjsaohXm8yVtiLd%2BLj3bqX08ml35Lp3%2BGdZe3%2BZotYzxQjGzbK7i3WdrNHOWKR&X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Date=20261005T090336Z&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&X-Amz-Expires=300&X-Amz-Credential=ASIAQ3PHCVTY2P7Y2UF6%2F20261005%2Fus-east-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Signature=94bcb1072eb8f4f5725e7945b8a9ce58dfa3e490385104eaec2eb25f622762f8&hash=212a8d38d7e3c70d0609d9375b9ee0e51905cc164ffcd1ac8b4b7e37ea99e04a&host=68042c943591013ac2b2430a89b270f6af2c76d8dfd086a07176afe7c76c2c61&pii=S0925753520301922&tid=spdf-a8772b34-02ec-4ab0-b162-7ce50de56625&sid=000ad11f535f4044542b07711eb49dbf8ff1gxrqa&type=client&tsoh=d3d3LnNjaWVuY2VkaXJlY3QuY29t&rh=d3d3LnNjaWVuY2VkaXJlY3QuY29t&ua=1b13065557075052530452&rr=a45b410e1b13f6f7&cc=au Arnold et al., 2020]) which more closly alligns into intrinsic motives. === Extrinsic motivation === Influences that effect people on an external level, or [[Extrinsic motivation|extrinsic motivations]], are influences that effect people outwardly, forces that are harder for an individual to control. A common driving factor for joining sex work, as stated above, is earning money — an outward influence. A paper published in 2021 by [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.586235/full Ernst, et al]. shows evidence to support the link between monetary needs and sex work by looking at the topic from the lense of a student in debt. === Maslow's hierarchy of needs === [[File:Maslow's hierarchy of needs.svg|thumb|290x290px|'''Figure 2'''. Maslow's Heirarchy of Needs]] Having covered the basics of what forces both internal and external drive people into the sex work industry, the lense of [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's heirarchy of needs]] – refer to Figure. 2 for reference photo – can now be applied. A. H. Maslow drew from both intrinsic and extrinsic influences when making the heirarchy of needs. However Maslow defines a difference in the prevelence of a need and states that some needs will draw motivation for action then others, fr exsmple "A person who is lacking food, safety, love, and esteem would most probably hunger for food more strongly than for anything else" (Maslow, 1987). A possible reason for those who become sex workers through external motives – needing food, water or shelter – may find themselves in more compromising positions then those who enter through intrinsic fulfilment. A study collected data over a 3 year period and focused on data collected from over 100 prostitues in Denvour Colarado, this study stated "most of whom struggle with homelessness, addiction, and compromised mental and physical health" ([https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s13178-014-0163-8.pdf Dewey & St. Germain, 2014]). Because of there place on Maslow's model, extrinsicly motivated people may be trying to go from physiological to saftey. Where as, intrinsic may be seeking love/belonging possibly leading to more positive work satisfaction then others. == How does the sex work industry differ when looking at male sex workers == {| class="wikitable" |+Percentages showing [https://www.annualreviews.org/docserver/fulltext/psych/65/1/annurev-psych-010213-115057.pdf?expires=1790841225&id=id&accname=au&checksum=112378A7023548A83B7DDDA7288D0EA0 gender differences] in paying for vs working in sex ! !Participate in sex work !Pay for sex work |- |Men |20% |12% |- |Women |80% |1% |} In past years the sex trade has been veiwed as a primerily female dominated career, though men and women to take part in the transaction of sexual favours. In 2006 a study in the netherlands concluded that "3% of both men and women in the adult population (19 to 69 years of age) reported ever having received money for sex" ([https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/19317610903425571?casa_token=sDZAxkVnpLsAAAAA:8IjuI8blrONnsvny4LV0C2Vk4C2ltfOlOt2_Kkf-G1EfBgrGwdhCLxG7959b6OAMuelLbyed8bd3 Bakker & Vanwesenbeeck, 2006]). Although both sexes take part, how does the gender divide split worker satisfaction? It is important to mention that the research of [[transgender]] individuals in the sex trade is highly limited and needs to be more heavily researched. === The difference in male sex workers === Male sex workers often get overlooked in media as well as acedemically, an "analysis of 166 social science academic articles on sex work found that a majority did not mention male sex workers" ([http://cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/3EE28F1EAC9594C89B21F8E47C42D106/S0887536724000564a.pdf/is-sex-work-inherently-gendered.pdf McKeever, 2025]). Not only does gender tell a part in this story but so does sexuality. The stigma of male sex workers was rampent during the [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/24987949.pdf?refreqid=fastly-default%3Af21bffe92b59f3868c81a7143b186da7&ab_segments=&initiator=&acceptTC=1 aids] crisis when male sex workers were seen as problamatic to spreading the disease. Older papers of male sex workers characterizes them as more faminine and rooted in homosexuality, in the 20th century they are "characterized as young, heterosexual, and innocent victims of older, predatory perverts" ([https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00224499.2012.760189?casa_token=MwObuzJvcRUAAAAA:y2bj4pT8W0FJZBr3AYul37bEqXRu_jKD8-CBJDOU1N3Z_Y4WuAixv5SF9F0RPZVeCSrD3Ew5fSl9 Minichiello et al., 2013]). The experience of male sex workers is vastly influenced by external influences (ie. gender, sexuality, clientel) however when compared to women in how they are veiwed "female but not male sex work [is] degrading, causing deep feelings of shame and remorse" ([https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s12147-008-9051-y.pdf Dennis, 2008]). Those influences also dictate the quality of male prostitutes workplace experiences and satisfation. Minichiello et al. (2013), in a paper focusing on the changes in the male sex work industry states that the "intrinsic nature of sex work is not oppressive, and that there are different kinds of worker and client experiences and varying degrees of victimization, exploitation, agency, and choice". <quiz display="simple"> {There are more women in the sex trade then there are men: |type="()"} - True + False {Men also experience negative stereotypes when participating in the sex trade: |type="()"} - False + True </quiz> == Whorephobia and how it influences workplace satisfaction == [https://www.jrc-concordia.ca/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/Journal-of-Religion-and-Culture-Vol-27-no-1.pdf#page=13 Whorephobia] is ever present in the line of sex work, unfavorable opinions of sex workers has influenced others' behaviour towards them as well as their treatment in their workplace. Arnold et al. in 2020 said in their paper that "on a continuum from amotivation through extrinsic to intrinsic motivation. We consider this as an individual difference variable that changes the relationship between perceived physical danger and desire to leave the sex work occupation". This study provides evidence that sex workers may change their line of work based on their perceved physical danger – tieing back into the earlier topic of Maslow's heirarchy of needs. A prostitues' workplace satisfsction heavily relies of their clientels; oppinions, behaviour, beliefs, and actions. These external factors can be influenced by whorephobia. This negative stigma has been seen throughout time and was seen in The Holy [[Bible]] when refrencing [[wikipedia:Mary_Magdalene|Mary Magdalene]] and her sexual transactions. Despite her depiction as a prostitue has been renounced by the Roman [[wikipedia:Catholic_Church|Catholic Church]], the foundation of sin was already engrained in many Catholic's mind. How does this widley held belief and stigma towards prostitutes/ sex workers effect their workplace satisfaction and saftey? === Sex trafficing === One of the downsides to prostitution and transactional sexual exchanges being illegal is there being a high demand for [[wikipedia:Sex_trafficking|sex trafficking]]. Recent studies "show that criminalization and the imposition of governmental restrictions on (otherwise legal) prostitution markets, respectively, induce exit of (voluntary) sex workers" ([https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/110505/1/MPRA_paper_110505.pdf Azam et al., 2021]) which there for produces demand of illegal sexual extortion. Sex trafficking is a social issue that spans the globe, it is the illegal sexual exploitation of individuals who are often unwilling. Individuals who are subjected to this trafficking are often coerced into participating through control over legal documents, threats of physical harm, isolation, and even legal threats. In a paper titled '<nowiki/>''Human Trafficking and Regulating Prostitution''' written by [https://www.ifn.se/media/f00drmqb/2022-lee-persson-human-trafficking-and-regulating-prostitution.pdf Lee & Persson] in 2022 speaks to the issue. Through review of past studdies they are able to succinctly infer that "coercion means that employees’ participation constraints need not be fully respected" (Lee & Persson, 2022). === Police force practices and criminalisation === A factor that historically has negativley influenced prostitutes' workplaces' saftey is the neglagence of police officers towards sex workers. In Denver Colarado "policing practices, and the legislation that informs them, criminalize women for engaging in the street-based sex work and drug use activities that make up the majority of their everyday lives" (Dewey & St. Germain, 2014). This unfortunate criminalisation of prostitues has lead to individuals who participate in sex work to take riskier actions to ensure their way of life. This criminalisation of prostitution leads to a volitile and unsafe workplace, leading to unsatisfactory workplace satisfaction. In the past, the neglegence of police officers in taking concerns into the welbeing of sex workers has directly lead to serial killings to occur. In the case of [[wikipedia:Robert_Pickton|Robert Pickton]], many prostitues who worked along [[wikipedia:Downtown_Eastside|Vancouvers Downtown Eastside]] – a location infamous for its prostitution activity with "estimated... numbers rangng in the thousands, with their drug addiction regularly posited as an explanation for their cheap tricks" ([[doi:10.29173/invoke48990|Dusome, 2020]]) – had reported that their friends/ colleuges were going missing when leaving with Pickton. If the police had take action towards Picktons' behaviuor many lives would hae been spared. Unfortunatly this is just one example of the past indifference police officers have had towards people who participate in the sex trade. In a paper published in 2018 by Platt et al. assessed in a meta-analysis of work spanning information, both qualitatinve and quantitative, collected between 1 January 1990 and 9 May 2018. This meta-analysis saw the interation between police misstreatment and the health/ quality of life of sex workers. Platt et al. states their data "showed that in contexts of criminalisation, the threat and enactment of police harassment and arrest of sex workers or their clients displaced sex workers into isolated work locations, disrupting peer support networks and service access, and limiting risk reduction opportunities" (Platt et al., 2018). This past of violence and displacement negativly impacts not only sex workers occupation, but also their general wellbeing. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}'''Real world example of the injustice of the justice system''' 'Sarah de Vries is among the women in the second set of murder charges against Pickton. A 1995 entry in her diary revealed the prostitute was aware of the dangers she faced working the streets of Downtown Eastside. "Am I next?" she wrote. "Is he watching me now? Is he stalking me like a predator and his prey? Waiting, waiting for some perfect spot, time or my stupid mistake."... It was not the first time Pickton has appeared before a judge. He was charged with attempted murder and unlawful confinement in 1997 in the case of sex worker Wendy Lynn Eistetter. She claimed she had been handcuffed and attacked at the farm, but Pickton countered he acted in self-defense and for reasons that remain unclear, the charges were dropped.' (CBS, 2007){{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Conclusion== {{Robelbox|title=Future directions|theme=5}}[[File:“Sex work is work” - Europride 2019.jpg|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. Sex work is work]] ;Where to next? Although in recent years, studies like a paper written by McKeever in 2025 titled, 'Is Sex Work Inherently Gendered?', have produced a more wholistic perspective in the research of prostitution – considering the sexes (male and female) as a factor – more research must be undertaken. Importantly from an unbiased perspective. To fully understand the stigmatised occupation, one must first have all the information from all percectives to make a truly informed oppinion. Enacting change, if warented, should be done from an unbiased party with an informed understanding of the profession.{{Robelbox/close}} The line of sex work is littered with personal dangers and a vast amount of extrinsic motivation. Through looking at Maslow's hierarchy of needs (Maslow, 1987) as well as scientific papers which undergo much needed research into what societal pressures push people into the prostitution industry (Dewey & St. Germain, 2014) – different motivations into sex work does have an impact on workplace satisfation. Extrinsic motivation was seen as being the most common influence to those who tur to sex work, often out of desperation. Recent research has depicted that the current condition of prostitues' workplace satisfaction is, unfortunatly, minimal. With whorephobia and predjudice towards those who turn to prostitution negatively effecting their ability to perform or safely earn money, not many are happy with their current situation (Dusome, 2020). However, research preformed by Arnold et al. in 2020 also shows that the motivations that push someone into the sex work industry can influence their workplace satisfation – regardless of the unpredictable environment they are still subjected too. Factors such as internal needs for love and connection can influence some to seek out prostitution. On the other end of the spectrum some seek sex work out as a means to make ends meet, earning enough money to get by while also putting themselves at risk. These two distinct drives have a direct impact on the quality of workplace satisfaction however these two influsences overlap and mix together in the melting pot that is the human psyche. Now having read this chapter and hopefully now having a fuller picture of what may motivate people to turn to sex work, you can make yout own informed oppinions about those who seek out this profesion. ==See also== * [[Bible]] (Wikiversity) * [[Extrinsic motivation|Extrincis motivation]] (Wikiversity) * [[Intrinsic motivation]] (Wikiversity) * [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikiversity) * [[Sex education]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Sex worker motivation|Sex work motivation]] (Book chapter, 2015) * [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.586235/full Students in the Sex Industry: Motivations, Feelings, Risks, and Judgments] (Fronteirs in Psychology) * [[Transgender]] (Wikiversity) ==References == {{Hanging indent|1=Arnold, K. A., Turner, N., Barling, J., & Iverson, R. D. (2020). Feeling safe while doing sex work: Motivation for entering sex work moderates the relationship between perceptions of physical danger and desire to leave sex work. Safety science, 129, 104795.[https://pdf.sciencedirectassets.com/271730/1-s2.0-S0925753520X00063/1-s2.0-S0925753520301922/main.pdf?X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEDgaCXVzLWVhc3QtMSJIMEYCIQDLwNUlkBLTVH2W9sUG%2FL8xBiniafqj2YjDThRYfM8j7gIhAPpb6usou%2FCfun2GlN94HXvsSkZFNyb27ndcS5LYkmOqKrIFCAEQBRoMMDU5MDAzNTQ2ODY1IgwVqu3mdLMxIbQQT4EqjwVyEzAMhHQLz8i1mRyce46T7kq8nFGMPfsWbvGbIjwD5sTztgejH2H6uoazHE3ceLn%2BHJAMU2gcjulIYqlqCSyvPuWe%2BScfjOHfBfQZnctFdUl2oWqaahIi9YzAVcTWeftoZk%2FylcCfLerGklhqD7HwVv2vZdBzsx94xmqQ1V1uUbIbAIkJ30NfSj00z1cSaUL1q96wM120kL%2By3Fd%2FYRnMyLzgn343yVJM%2BYWksKgOiezOVEa%2BhmIbNUYzcpb%2Fkcah8UWIgZWXjdLp2fZTJB2yCYbj091PqbNLxbKvPvqaCnGI%2BSTaCPpupfKIdR02m2jepxiZI8%2FZrLGy71f0vYzU%2Be120AQZZCPdjTZZAOP9xB%2Bvfpp48EyclSYmN0rSn2bZcMSiqosJl%2Bz6BiiW3J9SmbZXGNWeECGltEiG%2FP%2FRiZ0uB94c2nIGVzBsfJ4fe7UAD3mlWR9UBCT5FirlPE3Dzap%2BH1xnOe%2BGN481xmH1YSoL3FACDW8J5HUez%2BURv5vTzFDq4nON4cFWhMdgPNfu8v%2BjU35utqWccWAfsows5CFE%2FdiNDUQa7EI1XwF00wtRp2k06DjOWBl%2FggL2duXPWFHHaJnOEovHXAGzQUl%2FzBocvEbkU%2BstJU3AjUwCqbrDZRVZay0dd7OLQ6NCZTFxvZrhEoOwYukzgYt02XtXs23oNKc8QK8jPBsjSx8K1Xj9V9tPB5eBTptias5DuJnme5GPMo0H0rehhAFIbH1iz5aLEJ2WFAs2YMajNB9b8K9hsdcsufqw3IWvDgGjJl491SPFYv4AkHpfF%2B2OEEmH9hDMp3rnzv686gQ5u2%2FmSKrDsChJ2JSpJUuTnHdHBZrk%2Fwzx%2BpsfpZ4zLVgKx0K6MJOGtdQGOrAB7mHiroFpJKweD4wGdVv4twWKj65wn3ZS715WCDMXnol3ZjKerxKwtTiAS8MYNXREK5yRc6R%2BCtHqgkfO1QIL6y35fyD0iOWFO6ZYrI1IePcEupQe4Ao%2B8i5%2Bz9PydRXrVVCjz1A9o6ZcLX9dN59jVDboJOpZsOpXxuErU9LEKNKGTqVoHfJq%2FpKSdZkltmLsDvSAgBZORP2gpikUUQyl6A0CxzJ3SGD1ZrqXN39XlWY%3D&X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Date=20260825T084050Z&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&X-Amz-Expires=300&X-Amz-Credential=ASIAQ3PHCVTYZDNOMNKH%2F20260825%2Fus-east-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Signature=222054776072dd684a9220ca5e137f808570de2f4b46a74fc1fac36b8741d31e&hash=9077aea1050680fe483f80515f312051569ddf0b7a50ba90c1511bc6ef136d06&host=68042c943591013ac2b2430a89b270f6af2c76d8dfd086a07176afe7c76c2c61&pii=S0925753520301922&tid=spdf-2823bc10-4a39-4f2b-8a32-7409653a6f56&sid=6bbf6c2f3a5ff545d91b09f2929365875304gxrqa&type=client&tsoh=d3d3LnNjaWVuY2VkaXJlY3QuY29t&rh=d3d3LnNjaWVuY2VkaXJlY3QuY29t&ua=1b130057565d500d535050&rr=a3094b5109a37504&cc=au] Azam, A., Hendrickx, J., & Adriaenssens, S. (2021). Estimating the Prostitution Population in the Netherlands and Belgium: A Capture-Recapture Application to Online Data. Munich Personal RePEc Archive (MPRA). https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/110505/ ‌ Canada’s Largest-Ever Murder Trial Begins. (2007, January 22). CBS News. https://www.cbsnews.com/news/canadas-largest-ever-murder-trial-begins/ ‌ Dennis, J. P. (2008). Women are Victims, Men Make Choices: The Invisibility of Men and Boys in the Global Sex Trade. Gender Issues, 25(1), 11–25. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12147-008-9051-y ‌ Dewey, S., & St. Germain, T. (2014). “It Depends on the Cop:” Street-Based Sex Workers’ Perspectives on Police Patrol Officers. Sexuality Research and Social Policy, 11(3), 256–270. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13178-014-0163-8 ‌ Dusome, J. (2020). Lost and Forgotten: Missing and Murdered Sex Workers on Vancouver's Downtown Eastside. INVOKE, 6. Ernst, F., Romanczuk-Seiferth, N., Köhler, S., Amelung, T., & Betzler, F. (2021). Students in the sex industry: Motivations, feelings, risks, and judgments. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 586235. Fishbach, A., & Woolley, K. (2021). Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior The Structure of Intrinsic Motivation. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012420- ‌ Footer, K. H. A., White, R. H., Park, J. N., Decker, M. R., Lutnick, A., & Sherman, S. G. (2020). Entry to Sex Trade and Long-Term Vulnerabilities of Female Sex Workers Who Enter the Sex Trade Before the Age of Eighteen. Journal of Urban Health, 97(3), 406–417. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7305278/ Harcourt, C. (2005). The many faces of sex work. Sexually Transmitted Infections, 81(3), 201–206. https://doi.org/10.1136/sti.2004.012468 ‌ Huglstad, M., Halvorsen, I. L. I., Jonsson, H., & Nielsen, K. T. (2020). “Some of us actually choose to do this”: The meanings of sex work from the perspective of female sex workers in Denmark. Journal of Occupational Science, 29(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/14427591.2020.1830841. Lee, S., & Persson, P. (2022). Human Trafficking and Regulating Prostitution. American Economic Journal: Economic Policy, 14(3), 87–127. https://doi.org/10.1257/pol.20180622 ‌ Platt, L. P., Grenfell, P., Meiksin, R., Elmes, J., Sherman, S. G., Sanders, T., Mwangi, P., & Crago, A.-L. (2018). Associations between sex work laws and sex workers’ health: A systematic review and meta-analysis of quantitative and qualitative studies. PLoS Medicine, 15(12). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1002680 ‌ Vanwesenbeeck, I., Bakker, F., & Gesell, S. (2010). Sexual Health in the Netherlands: Main Results of a Population Survey Among Dutch Adults. International Journal of Sexual Health, 22(2), 55–71. https://doi.org/10.1080/19317610903425571 ‌ Vanwesenbeeck, I. (2013). Prostitution push and pull: Male and female perspectives. Journal of Sex Research, 50(1), 11-16. Maslow, A., & Lewis, K. J. (1987). Maslow's hierarchy of needs. Salenger Incorporated, 14(17), 987-990. https://www.justiceacademy.am/assets/uploads/Maslow.pdf McNamara, R. (2016). The trouble with whorephobia. Journal of Religion and Culture, 27(1), 13-34. McKeever, N. (2025). Is Sex Work Inherently Gendered? Hypatia, 40(3), 633–652. doi:10.1017/hyp.2024.56 ‌Redwood, R. (2018). Myths and Realities of Male Sex Work. Red light labour: Sex work regulation, agency, and resistance, 167-180.[https://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&lr=&id=8GJoDwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA167&dq=Myths+and+Realities+of+Male+Sex+Work&ots=mQOUglmuLU&sig=XHi0ybe124LABeHMulfVUMeYsxw#v=onepage&q=Myths%20and%20Realities%20of%20Male%20Sex%20Work&f=false] Sex worker - Wikipedia. (2023). Wikipedia.Org. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sex_worker}} ==External links== [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/10.1086/324390.pdf?casa_token=lfbXJZ0pqcQAAAAA:Y2KROCBvBcyTR_OkV9GU9nGAnh5lp0VKsrro0wiLqGF_MeXybi6-z3pvrxj97OM6GMvGv6r_Zbmt_s9RvHKDiUw3JzDhAPWvsSz3uzNI4nXa_mNdM5o A Theory of Prostitution] (The University of Chicago Press) [https://www.cdc.gov/sexual-violence/about/about-sex-trafficking.html About Sex Trafficing] (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention) [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/24987949.pdf?refreqid=fastly-default%3Af21bffe92b59f3868c81a7143b186da7&ab_segments=&initiator=&acceptTC=1 AIDS in 1988] (JSTOR) [[wikipedia:Catholic_Church|Catholic Church]] (Wikipedia) [[wikipedia:Downtown_Eastside|Downtown Eastside]] (Wikipedia) [https://www.annualreviews.org/docserver/fulltext/psych/65/1/annurev-psych-010213-115057.pdf?expires=1790841225&id=id&accname=au&checksum=112378A7023548A83B7DDDA7288D0EA0 Gender Similarities and Differences] (The Annual Review of Psychology) [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/30048506.pdf?refreqid=fastly-default%3Abdd06e603789b9df6429bacfd93907fe&ab_segments=&initiator=&acceptTC=1 Human Trafficking] (JSTOR)‌ [http://cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/3EE28F1EAC9594C89B21F8E47C42D106/S0887536724000564a.pdf/is-sex-work-inherently-gendered.pdf Is Sex Work Inherently Gendered?] (Cambridge University Press) [[wikipedia:Mary_Magdalene|Mary Magdalene]] (Wikipedia) [[wikipedia:Robert_Pickton|Robert Pickton]] (Wikipedia) [[wikipedia:Sex_trafficking|Sex Trafficking]] (Wikipedia) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Sex]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Work motivation]] a5kp02ifzndg6vmwpd5r9uaixba2b62 2836403 2836401 2026-10-07T02:29:29Z U3261376 3106964 2836403 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Sex work motivation:<br>What motivates sex work and how does this impact worker experiences?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} [[File:“Sex workers rights are human rights” - Europride 2019.jpg|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. Prostitution in Sao Paulo, Brazil]] '''What would you do if you found yourself in this scenario?''' Feeling lost and left with little money of your own, but you have to make ends meet. What will you do when you have to pay your rent? What if you have a child? Would you turn to sex work to make ends meet? If you did... would that make your rights to a safe and trustworthy work environment just disappear? Sex work itself is illegal. Having been driven to such means to make ends meet, you must register as self-employed to pay taxes, buy a house, or even just be considered an employee. [https://doi.org/10.1080/14427591.2020.1830841. (Huglstad et al., 2020)]. Sex workers rights activists proclaim that sex work is work, that they are not victims in need of help, and that they are entitled to any basic human right (see Figure 1). That in itself poses another scenario: What drives people into sex work? Is it finance and convenience? Or is it pleasure and fun? {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[Sex education|Sex]] work or [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/10.1086/324390.pdf?casa_token=lfbXJZ0pqcQAAAAA:Y2KROCBvBcyTR_OkV9GU9nGAnh5lp0VKsrro0wiLqGF_MeXybi6-z3pvrxj97OM6GMvGv6r_Zbmt_s9RvHKDiUw3JzDhAPWvsSz3uzNI4nXa_mNdM5o prostitution] is a broad topic which includes many elements of sexual activities. In 2005, Harcourt defined "prostitution, [as] the provision of sexual services for money or its equivalent," ([https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1744977/pdf/v081p00201.pdf Harcourt, 2005]). To understand sex work as a concept it is important to first understand why people may turn to sex work for an income to begin with. This topic has been discussed at nauseum however often in a negative and clouded light. As stated in The Journal of Sex Research in 2013, it wasn't until the 1990's that literature that looked into this topic stopped looking at prostitutes as "predominantly... ‘‘evil characters’’ or ‘‘sick personalities.’’" ([https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00224499.2012.696285?casa_token=wgasXeCYwFAAAAAA:0Iuwx4QzcbYP0ZAj6GISEX5oDHr4t-phuo4VUxmwfMIVjTrLXaTBhIoYpXtC9r0WaeYaxII3ObSZ Vanwesenbeeck, 2013]) and carrying a lense of ""simmering abhorrence, incomprehension, and fascination" (Vanwesenbeeck, 2013) towards these individuals. Some of the main concepts that will be unpacked below are what motivates people to go into sex work, answers are commonly, "financial, sexual, recreational motives, and coercion (i.e., [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/30048506.pdf?casa_token=pqlPp6XrnF0AAAAA:SFSvr6r_WKbLtO638dPPYk35oZFz9anPcub1Be7iUjk9AMX7a4h73yPLMJ6efSSxWVK7Az4Upc3UgohFYtht3QViGNIyTXPWCkBaY5lhRS_RGNFzUoA trafficking])" (Vanwesenbeeck, 2013), these experiences can often lead to negative workplace satisfaction. External influences like the adult entertainment industry and whorephobia can also heavily influence an individual's workplace satisfaction when working in the prostitution industry. To learn the in depth relationship between motivation to join sex work and the quality of said workplace satisfaction continue reading below! {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} '''Focus questions''' * What are the main driving forces causing people to turn to sex work? * What is the condition of work place satisfaction for sex workers? * How does whorephobia and others' actions towards sex workers effect their work place? * Do those who turn to sex work for pleasure have different experiences to those who do so for money alone? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Driving forces pushing people towards sex work == There are many driving forces that can influence someone's motivation to enter any kind of work force. Unfortunatly financial motives are often what pushes people to turn to the sex trade. Although there is evidence that some do find pleasure and positive experiences through sex work. So, those who turn to sex work for pleasure have different experiences to those who do so for money alone? === Intrinsic motivation === It would be irresponsible to look at motivation without first adressing key theories that may explain why a person would perform any behaviour. By looking at [[Intrinsic motivation|intrinsic motivational]] forces that may influence someone into the sex trade it can give a fuller explination of their actions. What internal need are they fulfilling by performing these actions? Intrinsic motivation falls under the "definition of [an] action as rewarding in itself" (Fishbach & Woolley, 2021), not nesseserily the outcome/ final goal. Although economic needs are a common factor of joining the sex trade — and is considered an extrinsically motivating factor — there is "research confirming that individuals sometimes enter this occupation for reasons of personal fulfillment" ([https://pdf.sciencedirectassets.com/271730/1-s2.0-S0925753520X00063/1-s2.0-S0925753520301922/main.pdf?X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEBEaCXVzLWVhc3QtMSJHMEUCIDrCbvs%2F7w0X0S3yCXuLyXMAVemZDC49LGi7ggPpj1wjAiEA6QCj0FxUNyErmwrB1VC%2BreVNTnWp6Ks7KsE3E7x391YqvAUI2v%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2FARAFGgwwNTkwMDM1NDY4NjUiDBNmdKhbptxvmOh4WSqQBXwnDyLbNEknRXvNDbinpDHQJUc%2FGchy79eEQNCK1aSExCTctRYZQfwSEb%2Blh%2BiqbpjqVmEmUyRYf9MjZRPISeI7qTxt6LEBsCMnLF85bPAwYdGBfemRX8rc2OUulZ8aFuPFw9ziwJVX0xGOlL5Rd1U%2FQufCATv6aU7%2FSuTu8Q89bqP6QVUlA4xPEcFnI0goxABkBfBZbPck5FgRkP65OLSbAQp%2FTwaKssf1N6S4QrpAPOLv3QqrtkKp%2BVAMRhaO9PgKBdkfLjm80Y%2FiXp4uxBeV0BPtLbJ61mFI8bUMWZu5W5sqYj%2B5UL5hcCmxXUgwRFyyoA8gE5sed%2BFUeNfW2JLXEE5Q%2BNNF55gtEwlVuknu%2Bu2wArB0x3VI3rsqxqG5xR4%2Bog7yLIJGThjLd%2BHycAsCqk103w7YpMEIYoHkSkipbn0dCSgA5ug33kze8NIuJGVOC9KI5Sql2O0g%2BXm1KkgAbUPlicrcBkhAHsm9vVLDTlqD3A2tztVsuByRGY0pYATYVpazB3ko56XjIRXCGtS0csSYOzNwf3mp5H1fSXlb%2Ftrc10dBfF%2FKu5rFoq2%2FEgSXeYfm1DKiJVUzd%2Bxx53KtVsjK87FTifPGFRQP4I%2BJ483CjmXgkOanXoyr5MGNMMpEtVjp7%2F%2FW0wSJ383dYolbBYuHMBwlfKjAAHks1xMD8VXgIG%2F6xqVG5jrxBzRSHDBeIJ8vkm6IiNvwI%2FWzkUt2wsEncVyoGFXUCwqND6hPtOkPqEgG7gLE1p17r7GSYBppEUhY4B8jyjQV%2FJ%2BWpHdTtBQnuyziu3o9rzjidaLTGmC5oxy9xnpkiQboG7dckbBDn6Rt6qKGrlXfbsVt9dZgJZds7A5TZZCUxhX%2BEL4KMPbCjdYGOrEBjBdYKKt7s3fLZAAb%2BiGijeb%2F2xjDDXXLUCBygZL%2FcKAqstp0xG22ToNSpMyp5dpak9949g%2FQkiLxNJAxuvhKSUMDRB9GWxHspz8wjagXVBuuYkLPx3pkL5ul2Zzg3usF6OVvQR%2BFA8YlnaycMT44jQbz%2FAfU3SDfSJls72IGy3l4Mh%2BjsaohXm8yVtiLd%2BLj3bqX08ml35Lp3%2BGdZe3%2BZotYzxQjGzbK7i3WdrNHOWKR&X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Date=20261005T090336Z&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&X-Amz-Expires=300&X-Amz-Credential=ASIAQ3PHCVTY2P7Y2UF6%2F20261005%2Fus-east-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Signature=94bcb1072eb8f4f5725e7945b8a9ce58dfa3e490385104eaec2eb25f622762f8&hash=212a8d38d7e3c70d0609d9375b9ee0e51905cc164ffcd1ac8b4b7e37ea99e04a&host=68042c943591013ac2b2430a89b270f6af2c76d8dfd086a07176afe7c76c2c61&pii=S0925753520301922&tid=spdf-a8772b34-02ec-4ab0-b162-7ce50de56625&sid=000ad11f535f4044542b07711eb49dbf8ff1gxrqa&type=client&tsoh=d3d3LnNjaWVuY2VkaXJlY3QuY29t&rh=d3d3LnNjaWVuY2VkaXJlY3QuY29t&ua=1b13065557075052530452&rr=a45b410e1b13f6f7&cc=au Arnold et al., 2020]) which more closly alligns into intrinsic motives. === Extrinsic motivation === Influences that effect people on an external level, or [[Extrinsic motivation|extrinsic motivations]], are influences that effect people outwardly, forces that are harder for an individual to control. A common driving factor for joining sex work, as stated above, is earning money — an outward influence. A paper published in 2021 by [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.586235/full Ernst, et al]. shows evidence to support the link between monetary needs and sex work by looking at the topic from the lense of a student in debt. === Maslow's hierarchy of needs === [[File:Maslow's hierarchy of needs.svg|thumb|290x290px|'''Figure 2'''. Maslow's Heirarchy of Needs]] Having covered the basics of what forces both internal and external drive people into the sex work industry, the lense of [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's heirarchy of needs]] – refer to Figure. 2 for reference photo – can now be applied. A. H. Maslow drew from both intrinsic and extrinsic influences when making the heirarchy of needs. However Maslow defines a difference in the prevelence of a need and states that some needs will draw motivation for action then others, fr exsmple "A person who is lacking food, safety, love, and esteem would most probably hunger for food more strongly than for anything else" (Maslow, 1987). A possible reason for those who become sex workers through external motives – needing food, water or shelter – may find themselves in more compromising positions then those who enter through intrinsic fulfilment. A study collected data over a 3 year period and focused on data collected from over 100 prostitues in Denvour Colarado, this study stated "most of whom struggle with homelessness, addiction, and compromised mental and physical health" ([https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s13178-014-0163-8.pdf Dewey & St. Germain, 2014]). Because of there place on Maslow's model, extrinsicly motivated people may be trying to go from physiological to saftey. Where as, intrinsic may be seeking love/belonging possibly leading to more positive work satisfaction then others. == How does the sex work industry differ when looking at male sex workers == {| class="wikitable" |+Percentages showing [https://www.annualreviews.org/docserver/fulltext/psych/65/1/annurev-psych-010213-115057.pdf?expires=1790841225&id=id&accname=au&checksum=112378A7023548A83B7DDDA7288D0EA0 gender differences] in paying for vs working in sex ! !Participate in sex work !Pay for sex work |- |Men |20% |12% |- |Women |80% |1% |} In past years the sex trade has been veiwed as a primerily female dominated career, though men and women to take part in the transaction of sexual favours. In 2006 a study in the netherlands concluded that "3% of both men and women in the adult population (19 to 69 years of age) reported ever having received money for sex" ([https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/19317610903425571?casa_token=sDZAxkVnpLsAAAAA:8IjuI8blrONnsvny4LV0C2Vk4C2ltfOlOt2_Kkf-G1EfBgrGwdhCLxG7959b6OAMuelLbyed8bd3 Bakker & Vanwesenbeeck, 2006]). Although both sexes take part, how does the gender divide split worker satisfaction? It is important to mention that the research of [[transgender]] individuals in the sex trade is highly limited and needs to be more heavily researched. === The difference in male sex workers === Male sex workers often get overlooked in media as well as acedemically, an "analysis of 166 social science academic articles on sex work found that a majority did not mention male sex workers" ([http://cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/3EE28F1EAC9594C89B21F8E47C42D106/S0887536724000564a.pdf/is-sex-work-inherently-gendered.pdf McKeever, 2025]). Not only does gender tell a part in this story but so does sexuality. The stigma of male sex workers was rampent during the [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/24987949.pdf?refreqid=fastly-default%3Af21bffe92b59f3868c81a7143b186da7&ab_segments=&initiator=&acceptTC=1 aids] crisis when male sex workers were seen as problamatic to spreading the disease. Older papers of male sex workers characterizes them as more faminine and rooted in homosexuality, in the 20th century they are "characterized as young, heterosexual, and innocent victims of older, predatory perverts" ([https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00224499.2012.760189?casa_token=MwObuzJvcRUAAAAA:y2bj4pT8W0FJZBr3AYul37bEqXRu_jKD8-CBJDOU1N3Z_Y4WuAixv5SF9F0RPZVeCSrD3Ew5fSl9 Minichiello et al., 2013]). The experience of male sex workers is vastly influenced by external influences (ie. gender, sexuality, clientel) however when compared to women in how they are veiwed "female but not male sex work [is] degrading, causing deep feelings of shame and remorse" ([https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s12147-008-9051-y.pdf Dennis, 2008]). Those influences also dictate the quality of male prostitutes workplace experiences and satisfation. Minichiello et al. (2013), in a paper focusing on the changes in the male sex work industry states that the "intrinsic nature of sex work is not oppressive, and that there are different kinds of worker and client experiences and varying degrees of victimization, exploitation, agency, and choice". <quiz display="simple"> {There are more women in the sex trade then there are men: |type="()"} - True + False {Men also experience negative stereotypes when participating in the sex trade: |type="()"} - False + True </quiz> == Whorephobia and how it influences workplace satisfaction == [https://www.jrc-concordia.ca/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/Journal-of-Religion-and-Culture-Vol-27-no-1.pdf#page=13 Whorephobia] is ever present in the line of sex work, unfavorable opinions of sex workers has influenced others' behaviour towards them as well as their treatment in their workplace. Arnold et al. in 2020 said in their paper that "on a continuum from amotivation through extrinsic to intrinsic motivation. We consider this as an individual difference variable that changes the relationship between perceived physical danger and desire to leave the sex work occupation". This study provides evidence that sex workers may change their line of work based on their perceved physical danger – tieing back into the earlier topic of Maslow's heirarchy of needs. A prostitues' workplace satisfsction heavily relies of their clientels; oppinions, behaviour, beliefs, and actions. These external factors can be influenced by whorephobia. This negative stigma has been seen throughout time and was seen in The Holy [[Bible]] when refrencing [[wikipedia:Mary_Magdalene|Mary Magdalene]] and her sexual transactions. Despite her depiction as a prostitue has been renounced by the Roman [[wikipedia:Catholic_Church|Catholic Church]], the foundation of sin was already engrained in many Catholic's mind. How does this widley held belief and stigma towards prostitutes/ sex workers effect their workplace satisfaction and saftey? === Sex trafficing === One of the downsides to prostitution and transactional sexual exchanges being illegal is there being a high demand for [[wikipedia:Sex_trafficking|sex trafficking]]. Recent studies "show that criminalization and the imposition of governmental restrictions on (otherwise legal) prostitution markets, respectively, induce exit of (voluntary) sex workers" ([https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/110505/1/MPRA_paper_110505.pdf Azam et al., 2021]) which there for produces demand of illegal sexual extortion. Sex trafficking is a social issue that spans the globe, it is the illegal sexual exploitation of individuals who are often unwilling. Individuals who are subjected to this trafficking are often coerced into participating through control over legal documents, threats of physical harm, isolation, and even legal threats. In a paper titled '<nowiki/>''Human Trafficking and Regulating Prostitution''' written by [https://www.ifn.se/media/f00drmqb/2022-lee-persson-human-trafficking-and-regulating-prostitution.pdf Lee & Persson] in 2022 speaks to the issue. Through review of past studdies they are able to succinctly infer that "coercion means that employees’ participation constraints need not be fully respected" (Lee & Persson, 2022). === Police force practices and criminalisation === A factor that historically has negativley influenced prostitutes' workplaces' saftey is the neglagence of police officers towards sex workers. In Denver Colarado "policing practices, and the legislation that informs them, criminalize women for engaging in the street-based sex work and drug use activities that make up the majority of their everyday lives" (Dewey & St. Germain, 2014). This unfortunate criminalisation of prostitues has lead to individuals who participate in sex work to take riskier actions to ensure their way of life. This criminalisation of prostitution leads to a volitile and unsafe workplace, leading to unsatisfactory workplace satisfaction. In the past, the neglegence of police officers in taking concerns into the welbeing of sex workers has directly lead to serial killings to occur. In the case of [[wikipedia:Robert_Pickton|Robert Pickton]], many prostitues who worked along [[wikipedia:Downtown_Eastside|Vancouvers Downtown Eastside]] – a location infamous for its prostitution activity with "estimated... numbers rangng in the thousands, with their drug addiction regularly posited as an explanation for their cheap tricks" ([[doi:10.29173/invoke48990|Dusome, 2020]]) – had reported that their friends/ colleuges were going missing when leaving with Pickton. If the police had take action towards Picktons' behaviuor many lives would hae been spared. Unfortunatly this is just one example of the past indifference police officers have had towards people who participate in the sex trade. In a paper published in 2018 by Platt et al. assessed in a meta-analysis of work spanning information, both qualitatinve and quantitative, collected between 1 January 1990 and 9 May 2018. This meta-analysis saw the interation between police misstreatment and the health/ quality of life of sex workers. Platt et al. states their data "showed that in contexts of criminalisation, the threat and enactment of police harassment and arrest of sex workers or their clients displaced sex workers into isolated work locations, disrupting peer support networks and service access, and limiting risk reduction opportunities" (Platt et al., 2018). This past of violence and displacement negativly impacts not only sex workers occupation, but also their general wellbeing. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}'''Real world example of the injustice of the justice system''' 'Sarah de Vries is among the women in the second set of murder charges against Pickton. A 1995 entry in her diary revealed the prostitute was aware of the dangers she faced working the streets of Downtown Eastside. "Am I next?" she wrote. "Is he watching me now? Is he stalking me like a predator and his prey? Waiting, waiting for some perfect spot, time or my stupid mistake."... It was not the first time Pickton has appeared before a judge. He was charged with attempted murder and unlawful confinement in 1997 in the case of sex worker Wendy Lynn Eistetter. She claimed she had been handcuffed and attacked at the farm, but Pickton countered he acted in self-defense and for reasons that remain unclear, the charges were dropped.' (CBS, 2007){{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Conclusion== The line of sex work is littered with personal dangers and a vast amount of extrinsic motivation. Through looking at Maslow's hierarchy of needs (Maslow, 1987) as well as scientific papers which undergo much needed research into what societal pressures push people into the prostitution industry (Dewey & St. Germain, 2014) – different motivations into sex work does have an impact on workplace satisfation. Extrinsic motivation was seen as being the most common influence to those who tur to sex work, often out of desperation. Recent research has depicted that the current condition of prostitues' workplace satisfaction is, unfortunatly, minimal. With whorephobia and predjudice towards those who turn to prostitution negatively effecting their ability to perform or safely earn money, not many are happy with their current situation (Dusome, 2020). However, research preformed by Arnold et al. in 2020 also shows that the motivations that push someone into the sex work industry can influence their workplace satisfation – regardless of the unpredictable environment they are still subjected too. Factors such as internal needs for love and connection can influence some to seek out prostitution. On the other end of the spectrum some seek sex work out as a means to make ends meet, earning enough money to get by while also putting themselves at risk. These two distinct drives have a direct impact on the quality of workplace satisfaction however these two influsences overlap and mix together in the melting pot that is the human psyche. Now having read this chapter and hopefully now having a fuller picture of what may motivate people to turn to sex work, you can make yout own informed oppinions about those who seek out this profesion. ==See also== * [[Bible]] (Wikiversity) * [[Extrinsic motivation|Extrincis motivation]] (Wikiversity) * [[Intrinsic motivation]] (Wikiversity) * [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikiversity) * [[Sex education]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Sex worker motivation|Sex work motivation]] (Book chapter, 2015) * [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.586235/full Students in the Sex Industry: Motivations, Feelings, Risks, and Judgments] (Fronteirs in Psychology) * [[Transgender]] (Wikiversity) ==References == {{Hanging indent|1=Arnold, K. A., Turner, N., Barling, J., & Iverson, R. D. (2020). Feeling safe while doing sex work: Motivation for entering sex work moderates the relationship between perceptions of physical danger and desire to leave sex work. Safety science, 129, 104795.[https://pdf.sciencedirectassets.com/271730/1-s2.0-S0925753520X00063/1-s2.0-S0925753520301922/main.pdf?X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEDgaCXVzLWVhc3QtMSJIMEYCIQDLwNUlkBLTVH2W9sUG%2FL8xBiniafqj2YjDThRYfM8j7gIhAPpb6usou%2FCfun2GlN94HXvsSkZFNyb27ndcS5LYkmOqKrIFCAEQBRoMMDU5MDAzNTQ2ODY1IgwVqu3mdLMxIbQQT4EqjwVyEzAMhHQLz8i1mRyce46T7kq8nFGMPfsWbvGbIjwD5sTztgejH2H6uoazHE3ceLn%2BHJAMU2gcjulIYqlqCSyvPuWe%2BScfjOHfBfQZnctFdUl2oWqaahIi9YzAVcTWeftoZk%2FylcCfLerGklhqD7HwVv2vZdBzsx94xmqQ1V1uUbIbAIkJ30NfSj00z1cSaUL1q96wM120kL%2By3Fd%2FYRnMyLzgn343yVJM%2BYWksKgOiezOVEa%2BhmIbNUYzcpb%2Fkcah8UWIgZWXjdLp2fZTJB2yCYbj091PqbNLxbKvPvqaCnGI%2BSTaCPpupfKIdR02m2jepxiZI8%2FZrLGy71f0vYzU%2Be120AQZZCPdjTZZAOP9xB%2Bvfpp48EyclSYmN0rSn2bZcMSiqosJl%2Bz6BiiW3J9SmbZXGNWeECGltEiG%2FP%2FRiZ0uB94c2nIGVzBsfJ4fe7UAD3mlWR9UBCT5FirlPE3Dzap%2BH1xnOe%2BGN481xmH1YSoL3FACDW8J5HUez%2BURv5vTzFDq4nON4cFWhMdgPNfu8v%2BjU35utqWccWAfsows5CFE%2FdiNDUQa7EI1XwF00wtRp2k06DjOWBl%2FggL2duXPWFHHaJnOEovHXAGzQUl%2FzBocvEbkU%2BstJU3AjUwCqbrDZRVZay0dd7OLQ6NCZTFxvZrhEoOwYukzgYt02XtXs23oNKc8QK8jPBsjSx8K1Xj9V9tPB5eBTptias5DuJnme5GPMo0H0rehhAFIbH1iz5aLEJ2WFAs2YMajNB9b8K9hsdcsufqw3IWvDgGjJl491SPFYv4AkHpfF%2B2OEEmH9hDMp3rnzv686gQ5u2%2FmSKrDsChJ2JSpJUuTnHdHBZrk%2Fwzx%2BpsfpZ4zLVgKx0K6MJOGtdQGOrAB7mHiroFpJKweD4wGdVv4twWKj65wn3ZS715WCDMXnol3ZjKerxKwtTiAS8MYNXREK5yRc6R%2BCtHqgkfO1QIL6y35fyD0iOWFO6ZYrI1IePcEupQe4Ao%2B8i5%2Bz9PydRXrVVCjz1A9o6ZcLX9dN59jVDboJOpZsOpXxuErU9LEKNKGTqVoHfJq%2FpKSdZkltmLsDvSAgBZORP2gpikUUQyl6A0CxzJ3SGD1ZrqXN39XlWY%3D&X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Date=20260825T084050Z&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&X-Amz-Expires=300&X-Amz-Credential=ASIAQ3PHCVTYZDNOMNKH%2F20260825%2Fus-east-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Signature=222054776072dd684a9220ca5e137f808570de2f4b46a74fc1fac36b8741d31e&hash=9077aea1050680fe483f80515f312051569ddf0b7a50ba90c1511bc6ef136d06&host=68042c943591013ac2b2430a89b270f6af2c76d8dfd086a07176afe7c76c2c61&pii=S0925753520301922&tid=spdf-2823bc10-4a39-4f2b-8a32-7409653a6f56&sid=6bbf6c2f3a5ff545d91b09f2929365875304gxrqa&type=client&tsoh=d3d3LnNjaWVuY2VkaXJlY3QuY29t&rh=d3d3LnNjaWVuY2VkaXJlY3QuY29t&ua=1b130057565d500d535050&rr=a3094b5109a37504&cc=au] Azam, A., Hendrickx, J., & Adriaenssens, S. (2021). Estimating the Prostitution Population in the Netherlands and Belgium: A Capture-Recapture Application to Online Data. Munich Personal RePEc Archive (MPRA). https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/110505/ ‌ Canada’s Largest-Ever Murder Trial Begins. (2007, January 22). CBS News. https://www.cbsnews.com/news/canadas-largest-ever-murder-trial-begins/ ‌ Dennis, J. P. (2008). Women are Victims, Men Make Choices: The Invisibility of Men and Boys in the Global Sex Trade. Gender Issues, 25(1), 11–25. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12147-008-9051-y ‌ Dewey, S., & St. Germain, T. (2014). “It Depends on the Cop:” Street-Based Sex Workers’ Perspectives on Police Patrol Officers. Sexuality Research and Social Policy, 11(3), 256–270. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13178-014-0163-8 ‌ Dusome, J. (2020). Lost and Forgotten: Missing and Murdered Sex Workers on Vancouver's Downtown Eastside. INVOKE, 6. Ernst, F., Romanczuk-Seiferth, N., Köhler, S., Amelung, T., & Betzler, F. (2021). Students in the sex industry: Motivations, feelings, risks, and judgments. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 586235. Fishbach, A., & Woolley, K. (2021). Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior The Structure of Intrinsic Motivation. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012420- ‌ Footer, K. H. A., White, R. H., Park, J. N., Decker, M. R., Lutnick, A., & Sherman, S. G. (2020). Entry to Sex Trade and Long-Term Vulnerabilities of Female Sex Workers Who Enter the Sex Trade Before the Age of Eighteen. Journal of Urban Health, 97(3), 406–417. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7305278/ Harcourt, C. (2005). The many faces of sex work. Sexually Transmitted Infections, 81(3), 201–206. https://doi.org/10.1136/sti.2004.012468 ‌ Huglstad, M., Halvorsen, I. L. I., Jonsson, H., & Nielsen, K. T. (2020). “Some of us actually choose to do this”: The meanings of sex work from the perspective of female sex workers in Denmark. Journal of Occupational Science, 29(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/14427591.2020.1830841. Lee, S., & Persson, P. (2022). Human Trafficking and Regulating Prostitution. American Economic Journal: Economic Policy, 14(3), 87–127. https://doi.org/10.1257/pol.20180622 ‌ Platt, L. P., Grenfell, P., Meiksin, R., Elmes, J., Sherman, S. G., Sanders, T., Mwangi, P., & Crago, A.-L. (2018). Associations between sex work laws and sex workers’ health: A systematic review and meta-analysis of quantitative and qualitative studies. PLoS Medicine, 15(12). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1002680 ‌ Vanwesenbeeck, I., Bakker, F., & Gesell, S. (2010). Sexual Health in the Netherlands: Main Results of a Population Survey Among Dutch Adults. International Journal of Sexual Health, 22(2), 55–71. https://doi.org/10.1080/19317610903425571 ‌ Vanwesenbeeck, I. (2013). Prostitution push and pull: Male and female perspectives. Journal of Sex Research, 50(1), 11-16. Maslow, A., & Lewis, K. J. (1987). Maslow's hierarchy of needs. Salenger Incorporated, 14(17), 987-990. https://www.justiceacademy.am/assets/uploads/Maslow.pdf McNamara, R. (2016). The trouble with whorephobia. Journal of Religion and Culture, 27(1), 13-34. McKeever, N. (2025). Is Sex Work Inherently Gendered? Hypatia, 40(3), 633–652. doi:10.1017/hyp.2024.56 ‌Redwood, R. (2018). Myths and Realities of Male Sex Work. Red light labour: Sex work regulation, agency, and resistance, 167-180.[https://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&lr=&id=8GJoDwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA167&dq=Myths+and+Realities+of+Male+Sex+Work&ots=mQOUglmuLU&sig=XHi0ybe124LABeHMulfVUMeYsxw#v=onepage&q=Myths%20and%20Realities%20of%20Male%20Sex%20Work&f=false] Sex worker - Wikipedia. (2023). Wikipedia.Org. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sex_worker}} ==External links== [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/10.1086/324390.pdf?casa_token=lfbXJZ0pqcQAAAAA:Y2KROCBvBcyTR_OkV9GU9nGAnh5lp0VKsrro0wiLqGF_MeXybi6-z3pvrxj97OM6GMvGv6r_Zbmt_s9RvHKDiUw3JzDhAPWvsSz3uzNI4nXa_mNdM5o A Theory of Prostitution] (The University of Chicago Press) [https://www.cdc.gov/sexual-violence/about/about-sex-trafficking.html About Sex Trafficing] (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention) [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/24987949.pdf?refreqid=fastly-default%3Af21bffe92b59f3868c81a7143b186da7&ab_segments=&initiator=&acceptTC=1 AIDS in 1988] (JSTOR) [[wikipedia:Catholic_Church|Catholic Church]] (Wikipedia) [[wikipedia:Downtown_Eastside|Downtown Eastside]] (Wikipedia) [https://www.annualreviews.org/docserver/fulltext/psych/65/1/annurev-psych-010213-115057.pdf?expires=1790841225&id=id&accname=au&checksum=112378A7023548A83B7DDDA7288D0EA0 Gender Similarities and Differences] (The Annual Review of Psychology) [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/30048506.pdf?refreqid=fastly-default%3Abdd06e603789b9df6429bacfd93907fe&ab_segments=&initiator=&acceptTC=1 Human Trafficking] (JSTOR)‌ [http://cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/3EE28F1EAC9594C89B21F8E47C42D106/S0887536724000564a.pdf/is-sex-work-inherently-gendered.pdf Is Sex Work Inherently Gendered?] (Cambridge University Press) [[wikipedia:Mary_Magdalene|Mary Magdalene]] (Wikipedia) [[wikipedia:Robert_Pickton|Robert Pickton]] (Wikipedia) [[wikipedia:Sex_trafficking|Sex Trafficking]] (Wikipedia) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Sex]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Work motivation]] o09yirtrkskkn8s3wgqcj1not63cfai 2836404 2836403 2026-10-07T02:30:12Z U3261376 3106964 2836404 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Sex work motivation:<br>What motivates sex work and how does this impact worker experiences?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} [[File:“Sex workers rights are human rights” - Europride 2019.jpg|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. Prostitution in Sao Paulo, Brazil]] '''What would you do if you found yourself in this scenario?''' Feeling lost and left with little money of your own, but you have to make ends meet. What will you do when you have to pay your rent? What if you have a child? Would you turn to sex work to make ends meet? If you did... would that make your rights to a safe and trustworthy work environment just disappear? Sex work itself is illegal. Having been driven to such means to make ends meet, you must register as self-employed to pay taxes, buy a house, or even just be considered an employee. [https://doi.org/10.1080/14427591.2020.1830841. (Huglstad et al., 2020)]. Sex workers rights activists proclaim that sex work is work, that they are not victims in need of help, and that they are entitled to any basic human right (see Figure 1). That in itself poses another scenario: What drives people into sex work? Is it finance and convenience? Or is it pleasure and fun? {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[Sex education|Sex]] work or [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/10.1086/324390.pdf?casa_token=lfbXJZ0pqcQAAAAA:Y2KROCBvBcyTR_OkV9GU9nGAnh5lp0VKsrro0wiLqGF_MeXybi6-z3pvrxj97OM6GMvGv6r_Zbmt_s9RvHKDiUw3JzDhAPWvsSz3uzNI4nXa_mNdM5o prostitution] is a broad topic which includes many elements of sexual activities. In 2005, Harcourt defined "prostitution, [as] the provision of sexual services for money or its equivalent," ([https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1744977/pdf/v081p00201.pdf Harcourt, 2005]). To understand sex work as a concept it is important to first understand why people may turn to sex work for an income to begin with. This topic has been discussed at nauseum however often in a negative and clouded light. As stated in The Journal of Sex Research in 2013, it wasn't until the 1990's that literature that looked into this topic stopped looking at prostitutes as "predominantly... ‘‘evil characters’’ or ‘‘sick personalities.’’" ([https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00224499.2012.696285?casa_token=wgasXeCYwFAAAAAA:0Iuwx4QzcbYP0ZAj6GISEX5oDHr4t-phuo4VUxmwfMIVjTrLXaTBhIoYpXtC9r0WaeYaxII3ObSZ Vanwesenbeeck, 2013]) and carrying a lense of ""simmering abhorrence, incomprehension, and fascination" (Vanwesenbeeck, 2013) towards these individuals. Some of the main concepts that will be unpacked below are what motivates people to go into sex work, answers are commonly, "financial, sexual, recreational motives, and coercion (i.e., [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/30048506.pdf?casa_token=pqlPp6XrnF0AAAAA:SFSvr6r_WKbLtO638dPPYk35oZFz9anPcub1Be7iUjk9AMX7a4h73yPLMJ6efSSxWVK7Az4Upc3UgohFYtht3QViGNIyTXPWCkBaY5lhRS_RGNFzUoA trafficking])" (Vanwesenbeeck, 2013), these experiences can often lead to negative workplace satisfaction. External influences like the adult entertainment industry and whorephobia can also heavily influence an individual's workplace satisfaction when working in the prostitution industry. To learn the in depth relationship between motivation to join sex work and the quality of said workplace satisfaction continue reading below! {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} '''Focus questions''' * What are the main driving forces causing people to turn to sex work? * What is the condition of work place satisfaction for sex workers? * How does whorephobia and others' actions towards sex workers effect their work place? * Do those who turn to sex work for pleasure have different experiences to those who do so for money alone? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Driving forces pushing people towards sex work == There are many driving forces that can influence someone's motivation to enter any kind of work force. Unfortunatly financial motives are often what pushes people to turn to the sex trade. Although there is evidence that some do find pleasure and positive experiences through sex work. So, those who turn to sex work for pleasure have different experiences to those who do so for money alone? === Intrinsic motivation === It would be irresponsible to look at motivation without first adressing key theories that may explain why a person would perform any behaviour. By looking at [[Intrinsic motivation|intrinsic motivational]] forces that may influence someone into the sex trade it can give a fuller explination of their actions. What internal need are they fulfilling by performing these actions? Intrinsic motivation falls under the "definition of [an] action as rewarding in itself" (Fishbach & Woolley, 2021), not nesseserily the outcome/ final goal. Although economic needs are a common factor of joining the sex trade — and is considered an extrinsically motivating factor — there is "research confirming that individuals sometimes enter this occupation for reasons of personal fulfillment" ([https://pdf.sciencedirectassets.com/271730/1-s2.0-S0925753520X00063/1-s2.0-S0925753520301922/main.pdf?X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEBEaCXVzLWVhc3QtMSJHMEUCIDrCbvs%2F7w0X0S3yCXuLyXMAVemZDC49LGi7ggPpj1wjAiEA6QCj0FxUNyErmwrB1VC%2BreVNTnWp6Ks7KsE3E7x391YqvAUI2v%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2FARAFGgwwNTkwMDM1NDY4NjUiDBNmdKhbptxvmOh4WSqQBXwnDyLbNEknRXvNDbinpDHQJUc%2FGchy79eEQNCK1aSExCTctRYZQfwSEb%2Blh%2BiqbpjqVmEmUyRYf9MjZRPISeI7qTxt6LEBsCMnLF85bPAwYdGBfemRX8rc2OUulZ8aFuPFw9ziwJVX0xGOlL5Rd1U%2FQufCATv6aU7%2FSuTu8Q89bqP6QVUlA4xPEcFnI0goxABkBfBZbPck5FgRkP65OLSbAQp%2FTwaKssf1N6S4QrpAPOLv3QqrtkKp%2BVAMRhaO9PgKBdkfLjm80Y%2FiXp4uxBeV0BPtLbJ61mFI8bUMWZu5W5sqYj%2B5UL5hcCmxXUgwRFyyoA8gE5sed%2BFUeNfW2JLXEE5Q%2BNNF55gtEwlVuknu%2Bu2wArB0x3VI3rsqxqG5xR4%2Bog7yLIJGThjLd%2BHycAsCqk103w7YpMEIYoHkSkipbn0dCSgA5ug33kze8NIuJGVOC9KI5Sql2O0g%2BXm1KkgAbUPlicrcBkhAHsm9vVLDTlqD3A2tztVsuByRGY0pYATYVpazB3ko56XjIRXCGtS0csSYOzNwf3mp5H1fSXlb%2Ftrc10dBfF%2FKu5rFoq2%2FEgSXeYfm1DKiJVUzd%2Bxx53KtVsjK87FTifPGFRQP4I%2BJ483CjmXgkOanXoyr5MGNMMpEtVjp7%2F%2FW0wSJ383dYolbBYuHMBwlfKjAAHks1xMD8VXgIG%2F6xqVG5jrxBzRSHDBeIJ8vkm6IiNvwI%2FWzkUt2wsEncVyoGFXUCwqND6hPtOkPqEgG7gLE1p17r7GSYBppEUhY4B8jyjQV%2FJ%2BWpHdTtBQnuyziu3o9rzjidaLTGmC5oxy9xnpkiQboG7dckbBDn6Rt6qKGrlXfbsVt9dZgJZds7A5TZZCUxhX%2BEL4KMPbCjdYGOrEBjBdYKKt7s3fLZAAb%2BiGijeb%2F2xjDDXXLUCBygZL%2FcKAqstp0xG22ToNSpMyp5dpak9949g%2FQkiLxNJAxuvhKSUMDRB9GWxHspz8wjagXVBuuYkLPx3pkL5ul2Zzg3usF6OVvQR%2BFA8YlnaycMT44jQbz%2FAfU3SDfSJls72IGy3l4Mh%2BjsaohXm8yVtiLd%2BLj3bqX08ml35Lp3%2BGdZe3%2BZotYzxQjGzbK7i3WdrNHOWKR&X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Date=20261005T090336Z&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&X-Amz-Expires=300&X-Amz-Credential=ASIAQ3PHCVTY2P7Y2UF6%2F20261005%2Fus-east-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Signature=94bcb1072eb8f4f5725e7945b8a9ce58dfa3e490385104eaec2eb25f622762f8&hash=212a8d38d7e3c70d0609d9375b9ee0e51905cc164ffcd1ac8b4b7e37ea99e04a&host=68042c943591013ac2b2430a89b270f6af2c76d8dfd086a07176afe7c76c2c61&pii=S0925753520301922&tid=spdf-a8772b34-02ec-4ab0-b162-7ce50de56625&sid=000ad11f535f4044542b07711eb49dbf8ff1gxrqa&type=client&tsoh=d3d3LnNjaWVuY2VkaXJlY3QuY29t&rh=d3d3LnNjaWVuY2VkaXJlY3QuY29t&ua=1b13065557075052530452&rr=a45b410e1b13f6f7&cc=au Arnold et al., 2020]) which more closly alligns into intrinsic motives. === Extrinsic motivation === Influences that effect people on an external level, or [[Extrinsic motivation|extrinsic motivations]], are influences that effect people outwardly, forces that are harder for an individual to control. A common driving factor for joining sex work, as stated above, is earning money — an outward influence. A paper published in 2021 by [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.586235/full Ernst, et al]. shows evidence to support the link between monetary needs and sex work by looking at the topic from the lense of a student in debt. === Maslow's hierarchy of needs === [[File:Maslow's hierarchy of needs.svg|thumb|290x290px|'''Figure 2'''. Maslow's Heirarchy of Needs]] Having covered the basics of what forces both internal and external drive people into the sex work industry, the lense of [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's heirarchy of needs]] – refer to Figure. 2 for reference photo – can now be applied. A. H. Maslow drew from both intrinsic and extrinsic influences when making the heirarchy of needs. However Maslow defines a difference in the prevelence of a need and states that some needs will draw motivation for action then others, fr exsmple "A person who is lacking food, safety, love, and esteem would most probably hunger for food more strongly than for anything else" (Maslow, 1987). A possible reason for those who become sex workers through external motives – needing food, water or shelter – may find themselves in more compromising positions then those who enter through intrinsic fulfilment. A study collected data over a 3 year period and focused on data collected from over 100 prostitues in Denvour Colarado, this study stated "most of whom struggle with homelessness, addiction, and compromised mental and physical health" ([https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s13178-014-0163-8.pdf Dewey & St. Germain, 2014]). Because of there place on Maslow's model, extrinsicly motivated people may be trying to go from physiological to saftey. Where as, intrinsic may be seeking love/belonging possibly leading to more positive work satisfaction then others. == How does the sex work industry differ when looking at male sex workers == {| class="wikitable" |+Percentages showing [https://www.annualreviews.org/docserver/fulltext/psych/65/1/annurev-psych-010213-115057.pdf?expires=1790841225&id=id&accname=au&checksum=112378A7023548A83B7DDDA7288D0EA0 gender differences] in paying for vs working in sex ! !Participate in sex work !Pay for sex work |- |Men |20% |12% |- |Women |80% |1% |} In past years the sex trade has been veiwed as a primerily female dominated career, though men and women to take part in the transaction of sexual favours. In 2006 a study in the netherlands concluded that "3% of both men and women in the adult population (19 to 69 years of age) reported ever having received money for sex" ([https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/19317610903425571?casa_token=sDZAxkVnpLsAAAAA:8IjuI8blrONnsvny4LV0C2Vk4C2ltfOlOt2_Kkf-G1EfBgrGwdhCLxG7959b6OAMuelLbyed8bd3 Bakker & Vanwesenbeeck, 2006]). Although both sexes take part, how does the gender divide split worker satisfaction? It is important to mention that the research of [[transgender]] individuals in the sex trade is highly limited and needs to be more heavily researched. === The difference in male sex workers === Male sex workers often get overlooked in media as well as acedemically, an "analysis of 166 social science academic articles on sex work found that a majority did not mention male sex workers" ([http://cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/3EE28F1EAC9594C89B21F8E47C42D106/S0887536724000564a.pdf/is-sex-work-inherently-gendered.pdf McKeever, 2025]). Not only does gender tell a part in this story but so does sexuality. The stigma of male sex workers was rampent during the [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/24987949.pdf?refreqid=fastly-default%3Af21bffe92b59f3868c81a7143b186da7&ab_segments=&initiator=&acceptTC=1 aids] crisis when male sex workers were seen as problamatic to spreading the disease. Older papers of male sex workers characterizes them as more faminine and rooted in homosexuality, in the 20th century they are "characterized as young, heterosexual, and innocent victims of older, predatory perverts" ([https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00224499.2012.760189?casa_token=MwObuzJvcRUAAAAA:y2bj4pT8W0FJZBr3AYul37bEqXRu_jKD8-CBJDOU1N3Z_Y4WuAixv5SF9F0RPZVeCSrD3Ew5fSl9 Minichiello et al., 2013]). The experience of male sex workers is vastly influenced by external influences (ie. gender, sexuality, clientel) however when compared to women in how they are veiwed "female but not male sex work [is] degrading, causing deep feelings of shame and remorse" ([https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s12147-008-9051-y.pdf Dennis, 2008]). Those influences also dictate the quality of male prostitutes workplace experiences and satisfation. Minichiello et al. (2013), in a paper focusing on the changes in the male sex work industry states that the "intrinsic nature of sex work is not oppressive, and that there are different kinds of worker and client experiences and varying degrees of victimization, exploitation, agency, and choice".{{Robelbox|title=Future directions|theme=5}}[[File:“Sex work is work” - Europride 2019.jpg|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. Sex work is work]] ;Where to next? Although in recent years, studies like a paper written by McKeever in 2025 titled, 'Is Sex Work Inherently Gendered?', have produced a more wholistic perspective in the research of prostitution – considering the sexes (male and female) as a factor – more research must be undertaken. Importantly from an unbiased perspective. To fully understand the stigmatised occupation, one must first have all the information from all percectives to make a truly informed oppinion. Enacting change, if warented, should be done from an unbiased party with an informed understanding of the profession.{{Robelbox/close}} <quiz display="simple"> {There are more women in the sex trade then there are men: |type="()"} - True + False {Men also experience negative stereotypes when participating in the sex trade: |type="()"} - False + True </quiz> == Whorephobia and how it influences workplace satisfaction == [https://www.jrc-concordia.ca/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/Journal-of-Religion-and-Culture-Vol-27-no-1.pdf#page=13 Whorephobia] is ever present in the line of sex work, unfavorable opinions of sex workers has influenced others' behaviour towards them as well as their treatment in their workplace. Arnold et al. in 2020 said in their paper that "on a continuum from amotivation through extrinsic to intrinsic motivation. We consider this as an individual difference variable that changes the relationship between perceived physical danger and desire to leave the sex work occupation". This study provides evidence that sex workers may change their line of work based on their perceved physical danger – tieing back into the earlier topic of Maslow's heirarchy of needs. A prostitues' workplace satisfsction heavily relies of their clientels; oppinions, behaviour, beliefs, and actions. These external factors can be influenced by whorephobia. This negative stigma has been seen throughout time and was seen in The Holy [[Bible]] when refrencing [[wikipedia:Mary_Magdalene|Mary Magdalene]] and her sexual transactions. Despite her depiction as a prostitue has been renounced by the Roman [[wikipedia:Catholic_Church|Catholic Church]], the foundation of sin was already engrained in many Catholic's mind. How does this widley held belief and stigma towards prostitutes/ sex workers effect their workplace satisfaction and saftey? === Sex trafficing === One of the downsides to prostitution and transactional sexual exchanges being illegal is there being a high demand for [[wikipedia:Sex_trafficking|sex trafficking]]. Recent studies "show that criminalization and the imposition of governmental restrictions on (otherwise legal) prostitution markets, respectively, induce exit of (voluntary) sex workers" ([https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/110505/1/MPRA_paper_110505.pdf Azam et al., 2021]) which there for produces demand of illegal sexual extortion. Sex trafficking is a social issue that spans the globe, it is the illegal sexual exploitation of individuals who are often unwilling. Individuals who are subjected to this trafficking are often coerced into participating through control over legal documents, threats of physical harm, isolation, and even legal threats. In a paper titled '<nowiki/>''Human Trafficking and Regulating Prostitution''' written by [https://www.ifn.se/media/f00drmqb/2022-lee-persson-human-trafficking-and-regulating-prostitution.pdf Lee & Persson] in 2022 speaks to the issue. Through review of past studdies they are able to succinctly infer that "coercion means that employees’ participation constraints need not be fully respected" (Lee & Persson, 2022). === Police force practices and criminalisation === A factor that historically has negativley influenced prostitutes' workplaces' saftey is the neglagence of police officers towards sex workers. In Denver Colarado "policing practices, and the legislation that informs them, criminalize women for engaging in the street-based sex work and drug use activities that make up the majority of their everyday lives" (Dewey & St. Germain, 2014). This unfortunate criminalisation of prostitues has lead to individuals who participate in sex work to take riskier actions to ensure their way of life. This criminalisation of prostitution leads to a volitile and unsafe workplace, leading to unsatisfactory workplace satisfaction. In the past, the neglegence of police officers in taking concerns into the welbeing of sex workers has directly lead to serial killings to occur. In the case of [[wikipedia:Robert_Pickton|Robert Pickton]], many prostitues who worked along [[wikipedia:Downtown_Eastside|Vancouvers Downtown Eastside]] – a location infamous for its prostitution activity with "estimated... numbers rangng in the thousands, with their drug addiction regularly posited as an explanation for their cheap tricks" ([[doi:10.29173/invoke48990|Dusome, 2020]]) – had reported that their friends/ colleuges were going missing when leaving with Pickton. If the police had take action towards Picktons' behaviuor many lives would hae been spared. Unfortunatly this is just one example of the past indifference police officers have had towards people who participate in the sex trade. In a paper published in 2018 by Platt et al. assessed in a meta-analysis of work spanning information, both qualitatinve and quantitative, collected between 1 January 1990 and 9 May 2018. This meta-analysis saw the interation between police misstreatment and the health/ quality of life of sex workers. Platt et al. states their data "showed that in contexts of criminalisation, the threat and enactment of police harassment and arrest of sex workers or their clients displaced sex workers into isolated work locations, disrupting peer support networks and service access, and limiting risk reduction opportunities" (Platt et al., 2018). This past of violence and displacement negativly impacts not only sex workers occupation, but also their general wellbeing. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}'''Real world example of the injustice of the justice system''' 'Sarah de Vries is among the women in the second set of murder charges against Pickton. A 1995 entry in her diary revealed the prostitute was aware of the dangers she faced working the streets of Downtown Eastside. "Am I next?" she wrote. "Is he watching me now? Is he stalking me like a predator and his prey? Waiting, waiting for some perfect spot, time or my stupid mistake."... It was not the first time Pickton has appeared before a judge. He was charged with attempted murder and unlawful confinement in 1997 in the case of sex worker Wendy Lynn Eistetter. She claimed she had been handcuffed and attacked at the farm, but Pickton countered he acted in self-defense and for reasons that remain unclear, the charges were dropped.' (CBS, 2007){{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Conclusion== The line of sex work is littered with personal dangers and a vast amount of extrinsic motivation. Through looking at Maslow's hierarchy of needs (Maslow, 1987) as well as scientific papers which undergo much needed research into what societal pressures push people into the prostitution industry (Dewey & St. Germain, 2014) – different motivations into sex work does have an impact on workplace satisfation. Extrinsic motivation was seen as being the most common influence to those who tur to sex work, often out of desperation. Recent research has depicted that the current condition of prostitues' workplace satisfaction is, unfortunatly, minimal. With whorephobia and predjudice towards those who turn to prostitution negatively effecting their ability to perform or safely earn money, not many are happy with their current situation (Dusome, 2020). However, research preformed by Arnold et al. in 2020 also shows that the motivations that push someone into the sex work industry can influence their workplace satisfation – regardless of the unpredictable environment they are still subjected too. Factors such as internal needs for love and connection can influence some to seek out prostitution. On the other end of the spectrum some seek sex work out as a means to make ends meet, earning enough money to get by while also putting themselves at risk. These two distinct drives have a direct impact on the quality of workplace satisfaction however these two influsences overlap and mix together in the melting pot that is the human psyche. Now having read this chapter and hopefully now having a fuller picture of what may motivate people to turn to sex work, you can make yout own informed oppinions about those who seek out this profesion. ==See also== * [[Bible]] (Wikiversity) * [[Extrinsic motivation|Extrincis motivation]] (Wikiversity) * [[Intrinsic motivation]] (Wikiversity) * [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikiversity) * [[Sex education]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Sex worker motivation|Sex work motivation]] (Book chapter, 2015) * [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.586235/full Students in the Sex Industry: Motivations, Feelings, Risks, and Judgments] (Fronteirs in Psychology) * [[Transgender]] (Wikiversity) ==References == {{Hanging indent|1=Arnold, K. A., Turner, N., Barling, J., & Iverson, R. D. (2020). Feeling safe while doing sex work: Motivation for entering sex work moderates the relationship between perceptions of physical danger and desire to leave sex work. 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Students in the sex industry: Motivations, feelings, risks, and judgments. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 586235. Fishbach, A., & Woolley, K. (2021). Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior The Structure of Intrinsic Motivation. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012420- ‌ Footer, K. H. A., White, R. H., Park, J. N., Decker, M. R., Lutnick, A., & Sherman, S. G. (2020). Entry to Sex Trade and Long-Term Vulnerabilities of Female Sex Workers Who Enter the Sex Trade Before the Age of Eighteen. Journal of Urban Health, 97(3), 406–417. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7305278/ Harcourt, C. (2005). The many faces of sex work. Sexually Transmitted Infections, 81(3), 201–206. https://doi.org/10.1136/sti.2004.012468 ‌ Huglstad, M., Halvorsen, I. L. I., Jonsson, H., & Nielsen, K. T. (2020). “Some of us actually choose to do this”: The meanings of sex work from the perspective of female sex workers in Denmark. Journal of Occupational Science, 29(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/14427591.2020.1830841. Lee, S., & Persson, P. (2022). Human Trafficking and Regulating Prostitution. American Economic Journal: Economic Policy, 14(3), 87–127. https://doi.org/10.1257/pol.20180622 ‌ Platt, L. P., Grenfell, P., Meiksin, R., Elmes, J., Sherman, S. G., Sanders, T., Mwangi, P., & Crago, A.-L. (2018). Associations between sex work laws and sex workers’ health: A systematic review and meta-analysis of quantitative and qualitative studies. PLoS Medicine, 15(12). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1002680 ‌ Vanwesenbeeck, I., Bakker, F., & Gesell, S. (2010). Sexual Health in the Netherlands: Main Results of a Population Survey Among Dutch Adults. International Journal of Sexual Health, 22(2), 55–71. https://doi.org/10.1080/19317610903425571 ‌ Vanwesenbeeck, I. (2013). Prostitution push and pull: Male and female perspectives. Journal of Sex Research, 50(1), 11-16. Maslow, A., & Lewis, K. J. (1987). Maslow's hierarchy of needs. Salenger Incorporated, 14(17), 987-990. https://www.justiceacademy.am/assets/uploads/Maslow.pdf McNamara, R. (2016). The trouble with whorephobia. Journal of Religion and Culture, 27(1), 13-34. McKeever, N. (2025). Is Sex Work Inherently Gendered? Hypatia, 40(3), 633–652. doi:10.1017/hyp.2024.56 ‌Redwood, R. (2018). Myths and Realities of Male Sex Work. Red light labour: Sex work regulation, agency, and resistance, 167-180.[https://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&lr=&id=8GJoDwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA167&dq=Myths+and+Realities+of+Male+Sex+Work&ots=mQOUglmuLU&sig=XHi0ybe124LABeHMulfVUMeYsxw#v=onepage&q=Myths%20and%20Realities%20of%20Male%20Sex%20Work&f=false] Sex worker - Wikipedia. (2023). Wikipedia.Org. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sex_worker}} ==External links== [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/10.1086/324390.pdf?casa_token=lfbXJZ0pqcQAAAAA:Y2KROCBvBcyTR_OkV9GU9nGAnh5lp0VKsrro0wiLqGF_MeXybi6-z3pvrxj97OM6GMvGv6r_Zbmt_s9RvHKDiUw3JzDhAPWvsSz3uzNI4nXa_mNdM5o A Theory of Prostitution] (The University of Chicago Press) [https://www.cdc.gov/sexual-violence/about/about-sex-trafficking.html About Sex Trafficing] (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention) [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/24987949.pdf?refreqid=fastly-default%3Af21bffe92b59f3868c81a7143b186da7&ab_segments=&initiator=&acceptTC=1 AIDS in 1988] (JSTOR) [[wikipedia:Catholic_Church|Catholic Church]] (Wikipedia) [[wikipedia:Downtown_Eastside|Downtown Eastside]] (Wikipedia) [https://www.annualreviews.org/docserver/fulltext/psych/65/1/annurev-psych-010213-115057.pdf?expires=1790841225&id=id&accname=au&checksum=112378A7023548A83B7DDDA7288D0EA0 Gender Similarities and Differences] (The Annual Review of Psychology) [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/30048506.pdf?refreqid=fastly-default%3Abdd06e603789b9df6429bacfd93907fe&ab_segments=&initiator=&acceptTC=1 Human Trafficking] (JSTOR)‌ [http://cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/3EE28F1EAC9594C89B21F8E47C42D106/S0887536724000564a.pdf/is-sex-work-inherently-gendered.pdf Is Sex Work Inherently Gendered?] (Cambridge University Press) [[wikipedia:Mary_Magdalene|Mary Magdalene]] (Wikipedia) [[wikipedia:Robert_Pickton|Robert Pickton]] (Wikipedia) [[wikipedia:Sex_trafficking|Sex Trafficking]] (Wikipedia) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Sex]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Work motivation]] dek16cgvh5q8ydjxs9c9012xgjdqd6j 2836405 2836404 2026-10-07T02:33:32Z U3261376 3106964 2836405 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Sex work motivation:<br>What motivates sex work and how does this impact worker experiences?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} [[File:“Sex workers rights are human rights” - Europride 2019.jpg|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. Prostitution in Sao Paulo, Brazil]] '''What would you do if you found yourself in this scenario?''' Feeling lost and left with little money of your own, but you have to make ends meet. What will you do when you have to pay your rent? What if you have a child? Would you turn to sex work to make ends meet? If you did... would that make your rights to a safe and trustworthy work environment just disappear? Sex work itself is illegal. Having been driven to such means to make ends meet, you must register as self-employed to pay taxes, buy a house, or even just be considered an employee. [https://doi.org/10.1080/14427591.2020.1830841. (Huglstad et al., 2020)]. Sex workers rights activists proclaim that sex work is work, that they are not victims in need of help, and that they are entitled to any basic human right (see Figure 1). That in itself poses another scenario: What drives people into sex work? Is it finance and convenience? Or is it pleasure and fun? {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[Sex education|Sex]] work or [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/10.1086/324390.pdf?casa_token=lfbXJZ0pqcQAAAAA:Y2KROCBvBcyTR_OkV9GU9nGAnh5lp0VKsrro0wiLqGF_MeXybi6-z3pvrxj97OM6GMvGv6r_Zbmt_s9RvHKDiUw3JzDhAPWvsSz3uzNI4nXa_mNdM5o prostitution] is a broad topic which includes many elements of sexual activities. In 2005, Harcourt defined "prostitution, [as] the provision of sexual services for money or its equivalent," ([https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1744977/pdf/v081p00201.pdf Harcourt, 2005]). To understand sex work as a concept it is important to first understand why people may turn to sex work for an income to begin with. This topic has been discussed at nauseum however often in a negative and clouded light. As stated in The Journal of Sex Research in 2013, it wasn't until the 1990's that literature that looked into this topic stopped looking at prostitutes as "predominantly... ‘‘evil characters’’ or ‘‘sick personalities.’’" ([https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00224499.2012.696285?casa_token=wgasXeCYwFAAAAAA:0Iuwx4QzcbYP0ZAj6GISEX5oDHr4t-phuo4VUxmwfMIVjTrLXaTBhIoYpXtC9r0WaeYaxII3ObSZ Vanwesenbeeck, 2013]) and carrying a lense of ""simmering abhorrence, incomprehension, and fascination" (Vanwesenbeeck, 2013) towards these individuals. Some of the main concepts that will be unpacked below are what motivates people to go into sex work, answers are commonly, "financial, sexual, recreational motives, and coercion (i.e., [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/30048506.pdf?casa_token=pqlPp6XrnF0AAAAA:SFSvr6r_WKbLtO638dPPYk35oZFz9anPcub1Be7iUjk9AMX7a4h73yPLMJ6efSSxWVK7Az4Upc3UgohFYtht3QViGNIyTXPWCkBaY5lhRS_RGNFzUoA trafficking])" (Vanwesenbeeck, 2013), these experiences can often lead to negative workplace satisfaction. External influences like the adult entertainment industry and whorephobia can also heavily influence an individual's workplace satisfaction when working in the prostitution industry. To learn the in depth relationship between motivation to join sex work and the quality of said workplace satisfaction continue reading below! {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} '''Focus questions''' * What are the main driving forces causing people to turn to sex work? * What is the condition of work place satisfaction for sex workers? * How does whorephobia and others' actions towards sex workers effect their work place? * Do those who turn to sex work for pleasure have different experiences to those who do so for money alone? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Driving forces pushing people towards sex work == There are many driving forces that can influence someone's motivation to enter any kind of work force. Unfortunatly financial motives are often what pushes people to turn to the sex trade. Although there is evidence that some do find pleasure and positive experiences through sex work. So, those who turn to sex work for pleasure have different experiences to those who do so for money alone? === Intrinsic motivation === It would be irresponsible to look at motivation without first adressing key theories that may explain why a person would perform any behaviour. By looking at [[Intrinsic motivation|intrinsic motivational]] forces that may influence someone into the sex trade it can give a fuller explination of their actions. What internal need are they fulfilling by performing these actions? Intrinsic motivation falls under the "definition of [an] action as rewarding in itself" (Fishbach & Woolley, 2021), not nesseserily the outcome/ final goal. Although economic needs are a common factor of joining the sex trade — and is considered an extrinsically motivating factor — there is "research confirming that individuals sometimes enter this occupation for reasons of personal fulfillment" ([https://pdf.sciencedirectassets.com/271730/1-s2.0-S0925753520X00063/1-s2.0-S0925753520301922/main.pdf?X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEBEaCXVzLWVhc3QtMSJHMEUCIDrCbvs%2F7w0X0S3yCXuLyXMAVemZDC49LGi7ggPpj1wjAiEA6QCj0FxUNyErmwrB1VC%2BreVNTnWp6Ks7KsE3E7x391YqvAUI2v%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2FARAFGgwwNTkwMDM1NDY4NjUiDBNmdKhbptxvmOh4WSqQBXwnDyLbNEknRXvNDbinpDHQJUc%2FGchy79eEQNCK1aSExCTctRYZQfwSEb%2Blh%2BiqbpjqVmEmUyRYf9MjZRPISeI7qTxt6LEBsCMnLF85bPAwYdGBfemRX8rc2OUulZ8aFuPFw9ziwJVX0xGOlL5Rd1U%2FQufCATv6aU7%2FSuTu8Q89bqP6QVUlA4xPEcFnI0goxABkBfBZbPck5FgRkP65OLSbAQp%2FTwaKssf1N6S4QrpAPOLv3QqrtkKp%2BVAMRhaO9PgKBdkfLjm80Y%2FiXp4uxBeV0BPtLbJ61mFI8bUMWZu5W5sqYj%2B5UL5hcCmxXUgwRFyyoA8gE5sed%2BFUeNfW2JLXEE5Q%2BNNF55gtEwlVuknu%2Bu2wArB0x3VI3rsqxqG5xR4%2Bog7yLIJGThjLd%2BHycAsCqk103w7YpMEIYoHkSkipbn0dCSgA5ug33kze8NIuJGVOC9KI5Sql2O0g%2BXm1KkgAbUPlicrcBkhAHsm9vVLDTlqD3A2tztVsuByRGY0pYATYVpazB3ko56XjIRXCGtS0csSYOzNwf3mp5H1fSXlb%2Ftrc10dBfF%2FKu5rFoq2%2FEgSXeYfm1DKiJVUzd%2Bxx53KtVsjK87FTifPGFRQP4I%2BJ483CjmXgkOanXoyr5MGNMMpEtVjp7%2F%2FW0wSJ383dYolbBYuHMBwlfKjAAHks1xMD8VXgIG%2F6xqVG5jrxBzRSHDBeIJ8vkm6IiNvwI%2FWzkUt2wsEncVyoGFXUCwqND6hPtOkPqEgG7gLE1p17r7GSYBppEUhY4B8jyjQV%2FJ%2BWpHdTtBQnuyziu3o9rzjidaLTGmC5oxy9xnpkiQboG7dckbBDn6Rt6qKGrlXfbsVt9dZgJZds7A5TZZCUxhX%2BEL4KMPbCjdYGOrEBjBdYKKt7s3fLZAAb%2BiGijeb%2F2xjDDXXLUCBygZL%2FcKAqstp0xG22ToNSpMyp5dpak9949g%2FQkiLxNJAxuvhKSUMDRB9GWxHspz8wjagXVBuuYkLPx3pkL5ul2Zzg3usF6OVvQR%2BFA8YlnaycMT44jQbz%2FAfU3SDfSJls72IGy3l4Mh%2BjsaohXm8yVtiLd%2BLj3bqX08ml35Lp3%2BGdZe3%2BZotYzxQjGzbK7i3WdrNHOWKR&X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Date=20261005T090336Z&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&X-Amz-Expires=300&X-Amz-Credential=ASIAQ3PHCVTY2P7Y2UF6%2F20261005%2Fus-east-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Signature=94bcb1072eb8f4f5725e7945b8a9ce58dfa3e490385104eaec2eb25f622762f8&hash=212a8d38d7e3c70d0609d9375b9ee0e51905cc164ffcd1ac8b4b7e37ea99e04a&host=68042c943591013ac2b2430a89b270f6af2c76d8dfd086a07176afe7c76c2c61&pii=S0925753520301922&tid=spdf-a8772b34-02ec-4ab0-b162-7ce50de56625&sid=000ad11f535f4044542b07711eb49dbf8ff1gxrqa&type=client&tsoh=d3d3LnNjaWVuY2VkaXJlY3QuY29t&rh=d3d3LnNjaWVuY2VkaXJlY3QuY29t&ua=1b13065557075052530452&rr=a45b410e1b13f6f7&cc=au Arnold et al., 2020]) which more closly alligns into intrinsic motives. === Extrinsic motivation === Influences that effect people on an external level, or [[Extrinsic motivation|extrinsic motivations]], are influences that effect people outwardly, forces that are harder for an individual to control. A common driving factor for joining sex work, as stated above, is earning money — an outward influence. A paper published in 2021 by [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.586235/full Ernst, et al]. shows evidence to support the link between monetary needs and sex work by looking at the topic from the lense of a student in debt. === Maslow's hierarchy of needs === [[File:Maslow's hierarchy of needs.svg|thumb|290x290px|'''Figure 2'''. Maslow's Heirarchy of Needs]] Having covered the basics of what forces both internal and external drive people into the sex work industry, the lense of [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's heirarchy of needs]] – refer to Figure. 2 for reference photo – can now be applied. A. H. Maslow drew from both intrinsic and extrinsic influences when making the heirarchy of needs. However Maslow defines a difference in the prevelence of a need and states that some needs will draw motivation for action then others, fr exsmple "A person who is lacking food, safety, love, and esteem would most probably hunger for food more strongly than for anything else" (Maslow, 1987). A possible reason for those who become sex workers through external motives – needing food, water or shelter – may find themselves in more compromising positions then those who enter through intrinsic fulfilment. A study collected data over a 3 year period and focused on data collected from over 100 prostitues in Denvour Colarado, this study stated "most of whom struggle with homelessness, addiction, and compromised mental and physical health" ([https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s13178-014-0163-8.pdf Dewey & St. Germain, 2014]). Because of there place on Maslow's model, extrinsicly motivated people may be trying to go from physiological to saftey. Where as, intrinsic may be seeking love/belonging possibly leading to more positive work satisfaction then others. == How does the sex work industry differ when looking at male sex workers == {| class="wikitable" |+Percentages showing [https://www.annualreviews.org/docserver/fulltext/psych/65/1/annurev-psych-010213-115057.pdf?expires=1790841225&id=id&accname=au&checksum=112378A7023548A83B7DDDA7288D0EA0 gender differences] in paying for vs working in sex ! !Participate in sex work !Pay for sex work |- |Men |20% |12% |- |Women |80% |1% |} In past years the sex trade has been veiwed as a primerily female dominated career, though men and women to take part in the transaction of sexual favours. In 2006 a study in the netherlands concluded that "3% of both men and women in the adult population (19 to 69 years of age) reported ever having received money for sex" ([https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/19317610903425571?casa_token=sDZAxkVnpLsAAAAA:8IjuI8blrONnsvny4LV0C2Vk4C2ltfOlOt2_Kkf-G1EfBgrGwdhCLxG7959b6OAMuelLbyed8bd3 Bakker & Vanwesenbeeck, 2006]). Although both sexes take part, how does the gender divide split worker satisfaction? It is important to mention that the research of [[transgender]] individuals in the sex trade is highly limited and needs to be more heavily researched. === The difference in male sex workers === Male sex workers often get overlooked in media as well as acedemically, an "analysis of 166 social science academic articles on sex work found that a majority did not mention male sex workers" ([http://cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/3EE28F1EAC9594C89B21F8E47C42D106/S0887536724000564a.pdf/is-sex-work-inherently-gendered.pdf McKeever, 2025]). Not only does gender tell a part in this story but so does sexuality. The stigma of male sex workers was rampent during the [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/24987949.pdf?refreqid=fastly-default%3Af21bffe92b59f3868c81a7143b186da7&ab_segments=&initiator=&acceptTC=1 aids] crisis when male sex workers were seen as problamatic to spreading the disease. Older papers of male sex workers characterizes them as more faminine and rooted in homosexuality, in the 20th century they are "characterized as young, heterosexual, and innocent victims of older, predatory perverts" ([https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00224499.2012.760189?casa_token=MwObuzJvcRUAAAAA:y2bj4pT8W0FJZBr3AYul37bEqXRu_jKD8-CBJDOU1N3Z_Y4WuAixv5SF9F0RPZVeCSrD3Ew5fSl9 Minichiello et al., 2013]). The experience of male sex workers is vastly influenced by external influences (ie. gender, sexuality, clientel) however when compared to women in how they are veiwed "female but not male sex work [is] degrading, causing deep feelings of shame and remorse" ([https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s12147-008-9051-y.pdf Dennis, 2008]). Those influences also dictate the quality of male prostitutes workplace experiences and satisfation. Minichiello et al. (2013), in a paper focusing on the changes in the male sex work industry states that the "intrinsic nature of sex work is not oppressive, and that there are different kinds of worker and client experiences and varying degrees of victimization, exploitation, agency, and choice". {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}[[File:“Sex work is work” - Europride 2019.jpg|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. Sex work is work]] ;Where to next? Although in recent years, studies like a paper written by McKeever in 2025 titled, 'Is Sex Work Inherently Gendered?', have produced a more wholistic perspective in the research of prostitution – considering the sexes (male and female) as a factor – more research must be undertaken. Importantly from an unbiased perspective. To fully understand the stigmatised occupation, one must first have all the information from all percectives to make a truly informed oppinion. Enacting change, if warented, should be done from an unbiased party with an informed understanding of the profession.{{RoundBoxBottom}}<quiz display="simple"> {There are more women in the sex trade then there are men: |type="()"} - True + False {Men also experience negative stereotypes when participating in the sex trade: |type="()"} - False + True </quiz> == Whorephobia and how it influences workplace satisfaction == [https://www.jrc-concordia.ca/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/Journal-of-Religion-and-Culture-Vol-27-no-1.pdf#page=13 Whorephobia] is ever present in the line of sex work, unfavorable opinions of sex workers has influenced others' behaviour towards them as well as their treatment in their workplace. Arnold et al. in 2020 said in their paper that "on a continuum from amotivation through extrinsic to intrinsic motivation. We consider this as an individual difference variable that changes the relationship between perceived physical danger and desire to leave the sex work occupation". This study provides evidence that sex workers may change their line of work based on their perceved physical danger – tieing back into the earlier topic of Maslow's heirarchy of needs. A prostitues' workplace satisfsction heavily relies of their clientels; oppinions, behaviour, beliefs, and actions. These external factors can be influenced by whorephobia. This negative stigma has been seen throughout time and was seen in The Holy [[Bible]] when refrencing [[wikipedia:Mary_Magdalene|Mary Magdalene]] and her sexual transactions. Despite her depiction as a prostitue has been renounced by the Roman [[wikipedia:Catholic_Church|Catholic Church]], the foundation of sin was already engrained in many Catholic's mind. How does this widley held belief and stigma towards prostitutes/ sex workers effect their workplace satisfaction and saftey? === Sex trafficing === One of the downsides to prostitution and transactional sexual exchanges being illegal is there being a high demand for [[wikipedia:Sex_trafficking|sex trafficking]]. Recent studies "show that criminalization and the imposition of governmental restrictions on (otherwise legal) prostitution markets, respectively, induce exit of (voluntary) sex workers" ([https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/110505/1/MPRA_paper_110505.pdf Azam et al., 2021]) which there for produces demand of illegal sexual extortion. Sex trafficking is a social issue that spans the globe, it is the illegal sexual exploitation of individuals who are often unwilling. Individuals who are subjected to this trafficking are often coerced into participating through control over legal documents, threats of physical harm, isolation, and even legal threats. In a paper titled '<nowiki/>''Human Trafficking and Regulating Prostitution''' written by [https://www.ifn.se/media/f00drmqb/2022-lee-persson-human-trafficking-and-regulating-prostitution.pdf Lee & Persson] in 2022 speaks to the issue. Through review of past studdies they are able to succinctly infer that "coercion means that employees’ participation constraints need not be fully respected" (Lee & Persson, 2022). === Police force practices and criminalisation === A factor that historically has negativley influenced prostitutes' workplaces' saftey is the neglagence of police officers towards sex workers. In Denver Colarado "policing practices, and the legislation that informs them, criminalize women for engaging in the street-based sex work and drug use activities that make up the majority of their everyday lives" (Dewey & St. Germain, 2014). This unfortunate criminalisation of prostitues has lead to individuals who participate in sex work to take riskier actions to ensure their way of life. This criminalisation of prostitution leads to a volitile and unsafe workplace, leading to unsatisfactory workplace satisfaction. In the past, the neglegence of police officers in taking concerns into the welbeing of sex workers has directly lead to serial killings to occur. In the case of [[wikipedia:Robert_Pickton|Robert Pickton]], many prostitues who worked along [[wikipedia:Downtown_Eastside|Vancouvers Downtown Eastside]] – a location infamous for its prostitution activity with "estimated... numbers rangng in the thousands, with their drug addiction regularly posited as an explanation for their cheap tricks" ([[doi:10.29173/invoke48990|Dusome, 2020]]) – had reported that their friends/ colleuges were going missing when leaving with Pickton. If the police had take action towards Picktons' behaviuor many lives would hae been spared. Unfortunatly this is just one example of the past indifference police officers have had towards people who participate in the sex trade. In a paper published in 2018 by Platt et al. assessed in a meta-analysis of work spanning information, both qualitatinve and quantitative, collected between 1 January 1990 and 9 May 2018. This meta-analysis saw the interation between police misstreatment and the health/ quality of life of sex workers. Platt et al. states their data "showed that in contexts of criminalisation, the threat and enactment of police harassment and arrest of sex workers or their clients displaced sex workers into isolated work locations, disrupting peer support networks and service access, and limiting risk reduction opportunities" (Platt et al., 2018). This past of violence and displacement negativly impacts not only sex workers occupation, but also their general wellbeing. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}'''Real world example of the injustice of the justice system''' 'Sarah de Vries is among the women in the second set of murder charges against Pickton. A 1995 entry in her diary revealed the prostitute was aware of the dangers she faced working the streets of Downtown Eastside. "Am I next?" she wrote. "Is he watching me now? Is he stalking me like a predator and his prey? Waiting, waiting for some perfect spot, time or my stupid mistake."... It was not the first time Pickton has appeared before a judge. He was charged with attempted murder and unlawful confinement in 1997 in the case of sex worker Wendy Lynn Eistetter. She claimed she had been handcuffed and attacked at the farm, but Pickton countered he acted in self-defense and for reasons that remain unclear, the charges were dropped.' (CBS, 2007){{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Conclusion== The line of sex work is littered with personal dangers and a vast amount of extrinsic motivation. Through looking at Maslow's hierarchy of needs (Maslow, 1987) as well as scientific papers which undergo much needed research into what societal pressures push people into the prostitution industry (Dewey & St. Germain, 2014) – different motivations into sex work does have an impact on workplace satisfation. Extrinsic motivation was seen as being the most common influence to those who tur to sex work, often out of desperation. Recent research has depicted that the current condition of prostitues' workplace satisfaction is, unfortunatly, minimal. With whorephobia and predjudice towards those who turn to prostitution negatively effecting their ability to perform or safely earn money, not many are happy with their current situation (Dusome, 2020). However, research preformed by Arnold et al. in 2020 also shows that the motivations that push someone into the sex work industry can influence their workplace satisfation – regardless of the unpredictable environment they are still subjected too. Factors such as internal needs for love and connection can influence some to seek out prostitution. On the other end of the spectrum some seek sex work out as a means to make ends meet, earning enough money to get by while also putting themselves at risk. These two distinct drives have a direct impact on the quality of workplace satisfaction however these two influsences overlap and mix together in the melting pot that is the human psyche. Now having read this chapter and hopefully now having a fuller picture of what may motivate people to turn to sex work, you can make yout own informed oppinions about those who seek out this profesion. ==See also== * [[Bible]] (Wikiversity) * [[Extrinsic motivation|Extrincis motivation]] (Wikiversity) * [[Intrinsic motivation]] (Wikiversity) * [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikiversity) * [[Sex education]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Sex worker motivation|Sex work motivation]] (Book chapter, 2015) * [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.586235/full Students in the Sex Industry: Motivations, Feelings, Risks, and Judgments] (Fronteirs in Psychology) * [[Transgender]] (Wikiversity) ==References == {{Hanging indent|1=Arnold, K. A., Turner, N., Barling, J., & Iverson, R. D. (2020). Feeling safe while doing sex work: Motivation for entering sex work moderates the relationship between perceptions of physical danger and desire to leave sex work. Safety science, 129, 104795.[https://pdf.sciencedirectassets.com/271730/1-s2.0-S0925753520X00063/1-s2.0-S0925753520301922/main.pdf?X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEDgaCXVzLWVhc3QtMSJIMEYCIQDLwNUlkBLTVH2W9sUG%2FL8xBiniafqj2YjDThRYfM8j7gIhAPpb6usou%2FCfun2GlN94HXvsSkZFNyb27ndcS5LYkmOqKrIFCAEQBRoMMDU5MDAzNTQ2ODY1IgwVqu3mdLMxIbQQT4EqjwVyEzAMhHQLz8i1mRyce46T7kq8nFGMPfsWbvGbIjwD5sTztgejH2H6uoazHE3ceLn%2BHJAMU2gcjulIYqlqCSyvPuWe%2BScfjOHfBfQZnctFdUl2oWqaahIi9YzAVcTWeftoZk%2FylcCfLerGklhqD7HwVv2vZdBzsx94xmqQ1V1uUbIbAIkJ30NfSj00z1cSaUL1q96wM120kL%2By3Fd%2FYRnMyLzgn343yVJM%2BYWksKgOiezOVEa%2BhmIbNUYzcpb%2Fkcah8UWIgZWXjdLp2fZTJB2yCYbj091PqbNLxbKvPvqaCnGI%2BSTaCPpupfKIdR02m2jepxiZI8%2FZrLGy71f0vYzU%2Be120AQZZCPdjTZZAOP9xB%2Bvfpp48EyclSYmN0rSn2bZcMSiqosJl%2Bz6BiiW3J9SmbZXGNWeECGltEiG%2FP%2FRiZ0uB94c2nIGVzBsfJ4fe7UAD3mlWR9UBCT5FirlPE3Dzap%2BH1xnOe%2BGN481xmH1YSoL3FACDW8J5HUez%2BURv5vTzFDq4nON4cFWhMdgPNfu8v%2BjU35utqWccWAfsows5CFE%2FdiNDUQa7EI1XwF00wtRp2k06DjOWBl%2FggL2duXPWFHHaJnOEovHXAGzQUl%2FzBocvEbkU%2BstJU3AjUwCqbrDZRVZay0dd7OLQ6NCZTFxvZrhEoOwYukzgYt02XtXs23oNKc8QK8jPBsjSx8K1Xj9V9tPB5eBTptias5DuJnme5GPMo0H0rehhAFIbH1iz5aLEJ2WFAs2YMajNB9b8K9hsdcsufqw3IWvDgGjJl491SPFYv4AkHpfF%2B2OEEmH9hDMp3rnzv686gQ5u2%2FmSKrDsChJ2JSpJUuTnHdHBZrk%2Fwzx%2BpsfpZ4zLVgKx0K6MJOGtdQGOrAB7mHiroFpJKweD4wGdVv4twWKj65wn3ZS715WCDMXnol3ZjKerxKwtTiAS8MYNXREK5yRc6R%2BCtHqgkfO1QIL6y35fyD0iOWFO6ZYrI1IePcEupQe4Ao%2B8i5%2Bz9PydRXrVVCjz1A9o6ZcLX9dN59jVDboJOpZsOpXxuErU9LEKNKGTqVoHfJq%2FpKSdZkltmLsDvSAgBZORP2gpikUUQyl6A0CxzJ3SGD1ZrqXN39XlWY%3D&X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Date=20260825T084050Z&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&X-Amz-Expires=300&X-Amz-Credential=ASIAQ3PHCVTYZDNOMNKH%2F20260825%2Fus-east-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Signature=222054776072dd684a9220ca5e137f808570de2f4b46a74fc1fac36b8741d31e&hash=9077aea1050680fe483f80515f312051569ddf0b7a50ba90c1511bc6ef136d06&host=68042c943591013ac2b2430a89b270f6af2c76d8dfd086a07176afe7c76c2c61&pii=S0925753520301922&tid=spdf-2823bc10-4a39-4f2b-8a32-7409653a6f56&sid=6bbf6c2f3a5ff545d91b09f2929365875304gxrqa&type=client&tsoh=d3d3LnNjaWVuY2VkaXJlY3QuY29t&rh=d3d3LnNjaWVuY2VkaXJlY3QuY29t&ua=1b130057565d500d535050&rr=a3094b5109a37504&cc=au] Azam, A., Hendrickx, J., & Adriaenssens, S. (2021). Estimating the Prostitution Population in the Netherlands and Belgium: A Capture-Recapture Application to Online Data. Munich Personal RePEc Archive (MPRA). https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/110505/ ‌ Canada’s Largest-Ever Murder Trial Begins. (2007, January 22). CBS News. https://www.cbsnews.com/news/canadas-largest-ever-murder-trial-begins/ ‌ Dennis, J. P. (2008). Women are Victims, Men Make Choices: The Invisibility of Men and Boys in the Global Sex Trade. Gender Issues, 25(1), 11–25. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12147-008-9051-y ‌ Dewey, S., & St. Germain, T. (2014). “It Depends on the Cop:” Street-Based Sex Workers’ Perspectives on Police Patrol Officers. Sexuality Research and Social Policy, 11(3), 256–270. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13178-014-0163-8 ‌ Dusome, J. (2020). Lost and Forgotten: Missing and Murdered Sex Workers on Vancouver's Downtown Eastside. INVOKE, 6. Ernst, F., Romanczuk-Seiferth, N., Köhler, S., Amelung, T., & Betzler, F. (2021). Students in the sex industry: Motivations, feelings, risks, and judgments. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 586235. Fishbach, A., & Woolley, K. (2021). Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior The Structure of Intrinsic Motivation. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012420- ‌ Footer, K. H. A., White, R. H., Park, J. N., Decker, M. R., Lutnick, A., & Sherman, S. G. (2020). Entry to Sex Trade and Long-Term Vulnerabilities of Female Sex Workers Who Enter the Sex Trade Before the Age of Eighteen. Journal of Urban Health, 97(3), 406–417. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7305278/ Harcourt, C. (2005). The many faces of sex work. Sexually Transmitted Infections, 81(3), 201–206. https://doi.org/10.1136/sti.2004.012468 ‌ Huglstad, M., Halvorsen, I. L. I., Jonsson, H., & Nielsen, K. T. (2020). “Some of us actually choose to do this”: The meanings of sex work from the perspective of female sex workers in Denmark. Journal of Occupational Science, 29(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/14427591.2020.1830841. Lee, S., & Persson, P. (2022). Human Trafficking and Regulating Prostitution. American Economic Journal: Economic Policy, 14(3), 87–127. https://doi.org/10.1257/pol.20180622 ‌ Platt, L. P., Grenfell, P., Meiksin, R., Elmes, J., Sherman, S. G., Sanders, T., Mwangi, P., & Crago, A.-L. (2018). Associations between sex work laws and sex workers’ health: A systematic review and meta-analysis of quantitative and qualitative studies. PLoS Medicine, 15(12). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1002680 ‌ Vanwesenbeeck, I., Bakker, F., & Gesell, S. (2010). Sexual Health in the Netherlands: Main Results of a Population Survey Among Dutch Adults. International Journal of Sexual Health, 22(2), 55–71. https://doi.org/10.1080/19317610903425571 ‌ Vanwesenbeeck, I. (2013). Prostitution push and pull: Male and female perspectives. Journal of Sex Research, 50(1), 11-16. Maslow, A., & Lewis, K. J. (1987). Maslow's hierarchy of needs. Salenger Incorporated, 14(17), 987-990. https://www.justiceacademy.am/assets/uploads/Maslow.pdf McNamara, R. (2016). The trouble with whorephobia. Journal of Religion and Culture, 27(1), 13-34. McKeever, N. (2025). Is Sex Work Inherently Gendered? Hypatia, 40(3), 633–652. doi:10.1017/hyp.2024.56 ‌Redwood, R. (2018). Myths and Realities of Male Sex Work. Red light labour: Sex work regulation, agency, and resistance, 167-180.[https://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&lr=&id=8GJoDwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA167&dq=Myths+and+Realities+of+Male+Sex+Work&ots=mQOUglmuLU&sig=XHi0ybe124LABeHMulfVUMeYsxw#v=onepage&q=Myths%20and%20Realities%20of%20Male%20Sex%20Work&f=false] Sex worker - Wikipedia. (2023). Wikipedia.Org. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sex_worker}} ==External links== [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/10.1086/324390.pdf?casa_token=lfbXJZ0pqcQAAAAA:Y2KROCBvBcyTR_OkV9GU9nGAnh5lp0VKsrro0wiLqGF_MeXybi6-z3pvrxj97OM6GMvGv6r_Zbmt_s9RvHKDiUw3JzDhAPWvsSz3uzNI4nXa_mNdM5o A Theory of Prostitution] (The University of Chicago Press) [https://www.cdc.gov/sexual-violence/about/about-sex-trafficking.html About Sex Trafficing] (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention) [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/24987949.pdf?refreqid=fastly-default%3Af21bffe92b59f3868c81a7143b186da7&ab_segments=&initiator=&acceptTC=1 AIDS in 1988] (JSTOR) [[wikipedia:Catholic_Church|Catholic Church]] (Wikipedia) [[wikipedia:Downtown_Eastside|Downtown Eastside]] (Wikipedia) [https://www.annualreviews.org/docserver/fulltext/psych/65/1/annurev-psych-010213-115057.pdf?expires=1790841225&id=id&accname=au&checksum=112378A7023548A83B7DDDA7288D0EA0 Gender Similarities and Differences] (The Annual Review of Psychology) [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/30048506.pdf?refreqid=fastly-default%3Abdd06e603789b9df6429bacfd93907fe&ab_segments=&initiator=&acceptTC=1 Human Trafficking] (JSTOR)‌ [http://cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/3EE28F1EAC9594C89B21F8E47C42D106/S0887536724000564a.pdf/is-sex-work-inherently-gendered.pdf Is Sex Work Inherently Gendered?] (Cambridge University Press) [[wikipedia:Mary_Magdalene|Mary Magdalene]] (Wikipedia) [[wikipedia:Robert_Pickton|Robert Pickton]] (Wikipedia) [[wikipedia:Sex_trafficking|Sex Trafficking]] (Wikipedia) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Sex]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Work motivation]] b67ys6g3zvsgfpqok2m55dp6puu9crk 0 331106 2836430 2831214 2026-10-07T04:02:31Z U3283302 3106299 2836430 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Self-disclosure and emotional intimacy:<br>How does self-disclosure foster emotional closeness in relationships?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Stockcouple.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. Stock image of couple hugging]] ; Picture this... Jim and Pam have been dating for a few months; things have been going well but at times there is noticeable emotional distance between them. One night Jim tells Pam that “I haven’t talked to anyone about this, but I’m terrified one day you will get bored and leave”, this confession opens the flood gates for Jim and Pam to share their deepest fears and anxieties. In this moment, an invisible barrier dissolves, they have discovered a new profound sense of trust and understanding. A new and deeper layer of their relationship has been unlocked; there is an emotional closeness that wasn’t there before. Why does this self-disclosure from Jim create this emotional closeness between him and Pam? {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section (180 to 330 words) (ignore) # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topic''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Key points: * What is self-disclosure? Self-disclosure is the voluntary process of sharing personal thoughts, feeling and information with another person. Self-disclosure is one of the most significant and effective ways to initiate and enhance relationship intimacy, and to maintain positive personal relationships (Forgas, 2011). * How self-disclosure relates to emotional intimacy * Brief overview of the importance of emotional closeness * How psychological science can help {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What is the relationship between self-disclosure and emotional intimacy? * What role does reciprocal self-disclosure play in emotional closeness in relationships? * How can self-disclosure in relationships be fostered? {{RoundBoxBottom}} Resources (ignore): * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] == Self-disclosure & emotional intimacy == *Define in [[wikipedia:Self-disclosure|self-disclosure]] in further depth *Factors that affect self-disclosure [[File:Bdspt.model.webp|'''Figure 2.''' Social Penetration Theory Model (Pecune, 2013).|alt=Figure 2. Social Penetration Theory Model (Pecune, 2013).|thumb|258x258px]] === Social penetration theory (Altman & Taylor, 1973) === * Breadth: range of topics & Depth: intimacy level. * Depth levels: Superficial layer (publicly observable characteristics), Intimate layer (opinions, worldviews ect.), Personal layer (fears, goals, secrets), Core layer (highly protected, emotional needs & vulnerabilities). (See figure 2). * The 5 stages of social penetration: Orientation, Exploratory affective exchange, Affective exchange, Stable exchange, Depenetration (see below, Table 1). {| class="wikitable" |+Table 1. The 5 stages of social penetration & examples. !Five stages of social penetration !Examples |- |Orientation |Small talk, adhering to social norms |- |Exploratory affective exchange |Personal attitudes & preferences |- |Affective exchange |Casual relaxed communication, honest opinions, deeper emotional disclosures |- |Stable exchange |Open connection, deep core values, emotional reactions are predictable |- |Depenetration |Optional phase, communication breadth & depth withdraw |} === Social exchange theory (Thibaut & Kelley, 1959) === * Rewards (benefits) vs costs of self-disclosure (cost-benefit analysis) * Eg. Rewards: companionship, validation, emotional relief. Costs: fear of rejection, loss of privacy, judgement. * Relationships thrive when self-disclosure remains profitable. === What is [[wikipedia:Emotional_intimacy|emotional intimacy]]? === * Definition *Why we strive for emotional intimacy *Different types of relationships & emotional intimacy - stranger on the train phenomenon *How can self-disclosure increase emotional intimacy? How does emotional intimacy build relationships? ; ;Quiz<quiz display="simple"> {Who developed social penetration theory? |type="()"} + Irwin Altman & Dalmas Taylor - Carl Rogers & Abraham Maslow </quiz> ==Reciprocal self-disclosure & emotional closeness== * Definition of reciprocal self-disclosure * Norm of reciprocity * The Dyadic Effect, mutual feedback & energy matching. * Building trust<br /> ==Fostering self-disclosure== * How to encourage self-disclosures * How to respond to self-disclosures * Boundaries & barriers * Importance of self-disclosures === Learning features (ignore) === {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action (Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations) * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1), Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted Table 1 A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * How does self-disclosure foster emotional closeness in relationships? Signals vulnerability, builds trust, increases understanding, and progresses relationships. * What is the relationship between self-disclosure and emotional intimacy? Self-disclosure drives emotional intimacy... * What role does reciprocal self-disclosure play in emotional closeness in relationships? Shared cycle of vulnerability, trust, mutual understanding. * How can self-disclosure in relationships be fostered? Start slow, reciprocity! Validation & listening. Match pacing and comfortability. * Take home messages Notes (ignore): *The Conclusion is arguably the most important section (150-330 words) * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Responsiveness and interpersonal trust|Responsiveness and interpersonal trust]] (Book chapter, 2026) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Self-disclosure and well-being|Self-disclosure and well-being]] (Book chapter, 2025) * [[wikipedia:Social_exchange_theory|Social exchange theory]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Social_penetration_theory|Social penetration theory]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Altman, I., & Taylor, D. (1973). ''Social penetration: The development of interpersonal relationships''. Halsted Press. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1973-28661-000 Derlega, V. J., Winstead, B. A., & Greene, K. (2008). Self-disclosure and starting a close relationship. In S. Sprecher, A. Wenzel, & J. Harvey (Eds.), ''Handbook of relationship initiation''. Psychology Press. 53–174. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2008-09972-008 Forgas, J. P. (2011). Affective influences on self-disclosure: Mood effects on the intimacy and reciprocity of disclosing personal information. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100''(3). 449-461. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021129 Greene, K., Derlega, V. J., & Mathews, A. (2006). Self-disclosure in personal relationships. In A. L. Vangelisti & D. Perlman (Eds.), ''The Cambridge handbook of personal relationships.'' Cambridge University Press. 409-427. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511606632.023 Pecune, F. (2013). Toward a computational model of social relations for artificial companions. ''Proceedings - 2013 Humaine Association Conference on Affective Computing and Intelligent Interaction''. 677-682. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/261271664%20Toward%20a%20Computational%20Model%20of%20Social%20Relations%20for%20Artificial%20Companions DOI:10.1109/ACII.2013.118] Tolstedt, B. E., & Stokes, J. P. (1984). Self-disclosure, intimacy, and the depenetration process. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46''(1). 84-90. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.46.1.84 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z4bRXozREKU&t=90s Self-disclosure in personal relationships: How to stop oversharing] (youtube.com) * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/between-the-sheets/202011/why-romantic-intimacy-requires-self-disclosure Why romantic intimacy requires self-disclosure] (psychologytoday.com) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Relationships]] agn8y4nc16wskw2hccgjblzhmclrj34 0 331110 2836361 2836306 2026-10-07T00:15:20Z Yellowvines 3106353 /* Emotional Response Patterns */ 2836361 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Moral disgust and jury decision-making: How does moral disgust impact jurors' judgements of guilt, blame, and punishment?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Trial by Jury - Chaos in the Courtroom.png | thumb | right | 250px |'''Figure 1'''. A jury is a group of sworn individuals who determine a defendant's guilt. ]] Consider sitting on a jury. The defendant appears composed, well-dressed, and speaks clearly. Someone like this couldn't have done anything bad — that's your instinct. Then you hear the charge: embezzlement. Over three years, they quietly transferred company funds to a personal account. Thousands of dollars were spent, and real people were harmed. You are angry. It's wrong. However, it does not make you feel sick. Consider the same composed defendant in the same courtroom, but this time the charge is posing as a charity volunteer to gain the trust of dying hospice patients before stealing the donations intended for their care. The financial loss is the same as the embezzlement case. Same amount, same number of victims. But something else arises in you. Not just anger, but more of a revulsion, as if something was contaminated. This doesn't simply feel like a crime. It has an unclean feeling to it. The same defendant. Same harm. So, why does one case make you feel cold and angry, while the other makes your skin crawl? And, aside from the actual harm done, could that visceral reaction be influencing how harshly you believe they should be punished? {{RoundBoxBottom}} It is the law that [https://www.monash.edu/law/news-and-events/news/2020/juries-why-do-we-actually-need-them-and-can-they-get-it-wrong jurors] {{ic|The law varies by jurisdiction; write for an international audience; Australians represent ~.3% of the world human population}} {{ic|Move external links to the External links section}} must base their verdicts on the facts of a case {{citation needed}}. But moral disgust, an emotional gut reaction, seems to influence how jurors assess guilt, blame and punishment, regardless of the strength of the evidence presented {{citation needed}}. A disgusted juror might unconsciously become more certain of guilt, assign more blame and suggest harsher punishment, regardless of what the facts actually establish. If disgust always biases judgements and sentences in one direction or the other, no matter how strong a case is, the implications are profound: wrongful convictions, disproportionate sentencing, and differences in the punishment of similar crimes depending on how “disgusting” the evidence seems, rather than the true seriousness of the crime {{long}}. It also raises questions for current legal practices: courts commonly admit gruesome evidence under the assumption that its evidentiary value outweighs its emotional impact, an assumption this body of research directly undermines {{citation needed}}. Psychological science provides the legal system with something it cannot produce itself: controlled empirical evidence about the nature and causes of this bias {{citation needed}}. It shows not only that jurors appear to be affected by emotion but also the processes (appraisal patterns, purity vs. harm, violations, and individual differences such as private body consciousness) that determine when and for whom the effect is strongest {{citation needed}}. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' *If disgust can make moral judgements more severe, even when it’s incidental to the act being judged, what does that say about the reliability of human moral reasoning? *Can moral disgust be used by the legal system? {{ic|Use open-ended questions}} *How might a juror's own sensitivity to physiological sensations of disgust impact how vulnerable they are to disgust-driven bias? *How can psychological theories be used to mitigate risks of bias in the legal system? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What is Moral Disgust? == {{ic|Include at least an introductory paragraph before branching into sub-headings}} === Disgust === [[w:Disgust|Disgust]] is one of the six universal emotions that humans experience and can be visually recognised on a person's face {{citation needed}}. The emotion of disgust is theorised to have originated from a biological protective mechanism to protect an organism from harm that may be brought on by food or poison {{citation needed}}. Disgust has evolved to become an emotion/behaviour directed at anything that may potentially cause harm or disease. For example, * body products * animals * hygiene * body violations, death or disease {{citation needed}} Paul Ekman proposed six basic emotions in his literature based on the theories that these emotions, across research all over the world, concluded in agreement on six emotions: happiness, surprise, fear, anger, sadness and disgust. Therefore, he proposed that the universality of these findings and the facial expression alone could conclude that there are 6 basic emotions (Ekman, 1992). === Moral Disgust === Moral disgust refers to the emotional response a person feels when their social or cultural norms are transgressed, therefore resulting in a reaction {{citation needed}}. Moral disgust is complex, and there is varying evidence for and against its genuine purpose as an emotion. Researchers argue that moral disgust is a metaphorical extension of physical disgust; shared facial expression, language, etc {{citation needed}}. Other researchers argue that it's functionally unique to traditional, physical disgust {{citation needed}}. It does not reliably trigger the same physiological processes: facial muscle activation, nausea, etc. (Chapman et al., 2012). Moral disgust is triggered by acts that are supposedly a violation of an individual's perceived purity or dignity {{citation needed}}. For example, betraying someone's trust (cheating on a partner) or exploiting a vulnerable person (as mentioned in the scenario at the start). Rozin et al. (1999) proposed a theory that moral disgust specifically clusters around violations of a person's divinity or purity. This is different from anger, which generally clusters around autonomy violations, also opposed to contempt, which clusters around community violations. This distinction is vital when discussing emotion for jurors. If moral disgust behaves differently from physical disgust, it may influence judgement in the courtroom through a different pathway than a simple reaction to physically disgusting evidence. Russell & {{ic|Use APA style for citations}} Giner-Sorolla (2013) discuss four competing arguments of disgust's role in moral condemnation. Firstly, the most flexible view of moral disgust that can be applied widely for many crimes is the general morality position. It claims that disgust is an all-purpose emotion which is seen through different kinds of moral disapproval, not just a narrow category. Secondly, disgust as a violation of bodily and spiritual purity is more specific. As mentioned prior, this claim is supported by Rozin's CAD (contempt, anger, disgust) triad. The third argument proposes that moral disgust is only a metaphor. The true emotion being experienced is anger, and individuals just use language as a metaphor (e.g., "that's disgusting") for how condemning they feel. Finally, Russell & Ginger-Sorolla's own claim for moral disgust is a middle ground for all the arguments in their research. Regardless of whether harm or justice is involved, they contend that disgust specifically tracks violations pertaining to the body and its products. Anger tends to co-occur with violations that are specifically related to justice, harm, or rights. This disgust behaves more like anger wearing the vocabulary of disgust than it does like bodily moral disgust. One study involved 148 participants ranking their emotions on a scale {{citation needed}}. It was found that moral disgust elicited as much as physical disgust did, which supports a claim that moral disgust is not a watered-down, metaphorical use of the feeling but a genuine, physical feeling of disgust. It was also revealed that moral disgust uniquely triggered a significantly higher feeling of mental contamination (feeling immoral) than core disgust did. This reveals an internalised feeling about your own moral state just from witnessing an immoral act, which ties back to Russell & Giner-Sorolla's bodily-violation pattern and strengthens Rozin et al.'s (1999) definition of moral disgust. This empirical study is evidence that core disgust attaches to bodily violations whilst non-bodily violations. If people respond to contact with an immoral person in a psychologically contaminating way — wanting distance, feeling “dirtied” by proximity — then a question arises about whether jurors exposed to a defendant’s morally disgusting conduct might respond in a similar contamination mode, thus influencing their desire to symbolically “cleanse” the situation via a harsher verdict or sentence. <quiz display="simple"> {Moral disgust and physical disgust are the same emotion: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> == Psychological Science in the Legal System == * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Criminal record stigma and emotion#Relevant theories|What psychological theories are present in the legal system]] {{expand}} === Social Identity Theory === Classic social identity theory posits that groups and whole organisations that possess the same cultural and social norms will have perceive themselves as sharing something in common {{citation needed}}. This adds to their own personal self-concept as an individual and as a member of a society/societies. Bronewasser & Bober (1987) argue that this theory describes a class or collective of people (people who may share traits but have no real interdependence) but not a genuine societal group. Groups depend on structure; roles, positions and relationships that require dependence from people. Through this theory, a jury is considered to be a genuine structured group. There are roles, a task and an interdependence through deliberation. This theory may offer a further point on why moral disgust may bias jurors. Moral disgust can function as a social categorisation cue, marking defendants as the out-group rather than in the jury's moral in-group. Bronewasser & Bober claim that even arbitary group labels are enough to produce an in-group favouritism and out-group favouritism. If a defendants act triggers moral disgust, this may mark them as being in the moral "outgroup" in a jurors mind. Independent of the actual evidence being presented, this compounds moral disgust biases. *social identity theory **a theory that posits that whole organisations and groups that possess the same cultural and social norms will all have similar self-concepts (Bornewasser & Bober, 1987). **The theory predicts that behaviours from this group will often be similar due to their similar self-concept. *[[w:Appraisal_theory|appraisal theory of emotion]] **appraisal theory of emotion is theory that specific emotions are extracted from evaluations of events which in turn impact a reaction which may differ depending on certain people. *evolutionary theory of emotion **this theory describes our emotions and reactions being biological reactions to stimuli. ***for example, disgust has come from protecting oneself from poisons. == Disgust as a Legally Relevant Emotion == * Disgust should not be seen as legally relevant, as that would be a personal bias. * How can you create a courtroom that is free from bias if you do not take into account the impact of disgust? * Maybe disgust shouldn't be seen as an impacting emotion but rather a factor that needs to be considered when a jury is shown pictures, footage, and witness statements in court. === Arguments For === * Patrick Devlin's belief that we should allow some degree of the shared morality view of society through emotions {{citation needed}} ** Within society, when crimes are viewed as "disgusting" or cause widespread intolerance, there is an importance to the intervention of the legal system (Lacey, 2023). * Informing the "Reasonable Person" Standard ** This is a theory that jurors will judge acts (particularly those involving negligence or abuse) based on what they believe they would have done in that situation. Or more accurately to the theory, what would a reasonably prudent person (RPP) have done (Alicke & Weigel, 2021)? === Arguments Against === * [[wikipedia:Harm_principle|harm principle limitation]] ** Developed by John Stuart Mills, the harm principle limitation states the following: ** "The only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilised community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others." [[wikisource:On_Liberty/Chapter_1|(Mill, 1869).]] ** This principle bars people within the legal system from criminalising an action because it makes most people feel moral disgust. * a tool for discrimination ** Historically, moral disgust has been a tool against those being charged with crimes of homosexuality and interracial marriages. == Moral Disgust and Juror Judgements == A jury is a group of 12 individuals that are carefully chosen to determine the guilt of an offender{{fact}} {{ic|Don't juries vary in size, depending on the juridstiction?}}. They are picked to be impartial, unbiased opinions that can aid in the determining of a person's guilt. Jurors are asked to make judgements based on the evidence presented to them in court. However, emotions play a large, unsuspecting role in determining the guilt of a person. Such is the reason why, in high-stakes cases, jurors are not allowed contact with the outside world or media during trials. Moral disgust in particular seems to have a large impact on the way that jurors perceive and shape jurors' judgements. Different emotions elicit different reactions based on the emotion and a person's appraisal patterns.{{fact}} === Emotional Response Patterns === Fishbein & Ajzen's (1975) expectancy-value model states that a person's given attitude towards an object is a direct function of the value that a person attaches to that object's attributes or outcomes. In explicit terms, a person's value on an object will be a direct function of the value that they place on said item and the positive or negative emotions they associate with it. Furthermore, the positive or negative characteristics that they associate with the object will be a weighted decision on the direct outcome that may occur due to the object. In a review of the role of emotion-induced expectancies, Desteno et al. (2004) argue that positive and negative emotions have been grouped together and oversimplified, which makes distinguishing them difficult. The studies found that specificity operates through an emotion-matching process. Whilst the study did not touch on disgust specifically, it found that persuasion about a situation increased when a person's current emotional state matched the emotional framing of a message. The broader emotion-specificity principle suggests a comparable mechanism that may apply to disgust. Older discourse has allowed for all emotions to be pushed into one category, but not all emotions push judgement in the same direction. Emotional appraisal patterns are the specific mental evaluations that an individual's brain makes about an event to determine how they feel about a situation. INSERT TABLE HERE W/ EVIDENCE === Integral versus Incidental Emotion Distinction === Research by Feigenson (2016) discusses the overall idea that juror emotions can affect judge responsibility, blame, guilt, punishment and damages. INSERT SOURCE ON WHY THIS IS A FOCUS. The core idea of the article follows the influence of integral and incidental emotions. Integral emotions are supposed to be caused by features of a particular case. Incidental emotions are emotions that arise, unrelated to the case. This foundational research posists that emotions may influence legal judgements through multiple different pathways. Within the research Feigenson (2016) theorises the emotional effects on information processing. It reveals that different emotions can effect how deeply a juror processes emotions. Anger is generally associated with more certainity about the evidence which leads to individuals being less likely to process information as they are confident they already know enough to address the task (Feigenson, 2016). Other emotions, for example anxiety, are generally associated with more uncertaintity which leads to more systematic information processing (Feigenson, 2016). Saddened by emotional testimony, mock jurors in a criminal reckless driving case were able to identify inconsistencies more precisely, which is a sign of systematic information processing (Semmler & Brewer, 2002). The emotion-congruency effect is a process that casues a person to judge based in the direction of the emotion they are feeling. Although Feigenson (2016) does not explicitly research how disgust is influenced by emotion there is other empirical research that researches the impact of disgust on these emotional information processing pathways. Rather than claiming that the research should be generalised to consider disgust, it should be considered that further research needs to be conducted to understand the role of moral disgust in a courtroom. This leaves open whether moral disgust causes jurors to be more certain or uncertain about informatin in the courtroom. * * these effects may over or under estimate the influence on cases * this article does not beleif that moral intuitionism provides strong evidence that emotions have a greater influence on real legal decisions. * the effects on information processing ** different emotions can affect how deeply people process information. ** this ties back to Rozin and Giner and Sorella (double check this) ** anger is generally associated with more certainty which means that people are less likely to carefully process information *** they rely on more heuristic cues and consider fewer factors ** anxiety is generally considered with more uncertainty ** leads to more systematic information processing ** mock jurors who became sad from emotional testimony were better at identfying inconsistencies in testimonies that neutral participants * directional processing * emotions can cause a person to interpret information in the direction similar to the emotion ** called the emotion-congruency effect (look into this because the source only gave anger, need disgust related information) * informational effects: people can treat their emotions as information about a thing they are judging (called the affect-as-information model) ** people can often mistakenly attribute their current emotional state to the target of their judgement ** in legal judgements research has examined how integral emotions can act as information when judging responsiblity and blame ** severity of harm: more serious injuries caused participants to feel more sympathy for the victim and blame the defendant more ** hypocritical offenders:a hypocritical offender produced greater anger * different emotional effects can happen at the same time: one emotion can influence how information is processed while also influencing the direction of the judgement * multiple emotions can occur: jurors may experience different emotions toward different people in the same case. multiple emotions such as anger and disgust can interact * it is important to identify the different emotional pathways because: ** different pathways can produce different outcomes ** it helps understand the relationships between emotion, cognition and judgement * how strong are emotional effects ** meta analysis have found an effect of emottions on legal responsibility judgements ** this means that emotions do matter but other factors also play a role in explaining legal judgements ** lab studies may produce weaker emotions than real trials * moral intuitionism: this argues that peoples immediate emotional reactions to morally relevant situations play a very important role in their judgements ** jurors have the opportunity to override or reconsider their intial reactions through conscious reasoning, reframing a sitaution or talking to other people. this means that emotions dont neccessarily dominate legal judgements. === What is the evidence? === * Ghelfi et al (2020) * research suggests that physical and moral disgust may have overlapping processes * previous studies have found that inducing physical disgust (bad smells or bitter tastes) could lead to harsher moral judgements * replicated across 11 studies * it tested ** whether a bitter beverage leads to harsher moral judgements than a sweet beverage or water ** whether the effect is stronger among politically conservative participants than liberal participants * used a 3x3 between-subjects design ** beverage: bitter, sweet or neutral ** political orientation: conservative, liberal or other * 1,137 participants * drank beverage and then rated 6 moral vignettes on how wrong they believed the behaviour to be * participants also rated how bitter, sweet, neutral or disgusting they found the beverage to be. * bitter vs sweet effect was negligible same with the bitter vs neutral * effects sizes were signficantlly smaller than the original study * original Eskine et al (2011) study: ** bitter, sweet or neutral beverage before reading six moral scenarios ** those who drank a bitter beverage judged actions more harshly than those who drank sweet or neutral ** the study found that those who were more politically conservative were more affected by the bitter taste than liberal participants. ** there were originally 57 participants which found a large statistically significant effect ** a replication study was considered important because of the large effects and small sample Jylkkä, J., Härkönen, J., & Hyönä, J. (2021). Incidental disgust does not cause moral condemnation of neutral actions. ''Cognition and Emotion'', ''35''(1), 96–109. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2020.1810639: * moralisation hypothesis ** disgust makes something that is normally morally neutral seem morally wrong ** the manipulation worked in the experiment ** participants were either shown disgusting or neutral pictures ** disgust group: M=3.01 ** control group: M= 0.25 ** significant results (p<.001) ** the researchers successfully made people feel more disgust with pictures ** but this did not turn morally neutral actions into morally wrong actions ** the moralisation hypothesis was not true * amplification hypothesis ** disgust only makes things that already morally wrong seem even worse ** experiment used disgusting videos and neutral videos ** the amplification hypothesis was also not supported For the table: Eskine et al (2011): bitter vs neutral: ''d''=1.09 AND bitter vs sweet: ''d''=1.22 Ghelfi E, Christopherson CD, Urry HL, et al. Reexamining the Effect of Gustatory Disgust on Moral Judgment: A Multilab Direct Replication of Eskine, Kacinik, and Prinz (2011). ''Advances in Methods and Practices in Psychological Science''. 2020;3(1):3-23. doi:10.1177/2515245919881152: 2nd column: average moral wrongness {| class="wikitable" |- |Bitter | align="right" |'''70.65''' |- |Neutral/control | align="right" |'''68.94''' |- |Sweet | align="right" |'''71.29''' |} Jylkkä, J., Härkönen, J., & Hyönä, J. (2021). Incidental disgust does not cause moral condemnation of neutral actions. ''Cognition and Emotion'', ''35''(1), 96–109. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2020.1810639</nowiki> jurors emotions and legal judgements: Feigenson, N. (2016). Jurors’ Emotions and Judgments of Legal Responsibility and Blame: What Does the Experimental Research Tell Us? ''Emotion Review'', ''8''(1), 26–31. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073915601223</nowiki> ** == Moderating Factors == * private body consciousness ** people who are more prone to experience their private bodily sensations show stronger disgust-driven bias *** An experiment conducted by Schnall et al. (2008) revealed that people who were more aware of their Private Body Consciousness (PBC) were more prone to feelings of disgust and expressing these feelings outwards to the situation at hand. * type of violation ** purity vs harm == Practical Implications == * evidentiary admissibility ** courts allow for the admission of gruesome photographic evidence but findings suggest this may be wrong *** research shows that people view crimes harsher if exposed to gruesome photos *** Additionally, Bright & Goodman-Delahunty's (2006) research discusses a person's use of their inner emotional states as a way to reason with information they are being given. *** In their affective influences model, affect is a judgement-simplifying heuristic device. People generally consult their affective state, meaning they consult their inner emotion to infer a judgement before looking at the facts. * jury selection * how evidence is presented ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": ==Conclusion== * What does this mean going further {{vague}} * What would future research benefit from in this specific section? *Moral disgust does not come with jurors' judgements, but rather it can measurably shift guilt, certainty, blame attribution and punishment severity. *This may be stronger for certain people; it cannot just be a blanket claim for all jurors. *The idea that jurors decide on the basis of facts alone is not psychologically sustainable. The practice of law {{ic|The practice of law goes beyond the target topic}} needs to consider this, rather than seeing emotions as a bias. * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Alicke, M. D., & Weigel, S. H. (2021). The reasonable person standard: Psychological and legal perspectives. Annual Review of Law and Social Science, 17(1), 123–138. Bornewasser, M., & Bober, J. (1987). Individual, social group and intergroup behaviour. Some conceptual remarks on the social identity theory. European Journal of Social Psychology, 17(3), 267–276. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1002/ejsp.2420170303 Bright, D. A., & Goodman-Delahunty, J. (2006). Gruesome evidence and emotion: Anger, blame, and jury decision-making. Law and Human Behavior, 30(2), 183–202. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10979-006-9027-y Chapman, H. A., & Anderson, A. K. (2012). Understanding disgust. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1251(1), 62–76. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2011.06369.x  DeSteno, D., Petty, R. E., Rucker, D. D., Wegener, D. T., & Braverman, J. (2004). Discrete emotions and persuasion: The role of emotion-induced expectancies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86(1), 43–56. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.86.1.43 Ekman, P. (1992). Are there basic emotions? Psychological Review, 99(3), 550–553. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.99.3.550 Fishbein, M., & Ajzen, I. (1975). Belief, attitude, intention, and behavior: an introduction to theory and research. Addison-Wesley Pub. Co. Lacey, N. (2023). Patrick Devlin, The enforcement of morals (1965). In [Book title] (1st ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003193982-5 Russell, P. S., & Giner-Sorolla, R. (2013). Bodily moral disgust: What it is, how it is different from anger, and why it is an unreasoned emotion. Psychological Bulletin, 139(2), 328–351. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1037/a0029319 Schnall, S., Haidt, J., Clore, G. L., & Jordan, A. H. (2008). Disgust as embodied moral judgment. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34(8), 1096–1109. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167208317771 {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u-TmKo75gJI How Disgust Shapes our Thoughts on Moral Wrong & the Political Right] (David Pizzaro) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Disgust]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Morality]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Legal]] 9i500ilvde8drzilz1jm4059ur52cnt 0 331144 2836309 2835949 2026-10-06T12:05:15Z U3246286 3105520 2836309 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Self-determination theory and military veteran reintegration:<br>How do autonomy, competence, and relatedness shape psychological adjustment after military service?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} ;Scenario [[File:Military-to-civilian reintegration.png|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. Transition from military service to civilian life]] What happens when the thing that gave your life structure suddenly vanishes? For many military veterans, leaving the service gains them freedom, but freedom can also bring uncertainty. After 15 years of military service including posting and deployments, a veteran returns home expecting civilian life to feel like freedom (see Figure 1) . Instead, freedom feels disorientating. For over a decade, their days were shaped by established routines, explicit expectations, clear responsibilities, a sense of belonging and being part of a team. Roles were understood. Decisions had purposes. Belonging was built into day-to-day life. The team was your support. Then, almost, overnight, the rules had changed. There are no longer orders telling them what needs to be done, no team waiting or relying on them, and no familiar structure defining what it means to be successful. Decisions that were once straightforward, now require navigating through uncertainty and often with little guidance or support. The confidence they had developed through military service may not cleanly translate into civilian life, whilst the relationships that brought connection and belonging may suddenly be hundreds or thousands of kilometres away. Disconnection is real. What was supposed to be liberation has now become a profound psychological adjustment. Self-determination theory provides an understanding of why. If military life has shaped how a veteran experiences autonomy, relatedness and competence {{ic|APA style uses serial commas}} , what happens when the life that once supported or constrained these needs is removed? {{RoundBoxBottom}}Military-to-civilian [wikilink military and civilian] transition is a major period of adjustment that brings an increased likelihood of psychosocial risk. This transition involves simultaneous changes to daily structure, social relationships, occupational roles, their identity, and sources of purpose. These changes can challenge veteran's wellbeing, motivation, and psychological adjustment as they adapt to a new environment. '''These transitions can have long-term implications to their wellbeing with 78% of Australian defence members experienced a difficult transition and 50% were still struggling after 10 years (Romanik, et al. 2024).''' Self-determination theory (SDT) provides a framework for understanding psychological adjustment by suggesting that autonomy, competence, and relatedness are basic psychological needs that are fundamental for wellbeing, quality of life, and psychological flourishing. Autonomy involves experiencing a sense of volition and choice, competence refers to feeling satisfactory and capable in their skills and relatedness refers to feeling connected to and valued by others (Ryan & Deci, 2022). Satisfaction of these needs support more autonomous motivation and positive psychological outcomes, whereas, frustration can undermine both wellbeing and motivation. This chapter applies SDT to military-to-civilian reintegration, it explores how military experiences and their transition to civilian life can either support or frustrate veterans' autonomy, competence, and relatedness. It'll examine how changes in these psychological needs may shape or influence veterans' emotional wellbeing, psychological adjustment, and motivation. Finally this chapter will consider how SDT-informed interventions can both support need satisfaction and facilitate a successful reintegration. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} ;Focus questions {{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}} 1. How does Self Determination Theory {{ic|Use APA style for capitalisation of theories (lower case)}} explain psychological adjustment during military-to-civilian transition? 2. How does satisfaction or frustration of autonomy, competence, and relatedness shape veterans' motivation and emotional wellbeing? 3. How military experiences and reintegration shape autonomy, competence, and relatedness? 4. How can Self Determination Theory informed interventions support psychological need satisfaction and successful reintegration? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == How does Self Determination Theory explain psychological adjustment during military-to-civilian transition? == Self-determination theory is an organismic and dialectical framework of human motivation and personality that was developed by Edward Deci and Richard Ryan. SDT offers an understanding for how motivation and psychological wellbeing are shaped by the interaction between individuals and their environments. Instead of viewing motivation as solely an individual characteristic, SDT suggests that social context can create conditions that either support healthy psychological development, or contribute to difficulties in psychological functioning. A key principle of SDT is that people require satisfaction of three basic psychological needs; autonomy, competence, and relatedness, to function effectively. === What is Self Determination Theory (SDT)? === SDT proposes that people have an inherent tendency towards development and growth, but social environments either support or interfere with this process. This theory considers both the individual and environment when explaining psychological functioning and motivation (Deci, & Ryan 2022). Autonomy is a core psychological need to experience oneself as the author of their own life, this includes having a sense of choice and self-direction in one's own actions. People can experience autonomy when their behaviour reflects their own interests, values, and choices rather than feeling influenced, coerced or controlled by external pressures. However, autonomy doesn't mean to be completely independent from others, instead, it involves experiencing one's behaviour as being personally endorsed and chosen. Competence is the need to feel both effective and capable in one's interaction with the environment. It involves feeling a sense of confidence in one's ability to manage tasks, achieve desired outcomes, and overcome different challenges. However, it's important to note that competence is not defined by an objective level of skill or an ability that someone possesses, instead, it's how capable and effective they perceive themselves as. Therefore, environments that create experiences of failure, criticism or an inability to manage demands might undermine this need. Relatedness is the feeling of being connected to and cared for by others, as well as having the opportunity to care for others. Individuals can experience feeling accepted, understood, valued, and developing a sense of belonging within a broader community. Relatedness is not just being surrounded by other people, but instead feeling a genuine connection and feeling that one has a meaningful place within a social group. When one experiences rejection, loneliness, or a loss of meaningful connections it can frustrate this need. Need satisfaction and need frustration are two ways to explain how environments can influence these psychological needs. Need satisfaction refers to when autonomy, competence and relatedness is supported, which promotes overall positive psychological wellbeing and growth. In contrast, need frustration can occur when these needs are actively undermined or blocked, which can contribute to distress, maladaptive behaviours, and ill-being. See table 1 below for a comparison of these needs. (Olafasen, et al. 2021) {| class="wikitable" |+Table 1. Need Satisfaction vs Need Frustration (Olafasen, et al. 2021) ! !Autonomy !Competence !Relatedness |- |Need satisfaction |experiencing choice, self-direction, freedom in ones' actions |experiencing mastery, capability and effectiveness in skills. |feeling a warm, secure and mutual care with others. |- |Need frustration |feeling controlled, pressured or compelled to act in an unwanted way |feeling incompetent, facing frequent failure and doubting abilities. |experiencing loneliness, alienation, and social exclusion. |} SDT also distinguishes between two forms of motivation, ranging from autonomous to controlled motivation. It also explains how these motivations relate to engagement, vitality, performance, and psychological health (Loverre, et al. 2024). Autonomous motivation includes intrinsic motivation and fully internalised extrinsic motivation, whereas, controlled motivation involves internal pressures or external demands. Therefore SDT does not only explain whether someone is motivated but also why they are motivated (Rybakovaite, et al. 2021). SDT provides a framework to understand the psychological adjustment that occurs during the military-to-civilian transition. The changes in roles, relationships, routines, and responsibilities can impact their autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Whilst a new environment might support some psychological needs, it may frustrate others. For example, increased freedom after service might provide greater autonomy, whereas, changes in roles and routines may challenge their feelings of competence. Similarly, changes in social connections may impact relatedness. Therefore, SDT suggests that psychological adjustment is influenced and effected by how well veterans' new environments support their psychological needs, rather than just focuses on the transition alone. The relationship between need satisfaction, frustration, wellbeing, and motivation is explored in the following sections. == How does satisfaction or frustration of autonomy, competence and relatedness shape veterans' motivation and emotional wellbeing? == Psychological need satisfaction provides a mechanism through social environments which can influence wellbeing, motivation, and psychological adjustment. SDT's value for understanding military-to-civilian transition is in it's ability to explain why similar transitions might produce different psychological experiences. Instead of assuming that leaving the military is inherently positive or negative, SDT proposes that adjustment mainly depends on whether veterans experience their new environments as either supportive or frustrating of their psychological needs. === Autonomy and the experience of choice === Autonomy is not always reduced by structure or externally defined expectations, instead, it can actually be supported when individuals understand and agree with the purpose behind an activity and personally endorse their own actions. However, it's important to note that autonomy does not necessarily require complete freedom or independence from external expectations. Grimell (2024) highlights the significance of this distinction as it links autonomy satisfaction with positive outcomes such as greater life satisfaction, wellbeing and vitality. In contrast, autonomy frustration occurs when individuals experience their volition as being undermined by micromanagement, excessive control, or restrictive expectations. This is particularly relevant in military contexts as structured roles and expectations do not always undermine autonomy. Military members may still experience a sense of choice when they understand the purpose of an activity and endorse the reasons for their actions. When structure is experienced as controlling rather than meaningful, it could contribute to autonomy frustration, increased likelihood of mental health issues, controlled motivation, and higher discharge rates. Therefore, findings illustrate that the effect of the military structure depends on whether the individual experiences it as meaningful and supportive rather than controlling. ''include another study.'' This distinction is also highly relevant throughout the military-to-civilian transition. During the transition veterans move from clearly defined roles and routines and have greater responsibility for their own employment, future goals and relationships. Whilst they may have greater choice, it does not automatically equal greater autonomy. Veterans may experience external pressure, uncertainty, or difficulty recognising meaningful alternatives post discharge. While veterans may have greater choices that create opportunities, choice alone does not guarantee autonomy. However, adjustment might not be solely dependent on the amount of freedom available but rather whether veterans can make decisions that are personally meaningful and consistent with their values. === Competence and the sense of capability === While competence involves feeling capable and effective, opportunities that provide individuals the ability to develop skills, experience achievement and receive feedback allow for competency to be strengthened. In the military setting, their training and roles can provide individuals the opportunity to demonstrate and build competence. However, competence may be frustrated when individuals feel unable to succeed or feel ineffective in a new environment. This can create difficulties and challenges during the military-to-civilian transition when veterans enter unfamiliar environments, workplaces, or struggle to translate their military skills to civilian employment. Tillberg, et al. 2026 identified that a major challenge that veterans face when reintergrating into society is translating their military skills into civilian employment as a significant challenge to veterans' perceived competence. Successful employment may provide opportunities to show their exisiting abilities and develop new skills which may have psychological influence structure beyond financial security and contribute to purpose, competence, and structure. === Relatedness and the need to belong === Relatedness involves feeling values and connected to by others, and when changing social environments these experiences can change considerably. Military service can provide strong sources of connection through teamwork, unit cohesion, shared military identity, and common experiences. Leaving the military may result in a disrupted established social network and may require veterans to develop new sources of connections within civilian communities (Barnett, et al. 2021). Frustration of relatedness and isolation can develop feelings of rejection, loneliness and experiences of alienation and exclusion. While maintaining military peer connections it may provide veterans with continuity during transition, yet, developing meaningful civilian relationships may support long-term adjustment. Changes in veterans' social connections could influence their sense of belonging and emotional wellbeing either positively or negatively as they establish their post-service lives. === Motivation and wellbeing === The satisfaction of autonomy, competence and relatedness are essential for optimal functioning and wellbeing. The satisfaction of these needs provide positive organisational outcomes with a more positive attitude and less turnover intentions, stronger psychological understanding, and more positive health and overall well-being. Satisfaction of these needs also create a higher likelihood of intrinsic motivation (Linden, et al. 2026). Whereas, frustration of these needs can contribute to less adaptive motivational outcomes. Therefore, SDT considers not only whether individuals are motivation but why they engaged in a behaviour. Autonomous motivation occurs when behaviour may be personally aligned and meaningful with one's values. Controlled motivation comprises of internal contingencies or external pressure, whereas, amotivation involves lack of intention or a perceived lack of purpose. This is important as veterans are required to navigate new responsibilities and goals following military service. For example, a veteran pursuing employment because it is personally meaningful and consistent with their own values could align with more autonomous motivation, whereas, someone pursuing employment for external pressure reflects more controlled motivation. Amotivation could occur when veterans struggle to identify a purpose for their action or believe that their efforts will not produce meaningful actions. Therefore, it's important to understand the reasons underlying veterans' behaviour as it can provide insight into their motivation and psychological adjustment. (Linden, et al. 2026) === Interacting needs === Autonomy, competence, and relatedness should not be considered completely independent, SDT conceptualises them as interrelated and collectively can contribute to optimal function and positive psychological wellbeing (Mobbs, et al. 2018). Satisfaction and frustration of these needs may occur concurrently across different life contexts, importantly frustration in one area may also coincide with difficulties and challenges in another. This is applicable for veterans, as they may experience significant changes across social, family, and occupational domains. Raabe et al. (2024) observed that veterans' transition can involve challenges across all three psychological needs. This includes changes in choice and control thats relevant to autonomy, relationships within the military which is connected to relatedness and challenges translating military skills into civilian employment which impacts competence. Similarly, Lanning et al. (2024) found improvements in autonomy, competence, and relatedness amongst military service members and veterans after a 5-week therapeutic programme. They reported an increase in satisfaction and a decrease in frustration, alongside reduced integration difficulties. Together, these findings suggest that examining psychological needs together may provide a comprehensive understanding of veterans' adjustment rather than considering each need independently. For example, difficulty securing significant and meaningful civilian employment might challenge competency whilst simultaneously challenging opportunities for social connection and autonomy. Similarly, supportive post-service environments may provide opportunities to satisfy competence, autonomy, and relatedness, this could facilitate a more successful reintegration. == How does military experiences and reintegration shape autonomy, competence and relatedness? == Military services creates a highly structured occupational and social environment through clearly defined roles, hierarchy, shared identity and collective goals. These features can strengthen and support psychological needs through occupational responsibilities, training, unit cohesion, and teamwork, however, it may create potential tensions with autonomy when structure is experienced as controlling. Reintegration changes these conditions irrespective of whether they were positive or negative environments of new roles, expectations, relationships, and responsibilities. However, experiences may differ depending on whether veterans' discharge is voluntary or involuntary. Therefore SDT provides a framework for examining how elements of both military and civilian life can undermine or support autonomy, competence, and relatedness rather than assuming it's inherently beneficial or harmful === Structure, hierarchy, and autonomy === Military organisations rely heavily on rules, hierarchy, orders and clear responsibilities, shaping a high level of structure that is not often seen in civilian environments. However, structure is not inherently incompatible with autonomy. Structure can provide guidance, predictability, autonomy, and clear expectations, especially, when personnel understand and endorse the purpose behind their responsibilities and actions (Barnett, et al. 2021). Therefore, leadership plays an integral role in determining whether military structure is either experienced as supportive or controlling. Autonomy-supportive leadership involves providing meaningful rationales, offering appropriate choices, minimise unnecessary pressure and acknowledge individuals' perspectives. These leadership practices can support higher engagement, positive wellbeing, enhanced performance and lower discharge rates (Knevelsrud, et al. 2023). Conversely, excessive pressure and controlling leadership may undermine or constrain autonomy when individuals experience their behaviour as either coerced, pressured, or externally imposed. This can be done through actions of micromanagement, excessive pressure, and restrictive expectations which can contribute to controlled forms of motivation and an increased likelihood of poorer psychological outcomes (Barnett, et al. 2021). This highlights an important distinction between control and structure, as the presence of hierarchy does not solely determine whether autonomy is supported, rather, it's the way authority and expectations are experienced and communicated. It's also important to note that the circumstances of discharge may further shape and influence veterans' autonomy. Involuntary discharge can limit their perceived control over when and how their military service ends, whereas, voluntary discharge may provide veterans' with the greater opportunity to prepare for the transition. Nevertheless, veterans may still experience uncertainty, difficulty identifying meaningful alternatives and challenges with external expectations regardless of the circumstances of their discharge. Therefore, reintegration may require veterans to develop a sense of self-direction within an environment that they have greater choice in but provided less external structure. <quiz display=simple> {'''When can military structure support autonomy?''' |type="()"} + When personnel understand and value their purpose - When all choices are removed - When personnel experience coercion and external pressure - When responsibilities are increased {'''Which psychological need may be most affected when a veteran loses their military unit after discharge?''' |type="()"} - Competence + Relatedness - Belonging - Autonomy </quiz> === Training, occupational roles, and competence === Military training and occupational roles provide multiple opportunities for feedback, skill development, achievement and responsibility which can support and strengthen competence. Veterans may leave the service with diverse interpersonal and technical skills with a primary focus on leadership, management, communication, adaptability and teamwork. However, even though these skills can be transferable skills, it doesn't necessarily mean that veterans will experience or have their competence recognised within civilian employment and environments (Tillberg, et al. 2026). A recurrent challenge that veterans experience during reintegration is translating military skills into skills that civilian employers value and understand. This can make it challenging for veterans to confidently communicate the relevance of their capabilities. Difficulties translating their skills can contribute to unsuitable employment or unemployment despite them possessing valuable skills. Veteran may be highly capable yet simultaneously experiencing uncertainty about their effectiveness in civilian environments. Becker et al. (2022) interviewed 31 Australian Defence Force members who had transitioned into civilian employment and had identified challenges with career adaptation and integration. Veterans described difficulties adjusting to civilian workplaces and their expectations, they struggled with applying their military experience within new and unfamiliar occupational environments. This suggests that successful transition involves more than simply obtaining employment. These findings further emphasise the significance of the role that civilian organisations play in helping veterans understand and apply their exisiting capabilities to different workplace environments. From an SDT perspective, civilian employment may restore or strengthen competence through meaningful work and recognition, but could frustrate competence when their skills are overlooked or poorly aligned to available roles. Successful vocational reintegration involves more that just securing employment, it about creating opportunities for veterans to recognise, demonstrate and develop their capabilities within their new occupational environment. === Relatedness: from military cohesion to civilian belonging === Military service provides strong opportunities for relatedness through teamwork, unit cohesion, camaraderie, shared identity and goals. Within this environment, collective goals and shared experiences can foster social support and a profound sense of belonging. Consequently, belonging can become deeply embedded within the military environment which makes the disruption of these social connections during the transition incredibly significant for their psychological adjustment (Barnett, et al. 2021). Discharge may therefore require veterans to reconstruct and establish new sources of social connection within civilian communities. The relationship between military identity and belonging in complex. Research from Flake and Kite (2021), examined 358 Australian Defence members and identified that identity change throughout the transition process can involve themes of poor wellbeing, loss, social isolation, and psychosocial transition challenges. For some veterans, relinquishing a dominant military identity can further contribute to social disconnectedness which can be identified through withdrawal or antisocial behaviour, this further reinforces a divide between military and civilian life. Subsequently, a disconnectedness from both the military and civilian environments can increase the likelihood of a decreased effort to reconnect psychosocially. However, maintaining meaningful aspects of military identity may also be able to provide continuity in relationships and support a sense of belonging during reintegration. Therefore, successful reintegration does not necessarily require veterans to leave their military identity behind, but instead involve integrating their valued aspects of their military identity into their civilian lives. The challenge is not just simply losing relationships, but instead adjusting to the loss of an environment that embedded belonging, social connection, and shared identity into everyday life. === Identity and purpose === Military service can foster a strong sense of status, identity, direction, and purpose through defined roles, collective goals, and responsibilities, for many, it becomes an important part of understanding who they are and where they belong. The military role can become closely related and connected to their sense of self and within a wider community. As a result, leaving the military involves more than just changing occupations, instead, adjusting to the possible loss or change of a role that shapes their everyday life. During reintegration, veterans may need to identify which aspects of their military identity they want to carry into their civilian life and how this can fit within their new roles and relationships. To provide continuity it may be beneficial for veterans to develop meaningful civilian roles to provide new sources of purpose and opportunities to use existing skills and remain maintaining their valued aspects of military identity. Therefore reintegration should be understood as a transition of reconstructing purpose and identity rather than simply leaving a military identity behind. <br /> == How can Self Determination Theory informed interventions support psychological need satisfaction and successful integration? == Understanding how psychological challenges of military-to-civilian transition provides a key basis for considering how transition support can promote rather than undermine psychological need satisfaction. An SDT-informed approach reorients the focus from simply helping veterans cope with change to instead, creating social environments that support autonomy, competence and relatedness.Therefore, existing transition support should be considered in terms of whether it provides opportunities for mastery, choice and meaningful social connection. === Creating supportive transition environments === Reintegration support should address both the psychological and practical aspects of transition, support should involve veterans in decisions about their pathways and goals rather than treating them as passive recipients. Raabe et al. (2024), interviewed 16 veterans and identified that perceptions of choice and control significantly influenced their experience of autonomy, it was further observed that family relationships could also support autonomy. These suggest that effective support should involve veterans in decision-making and also recognise the significance of their exisiting relationships rather than imposing predetermining pathways. However, creating an autonomous environment does not mean removing all structure. Veterans may value from guidance, clear pathways, and practical assistance whilst still maintaining control over their decisions, providing options alone is insufficient if veterans feel pressured towards a particular outcome. Therefore, an SDT informed approach combines a structure with choice and allows veteran to understand their options whilst maintaining options of their goals. === Supporting competence and connection === Competence can be supported by assisting veterans to recognise, effectively communicate, and apply their military skills and capability within civilian settings. This is especially relevant given evidence that translating military experience into civilian skills can be difficult to navigate and complex, causing competence to potentially fluctuate as they enter unfamiliar work environments. Services such as career counselling, feedback, recognition and retraining may help veterans develop the confidence and recognise their existing capabilities. Relatedness can be further supported through services and programs such as mentoring, family involvement, peer support and community involvement. These approaches can create possibilities for new relationships whilst still remaining meaningful connections with military peers. Evidence from an Australian veteran intervention utilised an eight-week group program that combined reflection, psychoeducation, peer-based discussion and practical activities. It was observed that participants showed improvements in adjustment and reintegration that were still maintained in follow-up sessions. However, it's important to note that this program was primarily based upon cognitive behavioural therapy and acceptance and commitment approaches rather than SDT alone. Although, its person centred and self determination-focused elements, further demonstrating how social and psychological support can be incorporated into reintegration services. === Implications and limitations === SDT provides a valuable framework for evaluating whether reintegration services create environments that either support or frustrate psychological needs. However, psychological need satisfaction cannot account for all factors that may influence successful reintegration, practical conditions such as housing, finances and access to services and support can also shape veteran's adjustment. Therefore, SDT should complement, rather than replace additional reintegration support. However, there is a need for stronger evidence that examines SDT-informed interventions, especially with veterans. Future research that incoporates longitudinal and Australian-specific research could inform whether SDT-informed interventions produce sustained improvements in long-term wellbeing and reintegration outcomes. It would also be beneficial for future research to incorporate reasons for discharge and whether outcomes differ dependent on veterans' circumstances as it may influence their sense of control, access to support and preparation for civilian life. Examining these differences could help identify what particular SDT-informed supports are most appropriate and how supports can be further improved to tailor to individual circumstances. ;Embedded links (keeping for reference) * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") ==Conclusion== Military-to-civilian reintegration is a highly complex psychological adjustment that involves changes to identity, daily structure, competence, purpose, relationships and roles. SDT provides a framework for understanding how these changes can influence autonomy, competence, and relatedness along with the impact upon different types of motivation. Importantly, the military experience is not necessarily need supportive or need thwarting, instead, their effects are dependent on how leadership, structure, relationships, and responsibilities are experienced and understood. Identity and purpose remain closely connected to the three psychological needs as military roles are interliked and correlated with autonomy, competence, and relatedness along with providing veterans with a sense of direction and meaning. Therefore, it's important to consider that reintegration may involve developing new sources of purpose and identity whilst still maintaining valued aspects of military life. SDT can inform support by fostering environments that promote meaningful choice, competence, self-directed goals and connection. Ultimately, successful reintegration need to extend beyond just helping veterans enter civilian life, instead, it should support the development of meaningful, socially connected, and self-directed lives beyond the military service. ==See also== * [[Social connection and emotion regulation|Social Connection]] (Book chapter, 2026)) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Barnett, A., Savic, M., Lubman, D. (2021). Transitioning to civilian life: The importance of social group engagement and identity among Australian Defence Force veterans. ''Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 56''(8). https://doi.org/10.1177/00048674211046894 Becker, K., Bish, A., Abell, D., McCormack, M., Smidt, M. (2022). Supporting Australian veteran transition: career construction through a person-environment fit perspective. ''The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 36''(5), 799-823. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2022.2077127 Carra, K., Curtin, M., Fortune, T., Gordon, B. (2022). Service and demographic factors, health, trauma exposure, and participation are associated with adjustment for former Australian Defence Force members. ''Military Psychology, 35''(5), 480-492. https://doi.org/10.1080/08995605.2022.2120312 Flack, M., Kite, L. (2021). Transition from military service to civilian: identity, social connectedness, and veteran wellbeing. ''PLoS ONE, 16''(12). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0261634 Grimell, J. (2024). You can take a person out of the military, but you can't take the military out of the person: findings from a ten-year identity study on transition from military to civilian life. ''Frontiers in Sociology, 9.'' https://doi.org/10.3389/fsoc.2024.1406710 Kerr, N., Lane, S., Plotnikoff, R., Ashby, S. (2023). The "Transition" to civilian life from the perspective of former serving Australian Defence Force members. ''Journal of Veteran Studies, 9''(1), 129-142. https://10.21061/jvs.v9i1.407 {{ic|fix link}} Knevelsrud, H.C., Sorlie, H., Valaker, S. (2023). Mission command: A self determination theory perspective. ''Military Psychology, 36''(6), 672-688. https://doi.org/10.1080/08995605.2023.2252718 Linden, A., Borjesson, M. (2026). Motivation in physically demanding military roles: a qualitative study using self-determination theory. ''Military Psychology,'' 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1080/08995605.2026.2671587 Loverre, M., Chirico, A., Cinque, L., Palombi, T., Alivernini, F., Lucidi, F., Alessandri, G., Livi, S. (2024). A systematic review of self-determination theory's application in military and police organisations. ''Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, 40''(5), 685-707. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11896-024-09718-2 Mobbs, M., Bonanno, G. (2018). Beyond war and PTSD: The crucial role of transition stress in the lives of military veterans. ''Clinical Psychology Review, 59,'' 137-144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2017.11.007 Olafsen, A., Halvari, H., Frolound, C. (2021). The basic psychological need satisfaction and need frustration at work scale: A validation study. ''Organisational Psychology, 12.'' https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.697306 Romaniuk, M., Saunders-Dow, E., Brown, K., Batterham, P. (2024). Feasibility, acceptability, and initial outcomes of a psychological adjustment and reintegration program for transitioned military veterans. ''BMC Psychology, 12''(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-024-02097-7 Ryan, R., Deci, E. (2022). Self determination theory. ''Encyclopedia of quality of life and well-being research.'' https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-69909-7_2630-2 Rybakovaite. J., Poskus, M., Blue, S. (2021). Forced or free choice: Hardiness, need satisfaction, and engagement among military conscripts. ''Current Psychology, 42''(1), 7909-7919. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-02123-6 Tillberg, L., Truusa, T.T, Tillberg, P. (2026). The skillful veteran: Transforming overseas experience into competence, from the military to civilian working life domain. ''Vocations and Learning, 19''(5). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12186-026-09385-w }} APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://defenceveteransuicide.royalcommission.gov.au/publications/final-report Military-to-civilian Transition Final Report] (Royal Commission) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self-determination theory]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Veterans]] bbot88rgsg603o2d5qsew4ls65yoldm 0 331150 2836318 2835883 2026-10-06T12:35:08Z HawaSA 3106307 /* Adult attachment theory */ 2836318 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Attachment styles and relatedness motivation:<br>How do attachment styles shape the need for relatedness?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:People and stands at the Museum Reserve, Orientation Week MS-5342 012 002.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. People and stands at the Museum Reserve, Orientation Week]] Harry and Caitlin have both recently moved to a new neighbourhood and are adjusting to their new community. Harry makes an effort to meet people by attending local social events. He enjoys feeling included, but when plans are made without him or a message goes unanswered, he wonders whether people actually like him. After spending time with his new neighbours, he replays conversations and worries about whether he said or did something wrong. Caitlin also enjoys meeting her neighbours and likes being included in group activities. She chats easily with people at events but often turns down invitations to spend more time together. When conversations turn more personal or neighbours begin trying to get to know her better, she changes the subject, leaves early, and may decide to avoid the next event. Although she enjoys being part of the neighbourhood, she finds keeping some distance more comfortable. Harry and Caitlin both appear to value connection and belonging, yet their need for relatedness seems to be experienced and expressed in very different ways {{RoundBoxBottom}} Relatedness, the need to feel connected, cared for, and significant to others (Van den Broeck et al., 2016), is considered a basic psychological need within [[wikipedia:Self-determination_theory|self-determination theory]]. Satisfaction of relatedness is associated with positive psychological functioning, whereas frustration of relatedness is associated poorer psychological functioning (Chen et al., 2015) '''(more detail?)''', highlighting the importance of understanding the factors that support or interfere with relatedness satisfaction. However, despite relatedness being proposed as a universal psychological need, individuals differ in how they seek connection and experience relatedness satisfaction. One factor that may explain these differences is attachment style. Attachment theory proposes that experiences with attachment figures during infancy contribute to expectations about the availability and responsiveness of others, which influences how attachment-related needs are regulated and expressed. In adulthood, secure, anxious-preoccupied, dismissive-avoidant, and fearful-avoidant attachment styles are associated with different patterns of seeking and responding to connection and support. '''(link to chapter aims)''' This chapter investigates whether adult attachment styles shape how relatedness is experienced, expressed, pursued, and satisfied or influence the need for relatedness itself. Additionally, it considers whether experiences of relatedness satisfaction or frustration may contribute to changes in attachment style over time. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} ;Focus questions [[File:Crystal Clear app ktip.svg|left|20px|]] * How do different attachment styles influence the way the need for relatedness is experienced and expressed? * How might experiences of relatedness satisfaction or frustration shape attachment over time? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Self-determination theory and relatedness== * [[wikipedia:Self-determination_theory|Self-determination theory]] (SDT) is an approach to human motivation that seeks to explain what motivates people to act and the conditions that support or undermine motivation and psychological wellbeing. * SDT assumes that individuals have an inherent tendency towards psychological growth, mastery, and connection with others, that the desire for growth drives behaviour (Ryan & Deci, 2002) * SDT proposes that for healthy psychological growth and wellbeing, individuals must satisfy three [[wikipedia:Self-determination_theory#:~:text=%5B18%5D-,Basic%20psychological%20needs,-edit|basic psychological needs]]; autonomy, competence, and relatedness. * Within SDT, the three basic psychological needs help shape the quality of a person’s motivation. When these needs are supported, people are more likely to experience intrinsic motivation and more autonomous forms of motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Ryan & Deci, 2020) * Need satisfaction occurs when the environment provides experiences that allow a psychological need to be fulfilled. Need satisfaction is considered psychologically nourishing and supports motivation, psychological growth, effective functioning, and wellbeing (Chen et al., 2015; Vansteenkiste & Ryan, 2013) * Need frustration occurs when a psychological need is actively obstructed or undermined. (Chen et al., 2015; Vansteenkiste & Ryan, 2013) ===Relatedness=== * Refers to the need to feel connected to others, including both the need to care for others and to feel cared for, valued, and significant to others (Van den Broeck et al., 2016) * Relatedness satisfaction involves experiencing genuine connection and closeness to others, and a sense of belonging, whereas relatedness frustration involves experiences of rejection, exclusion, disconnection, or loneliness (Chen et al., 2015) ==Attachment theory and styles== * [[wikipedia:Attachment_theory|Attachment theory]] ''(Issues with wikipage, still include?)'' was first developed by British psychoanalyst John Bowlby, who sought to understand the anxiety and distress infants experience when separated from their primary caregivers * Bowlby observed that infants use attachment behaviours (e.g. crying, clinging, following) to prevent separation from, or re-establish proximity to, their caregivers (Bowlby, 1958). He proposed that these behaviours form part of an attachment behavioural system, an innate psychobiological mechanism that motivates individuals to seek and maintain closeness to a primary caregiver or attachment figure for safety and protection as infants who were able to maintain proximity to an attachment figure (someone who provides support, protection, and care) would be more likely to survive to reproductive age (Bowlby, 1982) * Although Bowlby considered the attachment system to be universal, he recognised that infants could differ in how attachment was experienced and expressed. He theorised that early attachment experiences with caregivers contribute to internal working models (mental representations of expectations of whether attachment figures are available and responsive, and whether the self is worthy of care and support). These models are thought to guide how infants respond to situations that activate their attachment system (i.e. distress, separation) (Bretherton & Munholland, 2008; Collins & Allard, 2004; Sherman et al., 2015) * Mary Ainsworth extended Bowlby's work by examining how individual differences in attachment were expressed in infant's behaviour. She developed the [[wikipedia:Strange_situation|Strange Situation procedure]], which involved observing infants during brief separations from and reunions with their caregivers, focusing primarily on exploration, separation and reunion responses, and reactions to a stranger (Ainsworth et al., 1978). * The procedure identified three organised attachment patterns—'''secure, anxious-ambivalent/resistant, and avoidant'''—with '''disorganised-disoriented attachment''' later identified by Main and Solomon (1986) to describe infant behaviours that did not fit comfortably within Ainsworth’s original classifications. ===Secure attachment=== Securely attached infants use their caregiver as a secure base, exploring their environment independently while seeking proximity and comfort from caregiver when needed (Vaughn & Waters, 1990). * Developmental Factors/Caregiver response (Benoit, 2004) ** associated with caregiving that is usually available and responds appropriately (generally sensitive, responsive, and consistent) when the infant signals distress or a need for support ** Internal Working Model (Sherman et al., 2015) *** Repeated experiences of having needs responded to positively may lead the infant to expect that the caregiver will be available and responsive when support is required. *** The infant can therefore express distress and seek proximity without needing to excessively intensify or suppress attachment behaviour. ===Anxious-ambivalent attachment=== * Typical behaviour (Benoit, 2004) ** May remain highly attentive to the caregiver rather than exploring freely. ** Can become easily distressed by separation or uncertainty about the caregiver's availability, seeking frequent proximity, attention, or reassurance. ** Can have difficulty settling even when comfort is offered. ** May appear clingy while also showing frustration, anger, or resistance toward the caregiver. * Developmental Factors/Caregiver response (Benoit, 2004) ** Associated with caregiving that may be inconsistent or unpredictable. ** The caregiver may sometimes respond to distress but may be unavailable or less responsive at other times. ** Internal working model (Sherman et al., 2015) *** Availability of caregiver is experienced as uncertain or unpredictable. *** Expectation that support cannot be consistently available develops, causing infant to become particularly attentive to the caregiver’s availability and intensify attachment signals in an attempt to obtain a response '''(maximising or hyperactivating attachment strategy)''' ''(cant find interwiki source, is external okay?)'' ===Anxious-avoidant attachment=== * Typical behaviour (Benoit, 2004) ** May appear unusually independent and spend more time focused on objects, activities, or exploration than on the caregiver ** May show relatively little outward distress when hurt, upset, or separated despite still experiencing physiological or emotional distress ** Is less likely to openly seek comfort or reassurance from the caregiver, may turn away, ignore, or minimise contact even when distressed ** Tends to suppress or minimise visible attachment signals * Developmental Factors/Caregiver response (Benoit, 2004) ** Associated with caregiving that may be relatively unresponsive, rejecting, or uncomfortable with expressions of distress and bids for comfort. *** Internal working model (Sherman et al., 2015) **** infant may have developed an expectation that attempts to obtain comfort or support are unlikely to be met with a responsive reaction. **** As a result, attachment signals may be minimised or suppressed ('''deactivating or minimising attachment strategy)'''. ''(cant find interwiki source, is external okay?)'' ===Disorganised-disoriented attachment=== * Disorganised-disoriented attachment was introduced later by Main and Solomon (1986). * The classification emerged from observations of infant behaviours that did not fit comfortably within Ainsworth’s original secure, resistant, and avoidant classifications. * Typical behaviour (Granqvist et al., 2017) ** Behaviour toward the caregiver may be inconsistent or difficult to predict, can show unusual combinations of proximity-seeking and withdrawal. ** May have difficulty developing a consistent strategy for obtaining comfort when distressed. ** Behaviour can become particularly confused or disorganised during situations involving fear, stress, or uncertainty * Developmental Factors/Caregiver response (Benoit, 2004) ** Has been associated with caregiving that is frightening, frightened, highly disrupted, or unpredictable. ** It is also found at higher rates in some contexts involving significant adversity (Zeanah et al., 1997) *** Internal working model (Sherman et al., 2015) **** more difficult to explain through one coherent internal working model because the infant does not appear to have a consistent strategy for obtaining safety. **** One proposed explanation is that the caregiver may simultaneously represent a potential source of safety and a source of fear or uncertainty, creating conflict between approaching the caregiver for protection and moving away from them. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} <quiz display=simple> {Disorganised-disoriented attachment is characterised by a breakdown or lack of a coherent strategy for responding to attachment-related distress. |type="()"} + TRUE. || Yes. Disorganised-disoriented attachment involves a disruption or lack of a consistent organised strategy when the attachment system is activated. - FALSE. || Not quite. Unlike secure, anxious-ambivalent, and avoidant attachment, disorganised-disoriented attachment is characterised by contradictory or disoriented behaviour rather than a consistent organised strategy. {How do internal working models help explain differences between infant attachment patterns? |type="()"} - They determine how strongly an infant is biologically attached to their caregiver. || Internal working models do not determine whether an infant '''has''' an attachment to their caregiver. Instead, they shape expectations about whether caregivers will be available and responsive, which can influence how the infant seeks comfort and responds when the attachment system is activated. + They shape expectations about whether caregivers will be available and responsive when support is needed. || Yes. Internal working models develop through attachment experiences and shape expectations about whether attachment figures will be available and responsive. - They determine how much distress every infant experiences during separation. || Internal working models can influence how infants respond when distressed, but they do not simply determine how much separation distress an infant experiences. </quiz> {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Adult attachment theory=== * Attachment theory was later extended beyond infancy to explain how attachment may continue into adulthood * Hazan and Shaver (1987) were among the first researchers to apply Bowlby and Ainsworth’s attachment framework to adults. ** They proposed that the same attachment behavioural system underlying infant attachment could continue to operate in adulthood, and that internal working models developed through earlier attachment experiences may continue to shape attachment-related expectations and behaviour. ** Their early adult attachment model adapted Ainsworth’s three infant attachment classifications (secure, avoidant, and anxious/ambivalent) for use in adulthood. ** Bartholomew (1990), and Bartholomew and Horowitz (1991) later refined adult attachment by proposing that attachment in adulthood could be understood through two underlying dimensions: *** Model of self: Reflects a person's sense of self-worth and whether they feel worthy of love and support. (Bartholomew, 1990) *** Model of others: Reflects whether a person expects others to be available, trustworthy, and supportive (Bartholomew, 1990) * Combining positive and negative models of the self and others produced four adult attachment styles, Secure, Anxious-preoccupied, Dismissive-avoidant, Fearful-avoidant. '''[https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8198184/?utm_source=chatgpt.com#B17-ijerph-18-05770:~:text=1.3.2.%20Four%2DFactor%20Model%20of%20Adult%20Attachment%20(Bartholomew%2C%201990) To expand on each one in final book chapter] [https://psychiatryonline.org/doi/10.1176/foc.8.1.foc127?utm_source=chatgpt.com another source]''' * Although Bartholomew's model describes four attachment styles, contemporary adult attachment research often assess attachment along the continuous dimensions of attachment anxiety and attachment avoidance ** attachment anxiety: the degree to which individuals worry about being underappreciated or abandoned by their romantic partners   (Simpson & Steven Rholes, 2017). ** attachment avoidance: the degree to which individuals are comfortable with closeness and emotional intimacy in relationships (Simpson & Steven Rholes, 2017). *Brennan et al. (1998) indentified these two dimensions through factor analysis drawn from existing adult attachment measures. A hierarchical cluster analysis also revealed how they corresponded to Bartholomew's four-factor model: **Secure: low attachment anxiety and avoidance **Anxious-preoccupied: high attachment anxiety and low avoidance **Dismissive-avoidant: low attachment anxiety and high attachment avoidance **Fearful-avoidant: high attachment anxiety and avoidance * '''Adult attachment styles are thought to reflect the continuation and development of infant internal working models, although attachment is not considered completely fixed and may change across time and experience (Bartholomew, 1990; Bartholomew & Horowitz, 1991)''' * '''Adult attachment is therefore generally conceptualised as differences in the way individuals regulate attachment-related needs and respond when the attachment system is activated, rather than as four separate personality types (Bartholomew, 1990; Bartholomew & Horowitz, 1991)''' ==Attachment styles and the need for relatedness== * Self-determination theory proposes that relatedness is a universal psychological need, suggesting that all individuals have a need to feel connected, valued, and that they belong. * However, attachment styles may influence how this need is experienced, expressed, pursued, or satisfied. * An important focus of this section will therefore be whether attachment styles actually influence the strength of the need for relatedness itself, or whether they primarily affect the way individuals respond to and regulate that need. * The section will also consider whether differences in attachment style are associated with relatedness need satisfaction or frustration, rather than simply differences in how much relatedness people need. * Finally, the chapter will examine whether the relationship may work in both directions, with repeated experiences of relatedness satisfaction or frustration potentially contributing to changes in attachment over time. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} Information to be added for book chapter: Research evidence examining attachment anxiety/avoidance, relatedness motivation, basic psychological need satisfaction/frustration, and possible reciprocal effects between attachment and relatedness. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Attachment_in_adults|Attachment in adults]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Self-determination_theory|Self-determination theory]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Ainsworth, M. D. S., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., & Wall, S. (1978). ''Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the strange situation''. Lawrence Erlbaum. Bartholomew, K. (1990). Avoidance of Intimacy: An Attachment Perspective. ''Journal of Social and Personal Relationships'', 7(2), 147–178. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407590072001 Bartholomew, K., & Horowitz, L. (1991). Attachment Styles Among Young Adults: A Test of a Four-Category Model. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology'', 61, 226–244. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.61.2.226 Benoit, D. (2004). Infant-parent attachment: Definition, types, antecedents, measurement and outcome. ''Paediatrics & Child Health'', 9(8), 541–545. https://doi.org/10.1093/pch/9.8.541 Bowlby, J. (1958). The nature of the child's tie to his mother. ''Int J Psychoanal'', 39(5), 350–373. Bowlby, J. (1982). Attachment and loss: Retrospect and prospect. American ''Journal of Orthopsychiatry'', 52(4), 664–678. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-0025.1982.tb01456.x Bretherton, I., & Munholland, K. A. (2008). Internal working models in attachment relationships: Elaborating a central construct in attachment theory. In ''Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications'', 2nd ed. (pp. 102–127). The Guilford Press. Chen, B., Vansteenkiste, M., Beyers, W., Boone, L., Deci, E. L., Van der Kaap-Deeder, J., Duriez, B., Lens, W., Matos, L., Mouratidis, A., Ryan, R. M., Sheldon, K. M., Soenens, B., Van Petegem, S., & Verstuyf, J. (2015). Basic psychological need satisfaction, need frustration, and need strength across four cultures. ''Motivation and Emotion'', 39(2), 216–236. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-014-9450-1 Collins, N. L., & Allard, L. M. (2003). Cognitive Representations of Attachment: The Content and Function of Working Models. In Garth J. O. Fletcher & M. S. Clark (Eds.), ''Blackwell Handbook of Social Psychology: Interpersonal Processes'' (pp. 60–85). Blackwell Publishing. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470998557.ch3 Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior. ''Psychological Inquiry'', 11(4), 227–268. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01 Duschinsky, R. (2018). Disorganization, fear and attachment: working towards clarification. ''Infant Ment Health J'', 39(1), 17–29. https://doi.org/10.1002/imhj.21689 Granqvist, P., Sroufe, L. A., Dozier, M., Hesse, E., Steele, M., van Ijzendoorn, M., Solomon, J., Schuengel, C., Fearon, P., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M., Steele, H., Cassidy, J., Carlson, E., Madigan, S., Jacobvitz, D., Foster, S., Behrens, K., Rifkin-Graboi, A., Gribneau, N.,…Duschinsky, R. (2017). Disorganized attachment in infancy: a review of the phenomenon and its implications for clinicians and policy-makers. ''Attachment & Human Development'', 19(6), 534–558. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616734.2017.1354040 Hazan, C., & Shaver, P. (1987). Romantic love conceptualized as an attachment process. ''J Pers Soc Psychol'', 52(3), 511–524. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-351 Main, M., & Solomon, J. (1986). Discovery of An Insecure Disorganized Disoriented Attachment Pattern. In T. B. Brazelton & M. W. Yogman (Eds.), ''Affective development in infancy'' (pp. 95–124). Ablex Publishing. Perasso, G. (2023). Strange Situation Procedure (SSP). In T. K. Shackelford (Ed.), ''Encyclopedia of Sexual Psychology and Behavior''. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-08956-5_128-1 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2002). Overview of self-determination theory: An organismic-dialectical perspective. In ''Handbook of self-determination research''. (pp. 3–33). University of Rochester Press. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2020). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation from a self-determination theory perspective: Definitions, theory, practices, and future directions. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', 61, 101860. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101860 Sherman, L. J., Rice, K., & Cassidy, J. (2015). Infant capacities related to building internal working models of attachment figures: A theoretical and empirical review. ''Developmental Review'', 37, 109–141. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2015.06.001 Sroufe, L. A. (1988). The role of infant-caregiver attachment in development. In ''Clinical implications of attachment''. (pp. 18–38). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Van den Broeck, A., Ferris, D. L., Chang, C.-H., & Rosen, C. C. (2016). A Review of Self-Determination Theory’s Basic Psychological Needs at Work. ''Journal of Management'', 42(5), 1195-1229. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206316632058 Vansteenkiste, M., & Ryan, R. (2013). On Psychological Growth and Vulnerability: Basic Psychological Need Satisfaction and Need Frustration as a Unifying Principle. ''Journal of Psychotherapy Integration'', 23, 263–280. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032359 Vaughn, B. E., & Waters, E. (1990). Attachment Behavior at Home and in the Laboratory: Q-Sort Observations and Strange Situation Classifications of One-Year-Olds. ''Child Development'', 61(6), 1965–1973. https://doi.org/10.2307/1130850 Zeanah, C. H., Berlin, L. J., & Boris, N. W. (2011). Practitioner review: clinical applications of attachment theory and research for infants and young children. ''J Child Psychol Psychiatry'', 52(8), 819–833. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2011.02399.x Zeanah, C. H., Boris, N. W., & Larrieu, J. A. (1997). Infant Development and Developmental Risk: A Review of the Past 10 Years. ''Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry'', 36(2), 165–178. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-199702000-00007 }} ==External links== * [https://www.attachmentproject.com/attachment-theory/john-bowlby/ Bowlby and attachment theory: insights and legacy] (attachmentproject.com) * [https://www.simplypsychology.org/self-determination-theory.html Self-determination theory of motivation] (simplypsychology.org) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Relationships/Attachment]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Needs/Psychological/Relatedness]] j94s4kcdd9a7tst1elulghc80iaxnvd 0 331234 2836314 2836287 2026-10-06T12:22:08Z Mymunu 3106327 /* Understanding outdoor play and children's emotional well-being */ 2836314 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being:<br>How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {| class="wikitable" |'''Case study: Part 1'''[[File:School children happily playing in playground.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. Children engaged in outdoor play, where social interactions, choice and changes in the situation can create different emotional experiences.]]Imagine that... A child arrives at playground and joins a group of children who are already playing. The children are making their own game and deciding the rules as they play. During the game, another child changes the rules and an argument breaks out. The child becomes frustrated and walks away from the activity. After watching for a short time, the child returns, suggests a new idea to continue the game and re-joins the group. How might experiences like this during outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? Emotional regulation provides one psychological framework for understanding how children may respond to situations like this during play (see Figure 1). |} Outdoor play can involve more than physical movement. It can occur across playgrounds, gardens, streets and natural spaces and can include exploration, social interaction, choice, challenge, and engagement with the surrounding environment (Dodd et al., 2026; Pereira et al., 2024). This chapter examines how [[Emotional regulation|emotional,]] [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive]], social and environmental processes may help explain the relationship between outdoor play and children's [https://w.wiki/AHG6 emotional well-being.] {| class="wikitable" | '''Focus questions''' * '''What are outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?''' * '''How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?''' * '''How do social and environmental conditions shape children's outdoor play experiences?''' * '''What does recent research show about outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?''' * '''How can families, communities and schools support outdoor play opportunities that may benefit children's emotional well-being?''' |} == '''Understanding outdoor play and children's emotional well-being''' == [[File:Water-outdoor-people-girl-play-boy-938233.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. ''Outdoor play can provide opportunities to explore, make choices, interact with others and respond to changing situations through activities such as water play.''|214x214px]] Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being are not measured as single and consistent concepts across recent research. Outdoor play may be measured through parent reports or devices and should be distinguished from outdoor moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) because these measures do not represent the same behaviour (Davenport et al., 2025; Dodd et al., 2026). === Outdoor play === Outdoor play is voluntary and intrinsically motivated activity occurring in outdoor environments such as gardens, playgrounds, parks and natural spaces (Dodd et al., 2026). It can involve movement, exploration, choice, social interaction and engagement with environmental features. === Children's emotional well-being === Children's emotional well-being is not represented by a single common outcome across recent outdoor play research. Studies have examined emotional dysregulation (Lee et al., 2025), social-emotional competence (Ferguson et al., 2025), positive and negative affect (Poulos et al., 2026) and internalising and externalising symptoms (Dodd et al., 2026). These outcomes represent different aspects and timeframes of emotional functioning, so they should not be treated as equivalent when findings are compared. '''Table 1''' ''Emotional outcomes examined in recent research on outdoor play and children's emotional well-being'' {| class="wikitable" |+ !Study !Outcome examined !What the outcome represents |- |Lee et al. (2025) |Emotional dysregulation |Difficulties in emotion regulation |- |Ferguson et al. (2025) |Social-emotional competence |Social-emotional difficulties and prosocial behaviour |- |Poulos et al. (2026) |Positive and negative affect |Emotional state following recess |- |Dodd et al. (2026) |Internalising and externalising symptoms |Long-term internalising and externalising symptom patterns |} Note. Outcome descriptions are based on the measures and constructs reported in the cited studies. As shown in Table 1, immediate affect following recess should not be treated as equivalent to emotional dysregulation measured over time or trajectories of internalising and externalising symptoms across childhood. {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {A child's positive or negative affect immediately after recess represents the same emotional outcome as longer-term internalising or externalising symptoms. |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} == '''How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?''' == Outdoor play may be related to children's emotional well-being through emotional, cognitive and social processes (Dodd et al., 2026). These pathways have not all been directly tested as mechanisms, and much outdoor play research remains observational (Dodd et al., 2026; de Lannoy et al., 2023). Emotion regulation provides the psychological framework to explain children's responses during outdoor play. Scherer's (2005) model clarifies the components involved in emotion, while working memory provides empirical evidence of a possible cognitive process; affordance theory is later used to explain how environmental conditions shape opportunities for these experiences. Emotion involves more than subjective feelings. Scherer (2005) described emotion as coordinated changes across cognitive appraisal, physiological responses, action tendencies, expression and subjective feelings. Physiological responses are therefore one component of emotion rather than a separate explanation for outdoor-play effects. Scherer did not examine outdoor play, so the framework does not establish that outdoor play changes children's physiological responses or emotional well-being. === '''Emotion regulation''' === Emotion regulation provides key psychological framework for understanding how children may manage emotional situations during outdoor play.. Gross (2015) described situation selection, situation modification, attentional deployment, cognitive change and response modulation. During outdoor play, children may experience frustration, conflict, uncertainty or changes to their activity. Gross's framework can be applied to consider how children recognise an emotional response, choose strategies to manage and act on them. However, Gross (2015) did not examine outdoor play, so applying the framework does not show that outdoor play improves children's emotion regulation. Broader research on children's play has also examined emotional functioning but indirect evidence. Veraksa et al. (2025) systematically reviewed 33 studies of non-therapeutic play among children aged 3 to 7 and identified evidence involving emotion regulation, emotional intelligence and negative emotional symptoms. Because the review included outdoor play alongside other forms of play, it should not be interpreted as evidence that outdoor play alone improves emotion regulation. {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |'''Case study: Part 3'''[[File:14Y Ncdc july 5th-802.jpg|thumb|202x202px|'''Figure 4'''. ''Children can respond differently to emotional situations that occur during outdoor play.'']]When the rules of game change, the child becomes frustrated and decides to step away. After a short time the child returns and suggests a different way to continue the game (see Figure 4). Suggesting a change to the game can be considered an example of situation modification. {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {What does Gross (2015) emotion regulation framework show when it is applied to the outdoor-play scenario?. |type="()"} -A. Outdoor play causes better emotion regulation. +B. Situation modification can help explain how the child responds to the situation. -C. Children regulate emotions better outdoors than indoors. -D. Stepping away from play always improves emotional well-being. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} === '''Working memory and cognitive process''' === Working memory may be one cognitive process involved in the association between outdoor play and emotional dysregulation. Lee et al. (2025) examined 325 preschool children and tested working memory as a statistical mediator. Afternoon outdoor play was associated with lower emotional dysregulation and better working memory, while better working memory was associated with lower emotional dysregulation. When working memory was included in the analysis, the association between afternoon outdoor play and emotional dysregulation was no longer statistically significant. However, the study was observational, so the mediation analysis does not show that outdoor play caused better working memory or lower emotional dysregulation. '''Table 2''' ''Psychological processes considered in the relationship between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being'' {| class="wikitable" !Process !Contribution !Evidence and limitations |- |Emotion components (Scherer 2005) |Emotion involves appraisal, physiological responses, action tendencies, expression and subjective feeling |Conceptual model; did not test outdoor play |- |Primary framework (Gross 2015) |Emotion regulation helps explain responses to changing or frustrating play situations |Application of theory; does not show outdoor play improves regulation |- |Working memory (Lee et al., 2025) |Working memory statistically mediated the association between outdoor play and emotional dysregulation. |Direct observational evidence; causation cannot be established |} ''Note.'' Gross's (2015) emotion regulation framework provides the main psychological explanation, while Scherer (2005) clarifies the components of emotion, and Lee et al. (2025) provides empirical evidence of a possible cognitive process. == '''How do social and environmental conditions shape children's outdoor play experiences?''' == [[File:2026-10-03 214531-relationship between child and environment.png|thumb|284x284px|'''Figure 5.''' Children's opportunities for outdoor play can be different according to personal, interacting and environmental factors and the relationship between the child and the environment. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Note. Original conceptual summary based on Beekhuizen et al. (2025) and Gibson (1979). |} ]] Psychological processes occur within particular social and physical conditions (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). [https://w.wiki/VYfL Affordance theory] therefore complements the emotion-regulation framework by explaining how the relationship between the child and the environment shapes opportunities in which emotional and social experiences can occur (Gibson, 1979; Morgenthaler et al., 2024) ). === Affordance theory and outdoor play environments === [https://w.wiki/VYfL Affordance theory] explains opportunities for action that an environment provides in relation to the person using it (Gibson, 1979). Morgenthaler et al. (2024) applied affordance theory to children's outdoor play and identified 14 categories of spaces and 284 play occupations linked to environmental features. This helps explain why the same space may provide different opportunities for different children. However, the review examined opportunities for play rather than children's [https://w.wiki/AHG6 emotional well-being]. Pereira et al. (2024) reviewed 51 articles representing 45 primary studies of outdoor play-space features. Some positive effects were reported, but substantial heterogeneity was present. Differences in features, outcome measures and methods limited conclusions about individual play-space features. The review therefore does not show that one particular environmental feature improves children's emotional well-being. === '''Social relationships and inclusion''' === Social relationships can shape whether children are able to join and continue outdoor play (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Familiarity and making contact were important for inclusive play. Emotional understanding may also influence how children participate socially during play. Gal-Szabo et al. (2019) found that better situational understanding of emotions was associated with less uninvolved behaviour and marginally more social play during preschool free play. However, the study was not specific to outdoor play and does not establish that social play improves emotional well-being. === '''Autonomy, access and time''' === [https://w.wiki/4NyU Autonomy] can shape how children experience outdoor play (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Veraksa et al. (2025) identified autonomy as one feature through which broader play may support emotion regulation and coping, although the review was not specific to outdoor play. Parental support can enable access to play, while work schedules, after-school arrangements and travel time can restrict opportunities (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Safety and accessibility are also relevant, particularly for children with disabilities (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). These findings support the importance of participation conditions, but do not show that any single environmental feature improves children's emotional well-being. {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |'''Case study: Part 4 Same play space, different experiences''' {| class="wikitable" |Kim and Leo use the same school playground. Kim already knows many children and easily joins a group activity, while Leo uses a mobility device and finds that some areas of the playground are difficult to access. Leo also know fewer children in the playground. Although, they share the same play space, physical accessibility and familiarity create different opportunities to participate. |} {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {Why might two children have different outdoor-play experiences even they use the same playground?. |type="()"} +A. Physical, social and personal factors can affect how children are able to participate. -B. Outdoor spaces provide the same opportunities for every child. -C. Accessibility is the only factor that affects outdoor play.. -D. Children who know other children always have better emotional well-being. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} == '''What does recent research show about outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?''' == Recent research does not show a consistent association between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being. Fndings are mixed across different emotional outcomes, the timing and context of outdoor play, children's behaviours, and the methods used to measure outdoor play. === '''Consistency of recent research findings''' === Recent findings are not consistent across outcomes. Ferguson et al. (2025) associated more frequent outdoor play with better social-emotional competence, whereas most developmental associations examined by Davenport et al. (2025) were not statistically significant. Poulos et al. (2026) found higher positive affect after outdoor and gymnasium recess than classroom recess, while Lee et al. (2025) found that associations with emotional dysregulation differed by time of day. Timeframe and context also matter. Dodd et al. (2026) linked more frequent preschool outdoor play with lower odds of less favourable internalising and externalising symptom trajectories across childhood, whereas Poulos et al. (2026) examined immediate post-recess affect. Ferguson et al. (2025) also reported differences according to ethnicity and whether outdoor play occurred on school days or weekends. Together, the evidence suggests that outdoor play is not associated with one uniform emotional outcome; associations depend on what is measured, when play occurs, who participates and the context in which play takes place. === '''Limitations and future directions''' === Research design limits causal interpretation. Dodd et al. (2026) used longitudinal data from 4,151 children, but the study remained observational and relied on parent-reported measures. Lee et al. (2025) also considered reverse causation, meaning its mediation findings cannot establish that outdoor play caused changes in working memory or emotional dysregulation. Measurement also limits comparison across studies. Outdoor play has been assessed through parent reports and devices, while emotional outcomes range from immediate affect to longer-term symptom trajectories (Davenport et al., 2025). Differences in children's ages, play settings and contexts further limit interpretation, and de Lannoy et al. (2023) found that cross-sectional designs remain common across the wider outdoor-play literature. Future research should use more consistent measures of outdoor play and emotional outcomes, stronger longitudinal and experimental designs, and samples representing different children and play contexts. Studies should also test proposed emotional and cognitive processes directly rather than inferring mechanisms from associations. T'''able 4''' '''''Comparison of recent research''''' {| class="wikitable" |+ !Study !Research method !Research strength !Limitation |- | <small>Lee et al. (2025)</small> |Observational; 6-month follow-up |Examined the timing of outdoor and working memory as a statistical mediator. |Cannot establish causation; reverse causation remains possible. |- |Ferguson et al. (2025) |Cross-sectional; multi-ethnic urban cohort (N=2,568) |Large sample and subgroup and context comparisons. |Cannot establish temporal direction. |- |Davenport et al. (2025) |Observational; preschool sample (N=107) |Used both parent-reported and device-measured outdoor play. |Small sample and most tested associations were non-significant. |- |Dodd et al. (2026) |Longitudinal cohort (N = 4,151) |Outdoor play was measured before later symptom trajectories. |Parent-reported measures; does not establish causation. |- |Poulos et al. (2026) |Recess comparison study (N=317) |Compared affect across three recess settings |Extreme-heat context; higher positive affect finding was not specific to outdoor recess. |} As shown in Table 4, the recent evidence has different methodological strengths and limitations. However, much of the evidence remains observational, and differences in emotional outcomes, measures of outdoor play and play contexts limit the direct comparison between studies. {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {Why should the recent findings not be interpreted as showing single consistent effect of outdoor play on children's emotional well-being? |type="()"} -A. Because all the studies used different countries. +B. Because studies differed in emotional outcomes, measures of outdoor play, timing, context and research design. -C. Because longitudinal studies are always more reliable and accurate. -D. Because outdoor play only affects positive outcomes. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} == '''How can families, communities and schools support outdoor play opportunities that may benefit children's emotional well-being?''' == [[File:Coalition Builds New Playground in One Day for Chicora-Cherokee Community (11054532905).jpg|thumb|325x325px|Figure 6. Families, communities and schools can shape children's opportunities for play.]] Outdoor play opportunities are shaped across family, community and school settings. The 2025 Position Statement on Active Outdoor Play recommends increasing opportunities for active outdoor play where people live, learn, work and play with collaboration to support equitable access Lee et al. 2025; see Figure 6). === '''Families''' === Parents can support children's access to outdoor play. Boxberger and Reimers's (2019) systematic review found that the importance parents placed on outdoor play was associated with children's outdoor-play time, although findings for encouragement were less consistent and causal conclusions cannot be made. Children may also need support while wanting some independence (Han et al., 2022), while work schedules, after-school arrangements and travel time can restrict opportunities (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). === '''Communities''' === Community conditions can shape safe and inclusive play. Visser and van Aalst's (2022) systematic review linked outdoor play with both physical and social neighbourhood factors but found no single feature that consistently explained play across settings. Beekhuizen et al. (2026) observed inclusive outdoor-play sessions and found lower playfulness scores among children with disabilities than children without disabilities, indicating that access to the same setting did not necessarily produce equal play experiences. === '''Schools''' === Schools can support participation through both social and physical conditions. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified familiarity and available time as relevant, while Bikomeye et al. (2021) reported generally positive physical-activity and socio-emotional findings across six schoolyard-greening experiments, although the evidence base was small. Poulos et al. (2026) found higher positive affect after outdoor and gymnasium recess than classroom recess during extreme heat. Heat-adaptive infrastructure may therefore support access to recess environments, but the findings do not show that outdoor recess is always emotionally superior to indoor settings. Families, communities and schools can therefore support opportunities for outdoor play through accessible environments, appropriate support, safety, familiarity and opportunities for autonomy. Current evidence supports these conditions as relevant to participation, but does not show that any single strategy will necessarily improve children's emotional well-being.{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Quiz}} <quiz display=simple> {Which statement best reflects how families, communities and schools can support children's outdoor play opportunities? |type="()"} + Support can involve accessible environments, safety, familiarity, appropriate parental support and opportunities for children to participate with some independence. - Providing the same outdoor space gives every child the same opportunity to participate. -Schoolyard greening alone is enough to improve children's emotional well-being. -Outdoor recess always produces better emotional outcomes than indoor recess. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} == '''Conclusion''' == Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being are not single, consistently measured concepts. Outdoor play should be distinguished from outdoor physical activity, while emotional well-being has been examined through emotional dysregulation, social-emotional competence, affect, and internalising and externalising symptoms. Emotion regulation provides the main psychological framework for understanding how children may respond to emotional situations during outdoor play. Scherer's (2005) model highlights emotional components including physiological responses, while Lee et al. (2025) provides observational evidence that working memory may be involved in the association between afternoon outdoor play and emotional dysregulation. These findings do not establish that outdoor play causes better emotion regulation or emotional well-being. Social and physical conditions also shape children's opportunities to participate. Affordance theory helps explain why the same environment can provide different opportunities for different children, while research highlights accessibility, familiarity, autonomy, parental support and safety as relevant conditions. Families, communities and schools can support these opportunities, but current evidence does not show that one form of outdoor play or one environmental strategy consistently improves children's emotional well-being. ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Affordance|Affordance]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Autonomy|Autonomy]] (Wikipedia) * [[Cognitive psychology]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Emotion regulation in children|Emotion regulation in children]] (Wikiversity) * [[Emotional regulation]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Emotional dysregulation|Emotional dysregulation]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Imaginative play and emotion regulation|Imaginative play and emotion regulation]] (Wikiversity) * [[wikipedia:Working memory|Working memory]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Beekhuizen, R. Q., Bloemen, M. A. T., Bolster, E. A. M., Visser, K., Lugt, R., Bassa, M., Henry, N. L., Kotte, E. M. W., Hartingsveldt, M., & Gorter, J. W. (2026). Can You See Us Play? Observing Inclusive Outdoor Play Behaviour Among Children With and Without Disabilities: A Mixed Methods Study. Child : Care, Health & Development, 52(1), e70198-n/a. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70198 Beekhuizen, R. Q., Bolster, E. A. M., Gorter, J. W., Henry, N. L., Visser, K., Wittink, H., Kotte, E. M. W., Sol, M. E., & Bloemen, M. A. T. (2025). Play Together? Unveiling Facilitators and Barriers to Inclusive Outdoor Play for Dutch Children With and Without Disabilities: A Qualitative Study. Child: Care, Health & Development, 51(6), Article e70154. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70154 Bikomeye, J., Balza, J., & Beyer, K. (2021). The Impact of Schoolyard Greening on Children’s Physical Activity and Socioemotional Health: A Systematic Review of Experimental Studies. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(2), 535. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18020535 Boxberger, K., & Reimers, A. K. (2019). Parental correlates of outdoor play in boys and girls aged 0 to 12: A systematic review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(2, Art. 190), 19-16:2, Art. 190<19. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16020190 Davenport, C., Kuzik, N., Larouche, R., & Carson, V. (2025). The Associations Between Parental-Reported and Device-Based Measured Outdoor Play and Health Indicators of Physical, Cognitive, and Social–Emotional Development in Preschool-Aged Children. Pediatric Exercise Science, 37(2), 102–111. https://doi.org/10.1123/pes.2023-0119 de Lannoy, L., Barbeau, K., Seguin, N., & Tremblay, M. S. (2023). Scoping review of children’s and youth’s outdoor play publications in Canada. Chronic Diseases in Canada, 43(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.24095/hpcdp.43.1.01 Dodd, H. F., Cordwell, K., Hesketh, K., Johnstone, A., de la Torre-Luque, A., & McCrorie, P. (2026). Early outdoor play predicts trajectories of child mental health in a population-based cohort. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.70175 Ferguson, M., Teyhan, A., Lovell, R., Dodd, H., Wheeler, B., & McEachan, R. (2025). The association between park visits, outdoor play and child social-emotional competency in a multi-ethnic, urban cohort. Wellbeing, Space and Society, 9, Article 100293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wss.2025.100293 Gal‐Szabo, D. E., Spinrad, T. L., Eisenberg, N., & Sulik, M. J. (2019). The relations of children’s emotion knowledge to their observed social play and reticent/uninvolved behavior in preschool: Moderation by effortful control. Social Development (Oxford, England), 28(1), 57–73. https://doi.org/10.1111/sode.12321 Gibson, J. J. (1979). The ecological approach to visual perception / James J. Gibson. Houghton Mifflin. Gibson, J.L., Cornell, M. & Gill, T. A Systematic Review of Research into the Impact of Loose Parts Play on Children’s Cognitive, Social and Emotional Development. School Mental Health 9, 295–309 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-017-9220-9 Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion Regulation: Current Status and Future Prospects. Psychological Inquiry, 26(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2014.940781 Halberstadt, A. G., Denham, S. A., & Dunsmore, J. C. (2001). Affective Social Competence. Social Development (Oxford, England), 10(1), 79–119. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9507.00150 Han, C. S., Brussoni, M. J., & Mâsse, L. C. (2022). Parental Autonomy Support in the Context of Parent–Child Negotiation for Children’s Independent Mobility: ‘I Always Feel Safer With My Parents’ to ‘Boom! Bust Down Those Walls! The Journal of Early Adolescence, 42(6), Article 02724316211064513. https://doi.org/10.1177/02724316211064513 Lee, E.-Y., de Lannoy, L., Kim, Y.-B., Rathod, A., James, M. E., Lopes, O., Nasrallah, B., Thankarajah, A., Adjei-Boadi, D., de Barros, M. I. A., Duncan, S., Miller, R. M., Mygind, L., Vanderloo, L. M., Wang, P.-Y., & Tremblay, M. S. (2025). 2025 Position statement on active outdoor play. The International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 22(1), Article 117. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-025-01813-9 Lee, J. J., Flouri, E., & Jackson, Y. (2025). The Role of Timing and Amount of Outdoor Play in Emotional Dysregulation in Preschool Children. Child: Care, Health & Development, 51(1), Article e70020. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70020 Morgenthaler, T., Lynch, H., Loebach, J., Pentland, D., & Schulze, C. (2024). Using the Theory of Affordances to Understand Environment–Play Transactions: Environmental Taxonomy of Outdoor Play Space Features—A Scoping Review. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 78(4), Article 7804185120. https://doi.org/10.5014/ajot.2024.050606 Pereira, J. V., Vila-Nova, F., Veiga, G., Lopes, F., & Cordovil, R. (2024). Associations between outdoor play features and children’s behavior and health: A systematic review. Health & Place, 87, Article 103235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2024.103235 Poulos, A., Hassan, U. A., Wilson, K., Price, P. M., Vanos, J., & Quilla, J. (2026). Differences in Schoolchildren’s Emotional State After Indoor Versus Outdoor Recess in Extreme‐Heat Weather. The Journal of School Health, 96(4), Article e70135. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.70135 Scherer, K. R. (2005). What are emotions? And how can they be measured? Social Science Information, 44(4), 695–729. https://doi.org/10.1177/0539018405058216 Veraksa, A. N., Plotnikova, V. A., Sukhikh, V. L., Kornienko, D. S., & Rudnova, N. A. (2025). Non-therapeutic play to overcome negative emotional symptoms and improve emotional intelligence in children aged 3–7: a systematic review. Frontiers in Psychology, 16, 1475387. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1475387 Visser, K., & Aalst, I. (2022). Neighbourhood Factors in Children’s Outdoor Play: A Systematic Literature Review. Tijdschrift Voor Economische En Sociale Geografie, 113(1), 80–95. https://doi.org/10.1111/tesg.12505 }} ==External links== * [https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-play [https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-pla]<nowiki/>[https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-play y]] (Encyclopedia in Early Childhood Development) * [[https://www.outdoorplaycanada.ca/2026/06/02/sprout-able-resources-videos-and-tip-sheets-to-support-children-with-disabilities-in-outdoor-play/ https://www.outdoorplaycanada.ca/2026/06/02/sp]<nowiki/>[https://www.outdoorplaycanada.ca/2026/06/02/sprout-able-resources-videos-and-tip-sheets-to-support-children-with-disabilities-in-outdoor-play/ rout-able-resources-videos-and-tip-sheets-to-support-children-with-disabilities-in-outdoor-play/]/ SPROUT-able Resources: Videos and Tip Sheets to Support Children with Disabilities in Outdoor Play] (Outdoor Play Canada) * https://www.who.int/news/item/24-04-2019-to-grow-up-healthy-children-need-to-sit-less-and-play-more<nowiki/> To grow up healthy, children need to sit less and play more] (World Health Organisation) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Children]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Nature]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Well-being]] 8uu9lwpryk8512n47jninn0k98ustr1 2836315 2836314 2026-10-06T12:23:41Z Mymunu 3106327 /* References */ 2836315 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being:<br>How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {| class="wikitable" |'''Case study: Part 1'''[[File:School children happily playing in playground.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. Children engaged in outdoor play, where social interactions, choice and changes in the situation can create different emotional experiences.]]Imagine that... A child arrives at playground and joins a group of children who are already playing. The children are making their own game and deciding the rules as they play. During the game, another child changes the rules and an argument breaks out. The child becomes frustrated and walks away from the activity. After watching for a short time, the child returns, suggests a new idea to continue the game and re-joins the group. How might experiences like this during outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? Emotional regulation provides one psychological framework for understanding how children may respond to situations like this during play (see Figure 1). |} Outdoor play can involve more than physical movement. It can occur across playgrounds, gardens, streets and natural spaces and can include exploration, social interaction, choice, challenge, and engagement with the surrounding environment (Dodd et al., 2026; Pereira et al., 2024). This chapter examines how [[Emotional regulation|emotional,]] [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive]], social and environmental processes may help explain the relationship between outdoor play and children's [https://w.wiki/AHG6 emotional well-being.] {| class="wikitable" | '''Focus questions''' * '''What are outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?''' * '''How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?''' * '''How do social and environmental conditions shape children's outdoor play experiences?''' * '''What does recent research show about outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?''' * '''How can families, communities and schools support outdoor play opportunities that may benefit children's emotional well-being?''' |} == '''Understanding outdoor play and children's emotional well-being''' == [[File:Water-outdoor-people-girl-play-boy-938233.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. ''Outdoor play can provide opportunities to explore, make choices, interact with others and respond to changing situations through activities such as water play.''|214x214px]] Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being are not measured as single and consistent concepts across recent research. Outdoor play may be measured through parent reports or devices and should be distinguished from outdoor moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) because these measures do not represent the same behaviour (Davenport et al., 2025; Dodd et al., 2026). === Outdoor play === Outdoor play is voluntary and intrinsically motivated activity occurring in outdoor environments such as gardens, playgrounds, parks and natural spaces (Dodd et al., 2026). It can involve movement, exploration, choice, social interaction and engagement with environmental features. === Children's emotional well-being === Children's emotional well-being is not represented by a single common outcome across recent outdoor play research. Studies have examined emotional dysregulation (Lee et al., 2025), social-emotional competence (Ferguson et al., 2025), positive and negative affect (Poulos et al., 2026) and internalising and externalising symptoms (Dodd et al., 2026). These outcomes represent different aspects and timeframes of emotional functioning, so they should not be treated as equivalent when findings are compared. '''Table 1''' ''Emotional outcomes examined in recent research on outdoor play and children's emotional well-being'' {| class="wikitable" |+ !Study !Outcome examined !What the outcome represents |- |Lee et al. (2025) |Emotional dysregulation |Difficulties in emotion regulation |- |Ferguson et al. (2025) |Social-emotional competence |Social-emotional difficulties and prosocial behaviour |- |Poulos et al. (2026) |Positive and negative affect |Emotional state following recess |- |Dodd et al. (2026) |Internalising and externalising symptoms |Long-term internalising and externalising symptom patterns |} Note. Outcome descriptions are based on the measures and constructs reported in the cited studies. As shown in Table 1, immediate affect following recess should not be treated as equivalent to emotional dysregulation measured over time or trajectories of internalising and externalising symptoms across childhood. {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {A child's positive or negative affect immediately after recess represents the same emotional outcome as longer-term internalising or externalising symptoms. |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} == '''How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?''' == Outdoor play may be related to children's emotional well-being through emotional, cognitive and social processes (Dodd et al., 2026). These pathways have not all been directly tested as mechanisms, and much outdoor play research remains observational (Dodd et al., 2026; de Lannoy et al., 2023). Emotion regulation provides the psychological framework to explain children's responses during outdoor play. Scherer's (2005) model clarifies the components involved in emotion, while working memory provides empirical evidence of a possible cognitive process; affordance theory is later used to explain how environmental conditions shape opportunities for these experiences. Emotion involves more than subjective feelings. Scherer (2005) described emotion as coordinated changes across cognitive appraisal, physiological responses, action tendencies, expression and subjective feelings. Physiological responses are therefore one component of emotion rather than a separate explanation for outdoor-play effects. Scherer did not examine outdoor play, so the framework does not establish that outdoor play changes children's physiological responses or emotional well-being. === '''Emotion regulation''' === Emotion regulation provides key psychological framework for understanding how children may manage emotional situations during outdoor play.. Gross (2015) described situation selection, situation modification, attentional deployment, cognitive change and response modulation. During outdoor play, children may experience frustration, conflict, uncertainty or changes to their activity. Gross's framework can be applied to consider how children recognise an emotional response, choose strategies to manage and act on them. However, Gross (2015) did not examine outdoor play, so applying the framework does not show that outdoor play improves children's emotion regulation. Broader research on children's play has also examined emotional functioning but indirect evidence. Veraksa et al. (2025) systematically reviewed 33 studies of non-therapeutic play among children aged 3 to 7 and identified evidence involving emotion regulation, emotional intelligence and negative emotional symptoms. Because the review included outdoor play alongside other forms of play, it should not be interpreted as evidence that outdoor play alone improves emotion regulation. {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |'''Case study: Part 3'''[[File:14Y Ncdc july 5th-802.jpg|thumb|202x202px|'''Figure 4'''. ''Children can respond differently to emotional situations that occur during outdoor play.'']]When the rules of game change, the child becomes frustrated and decides to step away. After a short time the child returns and suggests a different way to continue the game (see Figure 4). Suggesting a change to the game can be considered an example of situation modification. {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {What does Gross (2015) emotion regulation framework show when it is applied to the outdoor-play scenario?. |type="()"} -A. Outdoor play causes better emotion regulation. +B. Situation modification can help explain how the child responds to the situation. -C. Children regulate emotions better outdoors than indoors. -D. Stepping away from play always improves emotional well-being. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} === '''Working memory and cognitive process''' === Working memory may be one cognitive process involved in the association between outdoor play and emotional dysregulation. Lee et al. (2025) examined 325 preschool children and tested working memory as a statistical mediator. Afternoon outdoor play was associated with lower emotional dysregulation and better working memory, while better working memory was associated with lower emotional dysregulation. When working memory was included in the analysis, the association between afternoon outdoor play and emotional dysregulation was no longer statistically significant. However, the study was observational, so the mediation analysis does not show that outdoor play caused better working memory or lower emotional dysregulation. '''Table 2''' ''Psychological processes considered in the relationship between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being'' {| class="wikitable" !Process !Contribution !Evidence and limitations |- |Emotion components (Scherer 2005) |Emotion involves appraisal, physiological responses, action tendencies, expression and subjective feeling |Conceptual model; did not test outdoor play |- |Primary framework (Gross 2015) |Emotion regulation helps explain responses to changing or frustrating play situations |Application of theory; does not show outdoor play improves regulation |- |Working memory (Lee et al., 2025) |Working memory statistically mediated the association between outdoor play and emotional dysregulation. |Direct observational evidence; causation cannot be established |} ''Note.'' Gross's (2015) emotion regulation framework provides the main psychological explanation, while Scherer (2005) clarifies the components of emotion, and Lee et al. (2025) provides empirical evidence of a possible cognitive process. == '''How do social and environmental conditions shape children's outdoor play experiences?''' == [[File:2026-10-03 214531-relationship between child and environment.png|thumb|284x284px|'''Figure 5.''' Children's opportunities for outdoor play can be different according to personal, interacting and environmental factors and the relationship between the child and the environment. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Note. Original conceptual summary based on Beekhuizen et al. (2025) and Gibson (1979). |} ]] Psychological processes occur within particular social and physical conditions (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). [https://w.wiki/VYfL Affordance theory] therefore complements the emotion-regulation framework by explaining how the relationship between the child and the environment shapes opportunities in which emotional and social experiences can occur (Gibson, 1979; Morgenthaler et al., 2024) ). === Affordance theory and outdoor play environments === [https://w.wiki/VYfL Affordance theory] explains opportunities for action that an environment provides in relation to the person using it (Gibson, 1979). Morgenthaler et al. (2024) applied affordance theory to children's outdoor play and identified 14 categories of spaces and 284 play occupations linked to environmental features. This helps explain why the same space may provide different opportunities for different children. However, the review examined opportunities for play rather than children's [https://w.wiki/AHG6 emotional well-being]. Pereira et al. (2024) reviewed 51 articles representing 45 primary studies of outdoor play-space features. Some positive effects were reported, but substantial heterogeneity was present. Differences in features, outcome measures and methods limited conclusions about individual play-space features. The review therefore does not show that one particular environmental feature improves children's emotional well-being. === '''Social relationships and inclusion''' === Social relationships can shape whether children are able to join and continue outdoor play (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Familiarity and making contact were important for inclusive play. Emotional understanding may also influence how children participate socially during play. Gal-Szabo et al. (2019) found that better situational understanding of emotions was associated with less uninvolved behaviour and marginally more social play during preschool free play. However, the study was not specific to outdoor play and does not establish that social play improves emotional well-being. === '''Autonomy, access and time''' === [https://w.wiki/4NyU Autonomy] can shape how children experience outdoor play (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Veraksa et al. (2025) identified autonomy as one feature through which broader play may support emotion regulation and coping, although the review was not specific to outdoor play. Parental support can enable access to play, while work schedules, after-school arrangements and travel time can restrict opportunities (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Safety and accessibility are also relevant, particularly for children with disabilities (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). These findings support the importance of participation conditions, but do not show that any single environmental feature improves children's emotional well-being. {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |'''Case study: Part 4 Same play space, different experiences''' {| class="wikitable" |Kim and Leo use the same school playground. Kim already knows many children and easily joins a group activity, while Leo uses a mobility device and finds that some areas of the playground are difficult to access. Leo also know fewer children in the playground. Although, they share the same play space, physical accessibility and familiarity create different opportunities to participate. |} {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {Why might two children have different outdoor-play experiences even they use the same playground?. |type="()"} +A. Physical, social and personal factors can affect how children are able to participate. -B. Outdoor spaces provide the same opportunities for every child. -C. Accessibility is the only factor that affects outdoor play.. -D. Children who know other children always have better emotional well-being. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} == '''What does recent research show about outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?''' == Recent research does not show a consistent association between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being. Fndings are mixed across different emotional outcomes, the timing and context of outdoor play, children's behaviours, and the methods used to measure outdoor play. === '''Consistency of recent research findings''' === Recent findings are not consistent across outcomes. Ferguson et al. (2025) associated more frequent outdoor play with better social-emotional competence, whereas most developmental associations examined by Davenport et al. (2025) were not statistically significant. Poulos et al. (2026) found higher positive affect after outdoor and gymnasium recess than classroom recess, while Lee et al. (2025) found that associations with emotional dysregulation differed by time of day. Timeframe and context also matter. Dodd et al. (2026) linked more frequent preschool outdoor play with lower odds of less favourable internalising and externalising symptom trajectories across childhood, whereas Poulos et al. (2026) examined immediate post-recess affect. Ferguson et al. (2025) also reported differences according to ethnicity and whether outdoor play occurred on school days or weekends. Together, the evidence suggests that outdoor play is not associated with one uniform emotional outcome; associations depend on what is measured, when play occurs, who participates and the context in which play takes place. === '''Limitations and future directions''' === Research design limits causal interpretation. Dodd et al. (2026) used longitudinal data from 4,151 children, but the study remained observational and relied on parent-reported measures. Lee et al. (2025) also considered reverse causation, meaning its mediation findings cannot establish that outdoor play caused changes in working memory or emotional dysregulation. Measurement also limits comparison across studies. Outdoor play has been assessed through parent reports and devices, while emotional outcomes range from immediate affect to longer-term symptom trajectories (Davenport et al., 2025). Differences in children's ages, play settings and contexts further limit interpretation, and de Lannoy et al. (2023) found that cross-sectional designs remain common across the wider outdoor-play literature. Future research should use more consistent measures of outdoor play and emotional outcomes, stronger longitudinal and experimental designs, and samples representing different children and play contexts. Studies should also test proposed emotional and cognitive processes directly rather than inferring mechanisms from associations. T'''able 4''' '''''Comparison of recent research''''' {| class="wikitable" |+ !Study !Research method !Research strength !Limitation |- | <small>Lee et al. (2025)</small> |Observational; 6-month follow-up |Examined the timing of outdoor and working memory as a statistical mediator. |Cannot establish causation; reverse causation remains possible. |- |Ferguson et al. (2025) |Cross-sectional; multi-ethnic urban cohort (N=2,568) |Large sample and subgroup and context comparisons. |Cannot establish temporal direction. |- |Davenport et al. (2025) |Observational; preschool sample (N=107) |Used both parent-reported and device-measured outdoor play. |Small sample and most tested associations were non-significant. |- |Dodd et al. (2026) |Longitudinal cohort (N = 4,151) |Outdoor play was measured before later symptom trajectories. |Parent-reported measures; does not establish causation. |- |Poulos et al. (2026) |Recess comparison study (N=317) |Compared affect across three recess settings |Extreme-heat context; higher positive affect finding was not specific to outdoor recess. |} As shown in Table 4, the recent evidence has different methodological strengths and limitations. However, much of the evidence remains observational, and differences in emotional outcomes, measures of outdoor play and play contexts limit the direct comparison between studies. {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {Why should the recent findings not be interpreted as showing single consistent effect of outdoor play on children's emotional well-being? |type="()"} -A. Because all the studies used different countries. +B. Because studies differed in emotional outcomes, measures of outdoor play, timing, context and research design. -C. Because longitudinal studies are always more reliable and accurate. -D. Because outdoor play only affects positive outcomes. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} == '''How can families, communities and schools support outdoor play opportunities that may benefit children's emotional well-being?''' == [[File:Coalition Builds New Playground in One Day for Chicora-Cherokee Community (11054532905).jpg|thumb|325x325px|Figure 6. Families, communities and schools can shape children's opportunities for play.]] Outdoor play opportunities are shaped across family, community and school settings. The 2025 Position Statement on Active Outdoor Play recommends increasing opportunities for active outdoor play where people live, learn, work and play with collaboration to support equitable access Lee et al. 2025; see Figure 6). === '''Families''' === Parents can support children's access to outdoor play. Boxberger and Reimers's (2019) systematic review found that the importance parents placed on outdoor play was associated with children's outdoor-play time, although findings for encouragement were less consistent and causal conclusions cannot be made. Children may also need support while wanting some independence (Han et al., 2022), while work schedules, after-school arrangements and travel time can restrict opportunities (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). === '''Communities''' === Community conditions can shape safe and inclusive play. Visser and van Aalst's (2022) systematic review linked outdoor play with both physical and social neighbourhood factors but found no single feature that consistently explained play across settings. Beekhuizen et al. (2026) observed inclusive outdoor-play sessions and found lower playfulness scores among children with disabilities than children without disabilities, indicating that access to the same setting did not necessarily produce equal play experiences. === '''Schools''' === Schools can support participation through both social and physical conditions. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified familiarity and available time as relevant, while Bikomeye et al. (2021) reported generally positive physical-activity and socio-emotional findings across six schoolyard-greening experiments, although the evidence base was small. Poulos et al. (2026) found higher positive affect after outdoor and gymnasium recess than classroom recess during extreme heat. Heat-adaptive infrastructure may therefore support access to recess environments, but the findings do not show that outdoor recess is always emotionally superior to indoor settings. Families, communities and schools can therefore support opportunities for outdoor play through accessible environments, appropriate support, safety, familiarity and opportunities for autonomy. Current evidence supports these conditions as relevant to participation, but does not show that any single strategy will necessarily improve children's emotional well-being.{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Quiz}} <quiz display=simple> {Which statement best reflects how families, communities and schools can support children's outdoor play opportunities? |type="()"} + Support can involve accessible environments, safety, familiarity, appropriate parental support and opportunities for children to participate with some independence. - Providing the same outdoor space gives every child the same opportunity to participate. -Schoolyard greening alone is enough to improve children's emotional well-being. -Outdoor recess always produces better emotional outcomes than indoor recess. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} == '''Conclusion''' == Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being are not single, consistently measured concepts. Outdoor play should be distinguished from outdoor physical activity, while emotional well-being has been examined through emotional dysregulation, social-emotional competence, affect, and internalising and externalising symptoms. Emotion regulation provides the main psychological framework for understanding how children may respond to emotional situations during outdoor play. Scherer's (2005) model highlights emotional components including physiological responses, while Lee et al. (2025) provides observational evidence that working memory may be involved in the association between afternoon outdoor play and emotional dysregulation. These findings do not establish that outdoor play causes better emotion regulation or emotional well-being. Social and physical conditions also shape children's opportunities to participate. Affordance theory helps explain why the same environment can provide different opportunities for different children, while research highlights accessibility, familiarity, autonomy, parental support and safety as relevant conditions. Families, communities and schools can support these opportunities, but current evidence does not show that one form of outdoor play or one environmental strategy consistently improves children's emotional well-being. ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Affordance|Affordance]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Autonomy|Autonomy]] (Wikipedia) * [[Cognitive psychology]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Emotion regulation in children|Emotion regulation in children]] (Wikiversity) * [[Emotional regulation]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Emotional dysregulation|Emotional dysregulation]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Imaginative play and emotion regulation|Imaginative play and emotion regulation]] (Wikiversity) * [[wikipedia:Working memory|Working memory]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Beekhuizen, R. Q., Bloemen, M. A. T., Bolster, E. A. M., Visser, K., Lugt, R., Bassa, M., Henry, N. L., Kotte, E. M. W., Hartingsveldt, M., & Gorter, J. W. (2026). Can You See Us Play? Observing Inclusive Outdoor Play Behaviour Among Children With and Without Disabilities: A Mixed Methods Study. Child : Care, Health & Development, 52(1), e70198-n/a. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70198 Beekhuizen, R. Q., Bolster, E. A. M., Gorter, J. W., Henry, N. L., Visser, K., Wittink, H., Kotte, E. M. W., Sol, M. E., & Bloemen, M. A. T. (2025). Play Together? Unveiling Facilitators and Barriers to Inclusive Outdoor Play for Dutch Children With and Without Disabilities: A Qualitative Study. Child: Care, Health & Development, 51(6), Article e70154. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70154 Bikomeye, J., Balza, J., & Beyer, K. (2021). The Impact of Schoolyard Greening on Children’s Physical Activity and Socioemotional Health: A Systematic Review of Experimental Studies. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(2), 535. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18020535 Boxberger, K., & Reimers, A. K. (2019). Parental correlates of outdoor play in boys and girls aged 0 to 12: A systematic review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(2, Art. 190), 19-16:2, Art. 190<19. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16020190 Davenport, C., Kuzik, N., Larouche, R., & Carson, V. (2025). The Associations Between Parental-Reported and Device-Based Measured Outdoor Play and Health Indicators of Physical, Cognitive, and Social–Emotional Development in Preschool-Aged Children. Pediatric Exercise Science, 37(2), 102–111. https://doi.org/10.1123/pes.2023-0119 de Lannoy, L., Barbeau, K., Seguin, N., & Tremblay, M. S. (2023). Scoping review of children’s and youth’s outdoor play publications in Canada. Chronic Diseases in Canada, 43(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.24095/hpcdp.43.1.01 Dodd, H. F., Cordwell, K., Hesketh, K., Johnstone, A., de la Torre-Luque, A., & McCrorie, P. (2026). Early outdoor play predicts trajectories of child mental health in a population-based cohort. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.70175 Ferguson, M., Teyhan, A., Lovell, R., Dodd, H., Wheeler, B., & McEachan, R. (2025). The association between park visits, outdoor play and child social-emotional competency in a multi-ethnic, urban cohort. Wellbeing, Space and Society, 9, Article 100293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wss.2025.100293 Gal‐Szabo, D. E., Spinrad, T. L., Eisenberg, N., & Sulik, M. J. (2019). The relations of children’s emotion knowledge to their observed social play and reticent/uninvolved behavior in preschool: Moderation by effortful control. Social Development (Oxford, England), 28(1), 57–73. https://doi.org/10.1111/sode.12321 Gibson, J. J. (1979). The ecological approach to visual perception / James J. Gibson. Houghton Mifflin. Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion Regulation: Current Status and Future Prospects. Psychological Inquiry, 26(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2014.940781 Han, C. S., Brussoni, M. J., & Mâsse, L. C. (2022). Parental Autonomy Support in the Context of Parent–Child Negotiation for Children’s Independent Mobility: ‘I Always Feel Safer With My Parents’ to ‘Boom! Bust Down Those Walls! The Journal of Early Adolescence, 42(6), Article 02724316211064513. https://doi.org/10.1177/02724316211064513 Lee, E.-Y., de Lannoy, L., Kim, Y.-B., Rathod, A., James, M. E., Lopes, O., Nasrallah, B., Thankarajah, A., Adjei-Boadi, D., de Barros, M. I. A., Duncan, S., Miller, R. M., Mygind, L., Vanderloo, L. M., Wang, P.-Y., & Tremblay, M. S. (2025). 2025 Position statement on active outdoor play. The International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 22(1), Article 117. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-025-01813-9 Lee, J. J., Flouri, E., & Jackson, Y. (2025). The Role of Timing and Amount of Outdoor Play in Emotional Dysregulation in Preschool Children. Child: Care, Health & Development, 51(1), Article e70020. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70020 Morgenthaler, T., Lynch, H., Loebach, J., Pentland, D., & Schulze, C. (2024). Using the Theory of Affordances to Understand Environment–Play Transactions: Environmental Taxonomy of Outdoor Play Space Features—A Scoping Review. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 78(4), Article 7804185120. https://doi.org/10.5014/ajot.2024.050606 Pereira, J. V., Vila-Nova, F., Veiga, G., Lopes, F., & Cordovil, R. (2024). Associations between outdoor play features and children’s behavior and health: A systematic review. Health & Place, 87, Article 103235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2024.103235 Poulos, A., Hassan, U. A., Wilson, K., Price, P. M., Vanos, J., & Quilla, J. (2026). Differences in Schoolchildren’s Emotional State After Indoor Versus Outdoor Recess in Extreme‐Heat Weather. The Journal of School Health, 96(4), Article e70135. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.70135 Scherer, K. R. (2005). What are emotions? And how can they be measured? Social Science Information, 44(4), 695–729. https://doi.org/10.1177/0539018405058216 Veraksa, A. N., Plotnikova, V. A., Sukhikh, V. L., Kornienko, D. S., & Rudnova, N. A. (2025). Non-therapeutic play to overcome negative emotional symptoms and improve emotional intelligence in children aged 3–7: a systematic review. Frontiers in Psychology, 16, 1475387. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1475387 Visser, K., & Aalst, I. (2022). Neighbourhood Factors in Children’s Outdoor Play: A Systematic Literature Review. Tijdschrift Voor Economische En Sociale Geografie, 113(1), 80–95. https://doi.org/10.1111/tesg.12505 }} ==External links== * [https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-play [https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-pla]<nowiki/>[https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-play y]] (Encyclopedia in Early Childhood Development) * [[https://www.outdoorplaycanada.ca/2026/06/02/sprout-able-resources-videos-and-tip-sheets-to-support-children-with-disabilities-in-outdoor-play/ https://www.outdoorplaycanada.ca/2026/06/02/sp]<nowiki/>[https://www.outdoorplaycanada.ca/2026/06/02/sprout-able-resources-videos-and-tip-sheets-to-support-children-with-disabilities-in-outdoor-play/ rout-able-resources-videos-and-tip-sheets-to-support-children-with-disabilities-in-outdoor-play/]/ SPROUT-able Resources: Videos and Tip Sheets to Support Children with Disabilities in Outdoor Play] (Outdoor Play Canada) * https://www.who.int/news/item/24-04-2019-to-grow-up-healthy-children-need-to-sit-less-and-play-more<nowiki/> To grow up healthy, children need to sit less and play more] (World Health Organisation) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Children]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Nature]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Well-being]] 3bg5xhnjk75l1535t85yv2i887efbc3 2836316 2836315 2026-10-06T12:25:55Z Mymunu 3106327 /* Families */ 2836316 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being:<br>How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {| class="wikitable" |'''Case study: Part 1'''[[File:School children happily playing in playground.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. Children engaged in outdoor play, where social interactions, choice and changes in the situation can create different emotional experiences.]]Imagine that... A child arrives at playground and joins a group of children who are already playing. The children are making their own game and deciding the rules as they play. During the game, another child changes the rules and an argument breaks out. The child becomes frustrated and walks away from the activity. After watching for a short time, the child returns, suggests a new idea to continue the game and re-joins the group. How might experiences like this during outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? Emotional regulation provides one psychological framework for understanding how children may respond to situations like this during play (see Figure 1). |} Outdoor play can involve more than physical movement. It can occur across playgrounds, gardens, streets and natural spaces and can include exploration, social interaction, choice, challenge, and engagement with the surrounding environment (Dodd et al., 2026; Pereira et al., 2024). This chapter examines how [[Emotional regulation|emotional,]] [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive]], social and environmental processes may help explain the relationship between outdoor play and children's [https://w.wiki/AHG6 emotional well-being.] {| class="wikitable" | '''Focus questions''' * '''What are outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?''' * '''How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?''' * '''How do social and environmental conditions shape children's outdoor play experiences?''' * '''What does recent research show about outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?''' * '''How can families, communities and schools support outdoor play opportunities that may benefit children's emotional well-being?''' |} == '''Understanding outdoor play and children's emotional well-being''' == [[File:Water-outdoor-people-girl-play-boy-938233.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. ''Outdoor play can provide opportunities to explore, make choices, interact with others and respond to changing situations through activities such as water play.''|214x214px]] Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being are not measured as single and consistent concepts across recent research. Outdoor play may be measured through parent reports or devices and should be distinguished from outdoor moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) because these measures do not represent the same behaviour (Davenport et al., 2025; Dodd et al., 2026). === Outdoor play === Outdoor play is voluntary and intrinsically motivated activity occurring in outdoor environments such as gardens, playgrounds, parks and natural spaces (Dodd et al., 2026). It can involve movement, exploration, choice, social interaction and engagement with environmental features. === Children's emotional well-being === Children's emotional well-being is not represented by a single common outcome across recent outdoor play research. Studies have examined emotional dysregulation (Lee et al., 2025), social-emotional competence (Ferguson et al., 2025), positive and negative affect (Poulos et al., 2026) and internalising and externalising symptoms (Dodd et al., 2026). These outcomes represent different aspects and timeframes of emotional functioning, so they should not be treated as equivalent when findings are compared. '''Table 1''' ''Emotional outcomes examined in recent research on outdoor play and children's emotional well-being'' {| class="wikitable" |+ !Study !Outcome examined !What the outcome represents |- |Lee et al. (2025) |Emotional dysregulation |Difficulties in emotion regulation |- |Ferguson et al. (2025) |Social-emotional competence |Social-emotional difficulties and prosocial behaviour |- |Poulos et al. (2026) |Positive and negative affect |Emotional state following recess |- |Dodd et al. (2026) |Internalising and externalising symptoms |Long-term internalising and externalising symptom patterns |} ''Note''. Outcome descriptions are based on the measures and constructs reported in the cited studies. As shown in Table 1, immediate affect following recess should not be treated as equivalent to emotional dysregulation measured over time or trajectories of internalising and externalising symptoms across childhood. {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {A child's positive or negative affect immediately after recess represents the same emotional outcome as longer-term internalising or externalising symptoms. |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} == '''How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?''' == Outdoor play may be related to children's emotional well-being through emotional, cognitive and social processes (Dodd et al., 2026). These pathways have not all been directly tested as mechanisms, and much outdoor play research remains observational (Dodd et al., 2026; de Lannoy et al., 2023). Emotion regulation provides the psychological framework to explain children's responses during outdoor play. Scherer's (2005) model clarifies the components involved in emotion, while working memory provides empirical evidence of a possible cognitive process; affordance theory is later used to explain how environmental conditions shape opportunities for these experiences. Emotion involves more than subjective feelings. Scherer (2005) described emotion as coordinated changes across cognitive appraisal, physiological responses, action tendencies, expression and subjective feelings. Physiological responses are therefore one component of emotion rather than a separate explanation for outdoor-play effects. Scherer did not examine outdoor play, so the framework does not establish that outdoor play changes children's physiological responses or emotional well-being. === '''Emotion regulation''' === Emotion regulation provides key psychological framework for understanding how children may manage emotional situations during outdoor play.. Gross (2015) described situation selection, situation modification, attentional deployment, cognitive change and response modulation. During outdoor play, children may experience frustration, conflict, uncertainty or changes to their activity. Gross's framework can be applied to consider how children recognise an emotional response, choose strategies to manage and act on them. However, Gross (2015) did not examine outdoor play, so applying the framework does not show that outdoor play improves children's emotion regulation. Broader research on children's play has also examined emotional functioning but indirect evidence. Veraksa et al. (2025) systematically reviewed 33 studies of non-therapeutic play among children aged 3 to 7 and identified evidence involving emotion regulation, emotional intelligence and negative emotional symptoms. Because the review included outdoor play alongside other forms of play, it should not be interpreted as evidence that outdoor play alone improves emotion regulation. {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |'''Case study: Part 3'''[[File:14Y Ncdc july 5th-802.jpg|thumb|202x202px|'''Figure 4'''. ''Children can respond differently to emotional situations that occur during outdoor play.'']]When the rules of game change, the child becomes frustrated and decides to step away. After a short time the child returns and suggests a different way to continue the game (see Figure 4). Suggesting a change to the game can be considered an example of situation modification. {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {What does Gross (2015) emotion regulation framework show when it is applied to the outdoor-play scenario?. |type="()"} -A. Outdoor play causes better emotion regulation. +B. Situation modification can help explain how the child responds to the situation. -C. Children regulate emotions better outdoors than indoors. -D. Stepping away from play always improves emotional well-being. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} === '''Working memory and cognitive process''' === Working memory may be one cognitive process involved in the association between outdoor play and emotional dysregulation. Lee et al. (2025) examined 325 preschool children and tested working memory as a statistical mediator. Afternoon outdoor play was associated with lower emotional dysregulation and better working memory, while better working memory was associated with lower emotional dysregulation. When working memory was included in the analysis, the association between afternoon outdoor play and emotional dysregulation was no longer statistically significant. However, the study was observational, so the mediation analysis does not show that outdoor play caused better working memory or lower emotional dysregulation. '''Table 2''' ''Psychological processes considered in the relationship between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being'' {| class="wikitable" !Process !Contribution !Evidence and limitations |- |Emotion components (Scherer 2005) |Emotion involves appraisal, physiological responses, action tendencies, expression and subjective feeling |Conceptual model; did not test outdoor play |- |Primary framework (Gross 2015) |Emotion regulation helps explain responses to changing or frustrating play situations |Application of theory; does not show outdoor play improves regulation |- |Working memory (Lee et al., 2025) |Working memory statistically mediated the association between outdoor play and emotional dysregulation. |Direct observational evidence; causation cannot be established |} ''Note.'' Gross's (2015) emotion regulation framework provides the main psychological explanation, while Scherer (2005) clarifies the components of emotion, and Lee et al. (2025) provides empirical evidence of a possible cognitive process. == '''How do social and environmental conditions shape children's outdoor play experiences?''' == [[File:2026-10-03 214531-relationship between child and environment.png|thumb|284x284px|'''Figure 5.''' Children's opportunities for outdoor play can be different according to personal, interacting and environmental factors and the relationship between the child and the environment. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Note. Original conceptual summary based on Beekhuizen et al. (2025) and Gibson (1979). |} ]] Psychological processes occur within particular social and physical conditions (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). [https://w.wiki/VYfL Affordance theory] therefore complements the emotion-regulation framework by explaining how the relationship between the child and the environment shapes opportunities in which emotional and social experiences can occur (Gibson, 1979; Morgenthaler et al., 2024) ). === Affordance theory and outdoor play environments === [https://w.wiki/VYfL Affordance theory] explains opportunities for action that an environment provides in relation to the person using it (Gibson, 1979). Morgenthaler et al. (2024) applied affordance theory to children's outdoor play and identified 14 categories of spaces and 284 play occupations linked to environmental features. This helps explain why the same space may provide different opportunities for different children. However, the review examined opportunities for play rather than children's [https://w.wiki/AHG6 emotional well-being]. Pereira et al. (2024) reviewed 51 articles representing 45 primary studies of outdoor play-space features. Some positive effects were reported, but substantial heterogeneity was present. Differences in features, outcome measures and methods limited conclusions about individual play-space features. The review therefore does not show that one particular environmental feature improves children's emotional well-being. === '''Social relationships and inclusion''' === Social relationships can shape whether children are able to join and continue outdoor play (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Familiarity and making contact were important for inclusive play. Emotional understanding may also influence how children participate socially during play. Gal-Szabo et al. (2019) found that better situational understanding of emotions was associated with less uninvolved behaviour and marginally more social play during preschool free play. However, the study was not specific to outdoor play and does not establish that social play improves emotional well-being. === '''Autonomy, access and time''' === [https://w.wiki/4NyU Autonomy] can shape how children experience outdoor play (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Veraksa et al. (2025) identified autonomy as one feature through which broader play may support emotion regulation and coping, although the review was not specific to outdoor play. Parental support can enable access to play, while work schedules, after-school arrangements and travel time can restrict opportunities (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Safety and accessibility are also relevant, particularly for children with disabilities (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). These findings support the importance of participation conditions, but do not show that any single environmental feature improves children's emotional well-being. {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |'''Case study: Part 4 Same play space, different experiences''' {| class="wikitable" |Kim and Leo use the same school playground. Kim already knows many children and easily joins a group activity, while Leo uses a mobility device and finds that some areas of the playground are difficult to access. Leo also know fewer children in the playground. Although, they share the same play space, physical accessibility and familiarity create different opportunities to participate. |} {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {Why might two children have different outdoor-play experiences even they use the same playground?. |type="()"} +A. Physical, social and personal factors can affect how children are able to participate. -B. Outdoor spaces provide the same opportunities for every child. -C. Accessibility is the only factor that affects outdoor play.. -D. Children who know other children always have better emotional well-being. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} == '''What does recent research show about outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?''' == Recent research does not show a consistent association between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being. Fndings are mixed across different emotional outcomes, the timing and context of outdoor play, children's behaviours, and the methods used to measure outdoor play. === '''Consistency of recent research findings''' === Recent findings are not consistent across outcomes. Ferguson et al. (2025) associated more frequent outdoor play with better social-emotional competence, whereas most developmental associations examined by Davenport et al. (2025) were not statistically significant. Poulos et al. (2026) found higher positive affect after outdoor and gymnasium recess than classroom recess, while Lee et al. (2025) found that associations with emotional dysregulation differed by time of day. Timeframe and context also matter. Dodd et al. (2026) linked more frequent preschool outdoor play with lower odds of less favourable internalising and externalising symptom trajectories across childhood, whereas Poulos et al. (2026) examined immediate post-recess affect. Ferguson et al. (2025) also reported differences according to ethnicity and whether outdoor play occurred on school days or weekends. Together, the evidence suggests that outdoor play is not associated with one uniform emotional outcome; associations depend on what is measured, when play occurs, who participates and the context in which play takes place. === '''Limitations and future directions''' === Research design limits causal interpretation. Dodd et al. (2026) used longitudinal data from 4,151 children, but the study remained observational and relied on parent-reported measures. Lee et al. (2025) also considered reverse causation, meaning its mediation findings cannot establish that outdoor play caused changes in working memory or emotional dysregulation. Measurement also limits comparison across studies. Outdoor play has been assessed through parent reports and devices, while emotional outcomes range from immediate affect to longer-term symptom trajectories (Davenport et al., 2025). Differences in children's ages, play settings and contexts further limit interpretation, and de Lannoy et al. (2023) found that cross-sectional designs remain common across the wider outdoor-play literature. Future research should use more consistent measures of outdoor play and emotional outcomes, stronger longitudinal and experimental designs, and samples representing different children and play contexts. Studies should also test proposed emotional and cognitive processes directly rather than inferring mechanisms from associations. T'''able 3''' '''''Comparison of recent research''''' {| class="wikitable" |+ !Study !Research method !Research strength !Limitation |- | <small>Lee et al. (2025)</small> |Observational; 6-month follow-up |Examined the timing of outdoor and working memory as a statistical mediator. |Cannot establish causation; reverse causation remains possible. |- |Ferguson et al. (2025) |Cross-sectional; multi-ethnic urban cohort (N=2,568) |Large sample and subgroup and context comparisons. |Cannot establish temporal direction. |- |Davenport et al. (2025) |Observational; preschool sample (N=107) |Used both parent-reported and device-measured outdoor play. |Small sample and most tested associations were non-significant. |- |Dodd et al. (2026) |Longitudinal cohort (N = 4,151) |Outdoor play was measured before later symptom trajectories. |Parent-reported measures; does not establish causation. |- |Poulos et al. (2026) |Recess comparison study (N=317) |Compared affect across three recess settings |Extreme-heat context; higher positive affect finding was not specific to outdoor recess. |} As shown in Table 3, the recent evidence has different methodological strengths and limitations. However, much of the evidence remains observational, and differences in emotional outcomes, measures of outdoor play and play contexts limit the direct comparison between studies. {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {Why should the recent findings not be interpreted as showing single consistent effect of outdoor play on children's emotional well-being? |type="()"} -A. Because all the studies used different countries. +B. Because studies differed in emotional outcomes, measures of outdoor play, timing, context and research design. -C. Because longitudinal studies are always more reliable and accurate. -D. Because outdoor play only affects positive outcomes. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} == '''How can families, communities and schools support outdoor play opportunities that may benefit children's emotional well-being?''' == [[File:Coalition Builds New Playground in One Day for Chicora-Cherokee Community (11054532905).jpg|thumb|325x325px|'''Figure 6.''' Families, communities and schools can shape children's opportunities for play.]] Outdoor play opportunities are shaped across family, community and school settings. The 2025 Position Statement on Active Outdoor Play recommends increasing opportunities for active outdoor play where people live, learn, work and play with collaboration to support equitable access Lee et al. 2025; see Figure 6). === '''Families''' === Parents can support children's access to outdoor play. Boxberger and Reimers's (2019) systematic review found that the importance parents placed on outdoor play was associated with children's outdoor-play time, although findings for encouragement were less consistent and causal conclusions cannot be made. Children may also need support while wanting some independence (Han et al., 2022), while work schedules, after-school arrangements and travel time can restrict opportunities (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). === '''Communities''' === Community conditions can shape safe and inclusive play. Visser and van Aalst's (2022) systematic review linked outdoor play with both physical and social neighbourhood factors but found no single feature that consistently explained play across settings. Beekhuizen et al. (2026) observed inclusive outdoor-play sessions and found lower playfulness scores among children with disabilities than children without disabilities, indicating that access to the same setting did not necessarily produce equal play experiences. === '''Schools''' === Schools can support participation through both social and physical conditions. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified familiarity and available time as relevant, while Bikomeye et al. (2021) reported generally positive physical-activity and socio-emotional findings across six schoolyard-greening experiments, although the evidence base was small. Poulos et al. (2026) found higher positive affect after outdoor and gymnasium recess than classroom recess during extreme heat. Heat-adaptive infrastructure may therefore support access to recess environments, but the findings do not show that outdoor recess is always emotionally superior to indoor settings. Families, communities and schools can therefore support opportunities for outdoor play through accessible environments, appropriate support, safety, familiarity and opportunities for autonomy. Current evidence supports these conditions as relevant to participation, but does not show that any single strategy will necessarily improve children's emotional well-being.{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Quiz}} <quiz display=simple> {Which statement best reflects how families, communities and schools can support children's outdoor play opportunities? |type="()"} + Support can involve accessible environments, safety, familiarity, appropriate parental support and opportunities for children to participate with some independence. - Providing the same outdoor space gives every child the same opportunity to participate. -Schoolyard greening alone is enough to improve children's emotional well-being. -Outdoor recess always produces better emotional outcomes than indoor recess. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} == '''Conclusion''' == Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being are not single, consistently measured concepts. Outdoor play should be distinguished from outdoor physical activity, while emotional well-being has been examined through emotional dysregulation, social-emotional competence, affect, and internalising and externalising symptoms. Emotion regulation provides the main psychological framework for understanding how children may respond to emotional situations during outdoor play. Scherer's (2005) model highlights emotional components including physiological responses, while Lee et al. (2025) provides observational evidence that working memory may be involved in the association between afternoon outdoor play and emotional dysregulation. These findings do not establish that outdoor play causes better emotion regulation or emotional well-being. Social and physical conditions also shape children's opportunities to participate. Affordance theory helps explain why the same environment can provide different opportunities for different children, while research highlights accessibility, familiarity, autonomy, parental support and safety as relevant conditions. Families, communities and schools can support these opportunities, but current evidence does not show that one form of outdoor play or one environmental strategy consistently improves children's emotional well-being. ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Affordance|Affordance]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Autonomy|Autonomy]] (Wikipedia) * [[Cognitive psychology]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Emotion regulation in children|Emotion regulation in children]] (Wikiversity) * [[Emotional regulation]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Emotional dysregulation|Emotional dysregulation]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Imaginative play and emotion regulation|Imaginative play and emotion regulation]] (Wikiversity) * [[wikipedia:Working memory|Working memory]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Beekhuizen, R. Q., Bloemen, M. A. T., Bolster, E. A. M., Visser, K., Lugt, R., Bassa, M., Henry, N. L., Kotte, E. M. W., Hartingsveldt, M., & Gorter, J. W. (2026). Can You See Us Play? Observing Inclusive Outdoor Play Behaviour Among Children With and Without Disabilities: A Mixed Methods Study. Child : Care, Health & Development, 52(1), e70198-n/a. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70198 Beekhuizen, R. Q., Bolster, E. A. M., Gorter, J. W., Henry, N. L., Visser, K., Wittink, H., Kotte, E. M. W., Sol, M. E., & Bloemen, M. A. T. (2025). Play Together? Unveiling Facilitators and Barriers to Inclusive Outdoor Play for Dutch Children With and Without Disabilities: A Qualitative Study. Child: Care, Health & Development, 51(6), Article e70154. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70154 Bikomeye, J., Balza, J., & Beyer, K. (2021). The Impact of Schoolyard Greening on Children’s Physical Activity and Socioemotional Health: A Systematic Review of Experimental Studies. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(2), 535. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18020535 Boxberger, K., & Reimers, A. K. (2019). Parental correlates of outdoor play in boys and girls aged 0 to 12: A systematic review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(2, Art. 190), 19-16:2, Art. 190<19. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16020190 Davenport, C., Kuzik, N., Larouche, R., & Carson, V. (2025). The Associations Between Parental-Reported and Device-Based Measured Outdoor Play and Health Indicators of Physical, Cognitive, and Social–Emotional Development in Preschool-Aged Children. Pediatric Exercise Science, 37(2), 102–111. https://doi.org/10.1123/pes.2023-0119 de Lannoy, L., Barbeau, K., Seguin, N., & Tremblay, M. S. (2023). Scoping review of children’s and youth’s outdoor play publications in Canada. Chronic Diseases in Canada, 43(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.24095/hpcdp.43.1.01 Dodd, H. F., Cordwell, K., Hesketh, K., Johnstone, A., de la Torre-Luque, A., & McCrorie, P. (2026). Early outdoor play predicts trajectories of child mental health in a population-based cohort. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.70175 Ferguson, M., Teyhan, A., Lovell, R., Dodd, H., Wheeler, B., & McEachan, R. (2025). The association between park visits, outdoor play and child social-emotional competency in a multi-ethnic, urban cohort. Wellbeing, Space and Society, 9, Article 100293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wss.2025.100293 Gal‐Szabo, D. E., Spinrad, T. L., Eisenberg, N., & Sulik, M. J. (2019). The relations of children’s emotion knowledge to their observed social play and reticent/uninvolved behavior in preschool: Moderation by effortful control. Social Development (Oxford, England), 28(1), 57–73. https://doi.org/10.1111/sode.12321 Gibson, J. J. (1979). The ecological approach to visual perception / James J. Gibson. Houghton Mifflin. Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion Regulation: Current Status and Future Prospects. Psychological Inquiry, 26(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2014.940781 Han, C. S., Brussoni, M. J., & Mâsse, L. C. (2022). Parental Autonomy Support in the Context of Parent–Child Negotiation for Children’s Independent Mobility: ‘I Always Feel Safer With My Parents’ to ‘Boom! Bust Down Those Walls! The Journal of Early Adolescence, 42(6), Article 02724316211064513. https://doi.org/10.1177/02724316211064513 Lee, E.-Y., de Lannoy, L., Kim, Y.-B., Rathod, A., James, M. E., Lopes, O., Nasrallah, B., Thankarajah, A., Adjei-Boadi, D., de Barros, M. I. A., Duncan, S., Miller, R. M., Mygind, L., Vanderloo, L. M., Wang, P.-Y., & Tremblay, M. S. (2025). 2025 Position statement on active outdoor play. The International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 22(1), Article 117. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-025-01813-9 Lee, J. J., Flouri, E., & Jackson, Y. (2025). The Role of Timing and Amount of Outdoor Play in Emotional Dysregulation in Preschool Children. Child: Care, Health & Development, 51(1), Article e70020. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70020 Morgenthaler, T., Lynch, H., Loebach, J., Pentland, D., & Schulze, C. (2024). Using the Theory of Affordances to Understand Environment–Play Transactions: Environmental Taxonomy of Outdoor Play Space Features—A Scoping Review. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 78(4), Article 7804185120. https://doi.org/10.5014/ajot.2024.050606 Pereira, J. V., Vila-Nova, F., Veiga, G., Lopes, F., & Cordovil, R. (2024). Associations between outdoor play features and children’s behavior and health: A systematic review. Health & Place, 87, Article 103235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2024.103235 Poulos, A., Hassan, U. A., Wilson, K., Price, P. M., Vanos, J., & Quilla, J. (2026). Differences in Schoolchildren’s Emotional State After Indoor Versus Outdoor Recess in Extreme‐Heat Weather. The Journal of School Health, 96(4), Article e70135. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.70135 Scherer, K. R. (2005). What are emotions? And how can they be measured? Social Science Information, 44(4), 695–729. https://doi.org/10.1177/0539018405058216 Veraksa, A. N., Plotnikova, V. A., Sukhikh, V. L., Kornienko, D. S., & Rudnova, N. A. (2025). Non-therapeutic play to overcome negative emotional symptoms and improve emotional intelligence in children aged 3–7: a systematic review. Frontiers in Psychology, 16, 1475387. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1475387 Visser, K., & Aalst, I. (2022). Neighbourhood Factors in Children’s Outdoor Play: A Systematic Literature Review. Tijdschrift Voor Economische En Sociale Geografie, 113(1), 80–95. https://doi.org/10.1111/tesg.12505 }} ==External links== * [https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-play [https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-pla]<nowiki/>[https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-play y]] (Encyclopedia in Early Childhood Development) * [[https://www.outdoorplaycanada.ca/2026/06/02/sprout-able-resources-videos-and-tip-sheets-to-support-children-with-disabilities-in-outdoor-play/ https://www.outdoorplaycanada.ca/2026/06/02/sp]<nowiki/>[https://www.outdoorplaycanada.ca/2026/06/02/sprout-able-resources-videos-and-tip-sheets-to-support-children-with-disabilities-in-outdoor-play/ rout-able-resources-videos-and-tip-sheets-to-support-children-with-disabilities-in-outdoor-play/]/ SPROUT-able Resources: Videos and Tip Sheets to Support Children with Disabilities in Outdoor Play] (Outdoor Play Canada) * https://www.who.int/news/item/24-04-2019-to-grow-up-healthy-children-need-to-sit-less-and-play-more<nowiki/> To grow up healthy, children need to sit less and play more] (World Health Organisation) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Children]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Nature]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Well-being]] fn3ooqe0dzb0clqfpu3phsijzi8w730 2836359 2836316 2026-10-07T00:05:49Z Mymunu 3106327 /* External links */ 2836359 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being:<br>How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {| class="wikitable" |'''Case study: Part 1'''[[File:School children happily playing in playground.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. Children engaged in outdoor play, where social interactions, choice and changes in the situation can create different emotional experiences.]]Imagine that... A child arrives at playground and joins a group of children who are already playing. The children are making their own game and deciding the rules as they play. During the game, another child changes the rules and an argument breaks out. The child becomes frustrated and walks away from the activity. After watching for a short time, the child returns, suggests a new idea to continue the game and re-joins the group. How might experiences like this during outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? Emotional regulation provides one psychological framework for understanding how children may respond to situations like this during play (see Figure 1). |} Outdoor play can involve more than physical movement. It can occur across playgrounds, gardens, streets and natural spaces and can include exploration, social interaction, choice, challenge, and engagement with the surrounding environment (Dodd et al., 2026; Pereira et al., 2024). This chapter examines how [[Emotional regulation|emotional,]] [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive]], social and environmental processes may help explain the relationship between outdoor play and children's [https://w.wiki/AHG6 emotional well-being.] {| class="wikitable" | '''Focus questions''' * '''What are outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?''' * '''How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?''' * '''How do social and environmental conditions shape children's outdoor play experiences?''' * '''What does recent research show about outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?''' * '''How can families, communities and schools support outdoor play opportunities that may benefit children's emotional well-being?''' |} == '''Understanding outdoor play and children's emotional well-being''' == [[File:Water-outdoor-people-girl-play-boy-938233.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. ''Outdoor play can provide opportunities to explore, make choices, interact with others and respond to changing situations through activities such as water play.''|214x214px]] Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being are not measured as single and consistent concepts across recent research. Outdoor play may be measured through parent reports or devices and should be distinguished from outdoor moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) because these measures do not represent the same behaviour (Davenport et al., 2025; Dodd et al., 2026). === Outdoor play === Outdoor play is voluntary and intrinsically motivated activity occurring in outdoor environments such as gardens, playgrounds, parks and natural spaces (Dodd et al., 2026). It can involve movement, exploration, choice, social interaction and engagement with environmental features. === Children's emotional well-being === Children's emotional well-being is not represented by a single common outcome across recent outdoor play research. Studies have examined emotional dysregulation (Lee et al., 2025), social-emotional competence (Ferguson et al., 2025), positive and negative affect (Poulos et al., 2026) and internalising and externalising symptoms (Dodd et al., 2026). These outcomes represent different aspects and timeframes of emotional functioning, so they should not be treated as equivalent when findings are compared. '''Table 1''' ''Emotional outcomes examined in recent research on outdoor play and children's emotional well-being'' {| class="wikitable" |+ !Study !Outcome examined !What the outcome represents |- |Lee et al. (2025) |Emotional dysregulation |Difficulties in emotion regulation |- |Ferguson et al. (2025) |Social-emotional competence |Social-emotional difficulties and prosocial behaviour |- |Poulos et al. (2026) |Positive and negative affect |Emotional state following recess |- |Dodd et al. (2026) |Internalising and externalising symptoms |Long-term internalising and externalising symptom patterns |} ''Note''. Outcome descriptions are based on the measures and constructs reported in the cited studies. As shown in Table 1, immediate affect following recess should not be treated as equivalent to emotional dysregulation measured over time or trajectories of internalising and externalising symptoms across childhood. {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {A child's positive or negative affect immediately after recess represents the same emotional outcome as longer-term internalising or externalising symptoms. |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} == '''How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?''' == Outdoor play may be related to children's emotional well-being through emotional, cognitive and social processes (Dodd et al., 2026). These pathways have not all been directly tested as mechanisms, and much outdoor play research remains observational (Dodd et al., 2026; de Lannoy et al., 2023). Emotion regulation provides the psychological framework to explain children's responses during outdoor play. Scherer's (2005) model clarifies the components involved in emotion, while working memory provides empirical evidence of a possible cognitive process; affordance theory is later used to explain how environmental conditions shape opportunities for these experiences. Emotion involves more than subjective feelings. Scherer (2005) described emotion as coordinated changes across cognitive appraisal, physiological responses, action tendencies, expression and subjective feelings. Physiological responses are therefore one component of emotion rather than a separate explanation for outdoor-play effects. Scherer did not examine outdoor play, so the framework does not establish that outdoor play changes children's physiological responses or emotional well-being. === '''Emotion regulation''' === Emotion regulation provides key psychological framework for understanding how children may manage emotional situations during outdoor play.. Gross (2015) described situation selection, situation modification, attentional deployment, cognitive change and response modulation. During outdoor play, children may experience frustration, conflict, uncertainty or changes to their activity. Gross's framework can be applied to consider how children recognise an emotional response, choose strategies to manage and act on them. However, Gross (2015) did not examine outdoor play, so applying the framework does not show that outdoor play improves children's emotion regulation. Broader research on children's play has also examined emotional functioning but indirect evidence. Veraksa et al. (2025) systematically reviewed 33 studies of non-therapeutic play among children aged 3 to 7 and identified evidence involving emotion regulation, emotional intelligence and negative emotional symptoms. Because the review included outdoor play alongside other forms of play, it should not be interpreted as evidence that outdoor play alone improves emotion regulation. {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |'''Case study: Part 3'''[[File:14Y Ncdc july 5th-802.jpg|thumb|202x202px|'''Figure 4'''. ''Children can respond differently to emotional situations that occur during outdoor play.'']]When the rules of game change, the child becomes frustrated and decides to step away. After a short time the child returns and suggests a different way to continue the game (see Figure 4). Suggesting a change to the game can be considered an example of situation modification. {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {What does Gross (2015) emotion regulation framework show when it is applied to the outdoor-play scenario?. |type="()"} -A. Outdoor play causes better emotion regulation. +B. Situation modification can help explain how the child responds to the situation. -C. Children regulate emotions better outdoors than indoors. -D. Stepping away from play always improves emotional well-being. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} === '''Working memory and cognitive process''' === Working memory may be one cognitive process involved in the association between outdoor play and emotional dysregulation. Lee et al. (2025) examined 325 preschool children and tested working memory as a statistical mediator. Afternoon outdoor play was associated with lower emotional dysregulation and better working memory, while better working memory was associated with lower emotional dysregulation. When working memory was included in the analysis, the association between afternoon outdoor play and emotional dysregulation was no longer statistically significant. However, the study was observational, so the mediation analysis does not show that outdoor play caused better working memory or lower emotional dysregulation. '''Table 2''' ''Psychological processes considered in the relationship between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being'' {| class="wikitable" !Process !Contribution !Evidence and limitations |- |Emotion components (Scherer 2005) |Emotion involves appraisal, physiological responses, action tendencies, expression and subjective feeling |Conceptual model; did not test outdoor play |- |Primary framework (Gross 2015) |Emotion regulation helps explain responses to changing or frustrating play situations |Application of theory; does not show outdoor play improves regulation |- |Working memory (Lee et al., 2025) |Working memory statistically mediated the association between outdoor play and emotional dysregulation. |Direct observational evidence; causation cannot be established |} ''Note.'' Gross's (2015) emotion regulation framework provides the main psychological explanation, while Scherer (2005) clarifies the components of emotion, and Lee et al. (2025) provides empirical evidence of a possible cognitive process. == '''How do social and environmental conditions shape children's outdoor play experiences?''' == [[File:2026-10-03 214531-relationship between child and environment.png|thumb|284x284px|'''Figure 5.''' Children's opportunities for outdoor play can be different according to personal, interacting and environmental factors and the relationship between the child and the environment. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Note. Original conceptual summary based on Beekhuizen et al. (2025) and Gibson (1979). |} ]] Psychological processes occur within particular social and physical conditions (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). [https://w.wiki/VYfL Affordance theory] therefore complements the emotion-regulation framework by explaining how the relationship between the child and the environment shapes opportunities in which emotional and social experiences can occur (Gibson, 1979; Morgenthaler et al., 2024) ). === Affordance theory and outdoor play environments === [https://w.wiki/VYfL Affordance theory] explains opportunities for action that an environment provides in relation to the person using it (Gibson, 1979). Morgenthaler et al. (2024) applied affordance theory to children's outdoor play and identified 14 categories of spaces and 284 play occupations linked to environmental features. This helps explain why the same space may provide different opportunities for different children. However, the review examined opportunities for play rather than children's [https://w.wiki/AHG6 emotional well-being]. Pereira et al. (2024) reviewed 51 articles representing 45 primary studies of outdoor play-space features. Some positive effects were reported, but substantial heterogeneity was present. Differences in features, outcome measures and methods limited conclusions about individual play-space features. The review therefore does not show that one particular environmental feature improves children's emotional well-being. === '''Social relationships and inclusion''' === Social relationships can shape whether children are able to join and continue outdoor play (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Familiarity and making contact were important for inclusive play. Emotional understanding may also influence how children participate socially during play. Gal-Szabo et al. (2019) found that better situational understanding of emotions was associated with less uninvolved behaviour and marginally more social play during preschool free play. However, the study was not specific to outdoor play and does not establish that social play improves emotional well-being. === '''Autonomy, access and time''' === [https://w.wiki/4NyU Autonomy] can shape how children experience outdoor play (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Veraksa et al. (2025) identified autonomy as one feature through which broader play may support emotion regulation and coping, although the review was not specific to outdoor play. Parental support can enable access to play, while work schedules, after-school arrangements and travel time can restrict opportunities (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Safety and accessibility are also relevant, particularly for children with disabilities (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). These findings support the importance of participation conditions, but do not show that any single environmental feature improves children's emotional well-being. {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |'''Case study: Part 4 Same play space, different experiences''' {| class="wikitable" |Kim and Leo use the same school playground. Kim already knows many children and easily joins a group activity, while Leo uses a mobility device and finds that some areas of the playground are difficult to access. Leo also know fewer children in the playground. Although, they share the same play space, physical accessibility and familiarity create different opportunities to participate. |} {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {Why might two children have different outdoor-play experiences even they use the same playground?. |type="()"} +A. Physical, social and personal factors can affect how children are able to participate. -B. Outdoor spaces provide the same opportunities for every child. -C. Accessibility is the only factor that affects outdoor play.. -D. Children who know other children always have better emotional well-being. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} == '''What does recent research show about outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?''' == Recent research does not show a consistent association between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being. Fndings are mixed across different emotional outcomes, the timing and context of outdoor play, children's behaviours, and the methods used to measure outdoor play. === '''Consistency of recent research findings''' === Recent findings are not consistent across outcomes. Ferguson et al. (2025) associated more frequent outdoor play with better social-emotional competence, whereas most developmental associations examined by Davenport et al. (2025) were not statistically significant. Poulos et al. (2026) found higher positive affect after outdoor and gymnasium recess than classroom recess, while Lee et al. (2025) found that associations with emotional dysregulation differed by time of day. Timeframe and context also matter. Dodd et al. (2026) linked more frequent preschool outdoor play with lower odds of less favourable internalising and externalising symptom trajectories across childhood, whereas Poulos et al. (2026) examined immediate post-recess affect. Ferguson et al. (2025) also reported differences according to ethnicity and whether outdoor play occurred on school days or weekends. Together, the evidence suggests that outdoor play is not associated with one uniform emotional outcome; associations depend on what is measured, when play occurs, who participates and the context in which play takes place. === '''Limitations and future directions''' === Research design limits causal interpretation. Dodd et al. (2026) used longitudinal data from 4,151 children, but the study remained observational and relied on parent-reported measures. Lee et al. (2025) also considered reverse causation, meaning its mediation findings cannot establish that outdoor play caused changes in working memory or emotional dysregulation. Measurement also limits comparison across studies. Outdoor play has been assessed through parent reports and devices, while emotional outcomes range from immediate affect to longer-term symptom trajectories (Davenport et al., 2025). Differences in children's ages, play settings and contexts further limit interpretation, and de Lannoy et al. (2023) found that cross-sectional designs remain common across the wider outdoor-play literature. Future research should use more consistent measures of outdoor play and emotional outcomes, stronger longitudinal and experimental designs, and samples representing different children and play contexts. Studies should also test proposed emotional and cognitive processes directly rather than inferring mechanisms from associations. T'''able 3''' '''''Comparison of recent research''''' {| class="wikitable" |+ !Study !Research method !Research strength !Limitation |- | <small>Lee et al. (2025)</small> |Observational; 6-month follow-up |Examined the timing of outdoor and working memory as a statistical mediator. |Cannot establish causation; reverse causation remains possible. |- |Ferguson et al. (2025) |Cross-sectional; multi-ethnic urban cohort (N=2,568) |Large sample and subgroup and context comparisons. |Cannot establish temporal direction. |- |Davenport et al. (2025) |Observational; preschool sample (N=107) |Used both parent-reported and device-measured outdoor play. |Small sample and most tested associations were non-significant. |- |Dodd et al. (2026) |Longitudinal cohort (N = 4,151) |Outdoor play was measured before later symptom trajectories. |Parent-reported measures; does not establish causation. |- |Poulos et al. (2026) |Recess comparison study (N=317) |Compared affect across three recess settings |Extreme-heat context; higher positive affect finding was not specific to outdoor recess. |} As shown in Table 3, the recent evidence has different methodological strengths and limitations. However, much of the evidence remains observational, and differences in emotional outcomes, measures of outdoor play and play contexts limit the direct comparison between studies. {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {Why should the recent findings not be interpreted as showing single consistent effect of outdoor play on children's emotional well-being? |type="()"} -A. Because all the studies used different countries. +B. Because studies differed in emotional outcomes, measures of outdoor play, timing, context and research design. -C. Because longitudinal studies are always more reliable and accurate. -D. Because outdoor play only affects positive outcomes. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} == '''How can families, communities and schools support outdoor play opportunities that may benefit children's emotional well-being?''' == [[File:Coalition Builds New Playground in One Day for Chicora-Cherokee Community (11054532905).jpg|thumb|325x325px|'''Figure 6.''' Families, communities and schools can shape children's opportunities for play.]] Outdoor play opportunities are shaped across family, community and school settings. The 2025 Position Statement on Active Outdoor Play recommends increasing opportunities for active outdoor play where people live, learn, work and play with collaboration to support equitable access Lee et al. 2025; see Figure 6). === '''Families''' === Parents can support children's access to outdoor play. Boxberger and Reimers's (2019) systematic review found that the importance parents placed on outdoor play was associated with children's outdoor-play time, although findings for encouragement were less consistent and causal conclusions cannot be made. Children may also need support while wanting some independence (Han et al., 2022), while work schedules, after-school arrangements and travel time can restrict opportunities (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). === '''Communities''' === Community conditions can shape safe and inclusive play. Visser and van Aalst's (2022) systematic review linked outdoor play with both physical and social neighbourhood factors but found no single feature that consistently explained play across settings. Beekhuizen et al. (2026) observed inclusive outdoor-play sessions and found lower playfulness scores among children with disabilities than children without disabilities, indicating that access to the same setting did not necessarily produce equal play experiences. === '''Schools''' === Schools can support participation through both social and physical conditions. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified familiarity and available time as relevant, while Bikomeye et al. (2021) reported generally positive physical-activity and socio-emotional findings across six schoolyard-greening experiments, although the evidence base was small. Poulos et al. (2026) found higher positive affect after outdoor and gymnasium recess than classroom recess during extreme heat. Heat-adaptive infrastructure may therefore support access to recess environments, but the findings do not show that outdoor recess is always emotionally superior to indoor settings. Families, communities and schools can therefore support opportunities for outdoor play through accessible environments, appropriate support, safety, familiarity and opportunities for autonomy. Current evidence supports these conditions as relevant to participation, but does not show that any single strategy will necessarily improve children's emotional well-being.{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Quiz}} <quiz display=simple> {Which statement best reflects how families, communities and schools can support children's outdoor play opportunities? |type="()"} + Support can involve accessible environments, safety, familiarity, appropriate parental support and opportunities for children to participate with some independence. - Providing the same outdoor space gives every child the same opportunity to participate. -Schoolyard greening alone is enough to improve children's emotional well-being. -Outdoor recess always produces better emotional outcomes than indoor recess. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} == '''Conclusion''' == Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being are not single, consistently measured concepts. Outdoor play should be distinguished from outdoor physical activity, while emotional well-being has been examined through emotional dysregulation, social-emotional competence, affect, and internalising and externalising symptoms. Emotion regulation provides the main psychological framework for understanding how children may respond to emotional situations during outdoor play. Scherer's (2005) model highlights emotional components including physiological responses, while Lee et al. (2025) provides observational evidence that working memory may be involved in the association between afternoon outdoor play and emotional dysregulation. These findings do not establish that outdoor play causes better emotion regulation or emotional well-being. Social and physical conditions also shape children's opportunities to participate. Affordance theory helps explain why the same environment can provide different opportunities for different children, while research highlights accessibility, familiarity, autonomy, parental support and safety as relevant conditions. Families, communities and schools can support these opportunities, but current evidence does not show that one form of outdoor play or one environmental strategy consistently improves children's emotional well-being. ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Affordance|Affordance]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Autonomy|Autonomy]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Emotion regulation in children|Emotion regulation in children]] (Wikiversity) * [[Emotional regulation]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Emotional dysregulation|Emotional dysregulation]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Imaginative play and emotion regulation|Imaginative play and emotion regulation]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Emotion regulation in children|Emotion regulation in children]] (Wikiversity book chapter, 2018) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Imaginative play and emotion regulation|Imaginative play and emotion regulation]] (Wikiveristy book chapter, 2025) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Developmental changes in emotion regulation|Developmental changes in emotion regulation]] (Wikiversity book chapter, 2021) * [[wikipedia:Working memory|Working memory]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Beekhuizen, R. Q., Bloemen, M. A. T., Bolster, E. A. M., Visser, K., Lugt, R., Bassa, M., Henry, N. L., Kotte, E. M. W., Hartingsveldt, M., & Gorter, J. W. (2026). Can You See Us Play? Observing Inclusive Outdoor Play Behaviour Among Children With and Without Disabilities: A Mixed Methods Study. Child : Care, Health & Development, 52(1), e70198-n/a. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70198 Beekhuizen, R. Q., Bolster, E. A. M., Gorter, J. W., Henry, N. L., Visser, K., Wittink, H., Kotte, E. M. W., Sol, M. E., & Bloemen, M. A. T. (2025). Play Together? Unveiling Facilitators and Barriers to Inclusive Outdoor Play for Dutch Children With and Without Disabilities: A Qualitative Study. Child: Care, Health & Development, 51(6), Article e70154. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70154 Bikomeye, J., Balza, J., & Beyer, K. (2021). The Impact of Schoolyard Greening on Children’s Physical Activity and Socioemotional Health: A Systematic Review of Experimental Studies. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(2), 535. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18020535 Boxberger, K., & Reimers, A. K. (2019). Parental correlates of outdoor play in boys and girls aged 0 to 12: A systematic review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(2, Art. 190), 19-16:2, Art. 190<19. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16020190 Davenport, C., Kuzik, N., Larouche, R., & Carson, V. (2025). The Associations Between Parental-Reported and Device-Based Measured Outdoor Play and Health Indicators of Physical, Cognitive, and Social–Emotional Development in Preschool-Aged Children. Pediatric Exercise Science, 37(2), 102–111. https://doi.org/10.1123/pes.2023-0119 de Lannoy, L., Barbeau, K., Seguin, N., & Tremblay, M. S. (2023). Scoping review of children’s and youth’s outdoor play publications in Canada. Chronic Diseases in Canada, 43(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.24095/hpcdp.43.1.01 Dodd, H. F., Cordwell, K., Hesketh, K., Johnstone, A., de la Torre-Luque, A., & McCrorie, P. (2026). Early outdoor play predicts trajectories of child mental health in a population-based cohort. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.70175 Ferguson, M., Teyhan, A., Lovell, R., Dodd, H., Wheeler, B., & McEachan, R. (2025). The association between park visits, outdoor play and child social-emotional competency in a multi-ethnic, urban cohort. Wellbeing, Space and Society, 9, Article 100293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wss.2025.100293 Gal‐Szabo, D. E., Spinrad, T. L., Eisenberg, N., & Sulik, M. J. (2019). The relations of children’s emotion knowledge to their observed social play and reticent/uninvolved behavior in preschool: Moderation by effortful control. Social Development (Oxford, England), 28(1), 57–73. https://doi.org/10.1111/sode.12321 Gibson, J. J. (1979). The ecological approach to visual perception / James J. Gibson. Houghton Mifflin. Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion Regulation: Current Status and Future Prospects. Psychological Inquiry, 26(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2014.940781 Han, C. S., Brussoni, M. J., & Mâsse, L. C. (2022). Parental Autonomy Support in the Context of Parent–Child Negotiation for Children’s Independent Mobility: ‘I Always Feel Safer With My Parents’ to ‘Boom! Bust Down Those Walls! The Journal of Early Adolescence, 42(6), Article 02724316211064513. https://doi.org/10.1177/02724316211064513 Lee, E.-Y., de Lannoy, L., Kim, Y.-B., Rathod, A., James, M. E., Lopes, O., Nasrallah, B., Thankarajah, A., Adjei-Boadi, D., de Barros, M. I. A., Duncan, S., Miller, R. M., Mygind, L., Vanderloo, L. M., Wang, P.-Y., & Tremblay, M. S. (2025). 2025 Position statement on active outdoor play. The International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 22(1), Article 117. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-025-01813-9 Lee, J. J., Flouri, E., & Jackson, Y. (2025). The Role of Timing and Amount of Outdoor Play in Emotional Dysregulation in Preschool Children. Child: Care, Health & Development, 51(1), Article e70020. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70020 Morgenthaler, T., Lynch, H., Loebach, J., Pentland, D., & Schulze, C. (2024). Using the Theory of Affordances to Understand Environment–Play Transactions: Environmental Taxonomy of Outdoor Play Space Features—A Scoping Review. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 78(4), Article 7804185120. https://doi.org/10.5014/ajot.2024.050606 Pereira, J. V., Vila-Nova, F., Veiga, G., Lopes, F., & Cordovil, R. (2024). Associations between outdoor play features and children’s behavior and health: A systematic review. Health & Place, 87, Article 103235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2024.103235 Poulos, A., Hassan, U. A., Wilson, K., Price, P. M., Vanos, J., & Quilla, J. (2026). Differences in Schoolchildren’s Emotional State After Indoor Versus Outdoor Recess in Extreme‐Heat Weather. The Journal of School Health, 96(4), Article e70135. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.70135 Scherer, K. R. (2005). What are emotions? And how can they be measured? Social Science Information, 44(4), 695–729. https://doi.org/10.1177/0539018405058216 Veraksa, A. N., Plotnikova, V. A., Sukhikh, V. L., Kornienko, D. S., & Rudnova, N. A. (2025). Non-therapeutic play to overcome negative emotional symptoms and improve emotional intelligence in children aged 3–7: a systematic review. Frontiers in Psychology, 16, 1475387. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1475387 Visser, K., & Aalst, I. (2022). Neighbourhood Factors in Children’s Outdoor Play: A Systematic Literature Review. Tijdschrift Voor Economische En Sociale Geografie, 113(1), 80–95. https://doi.org/10.1111/tesg.12505 }} ==External links== * [https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-play [https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-pla]<nowiki/>[https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-play y]] (Encyclopedia in Early Childhood Development) * [[https://www.outdoorplaycanada.ca/2026/06/02/sprout-able-resources-videos-and-tip-sheets-to-support-children-with-disabilities-in-outdoor-play/ https://www.outdoorplaycanada.ca/2026/06/02/sp]<nowiki/>[https://www.outdoorplaycanada.ca/2026/06/02/sprout-able-resources-videos-and-tip-sheets-to-support-children-with-disabilities-in-outdoor-play/ rout-able-resources-videos-and-tip-sheets-to-support-children-with-disabilities-in-outdoor-play/]/ SPROUT-able Resources: Videos and Tip Sheets to Support Children with Disabilities in Outdoor Play] (Outdoor Play Canada) * https://www.who.int/news/item/24-04-2019-to-grow-up-healthy-children-need-to-sit-less-and-play-more<nowiki/> To grow up healthy, children need to sit less and play more] (World Health Organisation) * [https://www.unicef.org/eca/stories/importance-outdoor-play-and-how-support-it The importance of outdoor play (and how to support it)] (UNICEF) * [https://publications.aap.org/pediatrics/article/142/3/e20182058/38649/The-Power-of-Play-A-Pediatric-Role-in-Enhancing The power of play: A pediatric] <nowiki/>[https://publications.aap.org/pediatrics/article/142/3/e20182058/38649/The-Power-of-Play-A-Pediatric-Role-in-Enhancing role in enhancing development in young children] (American Academy if<nowiki/> Pediatrics) * [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Children]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Nature]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Well-being]] ripjnr9bt5r59tymlpr79g2my4y6km7 2836364 2836359 2026-10-07T00:25:51Z Mymunu 3106327 /* See also */ 2836364 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being:<br>How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {| class="wikitable" |'''Case study: Part 1'''[[File:School children happily playing in playground.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. Children engaged in outdoor play, where social interactions, choice and changes in the situation can create different emotional experiences.]]A child arrives at a playground and joins a group of children who are already playing. The children are making their own game and deciding the rules as they play. During the game, another child changes the rules and an argument breaks out. The child becomes frustrated and walks away from the activity. After watching for a short time, the child returns, suggests a new idea to continue the game and re-joins the group. How might experiences like this during outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? Emotional regulation provides one psychological framework for understanding how children may respond to situations like this during play (see Figure 1). |} Outdoor play can involve more than physical movement. It can occur across playgrounds, gardens, streets and natural spaces and can include exploration, social interaction, choice, challenge, and engagement with the surrounding environment (Dodd et al., 2026; Pereira et al., 2024). This chapter examines how [[Emotional regulation|emotional,]] [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive]], social and environmental processes may help explain the relationship between outdoor play and children's [https://w.wiki/AHG6 emotional well-being.] {| class="wikitable" | '''Focus questions''' * '''What are outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?''' * '''How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?''' * '''How do social and environmental conditions shape children's outdoor play experiences?''' * '''What does recent research show about outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?''' * '''How can families, communities and schools support outdoor play opportunities that may benefit children's emotional well-being?''' |} == '''Understanding outdoor play and children's emotional well-being''' == [[File:Water-outdoor-people-girl-play-boy-938233.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. ''Outdoor play can provide opportunities to explore, make choices, interact with others and respond to changing situations through activities such as water play.''|214x214px]] Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being are not measured as single and consistent concepts across recent research. Outdoor play may be measured through parent reports or devices and should be distinguished from outdoor moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) because these measures do not represent the same behaviour (Davenport et al., 2025; Dodd et al., 2026). === Outdoor play === Outdoor play is voluntary and intrinsically motivated activity occurring in outdoor environments such as gardens, playgrounds, parks and natural spaces (Dodd et al., 2026). It can involve movement, exploration, choice, social interaction and engagement with environmental features. === Children's emotional well-being === Children's emotional well-being is not represented by a single common outcome across recent outdoor play research. Studies have examined emotional dysregulation (Lee et al., 2025), social-emotional competence (Ferguson et al., 2025), positive and negative affect (Poulos et al., 2026) and internalising and externalising symptoms (Dodd et al., 2026). These outcomes represent different aspects and timeframes of emotional functioning, so they should not be treated as equivalent when findings are compared. '''Table 1''' ''Emotional outcomes examined in recent research on outdoor play and children's emotional well-being'' {| class="wikitable" |+ !Study !Outcome examined !What the outcome represents |- |Lee et al. (2025) |Emotional dysregulation |Difficulties in emotion regulation |- |Ferguson et al. (2025) |Social-emotional competence |Social-emotional difficulties and prosocial behaviour |- |Poulos et al. (2026) |Positive and negative affect |Emotional state following recess |- |Dodd et al. (2026) |Internalising and externalising symptoms |Long-term internalising and externalising symptom patterns |} ''Note''. Outcome descriptions are based on the measures and constructs reported in the cited studies. As shown in Table 1, immediate affect following recess should not be treated as equivalent to emotional dysregulation measured over time or trajectories of internalising and externalising symptoms across childhood. {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {A child's positive or negative affect immediately after recess represents the same emotional outcome as longer-term internalising or externalising symptoms. |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} == '''How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?''' == Outdoor play may be related to children's emotional well-being through emotional, cognitive and social processes (Dodd et al., 2026). These pathways have not all been directly tested as mechanisms, and much outdoor play research remains observational (Dodd et al., 2026; de Lannoy et al., 2023). Emotion regulation provides the psychological framework to explain children's responses during outdoor play. Scherer's (2005) model clarifies the components involved in emotion, while working memory provides empirical evidence of a possible cognitive process; affordance theory is later used to explain how environmental conditions shape opportunities for these experiences. Emotion involves more than subjective feelings. Scherer (2005) described emotion as coordinated changes across cognitive appraisal, physiological responses, action tendencies, expression and subjective feelings. Physiological responses are therefore one component of emotion rather than a separate explanation for outdoor-play effects. Scherer did not examine outdoor play, so the framework does not establish that outdoor play changes children's physiological responses or emotional well-being. === '''Emotion regulation''' === Emotion regulation provides key psychological framework for understanding how children may manage emotional situations during outdoor play.. Gross (2015) described situation selection, situation modification, attentional deployment, cognitive change and response modulation. During outdoor play, children may experience frustration, conflict, uncertainty or changes to their activity. Gross's framework can be applied to consider how children recognise an emotional response, choose strategies to manage and act on them. However, Gross (2015) did not examine outdoor play, so applying the framework does not show that outdoor play improves children's emotion regulation. Broader play research provides supporting but indirect evidence. Veraksa et al. (2025) systematically reviewed 33 studies of non-therapeutic play among children aged 3 to 7 and identified evidence involving emotion regulation, emotional intelligence and negative emotional symptoms. Because the review included outdoor play alongside other forms of play, it should not be interpreted as evidence that outdoor play alone improves emotion regulation. {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |'''Case study: Part 2'''[[File:14Y Ncdc july 5th-802.jpg|thumb|202x202px|'''Figure 3'''. ''Children can respond differently to emotional situations that occur during outdoor play.'']]When the rules of game change, the child becomes frustrated and decides to step away. After a short time the child returns and suggests a different way to continue the game (see Figure 4). Suggesting a change to the game can be considered an example of situation modification. {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {What does Gross's (2015) emotion regulation framework show when it is applied to the outdoor-play scenario?. |type="()"} -A. Outdoor play causes better emotion regulation. +B. Situation modification can help explain how the child responds to the situation. -C. Children regulate emotions better outdoors than indoors. -D. Stepping away from play always improves emotional well-being. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} === '''Working memory and cognitive process''' === Working memory may be one cognitive process involved in the association between outdoor play and emotional dysregulation. Lee et al. (2025) examined 325 preschool children and tested working memory as a statistical mediator. Afternoon outdoor play was associated with lower emotional dysregulation and better working memory, while better working memory was associated with lower emotional dysregulation. When working memory was included in the analysis, the association between afternoon outdoor play and emotional dysregulation was no longer statistically significant. However, the study was observational, so the mediation analysis does not show that outdoor play caused better working memory or lower emotional dysregulation. '''Table 2''' ''Psychological processes considered in the relationship between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being'' {| class="wikitable" !Process !Contribution !Evidence and limitations |- |Emotion components (Scherer 2005) |Emotion involves appraisal, physiological responses, action tendencies, expression and subjective feeling |Conceptual model; did not test outdoor play |- |Primary framework (Gross 2015) |Emotion regulation helps explain responses to changing or frustrating play situations |Application of theory; does not show outdoor play improves regulation |- |Working memory (Lee et al., 2025) |Working memory statistically mediated the association between outdoor play and emotional dysregulation. |Direct observational evidence; causation cannot be established |} ''Note.'' Gross's (2015) emotion regulation framework provides the main psychological explanation, while Scherer (2005) clarifies the components of emotion, and Lee et al. (2025) provides empirical evidence of a possible cognitive process. == '''How do social and environmental conditions shape children's outdoor play experiences?''' == [[File:2026-10-03 214531-relationship between child and environment.png|thumb|284x284px|'''Figure 4.''' Children's opportunities for outdoor play can be different according to personal, interacting and environmental factors and the relationship between the child and the environment. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Note. Original conceptual summary based on Beekhuizen et al. (2025) and Gibson (1979). |} ]] Psychological processes occur within particular social and physical conditions (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). [https://w.wiki/VYfL Affordance theory] complements the emotion-regulation framework by explaining how the relationship between the child and the environment shapes opportunities for action and participation (Gibson, 1979; Morgenthaler et al., 2024)). === Affordance theory and outdoor play environments === [https://w.wiki/VYfL Affordance theory] explains opportunities for action that an environment provides in relation to the person using it (Gibson, 1979). Morgenthaler et al. (2024) applied affordance theory to children's outdoor play and identified diverse play opportunities linked to environmental features. This helps explain why the same space may provide different opportunities for different children. However, the review examined opportunities for play rather than children's [https://w.wiki/AHG6 emotional well-being]. Pereira et al. (2024) reviewed 51 articles representing 45 primary studies of outdoor play-space features. Some positive effects were reported, but substantial heterogeneity was present. Differences in features, outcome measures and methods limited conclusions about individual play-space features. The review therefore does not show that one particular environmental feature improves children's emotional well-being. === '''Social relationships and inclusion''' === Social relationships can shape whether children are able to join and continue outdoor play (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Familiarity and making contact were important for inclusive play. Emotional understanding may also influence how children participate socially during play. Gal-Szabo et al. (2019) found that better situational understanding of emotions was associated with less uninvolved behaviour and marginally more social play during preschool free play. However, the study was not specific to outdoor play and does not establish that social play improves emotional well-being. === '''Autonomy, access and time''' === [https://w.wiki/4NyU Autonomy] can shape how children experience outdoor play (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Veraksa et al. (2025) identified autonomy as one feature through which broader play may support emotion regulation and coping, although the review was not specific to outdoor play. Parental support can enable access to play, while work schedules, after-school arrangements and travel time can restrict opportunities (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Safety and accessibility are also relevant, particularly for children with disabilities (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). These findings support the importance of participation conditions, but do not show that any single environmental feature improves children's emotional well-being. {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |'''Case study: Part 3 Same play space, different experiences''' {| class="wikitable" |Kim and Leo use the same school playground. Kim already knows many children and easily joins a group activity, while Leo uses a mobility device and finds that some areas of the playground are difficult to access. Leo also know fewer children in the playground. Although, they share the same play space, physical accessibility and familiarity create different opportunities to participate. |} {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {Why might two children have different outdoor-play experiences even they use the same playground?. |type="()"} +A. Physical, social and personal factors can affect how children are able to participate. -B. Outdoor spaces provide the same opportunities for every child. -C. Accessibility is the only factor that affects outdoor play.. -D. Children who know other children always have better emotional well-being. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} == '''What does recent research show about outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?''' == Recent research does not show a consistent association between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being. Fndings are mixed across different emotional outcomes, the timing and context of outdoor play, children's behaviours, and the methods used to measure outdoor play. === '''Consistency of recent research findings''' === Recent findings are not consistent across outcomes. Ferguson et al. (2025) associated more frequent outdoor play with better social-emotional competence, whereas most developmental associations examined by Davenport et al. (2025) were not statistically significant. Poulos et al. (2026) found higher positive affect after outdoor and gymnasium recess than classroom recess, while Lee et al. (2025) found that associations with emotional dysregulation differed by time of day. Timeframe and context also matter. Dodd et al. (2026) linked more frequent preschool outdoor play with lower odds of less favourable internalising and externalising symptom trajectories across childhood, whereas Poulos et al. (2026) examined immediate post-recess affect. Ferguson et al. (2025) also reported differences according to ethnicity and whether outdoor play occurred on school days or weekends. Together, the evidence suggests that outdoor play is not associated with one uniform emotional outcome; associations depend on what is measured, when play occurs, who participates and the context in which play takes place. === '''Limitations and future directions''' === Research design limits causal interpretation. Dodd et al. (2026) used longitudinal data from 4,151 children, but the study remained observational and relied on parent-reported measures. Lee et al. (2025) also considered reverse causation, meaning its mediation findings cannot establish that outdoor play caused changes in working memory or emotional dysregulation. Measurement also limits comparison across studies. Outdoor play has been assessed through parent reports and devices, while emotional outcomes range from immediate affect to longer-term symptom trajectories (Davenport et al., 2025). Differences in children's ages, play settings and contexts further limit interpretation, and de Lannoy et al. (2023) found that cross-sectional designs remain common across the wider outdoor-play literature. Future research should use more consistent measures of outdoor play and emotional outcomes, stronger longitudinal and experimental designs, and samples representing different children and play contexts. Studies should also test proposed emotional and cognitive processes directly rather than inferring mechanisms from associations. T'''able 3''' '''''Comparison of recent research''''' {| class="wikitable" |+ !Study !Research method !Research strength !Limitation |- | <small>Lee et al. (2025)</small> |Observational; 6-month follow-up |Examined the timing of outdoor and working memory as a statistical mediator. |Cannot establish causation; reverse causation remains possible. |- |Ferguson et al. (2025) |Cross-sectional; multi-ethnic urban cohort (N=2,568) |Large sample and subgroup and context comparisons. |Cannot establish temporal direction. |- |Davenport et al. (2025) |Observational; preschool sample (N=107) |Used both parent-reported and device-measured outdoor play. |Small sample and most tested associations were non-significant. |- |Dodd et al. (2026) |Longitudinal cohort (N = 4,151) |Outdoor play was measured before later symptom trajectories. |Parent-reported measures; does not establish causation. |- |Poulos et al. (2026) |Recess comparison study (N=317) |Compared affect across three recess settings |Extreme-heat context; higher positive affect finding was not specific to outdoor recess. |} As shown in Table 3, much of the evidence remains observational, while differences in outcomes, measures and play contexts limit the direct comparison between studies. {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {Why should the recent findings not be interpreted as showing single consistent effect of outdoor play on children's emotional well-being? |type="()"} -A. Because all the studies used different countries. +B. Because studies differed in emotional outcomes, measures of outdoor play, timing, context and research design. -C. Because longitudinal studies are always more reliable and accurate. -D. Because outdoor play only affects positive outcomes. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} == '''How can families, communities and schools support outdoor play opportunities that may benefit children's emotional well-being?''' == [[File:Coalition Builds New Playground in One Day for Chicora-Cherokee Community (11054532905).jpg|thumb|325x325px|'''Figure 5.''' Families, communities and schools can shape children's opportunities for play.]] Outdoor play opportunities are shaped across family, community and school settings. The 2025 Position Statement on Active Outdoor Play recommends increasing opportunities for active outdoor play where people live, learn, work and play with collaboration to support equitable access (Lee et al. 2025; see Figure 5). === '''Families''' === Parents can support children's access to outdoor play. Boxberger and Reimers's (2019) systematic review found that the importance parents placed on outdoor play was associated with children's outdoor-play time, although findings for encouragement were less consistent and causal conclusions cannot be made. Children may also need support while wanting some independence (Han et al., 2022), while work schedules, after-school arrangements and travel time can restrict opportunities (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). === '''Communities''' === Community conditions can shape safe and inclusive play. Visser and van Aalst's (2022) systematic review linked outdoor play with both physical and social neighbourhood factors but found no single feature that consistently explained play across settings. Beekhuizen et al. (2026) observed inclusive outdoor-play sessions and found lower playfulness scores among children with disabilities than children without disabilities, indicating that access to the same setting did not necessarily produce equal play experiences. === '''Schools''' === Schools can support participation through both social and physical conditions. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified familiarity and available time as relevant, while Bikomeye et al. (2021) reported generally positive physical-activity and socio-emotional findings across six schoolyard-greening experiments, although the evidence base was small. Poulos et al. (2026) found higher positive affect after outdoor and gymnasium recess than classroom recess during extreme heat. Heat-adaptive infrastructure may therefore support access to recess environments, but the findings do not show that outdoor recess is always emotionally superior to indoor settings. Families, communities and schools can therefore support opportunities for outdoor play through accessible environments, appropriate support, safety, familiarity and opportunities for autonomy. Current evidence supports these conditions as relevant to participation, but does not show that any single strategy will necessarily improve children's emotional well-being.{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Quiz}} <quiz display=simple> {Which statement best reflects how families, communities and schools can support children's outdoor play opportunities? |type="()"} + Support can involve accessible environments, safety, familiarity, appropriate parental support and opportunities for children to participate with some independence. - Providing the same outdoor space gives every child the same opportunity to participate. -Schoolyard greening alone is enough to improve children's emotional well-being. -Outdoor recess always produces better emotional outcomes than indoor recess. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} == '''Conclusion''' == Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being are not single, consistently measured concepts. Outdoor play should be distinguished from outdoor physical activity, while emotional well-being has been examined through emotional dysregulation, social-emotional competence, affect, and internalising and externalising symptoms. Emotion regulation provides the main psychological framework for understanding how children may respond to emotional situations during outdoor play. Scherer's (2005) model highlights emotional components including physiological responses, while Lee et al. (2025) provides observational evidence that working memory may be involved in the association between afternoon outdoor play and emotional dysregulation. These findings do not establish that outdoor play causes better emotion regulation or emotional well-being. Social and physical conditions also shape children's opportunities to participate. Affordance theory helps explain why the same environment can provide different opportunities for different children, while research highlights accessibility, familiarity, autonomy, parental support and safety as relevant conditions. Families, communities and schools can support these opportunities, but current evidence does not show that one form of outdoor play or one environmental strategy consistently improves children's emotional well-being. ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Affordance|Affordance]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Autonomy|Autonomy]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Emotion regulation in children|Emotion regulation in children]] (Wikiversity) * [[Emotional regulation]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Emotional dysregulation|Emotional dysregulation]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Imaginative play and emotion regulation|Imaginative play and emotion regulation]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Emotion regulation in children|Emotion regulation in children]] (Wikiversity book chapter, 2018) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Imaginative play and emotion regulation|Imaginative play and emotion regulation]] (Wikiveristy book chapter, 2025) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Developmental changes in emotion regulation|Developmental changes in emotion regulation]] (Wikiversity book chapter, 2021) * [[wikipedia:Working memory|Working memory]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Beekhuizen, R. Q., Bloemen, M. A. T., Bolster, E. A. M., Visser, K., Lugt, R., Bassa, M., Henry, N. L., Kotte, E. M. W., Hartingsveldt, M., & Gorter, J. W. (2026). Can You See Us Play? Observing Inclusive Outdoor Play Behaviour Among Children With and Without Disabilities: A Mixed Methods Study. Child : Care, Health & Development, 52(1), e70198-n/a. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70198 Beekhuizen, R. Q., Bolster, E. A. M., Gorter, J. W., Henry, N. L., Visser, K., Wittink, H., Kotte, E. M. W., Sol, M. E., & Bloemen, M. A. T. (2025). Play Together? Unveiling Facilitators and Barriers to Inclusive Outdoor Play for Dutch Children With and Without Disabilities: A Qualitative Study. Child: Care, Health & Development, 51(6), Article e70154. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70154 Bikomeye, J., Balza, J., & Beyer, K. (2021). The Impact of Schoolyard Greening on Children’s Physical Activity and Socioemotional Health: A Systematic Review of Experimental Studies. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(2), 535. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18020535 Boxberger, K., & Reimers, A. K. (2019). Parental correlates of outdoor play in boys and girls aged 0 to 12: A systematic review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(2, Art. 190), 19-16:2, Art. 190<19. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16020190 Davenport, C., Kuzik, N., Larouche, R., & Carson, V. (2025). The Associations Between Parental-Reported and Device-Based Measured Outdoor Play and Health Indicators of Physical, Cognitive, and Social–Emotional Development in Preschool-Aged Children. Pediatric Exercise Science, 37(2), 102–111. https://doi.org/10.1123/pes.2023-0119 de Lannoy, L., Barbeau, K., Seguin, N., & Tremblay, M. S. (2023). Scoping review of children’s and youth’s outdoor play publications in Canada. Chronic Diseases in Canada, 43(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.24095/hpcdp.43.1.01 Dodd, H. F., Cordwell, K., Hesketh, K., Johnstone, A., de la Torre-Luque, A., & McCrorie, P. (2026). Early outdoor play predicts trajectories of child mental health in a population-based cohort. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.70175 Ferguson, M., Teyhan, A., Lovell, R., Dodd, H., Wheeler, B., & McEachan, R. (2025). The association between park visits, outdoor play and child social-emotional competency in a multi-ethnic, urban cohort. Wellbeing, Space and Society, 9, Article 100293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wss.2025.100293 Gal‐Szabo, D. E., Spinrad, T. L., Eisenberg, N., & Sulik, M. J. (2019). The relations of children’s emotion knowledge to their observed social play and reticent/uninvolved behavior in preschool: Moderation by effortful control. Social Development (Oxford, England), 28(1), 57–73. https://doi.org/10.1111/sode.12321 Gibson, J. J. (1979). The ecological approach to visual perception / James J. Gibson. Houghton Mifflin. Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion Regulation: Current Status and Future Prospects. Psychological Inquiry, 26(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2014.940781 Han, C. S., Brussoni, M. J., & Mâsse, L. C. (2022). Parental Autonomy Support in the Context of Parent–Child Negotiation for Children’s Independent Mobility: ‘I Always Feel Safer With My Parents’ to ‘Boom! Bust Down Those Walls! The Journal of Early Adolescence, 42(6), Article 02724316211064513. https://doi.org/10.1177/02724316211064513 Lee, E.-Y., de Lannoy, L., Kim, Y.-B., Rathod, A., James, M. E., Lopes, O., Nasrallah, B., Thankarajah, A., Adjei-Boadi, D., de Barros, M. I. A., Duncan, S., Miller, R. M., Mygind, L., Vanderloo, L. M., Wang, P.-Y., & Tremblay, M. S. (2025). 2025 Position statement on active outdoor play. The International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 22(1), Article 117. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-025-01813-9 Lee, J. J., Flouri, E., & Jackson, Y. (2025). The Role of Timing and Amount of Outdoor Play in Emotional Dysregulation in Preschool Children. Child: Care, Health & Development, 51(1), Article e70020. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70020 Morgenthaler, T., Lynch, H., Loebach, J., Pentland, D., & Schulze, C. (2024). Using the Theory of Affordances to Understand Environment–Play Transactions: Environmental Taxonomy of Outdoor Play Space Features—A Scoping Review. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 78(4), Article 7804185120. https://doi.org/10.5014/ajot.2024.050606 Pereira, J. V., Vila-Nova, F., Veiga, G., Lopes, F., & Cordovil, R. (2024). Associations between outdoor play features and children’s behavior and health: A systematic review. Health & Place, 87, Article 103235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2024.103235 Poulos, A., Hassan, U. A., Wilson, K., Price, P. M., Vanos, J., & Quilla, J. (2026). Differences in Schoolchildren’s Emotional State After Indoor Versus Outdoor Recess in Extreme‐Heat Weather. The Journal of School Health, 96(4), Article e70135. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.70135 Scherer, K. R. (2005). What are emotions? And how can they be measured? Social Science Information, 44(4), 695–729. https://doi.org/10.1177/0539018405058216 Veraksa, A. N., Plotnikova, V. A., Sukhikh, V. L., Kornienko, D. S., & Rudnova, N. A. (2025). Non-therapeutic play to overcome negative emotional symptoms and improve emotional intelligence in children aged 3–7: a systematic review. Frontiers in Psychology, 16, 1475387. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1475387 Visser, K., & Aalst, I. (2022). Neighbourhood Factors in Children’s Outdoor Play: A Systematic Literature Review. Tijdschrift Voor Economische En Sociale Geografie, 113(1), 80–95. https://doi.org/10.1111/tesg.12505 }} ==External links== * [https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-play [https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-pla]<nowiki/>[https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-play y]] (Encyclopedia in Early Childhood Development) * [[https://www.outdoorplaycanada.ca/2026/06/02/sprout-able-resources-videos-and-tip-sheets-to-support-children-with-disabilities-in-outdoor-play/ https://www.outdoorplaycanada.ca/2026/06/02/sp]<nowiki/>[https://www.outdoorplaycanada.ca/2026/06/02/sprout-able-resources-videos-and-tip-sheets-to-support-children-with-disabilities-in-outdoor-play/ rout-able-resources-videos-and-tip-sheets-to-support-children-with-disabilities-in-outdoor-play/]/ SPROUT-able Resources: Videos and Tip Sheets to Support Children with Disabilities in Outdoor Play] (Outdoor Play Canada) * https://www.who.int/news/item/24-04-2019-to-grow-up-healthy-children-need-to-sit-less-and-play-more<nowiki/> To grow up healthy, children need to sit less and play more] (World Health Organisation) * [https://www.unicef.org/eca/stories/importance-outdoor-play-and-how-support-it The importance of outdoor play (and how to support it)] (UNICEF) * [https://publications.aap.org/pediatrics/article/142/3/e20182058/38649/The-Power-of-Play-A-Pediatric-Role-in-Enhancing The power of play: A pediatric] <nowiki/>[https://publications.aap.org/pediatrics/article/142/3/e20182058/38649/The-Power-of-Play-A-Pediatric-Role-in-Enhancing role in enhancing development in young children] (American Academy if<nowiki/> Pediatrics) * [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Children]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Nature]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Well-being]] ewz9h9feh046aqvb3kytdjnbmz9oajl 2836376 2836364 2026-10-07T01:21:39Z Mymunu 3106327 /* Overview */ 2836376 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being:<br>How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {| class="wikitable" |'''Case study: Part 1'''[[File:School children happily playing in playground.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. Children engaged in outdoor play, where social interactions, choice and changes in the situation can create different emotional experiences.]]A child arrives at a playground and joins a group of children who are already playing. The children are making their own game and deciding the rules as they play. During the game, another child changes the rules and an argument breaks out. The child becomes frustrated and walks away from the activity. After watching for a short time, the child returns, suggests a new idea to continue the game and re-joins the group. How might experiences like this during outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? Emotion regulation provides one psychological framework for understanding how children may respond to situations like this during play (see Figure 1). |} Outdoor play can involve more than physical movement. It can occur across playgrounds, gardens, streets and natural spaces and include exploration, social interaction, choice, challenge, and engagement with the surrounding environment (Dodd et al., 2026; Pereira et al., 2024). This chapter examines how [[Emotional regulation|emotional,]] [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive]], social and environmental processes may help explain the relationship between outdoor play and children's [https://w.wiki/AHG6 emotional well-being.] {| class="wikitable" | '''Focus questions''' * '''What are outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?''' * '''How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?''' * '''How do social and environmental conditions shape children's outdoor play experiences?''' * '''What does recent research show about outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?''' * '''How can families, communities and schools support outdoor play opportunities that may benefit children's emotional well-being?''' |} == '''Understanding outdoor play and children's emotional well-being''' == [[File:Water-outdoor-people-girl-play-boy-938233.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. ''Outdoor play can provide opportunities to explore, make choices, interact with others and respond to changing situations through activities such as water play.''|214x214px]] Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being are not measured as single consistent concepts across recent research. Outdoor play may be measured through parent reports or devices and should be distinguished from outdoor moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) because these measures do not represent the same behaviour (Davenport et al., 2025; Dodd et al., 2026). === Outdoor play === Outdoor play is a voluntary and intrinsically motivated activity occurring in outdoor environments such as gardens, playgrounds, parks and natural spaces (Dodd et al., 2026). It can involve movement, exploration, choice, social interaction and engagement with environmental features. === Children's emotional well-being === Children's emotional well-being is not represented by a single common outcome across recent outdoor play research. Studies have examined emotional dysregulation (Lee et al., 2025), social-emotional competence (Ferguson et al., 2025), positive and negative affect (Poulos et al., 2026) and internalising and externalising symptoms (Dodd et al., 2026). These outcomes represent different aspects and timeframes of emotional functioning, so they should not be treated as equivalent when findings are compared. '''Table 1''' ''Emotional outcomes examined in recent research on outdoor play and children's emotional well-being'' {| class="wikitable" |+ !Study !Outcome examined !What the outcome represents |- |Lee et al. (2025) |Emotional dysregulation |Difficulties in emotion regulation |- |Ferguson et al. (2025) |Social-emotional competence |Social-emotional difficulties and prosocial behaviour |- |Poulos et al. (2026) |Positive and negative affect |Emotional state following recess |- |Dodd et al. (2026) |Internalising and externalising symptoms |Internalising and externalising symptom trajectories across childhood |} ''Note''. Outcome descriptions are based on the measures and constructs reported in the cited studies. As shown in Table 1, immediate affect following recess should not be treated as equivalent to emotional dysregulation measured over time or trajectories of internalising and externalising symptoms across childhood. {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {A child's positive or negative affect immediately after recess represents the same emotional outcome as longer-term internalising or externalising symptoms. |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} == '''How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?''' == Outdoor play may be related to children's emotional well-being through emotional, cognitive and social processes (Dodd et al., 2026). These pathways have not all been directly tested as mechanisms, and much outdoor play research remains observational (Dodd et al., 2026; de Lannoy et al., 2023). Emotion regulation provides the main psychological framework for understanding children's responses during outdoor play. Scherer's (2005) model clarifies the components involved in emotion, while working memory provides empirical evidence of a possible cognitive process; affordance theory is later used to explain how environmental conditions shape opportunities for these experiences. Emotion involves more than subjective feelings. Scherer (2005) described emotion as coordinated changes across cognitive appraisal, physiological responses, action tendencies, expression and subjective feelings. Physiological responses are therefore one component of emotion rather than a separate explanation for outdoor-play effects. Scherer (2005) did not examine outdoor play, so the framework does not establish that outdoor play changes children's physiological responses or emotional well-being. === '''Emotion regulation''' === Emotion regulation provides the main psychological framework for understanding how children may manage emotional situations during outdoor play. Gross (2015) described situation selection, situation modification, attentional deployment, cognitive change and response modulation. During outdoor play, children may experience frustration, conflict, uncertainty or changes to their activity. Gross's framework can be applied to consider how children recognise an emotional response, select strategy and act on it. However, Gross (2015) did not examine outdoor play, so applying the framework does not show that outdoor play improves children's emotion regulation. Broader play research provides supporting but indirect evidence. Veraksa et al. (2025) systematically reviewed 33 studies of non-therapeutic play among children aged 3 to 7 and identified evidence involving emotion regulation, emotional intelligence and negative emotional symptoms. Because the review included outdoor play alongside other forms of play, it should not be interpreted as evidence that outdoor play alone improves emotion regulation. {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |'''Case study: Part 2'''[[File:14Y Ncdc july 5th-802.jpg|thumb|202x202px|'''Figure 3'''. ''Children can respond differently to emotional situations that occur during outdoor play.'']]When the rules of game change, the child becomes frustrated and decides to step away. After a short time the child returns and suggests a different way to continue the game (see Figure 4). Suggesting a change to the game can be considered an example of situation modification. {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {What does Gross's (2015) emotion regulation framework show when it is applied to the outdoor-play scenario?. |type="()"} -A. Outdoor play causes better emotion regulation. +B. Situation modification can help explain how the child responds to the situation. -C. Children regulate emotions better outdoors than indoors. -D. Stepping away from play always improves emotional well-being. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} === '''Working memory and cognitive process''' === Working memory may be one cognitive process involved in the association between outdoor play and emotional dysregulation. Lee et al. (2025) examined 325 preschool children and tested working memory as a statistical mediator. Afternoon outdoor play was associated with lower emotional dysregulation and better working memory, while better working memory was associated with lower emotional dysregulation. The association between afternoon outdoor play and emotional dysregulation was no longer statistically significant after working memory was included in the analysis. However, the study was observational, so the mediation analysis does not show that outdoor play caused better working memory or lower emotional dysregulation. '''Table 2''' ''Psychological processes considered in the relationship between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being'' {| class="wikitable" !Process !Contribution !Evidence and limitations |- |Emotion components (Scherer, 2005) |Emotion involves appraisal, physiological responses, action tendencies, expression and subjective feeling |Conceptual model; did not test outdoor play |- |Primary framework (Gross, 2015) |Emotion regulation helps explain responses to changing or frustrating play situations |Application of theory; does not show outdoor play improves regulation |- |Working memory (Lee et al., 2025) |Working memory statistically mediated the association between outdoor play and emotional dysregulation. |Direct observational evidence; causation cannot be established |} ''Note.'' Gross's (2015) emotion regulation framework provides the main psychological explanation used in this chapter. Scherer (2005) clarifies the components of emotion, while Lee et al. (2025) provides empirical evidence of a possible cognitive process. == '''How do social and environmental conditions shape children's outdoor play experiences?''' == [[File:2026-10-03 214531-relationship between child and environment.png|thumb|284x284px|'''Figure 4.''' Children's opportunities for outdoor play can be different according to personal, interacting and environmental factors and the relationship between the child and the environment. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Note. Original conceptual summary based on Beekhuizen et al. (2025) and Gibson (1979). |} ]] Psychological processes occur within particular social and physical conditions (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). [https://w.wiki/VYfL Affordance theory] complements the emotion-regulation framework by explaining how the relationship between the child and the environment shapes opportunities for action and participation (Gibson, 1979; Morgenthaler et al., 2024)). === Affordance theory and outdoor play environments === [https://w.wiki/VYfL Affordance theory] explains opportunities for action that an environment provides in relation to the person using it (Gibson, 1979). Morgenthaler et al. (2024) applied affordance theory to children's outdoor play and identified diverse play opportunities linked to environmental features. This helps explain why the same space may provide different opportunities for different children. However, the review examined opportunities for play rather than children's [https://w.wiki/AHG6 emotional well-being]. Pereira et al. (2024) reviewed 51 articles representing 45 primary studies of outdoor play-space features. Some positive effects were reported, but differences in features, outcome measures and methods limited conclusions about individual play-space features. The review therefore does not show that one particular environmental feature improves children's emotional well-being. === '''Social relationships and inclusion''' === Social relationships can shape whether children are able to join and continue outdoor play (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Familiarity and opportunities to make contact with others were important for inclusive play. Emotional understanding may also influence how children participate socially during play. Gal-Szabo et al. (2019) found that better situational understanding of emotions was associated with less uninvolved behaviour and marginally more social play during preschool free play. However, the study was not specific to outdoor play and does not establish that social play improves emotional well-being. === '''Autonomy, access and time''' === [https://w.wiki/4NyU Autonomy] can shape how children experience outdoor play (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Veraksa et al. (2025) identified autonomy as one feature through which broader play may support emotion regulation and coping, although the review was not specific to outdoor play. Parental support can enable access to play, while work schedules, after-school arrangements and travel time can restrict opportunities (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Safety and accessibility are also relevant, particularly for children with disabilities. These findings support the importance of participation conditions, but do not show that any single environmental feature improves children's emotional well-being (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |'''Case study: Part 3 Same play space, different experiences''' {| class="wikitable" |Kim and Leo use the same school playground. Kim already knows many children and easily joins a group activity, while Leo uses a mobility device and finds that some areas of the playground are difficult to access. Leo also knows fewer children in the playground. Although they share the same play space, physical accessibility and familiarity create different opportunities to participate. |} {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {Why might two children have different outdoor-play experiences even when they use the same playground?. |type="()"} +A. Physical, social and personal factors can affect how children are able to participate. -B. Outdoor spaces provide the same opportunities for every child. -C. Accessibility is the only factor that affects outdoor play.. -D. Children who know other children always have better emotional well-being. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} == '''What does recent research show about outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?''' == Recent research does not show a consistent association between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being. Findings are mixed across different emotional outcomes, the timing and context of outdoor play, children's behaviours, and the methods used to measure outdoor play. === '''Consistency of recent research findings''' === Recent findings are not consistent across outcomes. Ferguson et al. (2025) found that more frequent outdoor play was associated with better social-emotional competence, whereas most developmental associations examined by Davenport et al. (2025) were not statistically significant. Poulos et al. (2026) found higher positive affect after outdoor and gymnasium recess than classroom recess, while Lee et al. (2025) found that associations with emotional dysregulation differed by time of day. Timeframe and context also matter. Dodd et al. (2026) linked more frequent preschool outdoor play with lower odds of less favourable internalising and externalising symptom trajectories across childhood, whereas Poulos et al. (2026) examined immediate post-recess affect. Ferguson et al. (2025) also reported differences according to ethnicity and whether outdoor play occurred on school days or weekends. Together, the evidence suggests that outdoor play is not associated with one uniform emotional outcome; associations depend on what is measured, when play occurs, who participates and the context in which play takes place. === '''Limitations and future directions''' === Research design limits causal interpretation. Dodd et al. (2026) used longitudinal data from 4,151 children, but the study remained observational and relied on parent-reported measures. Lee et al. (2025) also considered reverse causation, meaning its mediation findings cannot establish that outdoor play caused changes in working memory or emotional dysregulation. Measurement also limits comparison across studies. Outdoor play has been assessed through parent reports and devices, while emotional outcomes range from immediate affect to longer-term symptom trajectories (Davenport et al., 2025). Differences in children's ages, play settings and contexts further limit interpretation, and de Lannoy et al. (2023) found that cross-sectional designs remain common across the wider outdoor-play literature. Future research should use more consistent measures of outdoor play and emotional outcomes, stronger longitudinal and experimental designs, and samples representing different children and play contexts. Studies should also test proposed emotional and cognitive processes directly rather than inferring mechanisms from associations. T'''able 3''' '''''Comparison of recent research''''' {| class="wikitable" |+ !Study !Research method !Research strength !Limitation |- | <small>Lee et al. (2025)</small> |Observational; 6-month follow-up |Examined the timing of outdoor play and working memory as a statistical mediator. |Cannot establish causation; reverse causation remains possible. |- |Ferguson et al. (2025) |Cross-sectional; multi-ethnic urban cohort (N=2,568) |Large sample with subgroup and context comparisons. |Cannot establish temporal direction. |- |Davenport et al. (2025) |Observational; preschool sample (N=107) |Used both parent-reported and device-measured outdoor play. |Small sample and most tested associations were non-significant. |- |Dodd et al. (2026) |Longitudinal cohort (N = 4,151) |Outdoor play was measured before later symptom trajectories. |Parent-reported measures; does not establish causation. |- |Poulos et al. (2026) |Recess comparison study (N=317) |Compared affect across three recess settings. |Extreme-heat context; higher positive affect finding was not specific to outdoor recess. |} As shown in Table 3, much of the evidence remains observational, while differences in outcomes, measures and play contexts limit direct comparison between studies. {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {Why should the recent findings not be interpreted as showing a single consistent effect of outdoor play on children's emotional well-being? |type="()"} -A. Because all the studies used different countries. +B. Because studies differed in emotional outcomes, measures of outdoor play, timing, context and research design. -C. Because longitudinal studies are always more reliable and accurate. -D. Because outdoor play only affects positive outcomes. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} == '''How can families, communities and schools support outdoor play opportunities that may benefit children's emotional well-being?''' == [[File:Coalition Builds New Playground in One Day for Chicora-Cherokee Community (11054532905).jpg|thumb|325x325px|'''Figure 5.''' Families, communities and schools can shape children's opportunities for outdoor play.]] Outdoor play opportunities are shaped across family, community and school settings. The 2025 Position Statement on Active Outdoor Play recommends increasing opportunities for active outdoor play where people live, learn, work and play with collaboration to support equitable access (Lee et al. 2025; see Figure 5). === '''Families''' === Parents can support children's access to outdoor play. Boxberger and Reimers's (2019) systematic review found that the importance parents placed on outdoor play was associated with children's outdoor-play time, although findings for encouragement were less consistent and causal conclusions cannot be made. Children may also need support while wanting some independence (Han et al., 2022). Work schedules, after-school arrangements and travel time can restrict opportunities (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). === '''Communities''' === Community conditions can shape safe and inclusive play. Visser and van Aalst's (2022) systematic review linked outdoor play with both physical and social neighbourhood factors but found no single feature that consistently explained play across settings. Beekhuizen et al. (2026) observed inclusive outdoor-play sessions and found lower playfulness scores among children with disabilities than children without disabilities, suggesting that access to the same setting did not necessarily produce equal play experiences. === '''Schools''' === Schools can support participation through both social and physical conditions. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified familiarity and available time as relevant, while Bikomeye et al. (2021) reported generally positive physical-activity and socio-emotional findings across six schoolyard-greening experiments, although the evidence base was small. Poulos et al. (2026) found higher positive affect after outdoor and gymnasium recess than classroom recess during extreme heat. Heat-adaptive infrastructure may therefore support access to recess environments, but the findings do not show that outdoor recess is always emotionally superior to indoor settings. Families, communities and schools can therefore support opportunities for outdoor play through accessible environments, appropriate support, safety, familiarity and opportunities for autonomy. Current evidence supports these conditions as relevant to participation, but does not show that any single strategy necessarily improves children's emotional well-being. {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Quiz}} <quiz display=simple> {Which statement best reflects how families, communities and schools can support children's outdoor play opportunities? |type="()"} + Support can involve accessible environments, safety, familiarity, appropriate parental support and opportunities for children to participate with some independence. - Providing the same outdoor space gives every child the same opportunity to participate. -Schoolyard greening alone is enough to improve children's emotional well-being. -Outdoor recess always produces better emotional outcomes than indoor recess. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} == '''Conclusion''' == Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being are not single, consistently measured concepts. Outdoor play should be distinguished from outdoor physical activity, while emotional well-being has been examined through emotional dysregulation, social-emotional competence, affect and internalising and externalising symptoms. Emotion regulation provides the main psychological framework for understanding how children may respond to emotional situations during outdoor play. Scherer's (2005) model highlights emotional components including physiological responses, while Lee et al. (2025) provide observational evidence that working memory may be involved in the association between afternoon outdoor play and emotional dysregulation. These findings do not establish that outdoor play causes better emotion regulation or emotional well-being. Social and physical conditions also shape children's opportunities to participate. Affordance theory helps explain why the same environment can provide different opportunities for different children, while research highlights accessibility, familiarity, autonomy, parental support and safety as relevant participation conditions. Families, communities and schools can support these opportunities, but current evidence does not show that one form of outdoor play or one environmental strategy consistently improves children's emotional well-being. ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Affordance|Affordance]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Emotion regulation in children|Emotion regulation in children]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Imaginative play and emotion regulation|Imaginative play and emotion regulation]] (Book chapter, 2025) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Developmental changes in emotion regulation|Developmental changes in emotion regulation]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[wikipedia:Working memory|Working memory]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Emotional dysregulation|Emotional dysregulation]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Beekhuizen, R. Q., Bloemen, M. A. T., Bolster, E. A. M., Visser, K., Lugt, R., Bassa, M., Henry, N. L., Kotte, E. M. W., Hartingsveldt, M., & Gorter, J. W. (2026). Can You See Us Play? Observing Inclusive Outdoor Play Behaviour Among Children With and Without Disabilities: A Mixed Methods Study. Child : Care, Health & Development, 52(1), e70198-n/a. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70198 Beekhuizen, R. Q., Bolster, E. A. M., Gorter, J. W., Henry, N. L., Visser, K., Wittink, H., Kotte, E. M. W., Sol, M. E., & Bloemen, M. A. T. (2025). Play Together? Unveiling Facilitators and Barriers to Inclusive Outdoor Play for Dutch Children With and Without Disabilities: A Qualitative Study. Child: Care, Health & Development, 51(6), Article e70154. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70154 Bikomeye, J., Balza, J., & Beyer, K. (2021). The Impact of Schoolyard Greening on Children’s Physical Activity and Socioemotional Health: A Systematic Review of Experimental Studies. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(2), 535. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18020535 Boxberger, K., & Reimers, A. K. (2019). Parental correlates of outdoor play in boys and girls aged 0 to 12: A systematic review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(2, Art. 190), 19-16:2, Art. 190<19. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16020190 Davenport, C., Kuzik, N., Larouche, R., & Carson, V. (2025). The Associations Between Parental-Reported and Device-Based Measured Outdoor Play and Health Indicators of Physical, Cognitive, and Social–Emotional Development in Preschool-Aged Children. Pediatric Exercise Science, 37(2), 102–111. https://doi.org/10.1123/pes.2023-0119 de Lannoy, L., Barbeau, K., Seguin, N., & Tremblay, M. S. (2023). Scoping review of children’s and youth’s outdoor play publications in Canada. Chronic Diseases in Canada, 43(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.24095/hpcdp.43.1.01 Dodd, H. F., Cordwell, K., Hesketh, K., Johnstone, A., de la Torre-Luque, A., & McCrorie, P. (2026). Early outdoor play predicts trajectories of child mental health in a population-based cohort. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.70175 Ferguson, M., Teyhan, A., Lovell, R., Dodd, H., Wheeler, B., & McEachan, R. (2025). The association between park visits, outdoor play and child social-emotional competency in a multi-ethnic, urban cohort. Wellbeing, Space and Society, 9, Article 100293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wss.2025.100293 Gal‐Szabo, D. E., Spinrad, T. L., Eisenberg, N., & Sulik, M. J. (2019). The relations of children’s emotion knowledge to their observed social play and reticent/uninvolved behavior in preschool: Moderation by effortful control. Social Development (Oxford, England), 28(1), 57–73. https://doi.org/10.1111/sode.12321 Gibson, J. J. (1979). The ecological approach to visual perception / James J. Gibson. Houghton Mifflin. Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion Regulation: Current Status and Future Prospects. Psychological Inquiry, 26(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2014.940781 Han, C. S., Brussoni, M. J., & Mâsse, L. C. (2022). Parental Autonomy Support in the Context of Parent–Child Negotiation for Children’s Independent Mobility: ‘I Always Feel Safer With My Parents’ to ‘Boom! Bust Down Those Walls! The Journal of Early Adolescence, 42(6), Article 02724316211064513. https://doi.org/10.1177/02724316211064513 Lee, E.-Y., de Lannoy, L., Kim, Y.-B., Rathod, A., James, M. E., Lopes, O., Nasrallah, B., Thankarajah, A., Adjei-Boadi, D., de Barros, M. I. A., Duncan, S., Miller, R. M., Mygind, L., Vanderloo, L. M., Wang, P.-Y., & Tremblay, M. S. (2025). 2025 Position statement on active outdoor play. The International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 22(1), Article 117. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-025-01813-9 Lee, J. J., Flouri, E., & Jackson, Y. (2025). The Role of Timing and Amount of Outdoor Play in Emotional Dysregulation in Preschool Children. Child: Care, Health & Development, 51(1), Article e70020. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70020 Morgenthaler, T., Lynch, H., Loebach, J., Pentland, D., & Schulze, C. (2024). Using the Theory of Affordances to Understand Environment–Play Transactions: Environmental Taxonomy of Outdoor Play Space Features—A Scoping Review. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 78(4), Article 7804185120. https://doi.org/10.5014/ajot.2024.050606 Pereira, J. V., Vila-Nova, F., Veiga, G., Lopes, F., & Cordovil, R. (2024). Associations between outdoor play features and children’s behavior and health: A systematic review. Health & Place, 87, Article 103235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2024.103235 Poulos, A., Hassan, U. A., Wilson, K., Price, P. M., Vanos, J., & Quilla, J. (2026). Differences in Schoolchildren’s Emotional State After Indoor Versus Outdoor Recess in Extreme‐Heat Weather. The Journal of School Health, 96(4), Article e70135. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.70135 Scherer, K. R. (2005). What are emotions? And how can they be measured? Social Science Information, 44(4), 695–729. https://doi.org/10.1177/0539018405058216 Veraksa, A. N., Plotnikova, V. A., Sukhikh, V. L., Kornienko, D. S., & Rudnova, N. A. (2025). Non-therapeutic play to overcome negative emotional symptoms and improve emotional intelligence in children aged 3–7: a systematic review. Frontiers in Psychology, 16, 1475387. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1475387 Visser, K., & Aalst, I. (2022). Neighbourhood Factors in Children’s Outdoor Play: A Systematic Literature Review. Tijdschrift Voor Economische En Sociale Geografie, 113(1), 80–95. https://doi.org/10.1111/tesg.12505 }} ==External links== * [https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-play Outdoor play] (Encyclopedia on Early Childhood D<nowiki/>evelopment) * [https://www.outdoorplaycanada.ca/aop10/ 2025 Position Statement on Active Outdoor Play] <nowiki/>(Outdoor Play Canada) * [https://www.unicef.org/eca/stories/importance-outdoor-play-and-how-support-it The importance of outdoor play (and how to support it)] (UNICEF) * [https://publications.aap.org/pediatrics/article/142/3/e20182058/38649/The-Power-of-Play-A-Pediatric-Role-in-Enhancing The power of play: A pediatric] <nowiki/>[https://publications.aap.org/pediatrics/article/142/3/e20182058/38649/The-Power-of-Play-A-Pediatric-Role-in-Enhancing role in enhancing development in young children] (American Academy if<nowiki/> Pediatrics) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Children]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Nature]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Well-being]] 2y9xpkptm9agir8ttjrz002nhtczglr 2836377 2836376 2026-10-07T01:30:50Z Mymunu 3106327 /* Children's emotional well-being */ 2836377 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being:<br>How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {| class="wikitable" |'''Case study: Part 1'''[[File:School children happily playing in playground.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. Children engaged in outdoor play, where social interactions, choice and changes in the situation can create different emotional experiences.]]A child arrives at a playground and joins a group of children who are already playing. The children are making their own game and deciding the rules as they play. During the game, another child changes the rules and an argument breaks out. The child becomes frustrated and walks away from the activity. After watching for a short time, the child returns, suggests a new idea to continue the game and re-joins the group. How might experiences like this during outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? Emotion regulation provides one psychological framework for understanding how children may respond to situations like this during play (see Figure 1). |} Outdoor play can involve more than physical movement. It can occur across playgrounds, gardens, streets and natural spaces and include exploration, social interaction, choice, challenge, and engagement with the surrounding environment (Dodd et al., 2026; Pereira et al., 2024). This chapter examines how [[Emotional regulation|emotional,]] [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive]], social and environmental processes may help explain the relationship between outdoor play and children's [https://w.wiki/AHG6 emotional well-being.] {| class="wikitable" | '''Focus questions''' * '''What are outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?''' * '''How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?''' * '''How do social and environmental conditions shape children's outdoor play experiences?''' * '''What does recent research show about outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?''' * '''How can families, communities and schools support outdoor play opportunities that may benefit children's emotional well-being?''' |} == '''Understanding outdoor play and children's emotional well-being''' == [[File:Water-outdoor-people-girl-play-boy-938233.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. ''Outdoor play can provide opportunities to explore, make choices, interact with others and respond to changing situations through activities such as water play.''|214x214px]] Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being are not measured as single consistent concepts across recent research. Outdoor play may be measured through parent reports or devices and should be distinguished from outdoor moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) because these measures do not represent the same behaviour (Davenport et al., 2025; Dodd et al., 2026). === Outdoor play === Outdoor play is a voluntary and intrinsically motivated activity occurring in outdoor environments such as gardens, playgrounds, parks and natural spaces (Dodd et al., 2026). It can involve movement, exploration, choice, social interaction and engagement with environmental features. === Children's emotional well-being === Children's emotional well-being is not represented by a single common outcome across recent outdoor play research. Studies have examined [https://w.wiki/7YC8 emotional dysregulation] (Lee et al., 2025), social-emotional competence (Ferguson et al., 2025), positive and negative affect (Poulos et al., 2026) and internalising and externalising symptoms (Dodd et al., 2026). These outcomes represent different aspects and timeframes of emotional functioning, so they should not be treated as equivalent when findings are compared. '''Table 1''' ''Emotional outcomes examined in recent research on outdoor play and children's emotional well-being'' {| class="wikitable" |+ !Study !Outcome examined !What the outcome represents |- |Lee et al. (2025) |Emotional dysregulation |Difficulties in emotion regulation |- |Ferguson et al. (2025) |Social-emotional competence |Social-emotional difficulties and prosocial behaviour |- |Poulos et al. (2026) |Positive and negative affect |Emotional state following recess |- |Dodd et al. (2026) |Internalising and externalising symptoms |Internalising and externalising symptom trajectories across childhood |} ''Note''. Outcome descriptions are based on the measures and constructs reported in the cited studies. As shown in Table 1, immediate affect following recess should not be treated as equivalent to emotional dysregulation measured over time or trajectories of internalising and externalising symptoms across childhood. {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {A child's positive or negative affect immediately after recess represents the same emotional outcome as longer-term internalising or externalising symptoms. |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} == '''How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?''' == Outdoor play may be related to children's emotional well-being through emotional, cognitive and social processes (Dodd et al., 2026). These pathways have not all been directly tested as mechanisms, and much outdoor play research remains observational (Dodd et al., 2026; de Lannoy et al., 2023). Emotion regulation provides the main psychological framework for understanding children's responses during outdoor play. Scherer's (2005) model clarifies the components involved in emotion, while working memory provides empirical evidence of a possible cognitive process; affordance theory is later used to explain how environmental conditions shape opportunities for these experiences. Emotion involves more than subjective feelings. Scherer (2005) described emotion as coordinated changes across cognitive appraisal, physiological responses, action tendencies, expression and subjective feelings. Physiological responses are therefore one component of emotion rather than a separate explanation for outdoor-play effects. Scherer (2005) did not examine outdoor play, so the framework does not establish that outdoor play changes children's physiological responses or emotional well-being. === '''Emotion regulation''' === Emotion regulation provides the main psychological framework for understanding how children may manage emotional situations during outdoor play. Gross (2015) described situation selection, situation modification, attentional deployment, cognitive change and response modulation. During outdoor play, children may experience frustration, conflict, uncertainty or changes to their activity. Gross's framework can be applied to consider how children recognise an emotional response, select strategy and act on it. However, Gross (2015) did not examine outdoor play, so applying the framework does not show that outdoor play improves children's emotion regulation. Broader play research provides supporting but indirect evidence. Veraksa et al. (2025) systematically reviewed 33 studies of non-therapeutic play among children aged 3 to 7 and identified evidence involving emotion regulation, emotional intelligence and negative emotional symptoms. Because the review included outdoor play alongside other forms of play, it should not be interpreted as evidence that outdoor play alone improves emotion regulation. {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |'''Case study: Part 2'''[[File:14Y Ncdc july 5th-802.jpg|thumb|202x202px|'''Figure 3'''. ''Children can respond differently to emotional situations that occur during outdoor play.'']]When the rules of game change, the child becomes frustrated and decides to step away. After a short time the child returns and suggests a different way to continue the game (see Figure 4). Suggesting a change to the game can be considered an example of situation modification. {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {What does Gross's (2015) emotion regulation framework show when it is applied to the outdoor-play scenario?. |type="()"} -A. Outdoor play causes better emotion regulation. +B. Situation modification can help explain how the child responds to the situation. -C. Children regulate emotions better outdoors than indoors. -D. Stepping away from play always improves emotional well-being. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} === '''Working memory and cognitive process''' === Working memory may be one cognitive process involved in the association between outdoor play and emotional dysregulation. Lee et al. (2025) examined 325 preschool children and tested working memory as a statistical mediator. Afternoon outdoor play was associated with lower emotional dysregulation and better working memory, while better working memory was associated with lower emotional dysregulation. The association between afternoon outdoor play and emotional dysregulation was no longer statistically significant after working memory was included in the analysis. However, the study was observational, so the mediation analysis does not show that outdoor play caused better working memory or lower emotional dysregulation. '''Table 2''' ''Psychological processes considered in the relationship between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being'' {| class="wikitable" !Process !Contribution !Evidence and limitations |- |Emotion components (Scherer, 2005) |Emotion involves appraisal, physiological responses, action tendencies, expression and subjective feeling |Conceptual model; did not test outdoor play |- |Primary framework (Gross, 2015) |Emotion regulation helps explain responses to changing or frustrating play situations |Application of theory; does not show outdoor play improves regulation |- |Working memory (Lee et al., 2025) |Working memory statistically mediated the association between outdoor play and emotional dysregulation. |Direct observational evidence; causation cannot be established |} ''Note.'' Gross's (2015) emotion regulation framework provides the main psychological explanation used in this chapter. Scherer (2005) clarifies the components of emotion, while Lee et al. (2025) provides empirical evidence of a possible cognitive process. == '''How do social and environmental conditions shape children's outdoor play experiences?''' == [[File:2026-10-03 214531-relationship between child and environment.png|thumb|284x284px|'''Figure 4.''' Children's opportunities for outdoor play can be different according to personal, interacting and environmental factors and the relationship between the child and the environment. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Note. Original conceptual summary based on Beekhuizen et al. (2025) and Gibson (1979). |} ]] Psychological processes occur within particular social and physical conditions (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). [https://w.wiki/VYfL Affordance theory] complements the emotion-regulation framework by explaining how the relationship between the child and the environment shapes opportunities for action and participation (Gibson, 1979; Morgenthaler et al., 2024)). === Affordance theory and outdoor play environments === [https://w.wiki/VYfL Affordance theory] explains opportunities for action that an environment provides in relation to the person using it (Gibson, 1979). Morgenthaler et al. (2024) applied affordance theory to children's outdoor play and identified diverse play opportunities linked to environmental features. This helps explain why the same space may provide different opportunities for different children. However, the review examined opportunities for play rather than children's [https://w.wiki/AHG6 emotional well-being]. Pereira et al. (2024) reviewed 51 articles representing 45 primary studies of outdoor play-space features. Some positive effects were reported, but differences in features, outcome measures and methods limited conclusions about individual play-space features. The review therefore does not show that one particular environmental feature improves children's emotional well-being. === '''Social relationships and inclusion''' === Social relationships can shape whether children are able to join and continue outdoor play (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Familiarity and opportunities to make contact with others were important for inclusive play. Emotional understanding may also influence how children participate socially during play. Gal-Szabo et al. (2019) found that better situational understanding of emotions was associated with less uninvolved behaviour and marginally more social play during preschool free play. However, the study was not specific to outdoor play and does not establish that social play improves emotional well-being. === '''Autonomy, access and time''' === [https://w.wiki/4NyU Autonomy] can shape how children experience outdoor play (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Veraksa et al. (2025) identified autonomy as one feature through which broader play may support emotion regulation and coping, although the review was not specific to outdoor play. Parental support can enable access to play, while work schedules, after-school arrangements and travel time can restrict opportunities (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Safety and accessibility are also relevant, particularly for children with disabilities. These findings support the importance of participation conditions, but do not show that any single environmental feature improves children's emotional well-being (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |'''Case study: Part 3 Same play space, different experiences''' {| class="wikitable" |Kim and Leo use the same school playground. Kim already knows many children and easily joins a group activity, while Leo uses a mobility device and finds that some areas of the playground are difficult to access. Leo also knows fewer children in the playground. Although they share the same play space, physical accessibility and familiarity create different opportunities to participate. |} {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {Why might two children have different outdoor-play experiences even when they use the same playground?. |type="()"} +A. Physical, social and personal factors can affect how children are able to participate. -B. Outdoor spaces provide the same opportunities for every child. -C. Accessibility is the only factor that affects outdoor play.. -D. Children who know other children always have better emotional well-being. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} == '''What does recent research show about outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?''' == Recent research does not show a consistent association between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being. Findings are mixed across different emotional outcomes, the timing and context of outdoor play, children's behaviours, and the methods used to measure outdoor play. === '''Consistency of recent research findings''' === Recent findings are not consistent across outcomes. Ferguson et al. (2025) found that more frequent outdoor play was associated with better social-emotional competence, whereas most developmental associations examined by Davenport et al. (2025) were not statistically significant. Poulos et al. (2026) found higher positive affect after outdoor and gymnasium recess than classroom recess, while Lee et al. (2025) found that associations with emotional dysregulation differed by time of day. Timeframe and context also matter. Dodd et al. (2026) linked more frequent preschool outdoor play with lower odds of less favourable internalising and externalising symptom trajectories across childhood, whereas Poulos et al. (2026) examined immediate post-recess affect. Ferguson et al. (2025) also reported differences according to ethnicity and whether outdoor play occurred on school days or weekends. Together, the evidence suggests that outdoor play is not associated with one uniform emotional outcome; associations depend on what is measured, when play occurs, who participates and the context in which play takes place. === '''Limitations and future directions''' === Research design limits causal interpretation. Dodd et al. (2026) used longitudinal data from 4,151 children, but the study remained observational and relied on parent-reported measures. Lee et al. (2025) also considered reverse causation, meaning its mediation findings cannot establish that outdoor play caused changes in working memory or emotional dysregulation. Measurement also limits comparison across studies. Outdoor play has been assessed through parent reports and devices, while emotional outcomes range from immediate affect to longer-term symptom trajectories (Davenport et al., 2025). Differences in children's ages, play settings and contexts further limit interpretation, and de Lannoy et al. (2023) found that cross-sectional designs remain common across the wider outdoor-play literature. Future research should use more consistent measures of outdoor play and emotional outcomes, stronger longitudinal and experimental designs, and samples representing different children and play contexts. Studies should also test proposed emotional and cognitive processes directly rather than inferring mechanisms from associations. T'''able 3''' '''''Comparison of recent research''''' {| class="wikitable" |+ !Study !Research method !Research strength !Limitation |- | <small>Lee et al. (2025)</small> |Observational; 6-month follow-up |Examined the timing of outdoor play and working memory as a statistical mediator. |Cannot establish causation; reverse causation remains possible. |- |Ferguson et al. (2025) |Cross-sectional; multi-ethnic urban cohort (N=2,568) |Large sample with subgroup and context comparisons. |Cannot establish temporal direction. |- |Davenport et al. (2025) |Observational; preschool sample (N=107) |Used both parent-reported and device-measured outdoor play. |Small sample and most tested associations were non-significant. |- |Dodd et al. (2026) |Longitudinal cohort (N = 4,151) |Outdoor play was measured before later symptom trajectories. |Parent-reported measures; does not establish causation. |- |Poulos et al. (2026) |Recess comparison study (N=317) |Compared affect across three recess settings. |Extreme-heat context; higher positive affect finding was not specific to outdoor recess. |} As shown in Table 3, much of the evidence remains observational, while differences in outcomes, measures and play contexts limit direct comparison between studies. {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {Why should the recent findings not be interpreted as showing a single consistent effect of outdoor play on children's emotional well-being? |type="()"} -A. Because all the studies used different countries. +B. Because studies differed in emotional outcomes, measures of outdoor play, timing, context and research design. -C. Because longitudinal studies are always more reliable and accurate. -D. Because outdoor play only affects positive outcomes. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} == '''How can families, communities and schools support outdoor play opportunities that may benefit children's emotional well-being?''' == [[File:Coalition Builds New Playground in One Day for Chicora-Cherokee Community (11054532905).jpg|thumb|325x325px|'''Figure 5.''' Families, communities and schools can shape children's opportunities for outdoor play.]] Outdoor play opportunities are shaped across family, community and school settings. The 2025 Position Statement on Active Outdoor Play recommends increasing opportunities for active outdoor play where people live, learn, work and play with collaboration to support equitable access (Lee et al. 2025; see Figure 5). === '''Families''' === Parents can support children's access to outdoor play. Boxberger and Reimers's (2019) systematic review found that the importance parents placed on outdoor play was associated with children's outdoor-play time, although findings for encouragement were less consistent and causal conclusions cannot be made. Children may also need support while wanting some independence (Han et al., 2022). Work schedules, after-school arrangements and travel time can restrict opportunities (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). === '''Communities''' === Community conditions can shape safe and inclusive play. Visser and van Aalst's (2022) systematic review linked outdoor play with both physical and social neighbourhood factors but found no single feature that consistently explained play across settings. Beekhuizen et al. (2026) observed inclusive outdoor-play sessions and found lower playfulness scores among children with disabilities than children without disabilities, suggesting that access to the same setting did not necessarily produce equal play experiences. === '''Schools''' === Schools can support participation through both social and physical conditions. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified familiarity and available time as relevant, while Bikomeye et al. (2021) reported generally positive physical-activity and socio-emotional findings across six schoolyard-greening experiments, although the evidence base was small. Poulos et al. (2026) found higher positive affect after outdoor and gymnasium recess than classroom recess during extreme heat. Heat-adaptive infrastructure may therefore support access to recess environments, but the findings do not show that outdoor recess is always emotionally superior to indoor settings. Families, communities and schools can therefore support opportunities for outdoor play through accessible environments, appropriate support, safety, familiarity and opportunities for autonomy. Current evidence supports these conditions as relevant to participation, but does not show that any single strategy necessarily improves children's emotional well-being. {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Quiz}} <quiz display=simple> {Which statement best reflects how families, communities and schools can support children's outdoor play opportunities? |type="()"} + Support can involve accessible environments, safety, familiarity, appropriate parental support and opportunities for children to participate with some independence. - Providing the same outdoor space gives every child the same opportunity to participate. -Schoolyard greening alone is enough to improve children's emotional well-being. -Outdoor recess always produces better emotional outcomes than indoor recess. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} == '''Conclusion''' == Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being are not single, consistently measured concepts. Outdoor play should be distinguished from outdoor physical activity, while emotional well-being has been examined through emotional dysregulation, social-emotional competence, affect and internalising and externalising symptoms. Emotion regulation provides the main psychological framework for understanding how children may respond to emotional situations during outdoor play. Scherer's (2005) model highlights emotional components including physiological responses, while Lee et al. (2025) provide observational evidence that working memory may be involved in the association between afternoon outdoor play and emotional dysregulation. These findings do not establish that outdoor play causes better emotion regulation or emotional well-being. Social and physical conditions also shape children's opportunities to participate. Affordance theory helps explain why the same environment can provide different opportunities for different children, while research highlights accessibility, familiarity, autonomy, parental support and safety as relevant participation conditions. Families, communities and schools can support these opportunities, but current evidence does not show that one form of outdoor play or one environmental strategy consistently improves children's emotional well-being. ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Affordance|Affordance]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Emotion regulation in children|Emotion regulation in children]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Imaginative play and emotion regulation|Imaginative play and emotion regulation]] (Book chapter, 2025) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Developmental changes in emotion regulation|Developmental changes in emotion regulation]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[wikipedia:Working memory|Working memory]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Emotional dysregulation|Emotional dysregulation]] | emotional dysregulation (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Beekhuizen, R. Q., Bloemen, M. A. T., Bolster, E. A. M., Visser, K., Lugt, R., Bassa, M., Henry, N. L., Kotte, E. M. W., Hartingsveldt, M., & Gorter, J. W. (2026). Can You See Us Play? Observing Inclusive Outdoor Play Behaviour Among Children With and Without Disabilities: A Mixed Methods Study. Child : Care, Health & Development, 52(1), e70198-n/a. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70198 Beekhuizen, R. Q., Bolster, E. A. M., Gorter, J. W., Henry, N. L., Visser, K., Wittink, H., Kotte, E. M. W., Sol, M. E., & Bloemen, M. A. T. (2025). Play Together? Unveiling Facilitators and Barriers to Inclusive Outdoor Play for Dutch Children With and Without Disabilities: A Qualitative Study. Child: Care, Health & Development, 51(6), Article e70154. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70154 Bikomeye, J., Balza, J., & Beyer, K. (2021). The Impact of Schoolyard Greening on Children’s Physical Activity and Socioemotional Health: A Systematic Review of Experimental Studies. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(2), 535. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18020535 Boxberger, K., & Reimers, A. K. (2019). Parental correlates of outdoor play in boys and girls aged 0 to 12: A systematic review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(2, Art. 190), 19-16:2, Art. 190<19. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16020190 Davenport, C., Kuzik, N., Larouche, R., & Carson, V. (2025). The Associations Between Parental-Reported and Device-Based Measured Outdoor Play and Health Indicators of Physical, Cognitive, and Social–Emotional Development in Preschool-Aged Children. Pediatric Exercise Science, 37(2), 102–111. https://doi.org/10.1123/pes.2023-0119 de Lannoy, L., Barbeau, K., Seguin, N., & Tremblay, M. S. (2023). Scoping review of children’s and youth’s outdoor play publications in Canada. Chronic Diseases in Canada, 43(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.24095/hpcdp.43.1.01 Dodd, H. F., Cordwell, K., Hesketh, K., Johnstone, A., de la Torre-Luque, A., & McCrorie, P. (2026). Early outdoor play predicts trajectories of child mental health in a population-based cohort. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.70175 Ferguson, M., Teyhan, A., Lovell, R., Dodd, H., Wheeler, B., & McEachan, R. (2025). The association between park visits, outdoor play and child social-emotional competency in a multi-ethnic, urban cohort. Wellbeing, Space and Society, 9, Article 100293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wss.2025.100293 Gal‐Szabo, D. E., Spinrad, T. L., Eisenberg, N., & Sulik, M. J. (2019). The relations of children’s emotion knowledge to their observed social play and reticent/uninvolved behavior in preschool: Moderation by effortful control. Social Development (Oxford, England), 28(1), 57–73. https://doi.org/10.1111/sode.12321 Gibson, J. J. (1979). The ecological approach to visual perception / James J. Gibson. Houghton Mifflin. Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion Regulation: Current Status and Future Prospects. Psychological Inquiry, 26(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2014.940781 Han, C. S., Brussoni, M. J., & Mâsse, L. C. (2022). Parental Autonomy Support in the Context of Parent–Child Negotiation for Children’s Independent Mobility: ‘I Always Feel Safer With My Parents’ to ‘Boom! Bust Down Those Walls! The Journal of Early Adolescence, 42(6), Article 02724316211064513. https://doi.org/10.1177/02724316211064513 Lee, E.-Y., de Lannoy, L., Kim, Y.-B., Rathod, A., James, M. E., Lopes, O., Nasrallah, B., Thankarajah, A., Adjei-Boadi, D., de Barros, M. I. A., Duncan, S., Miller, R. M., Mygind, L., Vanderloo, L. M., Wang, P.-Y., & Tremblay, M. S. (2025). 2025 Position statement on active outdoor play. The International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 22(1), Article 117. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-025-01813-9 Lee, J. J., Flouri, E., & Jackson, Y. (2025). The Role of Timing and Amount of Outdoor Play in Emotional Dysregulation in Preschool Children. Child: Care, Health & Development, 51(1), Article e70020. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70020 Morgenthaler, T., Lynch, H., Loebach, J., Pentland, D., & Schulze, C. (2024). Using the Theory of Affordances to Understand Environment–Play Transactions: Environmental Taxonomy of Outdoor Play Space Features—A Scoping Review. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 78(4), Article 7804185120. https://doi.org/10.5014/ajot.2024.050606 Pereira, J. V., Vila-Nova, F., Veiga, G., Lopes, F., & Cordovil, R. (2024). Associations between outdoor play features and children’s behavior and health: A systematic review. Health & Place, 87, Article 103235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2024.103235 Poulos, A., Hassan, U. A., Wilson, K., Price, P. M., Vanos, J., & Quilla, J. (2026). Differences in Schoolchildren’s Emotional State After Indoor Versus Outdoor Recess in Extreme‐Heat Weather. The Journal of School Health, 96(4), Article e70135. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.70135 Scherer, K. R. (2005). What are emotions? And how can they be measured? Social Science Information, 44(4), 695–729. https://doi.org/10.1177/0539018405058216 Veraksa, A. N., Plotnikova, V. A., Sukhikh, V. L., Kornienko, D. S., & Rudnova, N. A. (2025). Non-therapeutic play to overcome negative emotional symptoms and improve emotional intelligence in children aged 3–7: a systematic review. Frontiers in Psychology, 16, 1475387. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1475387 Visser, K., & Aalst, I. (2022). Neighbourhood Factors in Children’s Outdoor Play: A Systematic Literature Review. Tijdschrift Voor Economische En Sociale Geografie, 113(1), 80–95. https://doi.org/10.1111/tesg.12505 }} ==External links== * [https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-play Outdoor play] (Encyclopedia on Early Childhood D<nowiki/>evelopment) * [https://www.outdoorplaycanada.ca/aop10/ 2025 Position Statement on Active Outdoor Play] <nowiki/>(Outdoor Play Canada) * [https://www.unicef.org/eca/stories/importance-outdoor-play-and-how-support-it The importance of outdoor play (and how to support it)] (UNICEF) * [https://publications.aap.org/pediatrics/article/142/3/e20182058/38649/The-Power-of-Play-A-Pediatric-Role-in-Enhancing The power of play: A pediatric] <nowiki/>[https://publications.aap.org/pediatrics/article/142/3/e20182058/38649/The-Power-of-Play-A-Pediatric-Role-in-Enhancing role in enhancing development in young children] (American Academy if<nowiki/> Pediatrics) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Children]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Nature]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Well-being]] 8xqfagufm0yt1yst63sc28qdisgume3 2836382 2836377 2026-10-07T01:54:10Z Mymunu 3106327 /* How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? */ 2836382 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being:<br>How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {| class="wikitable" |'''Case study: Part 1'''[[File:School children happily playing in playground.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. Children engaged in outdoor play, where social interactions, choice and changes in the situation can create different emotional experiences.]]A child arrives at a playground and joins a group of children who are already playing. The children are making their own game and deciding the rules as they play. During the game, another child changes the rules and an argument breaks out. The child becomes frustrated and walks away from the activity. After watching for a short time, the child returns, suggests a new idea to continue the game and re-joins the group. How might experiences like this during outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? Emotion regulation provides one psychological framework for understanding how children may respond to situations like this during play (see Figure 1). |} Outdoor play can involve more than physical movement. It can occur across playgrounds, gardens, streets and natural spaces and include exploration, social interaction, choice, challenge, and engagement with the surrounding environment (Dodd et al., 2026; Pereira et al., 2024). This chapter examines how [[Emotional regulation|emotional,]] [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive]], social and environmental processes may help explain the relationship between outdoor play and children's [https://w.wiki/AHG6 emotional well-being.] {| class="wikitable" | '''Focus questions''' * '''What are outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?''' * '''How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?''' * '''How do social and environmental conditions shape children's outdoor play experiences?''' * '''What does recent research show about outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?''' * '''How can families, communities and schools support outdoor play opportunities that may benefit children's emotional well-being?''' |} == '''Understanding outdoor play and children's emotional well-being''' == [[File:Water-outdoor-people-girl-play-boy-938233.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. ''Outdoor play can provide opportunities to explore, make choices, interact with others and respond to changing situations through activities such as water play.''|214x214px]] Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being are not measured as single consistent concepts across recent research. Outdoor play may be measured through parent reports or devices and should be distinguished from outdoor moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) because these measures do not represent the same behaviour (Davenport et al., 2025; Dodd et al., 2026). === Outdoor play === Outdoor play is a voluntary and intrinsically motivated activity occurring in outdoor environments such as gardens, playgrounds, parks and natural spaces (Dodd et al., 2026). It can involve movement, exploration, choice, social interaction and engagement with environmental features. === Children's emotional well-being === Children's emotional well-being is not represented by a single common outcome across recent outdoor play research. Studies have examined [https://w.wiki/7YC8 emotional dysregulation] (Lee et al., 2025), social-emotional competence (Ferguson et al., 2025), positive and negative affect (Poulos et al., 2026) and internalising and externalising symptoms (Dodd et al., 2026). These outcomes represent different aspects and timeframes of emotional functioning, so they should not be treated as equivalent when findings are compared. '''Table 1''' ''Emotional outcomes examined in recent research on outdoor play and children's emotional well-being'' {| class="wikitable" |+ !Study !Outcome examined !What the outcome represents |- |Lee et al. (2025) |Emotional dysregulation |Difficulties in emotion regulation |- |Ferguson et al. (2025) |Social-emotional competence |Social-emotional difficulties and prosocial behaviour |- |Poulos et al. (2026) |Positive and negative affect |Emotional state following recess |- |Dodd et al. (2026) |Internalising and externalising symptoms |Internalising and externalising symptom trajectories across childhood |} ''Note''. Outcome descriptions are based on the measures and constructs reported in the cited studies. As shown in Table 1, immediate affect following recess should not be treated as equivalent to emotional dysregulation measured over time or trajectories of internalising and externalising symptoms across childhood. {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {A child's positive or negative affect immediately after recess represents the same emotional outcome as longer-term internalising or externalising symptoms. |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} == '''How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?''' == Outdoor play may be related to children's emotional well-being through emotional, cognitive and social processes (Dodd et al., 2026). These pathways have not all been directly tested as mechanisms, and much outdoor play research remains observational (Dodd et al., 2026; de Lannoy et al., 2023). [https://w.wiki/7YBf Emotion regulation] provides the main psychological framework for understanding children's responses during outdoor play. Scherer's (2005) model clarifies the components involved in emotion, while [https://w.wiki/7FcS working memory] provides empirical evidence of a possible cognitive process; affordance theory is later used to explain how environmental conditions shape opportunities for these experiences. Emotion involves more than subjective feelings. Scherer (2005) described emotion as coordinated changes across cognitive appraisal, physiological responses, action tendencies, expression and subjective feelings. Physiological responses are therefore one component of emotion rather than a separate explanation for outdoor-play effects. Scherer (2005) did not examine outdoor play, so the framework does not establish that outdoor play changes children's physiological responses or emotional well-being. === '''Emotion regulation''' === [https://w.wiki/7YBf Emotion regulation] provides the main psychological framework for understanding how children may manage emotional situations during outdoor play. Gross (2015) described situation selection, situation modification, attentional deployment, cognitive change and response modulation. During outdoor play, children may experience frustration, conflict, uncertainty or changes to their activity. Gross's framework can be applied to consider how children recognise an emotional response, select strategy and act on it. However, Gross (2015) did not examine outdoor play, so applying the framework does not show that outdoor play improves children's emotion regulation. Broader play research provides supporting but indirect evidence. Veraksa et al. (2025) systematically reviewed 33 studies of non-therapeutic play among children aged 3 to 7 and identified evidence involving emotion regulation, [[emotional intelligence]] and negative emotional symptoms. Because the review included outdoor play alongside other forms of play, it should not be interpreted as evidence that outdoor play alone improves emotion regulation. {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |'''Case study: Part 2'''[[File:14Y Ncdc july 5th-802.jpg|thumb|202x202px|'''Figure 3'''. ''Children can respond differently to emotional situations that occur during outdoor play.'']]When the rules of game change, the child becomes frustrated and decides to step away. After a short time the child returns and suggests a different way to continue the game (see Figure 4). Suggesting a change to the game can be considered an example of situation modification. {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {What does Gross's (2015) emotion regulation framework show when it is applied to the outdoor-play scenario?. |type="()"} -A. Outdoor play causes better emotion regulation. +B. Situation modification can help explain how the child responds to the situation. -C. Children regulate emotions better outdoors than indoors. -D. Stepping away from play always improves emotional well-being. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} === '''Working memory and cognitive process''' === [https://w.wiki/7FcS Working memory] may be one cognitive process involved in the association between outdoor play and emotional dysregulation. Lee et al. (2025) examined 325 preschool children and tested working memory as a statistical mediator. Afternoon outdoor play was associated with lower emotional dysregulation and better working memory, while better working memory was associated with lower emotional dysregulation. The association between afternoon outdoor play and emotional dysregulation was no longer statistically significant after working memory was included in the analysis. However, the study was observational, so the mediation analysis does not show that outdoor play caused better working memory or lower emotional dysregulation. '''Table 2''' ''Psychological processes considered in the relationship between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being'' {| class="wikitable" !Process !Contribution !Evidence and limitations |- |Emotion components (Scherer, 2005) |Emotion involves appraisal, physiological responses, action tendencies, expression and subjective feeling |Conceptual model; did not test outdoor play |- |Primary framework (Gross, 2015) |Emotion regulation helps explain responses to changing or frustrating play situations |Application of theory; does not show outdoor play improves regulation |- |Working memory (Lee et al., 2025) |Working memory statistically mediated the association between outdoor play and emotional dysregulation. |Direct observational evidence; causation cannot be established |} ''Note.'' Gross's (2015) emotion regulation framework provides the main psychological explanation used in this chapter. Scherer (2005) clarifies the components of emotion, while Lee et al. (2025) provides empirical evidence of a possible cognitive process. == '''How do social and environmental conditions shape children's outdoor play experiences?''' == [[File:2026-10-03 214531-relationship between child and environment.png|thumb|284x284px|'''Figure 4.''' Children's opportunities for outdoor play can be different according to personal, interacting and environmental factors and the relationship between the child and the environment. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Note. Original conceptual summary based on Beekhuizen et al. (2025) and Gibson (1979). |} ]] Psychological processes occur within particular social and physical conditions (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). [https://w.wiki/VYfL Affordance theory] complements the emotion-regulation framework by explaining how the relationship between the child and the environment shapes opportunities for action and participation (Gibson, 1979; Morgenthaler et al., 2024)). === Affordance theory and outdoor play environments === [https://w.wiki/VYfL Affordance theory] explains opportunities for action that an environment provides in relation to the person using it (Gibson, 1979). Morgenthaler et al. (2024) applied affordance theory to children's outdoor play and identified diverse play opportunities linked to environmental features. This helps explain why the same space may provide different opportunities for different children. However, the review examined opportunities for play rather than children's [https://w.wiki/AHG6 emotional well-being]. Pereira et al. (2024) reviewed 51 articles representing 45 primary studies of outdoor play-space features. Some positive effects were reported, but differences in features, outcome measures and methods limited conclusions about individual play-space features. The review therefore does not show that one particular environmental feature improves children's emotional well-being. === '''Social relationships and inclusion''' === Social relationships can shape whether children are able to join and continue outdoor play (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Familiarity and opportunities to make contact with others were important for inclusive play. Emotional understanding may also influence how children participate socially during play. Gal-Szabo et al. (2019) found that better situational understanding of emotions was associated with less uninvolved behaviour and marginally more social play during preschool free play. However, the study was not specific to outdoor play and does not establish that social play improves emotional well-being. === '''Autonomy, access and time''' === [https://w.wiki/4NyU Autonomy] can shape how children experience outdoor play (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Veraksa et al. (2025) identified autonomy as one feature through which broader play may support emotion regulation and coping, although the review was not specific to outdoor play. Parental support can enable access to play, while work schedules, after-school arrangements and travel time can restrict opportunities (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). Safety and accessibility are also relevant, particularly for children with disabilities. These findings support the importance of participation conditions, but do not show that any single environmental feature improves children's emotional well-being (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |'''Case study: Part 3 Same play space, different experiences''' {| class="wikitable" |Kim and Leo use the same school playground. Kim already knows many children and easily joins a group activity, while Leo uses a mobility device and finds that some areas of the playground are difficult to access. Leo also knows fewer children in the playground. Although they share the same play space, physical accessibility and familiarity create different opportunities to participate. |} {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {Why might two children have different outdoor-play experiences even when they use the same playground?. |type="()"} +A. Physical, social and personal factors can affect how children are able to participate. -B. Outdoor spaces provide the same opportunities for every child. -C. Accessibility is the only factor that affects outdoor play.. -D. Children who know other children always have better emotional well-being. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} == '''What does recent research show about outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?''' == Recent research does not show a consistent association between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being. Findings are mixed across different emotional outcomes, the timing and context of outdoor play, children's behaviours, and the methods used to measure outdoor play. === '''Consistency of recent research findings''' === Recent findings are not consistent across outcomes. Ferguson et al. (2025) found that more frequent outdoor play was associated with better social-emotional competence, whereas most developmental associations examined by Davenport et al. (2025) were not statistically significant. Poulos et al. (2026) found higher positive affect after outdoor and gymnasium recess than classroom recess, while Lee et al. (2025) found that associations with emotional dysregulation differed by time of day. Timeframe and context also matter. Dodd et al. (2026) linked more frequent preschool outdoor play with lower odds of less favourable internalising and externalising symptom trajectories across childhood, whereas Poulos et al. (2026) examined immediate post-recess affect. Ferguson et al. (2025) also reported differences according to ethnicity and whether outdoor play occurred on school days or weekends. Together, the evidence suggests that outdoor play is not associated with one uniform emotional outcome; associations depend on what is measured, when play occurs, who participates and the context in which play takes place. === '''Limitations and future directions''' === Research design limits causal interpretation. Dodd et al. (2026) used longitudinal data from 4,151 children, but the study remained observational and relied on parent-reported measures. Lee et al. (2025) also considered reverse causation, meaning its mediation findings cannot establish that outdoor play caused changes in working memory or emotional dysregulation. Measurement also limits comparison across studies. Outdoor play has been assessed through parent reports and devices, while emotional outcomes range from immediate affect to longer-term symptom trajectories (Davenport et al., 2025). Differences in children's ages, play settings and contexts further limit interpretation, and de Lannoy et al. (2023) found that cross-sectional designs remain common across the wider outdoor-play literature. Future research should use more consistent measures of outdoor play and emotional outcomes, stronger longitudinal and experimental designs, and samples representing different children and play contexts. Studies should also test proposed emotional and cognitive processes directly rather than inferring mechanisms from associations. T'''able 3''' '''''Comparison of recent research''''' {| class="wikitable" |+ !Study !Research method !Research strength !Limitation |- | <small>Lee et al. (2025)</small> |Observational; 6-month follow-up |Examined the timing of outdoor play and working memory as a statistical mediator. |Cannot establish causation; reverse causation remains possible. |- |Ferguson et al. (2025) |Cross-sectional; multi-ethnic urban cohort (N=2,568) |Large sample with subgroup and context comparisons. |Cannot establish temporal direction. |- |Davenport et al. (2025) |Observational; preschool sample (N=107) |Used both parent-reported and device-measured outdoor play. |Small sample and most tested associations were non-significant. |- |Dodd et al. (2026) |Longitudinal cohort (N = 4,151) |Outdoor play was measured before later symptom trajectories. |Parent-reported measures; does not establish causation. |- |Poulos et al. (2026) |Recess comparison study (N=317) |Compared affect across three recess settings. |Extreme-heat context; higher positive affect finding was not specific to outdoor recess. |} As shown in Table 3, much of the evidence remains observational, while differences in outcomes, measures and play contexts limit direct comparison between studies. {| class="wikitable" | valign="top" |{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Test your learning}} <quiz display=simple> {Why should the recent findings not be interpreted as showing a single consistent effect of outdoor play on children's emotional well-being? |type="()"} -A. Because all the studies used different countries. +B. Because studies differed in emotional outcomes, measures of outdoor play, timing, context and research design. -C. Because longitudinal studies are always more reliable and accurate. -D. Because outdoor play only affects positive outcomes. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} |} == '''How can families, communities and schools support outdoor play opportunities that may benefit children's emotional well-being?''' == [[File:Coalition Builds New Playground in One Day for Chicora-Cherokee Community (11054532905).jpg|thumb|325x325px|'''Figure 5.''' Families, communities and schools can shape children's opportunities for outdoor play.]] Outdoor play opportunities are shaped across family, community and school settings. The 2025 Position Statement on Active Outdoor Play recommends increasing opportunities for active outdoor play where people live, learn, work and play with collaboration to support equitable access (Lee et al. 2025; see Figure 5). === '''Families''' === Parents can support children's access to outdoor play. Boxberger and Reimers's (2019) systematic review found that the importance parents placed on outdoor play was associated with children's outdoor-play time, although findings for encouragement were less consistent and causal conclusions cannot be made. Children may also need support while wanting some independence (Han et al., 2022). Work schedules, after-school arrangements and travel time can restrict opportunities (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). === '''Communities''' === Community conditions can shape safe and inclusive play. Visser and van Aalst's (2022) systematic review linked outdoor play with both physical and social neighbourhood factors but found no single feature that consistently explained play across settings. Beekhuizen et al. (2026) observed inclusive outdoor-play sessions and found lower playfulness scores among children with disabilities than children without disabilities, suggesting that access to the same setting did not necessarily produce equal play experiences. === '''Schools''' === Schools can support participation through both social and physical conditions. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified familiarity and available time as relevant, while Bikomeye et al. (2021) reported generally positive physical-activity and socio-emotional findings across six schoolyard-greening experiments, although the evidence base was small. Poulos et al. (2026) found higher positive affect after outdoor and gymnasium recess than classroom recess during extreme heat. Heat-adaptive infrastructure may therefore support access to recess environments, but the findings do not show that outdoor recess is always emotionally superior to indoor settings. Families, communities and schools can therefore support opportunities for outdoor play through accessible environments, appropriate support, safety, familiarity and opportunities for autonomy. Current evidence supports these conditions as relevant to participation, but does not show that any single strategy necessarily improves children's emotional well-being. {{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Quiz}} <quiz display=simple> {Which statement best reflects how families, communities and schools can support children's outdoor play opportunities? |type="()"} + Support can involve accessible environments, safety, familiarity, appropriate parental support and opportunities for children to participate with some independence. - Providing the same outdoor space gives every child the same opportunity to participate. -Schoolyard greening alone is enough to improve children's emotional well-being. -Outdoor recess always produces better emotional outcomes than indoor recess. </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} == '''Conclusion''' == Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being are not single, consistently measured concepts. Outdoor play should be distinguished from outdoor physical activity, while emotional well-being has been examined through emotional dysregulation, social-emotional competence, affect and internalising and externalising symptoms. Emotion regulation provides the main psychological framework for understanding how children may respond to emotional situations during outdoor play. Scherer's (2005) model highlights emotional components including physiological responses, while Lee et al. (2025) provide observational evidence that working memory may be involved in the association between afternoon outdoor play and emotional dysregulation. These findings do not establish that outdoor play causes better emotion regulation or emotional well-being. Social and physical conditions also shape children's opportunities to participate. Affordance theory helps explain why the same environment can provide different opportunities for different children, while research highlights accessibility, familiarity, autonomy, parental support and safety as relevant participation conditions. Families, communities and schools can support these opportunities, but current evidence does not show that one form of outdoor play or one environmental strategy consistently improves children's emotional well-being. ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Affordance|Affordance]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Emotion regulation in children|Emotion regulation in children]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Imaginative play and emotion regulation|Imaginative play and emotion regulation]] (Book chapter, 2025) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Developmental changes in emotion regulation|Developmental changes in emotion regulation]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[wikipedia:Working memory|Working memory]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Emotional dysregulation|Emotional dysregulation]] | emotional dysregulation (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Beekhuizen, R. Q., Bloemen, M. A. T., Bolster, E. A. M., Visser, K., Lugt, R., Bassa, M., Henry, N. L., Kotte, E. M. W., Hartingsveldt, M., & Gorter, J. W. (2026). Can You See Us Play? Observing Inclusive Outdoor Play Behaviour Among Children With and Without Disabilities: A Mixed Methods Study. Child : Care, Health & Development, 52(1), e70198-n/a. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70198 Beekhuizen, R. Q., Bolster, E. A. M., Gorter, J. W., Henry, N. L., Visser, K., Wittink, H., Kotte, E. M. W., Sol, M. E., & Bloemen, M. A. T. (2025). Play Together? Unveiling Facilitators and Barriers to Inclusive Outdoor Play for Dutch Children With and Without Disabilities: A Qualitative Study. Child: Care, Health & Development, 51(6), Article e70154. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70154 Bikomeye, J., Balza, J., & Beyer, K. (2021). The Impact of Schoolyard Greening on Children’s Physical Activity and Socioemotional Health: A Systematic Review of Experimental Studies. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(2), 535. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18020535 Boxberger, K., & Reimers, A. K. (2019). Parental correlates of outdoor play in boys and girls aged 0 to 12: A systematic review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(2, Art. 190), 19-16:2, Art. 190<19. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16020190 Davenport, C., Kuzik, N., Larouche, R., & Carson, V. (2025). The Associations Between Parental-Reported and Device-Based Measured Outdoor Play and Health Indicators of Physical, Cognitive, and Social–Emotional Development in Preschool-Aged Children. Pediatric Exercise Science, 37(2), 102–111. https://doi.org/10.1123/pes.2023-0119 de Lannoy, L., Barbeau, K., Seguin, N., & Tremblay, M. S. (2023). Scoping review of children’s and youth’s outdoor play publications in Canada. Chronic Diseases in Canada, 43(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.24095/hpcdp.43.1.01 Dodd, H. F., Cordwell, K., Hesketh, K., Johnstone, A., de la Torre-Luque, A., & McCrorie, P. (2026). Early outdoor play predicts trajectories of child mental health in a population-based cohort. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.70175 Ferguson, M., Teyhan, A., Lovell, R., Dodd, H., Wheeler, B., & McEachan, R. (2025). The association between park visits, outdoor play and child social-emotional competency in a multi-ethnic, urban cohort. Wellbeing, Space and Society, 9, Article 100293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wss.2025.100293 Gal‐Szabo, D. E., Spinrad, T. L., Eisenberg, N., & Sulik, M. J. (2019). The relations of children’s emotion knowledge to their observed social play and reticent/uninvolved behavior in preschool: Moderation by effortful control. Social Development (Oxford, England), 28(1), 57–73. https://doi.org/10.1111/sode.12321 Gibson, J. J. (1979). The ecological approach to visual perception / James J. Gibson. Houghton Mifflin. Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion Regulation: Current Status and Future Prospects. Psychological Inquiry, 26(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2014.940781 Han, C. S., Brussoni, M. J., & Mâsse, L. C. (2022). Parental Autonomy Support in the Context of Parent–Child Negotiation for Children’s Independent Mobility: ‘I Always Feel Safer With My Parents’ to ‘Boom! Bust Down Those Walls! The Journal of Early Adolescence, 42(6), Article 02724316211064513. https://doi.org/10.1177/02724316211064513 Lee, E.-Y., de Lannoy, L., Kim, Y.-B., Rathod, A., James, M. E., Lopes, O., Nasrallah, B., Thankarajah, A., Adjei-Boadi, D., de Barros, M. I. A., Duncan, S., Miller, R. M., Mygind, L., Vanderloo, L. M., Wang, P.-Y., & Tremblay, M. S. (2025). 2025 Position statement on active outdoor play. The International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 22(1), Article 117. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-025-01813-9 Lee, J. J., Flouri, E., & Jackson, Y. (2025). The Role of Timing and Amount of Outdoor Play in Emotional Dysregulation in Preschool Children. Child: Care, Health & Development, 51(1), Article e70020. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70020 Morgenthaler, T., Lynch, H., Loebach, J., Pentland, D., & Schulze, C. (2024). Using the Theory of Affordances to Understand Environment–Play Transactions: Environmental Taxonomy of Outdoor Play Space Features—A Scoping Review. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 78(4), Article 7804185120. https://doi.org/10.5014/ajot.2024.050606 Pereira, J. V., Vila-Nova, F., Veiga, G., Lopes, F., & Cordovil, R. (2024). Associations between outdoor play features and children’s behavior and health: A systematic review. Health & Place, 87, Article 103235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2024.103235 Poulos, A., Hassan, U. A., Wilson, K., Price, P. M., Vanos, J., & Quilla, J. (2026). Differences in Schoolchildren’s Emotional State After Indoor Versus Outdoor Recess in Extreme‐Heat Weather. The Journal of School Health, 96(4), Article e70135. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.70135 Scherer, K. R. (2005). What are emotions? And how can they be measured? Social Science Information, 44(4), 695–729. https://doi.org/10.1177/0539018405058216 Veraksa, A. N., Plotnikova, V. A., Sukhikh, V. L., Kornienko, D. S., & Rudnova, N. A. (2025). Non-therapeutic play to overcome negative emotional symptoms and improve emotional intelligence in children aged 3–7: a systematic review. Frontiers in Psychology, 16, 1475387. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1475387 Visser, K., & Aalst, I. (2022). Neighbourhood Factors in Children’s Outdoor Play: A Systematic Literature Review. Tijdschrift Voor Economische En Sociale Geografie, 113(1), 80–95. https://doi.org/10.1111/tesg.12505 }} ==External links== * [https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-play Outdoor play] (Encyclopedia on Early Childhood D<nowiki/>evelopment) * [https://www.outdoorplaycanada.ca/aop10/ 2025 Position Statement on Active Outdoor Play] <nowiki/>(Outdoor Play Canada) * [https://www.unicef.org/eca/stories/importance-outdoor-play-and-how-support-it The importance of outdoor play (and how to support it)] (UNICEF) * [https://publications.aap.org/pediatrics/article/142/3/e20182058/38649/The-Power-of-Play-A-Pediatric-Role-in-Enhancing The power of play: A pediatric] <nowiki/>[https://publications.aap.org/pediatrics/article/142/3/e20182058/38649/The-Power-of-Play-A-Pediatric-Role-in-Enhancing role in enhancing development in young children] (American Academy if<nowiki/> Pediatrics) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Children]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Nature]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Well-being]] jacxipgyqutf2du7ws1vx50fapd8v4w 0 331285 2836308 2836304 2026-10-06T12:03:41Z U3286643 3106304 added missing citation 2836308 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Getting started:<br>Why is task initiation difficult and how to overcome it?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Scrolling on phone (cropped).jpg||thumb|right|150px|'''Figure 1''' An individual scrolling on their phone]] ;Scenario John is a university student with an assignment due in five days which he has not started. Despite knowing that he needs to begin the assignment soon in order to have it completed by the due date, he finds the prospect of starting the assignment daunting, and so continues engaging in alternative activities, such as scrolling on social media, to avoid beginning the assignment (see Figure 1). John is struggling with task initiation, and is using procrastination as a coping behaviour to manage his negative feelings associated with starting the assignment. {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[w:Executive_functions|Executive functions]] are a set of [https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-top-down-processing-2795975 top-down cognitive processes] that support [[w:Goal|goal]]-directed [[w:Behavior|behaviour]] (Diamond, 2013). Miyake et al. (2000) distinguish three core executive functions: [[w:Inhibitory_control|inhibition]], [[w:Working_memory|working memory]], and [[w:Task_switching_(psychology)|shifting]], though shifting has since largely been subcategorised within the broader concept of [[w:Cognitive_flexibility|cognitive flexibility]]. Higher-order executive functions are derived from these, such as [[w:Reason|reasoning]], [[w:Problem_solving|problem solving]], and [[w:Planning|planning]] (Collins & Koechlin, 2012), although there is no universally-agreed upon [[w:Taxonomy|taxonomy]] due to differences in definitions, labels, and groups across theoretical models. One example of a higher-order executive function is task initiation. Task initiation is the ability of an individual to begin a specific task at a desired time without unnecessary hesitation or delay. Task initiation can be inhibited by various [[w:Cognition|cognitive]], [[w:Emotion|emotional]], and [[w:Motivation|motivational]] factors. For example, task initiation can quickly become difficult when tasks are associated with negative emotions such as [[w:Anxiety|anxiety]], [[w:Shame|shame]], or [[w:Psychological_stress|stress]]; when tasks fail to inspire motivation because they are perceived perceived as low-priority or overly abstract; or when an individual experiences cognitive factors that impair executive functioning. Impaired task initiation is often associated with [[w:Procrastination|procrastination]], defined as the voluntary delay of an intended course of action despite expecting negative consequences from that delay (Steel, 2007). Although there is overlap between the concepts, difficulties in task initiation refer more broadly to problems translating intentions into action, whereas procrastination represents one particular form of delayed goal-directed behaviour. Individuals who experience chronic difficulties with task initiation and procrastination may experience adverse mental health outcomes such as [[w:Chronic_stress|chronic stress]] and increased anxiety and [[w:Depression_(mood)|depression]] (Stead et al., 2010) as well as decreased performance in academic or workplace environments (Steel, 2007). Understanding the cognitive and psychological elements of task initiation and the various mechanisms underlying these domains can help to bolster task initiation in individuals – such as through the development of mitigation strategies and measures for procrastination, for example – thus reducing the negative impact of impaired task initiation on individuals' lives. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What cognitive processes underlie task initiation? * How do motivational and emotional factors influence task initiation? * How is task initiation related to procrastination? * How can psychological disorders impair task initiation? * How can task initiation be improved? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Cognitive processes and theories == Task initiation can be examined as functioning through the interactions of the core executive functions that it is derived from. Working memory involves the [[w:Mental_image|visualisation]] and maintenance of goals through the monitoring, coding, and revising of relevant information, inhibitory control is the ability to deliberately suppress competing responses, and cognitive flexibility allows for set-shifting, the ability to shift between tasks or mental sets (Miyake et al., 2000), all of which are important factors in relation to functional task initiation in individuals. However, intention to initiate a task does not always translate to induced behaviour, and various cognitive models and theories offer explanations for this discrepancy. Notable among these include the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) and the Rubicon model of action phases. === Theory of planned behaviour === [[File:Theory of planned behaviour.png|thumb|350x350px|'''Figure 2''' Diagram of the Theory of Planned Behaviour ]] The theory of planned behaviour proposes that attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control jointly contribute to shape an individual's behavioural intention, which is then theorised to be the most immediate determinant of behaviour (Ajzen, 1991). However, perceived behavioural control - often conceptually related or compared to self-efficacy - is also stated as directly interacting with behaviour due to the dependence of behaviour on whether an individual has sufficient control over performing it (see Figure 2), a relationship that is stated within the model as being strongest when perceived control reasonably reflects actual control. Thus, this can lead to an intention-action gap: favourable attitudes and supportive norms may generate an intention to begin a task, but insufficient perceived or actual behavioural control can prevent that intention from being translated into action. === Rubicon model of action phases === The Rubicon model of action phases divides the process from intention to action into four phases: pre-decisional (choosing between potential goals through weighing their feasibility and desirability), pre-actional (planning the implementation of the chosen goal), actional (executing the plan) and post-actional (evaluating outcomes against initial goals and subsequently adjusting future behaviour) (Heckhausen & Gollwitzer, 1987). The model therefore provides a framework for understanding the intention-action gap: after forming a goal intention, an individual may still fail to progress from the pre-actional to the actional phase, representing a volitional problem in which an intended behaviour is not successfully initiated. [MAYBE REWORD] === Construal level theory (CLT) === An additional cognitive factor influencing task initiation is mental representation. Construal level theory is a psychological framework centred around the concept of psychological distance, and it distinguishes between high-level, abstract representations and low-level, concrete representations. High-level representations revolve around task purpose, value, and reward, and may boost motivation, but also delay initiation due to a lack of operational starting points; low-level representations decrease this friction through an emphasis on practical and logistical steps, and thus representing a task in this way may increase task initiation through making the immediate actions required to begin it more apparent (Trope & Liberman, 2010). == Motivational and emotional barriers == Motivation and emotion are two psychological areas of study which both pertain to task initiation and may be examined to understand how and why task initiation can become difficult. [Expand?] === Motivation === Task initiation is partly dependent on motivational influences such as the anticipated benefit of the task, the perceived likelihood of success, and the costs associated with performing it. Expectancy-value theory proposes that the expected outcomes and subjective value placed upon tasks by individuals heavily influence choice and persistence in relation to tasks (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). Similarly, self-efficacy theory proposes that individuals' efficacy expectations are the major determinant in relation to goal setting, task choice, effort expenditure, and persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Additionally, neurological theories such as the expected value of control (EVC) propose that the brain weighs anticipated rewards against the costs of metabolic and cognitive exertion and allocates cognitive control accordingly, thus providing an additional explanation for why task initiation may be inhibited for demanding tasks even if they have been appraised as valuable and achievable (Shenhav et al., 2013). === Emotion === Task initiation is also dependent on anticipatory emotions associated with the task. Aversion to negative emotions such as boredom, frustration, resentment, stress, and anxiety decreases the likelihood of task initiation (Sirois & Pychyl, 2013), and greater task aversiveness as a result of these emotions is associated with greater behavioural delay (Blunt & Pychyl, 2000). These negative emotions can arise separately as a result of unique tasks, but are also often linked to chronic dispositions such as perfectionism, low self-efficacy, or even simply pre-existing negative emotions; research indicates that individuals with negative emotions such as shame or guilt due to previous failures are re-exposed to these negative feelings when thinking about task initiation (Wäschle et al., 2014). == Procrastination == Procrastination can be distinguished from impaired task initiation in that it is a specific form of delay in which intended actions are unnecessarily postponed despite foreseeable adverse consequences. Despite being defined as a voluntary choice, it is often examined and discussed in relation to failures of self-regulation, and thus may be heavily influenced by non-conscious emotional regulation processes. === Self-regulation === Steel (2007) identifies procrastination as a failure of self-regulation, with strong associative factors of task aversiveness, task delay, self-efficacy, and impulsiveness, as well as facets of conscientiousness such as self-control, distractibility, organisation, and achievement motivation. These effects are stated to be consistent with temporal motivation theory; similarly, while Sirois and Pychyl (2013), focus primarily on procrastination as a form of short-term emotional regulation, observe procrastination as being influenced by cognitive processes such as temporal discounting. ==== Temporal motivation theory ==== Temporal motivation theory acts as a comprehensive motivational framework, incorporating core elements of expectancy theory, hyperbolic discounting, need theory, and cumulative prospect theory, with an emphasis on time as a critical motivational factor (Steel & König, 2006). The theory posits the following formula for understanding motivation: <math>Motivation = {Expectancy \times Value\over 1+Impulsiveness\times Delay}</math> with motivation as the desire for a specific outcome, expectancy as the perceived chance of success, value as the desire or benefit attached to the outcome, impulsiveness as individual sensitivity to delay, and delay as the amount of time remaining to complete the task. This formula provides critical insight into the nature of time and deadlines upon motivation and subsequent procrastination: far-off rewards or consequences decrease motivation to initiate tasks, while individual differences are accounted for via impulsiveness. As deadlines approach and delay shrinks, motivation increases exponentially, leading to a decrease in procrastination and an increase in likelihood to initiate the deadline-bound task. However, as with task initiation as a broader concept, procrastination is also influenced by emotional factors. === Emotional regulation === Sirois and Pychyl (2013) argue that procrastination is used as short-term mood regulation and repair: temporarily avoiding an aversive task momentarily improves mood while transferring costs to the future self. This process may be influenced by negative reinforcement, a concept within operant conditioning theory where a behaviour is strengthened through the removal of a negative stimulus (Skinner, 1963). This can conceptually lead to a reinforcement cycle: an aversive task produces a negative emotion, leading to avoidance, which provides immediate emotional relief, and thus avoidance becomes more likely in the future. == Neurodivergence and task initiation == Various psychological and neurodevelopmental conditions - often broadly referred to under the umbrella term, "neurodivergence" - are partly characterised by or may result in impaired task initiation. Mechanisms such as executive dysfunction, reward system dysregulation, altered effort costs, and demand avoidance are common issues in individuals with such conditions. === Neurodevelopmental conditions === Individuals diagnosed with neurodevelopmental conditions such as attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and autism spectrum disorder (ASD) often report difficulties with task initiation. Associations have consistently been found between ADHD symptoms and procrastination, particularly with inattention, and to a lesser extent with executive dysfunction, emotional dysregulation, and impaired motivational processes (Suriano, 2026). Executive dysfunction is also common in autism, with difficulties indicated in areas including cognitive flexibility, attention, working memory, and inhibition (Ceruti et al., 2024); the term autistic inertia has been used to specifically describe difficulties in task initiation in autism, with research showing that autistic individuals report increased difficulty in starting, stopping, and switching activities, even in instances where they intended or wanted to act but nevertheless experienced difficulty doing so (Buckle et al., 2021). === Psychiatric conditions === Individuals diagnosed with psychiatric disorders may also experience difficulties with task initiation, although the underlying mechanisms can differ from those associated with neurodevelopmental conditions. In major depressive disorder (MDD), anhedonia and chronically reduced motivation may contribute to impaired task initiation through a reduced willingness to expend cognitive and physical effort for rewards (Horne et al., 2021). Avolition, defined as a severe and persistent decrease in the ability to start and sustain self-directed goal-oriented activities, is considered as an important negative symptom of schizophrenia (DeRosse et al., 2019). Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) may also interfere with task initiation, with symptoms of pathological doubt, uncertainty, and impaired decision making potentially contributing to delays in beginning an activity (Nisticò et al., 2021). ==Improving task initiation == Various cognitive and behavioural strategies and implementations have been proposed to improve task initiation. As difficulties with task initiation have been identified as arising from executive, motivational, and emotional factors, these interventions are typically aimed at the specific mechanisms preventing action. These strategies include implementation intentions, task decomposition, self-efficacy, emotional regulation, cognitive behavioural therapy, distraction minimisation, and other minor actionable strategies. === Cognitive strategies to improve task initiation === Cognitive inhibitions to task initiation may include the intention-action gap, difficulties in actionable task visualisation, and limited cognitive resources. Strategies addressing these barriers include implementation intentions, task decomposition strategies, and cognitive offloading, respectively. ==== Implementation intentions ==== Implementation intentions (also known as "if-then planning") are a self-regulatory strategy conceptualized by Peter Gollwitzer as a result of his earlier work alongside Heinz Heckhausen on the Rubicon model of action phases. Unlike goal intentions, which specify a desired outcome (e.g., "I want to improve my fitness"), implementation actions specify the situational cues and subsequent behavioural response through which a goal will be pursued (e.g., "At 7:00pm, I will go for a run"). Within the Rubicon model, implementation actions are relevant to the transition between the pre-actional and actional phases. By linking situational cues to pre-planned responses, implementation intentions can improve task initiation by reducing reliance on conscious deliberation and turning goal-directed behaviour into a more streamlined, automatic process (Gollwitzer, 1999). ==== Task decomposition ==== Task decomposition is the process of deconstructing large, often abstract tasks into smaller, more concrete subtasks. As discussed previously, construal level theory highlights that low-level representations emphasise the specific means through which a task is actioned as opposed to its broader purpose (Trope & Liberman, 2010). Decomposition may therefore improve task initiation through improved task clarification, and has been shown to reduce cognitive computational demands through the facilitation of easier planning while also preserving effective performance (Correa et al., 2023). Other research indicates that subgoals can increase perceived attainability and motivation, particularly during the early stages of goal pursuit (Huang et al., 2017), thus providing further evidence for the benefits of task decomposition. ==== Cognitive offloading ==== Cognitive offloading is the process of reducing information processing requirements through the use of physical action or external tools (Risko & Gilbert, 2016). Physical tools such as calendars, written plans, and other visible reminders can reduce demands on internal memory, freeing cognitive resources that would otherwise have been required to maintain the information (Grinschgl et al., 2021). However, an overreliance on contemporary external tools such as generative AI has raised concerns regarding cognitive offloading and a decline due to reduced engagement in processes such as internal memory encoding, spatial skills, and critical thinking (American Psychological Association, 2026). === Motivational strategies to improve task initiation === Both motivational models such as expectancy value theory and neuroscientific models of cognitive-control allocation such as the expected value of control emphasise evaluations of potential value relative to costs. Similar principles appear in temporal motivation theory, in which motivation is influenced through expectancy, value, impulsiveness, and delay. Accordingly, strategies for increasing motivation and facilitating task initiation may involve increasing the perceived value of a task, increasing expectations of success, or reducing its perceived costs. Subjective task value may be increased by linking tasks to personally meaningful goals, interests, or future outcomes: research shows that encouraging students to connect specific academic tasks to personal interests promoted engagement, deep learning, and skill development (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2010). Expectancy may be strengthened by setting smaller, achievable goals, which has been shown to positively influence self-efficacy through repetitive successful performances, and also increases the perceived attainability of task completion (Schunk, 1984). Finally, reducing perceived costs may involve the previously mentioned task decomposition, which reduces task complexity through clearer immediate subtasks, thus decreasing the initial cognitive demands required. === Emotional strategies to improve task initiation === As task avoidance and procrastination are often associated with attempts to regulate aversive emotions, strategies for improving task initiation may involve greater emotional acceptance and improved emotional regulation. Acceptance of negative emotional experiences has been associated with reduced negative affect (Erisman & Roemer, 2010), while practicing the tolerance and modification of aversive emotions has been shown to reduce procrastination (Eckert et al., 2016). Furthermore, Wohl et al. (2010) found that greater levels of self-reported self-forgiveness was associated with lower levels of future procrastination. This may be particularly important in disrupting negative reinforcement cycles. The "Wall of Awful" is a non-scientific metaphor often used to conceptualise the emotional barrier to task initiation that may accumulate as a result of these cycles. === Further strategies === Further strategies for improving task initiation involve modifications to physical and social environments, as well as psychotherapeutic interventions as an integrative framework, as opposed to directly targeting individual cognitive, emotional, or motivational mechanisms. ==== Environmental and social changes ==== Changes to an individual's environment may facilitate task initiation. Removing prominent distractions such as digital devices like phones, unrelated projects, unfinished chores, or other stimuli that compete for attention may decrease the inhibitory control required to focus on necessary tasks. Research indicates that even the presence of one's own smartphone may occupy cognitive resources, even when conscious attention is not being paid to it (Ward et al., 2017). Another strategy is to increase external accountability through altering one's social environment. Elements such as study partners and scheduled commitments can make consequences more tangible while also providing external cues for action [source]. ==== Psychotherapeutic interventions ==== Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) may be used to treat individuals who struggle with chronic procrastination, thus potentially improving overall task initiation. Rozental et al. (2018) demonstrated CBT as an effective method for treating procrastination, with the intervention including techniques such as psychoeducation, goal setting and behavioural activation, strategies to strengthen self-efficacy, stimulus control and distraction management, assertiveness training, and cognitive restructuring. Overall, CBT functions as a broader therapeutic framework in which several previously discussed strategies to improving task initiation are integrated. == Conclusion == == See also == * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Procrastination|Procrastination]] (Book chapter, 2011) * [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Barkley, R. A. (2012). Executive functions: What they are, how they work, and why they evolved. Guilford Press. Erisman, S. M., & Roemer, L. (2010). A preliminary investigation of the effects of experimentally induced mindfulness on emotional responding to film clips. ''Emotion'', ''10''(1), 72–82. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017162 Gollwitzer, P. M. (1999). Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans. ''American Psychologist, 54''(7), 493–503. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.54.7.493 Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000)'''.''' The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex "Frontal Lobe" tasks: A latent variable analysis. ''Cognitive Psychology'', ''41''(1), 49–100. https://doi.org/10.1006/cogp.1999.0734 Sirois, F. M., Molnar, D. S., & Hirsch, J. K. (2017). A Meta-analytic and Conceptual Update on the Associations Between Procrastination and Multidimensional Perfectionism. European Journal of Personality, 31(2), 137–159. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2098 Sirois, F., & Pychyl, T. (2013). Procrastination and the Priority of Short-Term Mood Regulation: Consequences for Future Self. ''Social and Personality Psychology Compass'', ''7''(2), 115–127. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12011 Stead, R., Shanahan, M. J., & Neufeld, R. W. J. (2010). “I’ll go to therapy, eventually”: Procrastination, stress and mental health. Personality and Individual Differences, 49(3), 175–180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.03.028 Steel, P. (2007). The nature of procrastination: A meta-analytic and theoretical review of quintessential self-regulatory failure. ''Psychological Bulletin, 133''(1), 65–94. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.65 Trope, Y., & Liberman, N. (2010). Construal-Level Theory of Psychological Distance. ''Psychological Review'', ''117''(2), 440–463. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018963 Wäschle, K., Allgaier, A., Lachner, A., Fink, S., & Nückles, M. (2014). Procrastination and self-efficacy: Tracing vicious and virtuous circles in self-regulated learning. Learning and Instruction, 29, 103–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2013.09.005 Wohl, M. J. A., Pychyl, T. A., & Bennett, S. H. (2010). I forgive myself, now I can study: How self-forgiveness for procrastinating can reduce future procrastination. ''Personality and Individual Differences'', ''48''(7), 803–808. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.01.029 }} == External links == * [https://www.verywellmind.com/wall-of-awful-in-adhd-12000744 How the Wall of Awful Prevents Task Initiation in ADHD - and What Can Help You Push Through] (Verywell Mind, 2026) * [https://www.theguardian.com/wellness/2025/sep/12/executive-dysfunction-overcome What is 'executive dysfunction' and how do you overcome it?] (The Guardian, 2025) * [https://www.psychologicalscience.org/observer/why-wait-the-science-behind-procrastination Why Wait? The Science Behind Procrastination] (Association for Psychological Science, 2013) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Goal pursuit]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Procrastination]] quio9tciigkd6fnw08v1jtcw8s8o8zs 2836312 2836308 2026-10-06T12:13:14Z U3286643 3106304 cleared See Also, References, external links sections to later be reupdated from draft submission to final submission 2836312 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Getting started:<br>Why is task initiation difficult and how to overcome it?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Scrolling on phone (cropped).jpg||thumb|right|150px|'''Figure 1''' An individual scrolling on their phone]] ;Scenario John is a university student with an assignment due in five days which he has not started. Despite knowing that he needs to begin the assignment soon in order to have it completed by the due date, he finds the prospect of starting the assignment daunting, and so continues engaging in alternative activities, such as scrolling on social media, to avoid beginning the assignment (see Figure 1). John is struggling with task initiation, and is using procrastination as a coping behaviour to manage his negative feelings associated with starting the assignment. {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[w:Executive_functions|Executive functions]] are a set of [https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-top-down-processing-2795975 top-down cognitive processes] that support [[w:Goal|goal]]-directed [[w:Behavior|behaviour]] (Diamond, 2013). Miyake et al. (2000) distinguish three core executive functions: [[w:Inhibitory_control|inhibition]], [[w:Working_memory|working memory]], and [[w:Task_switching_(psychology)|shifting]], though shifting has since largely been subcategorised within the broader concept of [[w:Cognitive_flexibility|cognitive flexibility]]. Higher-order executive functions are derived from these, such as [[w:Reason|reasoning]], [[w:Problem_solving|problem solving]], and [[w:Planning|planning]] (Collins & Koechlin, 2012), although there is no universally-agreed upon [[w:Taxonomy|taxonomy]] due to differences in definitions, labels, and groups across theoretical models. One example of a higher-order executive function is task initiation. Task initiation is the ability of an individual to begin a specific task at a desired time without unnecessary hesitation or delay. Task initiation can be inhibited by various [[w:Cognition|cognitive]], [[w:Emotion|emotional]], and [[w:Motivation|motivational]] factors. For example, task initiation can quickly become difficult when tasks are associated with negative emotions such as [[w:Anxiety|anxiety]], [[w:Shame|shame]], or [[w:Psychological_stress|stress]]; when tasks fail to inspire motivation because they are perceived perceived as low-priority or overly abstract; or when an individual experiences cognitive factors that impair executive functioning. Impaired task initiation is often associated with [[w:Procrastination|procrastination]], defined as the voluntary delay of an intended course of action despite expecting negative consequences from that delay (Steel, 2007). Although there is overlap between the concepts, difficulties in task initiation refer more broadly to problems translating intentions into action, whereas procrastination represents one particular form of delayed goal-directed behaviour. Individuals who experience chronic difficulties with task initiation and procrastination may experience adverse mental health outcomes such as [[w:Chronic_stress|chronic stress]] and increased anxiety and [[w:Depression_(mood)|depression]] (Stead et al., 2010) as well as decreased performance in academic or workplace environments (Steel, 2007). Understanding the cognitive and psychological elements of task initiation and the various mechanisms underlying these domains can help to bolster task initiation in individuals – such as through the development of mitigation strategies and measures for procrastination, for example – thus reducing the negative impact of impaired task initiation on individuals' lives. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What cognitive processes underlie task initiation? * How do motivational and emotional factors influence task initiation? * How is task initiation related to procrastination? * How can psychological disorders impair task initiation? * How can task initiation be improved? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Cognitive processes and theories == Task initiation can be examined as functioning through the interactions of the core executive functions that it is derived from. Working memory involves the [[w:Mental_image|visualisation]] and maintenance of goals through the monitoring, coding, and revising of relevant information, inhibitory control is the ability to deliberately suppress competing responses, and cognitive flexibility allows for set-shifting, the ability to shift between tasks or mental sets (Miyake et al., 2000), all of which are important factors in relation to functional task initiation in individuals. However, intention to initiate a task does not always translate to induced behaviour, and various cognitive models and theories offer explanations for this discrepancy. Notable among these include the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) and the Rubicon model of action phases. === Theory of planned behaviour === [[File:Theory of planned behaviour.png|thumb|350x350px|'''Figure 2''' Diagram of the Theory of Planned Behaviour ]] The theory of planned behaviour proposes that attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control jointly contribute to shape an individual's behavioural intention, which is then theorised to be the most immediate determinant of behaviour (Ajzen, 1991). However, perceived behavioural control - often conceptually related or compared to self-efficacy - is also stated as directly interacting with behaviour due to the dependence of behaviour on whether an individual has sufficient control over performing it (see Figure 2), a relationship that is stated within the model as being strongest when perceived control reasonably reflects actual control. Thus, this can lead to an intention-action gap: favourable attitudes and supportive norms may generate an intention to begin a task, but insufficient perceived or actual behavioural control can prevent that intention from being translated into action. === Rubicon model of action phases === The Rubicon model of action phases divides the process from intention to action into four phases: pre-decisional (choosing between potential goals through weighing their feasibility and desirability), pre-actional (planning the implementation of the chosen goal), actional (executing the plan) and post-actional (evaluating outcomes against initial goals and subsequently adjusting future behaviour) (Heckhausen & Gollwitzer, 1987). The model therefore provides a framework for understanding the intention-action gap: after forming a goal intention, an individual may still fail to progress from the pre-actional to the actional phase, representing a volitional problem in which an intended behaviour is not successfully initiated. [MAYBE REWORD] === Construal level theory (CLT) === An additional cognitive factor influencing task initiation is mental representation. Construal level theory is a psychological framework centred around the concept of psychological distance, and it distinguishes between high-level, abstract representations and low-level, concrete representations. High-level representations revolve around task purpose, value, and reward, and may boost motivation, but also delay initiation due to a lack of operational starting points; low-level representations decrease this friction through an emphasis on practical and logistical steps, and thus representing a task in this way may increase task initiation through making the immediate actions required to begin it more apparent (Trope & Liberman, 2010). == Motivational and emotional barriers == Motivation and emotion are two psychological areas of study which both pertain to task initiation and may be examined to understand how and why task initiation can become difficult. [Expand?] === Motivation === Task initiation is partly dependent on motivational influences such as the anticipated benefit of the task, the perceived likelihood of success, and the costs associated with performing it. Expectancy-value theory proposes that the expected outcomes and subjective value placed upon tasks by individuals heavily influence choice and persistence in relation to tasks (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). Similarly, self-efficacy theory proposes that individuals' efficacy expectations are the major determinant in relation to goal setting, task choice, effort expenditure, and persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Additionally, neurological theories such as the expected value of control (EVC) propose that the brain weighs anticipated rewards against the costs of metabolic and cognitive exertion and allocates cognitive control accordingly, thus providing an additional explanation for why task initiation may be inhibited for demanding tasks even if they have been appraised as valuable and achievable (Shenhav et al., 2013). === Emotion === Task initiation is also dependent on anticipatory emotions associated with the task. Aversion to negative emotions such as boredom, frustration, resentment, stress, and anxiety decreases the likelihood of task initiation (Sirois & Pychyl, 2013), and greater task aversiveness as a result of these emotions is associated with greater behavioural delay (Blunt & Pychyl, 2000). These negative emotions can arise separately as a result of unique tasks, but are also often linked to chronic dispositions such as perfectionism, low self-efficacy, or even simply pre-existing negative emotions; research indicates that individuals with negative emotions such as shame or guilt due to previous failures are re-exposed to these negative feelings when thinking about task initiation (Wäschle et al., 2014). == Procrastination == Procrastination can be distinguished from impaired task initiation in that it is a specific form of delay in which intended actions are unnecessarily postponed despite foreseeable adverse consequences. Despite being defined as a voluntary choice, it is often examined and discussed in relation to failures of self-regulation, and thus may be heavily influenced by non-conscious emotional regulation processes. === Self-regulation === Steel (2007) identifies procrastination as a failure of self-regulation, with strong associative factors of task aversiveness, task delay, self-efficacy, and impulsiveness, as well as facets of conscientiousness such as self-control, distractibility, organisation, and achievement motivation. These effects are stated to be consistent with temporal motivation theory; similarly, while Sirois and Pychyl (2013), focus primarily on procrastination as a form of short-term emotional regulation, observe procrastination as being influenced by cognitive processes such as temporal discounting. ==== Temporal motivation theory ==== Temporal motivation theory acts as a comprehensive motivational framework, incorporating core elements of expectancy theory, hyperbolic discounting, need theory, and cumulative prospect theory, with an emphasis on time as a critical motivational factor (Steel & König, 2006). The theory posits the following formula for understanding motivation: <math>Motivation = {Expectancy \times Value\over 1+Impulsiveness\times Delay}</math> with motivation as the desire for a specific outcome, expectancy as the perceived chance of success, value as the desire or benefit attached to the outcome, impulsiveness as individual sensitivity to delay, and delay as the amount of time remaining to complete the task. This formula provides critical insight into the nature of time and deadlines upon motivation and subsequent procrastination: far-off rewards or consequences decrease motivation to initiate tasks, while individual differences are accounted for via impulsiveness. As deadlines approach and delay shrinks, motivation increases exponentially, leading to a decrease in procrastination and an increase in likelihood to initiate the deadline-bound task. However, as with task initiation as a broader concept, procrastination is also influenced by emotional factors. === Emotional regulation === Sirois and Pychyl (2013) argue that procrastination is used as short-term mood regulation and repair: temporarily avoiding an aversive task momentarily improves mood while transferring costs to the future self. This process may be influenced by negative reinforcement, a concept within operant conditioning theory where a behaviour is strengthened through the removal of a negative stimulus (Skinner, 1963). This can conceptually lead to a reinforcement cycle: an aversive task produces a negative emotion, leading to avoidance, which provides immediate emotional relief, and thus avoidance becomes more likely in the future. == Neurodivergence and task initiation == Various psychological and neurodevelopmental conditions - often broadly referred to under the umbrella term, "neurodivergence" - are partly characterised by or may result in impaired task initiation. Mechanisms such as executive dysfunction, reward system dysregulation, altered effort costs, and demand avoidance are common issues in individuals with such conditions. === Neurodevelopmental conditions === Individuals diagnosed with neurodevelopmental conditions such as attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and autism spectrum disorder (ASD) often report difficulties with task initiation. Associations have consistently been found between ADHD symptoms and procrastination, particularly with inattention, and to a lesser extent with executive dysfunction, emotional dysregulation, and impaired motivational processes (Suriano, 2026). Executive dysfunction is also common in autism, with difficulties indicated in areas including cognitive flexibility, attention, working memory, and inhibition (Ceruti et al., 2024); the term autistic inertia has been used to specifically describe difficulties in task initiation in autism, with research showing that autistic individuals report increased difficulty in starting, stopping, and switching activities, even in instances where they intended or wanted to act but nevertheless experienced difficulty doing so (Buckle et al., 2021). === Psychiatric conditions === Individuals diagnosed with psychiatric disorders may also experience difficulties with task initiation, although the underlying mechanisms can differ from those associated with neurodevelopmental conditions. In major depressive disorder (MDD), anhedonia and chronically reduced motivation may contribute to impaired task initiation through a reduced willingness to expend cognitive and physical effort for rewards (Horne et al., 2021). Avolition, defined as a severe and persistent decrease in the ability to start and sustain self-directed goal-oriented activities, is considered as an important negative symptom of schizophrenia (DeRosse et al., 2019). Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) may also interfere with task initiation, with symptoms of pathological doubt, uncertainty, and impaired decision making potentially contributing to delays in beginning an activity (Nisticò et al., 2021). ==Improving task initiation == Various cognitive and behavioural strategies and implementations have been proposed to improve task initiation. As difficulties with task initiation have been identified as arising from executive, motivational, and emotional factors, these interventions are typically aimed at the specific mechanisms preventing action. These strategies include implementation intentions, task decomposition, self-efficacy, emotional regulation, cognitive behavioural therapy, distraction minimisation, and other minor actionable strategies. === Cognitive strategies to improve task initiation === Cognitive inhibitions to task initiation may include the intention-action gap, difficulties in actionable task visualisation, and limited cognitive resources. Strategies addressing these barriers include implementation intentions, task decomposition strategies, and cognitive offloading, respectively. ==== Implementation intentions ==== Implementation intentions (also known as "if-then planning") are a self-regulatory strategy conceptualized by Peter Gollwitzer as a result of his earlier work alongside Heinz Heckhausen on the Rubicon model of action phases. Unlike goal intentions, which specify a desired outcome (e.g., "I want to improve my fitness"), implementation actions specify the situational cues and subsequent behavioural response through which a goal will be pursued (e.g., "At 7:00pm, I will go for a run"). Within the Rubicon model, implementation actions are relevant to the transition between the pre-actional and actional phases. By linking situational cues to pre-planned responses, implementation intentions can improve task initiation by reducing reliance on conscious deliberation and turning goal-directed behaviour into a more streamlined, automatic process (Gollwitzer, 1999). ==== Task decomposition ==== Task decomposition is the process of deconstructing large, often abstract tasks into smaller, more concrete subtasks. As discussed previously, construal level theory highlights that low-level representations emphasise the specific means through which a task is actioned as opposed to its broader purpose (Trope & Liberman, 2010). Decomposition may therefore improve task initiation through improved task clarification, and has been shown to reduce cognitive computational demands through the facilitation of easier planning while also preserving effective performance (Correa et al., 2023). Other research indicates that subgoals can increase perceived attainability and motivation, particularly during the early stages of goal pursuit (Huang et al., 2017), thus providing further evidence for the benefits of task decomposition. ==== Cognitive offloading ==== Cognitive offloading is the process of reducing information processing requirements through the use of physical action or external tools (Risko & Gilbert, 2016). Physical tools such as calendars, written plans, and other visible reminders can reduce demands on internal memory, freeing cognitive resources that would otherwise have been required to maintain the information (Grinschgl et al., 2021). However, an overreliance on contemporary external tools such as generative AI has raised concerns regarding cognitive offloading and a decline due to reduced engagement in processes such as internal memory encoding, spatial skills, and critical thinking (American Psychological Association, 2026). === Motivational strategies to improve task initiation === Both motivational models such as expectancy value theory and neuroscientific models of cognitive-control allocation such as the expected value of control emphasise evaluations of potential value relative to costs. Similar principles appear in temporal motivation theory, in which motivation is influenced through expectancy, value, impulsiveness, and delay. Accordingly, strategies for increasing motivation and facilitating task initiation may involve increasing the perceived value of a task, increasing expectations of success, or reducing its perceived costs. Subjective task value may be increased by linking tasks to personally meaningful goals, interests, or future outcomes: research shows that encouraging students to connect specific academic tasks to personal interests promoted engagement, deep learning, and skill development (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2010). Expectancy may be strengthened by setting smaller, achievable goals, which has been shown to positively influence self-efficacy through repetitive successful performances, and also increases the perceived attainability of task completion (Schunk, 1984). Finally, reducing perceived costs may involve the previously mentioned task decomposition, which reduces task complexity through clearer immediate subtasks, thus decreasing the initial cognitive demands required. === Emotional strategies to improve task initiation === As task avoidance and procrastination are often associated with attempts to regulate aversive emotions, strategies for improving task initiation may involve greater emotional acceptance and improved emotional regulation. Acceptance of negative emotional experiences has been associated with reduced negative affect (Erisman & Roemer, 2010), while practicing the tolerance and modification of aversive emotions has been shown to reduce procrastination (Eckert et al., 2016). Furthermore, Wohl et al. (2010) found that greater levels of self-reported self-forgiveness was associated with lower levels of future procrastination. This may be particularly important in disrupting negative reinforcement cycles. The "Wall of Awful" is a non-scientific metaphor often used to conceptualise the emotional barrier to task initiation that may accumulate as a result of these cycles. === Further strategies === Further strategies for improving task initiation involve modifications to physical and social environments, as well as psychotherapeutic interventions as an integrative framework, as opposed to directly targeting individual cognitive, emotional, or motivational mechanisms. ==== Environmental and social changes ==== Changes to an individual's environment may facilitate task initiation. Removing prominent distractions such as digital devices like phones, unrelated projects, unfinished chores, or other stimuli that compete for attention may decrease the inhibitory control required to focus on necessary tasks. Research indicates that even the presence of one's own smartphone may occupy cognitive resources, even when conscious attention is not being paid to it (Ward et al., 2017). Another strategy is to increase external accountability through altering one's social environment. Elements such as study partners and scheduled commitments can make consequences more tangible while also providing external cues for action [source]. ==== Psychotherapeutic interventions ==== Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) may be used to treat individuals who struggle with chronic procrastination, thus potentially improving overall task initiation. Rozental et al. (2018) demonstrated CBT as an effective method for treating procrastination, with the intervention including techniques such as psychoeducation, goal setting and behavioural activation, strategies to strengthen self-efficacy, stimulus control and distraction management, assertiveness training, and cognitive restructuring. Overall, CBT functions as a broader therapeutic framework in which several previously discussed strategies to improving task initiation are integrated. == Conclusion == == See also == * ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= }} == External links == * [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Goal pursuit]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Procrastination]] d7aw9bpgu4mpf487b81hulhl14okka5 2836313 2836312 2026-10-06T12:19:28Z U3286643 3106304 simplified wording in rubicon model 2836313 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Getting started:<br>Why is task initiation difficult and how to overcome it?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Scrolling on phone (cropped).jpg||thumb|right|150px|'''Figure 1''' An individual scrolling on their phone]] ;Scenario John is a university student with an assignment due in five days which he has not started. Despite knowing that he needs to begin the assignment soon in order to have it completed by the due date, he finds the prospect of starting the assignment daunting, and so continues engaging in alternative activities, such as scrolling on social media, to avoid beginning the assignment (see Figure 1). John is struggling with task initiation, and is using procrastination as a coping behaviour to manage his negative feelings associated with starting the assignment. {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[w:Executive_functions|Executive functions]] are a set of [https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-top-down-processing-2795975 top-down cognitive processes] that support [[w:Goal|goal]]-directed [[w:Behavior|behaviour]] (Diamond, 2013). Miyake et al. (2000) distinguish three core executive functions: [[w:Inhibitory_control|inhibition]], [[w:Working_memory|working memory]], and [[w:Task_switching_(psychology)|shifting]], though shifting has since largely been subcategorised within the broader concept of [[w:Cognitive_flexibility|cognitive flexibility]]. Higher-order executive functions are derived from these, such as [[w:Reason|reasoning]], [[w:Problem_solving|problem solving]], and [[w:Planning|planning]] (Collins & Koechlin, 2012), although there is no universally-agreed upon [[w:Taxonomy|taxonomy]] due to differences in definitions, labels, and groups across theoretical models. One example of a higher-order executive function is task initiation. Task initiation is the ability of an individual to begin a specific task at a desired time without unnecessary hesitation or delay. Task initiation can be inhibited by various [[w:Cognition|cognitive]], [[w:Emotion|emotional]], and [[w:Motivation|motivational]] factors. For example, task initiation can quickly become difficult when tasks are associated with negative emotions such as [[w:Anxiety|anxiety]], [[w:Shame|shame]], or [[w:Psychological_stress|stress]]; when tasks fail to inspire motivation because they are perceived perceived as low-priority or overly abstract; or when an individual experiences cognitive factors that impair executive functioning. Impaired task initiation is often associated with [[w:Procrastination|procrastination]], defined as the voluntary delay of an intended course of action despite expecting negative consequences from that delay (Steel, 2007). Although there is overlap between the concepts, difficulties in task initiation refer more broadly to problems translating intentions into action, whereas procrastination represents one particular form of delayed goal-directed behaviour. Individuals who experience chronic difficulties with task initiation and procrastination may experience adverse mental health outcomes such as [[w:Chronic_stress|chronic stress]] and increased anxiety and [[w:Depression_(mood)|depression]] (Stead et al., 2010) as well as decreased performance in academic or workplace environments (Steel, 2007). Understanding the cognitive and psychological elements of task initiation and the various mechanisms underlying these domains can help to bolster task initiation in individuals – such as through the development of mitigation strategies and measures for procrastination, for example – thus reducing the negative impact of impaired task initiation on individuals' lives. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What cognitive processes underlie task initiation? * How do motivational and emotional factors influence task initiation? * How is task initiation related to procrastination? * How can psychological disorders impair task initiation? * How can task initiation be improved? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Cognitive processes and theories == Task initiation can be examined as functioning through the interactions of the core executive functions that it is derived from. Working memory involves the [[w:Mental_image|visualisation]] and maintenance of goals through the monitoring, coding, and revising of relevant information, inhibitory control is the ability to deliberately suppress competing responses, and cognitive flexibility allows for set-shifting, the ability to shift between tasks or mental sets (Miyake et al., 2000), all of which are important factors in relation to functional task initiation in individuals. However, intention to initiate a task does not always translate to induced behaviour, and various cognitive models and theories offer explanations for this discrepancy. Notable among these include the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) and the Rubicon model of action phases. === Theory of planned behaviour === [[File:Theory of planned behaviour.png|thumb|350x350px|'''Figure 2''' Diagram of the Theory of Planned Behaviour ]] The theory of planned behaviour proposes that attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control jointly contribute to shape an individual's behavioural intention, which is then theorised to be the most immediate determinant of behaviour (Ajzen, 1991). However, perceived behavioural control - often conceptually related or compared to self-efficacy - is also stated as directly interacting with behaviour due to the dependence of behaviour on whether an individual has sufficient control over performing it (see Figure 2), a relationship that is stated within the model as being strongest when perceived control reasonably reflects actual control. Thus, this can lead to an intention-action gap: favourable attitudes and supportive norms may generate an intention to begin a task, but insufficient perceived or actual behavioural control can prevent that intention from being translated into action. === Rubicon model of action phases === The Rubicon model of action phases divides the process from intention to action into four phases: pre-decisional (choosing between potential goals through weighing their feasibility and desirability), pre-actional (planning the implementation of the chosen goal), actional (executing the plan) and post-actional (evaluating outcomes against initial goals and subsequently adjusting future behaviour) (Heckhausen & Gollwitzer, 1987). The model therefore provides another framework for understanding the intention-action gap: after forming a goal intention, an individual may still fail to progress from the pre-actional to the actional phase, resulting in an intended behaviour that is not successfully initiated. === Construal level theory (CLT) === An additional cognitive factor influencing task initiation is mental representation. Construal level theory is a psychological framework centred around the concept of psychological distance, and it distinguishes between high-level, abstract representations and low-level, concrete representations. High-level representations revolve around task purpose, value, and reward, and may boost motivation, but also delay initiation due to a lack of operational starting points; low-level representations decrease this friction through an emphasis on practical and logistical steps, and thus representing a task in this way may increase task initiation through making the immediate actions required to begin it more apparent (Trope & Liberman, 2010). == Motivational and emotional barriers == Motivation and emotion are two psychological areas of study which both pertain to task initiation and may be examined to understand how and why task initiation can become difficult. [Expand?] === Motivation === Task initiation is partly dependent on motivational influences such as the anticipated benefit of the task, the perceived likelihood of success, and the costs associated with performing it. Expectancy-value theory proposes that the expected outcomes and subjective value placed upon tasks by individuals heavily influence choice and persistence in relation to tasks (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). Similarly, self-efficacy theory proposes that individuals' efficacy expectations are the major determinant in relation to goal setting, task choice, effort expenditure, and persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Additionally, neurological theories such as the expected value of control (EVC) propose that the brain weighs anticipated rewards against the costs of metabolic and cognitive exertion and allocates cognitive control accordingly, thus providing an additional explanation for why task initiation may be inhibited for demanding tasks even if they have been appraised as valuable and achievable (Shenhav et al., 2013). === Emotion === Task initiation is also dependent on anticipatory emotions associated with the task. Aversion to negative emotions such as boredom, frustration, resentment, stress, and anxiety decreases the likelihood of task initiation (Sirois & Pychyl, 2013), and greater task aversiveness as a result of these emotions is associated with greater behavioural delay (Blunt & Pychyl, 2000). These negative emotions can arise separately as a result of unique tasks, but are also often linked to chronic dispositions such as perfectionism, low self-efficacy, or even simply pre-existing negative emotions; research indicates that individuals with negative emotions such as shame or guilt due to previous failures are re-exposed to these negative feelings when thinking about task initiation (Wäschle et al., 2014). == Procrastination == Procrastination can be distinguished from impaired task initiation in that it is a specific form of delay in which intended actions are unnecessarily postponed despite foreseeable adverse consequences. Despite being defined as a voluntary choice, it is often examined and discussed in relation to failures of self-regulation, and thus may be heavily influenced by non-conscious emotional regulation processes. === Self-regulation === Steel (2007) identifies procrastination as a failure of self-regulation, with strong associative factors of task aversiveness, task delay, self-efficacy, and impulsiveness, as well as facets of conscientiousness such as self-control, distractibility, organisation, and achievement motivation. These effects are stated to be consistent with temporal motivation theory; similarly, while Sirois and Pychyl (2013), focus primarily on procrastination as a form of short-term emotional regulation, observe procrastination as being influenced by cognitive processes such as temporal discounting. ==== Temporal motivation theory ==== Temporal motivation theory acts as a comprehensive motivational framework, incorporating core elements of expectancy theory, hyperbolic discounting, need theory, and cumulative prospect theory, with an emphasis on time as a critical motivational factor (Steel & König, 2006). The theory posits the following formula for understanding motivation: <math>Motivation = {Expectancy \times Value\over 1+Impulsiveness\times Delay}</math> with motivation as the desire for a specific outcome, expectancy as the perceived chance of success, value as the desire or benefit attached to the outcome, impulsiveness as individual sensitivity to delay, and delay as the amount of time remaining to complete the task. This formula provides critical insight into the nature of time and deadlines upon motivation and subsequent procrastination: far-off rewards or consequences decrease motivation to initiate tasks, while individual differences are accounted for via impulsiveness. As deadlines approach and delay shrinks, motivation increases exponentially, leading to a decrease in procrastination and an increase in likelihood to initiate the deadline-bound task. However, as with task initiation as a broader concept, procrastination is also influenced by emotional factors. === Emotional regulation === Sirois and Pychyl (2013) argue that procrastination is used as short-term mood regulation and repair: temporarily avoiding an aversive task momentarily improves mood while transferring costs to the future self. This process may be influenced by negative reinforcement, a concept within operant conditioning theory where a behaviour is strengthened through the removal of a negative stimulus (Skinner, 1963). This can conceptually lead to a reinforcement cycle: an aversive task produces a negative emotion, leading to avoidance, which provides immediate emotional relief, and thus avoidance becomes more likely in the future. == Neurodivergence and task initiation == Various psychological and neurodevelopmental conditions - often broadly referred to under the umbrella term, "neurodivergence" - are partly characterised by or may result in impaired task initiation. Mechanisms such as executive dysfunction, reward system dysregulation, altered effort costs, and demand avoidance are common issues in individuals with such conditions. === Neurodevelopmental conditions === Individuals diagnosed with neurodevelopmental conditions such as attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and autism spectrum disorder (ASD) often report difficulties with task initiation. Associations have consistently been found between ADHD symptoms and procrastination, particularly with inattention, and to a lesser extent with executive dysfunction, emotional dysregulation, and impaired motivational processes (Suriano, 2026). Executive dysfunction is also common in autism, with difficulties indicated in areas including cognitive flexibility, attention, working memory, and inhibition (Ceruti et al., 2024); the term autistic inertia has been used to specifically describe difficulties in task initiation in autism, with research showing that autistic individuals report increased difficulty in starting, stopping, and switching activities, even in instances where they intended or wanted to act but nevertheless experienced difficulty doing so (Buckle et al., 2021). === Psychiatric conditions === Individuals diagnosed with psychiatric disorders may also experience difficulties with task initiation, although the underlying mechanisms can differ from those associated with neurodevelopmental conditions. In major depressive disorder (MDD), anhedonia and chronically reduced motivation may contribute to impaired task initiation through a reduced willingness to expend cognitive and physical effort for rewards (Horne et al., 2021). Avolition, defined as a severe and persistent decrease in the ability to start and sustain self-directed goal-oriented activities, is considered as an important negative symptom of schizophrenia (DeRosse et al., 2019). Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) may also interfere with task initiation, with symptoms of pathological doubt, uncertainty, and impaired decision making potentially contributing to delays in beginning an activity (Nisticò et al., 2021). ==Improving task initiation == Various cognitive and behavioural strategies and implementations have been proposed to improve task initiation. As difficulties with task initiation have been identified as arising from executive, motivational, and emotional factors, these interventions are typically aimed at the specific mechanisms preventing action. These strategies include implementation intentions, task decomposition, self-efficacy, emotional regulation, cognitive behavioural therapy, distraction minimisation, and other minor actionable strategies. === Cognitive strategies to improve task initiation === Cognitive inhibitions to task initiation may include the intention-action gap, difficulties in actionable task visualisation, and limited cognitive resources. Strategies addressing these barriers include implementation intentions, task decomposition strategies, and cognitive offloading, respectively. ==== Implementation intentions ==== Implementation intentions (also known as "if-then planning") are a self-regulatory strategy conceptualized by Peter Gollwitzer as a result of his earlier work alongside Heinz Heckhausen on the Rubicon model of action phases. Unlike goal intentions, which specify a desired outcome (e.g., "I want to improve my fitness"), implementation actions specify the situational cues and subsequent behavioural response through which a goal will be pursued (e.g., "At 7:00pm, I will go for a run"). Within the Rubicon model, implementation actions are relevant to the transition between the pre-actional and actional phases. By linking situational cues to pre-planned responses, implementation intentions can improve task initiation by reducing reliance on conscious deliberation and turning goal-directed behaviour into a more streamlined, automatic process (Gollwitzer, 1999). ==== Task decomposition ==== Task decomposition is the process of deconstructing large, often abstract tasks into smaller, more concrete subtasks. As discussed previously, construal level theory highlights that low-level representations emphasise the specific means through which a task is actioned as opposed to its broader purpose (Trope & Liberman, 2010). Decomposition may therefore improve task initiation through improved task clarification, and has been shown to reduce cognitive computational demands through the facilitation of easier planning while also preserving effective performance (Correa et al., 2023). Other research indicates that subgoals can increase perceived attainability and motivation, particularly during the early stages of goal pursuit (Huang et al., 2017), thus providing further evidence for the benefits of task decomposition. ==== Cognitive offloading ==== Cognitive offloading is the process of reducing information processing requirements through the use of physical action or external tools (Risko & Gilbert, 2016). Physical tools such as calendars, written plans, and other visible reminders can reduce demands on internal memory, freeing cognitive resources that would otherwise have been required to maintain the information (Grinschgl et al., 2021). However, an overreliance on contemporary external tools such as generative AI has raised concerns regarding cognitive offloading and a decline due to reduced engagement in processes such as internal memory encoding, spatial skills, and critical thinking (American Psychological Association, 2026). === Motivational strategies to improve task initiation === Both motivational models such as expectancy value theory and neuroscientific models of cognitive-control allocation such as the expected value of control emphasise evaluations of potential value relative to costs. Similar principles appear in temporal motivation theory, in which motivation is influenced through expectancy, value, impulsiveness, and delay. Accordingly, strategies for increasing motivation and facilitating task initiation may involve increasing the perceived value of a task, increasing expectations of success, or reducing its perceived costs. Subjective task value may be increased by linking tasks to personally meaningful goals, interests, or future outcomes: research shows that encouraging students to connect specific academic tasks to personal interests promoted engagement, deep learning, and skill development (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2010). Expectancy may be strengthened by setting smaller, achievable goals, which has been shown to positively influence self-efficacy through repetitive successful performances, and also increases the perceived attainability of task completion (Schunk, 1984). Finally, reducing perceived costs may involve the previously mentioned task decomposition, which reduces task complexity through clearer immediate subtasks, thus decreasing the initial cognitive demands required. === Emotional strategies to improve task initiation === As task avoidance and procrastination are often associated with attempts to regulate aversive emotions, strategies for improving task initiation may involve greater emotional acceptance and improved emotional regulation. Acceptance of negative emotional experiences has been associated with reduced negative affect (Erisman & Roemer, 2010), while practicing the tolerance and modification of aversive emotions has been shown to reduce procrastination (Eckert et al., 2016). Furthermore, Wohl et al. (2010) found that greater levels of self-reported self-forgiveness was associated with lower levels of future procrastination. This may be particularly important in disrupting negative reinforcement cycles. The "Wall of Awful" is a non-scientific metaphor often used to conceptualise the emotional barrier to task initiation that may accumulate as a result of these cycles. === Further strategies === Further strategies for improving task initiation involve modifications to physical and social environments, as well as psychotherapeutic interventions as an integrative framework, as opposed to directly targeting individual cognitive, emotional, or motivational mechanisms. ==== Environmental and social changes ==== Changes to an individual's environment may facilitate task initiation. Removing prominent distractions such as digital devices like phones, unrelated projects, unfinished chores, or other stimuli that compete for attention may decrease the inhibitory control required to focus on necessary tasks. Research indicates that even the presence of one's own smartphone may occupy cognitive resources, even when conscious attention is not being paid to it (Ward et al., 2017). Another strategy is to increase external accountability through altering one's social environment. Elements such as study partners and scheduled commitments can make consequences more tangible while also providing external cues for action [source]. ==== Psychotherapeutic interventions ==== Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) may be used to treat individuals who struggle with chronic procrastination, thus potentially improving overall task initiation. Rozental et al. (2018) demonstrated CBT as an effective method for treating procrastination, with the intervention including techniques such as psychoeducation, goal setting and behavioural activation, strategies to strengthen self-efficacy, stimulus control and distraction management, assertiveness training, and cognitive restructuring. Overall, CBT functions as a broader therapeutic framework in which several previously discussed strategies to improving task initiation are integrated. == Conclusion == == See also == * ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= }} == External links == * [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Goal pursuit]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Procrastination]] 91mhhlus2neulq7p9d2v0ri6zq1s3x6 2836406 2836313 2026-10-07T02:40:59Z U3286643 3106304 double-checked and edited source attribution in intro paragraph between diamond and miyake, and edited error. started references paragraph 2836406 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Getting started:<br>Why is task initiation difficult and how to overcome it?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Scrolling on phone (cropped).jpg||thumb|right|150px|'''Figure 1''' An individual scrolling on their phone]] ;Scenario John is a university student with an assignment due in five days which he has not started. Despite knowing that he needs to begin the assignment soon in order to have it completed by the due date, he finds the prospect of starting the assignment daunting, and so continues engaging in alternative activities, such as scrolling on social media, to avoid beginning the assignment (see Figure 1). John is struggling with task initiation, and is using procrastination as a coping behaviour to manage his negative feelings associated with starting the assignment. {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[w:Executive_functions|Executive functions]] are a set of [https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-top-down-processing-2795975 top-down cognitive processes] that support [[w:Goal|goal]]-directed [[w:Behavior|behaviour]]. Diamond (2013) identifies inhibition, working memory, and cognitive flexibility as the three core executive functions, with higher-order functions being derived from these, such as reasoning, problem solving, and planning. However, there is no universally agreed-upon [[w:Taxonomy|taxonomy]] due to differences in definitions, labels, and groups across theoretical models. One proposed higher-order executive function is task initiation. Task initiation is the ability of an individual to begin a specific task at a desired time without unnecessary hesitation or delay. Task initiation can be inhibited by various [[w:Cognition|cognitive]], [[w:Emotion|emotional]], and [[w:Motivation|motivational]] factors. For example, task initiation can quickly become difficult when tasks are associated with negative emotions such as [[w:Anxiety|anxiety]], [[w:Shame|shame]], or [[w:Psychological_stress|stress]]; when tasks fail to inspire motivation because they are perceived perceived as low-priority or overly abstract; or when an individual experiences cognitive factors that impair executive functioning. Impaired task initiation is often associated with [[w:Procrastination|procrastination]], defined as the voluntary delay of an intended course of action despite expecting negative consequences from that delay (Steel, 2007). Although there is overlap between the concepts, difficulties in task initiation refer more broadly to problems translating intentions into action, whereas procrastination represents one particular form of delayed goal-directed behaviour. Individuals who experience chronic difficulties with task initiation and procrastination may experience adverse mental health outcomes such as [[w:Chronic_stress|chronic stress]] and increased anxiety and [[w:Depression_(mood)|depression]] (Stead et al., 2010) as well as decreased performance in academic or workplace environments (Steel, 2007). Understanding the cognitive and psychological elements of task initiation and the various mechanisms underlying these domains can help to bolster task initiation in individuals – such as through the development of mitigation strategies and measures for procrastination, for example – thus reducing the negative impact of impaired task initiation on individuals' lives. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What cognitive processes underlie task initiation? * How do motivational and emotional factors influence task initiation? * How is task initiation related to procrastination? * How can psychological disorders impair task initiation? * How can task initiation be improved? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Cognitive processes and theories == Task initiation can be examined as functioning through interactions between core executive functions. Working memory involves monitoring and revising relevant information, inhibitory control involves suppressing competing responses, and cognitive flexibility allows shifting between tasks or mental sets (Miyake et al., 2000), all of which represent important factors in successful task initiation. However, intention to initiate a task does not always translate to induced behaviour, and various cognitive models and theories offer explanations for this discrepancy. Notable among these include the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) and the Rubicon model of action phases. === Theory of planned behaviour === [[File:Theory of planned behaviour.png|thumb|350x350px|'''Figure 2''' Diagram of the Theory of Planned Behaviour ]] The theory of planned behaviour proposes that attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control jointly contribute to shape an individual's behavioural intention, which is then theorised to be the most immediate determinant of behaviour (Ajzen, 1991). However, perceived behavioural control - often conceptually related or compared to self-efficacy - is also stated as directly interacting with behaviour due to the dependence of behaviour on whether an individual has sufficient control over performing it (see Figure 2), a relationship that is stated within the model as being strongest when perceived control reasonably reflects actual control. Thus, this can lead to an intention-action gap: favourable attitudes and supportive norms may generate an intention to begin a task, but insufficient perceived or actual behavioural control can prevent that intention from being translated into action. === Rubicon model of action phases === The Rubicon model of action phases divides the process from intention to action into four phases: pre-decisional (choosing between potential goals through weighing their feasibility and desirability), pre-actional (planning the implementation of the chosen goal), actional (executing the plan) and post-actional (evaluating outcomes against initial goals and subsequently adjusting future behaviour) (Heckhausen & Gollwitzer, 1987). The model therefore provides another framework for understanding the intention-action gap: after forming a goal intention, an individual may still fail to progress from the pre-actional to the actional phase, resulting in an intended behaviour that is not successfully initiated. === Construal level theory (CLT) === An additional cognitive factor influencing task initiation is mental representation. Construal level theory is a psychological framework centred around the concept of psychological distance, and it distinguishes between high-level, abstract representations and low-level, concrete representations. High-level representations revolve around task purpose, value, and reward, and may boost motivation, but also delay initiation due to a lack of operational starting points; low-level representations decrease this friction through an emphasis on practical and logistical steps, and thus representing a task in this way may increase task initiation through making the immediate actions required to begin it more apparent (Trope & Liberman, 2010). == Motivational and emotional barriers == Motivation and emotion are two psychological areas of study which both pertain to task initiation and may be examined to understand how and why task initiation can become difficult. [Expand?] === Motivation === Task initiation is partly dependent on motivational influences such as the anticipated benefit of the task, the perceived likelihood of success, and the costs associated with performing it. Expectancy-value theory proposes that the expected outcomes and subjective value placed upon tasks by individuals heavily influence choice and persistence in relation to tasks (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). Similarly, self-efficacy theory proposes that individuals' efficacy expectations are the major determinant in relation to goal setting, task choice, effort expenditure, and persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Additionally, neurological theories such as the expected value of control (EVC) propose that the brain weighs anticipated rewards against the costs of metabolic and cognitive exertion and allocates cognitive control accordingly, thus providing an additional explanation for why task initiation may be inhibited for demanding tasks even if they have been appraised as valuable and achievable (Shenhav et al., 2013). === Emotion === Task initiation is also dependent on anticipatory emotions associated with the task. Aversion to negative emotions such as boredom, frustration, resentment, stress, and anxiety decreases the likelihood of task initiation (Sirois & Pychyl, 2013), and greater task aversiveness as a result of these emotions is associated with greater behavioural delay (Blunt & Pychyl, 2000). These negative emotions can arise separately as a result of unique tasks, but are also often linked to chronic dispositions such as perfectionism, low self-efficacy, or even simply pre-existing negative emotions; research indicates that individuals with negative emotions such as shame or guilt due to previous failures are re-exposed to these negative feelings when thinking about task initiation (Wäschle et al., 2014). == Procrastination == Procrastination can be distinguished from impaired task initiation in that it is a specific form of delay in which intended actions are unnecessarily postponed despite foreseeable adverse consequences. Despite being defined as a voluntary choice, it is often examined and discussed in relation to failures of self-regulation, and thus may be heavily influenced by non-conscious emotional regulation processes. === Self-regulation === Steel (2007) identifies procrastination as a failure of self-regulation, with strong associative factors of task aversiveness, task delay, self-efficacy, and impulsiveness, as well as facets of conscientiousness such as self-control, distractibility, organisation, and achievement motivation. These effects are stated to be consistent with temporal motivation theory; similarly, while Sirois and Pychyl (2013), focus primarily on procrastination as a form of short-term emotional regulation, observe procrastination as being influenced by cognitive processes such as temporal discounting. ==== Temporal motivation theory ==== Temporal motivation theory acts as a comprehensive motivational framework, incorporating core elements of expectancy theory, hyperbolic discounting, need theory, and cumulative prospect theory, with an emphasis on time as a critical motivational factor (Steel & König, 2006). The theory posits the following formula for understanding motivation: <math>Motivation = {Expectancy \times Value\over 1+Impulsiveness\times Delay}</math> with motivation as the desire for a specific outcome, expectancy as the perceived chance of success, value as the desire or benefit attached to the outcome, impulsiveness as individual sensitivity to delay, and delay as the amount of time remaining to complete the task. This formula provides critical insight into the nature of time and deadlines upon motivation and subsequent procrastination: far-off rewards or consequences decrease motivation to initiate tasks, while individual differences are accounted for via impulsiveness. As deadlines approach and delay shrinks, motivation increases exponentially, leading to a decrease in procrastination and an increase in likelihood to initiate the deadline-bound task. However, as with task initiation as a broader concept, procrastination is also influenced by emotional factors. === Emotional regulation === Sirois and Pychyl (2013) argue that procrastination is used as short-term mood regulation and repair: temporarily avoiding an aversive task momentarily improves mood while transferring costs to the future self. This process may be influenced by negative reinforcement, a concept within operant conditioning theory where a behaviour is strengthened through the removal of a negative stimulus (Skinner, 1963). This can conceptually lead to a reinforcement cycle: an aversive task produces a negative emotion, leading to avoidance, which provides immediate emotional relief, and thus avoidance becomes more likely in the future. == Neurodivergence and task initiation == Various psychological and neurodevelopmental conditions - often broadly referred to under the umbrella term, "neurodivergence" - are partly characterised by or may result in impaired task initiation. Mechanisms such as executive dysfunction, reward system dysregulation, altered effort costs, and demand avoidance are common issues in individuals with such conditions. === Neurodevelopmental conditions === Individuals diagnosed with neurodevelopmental conditions such as attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and autism spectrum disorder (ASD) often report difficulties with task initiation. Associations have consistently been found between ADHD symptoms and procrastination, particularly with inattention, and to a lesser extent with executive dysfunction, emotional dysregulation, and impaired motivational processes (Suriano, 2026). Executive dysfunction is also common in autism, with difficulties indicated in areas including cognitive flexibility, attention, working memory, and inhibition (Ceruti et al., 2024); the term autistic inertia has been used to specifically describe difficulties in task initiation in autism, with research showing that autistic individuals report increased difficulty in starting, stopping, and switching activities, even in instances where they intended or wanted to act but nevertheless experienced difficulty doing so (Buckle et al., 2021). === Psychiatric conditions === Individuals diagnosed with psychiatric disorders may also experience difficulties with task initiation, although the underlying mechanisms can differ from those associated with neurodevelopmental conditions. In major depressive disorder (MDD), anhedonia and chronically reduced motivation may contribute to impaired task initiation through a reduced willingness to expend cognitive and physical effort for rewards (Horne et al., 2021). Avolition, defined as a severe and persistent decrease in the ability to start and sustain self-directed goal-oriented activities, is considered as an important negative symptom of schizophrenia (DeRosse et al., 2019). Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) may also interfere with task initiation, with symptoms of pathological doubt, uncertainty, and impaired decision making potentially contributing to delays in beginning an activity (Nisticò et al., 2021). ==Improving task initiation == Various cognitive and behavioural strategies and implementations have been proposed to improve task initiation. As difficulties with task initiation have been identified as arising from executive, motivational, and emotional factors, these interventions are typically aimed at the specific mechanisms preventing action. These strategies include implementation intentions, task decomposition, self-efficacy, emotional regulation, cognitive behavioural therapy, distraction minimisation, and other minor actionable strategies. === Cognitive strategies to improve task initiation === Cognitive inhibitions to task initiation may include the intention-action gap, difficulties in actionable task visualisation, and limited cognitive resources. Strategies addressing these barriers include implementation intentions, task decomposition strategies, and cognitive offloading, respectively. ==== Implementation intentions ==== Implementation intentions (also known as "if-then planning") are a self-regulatory strategy conceptualized by Peter Gollwitzer as a result of his earlier work alongside Heinz Heckhausen on the Rubicon model of action phases. Unlike goal intentions, which specify a desired outcome (e.g., "I want to improve my fitness"), implementation actions specify the situational cues and subsequent behavioural response through which a goal will be pursued (e.g., "At 7:00pm, I will go for a run"). Within the Rubicon model, implementation actions are relevant to the transition between the pre-actional and actional phases. By linking situational cues to pre-planned responses, implementation intentions can improve task initiation by reducing reliance on conscious deliberation and turning goal-directed behaviour into a more streamlined, automatic process (Gollwitzer, 1999). ==== Task decomposition ==== Task decomposition is the process of deconstructing large, often abstract tasks into smaller, more concrete subtasks. As discussed previously, construal level theory highlights that low-level representations emphasise the specific means through which a task is actioned as opposed to its broader purpose (Trope & Liberman, 2010). Decomposition may therefore improve task initiation through improved task clarification, and has been shown to reduce cognitive computational demands through the facilitation of easier planning while also preserving effective performance (Correa et al., 2023). Other research indicates that subgoals can increase perceived attainability and motivation, particularly during the early stages of goal pursuit (Huang et al., 2017), thus providing further evidence for the benefits of task decomposition. ==== Cognitive offloading ==== Cognitive offloading is the process of reducing information processing requirements through the use of physical action or external tools (Risko & Gilbert, 2016). Physical tools such as calendars, written plans, and other visible reminders can reduce demands on internal memory, freeing cognitive resources that would otherwise have been required to maintain the information (Grinschgl et al., 2021). However, an overreliance on contemporary external tools such as generative AI has raised concerns regarding cognitive offloading and a decline due to reduced engagement in processes such as internal memory encoding, spatial skills, and critical thinking (American Psychological Association, 2026). === Motivational strategies to improve task initiation === Both motivational models such as expectancy value theory and neuroscientific models of cognitive-control allocation such as the expected value of control emphasise evaluations of potential value relative to costs. Similar principles appear in temporal motivation theory, in which motivation is influenced through expectancy, value, impulsiveness, and delay. Accordingly, strategies for increasing motivation and facilitating task initiation may involve increasing the perceived value of a task, increasing expectations of success, or reducing its perceived costs. Subjective task value may be increased by linking tasks to personally meaningful goals, interests, or future outcomes: research shows that encouraging students to connect specific academic tasks to personal interests promoted engagement, deep learning, and skill development (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2010). Expectancy may be strengthened by setting smaller, achievable goals, which has been shown to positively influence self-efficacy through repetitive successful performances, and also increases the perceived attainability of task completion (Schunk, 1984). Finally, reducing perceived costs may involve the previously mentioned task decomposition, which reduces task complexity through clearer immediate subtasks, thus decreasing the initial cognitive demands required. === Emotional strategies to improve task initiation === As task avoidance and procrastination are often associated with attempts to regulate aversive emotions, strategies for improving task initiation may involve greater emotional acceptance and improved emotional regulation. Acceptance of negative emotional experiences has been associated with reduced negative affect (Erisman & Roemer, 2010), while practicing the tolerance and modification of aversive emotions has been shown to reduce procrastination (Eckert et al., 2016). Furthermore, Wohl et al. (2010) found that greater levels of self-reported self-forgiveness was associated with lower levels of future procrastination. This may be particularly important in disrupting negative reinforcement cycles. The "Wall of Awful" is a non-scientific metaphor often used to conceptualise the emotional barrier to task initiation that may accumulate as a result of these cycles. === Further strategies === Further strategies for improving task initiation involve modifications to physical and social environments, as well as psychotherapeutic interventions as an integrative framework, as opposed to directly targeting individual cognitive, emotional, or motivational mechanisms. ==== Environmental and social changes ==== Changes to an individual's environment may facilitate task initiation. Removing prominent distractions such as digital devices like phones, unrelated projects, unfinished chores, or other stimuli that compete for attention may decrease the inhibitory control required to focus on necessary tasks. Research indicates that even the presence of one's own smartphone may occupy cognitive resources, even when conscious attention is not being paid to it (Ward et al., 2017). Another strategy is to increase external accountability through altering one's social environment. Elements such as study partners and scheduled commitments can make consequences more tangible while also providing external cues for action [source]. ==== Psychotherapeutic interventions ==== Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) may be used to treat individuals who struggle with chronic procrastination, thus potentially improving overall task initiation. Rozental et al. (2018) demonstrated CBT as an effective method for treating procrastination, with the intervention including techniques such as psychoeducation, goal setting and behavioural activation, strategies to strengthen self-efficacy, stimulus control and distraction management, assertiveness training, and cognitive restructuring. Overall, CBT functions as a broader therapeutic framework in which several previously discussed strategies to improving task initiation are integrated. == Conclusion == == See also == * ==References== {{Hanging indent|1=Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50(2), 179–211. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/0749-5978(91)90020-T Diamond, A. (2013). Executive functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64(1), 135–168. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750 Heckhausen, H., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (1987). Thought contents and cognitive functioning in motivational versus volitional states of mind. Motivation and Emotion, 11(2), 101–120. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00992338 Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000). The Unity and Diversity of Executive Functions and Their Contributions to Complex “Frontal Lobe” Tasks: A Latent Variable Analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41(1), 49–100. https://doi.org/10.1006/cogp.1999.0734 Shenhav, A., Botvinick, M. M., & Cohen, J. D. (2013). The Expected Value of Control: An Integrative Theory of Anterior Cingulate Cortex Function. Neuron, 79(2), 217–240. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2013.07.007 Sirois, F., & Pychyl, T. (2013). Procrastination and the Priority of Short-Term Mood Regulation: Consequences for Future Self. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 7(2), 115–127. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12011 Stead, R., Shanahan, M. J., & Neufeld, R. W. J. (2010). “I’ll go to therapy, eventually”: Procrastination, stress and mental health. Personality and Individual Differences, 49(3), 175–180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.03.028 Steel, P. (2007). The nature of procrastination: A meta-analytic and theoretical review of quintessential self-regulatory failure. Psychological Bulletin, 133(1), 65–94. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.65 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }} == External links == * [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Goal pursuit]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Procrastination]] 70w7sgq15n4axb2gk8gr6ma0wtpviz9 2836409 2836406 2026-10-07T02:57:13Z U3286643 3106304 continued references. reworded paragraph on negative reinforcement for clarification of source attribution 2836409 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Getting started:<br>Why is task initiation difficult and how to overcome it?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Scrolling on phone (cropped).jpg||thumb|right|150px|'''Figure 1''' An individual scrolling on their phone]] ;Scenario John is a university student with an assignment due in five days which he has not started. Despite knowing that he needs to begin the assignment soon in order to have it completed by the due date, he finds the prospect of starting the assignment daunting, and so continues engaging in alternative activities, such as scrolling on social media, to avoid beginning the assignment (see Figure 1). John is struggling with task initiation, and is using procrastination as a coping behaviour to manage his negative feelings associated with starting the assignment. {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[w:Executive_functions|Executive functions]] are a set of [https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-top-down-processing-2795975 top-down cognitive processes] that support [[w:Goal|goal]]-directed [[w:Behavior|behaviour]]. Diamond (2013) identifies inhibition, working memory, and cognitive flexibility as the three core executive functions, with higher-order functions being derived from these, such as reasoning, problem solving, and planning. However, there is no universally agreed-upon [[w:Taxonomy|taxonomy]] due to differences in definitions, labels, and groups across theoretical models. One proposed higher-order executive function is task initiation. Task initiation is the ability of an individual to begin a specific task at a desired time without unnecessary hesitation or delay. Task initiation can be inhibited by various [[w:Cognition|cognitive]], [[w:Emotion|emotional]], and [[w:Motivation|motivational]] factors. For example, task initiation can quickly become difficult when tasks are associated with negative emotions such as [[w:Anxiety|anxiety]], [[w:Shame|shame]], or [[w:Psychological_stress|stress]]; when tasks fail to inspire motivation because they are perceived perceived as low-priority or overly abstract; or when an individual experiences cognitive factors that impair executive functioning. Impaired task initiation is often associated with [[w:Procrastination|procrastination]], defined as the voluntary delay of an intended course of action despite expecting negative consequences from that delay (Steel, 2007). Although there is overlap between the concepts, difficulties in task initiation refer more broadly to problems translating intentions into action, whereas procrastination represents one particular form of delayed goal-directed behaviour. Individuals who experience chronic difficulties with task initiation and procrastination may experience adverse mental health outcomes such as [[w:Chronic_stress|chronic stress]] and increased anxiety and [[w:Depression_(mood)|depression]] (Stead et al., 2010) as well as decreased performance in academic or workplace environments (Steel, 2007). Understanding the cognitive and psychological elements of task initiation and the various mechanisms underlying these domains can help to bolster task initiation in individuals – such as through the development of mitigation strategies and measures for procrastination, for example – thus reducing the negative impact of impaired task initiation on individuals' lives. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What cognitive processes underlie task initiation? * How do motivational and emotional factors influence task initiation? * How is task initiation related to procrastination? * How can psychological disorders impair task initiation? * How can task initiation be improved? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Cognitive processes and theories == Task initiation can be examined as functioning through interactions between core executive functions. Working memory involves monitoring and revising relevant information, inhibitory control involves suppressing competing responses, and cognitive flexibility allows shifting between tasks or mental sets (Miyake et al., 2000), all of which represent important factors in successful task initiation. However, intention to initiate a task does not always translate to induced behaviour, and various cognitive models and theories offer explanations for this discrepancy. Notable among these include the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) and the Rubicon model of action phases. === Theory of planned behaviour === [[File:Theory of planned behaviour.png|thumb|350x350px|'''Figure 2''' Diagram of the Theory of Planned Behaviour ]] The theory of planned behaviour proposes that attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control jointly contribute to shape an individual's behavioural intention, which is then theorised to be the most immediate determinant of behaviour (Ajzen, 1991). However, perceived behavioural control - often conceptually related or compared to self-efficacy - is also stated as directly interacting with behaviour due to the dependence of behaviour on whether an individual has sufficient control over performing it (see Figure 2), a relationship that is stated within the model as being strongest when perceived control reasonably reflects actual control. Thus, this can lead to an intention-action gap: favourable attitudes and supportive norms may generate an intention to begin a task, but insufficient perceived or actual behavioural control can prevent that intention from being translated into action. === Rubicon model of action phases === The Rubicon model of action phases divides the process from intention to action into four phases: pre-decisional (choosing between potential goals through weighing their feasibility and desirability), pre-actional (planning the implementation of the chosen goal), actional (executing the plan) and post-actional (evaluating outcomes against initial goals and subsequently adjusting future behaviour) (Heckhausen & Gollwitzer, 1987). The model therefore provides another framework for understanding the intention-action gap: after forming a goal intention, an individual may still fail to progress from the pre-actional to the actional phase, resulting in an intended behaviour that is not successfully initiated. === Construal level theory (CLT) === An additional cognitive factor influencing task initiation is mental representation. Construal level theory is a psychological framework centred around the concept of psychological distance, and it distinguishes between high-level, abstract representations and low-level, concrete representations. High-level representations revolve around task purpose, value, and reward, and may boost motivation, but also delay initiation due to a lack of operational starting points; low-level representations decrease this friction through an emphasis on practical and logistical steps, and thus representing a task in this way may increase task initiation through making the immediate actions required to begin it more apparent (Trope & Liberman, 2010). == Motivational and emotional barriers == Motivation and emotion are two psychological areas of study which both pertain to task initiation and may be examined to understand how and why task initiation can become difficult. [Expand?] === Motivation === Task initiation is partly dependent on motivational influences such as the anticipated benefit of the task, the perceived likelihood of success, and the costs associated with performing it. Expectancy-value theory proposes that the expected outcomes and subjective value placed upon tasks by individuals heavily influence choice and persistence in relation to tasks (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). Similarly, self-efficacy theory proposes that individuals' efficacy expectations are the major determinant in relation to goal setting, task choice, effort expenditure, and persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Additionally, neurological theories such as the expected value of control (EVC) propose that the brain weighs anticipated rewards against the costs of metabolic and cognitive exertion and allocates cognitive control accordingly, thus providing an additional explanation for why task initiation may be inhibited for demanding tasks even if they have been appraised as valuable and achievable (Shenhav et al., 2013). === Emotion === Task initiation is also dependent on anticipatory emotions associated with the task. Aversion to negative emotions such as boredom, frustration, resentment, stress, and anxiety decreases the likelihood of task initiation (Sirois & Pychyl, 2013), and greater task aversiveness as a result of these emotions is associated with greater behavioural delay (Blunt & Pychyl, 2000). These negative emotions can arise separately as a result of unique tasks, but are also often linked to chronic dispositions such as perfectionism, low self-efficacy, or even simply pre-existing negative emotions; research indicates that individuals with negative emotions such as shame or guilt due to previous failures are re-exposed to these negative feelings when thinking about task initiation (Wäschle et al., 2014). == Procrastination == Procrastination can be distinguished from impaired task initiation in that it is a specific form of delay in which intended actions are unnecessarily postponed despite foreseeable adverse consequences. Despite being defined as a voluntary choice, it is often examined and discussed in relation to failures of self-regulation, and thus may be heavily influenced by non-conscious emotional regulation processes. === Self-regulation === Steel (2007) identifies procrastination as a failure of self-regulation, with strong associative factors of task aversiveness, task delay, self-efficacy, and impulsiveness, as well as facets of conscientiousness such as self-control, distractibility, organisation, and achievement motivation. These effects are stated to be consistent with temporal motivation theory; similarly, while Sirois and Pychyl (2013), focus primarily on procrastination as a form of short-term emotional regulation, observe procrastination as being influenced by cognitive processes such as temporal discounting. ==== Temporal motivation theory ==== Temporal motivation theory acts as a comprehensive motivational framework, incorporating core elements of expectancy theory, hyperbolic discounting, need theory, and cumulative prospect theory, with an emphasis on time as a critical motivational factor (Steel & König, 2006). The theory posits the following formula for understanding motivation: <math>Motivation = {Expectancy \times Value\over 1+Impulsiveness\times Delay}</math> with motivation as the desire for a specific outcome, expectancy as the perceived chance of success, value as the desire or benefit attached to the outcome, impulsiveness as individual sensitivity to delay, and delay as the amount of time remaining to complete the task. This formula provides critical insight into the nature of time and deadlines upon motivation and subsequent procrastination: far-off rewards or consequences decrease motivation to initiate tasks, while individual differences are accounted for via impulsiveness. As deadlines approach and delay shrinks, motivation increases exponentially, leading to a decrease in procrastination and an increase in likelihood to initiate the deadline-bound task. However, as with task initiation as a broader concept, procrastination is also influenced by emotional factors. === Emotional regulation === Sirois and Pychyl (2013) argue that procrastination is used as short-term mood regulation and repair: temporarily avoiding an aversive task momentarily improves mood while transferring costs to the future self. Skinner (1963) conceptualised negative reinforcement, in which behaviour is strengthened through the removal of an aversive stimulus. Applied here, procrastination may lead to a reinforcement cycle: an aversive task produces a negative emotion, leading to avoidance, which provides immediate emotional relief and thus makes future avoidance more likely as the behaviour is strengthened. == Neurodivergence and task initiation == Various psychological and neurodevelopmental conditions - often broadly referred to under the umbrella term, "neurodivergence" - are partly characterised by or may result in impaired task initiation. Mechanisms such as executive dysfunction, reward system dysregulation, altered effort costs, and demand avoidance are common issues in individuals with such conditions. === Neurodevelopmental conditions === Individuals diagnosed with neurodevelopmental conditions such as attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and autism spectrum disorder (ASD) often report difficulties with task initiation. Associations have consistently been found between ADHD symptoms and procrastination, particularly with inattention, and to a lesser extent with executive dysfunction, emotional dysregulation, and impaired motivational processes (Suriano, 2026). Executive dysfunction is also common in autism, with difficulties indicated in areas including cognitive flexibility, attention, working memory, and inhibition (Ceruti et al., 2024); the term autistic inertia has been used to specifically describe difficulties in task initiation in autism, with research showing that autistic individuals report increased difficulty in starting, stopping, and switching activities, even in instances where they intended or wanted to act but nevertheless experienced difficulty doing so (Buckle et al., 2021). === Psychiatric conditions === Individuals diagnosed with psychiatric disorders may also experience difficulties with task initiation, although the underlying mechanisms can differ from those associated with neurodevelopmental conditions. In major depressive disorder (MDD), anhedonia and chronically reduced motivation may contribute to impaired task initiation through a reduced willingness to expend cognitive and physical effort for rewards (Horne et al., 2021). Avolition, defined as a severe and persistent decrease in the ability to start and sustain self-directed goal-oriented activities, is considered as an important negative symptom of schizophrenia (DeRosse et al., 2019). Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) may also interfere with task initiation, with symptoms of pathological doubt, uncertainty, and impaired decision making potentially contributing to delays in beginning an activity (Nisticò et al., 2021). ==Improving task initiation == Various cognitive and behavioural strategies and implementations have been proposed to improve task initiation. As difficulties with task initiation have been identified as arising from executive, motivational, and emotional factors, these interventions are typically aimed at the specific mechanisms preventing action. These strategies include implementation intentions, task decomposition, self-efficacy, emotional regulation, cognitive behavioural therapy, distraction minimisation, and other minor actionable strategies. === Cognitive strategies to improve task initiation === Cognitive inhibitions to task initiation may include the intention-action gap, difficulties in actionable task visualisation, and limited cognitive resources. Strategies addressing these barriers include implementation intentions, task decomposition strategies, and cognitive offloading, respectively. ==== Implementation intentions ==== Implementation intentions (also known as "if-then planning") are a self-regulatory strategy conceptualized by Peter Gollwitzer as a result of his earlier work alongside Heinz Heckhausen on the Rubicon model of action phases. Unlike goal intentions, which specify a desired outcome (e.g., "I want to improve my fitness"), implementation actions specify the situational cues and subsequent behavioural response through which a goal will be pursued (e.g., "At 7:00pm, I will go for a run"). Within the Rubicon model, implementation actions are relevant to the transition between the pre-actional and actional phases. By linking situational cues to pre-planned responses, implementation intentions can improve task initiation by reducing reliance on conscious deliberation and turning goal-directed behaviour into a more streamlined, automatic process (Gollwitzer, 1999). ==== Task decomposition ==== Task decomposition is the process of deconstructing large, often abstract tasks into smaller, more concrete subtasks. As discussed previously, construal level theory highlights that low-level representations emphasise the specific means through which a task is actioned as opposed to its broader purpose (Trope & Liberman, 2010). Decomposition may therefore improve task initiation through improved task clarification, and has been shown to reduce cognitive computational demands through the facilitation of easier planning while also preserving effective performance (Correa et al., 2023). Other research indicates that subgoals can increase perceived attainability and motivation, particularly during the early stages of goal pursuit (Huang et al., 2017), thus providing further evidence for the benefits of task decomposition. ==== Cognitive offloading ==== Cognitive offloading is the process of reducing information processing requirements through the use of physical action or external tools (Risko & Gilbert, 2016). Physical tools such as calendars, written plans, and other visible reminders can reduce demands on internal memory, freeing cognitive resources that would otherwise have been required to maintain the information (Grinschgl et al., 2021). However, an overreliance on contemporary external tools such as generative AI has raised concerns regarding cognitive offloading and a decline due to reduced engagement in processes such as internal memory encoding, spatial skills, and critical thinking (American Psychological Association, 2026). === Motivational strategies to improve task initiation === Both motivational models such as expectancy value theory and neuroscientific models of cognitive-control allocation such as the expected value of control emphasise evaluations of potential value relative to costs. Similar principles appear in temporal motivation theory, in which motivation is influenced through expectancy, value, impulsiveness, and delay. Accordingly, strategies for increasing motivation and facilitating task initiation may involve increasing the perceived value of a task, increasing expectations of success, or reducing its perceived costs. Subjective task value may be increased by linking tasks to personally meaningful goals, interests, or future outcomes: research shows that encouraging students to connect specific academic tasks to personal interests promoted engagement, deep learning, and skill development (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2010). Expectancy may be strengthened by setting smaller, achievable goals, which has been shown to positively influence self-efficacy through repetitive successful performances, and also increases the perceived attainability of task completion (Schunk, 1984). Finally, reducing perceived costs may involve the previously mentioned task decomposition, which reduces task complexity through clearer immediate subtasks, thus decreasing the initial cognitive demands required. === Emotional strategies to improve task initiation === As task avoidance and procrastination are often associated with attempts to regulate aversive emotions, strategies for improving task initiation may involve greater emotional acceptance and improved emotional regulation. Acceptance of negative emotional experiences has been associated with reduced negative affect (Erisman & Roemer, 2010), while practicing the tolerance and modification of aversive emotions has been shown to reduce procrastination (Eckert et al., 2016). Furthermore, Wohl et al. (2010) found that greater levels of self-reported self-forgiveness was associated with lower levels of future procrastination. This may be particularly important in disrupting negative reinforcement cycles. The "Wall of Awful" is a non-scientific metaphor often used to conceptualise the emotional barrier to task initiation that may accumulate as a result of these cycles. === Further strategies === Further strategies for improving task initiation involve modifications to physical and social environments, as well as psychotherapeutic interventions as an integrative framework, as opposed to directly targeting individual cognitive, emotional, or motivational mechanisms. ==== Environmental and social changes ==== Changes to an individual's environment may facilitate task initiation. Removing prominent distractions such as digital devices like phones, unrelated projects, unfinished chores, or other stimuli that compete for attention may decrease the inhibitory control required to focus on necessary tasks. Research indicates that even the presence of one's own smartphone may occupy cognitive resources, even when conscious attention is not being paid to it (Ward et al., 2017). Another strategy is to increase external accountability through altering one's social environment. Elements such as study partners and scheduled commitments can make consequences more tangible while also providing external cues for action [source]. ==== Psychotherapeutic interventions ==== Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) may be used to treat individuals who struggle with chronic procrastination, thus potentially improving overall task initiation. Rozental et al. (2018) demonstrated CBT as an effective method for treating procrastination, with the intervention including techniques such as psychoeducation, goal setting and behavioural activation, strategies to strengthen self-efficacy, stimulus control and distraction management, assertiveness training, and cognitive restructuring. Overall, CBT functions as a broader therapeutic framework in which several previously discussed strategies to improving task initiation are integrated. == Conclusion == == See also == * ==References== {{Hanging indent|1=Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50(2), 179–211. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/0749-5978(91)90020-T Blunt, A. K., & Pychyl, T. A. (2000). Task aversiveness and procrastination: a multi-dimensional approach to task aversiveness across stages of personal projects. Personality and Individual Differences, 28(1), 153–167. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0191-8869(99)00091-4 Diamond, A. (2013). Executive functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64(1), 135–168. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750 Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153 Heckhausen, H., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (1987). Thought contents and cognitive functioning in motivational versus volitional states of mind. Motivation and Emotion, 11(2), 101–120. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00992338 Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000). The Unity and Diversity of Executive Functions and Their Contributions to Complex “Frontal Lobe” Tasks: A Latent Variable Analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41(1), 49–100. https://doi.org/10.1006/cogp.1999.0734 Shenhav, A., Botvinick, M. M., & Cohen, J. D. (2013). The Expected Value of Control: An Integrative Theory of Anterior Cingulate Cortex Function. Neuron, 79(2), 217–240. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2013.07.007 Sirois, F., & Pychyl, T. (2013). Procrastination and the Priority of Short-Term Mood Regulation: Consequences for Future Self. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 7(2), 115–127. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12011 Skinner, B. F. (1963). Operant Behaviour. Psycnet.Apa.Org. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1964-03372-001 Stead, R., Shanahan, M. J., & Neufeld, R. W. J. (2010). “I’ll go to therapy, eventually”: Procrastination, stress and mental health. Personality and Individual Differences, 49(3), 175–180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.03.028 Steel, P. (2007). The nature of procrastination: A meta-analytic and theoretical review of quintessential self-regulatory failure. Psychological Bulletin, 133(1), 65–94. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.65 Steel, P., & König, C. J. (2006). Integrating Theories of Motivation. Academy of Management Review, 31(4), 889–913. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.2006.22527462 Trope, Y., & Liberman, N. (2010). Construal-Level Theory of Psychological Distance. Psychological Review, 117(2), 440–463. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018963 Wäschle, K., Allgaier, A., Lachner, A., Fink, S., & Nückles, M. (2014). Procrastination and self-efficacy: Tracing vicious and virtuous circles in self-regulated learning. Learning and Instruction, 29, 103–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2013.09.005 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }} == External links == * [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Goal pursuit]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Procrastination]] 50oghtg2khe7j8g3m9bva19salldj8m 2836412 2836409 2026-10-07T03:03:27Z U3286643 3106304 continued updating references 2836412 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Getting started:<br>Why is task initiation difficult and how to overcome it?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Scrolling on phone (cropped).jpg||thumb|right|150px|'''Figure 1''' An individual scrolling on their phone]] ;Scenario John is a university student with an assignment due in five days which he has not started. Despite knowing that he needs to begin the assignment soon in order to have it completed by the due date, he finds the prospect of starting the assignment daunting, and so continues engaging in alternative activities, such as scrolling on social media, to avoid beginning the assignment (see Figure 1). John is struggling with task initiation, and is using procrastination as a coping behaviour to manage his negative feelings associated with starting the assignment. {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[w:Executive_functions|Executive functions]] are a set of [https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-top-down-processing-2795975 top-down cognitive processes] that support [[w:Goal|goal]]-directed [[w:Behavior|behaviour]]. Diamond (2013) identifies inhibition, working memory, and cognitive flexibility as the three core executive functions, with higher-order functions being derived from these, such as reasoning, problem solving, and planning. However, there is no universally agreed-upon [[w:Taxonomy|taxonomy]] due to differences in definitions, labels, and groups across theoretical models. One proposed higher-order executive function is task initiation. Task initiation is the ability of an individual to begin a specific task at a desired time without unnecessary hesitation or delay. Task initiation can be inhibited by various [[w:Cognition|cognitive]], [[w:Emotion|emotional]], and [[w:Motivation|motivational]] factors. For example, task initiation can quickly become difficult when tasks are associated with negative emotions such as [[w:Anxiety|anxiety]], [[w:Shame|shame]], or [[w:Psychological_stress|stress]]; when tasks fail to inspire motivation because they are perceived perceived as low-priority or overly abstract; or when an individual experiences cognitive factors that impair executive functioning. Impaired task initiation is often associated with [[w:Procrastination|procrastination]], defined as the voluntary delay of an intended course of action despite expecting negative consequences from that delay (Steel, 2007). Although there is overlap between the concepts, difficulties in task initiation refer more broadly to problems translating intentions into action, whereas procrastination represents one particular form of delayed goal-directed behaviour. Individuals who experience chronic difficulties with task initiation and procrastination may experience adverse mental health outcomes such as [[w:Chronic_stress|chronic stress]] and increased anxiety and [[w:Depression_(mood)|depression]] (Stead et al., 2010) as well as decreased performance in academic or workplace environments (Steel, 2007). Understanding the cognitive and psychological elements of task initiation and the various mechanisms underlying these domains can help to bolster task initiation in individuals – such as through the development of mitigation strategies and measures for procrastination, for example – thus reducing the negative impact of impaired task initiation on individuals' lives. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What cognitive processes underlie task initiation? * How do motivational and emotional factors influence task initiation? * How is task initiation related to procrastination? * How can psychological disorders impair task initiation? * How can task initiation be improved? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Cognitive processes and theories == Task initiation can be examined as functioning through interactions between core executive functions. Working memory involves monitoring and revising relevant information, inhibitory control involves suppressing competing responses, and cognitive flexibility allows shifting between tasks or mental sets (Miyake et al., 2000), all of which represent important factors in successful task initiation. However, intention to initiate a task does not always translate to induced behaviour, and various cognitive models and theories offer explanations for this discrepancy. Notable among these include the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) and the Rubicon model of action phases. === Theory of planned behaviour === [[File:Theory of planned behaviour.png|thumb|350x350px|'''Figure 2''' Diagram of the Theory of Planned Behaviour ]] The theory of planned behaviour proposes that attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control jointly contribute to shape an individual's behavioural intention, which is then theorised to be the most immediate determinant of behaviour (Ajzen, 1991). However, perceived behavioural control - often conceptually related or compared to self-efficacy - is also stated as directly interacting with behaviour due to the dependence of behaviour on whether an individual has sufficient control over performing it (see Figure 2), a relationship that is stated within the model as being strongest when perceived control reasonably reflects actual control. Thus, this can lead to an intention-action gap: favourable attitudes and supportive norms may generate an intention to begin a task, but insufficient perceived or actual behavioural control can prevent that intention from being translated into action. === Rubicon model of action phases === The Rubicon model of action phases divides the process from intention to action into four phases: pre-decisional (choosing between potential goals through weighing their feasibility and desirability), pre-actional (planning the implementation of the chosen goal), actional (executing the plan) and post-actional (evaluating outcomes against initial goals and subsequently adjusting future behaviour) (Heckhausen & Gollwitzer, 1987). The model therefore provides another framework for understanding the intention-action gap: after forming a goal intention, an individual may still fail to progress from the pre-actional to the actional phase, resulting in an intended behaviour that is not successfully initiated. === Construal level theory (CLT) === An additional cognitive factor influencing task initiation is mental representation. Construal level theory is a psychological framework centred around the concept of psychological distance, and it distinguishes between high-level, abstract representations and low-level, concrete representations. High-level representations revolve around task purpose, value, and reward, and may boost motivation, but also delay initiation due to a lack of operational starting points; low-level representations decrease this friction through an emphasis on practical and logistical steps, and thus representing a task in this way may increase task initiation through making the immediate actions required to begin it more apparent (Trope & Liberman, 2010). == Motivational and emotional barriers == Motivation and emotion are two psychological areas of study which both pertain to task initiation and may be examined to understand how and why task initiation can become difficult. [Expand?] === Motivation === Task initiation is partly dependent on motivational influences such as the anticipated benefit of the task, the perceived likelihood of success, and the costs associated with performing it. Expectancy-value theory proposes that the expected outcomes and subjective value placed upon tasks by individuals heavily influence choice and persistence in relation to tasks (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). Similarly, self-efficacy theory proposes that individuals' efficacy expectations are the major determinant in relation to goal setting, task choice, effort expenditure, and persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Additionally, neurological theories such as the expected value of control (EVC) propose that the brain weighs anticipated rewards against the costs of metabolic and cognitive exertion and allocates cognitive control accordingly, thus providing an additional explanation for why task initiation may be inhibited for demanding tasks even if they have been appraised as valuable and achievable (Shenhav et al., 2013). === Emotion === Task initiation is also dependent on anticipatory emotions associated with the task. Aversion to negative emotions such as boredom, frustration, resentment, stress, and anxiety decreases the likelihood of task initiation (Sirois & Pychyl, 2013), and greater task aversiveness as a result of these emotions is associated with greater behavioural delay (Blunt & Pychyl, 2000). These negative emotions can arise separately as a result of unique tasks, but are also often linked to chronic dispositions such as perfectionism, low self-efficacy, or even simply pre-existing negative emotions; research indicates that individuals with negative emotions such as shame or guilt due to previous failures are re-exposed to these negative feelings when thinking about task initiation (Wäschle et al., 2014). == Procrastination == Procrastination can be distinguished from impaired task initiation in that it is a specific form of delay in which intended actions are unnecessarily postponed despite foreseeable adverse consequences. Despite being defined as a voluntary choice, it is often examined and discussed in relation to failures of self-regulation, and thus may be heavily influenced by non-conscious emotional regulation processes. === Self-regulation === Steel (2007) identifies procrastination as a failure of self-regulation, with strong associative factors of task aversiveness, task delay, self-efficacy, and impulsiveness, as well as facets of conscientiousness such as self-control, distractibility, organisation, and achievement motivation. These effects are stated to be consistent with temporal motivation theory; similarly, while Sirois and Pychyl (2013), focus primarily on procrastination as a form of short-term emotional regulation, observe procrastination as being influenced by cognitive processes such as temporal discounting. ==== Temporal motivation theory ==== Temporal motivation theory acts as a comprehensive motivational framework, incorporating core elements of expectancy theory, hyperbolic discounting, need theory, and cumulative prospect theory, with an emphasis on time as a critical motivational factor (Steel & König, 2006). The theory posits the following formula for understanding motivation: <math>Motivation = {Expectancy \times Value\over 1+Impulsiveness\times Delay}</math> with motivation as the desire for a specific outcome, expectancy as the perceived chance of success, value as the desire or benefit attached to the outcome, impulsiveness as individual sensitivity to delay, and delay as the amount of time remaining to complete the task. This formula provides critical insight into the nature of time and deadlines upon motivation and subsequent procrastination: far-off rewards or consequences decrease motivation to initiate tasks, while individual differences are accounted for via impulsiveness. As deadlines approach and delay shrinks, motivation increases exponentially, leading to a decrease in procrastination and an increase in likelihood to initiate the deadline-bound task. However, as with task initiation as a broader concept, procrastination is also influenced by emotional factors. === Emotional regulation === Sirois and Pychyl (2013) argue that procrastination is used as short-term mood regulation and repair: temporarily avoiding an aversive task momentarily improves mood while transferring costs to the future self. Skinner (1963) conceptualised negative reinforcement, in which behaviour is strengthened through the removal of an aversive stimulus. Applied here, procrastination may lead to a reinforcement cycle: an aversive task produces a negative emotion, leading to avoidance, which provides immediate emotional relief and thus makes future avoidance more likely as the behaviour is strengthened. == Neurodivergence and task initiation == Various psychological and neurodevelopmental conditions - often broadly referred to under the umbrella term, "neurodivergence" - are partly characterised by or may result in impaired task initiation. Mechanisms such as executive dysfunction, reward system dysregulation, altered effort costs, and demand avoidance are common issues in individuals with such conditions. === Neurodevelopmental conditions === Individuals diagnosed with neurodevelopmental conditions such as attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and autism spectrum disorder (ASD) often report difficulties with task initiation. Associations have consistently been found between ADHD symptoms and procrastination, particularly with inattention, and to a lesser extent with executive dysfunction, emotional dysregulation, and impaired motivational processes (Suriano, 2026). Executive dysfunction is also common in autism, with difficulties indicated in areas including cognitive flexibility, attention, working memory, and inhibition (Ceruti et al., 2024); the term autistic inertia has been used to specifically describe difficulties in task initiation in autism, with research showing that autistic individuals report increased difficulty in starting, stopping, and switching activities, even in instances where they intended or wanted to act but nevertheless experienced difficulty doing so (Buckle et al., 2021). === Psychiatric conditions === Individuals diagnosed with psychiatric disorders may also experience difficulties with task initiation, although the underlying mechanisms can differ from those associated with neurodevelopmental conditions. In major depressive disorder (MDD), anhedonia and chronically reduced motivation may contribute to impaired task initiation through a reduced willingness to expend cognitive and physical effort for rewards (Horne et al., 2021). Avolition, defined as a severe and persistent decrease in the ability to start and sustain self-directed goal-oriented activities, is considered as an important negative symptom of schizophrenia (DeRosse et al., 2019). Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) may also interfere with task initiation, with symptoms of pathological doubt, uncertainty, and impaired decision making potentially contributing to delays in beginning an activity (Nisticò et al., 2021). ==Improving task initiation == Various cognitive and behavioural strategies and implementations have been proposed to improve task initiation. As difficulties with task initiation have been identified as arising from executive, motivational, and emotional factors, these interventions are typically aimed at the specific mechanisms preventing action. These strategies include implementation intentions, task decomposition, self-efficacy, emotional regulation, cognitive behavioural therapy, distraction minimisation, and other minor actionable strategies. === Cognitive strategies to improve task initiation === Cognitive inhibitions to task initiation may include the intention-action gap, difficulties in actionable task visualisation, and limited cognitive resources. Strategies addressing these barriers include implementation intentions, task decomposition strategies, and cognitive offloading, respectively. ==== Implementation intentions ==== Implementation intentions (also known as "if-then planning") are a self-regulatory strategy conceptualized by Peter Gollwitzer as a result of his earlier work alongside Heinz Heckhausen on the Rubicon model of action phases. Unlike goal intentions, which specify a desired outcome (e.g., "I want to improve my fitness"), implementation actions specify the situational cues and subsequent behavioural response through which a goal will be pursued (e.g., "At 7:00pm, I will go for a run"). Within the Rubicon model, implementation actions are relevant to the transition between the pre-actional and actional phases. By linking situational cues to pre-planned responses, implementation intentions can improve task initiation by reducing reliance on conscious deliberation and turning goal-directed behaviour into a more streamlined, automatic process (Gollwitzer, 1999). ==== Task decomposition ==== Task decomposition is the process of deconstructing large, often abstract tasks into smaller, more concrete subtasks. As discussed previously, construal level theory highlights that low-level representations emphasise the specific means through which a task is actioned as opposed to its broader purpose (Trope & Liberman, 2010). Decomposition may therefore improve task initiation through improved task clarification, and has been shown to reduce cognitive computational demands through the facilitation of easier planning while also preserving effective performance (Correa et al., 2023). Other research indicates that subgoals can increase perceived attainability and motivation, particularly during the early stages of goal pursuit (Huang et al., 2017), thus providing further evidence for the benefits of task decomposition. ==== Cognitive offloading ==== Cognitive offloading is the process of reducing information processing requirements through the use of physical action or external tools (Risko & Gilbert, 2016). Physical tools such as calendars, written plans, and other visible reminders can reduce demands on internal memory, freeing cognitive resources that would otherwise have been required to maintain the information (Grinschgl et al., 2021). However, an overreliance on contemporary external tools such as generative AI has raised concerns regarding cognitive offloading and a decline due to reduced engagement in processes such as internal memory encoding, spatial skills, and critical thinking (American Psychological Association, 2026). === Motivational strategies to improve task initiation === Both motivational models such as expectancy value theory and neuroscientific models of cognitive-control allocation such as the expected value of control emphasise evaluations of potential value relative to costs. Similar principles appear in temporal motivation theory, in which motivation is influenced through expectancy, value, impulsiveness, and delay. Accordingly, strategies for increasing motivation and facilitating task initiation may involve increasing the perceived value of a task, increasing expectations of success, or reducing its perceived costs. Subjective task value may be increased by linking tasks to personally meaningful goals, interests, or future outcomes: research shows that encouraging students to connect specific academic tasks to personal interests promoted engagement, deep learning, and skill development (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2010). Expectancy may be strengthened by setting smaller, achievable goals, which has been shown to positively influence self-efficacy through repetitive successful performances, and also increases the perceived attainability of task completion (Schunk, 1984). Finally, reducing perceived costs may involve the previously mentioned task decomposition, which reduces task complexity through clearer immediate subtasks, thus decreasing the initial cognitive demands required. === Emotional strategies to improve task initiation === As task avoidance and procrastination are often associated with attempts to regulate aversive emotions, strategies for improving task initiation may involve greater emotional acceptance and improved emotional regulation. Acceptance of negative emotional experiences has been associated with reduced negative affect (Erisman & Roemer, 2010), while practicing the tolerance and modification of aversive emotions has been shown to reduce procrastination (Eckert et al., 2016). Furthermore, Wohl et al. (2010) found that greater levels of self-reported self-forgiveness was associated with lower levels of future procrastination. This may be particularly important in disrupting negative reinforcement cycles. The "Wall of Awful" is a non-scientific metaphor often used to conceptualise the emotional barrier to task initiation that may accumulate as a result of these cycles. === Further strategies === Further strategies for improving task initiation involve modifications to physical and social environments, as well as psychotherapeutic interventions as an integrative framework, as opposed to directly targeting individual cognitive, emotional, or motivational mechanisms. ==== Environmental and social changes ==== Changes to an individual's environment may facilitate task initiation. Removing prominent distractions such as digital devices like phones, unrelated projects, unfinished chores, or other stimuli that compete for attention may decrease the inhibitory control required to focus on necessary tasks. Research indicates that even the presence of one's own smartphone may occupy cognitive resources, even when conscious attention is not being paid to it (Ward et al., 2017). Another strategy is to increase external accountability through altering one's social environment. Elements such as study partners and scheduled commitments can make consequences more tangible while also providing external cues for action [source]. ==== Psychotherapeutic interventions ==== Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) may be used to treat individuals who struggle with chronic procrastination, thus potentially improving overall task initiation. Rozental et al. (2018) demonstrated CBT as an effective method for treating procrastination, with the intervention including techniques such as psychoeducation, goal setting and behavioural activation, strategies to strengthen self-efficacy, stimulus control and distraction management, assertiveness training, and cognitive restructuring. Overall, CBT functions as a broader therapeutic framework in which several previously discussed strategies to improving task initiation are integrated. == Conclusion == == See also == * ==References== {{Hanging indent|1=Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50(2), 179–211. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/0749-5978(91)90020-T Blunt, A. K., & Pychyl, T. A. (2000). Task aversiveness and procrastination: a multi-dimensional approach to task aversiveness across stages of personal projects. Personality and Individual Differences, 28(1), 153–167. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0191-8869(99)00091-4 Ceruti, C., Mingozzi, A., Scionti, N., & Marzocchi, G. M. (2024). Comparing Executive Functions in Children and Adolescents with Autism and ADHD—A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Children, 11(4), 473. https://doi.org/10.3390/children11040473 Diamond, A. (2013). Executive functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64(1), 135–168. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750 Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153 Gollwitzer, P. M. (1999). Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans. American Psychologist, 54(7), 493–503. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.54.7.493 Grinschgl, S., Papenmeier, F., & Meyerhoff, H. S. (2021). Consequences of cognitive offloading: Boosting performance but diminishing memory. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 74(9), 1477–1496. https://doi.org/10.1177/17470218211008060 Heckhausen, H., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (1987). Thought contents and cognitive functioning in motivational versus volitional states of mind. Motivation and Emotion, 11(2), 101–120. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00992338 Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000). The Unity and Diversity of Executive Functions and Their Contributions to Complex “Frontal Lobe” Tasks: A Latent Variable Analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41(1), 49–100. https://doi.org/10.1006/cogp.1999.0734 Risko, E. F., & Gilbert, S. J. (2016). Cognitive offloading. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 20(9), 676–688. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2016.07.002 Shenhav, A., Botvinick, M. M., & Cohen, J. D. (2013). The Expected Value of Control: An Integrative Theory of Anterior Cingulate Cortex Function. Neuron, 79(2), 217–240. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2013.07.007 Sirois, F., & Pychyl, T. (2013). Procrastination and the Priority of Short-Term Mood Regulation: Consequences for Future Self. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 7(2), 115–127. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12011 Skinner, B. F. (1963). Operant Behaviour. Psycnet.Apa.Org. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1964-03372-001 Stead, R., Shanahan, M. J., & Neufeld, R. W. J. (2010). “I’ll go to therapy, eventually”: Procrastination, stress and mental health. Personality and Individual Differences, 49(3), 175–180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.03.028 Steel, P. (2007). The nature of procrastination: A meta-analytic and theoretical review of quintessential self-regulatory failure. Psychological Bulletin, 133(1), 65–94. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.65 Steel, P., & König, C. J. (2006). Integrating Theories of Motivation. Academy of Management Review, 31(4), 889–913. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.2006.22527462 Suriano, R. (2026). A systematic review on the association between ADHD and procrastination. In Research in developmental disabilities (Vol. 175, p. 105342). PubMed. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2026.105342 Trope, Y., & Liberman, N. (2010). Construal-Level Theory of Psychological Distance. Psychological Review, 117(2), 440–463. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018963 Ward, A. F., Duke, K., Gneezy, A., & Bos, M. W. (2017). Brain drain: The mere presence of one’s own smartphone reduces available cognitive capacity. Journal of the Association for Consumer Research, 2(2), 140–154. https://doi.org/10.1086/691462 Wäschle, K., Allgaier, A., Lachner, A., Fink, S., & Nückles, M. (2014). Procrastination and self-efficacy: Tracing vicious and virtuous circles in self-regulated learning. Learning and Instruction, 29, 103–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2013.09.005 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }} == External links == * [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Goal pursuit]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Procrastination]] dp12gswgqebz281vfhpixdye37yguhw 2836417 2836412 2026-10-07T03:18:54Z U3286643 3106304 nearly finished references list 2836417 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Getting started:<br>Why is task initiation difficult and how to overcome it?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Scrolling on phone (cropped).jpg||thumb|right|150px|'''Figure 1''' An individual scrolling on their phone]] ;Scenario John is a university student with an assignment due in five days which he has not started. Despite knowing that he needs to begin the assignment soon in order to have it completed by the due date, he finds the prospect of starting the assignment daunting, and so continues engaging in alternative activities, such as scrolling on social media, to avoid beginning the assignment (see Figure 1). John is struggling with task initiation, and is using procrastination as a coping behaviour to manage his negative feelings associated with starting the assignment. {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[w:Executive_functions|Executive functions]] are a set of [https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-top-down-processing-2795975 top-down cognitive processes] that support [[w:Goal|goal]]-directed [[w:Behavior|behaviour]]. Diamond (2013) identifies inhibition, working memory, and cognitive flexibility as the three core executive functions, with higher-order functions being derived from these, such as reasoning, problem solving, and planning. However, there is no universally agreed-upon [[w:Taxonomy|taxonomy]] due to differences in definitions, labels, and groups across theoretical models. One proposed higher-order executive function is task initiation. Task initiation is the ability of an individual to begin a specific task at a desired time without unnecessary hesitation or delay. Task initiation can be inhibited by various [[w:Cognition|cognitive]], [[w:Emotion|emotional]], and [[w:Motivation|motivational]] factors. For example, task initiation can quickly become difficult when tasks are associated with negative emotions such as [[w:Anxiety|anxiety]], [[w:Shame|shame]], or [[w:Psychological_stress|stress]]; when tasks fail to inspire motivation because they are perceived perceived as low-priority or overly abstract; or when an individual experiences cognitive factors that impair executive functioning. Impaired task initiation is often associated with [[w:Procrastination|procrastination]], defined as the voluntary delay of an intended course of action despite expecting negative consequences from that delay (Steel, 2007). Although there is overlap between the concepts, difficulties in task initiation refer more broadly to problems translating intentions into action, whereas procrastination represents one particular form of delayed goal-directed behaviour. Individuals who experience chronic difficulties with task initiation and procrastination may experience adverse mental health outcomes such as [[w:Chronic_stress|chronic stress]] and increased anxiety and [[w:Depression_(mood)|depression]] (Stead et al., 2010) as well as decreased performance in academic or workplace environments (Steel, 2007). Understanding the cognitive and psychological elements of task initiation and the various mechanisms underlying these domains can help to bolster task initiation in individuals – such as through the development of mitigation strategies and measures for procrastination, for example – thus reducing the negative impact of impaired task initiation on individuals' lives. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What cognitive processes underlie task initiation? * How do motivational and emotional factors influence task initiation? * How is task initiation related to procrastination? * How can psychological disorders impair task initiation? * How can task initiation be improved? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Cognitive processes and theories == Task initiation can be examined as functioning through interactions between core executive functions. Working memory involves monitoring and revising relevant information, inhibitory control involves suppressing competing responses, and cognitive flexibility allows shifting between tasks or mental sets (Miyake et al., 2000), all of which represent important factors in successful task initiation. However, intention to initiate a task does not always translate to induced behaviour, and various cognitive models and theories offer explanations for this discrepancy. Notable among these include the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) and the Rubicon model of action phases. === Theory of planned behaviour === [[File:Theory of planned behaviour.png|thumb|350x350px|'''Figure 2''' Diagram of the Theory of Planned Behaviour ]] The theory of planned behaviour proposes that attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control jointly contribute to shape an individual's behavioural intention, which is then theorised to be the most immediate determinant of behaviour (Ajzen, 1991). However, perceived behavioural control - often conceptually related or compared to self-efficacy - is also stated as directly interacting with behaviour due to the dependence of behaviour on whether an individual has sufficient control over performing it (see Figure 2), a relationship that is stated within the model as being strongest when perceived control reasonably reflects actual control. Thus, this can lead to an intention-action gap: favourable attitudes and supportive norms may generate an intention to begin a task, but insufficient perceived or actual behavioural control can prevent that intention from being translated into action. === Rubicon model of action phases === The Rubicon model of action phases divides the process from intention to action into four phases: pre-decisional (choosing between potential goals through weighing their feasibility and desirability), pre-actional (planning the implementation of the chosen goal), actional (executing the plan) and post-actional (evaluating outcomes against initial goals and subsequently adjusting future behaviour) (Heckhausen & Gollwitzer, 1987). The model therefore provides another framework for understanding the intention-action gap: after forming a goal intention, an individual may still fail to progress from the pre-actional to the actional phase, resulting in an intended behaviour that is not successfully initiated. === Construal level theory (CLT) === An additional cognitive factor influencing task initiation is mental representation. Construal level theory is a psychological framework centred around the concept of psychological distance, and it distinguishes between high-level, abstract representations and low-level, concrete representations. High-level representations revolve around task purpose, value, and reward, and may boost motivation, but also delay initiation due to a lack of operational starting points; low-level representations decrease this friction through an emphasis on practical and logistical steps, and thus representing a task in this way may increase task initiation through making the immediate actions required to begin it more apparent (Trope & Liberman, 2010). == Motivational and emotional barriers == Motivation and emotion are two psychological areas of study which both pertain to task initiation and may be examined to understand how and why task initiation can become difficult. [Expand?] === Motivation === Task initiation is partly dependent on motivational influences such as the anticipated benefit of the task, the perceived likelihood of success, and the costs associated with performing it. Expectancy-value theory proposes that the expected outcomes and subjective value placed upon tasks by individuals heavily influence choice and persistence in relation to tasks (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). Similarly, self-efficacy theory proposes that individuals' efficacy expectations are the major determinant in relation to goal setting, task choice, effort expenditure, and persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Additionally, neurological theories such as the expected value of control (EVC) propose that the brain weighs anticipated rewards against the costs of metabolic and cognitive exertion and allocates cognitive control accordingly, thus providing an additional explanation for why task initiation may be inhibited for demanding tasks even if they have been appraised as valuable and achievable (Shenhav et al., 2013). === Emotion === Task initiation is also dependent on anticipatory emotions associated with the task. Aversion to negative emotions such as boredom, frustration, resentment, stress, and anxiety decreases the likelihood of task initiation (Sirois & Pychyl, 2013), and greater task aversiveness as a result of these emotions is associated with greater behavioural delay (Blunt & Pychyl, 2000). These negative emotions can arise separately as a result of unique tasks, but are also often linked to chronic dispositions such as perfectionism, low self-efficacy, or even simply pre-existing negative emotions; research indicates that individuals with negative emotions such as shame or guilt due to previous failures are re-exposed to these negative feelings when thinking about task initiation (Wäschle et al., 2014). == Procrastination == Procrastination can be distinguished from impaired task initiation in that it is a specific form of delay in which intended actions are unnecessarily postponed despite foreseeable adverse consequences. Despite being defined as a voluntary choice, it is often examined and discussed in relation to failures of self-regulation, and thus may be heavily influenced by non-conscious emotional regulation processes. === Self-regulation === Steel (2007) identifies procrastination as a failure of self-regulation, with strong associative factors of task aversiveness, task delay, self-efficacy, and impulsiveness, as well as facets of conscientiousness such as self-control, distractibility, organisation, and achievement motivation. These effects are stated to be consistent with temporal motivation theory; similarly, while Sirois and Pychyl (2013), focus primarily on procrastination as a form of short-term emotional regulation, observe procrastination as being influenced by cognitive processes such as temporal discounting. ==== Temporal motivation theory ==== Temporal motivation theory acts as a comprehensive motivational framework, incorporating core elements of expectancy theory, hyperbolic discounting, need theory, and cumulative prospect theory, with an emphasis on time as a critical motivational factor (Steel & König, 2006). The theory posits the following formula for understanding motivation: <math>Motivation = {Expectancy \times Value\over 1+Impulsiveness\times Delay}</math> with motivation as the desire for a specific outcome, expectancy as the perceived chance of success, value as the desire or benefit attached to the outcome, impulsiveness as individual sensitivity to delay, and delay as the amount of time remaining to complete the task. This formula provides critical insight into the nature of time and deadlines upon motivation and subsequent procrastination: far-off rewards or consequences decrease motivation to initiate tasks, while individual differences are accounted for via impulsiveness. As deadlines approach and delay shrinks, motivation increases exponentially, leading to a decrease in procrastination and an increase in likelihood to initiate the deadline-bound task. However, as with task initiation as a broader concept, procrastination is also influenced by emotional factors. === Emotional regulation === Sirois and Pychyl (2013) argue that procrastination is used as short-term mood regulation and repair: temporarily avoiding an aversive task momentarily improves mood while transferring costs to the future self. Skinner (1963) conceptualised negative reinforcement, in which behaviour is strengthened through the removal of an aversive stimulus. Applied here, procrastination may lead to a reinforcement cycle: an aversive task produces a negative emotion, leading to avoidance, which provides immediate emotional relief and thus makes future avoidance more likely as the behaviour is strengthened. == Neurodivergence and task initiation == Various psychological and neurodevelopmental conditions - often broadly referred to under the umbrella term, "neurodivergence" - are partly characterised by or may result in impaired task initiation. Mechanisms such as executive dysfunction, reward system dysregulation, altered effort costs, and demand avoidance are common issues in individuals with such conditions. === Neurodevelopmental conditions === Individuals diagnosed with neurodevelopmental conditions such as attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and autism spectrum disorder (ASD) often report difficulties with task initiation. Associations have consistently been found between ADHD symptoms and procrastination, particularly with inattention, and to a lesser extent with executive dysfunction, emotional dysregulation, and impaired motivational processes (Suriano, 2026). Executive dysfunction is also common in autism, with difficulties indicated in areas including cognitive flexibility, attention, working memory, and inhibition (Ceruti et al., 2024); the term autistic inertia has been used to specifically describe difficulties in task initiation in autism, with research showing that autistic individuals report increased difficulty in starting, stopping, and switching activities, even in instances where they intended or wanted to act but nevertheless experienced difficulty doing so (Buckle et al., 2021). === Psychiatric conditions === Individuals diagnosed with psychiatric disorders may also experience difficulties with task initiation, although the underlying mechanisms can differ from those associated with neurodevelopmental conditions. In major depressive disorder (MDD), anhedonia and chronically reduced motivation may contribute to impaired task initiation through a reduced willingness to expend cognitive and physical effort for rewards (Horne et al., 2021). Avolition, defined as a severe and persistent decrease in the ability to start and sustain self-directed goal-oriented activities, is considered as an important negative symptom of schizophrenia (DeRosse et al., 2019). Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) may also interfere with task initiation, with symptoms of pathological doubt, uncertainty, and impaired decision making potentially contributing to delays in beginning an activity (Nisticò et al., 2021). ==Improving task initiation == Various cognitive and behavioural strategies and implementations have been proposed to improve task initiation. As difficulties with task initiation have been identified as arising from executive, motivational, and emotional factors, these interventions are typically aimed at the specific mechanisms preventing action. These strategies include implementation intentions, task decomposition, self-efficacy, emotional regulation, cognitive behavioural therapy, distraction minimisation, and other minor actionable strategies. === Cognitive strategies to improve task initiation === Cognitive inhibitions to task initiation may include the intention-action gap, difficulties in actionable task visualisation, and limited cognitive resources. Strategies addressing these barriers include implementation intentions, task decomposition strategies, and cognitive offloading, respectively. ==== Implementation intentions ==== Implementation intentions (also known as "if-then planning") are a self-regulatory strategy conceptualized by Peter Gollwitzer as a result of his earlier work alongside Heinz Heckhausen on the Rubicon model of action phases. Unlike goal intentions, which specify a desired outcome (e.g., "I want to improve my fitness"), implementation actions specify the situational cues and subsequent behavioural response through which a goal will be pursued (e.g., "At 7:00pm, I will go for a run"). Within the Rubicon model, implementation actions are relevant to the transition between the pre-actional and actional phases. By linking situational cues to pre-planned responses, implementation intentions can improve task initiation by reducing reliance on conscious deliberation and turning goal-directed behaviour into a more streamlined, automatic process (Gollwitzer, 1999). ==== Task decomposition ==== Task decomposition is the process of deconstructing large, often abstract tasks into smaller, more concrete subtasks. As discussed previously, construal level theory highlights that low-level representations emphasise the specific means through which a task is actioned as opposed to its broader purpose (Trope & Liberman, 2010). Decomposition may therefore improve task initiation through improved task clarification, and has also been shown to reduce cognitive computational demands through the facilitation of easier planning while also preserving effective performance (Correa et al., 2023). Other research indicates that subgoals can increase perceived attainability and motivation, particularly during the early stages of goal pursuit (Huang et al., 2017), thus providing further evidence for the benefits of task decomposition. ==== Cognitive offloading ==== Cognitive offloading is the process of reducing information processing requirements through the use of physical action or external tools (Risko & Gilbert, 2016). Physical tools such as calendars, written plans, and other visible reminders can reduce demands on internal memory, freeing cognitive resources that would otherwise have been required to maintain the information (Grinschgl et al., 2021). However, an overreliance on contemporary external tools such as generative AI has raised concerns regarding cognitive offloading and a decline due to reduced engagement in processes such as internal memory encoding, spatial skills, and critical thinking (American Psychological Association, 2026). === Motivational strategies to improve task initiation === Both motivational models such as expectancy value theory and neuroscientific models of cognitive-control allocation such as the expected value of control emphasise evaluations of potential value relative to costs. Similar principles appear in temporal motivation theory, in which motivation is influenced through expectancy, value, impulsiveness, and delay. Accordingly, strategies for increasing motivation and facilitating task initiation may involve increasing the perceived value of a task, increasing expectations of success, or reducing its perceived costs. Subjective task value may be increased by linking tasks to personally meaningful goals, interests, or future outcomes: research shows that encouraging students to connect specific academic tasks to personal interests has been shown to increase interest, engagement, and academic performance (Harackiewicz et al., 2014). Expectancy may be strengthened by setting smaller, achievable goals, which has been shown to positively influence self-efficacy through repetitive successful performances, and also increases the perceived attainability of task completion (Schunk, 1984). Finally, reducing perceived costs may involve the previously mentioned task decomposition, which reduces task complexity through clearer immediate subtasks, thus decreasing the initial cognitive demands required. === Emotional strategies to improve task initiation === As task avoidance and procrastination are often associated with attempts to regulate aversive emotions, strategies for improving task initiation may involve greater emotional acceptance and improved emotional regulation. Acceptance of negative emotional experiences has been associated with reduced negative affect (Erisman & Roemer, 2010), while practicing the tolerance and modification of aversive emotions has been shown to reduce procrastination (Eckert et al., 2016). Furthermore, Wohl et al. (2010) found that greater levels of self-reported self-forgiveness was associated with lower levels of future procrastination. This may be particularly important in disrupting negative reinforcement cycles. The "Wall of Awful" is a non-scientific metaphor often used to conceptualise the emotional barrier to task initiation that may accumulate as a result of these cycles. === Further strategies === Further strategies for improving task initiation involve modifications to physical and social environments, as well as psychotherapeutic interventions as an integrative framework, as opposed to directly targeting individual cognitive, emotional, or motivational mechanisms. ==== Environmental and social changes ==== Changes to an individual's environment may facilitate task initiation. Removing prominent distractions such as digital devices like phones, unrelated projects, unfinished chores, or other stimuli that compete for attention may decrease the inhibitory control required to focus on necessary tasks. Research indicates that even the presence of one's own smartphone may occupy cognitive resources, even when conscious attention is not being paid to it (Ward et al., 2017). Another strategy is to increase external accountability through altering one's social environment. Elements such as study partners and scheduled commitments can make consequences more tangible while also providing external cues for action [source]. ==== Psychotherapeutic interventions ==== Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) may be used to treat individuals who struggle with chronic procrastination, thus potentially improving overall task initiation. Rozental et al. (2018) demonstrated CBT as an effective method for treating procrastination, with the intervention including techniques such as psychoeducation, goal setting and behavioural activation, strategies to strengthen self-efficacy, stimulus control and distraction management, assertiveness training, and cognitive restructuring. Overall, CBT functions as a broader therapeutic framework in which several previously discussed strategies to improving task initiation are integrated. == Conclusion == == See also == * ==References== {{Hanging indent|1=Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50(2), 179–211. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/0749-5978(91)90020-T Blunt, A. K., & Pychyl, T. A. (2000). Task aversiveness and procrastination: a multi-dimensional approach to task aversiveness across stages of personal projects. Personality and Individual Differences, 28(1), 153–167. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0191-8869(99)00091-4 Buckle, K. L., Leadbitter, K., Poliakoff, E., & Gowen, E. (2021). “No Way Out Except From External Intervention”: First-Hand Accounts of Autistic Inertia. Frontiers in Psychology, 12(12). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.631596 Ceruti, C., Mingozzi, A., Scionti, N., & Marzocchi, G. M. (2024). Comparing Executive Functions in Children and Adolescents with Autism and ADHD—A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Children, 11(4), 473. https://doi.org/10.3390/children11040473 Correa, C. G., Ho, M. K., Callaway, F., Daw, N. D, & Griffiths, T. L. (2023). Humans decompose tasks by trading off utility and computational cost. PLOS Computational Biology, 19(6), e1011087–e1011087. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1011087 DeRosse, P., Barber, A. D., Fales, C. L., & Malhotra, A. K. (2019). Deconstructing Avolition: Initiation vs persistence of reward-directed effort. Psychiatry Research, 273, 647–652. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2019.01.073 Diamond, A. (2013). Executive functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64(1), 135–168. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750 Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153 Eckert, M., Ebert, D. D, Lehr, D., Bernhard, S., & Matthias, B. (2016). Overcome procrastination: Enhancing emotion regulation skills reduce procrastination. Learning and Individual Differences, 52, 10–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2016.10.001 Gollwitzer, P. M. (1999). Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans. American Psychologist, 54(7), 493–503. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.54.7.493 Grinschgl, S., Papenmeier, F., & Meyerhoff, H. S. (2021). Consequences of cognitive offloading: Boosting performance but diminishing memory. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 74(9), 1477–1496. https://doi.org/10.1177/17470218211008060 Harackiewicz, J. M., Tibbetts, Y., Canning, E., & Hyde, J. S. (2014). Harnessing Values to Promote Motivation in Education. In Motivational Interventions (Vol. 18). Emerald Group Publishing Limited. https://doi.org/10.1108/S0749-742320140000018002 Heckhausen, H., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (1987). Thought contents and cognitive functioning in motivational versus volitional states of mind. Motivation and Emotion, 11(2), 101–120. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00992338 Horne, S. J., Topp, T. E., & Quigley, L. (2021). Depression and the willingness to expend cognitive and physical effort for rewards: A systematic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 88, 102065. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2021.102065 Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000). The Unity and Diversity of Executive Functions and Their Contributions to Complex “Frontal Lobe” Tasks: A Latent Variable Analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41(1), 49–100. https://doi.org/10.1006/cogp.1999.0734 Nisticò, V., De Angelis, A., Erro, R., Demartini, B., & Ricciardi, L. (2021). Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder and Decision Making under Ambiguity: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis. In Brain sciences (Vol. 11, Issue 2, p. 143). PubMed. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11020143 Risko, E. F., & Gilbert, S. J. (2016). Cognitive offloading. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 20(9), 676–688. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2016.07.002 Rozental, A., Forsström, D., Lindner, P., Nilsson, S., Mårtensson, L., Rizzo, A., Andersson, G., & Carlbring, P. (2018). Treating Procrastination Using Cognitive Behavior Therapy: A Pragmatic Randomized Controlled Trial Comparing Treatment Delivered via the Internet or in Groups. Behavior Therapy, 49(2), 180–197. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2017.08.002 Schunk, D. H. (1984). Enhancing Self-Efficacy and Achievement Through Rewards and Goals: Motivational and Informational Effects. The Journal of Educational Research, 78(1), 29–34. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220671.1984.10885568 Shenhav, A., Botvinick, M. M., & Cohen, J. D. (2013). The Expected Value of Control: An Integrative Theory of Anterior Cingulate Cortex Function. Neuron, 79(2), 217–240. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2013.07.007 Sirois, F., & Pychyl, T. (2013). Procrastination and the Priority of Short-Term Mood Regulation: Consequences for Future Self. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 7(2), 115–127. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12011 Skinner, B. F. (1963). Operant Behaviour. Psycnet.Apa.Org. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1964-03372-001 Stead, R., Shanahan, M. J., & Neufeld, R. W. J. (2010). “I’ll go to therapy, eventually”: Procrastination, stress and mental health. Personality and Individual Differences, 49(3), 175–180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.03.028 Steel, P. (2007). The nature of procrastination: A meta-analytic and theoretical review of quintessential self-regulatory failure. Psychological Bulletin, 133(1), 65–94. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.65 Steel, P., & König, C. J. (2006). Integrating Theories of Motivation. Academy of Management Review, 31(4), 889–913. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.2006.22527462 Suriano, R. (2026). A systematic review on the association between ADHD and procrastination. In Research in developmental disabilities (Vol. 175, p. 105342). PubMed. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2026.105342 Trope, Y., & Liberman, N. (2010). Construal-Level Theory of Psychological Distance. Psychological Review, 117(2), 440–463. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018963 Ward, A. F., Duke, K., Gneezy, A., & Bos, M. W. (2017). Brain drain: The mere presence of one’s own smartphone reduces available cognitive capacity. Journal of the Association for Consumer Research, 2(2), 140–154. https://doi.org/10.1086/691462 Wäschle, K., Allgaier, A., Lachner, A., Fink, S., & Nückles, M. (2014). Procrastination and self-efficacy: Tracing vicious and virtuous circles in self-regulated learning. Learning and Instruction, 29, 103–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2013.09.005 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }} == External links == * [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Goal pursuit]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Procrastination]] sxf4lhxo0y70tbqbkbram8nl6l9ui2s 2836418 2836417 2026-10-07T03:20:49Z U3286643 3106304 added missing reference 2836418 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Getting started:<br>Why is task initiation difficult and how to overcome it?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Scrolling on phone (cropped).jpg||thumb|right|150px|'''Figure 1''' An individual scrolling on their phone]] ;Scenario John is a university student with an assignment due in five days which he has not started. Despite knowing that he needs to begin the assignment soon in order to have it completed by the due date, he finds the prospect of starting the assignment daunting, and so continues engaging in alternative activities, such as scrolling on social media, to avoid beginning the assignment (see Figure 1). John is struggling with task initiation, and is using procrastination as a coping behaviour to manage his negative feelings associated with starting the assignment. {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[w:Executive_functions|Executive functions]] are a set of [https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-top-down-processing-2795975 top-down cognitive processes] that support [[w:Goal|goal]]-directed [[w:Behavior|behaviour]]. Diamond (2013) identifies inhibition, working memory, and cognitive flexibility as the three core executive functions, with higher-order functions being derived from these, such as reasoning, problem solving, and planning. However, there is no universally agreed-upon [[w:Taxonomy|taxonomy]] due to differences in definitions, labels, and groups across theoretical models. One proposed higher-order executive function is task initiation. Task initiation is the ability of an individual to begin a specific task at a desired time without unnecessary hesitation or delay. Task initiation can be inhibited by various [[w:Cognition|cognitive]], [[w:Emotion|emotional]], and [[w:Motivation|motivational]] factors. For example, task initiation can quickly become difficult when tasks are associated with negative emotions such as [[w:Anxiety|anxiety]], [[w:Shame|shame]], or [[w:Psychological_stress|stress]]; when tasks fail to inspire motivation because they are perceived perceived as low-priority or overly abstract; or when an individual experiences cognitive factors that impair executive functioning. Impaired task initiation is often associated with [[w:Procrastination|procrastination]], defined as the voluntary delay of an intended course of action despite expecting negative consequences from that delay (Steel, 2007). Although there is overlap between the concepts, difficulties in task initiation refer more broadly to problems translating intentions into action, whereas procrastination represents one particular form of delayed goal-directed behaviour. Individuals who experience chronic difficulties with task initiation and procrastination may experience adverse mental health outcomes such as [[w:Chronic_stress|chronic stress]] and increased anxiety and [[w:Depression_(mood)|depression]] (Stead et al., 2010) as well as decreased performance in academic or workplace environments (Steel, 2007). Understanding the cognitive and psychological elements of task initiation and the various mechanisms underlying these domains can help to bolster task initiation in individuals – such as through the development of mitigation strategies and measures for procrastination, for example – thus reducing the negative impact of impaired task initiation on individuals' lives. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What cognitive processes underlie task initiation? * How do motivational and emotional factors influence task initiation? * How is task initiation related to procrastination? * How can psychological disorders impair task initiation? * How can task initiation be improved? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Cognitive processes and theories == Task initiation can be examined as functioning through interactions between core executive functions. Working memory involves monitoring and revising relevant information, inhibitory control involves suppressing competing responses, and cognitive flexibility allows shifting between tasks or mental sets (Miyake et al., 2000), all of which represent important factors in successful task initiation. However, intention to initiate a task does not always translate to induced behaviour, and various cognitive models and theories offer explanations for this discrepancy. Notable among these include the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) and the Rubicon model of action phases. === Theory of planned behaviour === [[File:Theory of planned behaviour.png|thumb|350x350px|'''Figure 2''' Diagram of the Theory of Planned Behaviour ]] The theory of planned behaviour proposes that attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control jointly contribute to shape an individual's behavioural intention, which is then theorised to be the most immediate determinant of behaviour (Ajzen, 1991). However, perceived behavioural control - often conceptually related or compared to self-efficacy - is also stated as directly interacting with behaviour due to the dependence of behaviour on whether an individual has sufficient control over performing it (see Figure 2), a relationship that is stated within the model as being strongest when perceived control reasonably reflects actual control. Thus, this can lead to an intention-action gap: favourable attitudes and supportive norms may generate an intention to begin a task, but insufficient perceived or actual behavioural control can prevent that intention from being translated into action. === Rubicon model of action phases === The Rubicon model of action phases divides the process from intention to action into four phases: pre-decisional (choosing between potential goals through weighing their feasibility and desirability), pre-actional (planning the implementation of the chosen goal), actional (executing the plan) and post-actional (evaluating outcomes against initial goals and subsequently adjusting future behaviour) (Heckhausen & Gollwitzer, 1987). The model therefore provides another framework for understanding the intention-action gap: after forming a goal intention, an individual may still fail to progress from the pre-actional to the actional phase, resulting in an intended behaviour that is not successfully initiated. === Construal level theory (CLT) === An additional cognitive factor influencing task initiation is mental representation. Construal level theory is a psychological framework centred around the concept of psychological distance, and it distinguishes between high-level, abstract representations and low-level, concrete representations. High-level representations revolve around task purpose, value, and reward, and may boost motivation, but also delay initiation due to a lack of operational starting points; low-level representations decrease this friction through an emphasis on practical and logistical steps, and thus representing a task in this way may increase task initiation through making the immediate actions required to begin it more apparent (Trope & Liberman, 2010). == Motivational and emotional barriers == Motivation and emotion are two psychological areas of study which both pertain to task initiation and may be examined to understand how and why task initiation can become difficult. [Expand?] === Motivation === Task initiation is partly dependent on motivational influences such as the anticipated benefit of the task, the perceived likelihood of success, and the costs associated with performing it. Expectancy-value theory proposes that the expected outcomes and subjective value placed upon tasks by individuals heavily influence choice and persistence in relation to tasks (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). Similarly, self-efficacy theory proposes that individuals' efficacy expectations are the major determinant in relation to goal setting, task choice, effort expenditure, and persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Additionally, neurological theories such as the expected value of control (EVC) propose that the brain weighs anticipated rewards against the costs of metabolic and cognitive exertion and allocates cognitive control accordingly, thus providing an additional explanation for why task initiation may be inhibited for demanding tasks even if they have been appraised as valuable and achievable (Shenhav et al., 2013). === Emotion === Task initiation is also dependent on anticipatory emotions associated with the task. Aversion to negative emotions such as boredom, frustration, resentment, stress, and anxiety decreases the likelihood of task initiation (Sirois & Pychyl, 2013), and greater task aversiveness as a result of these emotions is associated with greater behavioural delay (Blunt & Pychyl, 2000). These negative emotions can arise separately as a result of unique tasks, but are also often linked to chronic dispositions such as perfectionism, low self-efficacy, or even simply pre-existing negative emotions; research indicates that individuals with negative emotions such as shame or guilt due to previous failures are re-exposed to these negative feelings when thinking about task initiation (Wäschle et al., 2014). == Procrastination == Procrastination can be distinguished from impaired task initiation in that it is a specific form of delay in which intended actions are unnecessarily postponed despite foreseeable adverse consequences. Despite being defined as a voluntary choice, it is often examined and discussed in relation to failures of self-regulation, and thus may be heavily influenced by non-conscious emotional regulation processes. === Self-regulation === Steel (2007) identifies procrastination as a failure of self-regulation, with strong associative factors of task aversiveness, task delay, self-efficacy, and impulsiveness, as well as facets of conscientiousness such as self-control, distractibility, organisation, and achievement motivation. These effects are stated to be consistent with temporal motivation theory; similarly, while Sirois and Pychyl (2013), focus primarily on procrastination as a form of short-term emotional regulation, observe procrastination as being influenced by cognitive processes such as temporal discounting. ==== Temporal motivation theory ==== Temporal motivation theory acts as a comprehensive motivational framework, incorporating core elements of expectancy theory, hyperbolic discounting, need theory, and cumulative prospect theory, with an emphasis on time as a critical motivational factor (Steel & König, 2006). The theory posits the following formula for understanding motivation: <math>Motivation = {Expectancy \times Value\over 1+Impulsiveness\times Delay}</math> with motivation as the desire for a specific outcome, expectancy as the perceived chance of success, value as the desire or benefit attached to the outcome, impulsiveness as individual sensitivity to delay, and delay as the amount of time remaining to complete the task. This formula provides critical insight into the nature of time and deadlines upon motivation and subsequent procrastination: far-off rewards or consequences decrease motivation to initiate tasks, while individual differences are accounted for via impulsiveness. As deadlines approach and delay shrinks, motivation increases exponentially, leading to a decrease in procrastination and an increase in likelihood to initiate the deadline-bound task. However, as with task initiation as a broader concept, procrastination is also influenced by emotional factors. === Emotional regulation === Sirois and Pychyl (2013) argue that procrastination is used as short-term mood regulation and repair: temporarily avoiding an aversive task momentarily improves mood while transferring costs to the future self. Skinner (1963) conceptualised negative reinforcement, in which behaviour is strengthened through the removal of an aversive stimulus. Applied here, procrastination may lead to a reinforcement cycle: an aversive task produces a negative emotion, leading to avoidance, which provides immediate emotional relief and thus makes future avoidance more likely as the behaviour is strengthened. == Neurodivergence and task initiation == Various psychological and neurodevelopmental conditions - often broadly referred to under the umbrella term, "neurodivergence" - are partly characterised by or may result in impaired task initiation. Mechanisms such as executive dysfunction, reward system dysregulation, altered effort costs, and demand avoidance are common issues in individuals with such conditions. === Neurodevelopmental conditions === Individuals diagnosed with neurodevelopmental conditions such as attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and autism spectrum disorder (ASD) often report difficulties with task initiation. Associations have consistently been found between ADHD symptoms and procrastination, particularly with inattention, and to a lesser extent with executive dysfunction, emotional dysregulation, and impaired motivational processes (Suriano, 2026). Executive dysfunction is also common in autism, with difficulties indicated in areas including cognitive flexibility, attention, working memory, and inhibition (Ceruti et al., 2024); the term autistic inertia has been used to specifically describe difficulties in task initiation in autism, with research showing that autistic individuals report increased difficulty in starting, stopping, and switching activities, even in instances where they intended or wanted to act but nevertheless experienced difficulty doing so (Buckle et al., 2021). === Psychiatric conditions === Individuals diagnosed with psychiatric disorders may also experience difficulties with task initiation, although the underlying mechanisms can differ from those associated with neurodevelopmental conditions. In major depressive disorder (MDD), anhedonia and chronically reduced motivation may contribute to impaired task initiation through a reduced willingness to expend cognitive and physical effort for rewards (Horne et al., 2021). Avolition, defined as a severe and persistent decrease in the ability to start and sustain self-directed goal-oriented activities, is considered as an important negative symptom of schizophrenia (DeRosse et al., 2019). Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) may also interfere with task initiation, with symptoms of pathological doubt, uncertainty, and impaired decision making potentially contributing to delays in beginning an activity (Nisticò et al., 2021). ==Improving task initiation == Various cognitive and behavioural strategies and implementations have been proposed to improve task initiation. As difficulties with task initiation have been identified as arising from executive, motivational, and emotional factors, these interventions are typically aimed at the specific mechanisms preventing action. These strategies include implementation intentions, task decomposition, self-efficacy, emotional regulation, cognitive behavioural therapy, distraction minimisation, and other minor actionable strategies. === Cognitive strategies to improve task initiation === Cognitive inhibitions to task initiation may include the intention-action gap, difficulties in actionable task visualisation, and limited cognitive resources. Strategies addressing these barriers include implementation intentions, task decomposition strategies, and cognitive offloading, respectively. ==== Implementation intentions ==== Implementation intentions (also known as "if-then planning") are a self-regulatory strategy conceptualized by Peter Gollwitzer as a result of his earlier work alongside Heinz Heckhausen on the Rubicon model of action phases. Unlike goal intentions, which specify a desired outcome (e.g., "I want to improve my fitness"), implementation actions specify the situational cues and subsequent behavioural response through which a goal will be pursued (e.g., "At 7:00pm, I will go for a run"). Within the Rubicon model, implementation actions are relevant to the transition between the pre-actional and actional phases. By linking situational cues to pre-planned responses, implementation intentions can improve task initiation by reducing reliance on conscious deliberation and turning goal-directed behaviour into a more streamlined, automatic process (Gollwitzer, 1999). ==== Task decomposition ==== Task decomposition is the process of deconstructing large, often abstract tasks into smaller, more concrete subtasks. As discussed previously, construal level theory highlights that low-level representations emphasise the specific means through which a task is actioned as opposed to its broader purpose (Trope & Liberman, 2010). Decomposition may therefore improve task initiation through improved task clarification, and has also been shown to reduce cognitive computational demands through the facilitation of easier planning while also preserving effective performance (Correa et al., 2023). Other research indicates that subgoals can increase perceived attainability and motivation, particularly during the early stages of goal pursuit (Huang et al., 2017), thus providing further evidence for the benefits of task decomposition. ==== Cognitive offloading ==== Cognitive offloading is the process of reducing information processing requirements through the use of physical action or external tools (Risko & Gilbert, 2016). Physical tools such as calendars, written plans, and other visible reminders can reduce demands on internal memory, freeing cognitive resources that would otherwise have been required to maintain the information (Grinschgl et al., 2021). However, an overreliance on contemporary external tools such as generative AI has raised concerns regarding cognitive offloading and a decline due to reduced engagement in processes such as internal memory encoding, spatial skills, and critical thinking (American Psychological Association, 2026). === Motivational strategies to improve task initiation === Both motivational models such as expectancy value theory and neuroscientific models of cognitive-control allocation such as the expected value of control emphasise evaluations of potential value relative to costs. Similar principles appear in temporal motivation theory, in which motivation is influenced through expectancy, value, impulsiveness, and delay. Accordingly, strategies for increasing motivation and facilitating task initiation may involve increasing the perceived value of a task, increasing expectations of success, or reducing its perceived costs. Subjective task value may be increased by linking tasks to personally meaningful goals, interests, or future outcomes: research shows that encouraging students to connect specific academic tasks to personal interests has been shown to increase interest, engagement, and academic performance (Harackiewicz et al., 2014). Expectancy may be strengthened by setting smaller, achievable goals, which has been shown to positively influence self-efficacy through repetitive successful performances, and also increases the perceived attainability of task completion (Schunk, 1984). Finally, reducing perceived costs may involve the previously mentioned task decomposition, which reduces task complexity through clearer immediate subtasks, thus decreasing the initial cognitive demands required. === Emotional strategies to improve task initiation === As task avoidance and procrastination are often associated with attempts to regulate aversive emotions, strategies for improving task initiation may involve greater emotional acceptance and improved emotional regulation. Acceptance of negative emotional experiences has been associated with reduced negative affect (Erisman & Roemer, 2010), while practicing the tolerance and modification of aversive emotions has been shown to reduce procrastination (Eckert et al., 2016). Furthermore, Wohl et al. (2010) found that greater levels of self-reported self-forgiveness was associated with lower levels of future procrastination. This may be particularly important in disrupting negative reinforcement cycles. The "Wall of Awful" is a non-scientific metaphor often used to conceptualise the emotional barrier to task initiation that may accumulate as a result of these cycles. === Further strategies === Further strategies for improving task initiation involve modifications to physical and social environments, as well as psychotherapeutic interventions as an integrative framework, as opposed to directly targeting individual cognitive, emotional, or motivational mechanisms. ==== Environmental and social changes ==== Changes to an individual's environment may facilitate task initiation. Removing prominent distractions such as digital devices like phones, unrelated projects, unfinished chores, or other stimuli that compete for attention may decrease the inhibitory control required to focus on necessary tasks. Research indicates that even the presence of one's own smartphone may occupy cognitive resources, even when conscious attention is not being paid to it (Ward et al., 2017). Another strategy is to increase external accountability through altering one's social environment. Elements such as study partners and scheduled commitments can make consequences more tangible while also providing external cues for action [source]. ==== Psychotherapeutic interventions ==== Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) may be used to treat individuals who struggle with chronic procrastination, thus potentially improving overall task initiation. Rozental et al. (2018) demonstrated CBT as an effective method for treating procrastination, with the intervention including techniques such as psychoeducation, goal setting and behavioural activation, strategies to strengthen self-efficacy, stimulus control and distraction management, assertiveness training, and cognitive restructuring. Overall, CBT functions as a broader therapeutic framework in which several previously discussed strategies to improving task initiation are integrated. == Conclusion == == See also == * ==References== {{Hanging indent|1=Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50(2), 179–211. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/0749-5978(91)90020-T Blunt, A. K., & Pychyl, T. A. (2000). Task aversiveness and procrastination: a multi-dimensional approach to task aversiveness across stages of personal projects. Personality and Individual Differences, 28(1), 153–167. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0191-8869(99)00091-4 Buckle, K. L., Leadbitter, K., Poliakoff, E., & Gowen, E. (2021). “No Way Out Except From External Intervention”: First-Hand Accounts of Autistic Inertia. Frontiers in Psychology, 12(12). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.631596 Ceruti, C., Mingozzi, A., Scionti, N., & Marzocchi, G. M. (2024). Comparing Executive Functions in Children and Adolescents with Autism and ADHD—A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Children, 11(4), 473. https://doi.org/10.3390/children11040473 Correa, C. G., Ho, M. K., Callaway, F., Daw, N. D, & Griffiths, T. L. (2023). Humans decompose tasks by trading off utility and computational cost. PLOS Computational Biology, 19(6), e1011087–e1011087. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1011087 DeRosse, P., Barber, A. D., Fales, C. L., & Malhotra, A. K. (2019). Deconstructing Avolition: Initiation vs persistence of reward-directed effort. Psychiatry Research, 273, 647–652. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2019.01.073 Diamond, A. (2013). Executive functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64(1), 135–168. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750 Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153 Eckert, M., Ebert, D. D, Lehr, D., Bernhard, S., & Matthias, B. (2016). Overcome procrastination: Enhancing emotion regulation skills reduce procrastination. Learning and Individual Differences, 52, 10–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2016.10.001 Huang, S., Jin, L., & Zhang, Y. (2017). Step by step: Sub-goals as a source of motivation. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 141, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2017.05.001 Gollwitzer, P. M. (1999). Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans. American Psychologist, 54(7), 493–503. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.54.7.493 Grinschgl, S., Papenmeier, F., & Meyerhoff, H. S. (2021). Consequences of cognitive offloading: Boosting performance but diminishing memory. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 74(9), 1477–1496. https://doi.org/10.1177/17470218211008060 Harackiewicz, J. M., Tibbetts, Y., Canning, E., & Hyde, J. S. (2014). Harnessing Values to Promote Motivation in Education. In Motivational Interventions (Vol. 18). Emerald Group Publishing Limited. https://doi.org/10.1108/S0749-742320140000018002 Heckhausen, H., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (1987). Thought contents and cognitive functioning in motivational versus volitional states of mind. Motivation and Emotion, 11(2), 101–120. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00992338 Horne, S. J., Topp, T. E., & Quigley, L. (2021). Depression and the willingness to expend cognitive and physical effort for rewards: A systematic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 88, 102065. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2021.102065 Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000). The Unity and Diversity of Executive Functions and Their Contributions to Complex “Frontal Lobe” Tasks: A Latent Variable Analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41(1), 49–100. https://doi.org/10.1006/cogp.1999.0734 Nisticò, V., De Angelis, A., Erro, R., Demartini, B., & Ricciardi, L. (2021). Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder and Decision Making under Ambiguity: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis. In Brain sciences (Vol. 11, Issue 2, p. 143). PubMed. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11020143 Risko, E. F., & Gilbert, S. J. (2016). Cognitive offloading. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 20(9), 676–688. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2016.07.002 Rozental, A., Forsström, D., Lindner, P., Nilsson, S., Mårtensson, L., Rizzo, A., Andersson, G., & Carlbring, P. (2018). Treating Procrastination Using Cognitive Behavior Therapy: A Pragmatic Randomized Controlled Trial Comparing Treatment Delivered via the Internet or in Groups. Behavior Therapy, 49(2), 180–197. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2017.08.002 Schunk, D. H. (1984). Enhancing Self-Efficacy and Achievement Through Rewards and Goals: Motivational and Informational Effects. The Journal of Educational Research, 78(1), 29–34. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220671.1984.10885568 Shenhav, A., Botvinick, M. M., & Cohen, J. D. (2013). The Expected Value of Control: An Integrative Theory of Anterior Cingulate Cortex Function. Neuron, 79(2), 217–240. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2013.07.007 Sirois, F., & Pychyl, T. (2013). Procrastination and the Priority of Short-Term Mood Regulation: Consequences for Future Self. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 7(2), 115–127. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12011 Skinner, B. F. (1963). Operant Behaviour. Psycnet.Apa.Org. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1964-03372-001 Stead, R., Shanahan, M. J., & Neufeld, R. W. J. (2010). “I’ll go to therapy, eventually”: Procrastination, stress and mental health. Personality and Individual Differences, 49(3), 175–180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.03.028 Steel, P. (2007). The nature of procrastination: A meta-analytic and theoretical review of quintessential self-regulatory failure. Psychological Bulletin, 133(1), 65–94. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.65 Steel, P., & König, C. J. (2006). Integrating Theories of Motivation. Academy of Management Review, 31(4), 889–913. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.2006.22527462 Suriano, R. (2026). A systematic review on the association between ADHD and procrastination. In Research in developmental disabilities (Vol. 175, p. 105342). PubMed. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2026.105342 Trope, Y., & Liberman, N. (2010). Construal-Level Theory of Psychological Distance. Psychological Review, 117(2), 440–463. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018963 Ward, A. F., Duke, K., Gneezy, A., & Bos, M. W. (2017). Brain drain: The mere presence of one’s own smartphone reduces available cognitive capacity. Journal of the Association for Consumer Research, 2(2), 140–154. https://doi.org/10.1086/691462 Wäschle, K., Allgaier, A., Lachner, A., Fink, S., & Nückles, M. (2014). Procrastination and self-efficacy: Tracing vicious and virtuous circles in self-regulated learning. Learning and Instruction, 29, 103–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2013.09.005 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }} == External links == * [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Goal pursuit]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Procrastination]] 0b1a1sbpgkf2n56gpqbvh7lw7w0kv6k 2836425 2836418 2026-10-07T03:50:42Z U3286643 3106304 generative ai acknowledgement: raw text was submitted to microsoft copilot, and asked to check for any grammar, spelling, or punctuation errors. Several were found and updated accordingly. 2836425 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Getting started:<br>Why is task initiation difficult and how to overcome it?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Scrolling on phone (cropped).jpg||thumb|right|150px|'''Figure 1''' An individual scrolling on their phone]] ;Scenario John is a university student with an assignment that is due in five days which he has not started. Despite knowing that he needs to begin the assignment soon in order to have it completed by the due date, he finds the prospect of starting the assignment daunting, and so continues engaging in alternative activities, such as scrolling on social media, to avoid beginning the assignment (see Figure 1). John is struggling with task initiation and is using procrastination as a coping behaviour to manage his negative feelings associated with starting the assignment. {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[w:Executive_functions|Executive functions]] are a set of [https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-top-down-processing-2795975 top-down cognitive processes] that support [[w:Goal|goal]]-directed [[w:Behavior|behaviour]]. Diamond (2013) identifies inhibition, working memory, and cognitive flexibility as the three core executive functions, with higher-order functions being derived from these, such as reasoning, problem solving, and planning. However, there is no universally agreed-upon [[w:Taxonomy|taxonomy]] due to differences in definitions, labels, and groupings across theoretical models. One proposed higher-order executive function is task initiation. Task initiation is the ability of an individual to begin a specific task at a desired time without unnecessary hesitation or delay. Task initiation can be inhibited by various [[w:Cognition|cognitive]], [[w:Emotion|emotional]], and [[w:Motivation|motivational]] factors. For example, task initiation can quickly become difficult when tasks are associated with negative emotions such as [[w:Anxiety|anxiety]], [[w:Shame|shame]], or [[w:Psychological_stress|stress]]; when tasks fail to inspire motivation because they are perceived as low-priority or overly abstract; or when an individual experiences cognitive factors that impair executive functioning. Impaired task initiation is often associated with [[w:Procrastination|procrastination]], defined as the voluntary delay of an intended course of action despite expecting negative consequences from that delay (Steel, 2007). Although there is overlap between the concepts, difficulties in task initiation refer more broadly to problems translating intentions into action, whereas procrastination represents one particular form of delayed goal-directed behaviour. Individuals who experience chronic difficulties with task initiation and procrastination may experience adverse outcomes such as greater stress and poorer mental health (Stead et al., 2010) as well as decreased performance in academic or workplace environments (Steel, 2007). Understanding the cognitive and psychological elements of task initiation and the various mechanisms underlying these domains can help to bolster task initiation in individuals – such as through the development of mitigation strategies and measures for procrastination – thus reducing the negative impact of impaired task initiation on individuals' lives. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What cognitive processes underlie task initiation? * How do motivational and emotional factors influence task initiation? * How is task initiation related to procrastination? * How can psychological disorders impair task initiation? * How can task initiation be improved? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Cognitive processes and theories == Task initiation can be examined as functioning through interactions between core executive functions. Working memory involves monitoring and revising relevant information, inhibitory control involves suppressing competing responses, and cognitive flexibility allows shifting between tasks or mental sets (Miyake et al., 2000), all of which represent important factors in successful task initiation. However, intention to initiate a task does not always translate into action, and various cognitive models and theories offer explanations for this discrepancy. Notable among these include the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) and the Rubicon model of action phases. === Theory of planned behaviour === [[File:Theory of planned behaviour.png|thumb|350x350px|'''Figure 2''' Diagram of the Theory of Planned Behaviour ]] The theory of planned behaviour proposes that attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control jointly shape an individual's behavioural intention, which is then theorised to be the most immediate determinant of behaviour (Ajzen, 1991). However, perceived behavioural control - often conceptually related or compared to self-efficacy - is also stated as directly influencing behaviour due to the dependence of behaviour on whether an individual has sufficient control over performing it (see Figure 2), a relationship that is stated within the model as being strongest when perceived control reasonably reflects actual control. Thus, this can lead to an intention-action gap: favourable attitudes and supportive norms may generate an intention to begin a task, but insufficient perceived or actual behavioural control can prevent that intention from being translated into action. === Rubicon model of action phases === The Rubicon model of action phases divides the process from intention to action into four phases: pre-decisional (choosing between potential goals through weighing their feasibility and desirability), pre-actional (planning the implementation of the chosen goal), actional (executing the plan) and post-actional (evaluating outcomes against initial goals and subsequently adjusting future behaviour) (Heckhausen & Gollwitzer, 1987). The model therefore provides another framework for understanding the intention-action gap: after forming a goal intention, an individual may still fail to progress from the pre-actional to the actional phase, resulting in an intended behaviour that is not successfully initiated. === Construal level theory (CLT) === An additional cognitive factor influencing task initiation is mental representation. Construal level theory is a psychological framework centred around the concept of psychological distance, and it distinguishes between high-level, abstract representations and low-level, concrete representations. High-level representations revolve around task purpose, value, and reward, and may boost motivation, but also delay initiation due to a lack of operational starting points; low-level representations decrease this friction through an emphasis on practical and logistical steps, and thus representing a task in this way may increase task initiation through making the immediate actions required to begin it more apparent (Trope & Liberman, 2010). == Motivational and emotional barriers == Motivation and emotion are two psychological areas of study which both pertain to task initiation and may be examined to understand how and why task initiation can become difficult. [Expand?] === Motivation === Task initiation is partly dependent on motivational influences such as the anticipated benefit of the task, the perceived likelihood of success, and the costs associated with performing it. Expectancy-value theory proposes that the expected outcomes and subjective value placed upon tasks by individuals heavily influence choice and persistence in relation to tasks (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). Similarly, self-efficacy theory proposes that individuals' efficacy expectations are the major determinant in relation to goal setting, task choice, effort expenditure, and persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Additionally, neurological theories such as the expected value of control (EVC) propose that the brain weighs anticipated rewards against the costs of metabolic and cognitive exertion and allocates cognitive control accordingly, thus providing an additional explanation for why task initiation may be inhibited for demanding tasks even if they have been appraised as valuable and achievable (Shenhav et al., 2013). === Emotion === Task initiation is also dependent on anticipatory emotions associated with the task. Aversion to negative emotions such as boredom, frustration, resentment, stress, and anxiety decreases the likelihood of task initiation (Sirois & Pychyl, 2013), and greater task aversiveness as a result of these emotions is associated with greater behavioural delay (Blunt & Pychyl, 2000). These negative emotions can arise separately as a result of unique tasks, but are also often linked to chronic dispositions such as perfectionism, low self-efficacy, or even simply pre-existing negative emotions; research indicates that individuals with negative emotions such as shame or guilt due to previous failures are re-exposed to these negative feelings when thinking about task initiation (Wäschle et al., 2014). == Procrastination == Procrastination can be distinguished from impaired task initiation in that it is a specific form of delay in which intended actions are unnecessarily postponed despite foreseeable adverse consequences. Despite being defined as a voluntary choice, it is often examined and discussed in relation to failures of self-regulation, and thus may be heavily influenced by non-conscious emotional regulation processes. === Self-regulation === Steel (2007) identifies procrastination as a failure of self-regulation, with strong associative factors of task aversiveness, task delay, self-efficacy, and impulsiveness, as well as facets of conscientiousness such as self-control, distractibility, organisation, and achievement motivation. These effects are consistent with temporal motivation theory [expand slightly to lean into next paragraph] ==== Temporal motivation theory ==== Temporal motivation theory acts as a comprehensive motivational framework, incorporating core elements of expectancy theory, hyperbolic discounting, need theory, and cumulative prospect theory, with an emphasis on time as a critical motivational factor (Steel & König, 2006). The theory posits the following formula for understanding motivation: <math>Motivation = {Expectancy \times Value\over 1+Impulsiveness\times Delay}</math> In this formula, motivation is the desire for a specific outcome, expectancy as the perceived chance of success, value as the desire or benefit attached to the outcome, impulsiveness as individual sensitivity to delay, and delay as the amount of time remaining to complete the task. This formula provides critical insight into the nature of time and deadlines on motivation and subsequent procrastination: far-off rewards or consequences decrease motivation to initiate tasks, while individual differences are accounted for via impulsiveness. As deadlines approach and delay shrinks, motivation increases exponentially, leading to a decrease in procrastination and an increase in the likelihood of initiating the deadline-bound task. However, as with task initiation as a broader concept, procrastination is also influenced by emotional factors. === Emotional regulation === Sirois and Pychyl (2013) argue that procrastination is used as short-term mood regulation and repair: temporarily avoiding an aversive task momentarily improves mood while transferring costs to the future self. Skinner (1963) conceptualised negative reinforcement, in which behaviour is strengthened through the removal of an aversive stimulus. Applied here, procrastination may lead to a reinforcement cycle: an aversive task produces a negative emotion, leading to avoidance, which provides immediate emotional relief and thus makes future avoidance more likely as the behaviour is strengthened. == Neurodivergence and task initiation == Various psychological and neurodevelopmental conditions – broadly referred to under the umbrella term, "neurodivergence" – are partly characterised by or may result in impaired task initiation. Mechanisms such as executive dysfunction, reward system dysregulation, altered effort costs, and demand avoidance are common issues in individuals with such conditions. === Neurodevelopmental conditions === Individuals diagnosed with neurodevelopmental conditions such as attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and autism spectrum disorder (ASD) often report difficulties with task initiation. Associations have consistently been found between ADHD symptoms and procrastination, particularly with inattention, and to a lesser extent with executive dysfunction, emotional dysregulation, and impaired motivational processes (Suriano, 2026). Executive dysfunction is also common in autism, with difficulties indicated in areas including cognitive flexibility, attention, working memory, and inhibition (Ceruti et al., 2024); the term autistic inertia has been used to specifically describe difficulties in task initiation in autism, with research showing that autistic individuals report increased difficulty in starting, stopping, and switching activities, even in instances where they intended or wanted to act but nevertheless experienced difficulty doing so (Buckle et al., 2021). === Psychiatric conditions === Individuals diagnosed with psychiatric disorders may also experience difficulties with task initiation, although the underlying mechanisms can differ from those associated with neurodevelopmental conditions. In major depressive disorder (MDD), anhedonia and chronically reduced motivation may contribute to impaired task initiation through a reduced willingness to expend cognitive and physical effort for rewards (Horne et al., 2021). Avolition, defined as a severe and persistent decrease in the ability to start and sustain self-directed goal-oriented activities, is considered an important negative symptom of schizophrenia (DeRosse et al., 2019). Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) may also interfere with task initiation, with symptoms of pathological doubt, uncertainty, and impaired decision making potentially contributing to delays in beginning an activity (Nisticò et al., 2021). ==Improving task initiation == Various cognitive and behavioural strategies and interventions have been proposed to improve task initiation. As difficulties with task initiation have been identified as arising from executive, motivational, and emotional factors, these interventions are typically aimed at the specific mechanisms preventing action. These strategies include implementation intentions, task decomposition, self-efficacy enhancement, emotional regulation, cognitive behavioural therapy, distraction minimisation, and other minor actionable strategies. === Cognitive strategies to improve task initiation === Cognitive inhibitions to task initiation may include the intention-action gap, difficulties in actionable task visualisation, and limited cognitive resources. Strategies addressing these barriers include implementation intentions, task decomposition strategies, and cognitive offloading, respectively. ==== Implementation intentions ==== Implementation intentions (also known as "if-then planning") are a self-regulatory strategy conceptualised by Peter Gollwitzer as a result of his earlier work alongside Heinz Heckhausen on the Rubicon model of action phases. Unlike goal intentions, which specify a desired outcome (e.g., "I want to improve my fitness"), implementation intentions specify the situational cues and subsequent behavioural response through which a goal will be pursued (e.g., "At 7:00 pm, I will go for a run"). Within the Rubicon model, implementation intentions are relevant to the transition between the pre-actional and actional phases. By linking situational cues to pre-planned responses, implementation intentions can improve task initiation by reducing reliance on conscious deliberation and turning goal-directed behaviour into a more streamlined, automatic process (Gollwitzer, 1999). ==== Task decomposition ==== Task decomposition is the process of deconstructing large, often abstract tasks into smaller, more concrete subtasks. As discussed previously, construal level theory highlights that low-level representations emphasise the specific means through which a task is carried out as opposed to its broader purpose (Trope & Liberman, 2010). Decomposition may therefore improve task initiation through improved task clarification, and has also been shown to reduce cognitive computational demands through the facilitation of easier planning while also preserving effective performance (Correa et al., 2023). Other research indicates that subgoals can increase perceived attainability and motivation, particularly during the early stages of goal pursuit (Huang et al., 2017), thus providing further evidence for the benefits of task decomposition. ==== Cognitive offloading ==== Cognitive offloading is the process of reducing information processing requirements through the use of physical action or external tools (Risko & Gilbert, 2016). Physical tools such as calendars, written plans, and other visible reminders can reduce demands on internal memory, freeing cognitive resources that would otherwise have been required to maintain the information (Grinschgl et al., 2021). However, an overreliance on contemporary external tools such as generative AI has raised concerns regarding cognitive offloading and a decline in processes such as internal memory encoding, spatial skills, and critical thinking due to reduced engagement in these processes. [how to cite the non-science journal in apa?] === Motivational strategies to improve task initiation === Both motivational models such as expectancy-value theory and neuroscientific models of cognitive-control allocation such as the expected value of control emphasise evaluations of potential value relative to costs. Similar principles appear in temporal motivation theory, in which motivation is influenced through expectancy, value, impulsiveness, and delay. Accordingly, strategies for increasing motivation and facilitating task initiation may involve increasing the perceived value of a task, increasing expectations of success, or reducing its perceived costs. Subjective task value may be increased by linking tasks to personally meaningful goals, interests, or future outcomes: research shows that encouraging students to connect specific academic tasks to personal interests can lead to increased interest, engagement, and academic performance (Harackiewicz et al., 2014). Expectancy may be strengthened by setting smaller, achievable goals, which has been shown to positively influence self-efficacy through repetitive successful performances, and also increases the perceived attainability of task completion (Schunk, 1984). Finally, reducing perceived costs may involve the previously mentioned task decomposition, which reduces task complexity through clearer immediate subtasks, thus decreasing the initial cognitive demands required. === Emotional strategies to improve task initiation === As task avoidance and procrastination are often associated with attempts to regulate aversive emotions, strategies for improving task initiation may involve greater emotional acceptance and improved emotional regulation. Acceptance of negative emotional experiences has been associated with reduced negative affect (Erisman & Roemer, 2010), while practising the tolerance and modification of aversive emotions has been shown to reduce procrastination (Eckert et al., 2016). Furthermore, Wohl et al. (2010) found that greater levels of self-reported self-forgiveness were associated with lower levels of future procrastination. This may be particularly important in disrupting negative reinforcement cycles. The "Wall of Awful" is a non-scientific metaphor often used to conceptualise the emotional barrier to task initiation that may accumulate as a result of these cycles. === Further strategies === Further strategies for improving task initiation involve modifications to physical and social environments, as well as psychotherapeutic interventions that integrate multiple mechanisms, as opposed to directly targeting individual cognitive, emotional, or motivational mechanisms. ==== Environmental and social changes ==== Changes to an individual's environment may facilitate task initiation. Removing prominent distractions such as digital devices like phones, unrelated projects, unfinished chores, or other stimuli that compete for attention may decrease the inhibitory control required to focus on necessary tasks. Research indicates that even the presence of one's own smartphone may occupy cognitive resources, even when conscious attention is not being paid to it (Ward et al., 2017). Another strategy is to increase external accountability through altering one's social environment. Elements such as study partners and scheduled commitments can make consequences more tangible while also providing external cues for action [source]. ==== Psychotherapeutic interventions ==== Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) may be used to treat individuals who struggle with chronic procrastination, thus potentially improving overall task initiation. Rozental et al. (2018) demonstrated CBT as an effective method for treating procrastination, with the intervention including techniques such as psychoeducation, goal setting and behavioural activation, strategies to strengthen self-efficacy, stimulus control and distraction management, assertiveness training, and cognitive restructuring. Overall, CBT functions as a broader therapeutic framework in which several previously discussed strategies to improving task initiation are integrated. == Conclusion == == See also == * ==References== {{Hanging indent|1=Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50(2), 179–211. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/0749-5978(91)90020-T Blunt, A. K., & Pychyl, T. A. (2000). Task aversiveness and procrastination: a multi-dimensional approach to task aversiveness across stages of personal projects. Personality and Individual Differences, 28(1), 153–167. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0191-8869(99)00091-4 Buckle, K. L., Leadbitter, K., Poliakoff, E., & Gowen, E. (2021). “No Way Out Except From External Intervention”: First-Hand Accounts of Autistic Inertia. Frontiers in Psychology, 12(12). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.631596 Ceruti, C., Mingozzi, A., Scionti, N., & Marzocchi, G. M. (2024). Comparing Executive Functions in Children and Adolescents with Autism and ADHD—A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Children, 11(4), 473. https://doi.org/10.3390/children11040473 Correa, C. G., Ho, M. K., Callaway, F., Daw, N. D, & Griffiths, T. L. (2023). Humans decompose tasks by trading off utility and computational cost. PLOS Computational Biology, 19(6), e1011087–e1011087. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1011087 DeRosse, P., Barber, A. D., Fales, C. L., & Malhotra, A. K. (2019). Deconstructing Avolition: Initiation vs persistence of reward-directed effort. Psychiatry Research, 273, 647–652. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2019.01.073 Diamond, A. (2013). Executive functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64(1), 135–168. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750 Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153 Eckert, M., Ebert, D. D, Lehr, D., Bernhard, S., & Matthias, B. (2016). Overcome procrastination: Enhancing emotion regulation skills reduce procrastination. Learning and Individual Differences, 52, 10–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2016.10.001 Huang, S., Jin, L., & Zhang, Y. (2017). Step by step: Sub-goals as a source of motivation. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 141, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2017.05.001 Gollwitzer, P. M. (1999). Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans. American Psychologist, 54(7), 493–503. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.54.7.493 Grinschgl, S., Papenmeier, F., & Meyerhoff, H. S. (2021). Consequences of cognitive offloading: Boosting performance but diminishing memory. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 74(9), 1477–1496. https://doi.org/10.1177/17470218211008060 Harackiewicz, J. M., Tibbetts, Y., Canning, E., & Hyde, J. S. (2014). Harnessing Values to Promote Motivation in Education. In Motivational Interventions (Vol. 18). Emerald Group Publishing Limited. https://doi.org/10.1108/S0749-742320140000018002 Heckhausen, H., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (1987). Thought contents and cognitive functioning in motivational versus volitional states of mind. Motivation and Emotion, 11(2), 101–120. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00992338 Horne, S. J., Topp, T. E., & Quigley, L. (2021). Depression and the willingness to expend cognitive and physical effort for rewards: A systematic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 88, 102065. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2021.102065 Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000). The Unity and Diversity of Executive Functions and Their Contributions to Complex “Frontal Lobe” Tasks: A Latent Variable Analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41(1), 49–100. https://doi.org/10.1006/cogp.1999.0734 Nisticò, V., De Angelis, A., Erro, R., Demartini, B., & Ricciardi, L. (2021). Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder and Decision Making under Ambiguity: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis. In Brain sciences (Vol. 11, Issue 2, p. 143). PubMed. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11020143 Risko, E. F., & Gilbert, S. J. (2016). Cognitive offloading. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 20(9), 676–688. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2016.07.002 Rozental, A., Forsström, D., Lindner, P., Nilsson, S., Mårtensson, L., Rizzo, A., Andersson, G., & Carlbring, P. (2018). Treating Procrastination Using Cognitive Behavior Therapy: A Pragmatic Randomized Controlled Trial Comparing Treatment Delivered via the Internet or in Groups. Behavior Therapy, 49(2), 180–197. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2017.08.002 Schunk, D. H. (1984). Enhancing Self-Efficacy and Achievement Through Rewards and Goals: Motivational and Informational Effects. The Journal of Educational Research, 78(1), 29–34. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220671.1984.10885568 Shenhav, A., Botvinick, M. M., & Cohen, J. D. (2013). The Expected Value of Control: An Integrative Theory of Anterior Cingulate Cortex Function. Neuron, 79(2), 217–240. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2013.07.007 Sirois, F., & Pychyl, T. (2013). Procrastination and the Priority of Short-Term Mood Regulation: Consequences for Future Self. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 7(2), 115–127. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12011 Skinner, B. F. (1963). Operant Behaviour. Psycnet.Apa.Org. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1964-03372-001 Stead, R., Shanahan, M. J., & Neufeld, R. W. J. (2010). “I’ll go to therapy, eventually”: Procrastination, stress and mental health. Personality and Individual Differences, 49(3), 175–180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.03.028 Steel, P. (2007). The nature of procrastination: A meta-analytic and theoretical review of quintessential self-regulatory failure. Psychological Bulletin, 133(1), 65–94. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.65 Steel, P., & König, C. J. (2006). Integrating Theories of Motivation. Academy of Management Review, 31(4), 889–913. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.2006.22527462 Suriano, R. (2026). A systematic review on the association between ADHD and procrastination. In Research in developmental disabilities (Vol. 175, p. 105342). PubMed. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2026.105342 Trope, Y., & Liberman, N. (2010). Construal-Level Theory of Psychological Distance. Psychological Review, 117(2), 440–463. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018963 Ward, A. F., Duke, K., Gneezy, A., & Bos, M. W. (2017). Brain drain: The mere presence of one’s own smartphone reduces available cognitive capacity. Journal of the Association for Consumer Research, 2(2), 140–154. https://doi.org/10.1086/691462 Wäschle, K., Allgaier, A., Lachner, A., Fink, S., & Nückles, M. (2014). Procrastination and self-efficacy: Tracing vicious and virtuous circles in self-regulated learning. Learning and Instruction, 29, 103–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2013.09.005 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }} == External links == * [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Goal pursuit]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Procrastination]] 3kz67vdirs6go2cvxb8mvyfp6xomsbq 2836447 2836425 2026-10-07T04:55:11Z U3286643 3106304 generative AI acknowledgement: page was submitted to microsoft copilot for overall review. several claims were found to be overstated, and were either linguistically altered to reflect accuracy or were removed. Additionally, copilot was also used to fix issues within the reference list, updating it to match APA 7th standards. 2836447 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Getting started:<br>Why is task initiation difficult and how to overcome it?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Scrolling on phone (cropped).jpg||thumb|right|150px|'''Figure 1''' An individual scrolling on their phone]] ;Scenario John is a university student with an assignment that is due in five days which he has not started. Despite knowing that he needs to begin the assignment soon in order to have it completed by the due date, he finds the prospect of starting the assignment daunting, and so continues engaging in alternative activities, such as scrolling on social media, to avoid beginning the assignment (see Figure 1). John is struggling with task initiation and is using procrastination as a coping behaviour to manage his negative feelings associated with starting the assignment. {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[w:Executive_functions|Executive functions]] are a set of [https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-top-down-processing-2795975 top-down cognitive processes] that support [[w:Goal|goal]]-directed [[w:Behavior|behaviour]]. Diamond (2013) identifies inhibition, working memory, and cognitive flexibility as the three core executive functions, with higher-order functions being derived from these, such as reasoning, problem solving, and planning. However, there is no universally agreed-upon [[w:Taxonomy|taxonomy]] due to differences in definitions, labels, and groupings across theoretical models. One proposed higher-order executive function is task initiation. Task initiation is the ability of an individual to begin a specific task at a desired time without unnecessary hesitation or delay. Task initiation can be inhibited by various [[w:Cognition|cognitive]], [[w:Emotion|emotional]], and [[w:Motivation|motivational]] factors. For example, task initiation can quickly become difficult when tasks are associated with negative emotions such as [[w:Anxiety|anxiety]], [[w:Shame|shame]], or [[w:Psychological_stress|stress]]; when tasks fail to inspire motivation because they are perceived as low-priority or overly abstract; or when an individual experiences cognitive factors that impair executive functioning. Impaired task initiation is often associated with [[w:Procrastination|procrastination]], defined as the voluntary delay of an intended course of action despite expecting negative consequences from that delay (Steel, 2007). Although there is overlap between the concepts, difficulties in task initiation refer more broadly to problems translating intentions into action, whereas procrastination represents one particular form of delayed goal-directed behaviour. Individuals who experience chronic difficulties with task initiation and procrastination may experience adverse outcomes such as greater stress and poorer mental health (Stead et al., 2010) as well as decreased performance in academic environments (Steel, 2007). Understanding the cognitive and psychological elements of task initiation and the various mechanisms underlying these domains can help to bolster task initiation in individuals – such as through the development of mitigation strategies and measures for procrastination – thus reducing the negative impact of impaired task initiation on individuals' lives. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What cognitive processes underlie task initiation? * How do motivational and emotional factors influence task initiation? * How is task initiation related to procrastination? * How can psychological disorders impair task initiation? * How can task initiation be improved? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Cognitive processes and theories == Task initiation can be examined as functioning through interactions between core executive functions. Working memory involves monitoring and revising relevant information, inhibitory control involves suppressing competing responses, and cognitive flexibility allows shifting between tasks or mental sets (Miyake et al., 2000), all of which represent important factors in successful task initiation. However, intention to initiate a task does not always translate into action, and various cognitive models and theories offer explanations for this discrepancy. Notable among these include the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) and the Rubicon model of action phases. === Theory of planned behaviour === [[File:Theory of planned behaviour.png|thumb|350x350px|'''Figure 2''' Diagram of the Theory of Planned Behaviour ]] The theory of planned behaviour proposes that attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control jointly shape an individual's behavioural intention, which is then theorised to be the most immediate determinant of behaviour (Ajzen, 1991). However, perceived behavioural control - often conceptually related or compared to self-efficacy - is also stated as directly influencing behaviour due to the dependence of behaviour on whether an individual has sufficient control over performing it (see Figure 2), a relationship that is stated within the model as being strongest when perceived control reasonably reflects actual control. Thus, this can lead to an intention-action gap: favourable attitudes and supportive norms may generate an intention to begin a task, but insufficient perceived or actual behavioural control can prevent that intention from being translated into action. === Rubicon model of action phases === The Rubicon model of action phases divides the process from intention to action into four phases: pre-decisional (choosing between potential goals through weighing their feasibility and desirability), pre-actional (planning the implementation of the chosen goal), actional (executing the plan) and post-actional (evaluating outcomes against initial goals and subsequently adjusting future behaviour) (Heckhausen & Gollwitzer, 1987). The model therefore provides another framework for understanding the intention-action gap: after forming a goal intention, an individual may still fail to progress from the pre-actional to the actional phase, resulting in an intended behaviour that is not successfully initiated. === Construal level theory (CLT) === An additional cognitive factor influencing task initiation is mental representation. Construal level theory is a psychological framework centred around the concept of psychological distance, and it distinguishes between high-level, abstract representations and low-level, concrete representations. High-level representations revolve around task purpose, value, and reward, and may boost motivation, but also delay task initiation due to a lack of operational starting points; low-level representations emphasise practical and logistical steps (Trope & Liberman, 2010). As such, mentally representing a task in a less abstract manner may increase task initiation through making the immediate actions required to begin it more apparent. == Motivational and emotional barriers == Motivation and emotion are two psychological areas of study which both pertain to task initiation and may be examined to understand how and why task initiation can become difficult. [Expand?] === Motivation === Task initiation is partly dependent on motivational influences such as the anticipated benefit of the task, the perceived likelihood of success, and the costs associated with performing it. Expectancy-value theory proposes that the expected outcomes and subjective value placed upon tasks by individuals heavily influence choice and persistence in relation to tasks (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). Similarly, self-efficacy theory proposes that individuals' efficacy expectations are a prominent determinant in relation to goal setting, task choice, effort expenditure, and persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Additionally, neurological theories such as the expected value of control (EVC) propose that the brain weighs anticipated rewards against the costs of cognitive exertion and allocates cognitive control accordingly, thus providing an additional explanation for why task initiation may be inhibited for demanding tasks even if they have been appraised as valuable and achievable (Shenhav et al., 2013). === Emotion === Task initiation is also dependent on anticipatory emotions associated with the task. Aversion to negative emotional states has been shown to decrease the likelihood of task initiation (Sirois & Pychyl, 2013), and greater task aversiveness as a result of these emotions is associated with greater behavioural delay (Blunt & Pychyl, 2000). Negative emotions can arise as a result of individual tasks, and may also be further compounded by chronic dispositions such as fear of failure and perfectionism. Individuals with high fear of failure report greater levels of shame as a result of perceived failure, and perfectionism has similarly been associated with greater shame and embarrassment following failure (McGregor & Elliot, 2005; Sagar & Stoeber, 2009). == Procrastination == Procrastination can be distinguished from impaired task initiation in that it is a specific form of delay in which intended actions are unnecessarily postponed despite foreseeable adverse consequences. Despite being defined as a voluntary choice, it is often examined and discussed in relation to failures of self-regulation, and thus may be heavily influenced by non-conscious emotional regulation processes. === Self-regulation === Steel (2007) identifies procrastination as a failure of self-regulation, with strong associative factors of task aversiveness, task delay, self-efficacy, and impulsiveness, as well as facets of conscientiousness such as self-control, distractibility, organisation, and achievement motivation. These effects are consistent with temporal motivation theory [expand slightly to lean into next paragraph] ==== Temporal motivation theory ==== Temporal motivation theory acts as a comprehensive motivational framework, incorporating core elements of expectancy theory, hyperbolic discounting, need theory, and cumulative prospect theory, with an emphasis on time as a critical motivational factor (Steel & König, 2006). The theory posits the following formula for understanding motivation: <math>Motivation = {Expectancy \times Value\over 1+Impulsiveness\times Delay}</math> In this formula, motivation is the desire for a specific outcome, expectancy as the perceived chance of success, value as the desire or benefit attached to the outcome, impulsiveness as individual sensitivity to delay, and delay as temporal distance to the reward or outcome. This formula provides critical insight into the nature of time and deadlines on motivation and subsequent procrastination: far-off rewards or consequences decrease motivation to initiate tasks, while individual differences are accounted for via impulsiveness. As deadlines approach and delay shrinks, motivation increases sharply, leading to a decrease in procrastination and an increase in the likelihood of initiating the deadline-bound task. However, as with task initiation as a broader concept, procrastination is also influenced by emotional factors. === Emotional regulation === Sirois and Pychyl (2013) argue that procrastination is used as short-term mood regulation and repair: temporarily avoiding an aversive task momentarily improves mood while transferring costs to the future self. Skinner (1963) conceptualised negative reinforcement, in which behaviour is strengthened through the removal of an aversive stimulus. Applied here, procrastination may lead to a reinforcement cycle: an aversive task produces a negative emotion, leading to avoidance, which provides immediate emotional relief and thus makes future avoidance more likely as the behaviour is strengthened. == Neurodevelopmental and psychiatric conditions == Various psychological and neurodevelopmental conditions are partly characterised by or may result in impaired task initiation. Mechanisms such as executive dysfunction, reward system dysregulation, altered effort costs, and demand avoidance are common issues in individuals with such conditions. === Neurodevelopmental conditions === Individuals diagnosed with neurodevelopmental conditions such as attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and autism spectrum disorder (ASD) often report difficulties with task initiation. Associations have consistently been found between ADHD symptoms and procrastination, particularly with inattention, and to a lesser extent with executive dysfunction, emotional dysregulation, and impaired motivational processes (Suriano, 2026). Executive dysfunction is also common in children and adolescents with autism, with difficulties indicated in areas including cognitive flexibility, attention, working memory, and inhibition (Ceruti et al., 2024); the term autistic inertia has been used to specifically describe difficulties in task initiation in autism, with research showing that autistic individuals report increased difficulty in starting, stopping, and switching activities, even in instances where they intended or wanted to act but nevertheless experienced difficulty doing so (Buckle et al., 2021). === Psychiatric conditions === Individuals diagnosed with psychiatric disorders may also experience difficulties with task initiation, although the underlying mechanisms can differ from those associated with neurodevelopmental conditions. In major depressive disorder (MDD), anhedonia and chronically reduced motivation may contribute to impaired task initiation through a reduced willingness to expend cognitive and physical effort for rewards (Horne et al., 2021). Avolition, defined as a severe and persistent decrease in the ability to start and sustain self-directed goal-oriented activities, is considered an important negative symptom of schizophrenia (DeRosse et al., 2019). Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) may also interfere with task initiation, with symptoms of pathological doubt, uncertainty, and impaired decision making potentially contributing to delays in beginning an activity (Nisticò et al., 2021). ==Improving task initiation == Various cognitive and behavioural strategies and interventions have been proposed to improve task initiation. As difficulties with task initiation have been identified as arising from executive, motivational, and emotional factors, these interventions are typically aimed at the specific mechanisms preventing action. These strategies include implementation intentions, task decomposition, self-efficacy enhancement, emotional regulation, cognitive behavioural therapy, distraction minimisation, and other minor actionable strategies. === Cognitive strategies to improve task initiation === Cognitive inhibitions to task initiation may include the intention-action gap, difficulties in actionable task visualisation, and limited cognitive resources. Strategies addressing these barriers include implementation intentions, task decomposition strategies, and cognitive offloading, respectively. ==== Implementation intentions ==== Implementation intentions (also known as "if-then planning") are a self-regulatory strategy conceptualised by Peter Gollwitzer as a result of his earlier work alongside Heinz Heckhausen on the Rubicon model of action phases. Unlike goal intentions, which specify a desired outcome (e.g., "I want to improve my fitness"), implementation intentions specify the situational cues and subsequent behavioural response through which a goal will be pursued (e.g., "At 7:00 pm, I will go for a run"). Within the Rubicon model, implementation intentions are relevant to the transition between the pre-actional and actional phases. By linking situational cues to pre-planned responses, implementation intentions can improve task initiation by reducing reliance on conscious deliberation and turning goal-directed behaviour into a more streamlined, automatic process (Gollwitzer, 1999). ==== Task decomposition ==== Task decomposition is the process of deconstructing large, often abstract tasks into smaller, more concrete subtasks. As discussed previously, construal level theory highlights that low-level representations emphasise the specific means through which a task is carried out as opposed to its broader purpose (Trope & Liberman, 2010). Decomposition may therefore improve task initiation through improved task clarification, and has also been shown to reduce cognitive computational demands through the facilitation of easier planning while also preserving effective performance (Correa et al., 2023). Other research indicates that subgoals can increase perceived attainability and motivation, particularly during the early stages of goal pursuit (Huang et al., 2017), thus providing further evidence for the benefits of task decomposition. ==== Cognitive offloading ==== Cognitive offloading is the process of reducing information processing requirements through the use of physical action or external tools, such as calendars, written plans, and other visible reminders (Risko & Gilbert, 2016). Cognitive offloading can reduce demands on working memory, freeing cognitive resources that would otherwise have been required to maintain the information, and subsequently improving immediate performance at the cost of poorer later recall of the offloaded information (Grinschgl et al., 2021). However, an overreliance on contemporary external tools such as generative AI has raised concerns regarding cognitive offloading and a decline in processes such as internal memory encoding and critical thinking due to reduced engagement in these processes (Abrams, 2026). === Motivational strategies to improve task initiation === Both motivational models such as expectancy-value theory and neuroscientific models of cognitive-control allocation such as the expected value of control emphasise evaluations of potential value relative to costs. Similar principles appear in temporal motivation theory, in which motivation is influenced through expectancy, value, impulsiveness, and delay. Accordingly, strategies for increasing motivation and facilitating task initiation may involve increasing the perceived value of a task, increasing expectations of success, or reducing its perceived costs. Subjective task value may be increased by linking tasks to personally meaningful goals, interests, or future outcomes: research shows that encouraging students to connect specific academic tasks to personal interests or goals can lead to increased interest, engagement, and academic performance (Harackiewicz et al., 2014). Expectancy may be strengthened by setting smaller, achievable goals, as this provides clearer evidence of progress and attainment, which can strengthen perceptions of self-efficacy (Schunk, 1984). Finally, reducing perceived costs may involve the previously mentioned task decomposition, which reduces task complexity through clearer immediate subtasks, thus decreasing the initial cognitive demands required. === Emotional strategies to improve task initiation === As task avoidance and procrastination are often associated with attempts to regulate aversive emotions, strategies for improving task initiation may involve greater emotional acceptance and improved emotional regulation. Greater awareness and acceptance of emotional experiences has been associated with more adaptive emotional responding (Erisman & Roemer, 2010), while practising the tolerance and modification of aversive emotions has been shown to reduce procrastination (Eckert et al., 2016). Furthermore, Wohl et al. (2010) found that greater levels of self-reported self-forgiveness were associated with lower levels of future procrastination. This may be particularly important in disrupting negative reinforcement cycles. The "Wall of Awful" is a non-scientific metaphor often used to conceptualise the emotional barrier to task initiation that may accumulate as a result of these cycles. === Further strategies === Further strategies for improving task initiation involve modifications to physical and social environments, as well as psychotherapeutic interventions that integrate multiple mechanisms, as opposed to directly targeting individual cognitive, emotional, or motivational mechanisms. ==== Environmental and social changes ==== Changes to an individual's environment may facilitate task initiation. Removing prominent distractions such as digital devices like phones, unrelated projects, unfinished chores, or other stimuli that compete for attention may decrease the inhibitory control required to focus on necessary tasks. Research indicates that even the presence of one's own smartphone may occupy cognitive resources, even when conscious attention is not being paid to it (Ward et al., 2017). Social strategies such as body doubling are also often offered as a strategy to improve task initiation, specifically in individuals with ADHD; however, direct evidence is limited, with the proposal relying primarily on anecdotal consensus. ==== Psychotherapeutic interventions ==== Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) may be used to treat individuals who struggle with chronic procrastination, thus potentially improving overall task initiation. Rozental et al. (2018) found substantial reductions in procrastination following CBT interventions, suggesting that CBT may be an effective tool in managing procrastination. These interventions included techniques such as psychoeducation, goal setting and behavioural activation, strategies to strengthen self-efficacy, stimulus control and distraction management, assertiveness training, and cognitive restructuring. Overall, CBT functions as a broader therapeutic framework in which several previously discussed strategies to improving task initiation are integrated. == Conclusion == == See also == * ==References== {{Hanging indent|1=Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50(2), 179–211. doi.org/10.1016/0749-5978(91)90020-T Blunt, A. K., & Pychyl, T. A. (2000). Task aversiveness and procrastination: A multi-dimensional approach to task aversiveness across stages of personal projects. Personality and Individual Differences, 28(1), 153–167. doi.org/10.1016/s0191-8869(99)00091-4 Buckle, K. L., Leadbitter, K., Poliakoff, E., & Gowen, E. (2021). “No way out except from external intervention”: First-hand accounts of autistic inertia. Frontiers in Psychology, 12(63159). doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.631596 Ceruti, C., Mingozzi, A., Scionti, N., & Marzocchi, G. M. (2024). Comparing executive functions in children and adolescents with autism and ADHD—A systematic review and meta-analysis. Children, 11(4), 473. doi.org/10.3390/children11040473 Correa, C. G., Ho, M. K., Callaway, F., Daw, N. D., & Griffiths, T. L. (2023). Humans decompose tasks by trading off utility and computational cost. PLOS Computational Biology, 19(6), e1011087. doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1011087 DeRosse, P., Barber, A. D., Fales, C. L., & Malhotra, A. K. (2019). Deconstructing avolition: Initiation vs persistence of reward-directed effort. Psychiatry Research, 273, 647–652. doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2019.01.073 Diamond, A. (2013). Executive functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64(1), 135–168. doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750 Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153 Eckert, M., Ebert, D. D, Lehr, D., Sieland, B., & Berking, M. (2016). Overcome procrastination: Enhancing emotion regulation skills reduce procrastination. Learning and Individual Differences, 52, 10–18. doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2016.10.001 Erisman, S. M., & Roemer, L. (2010). A preliminary investigation of the effects of experimentally induced mindfulness on emotional responding to film clips. Emotion, 10(1), 72–82. doi.org/10.1037/a0017162 Gollwitzer, P. M. (1999). Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans. American Psychologist, 54(7), 493–503. doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.54.7.493 Grinschgl, S., Papenmeier, F., & Meyerhoff, H. S. (2021). Consequences of cognitive offloading: Boosting performance but diminishing memory. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 74(9), 1477–1496. doi.org/10.1177/17470218211008060 Harackiewicz, J. M., Tibbetts, Y., Canning, E. A., & Hyde, J. S. (2014). Harnessing values to promote motivation in education. In S. A. Karabenick & T. C. Urdan (Eds.), Motivational interventions (Vol. 18, pp. 71–105). Emerald Group Publishing Limited. doi.org/10.1108/S0749-742320140000018002 Heckhausen, H., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (1987). Thought contents and cognitive functioning in motivational versus volitional states of mind. Motivation and Emotion, 11(2), 101–120. doi.org/10.1007/bf00992338 Horne, S. J., Topp, T. E., & Quigley, L. (2021). Depression and the willingness to expend cognitive and physical effort for rewards: A systematic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 88, 102065. doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2021.102065 Huang, S., Jin, L., & Zhang, Y. (2017). Step by step: Sub-goals as a source of motivation. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 141, 1–15. doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2017.05.001 McGregor, H. A., & Elliot, A. J. (2005). The shame of failure: Examining the link between fear of failure and shame. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31(2), 218–231. doi.org/10.1177/0146167204271420 Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “frontal lobe” tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41(1), 49–100. doi.org/10.1006/cogp.1999.0734 Nisticò, V., De Angelis, A., Erro, R., Demartini, B., & Ricciardi, L. (2021). Obsessive-compulsive disorder and decision making under ambiguity: A systematic review with meta-analysis. Brain Sciences, 11(2), 143. doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11020143 Risko, E. F., & Gilbert, S. J. (2016). Cognitive offloading. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 20(9), 676–688. doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2016.07.002 Rozental, A., Forsström, D., Lindner, P., Nilsson, S., Mårtensson, L., Rizzo, A., Andersson, G., & Carlbring, P. (2018). Treating procrastination using cognitive behavior therapy: A pragmatic randomized controlled trial comparing treatment delivered via the internet or in groups. Behavior Therapy, 49(2), 180–197. doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2017.08.002 Sagar, S. S., & Stoeber, J. (2009). Perfectionism, fear of failure, and affective responses to success and failure: The central role of fear of experiencing shame and embarrassment. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 31(5), 602–627. doi.org/10.1123/jsep.31.5.602 Schunk, D. H. (1984). Enhancing self-efficacy and achievement through rewards and goals: Motivational and informational effects. The Journal of Educational Research, 78(1), 29–34. doi.org/10.1080/00220671.1984.10885568 Shenhav, A., Botvinick, M. M., & Cohen, J. D. (2013). The expected value of control: An integrative theory of anterior cingulate cortex function. Neuron, 79(2), 217–240. doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2013.07.007 Sirois, F., & Pychyl, T. (2013). Procrastination and the priority of short-term mood regulation: Consequences for future self. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 7(2), 115–127. doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12011 Skinner, B. F. (1963). Operant behavior. American Psychologist, 18(8), 503–515. doi.org/10.1037/h0045185 Stead, R., Shanahan, M. J., & Neufeld, R. W. J. (2010). “I’ll go to therapy, eventually”: Procrastination, stress and mental health. Personality and Individual Differences, 49(3), 175–180. doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.03.028 Steel, P. (2007). The nature of procrastination: A meta-analytic and theoretical review of quintessential self-regulatory failure. Psychological Bulletin, 133(1), 65–94. doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.65 Steel, P., & König, C. J. (2006). Integrating theories of motivation. Academy of Management Review, 31(4), 889–913. doi.org/10.5465/amr.2006.22527462 Suriano, R. (2026). A systematic review on the association between ADHD and procrastination. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 175, 105342. doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2026.105342 Trope, Y., & Liberman, N. (2010). Construal-level theory of psychological distance. Psychological Review, 117(2), 440–463. doi.org/10.1037/a0018963 Ward, A. F., Duke, K., Gneezy, A., & Bos, M. W. (2017). Brain drain: The mere presence of one’s own smartphone reduces available cognitive capacity. Journal of the Association for Consumer Research, 2(2), 140–154. doi.org/10.1086/691462 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–value theory of achievement motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 68–81. doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 Wohl, M. J. A., Pychyl, T. A., & Bennett, S. H. (2010). I forgive myself, now I can study: How self-forgiveness for procrastinating can reduce future procrastination. Personality and Individual Differences, 48(7), 803–808. doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.01.029 }} == External links == * [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Goal pursuit]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Procrastination]] 6ijdo9irzbfnto82j64kd93lf1p2w5v 2836458 2836447 2026-10-07T05:38:54Z U3286643 3106304 added cognitive summary, expanded motivation and emotion intro, and added page conclusion 2836458 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Getting started:<br>Why is task initiation difficult and how to overcome it?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Scrolling on phone (cropped).jpg||thumb|right|150px|'''Figure 1''' An individual scrolling on their phone]] ;Scenario John is a university student with an assignment that is due in five days which he has not started. Despite knowing that he needs to begin the assignment soon in order to have it completed by the due date, he finds the prospect of starting the assignment daunting, and so continues engaging in alternative activities, such as scrolling on social media, to avoid beginning the assignment (see Figure 1). John is struggling with task initiation and is using procrastination as a coping behaviour to manage his negative feelings associated with starting the assignment. {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[w:Executive_functions|Executive functions]] are a set of [https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-top-down-processing-2795975 top-down cognitive processes] that support [[w:Goal|goal]]-directed [[w:Behavior|behaviour]]. Diamond (2013) identifies inhibition, working memory, and cognitive flexibility as the three core executive functions, with higher-order functions being derived from these, such as reasoning, problem solving, and planning. However, there is no universally agreed-upon [[w:Taxonomy|taxonomy]] due to differences in definitions, labels, and groupings across theoretical models. One proposed higher-order executive function is task initiation. Task initiation is the ability of an individual to begin a specific task at a desired time without unnecessary hesitation or delay. Task initiation can be inhibited by various [[w:Cognition|cognitive]], [[w:Emotion|emotional]], and [[w:Motivation|motivational]] factors. For example, task initiation can quickly become difficult when tasks are associated with negative emotions such as [[w:Anxiety|anxiety]], [[w:Shame|shame]], or [[w:Psychological_stress|stress]]; when tasks fail to inspire motivation because they are perceived as low-priority or overly abstract; or when an individual experiences cognitive factors that impair executive functioning. Impaired task initiation is often associated with [[w:Procrastination|procrastination]], defined as the voluntary delay of an intended course of action despite expecting negative consequences from that delay (Steel, 2007). Although there is overlap between the concepts, difficulties in task initiation refer more broadly to problems translating intentions into action, whereas procrastination represents one particular form of delayed goal-directed behaviour. Individuals who experience chronic difficulties with task initiation and procrastination may experience adverse outcomes such as greater stress and poorer mental health (Stead et al., 2010) as well as decreased performance in academic environments (Steel, 2007). Understanding the cognitive and psychological elements of task initiation and the various mechanisms underlying these domains can help to bolster task initiation in individuals – such as through the development of mitigation strategies and measures for procrastination – thus reducing the negative impact of impaired task initiation on individuals' lives. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What cognitive processes underlie task initiation? * How do motivational and emotional factors influence task initiation? * How is task initiation related to procrastination? * How can psychological disorders impair task initiation? * How can task initiation be improved? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Cognitive processes and theories == Task initiation can be examined as functioning through interactions between core executive functions. Working memory involves monitoring and revising relevant information, inhibitory control involves suppressing competing responses, and cognitive flexibility allows shifting between tasks or mental sets (Miyake et al., 2000), all of which represent important factors in successful task initiation. However, intention to initiate a task does not always translate into action, and various cognitive models and theories offer explanations for this discrepancy. Notable among these include the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) and the Rubicon model of action phases. === Theory of planned behaviour === [[File:Theory of planned behaviour.png|thumb|350x350px|'''Figure 2''' Diagram of the Theory of Planned Behaviour ]] The theory of planned behaviour proposes that attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control jointly shape an individual's behavioural intention, which is then theorised to be the most immediate determinant of behaviour (Ajzen, 1991). However, perceived behavioural control - often conceptually related or compared to self-efficacy - is also stated as directly influencing behaviour due to the dependence of behaviour on whether an individual has sufficient control over performing it (see Figure 2), a relationship that is stated within the model as being strongest when perceived control reasonably reflects actual control. Thus, this can lead to an intention-action gap: favourable attitudes and supportive norms may generate an intention to begin a task, but insufficient perceived or actual behavioural control can prevent that intention from being translated into action. === Rubicon model of action phases === The Rubicon model of action phases divides the process from intention to action into four phases: pre-decisional (choosing between potential goals through weighing their feasibility and desirability), pre-actional (planning the implementation of the chosen goal), actional (executing the plan) and post-actional (evaluating outcomes against initial goals and subsequently adjusting future behaviour) (Heckhausen & Gollwitzer, 1987). The model therefore provides another framework for understanding the intention-action gap: after forming a goal intention, an individual may still fail to progress from the pre-actional to the actional phase, resulting in an intended behaviour that is not successfully initiated. === Construal level theory (CLT) === An additional cognitive factor influencing task initiation is mental representation. Construal level theory is a psychological framework centred around the concept of psychological distance, and it distinguishes between high-level, abstract representations and low-level, concrete representations. High-level representations revolve around task purpose, value, and reward, and may boost motivation, but also delay task initiation due to a lack of operational starting points; low-level representations emphasise practical and logistical steps (Trope & Liberman, 2010). As such, mentally representing a task in a less abstract manner may increase task initiation through making the immediate actions required to begin it more apparent. === Cognitive summary === Taken together, these cognitive processes and theories illustrate how task initiation may be impaired at several stages between goal formation and the beginning of action. Core executive functions contribute to the planning, regulation, and adjustment of behaviour, while the theory of planned behaviour and the Rubicon model of action phases provide an explanation for how intentions may fail to translate into action. Furthermore, construal level theory suggests that differing mental representations of a task may influence whether a task has a clear starting point. However, cognitive processes alone do not fully explain task initiation, as motivational and emotional processes may also influence whether an individual begins a task. == Motivational and emotional barriers == Motivation and emotion are two psychological areas of study which both pertain to task initiation and may be examined to understand how and why task initiation can become difficult. Motivational factors influence whether a task is perceived as valuable and achievable, while emotional factors may increase avoidance when a task is associated with aversive feelings. Together, these processes can influence whether a task is initiated or instead avoided and delayed/ === Motivation === Task initiation is partly dependent on motivational influences such as the anticipated benefit of the task, the perceived likelihood of success, and the costs associated with performing it. Expectancy-value theory proposes that the expected outcomes and subjective value placed upon tasks by individuals heavily influence choice and persistence in relation to tasks (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). Similarly, self-efficacy theory proposes that individuals' efficacy expectations are a prominent determinant in relation to goal setting, task choice, effort expenditure, and persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Additionally, neurological theories such as the expected value of control (EVC) propose that the brain weighs anticipated rewards against the costs of cognitive exertion and allocates cognitive control accordingly, thus providing an additional explanation for why task initiation may be inhibited for demanding tasks even if they have been appraised as valuable and achievable (Shenhav et al., 2013). === Emotion === Task initiation is also dependent on anticipatory emotions associated with the task. Aversion to negative emotional states has been shown to decrease the likelihood of task initiation (Sirois & Pychyl, 2013), and greater task aversiveness as a result of these emotions is associated with greater behavioural delay (Blunt & Pychyl, 2000). Negative emotions can arise as a result of individual tasks, and may also be further compounded by chronic dispositions such as fear of failure and perfectionism. Individuals with high fear of failure report greater levels of shame as a result of perceived failure, and perfectionism has similarly been associated with greater shame and embarrassment following failure (McGregor & Elliot, 2005; Sagar & Stoeber, 2009). == Procrastination == Procrastination can be distinguished from impaired task initiation in that it is a specific form of delay in which intended actions are unnecessarily postponed despite foreseeable adverse consequences. Despite being defined as a voluntary choice, it is often examined and discussed in relation to failures of self-regulation, and thus may be heavily influenced by non-conscious emotional regulation processes. === Self-regulation === Steel (2007) identifies procrastination as a failure of self-regulation, with strong associative factors of task aversiveness, task delay, self-efficacy, and impulsiveness, as well as facets of conscientiousness such as self-control, distractibility, organisation, and achievement motivation. These effects are consistent with temporal motivation theory [expand slightly to lean into next paragraph] ==== Temporal motivation theory ==== Temporal motivation theory acts as a comprehensive motivational framework, incorporating core elements of expectancy theory, hyperbolic discounting, need theory, and cumulative prospect theory, with an emphasis on time as a critical motivational factor (Steel & König, 2006). The theory posits the following formula for understanding motivation: <math>Motivation = {Expectancy \times Value\over 1+Impulsiveness\times Delay}</math> In this formula, motivation is the desire for a specific outcome, expectancy as the perceived chance of success, value as the desire or benefit attached to the outcome, impulsiveness as individual sensitivity to delay, and delay as temporal distance to the reward or outcome. This formula provides critical insight into the nature of time and deadlines on motivation and subsequent procrastination: far-off rewards or consequences decrease motivation to initiate tasks, while individual differences are accounted for via impulsiveness. As deadlines approach and delay shrinks, motivation increases sharply, leading to a decrease in procrastination and an increase in the likelihood of initiating the deadline-bound task. However, as with task initiation as a broader concept, procrastination is also influenced by emotional factors. === Emotional regulation === Sirois and Pychyl (2013) argue that procrastination is used as short-term mood regulation and repair: temporarily avoiding an aversive task momentarily improves mood while transferring costs to the future self. Skinner (1963) conceptualised negative reinforcement, in which behaviour is strengthened through the removal of an aversive stimulus. Applied here, procrastination may lead to a reinforcement cycle: an aversive task produces a negative emotion, leading to avoidance, which provides immediate emotional relief and thus makes future avoidance more likely as the behaviour is strengthened. == Neurodevelopmental and psychiatric conditions == Various psychological and neurodevelopmental conditions are partly characterised by or may result in impaired task initiation. Mechanisms such as executive dysfunction, reward system dysregulation, altered effort costs, and demand avoidance are common issues in individuals with such conditions. === Neurodevelopmental conditions === Individuals diagnosed with neurodevelopmental conditions such as attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and autism spectrum disorder (ASD) often report difficulties with task initiation. Associations have consistently been found between ADHD symptoms and procrastination, particularly with inattention, and to a lesser extent with executive dysfunction, emotional dysregulation, and impaired motivational processes (Suriano, 2026). Executive dysfunction is also common in children and adolescents with autism, with difficulties indicated in areas including cognitive flexibility, attention, working memory, and inhibition (Ceruti et al., 2024); the term autistic inertia has been used to specifically describe difficulties in task initiation in autism, with research showing that autistic individuals report increased difficulty in starting, stopping, and switching activities, even in instances where they intended or wanted to act but nevertheless experienced difficulty doing so (Buckle et al., 2021). === Psychiatric conditions === Individuals diagnosed with psychiatric disorders may also experience difficulties with task initiation, although the underlying mechanisms can differ from those associated with neurodevelopmental conditions. In major depressive disorder (MDD), anhedonia and chronically reduced motivation may contribute to impaired task initiation through a reduced willingness to expend cognitive and physical effort for rewards (Horne et al., 2021). Avolition, defined as a severe and persistent decrease in the ability to start and sustain self-directed goal-oriented activities, is considered an important negative symptom of schizophrenia (DeRosse et al., 2019). Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) may also interfere with task initiation, with symptoms of pathological doubt, uncertainty, and impaired decision making potentially contributing to delays in beginning an activity (Nisticò et al., 2021). ==Improving task initiation == Various cognitive and behavioural strategies and interventions have been proposed to improve task initiation. As difficulties with task initiation have been identified as arising from executive, motivational, and emotional factors, these interventions are typically aimed at the specific mechanisms preventing action. These strategies include implementation intentions, task decomposition, self-efficacy enhancement, emotional regulation, cognitive behavioural therapy, distraction minimisation, and other minor actionable strategies. === Cognitive strategies to improve task initiation === Cognitive inhibitions to task initiation may include the intention-action gap, difficulties in actionable task visualisation, and limited cognitive resources. Strategies addressing these barriers include implementation intentions, task decomposition strategies, and cognitive offloading, respectively. ==== Implementation intentions ==== Implementation intentions (also known as "if-then planning") are a self-regulatory strategy conceptualised by Peter Gollwitzer as a result of his earlier work alongside Heinz Heckhausen on the Rubicon model of action phases. Unlike goal intentions, which specify a desired outcome (e.g., "I want to improve my fitness"), implementation intentions specify the situational cues and subsequent behavioural response through which a goal will be pursued (e.g., "At 7:00 pm, I will go for a run"). Within the Rubicon model, implementation intentions are relevant to the transition between the pre-actional and actional phases. By linking situational cues to pre-planned responses, implementation intentions can improve task initiation by reducing reliance on conscious deliberation and turning goal-directed behaviour into a more streamlined, automatic process (Gollwitzer, 1999). ==== Task decomposition ==== Task decomposition is the process of deconstructing large, often abstract tasks into smaller, more concrete subtasks. As discussed previously, construal level theory highlights that low-level representations emphasise the specific means through which a task is carried out as opposed to its broader purpose (Trope & Liberman, 2010). Decomposition may therefore improve task initiation through improved task clarification, and has also been shown to reduce cognitive computational demands through the facilitation of easier planning while also preserving effective performance (Correa et al., 2023). Other research indicates that subgoals can increase perceived attainability and motivation, particularly during the early stages of goal pursuit (Huang et al., 2017), thus providing further evidence for the benefits of task decomposition. ==== Cognitive offloading ==== Cognitive offloading is the process of reducing information processing requirements through the use of physical action or external tools, such as calendars, written plans, and other visible reminders (Risko & Gilbert, 2016). Cognitive offloading can reduce demands on working memory, freeing cognitive resources that would otherwise have been required to maintain the information, and subsequently improving immediate performance at the cost of poorer later recall of the offloaded information (Grinschgl et al., 2021). However, an overreliance on contemporary external tools such as generative AI has raised concerns regarding cognitive offloading and a decline in processes such as internal memory encoding and critical thinking due to reduced engagement in these processes. === Motivational strategies to improve task initiation === Both motivational models such as expectancy-value theory and neuroscientific models of cognitive-control allocation such as the expected value of control emphasise evaluations of potential value relative to costs. Similar principles appear in temporal motivation theory, in which motivation is influenced through expectancy, value, impulsiveness, and delay. Accordingly, strategies for increasing motivation and facilitating task initiation may involve increasing the perceived value of a task, increasing expectations of success, or reducing its perceived costs. Subjective task value may be increased by linking tasks to personally meaningful goals, interests, or future outcomes: research shows that encouraging students to connect specific academic tasks to personal interests or goals can lead to increased interest, engagement, and academic performance (Harackiewicz et al., 2014). Expectancy may be strengthened by setting smaller, achievable goals, as this provides clearer evidence of progress and attainment, which can strengthen perceptions of self-efficacy (Schunk, 1984). Finally, reducing perceived costs may involve the previously mentioned task decomposition, which reduces task complexity through clearer immediate subtasks, thus decreasing the initial cognitive demands required. === Emotional strategies to improve task initiation === As task avoidance and procrastination are often associated with attempts to regulate aversive emotions, strategies for improving task initiation may involve greater emotional acceptance and improved emotional regulation. Greater awareness and acceptance of emotional experiences has been associated with more adaptive emotional responding (Erisman & Roemer, 2010), while practising the tolerance and modification of aversive emotions has been shown to reduce procrastination (Eckert et al., 2016). Furthermore, Wohl et al. (2010) found that greater levels of self-reported self-forgiveness were associated with lower levels of future procrastination. This may be particularly important in disrupting negative reinforcement cycles. The "Wall of Awful" is a non-scientific metaphor often used to conceptualise the emotional barrier to task initiation that may accumulate as a result of these cycles. === Further strategies === Further strategies for improving task initiation involve modifications to physical and social environments, as well as psychotherapeutic interventions that integrate multiple mechanisms, as opposed to directly targeting individual cognitive, emotional, or motivational mechanisms. ==== Environmental and social changes ==== Changes to an individual's environment may facilitate task initiation. Removing prominent distractions such as digital devices like phones, unrelated projects, unfinished chores, or other stimuli that compete for attention may decrease the inhibitory control required to focus on necessary tasks. Research indicates that even the presence of one's own smartphone may occupy cognitive resources, even when conscious attention is not being paid to it (Ward et al., 2017). Social strategies such as body doubling are also often offered as a strategy to improve task initiation, specifically in individuals with ADHD; however, direct evidence is limited, with the proposal relying primarily on anecdotal consensus. ==== Psychotherapeutic interventions ==== Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) may be used to treat individuals who struggle with chronic procrastination, thus potentially improving overall task initiation. Rozental et al. (2018) found substantial reductions in procrastination following CBT interventions, suggesting that CBT may be an effective tool in managing procrastination. These interventions included techniques such as psychoeducation, goal setting and behavioural activation, strategies to strengthen self-efficacy, stimulus control and distraction management, assertiveness training, and cognitive restructuring. Overall, CBT functions as a broader therapeutic framework in which several previously discussed strategies to improving task initiation are integrated. == Conclusion == Task initiation is a higher-order executive function derived from core processes such as working memory, inhibition, and cognitive flexibility. Functional task initiation can be adversely affected through impairments of these areas, such as is common in neurodevelopmental disorders, as well as through various individual motivational and emotional factors. Various models and theories, such as the theory of planned behaviour, the Rubicon model of action phases, construal level theory, and temporal motivation theory are offered as explanations for how and why individuals may struggle to successfully convert goal-intentions into goal-directed behaviour. Strategies for improving task initiation therefore often reflect and address these underlying mechanisms. Implementation intentions, task decomposition, and cognitive offloading may decrease the intention-action gap, provide clearer first steps to initiating tasks, and reduce the mental effort to do so, respectively. Increasing the perceived value of tasks and their rewards, or decreasing the perceived costs, may address motivational issues, while practicing emotional acceptance and regulation may reduce avoidance as a result of emotional issues. Psychotherapeutic interventions such as cognitive behavioural therapy often integrate several of these approaches, and other minor strategies are also available to increase task initiation, such as environmental restructuring and body doubling. As impaired task initiation (and related phenomena such as procrastination) are often associated with overall decreases in individual quality of life, greater understanding and implementation of these strategies and interventions is an important area of study. == See also == * ==References== {{Hanging indent|1=Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50(2), 179–211. doi.org/10.1016/0749-5978(91)90020-T Blunt, A. K., & Pychyl, T. A. (2000). Task aversiveness and procrastination: A multi-dimensional approach to task aversiveness across stages of personal projects. Personality and Individual Differences, 28(1), 153–167. doi.org/10.1016/s0191-8869(99)00091-4 Buckle, K. L., Leadbitter, K., Poliakoff, E., & Gowen, E. (2021). “No way out except from external intervention”: First-hand accounts of autistic inertia. Frontiers in Psychology, 12(63159). doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.631596 Ceruti, C., Mingozzi, A., Scionti, N., & Marzocchi, G. M. (2024). Comparing executive functions in children and adolescents with autism and ADHD—A systematic review and meta-analysis. Children, 11(4), 473. doi.org/10.3390/children11040473 Correa, C. G., Ho, M. K., Callaway, F., Daw, N. D., & Griffiths, T. L. (2023). Humans decompose tasks by trading off utility and computational cost. PLOS Computational Biology, 19(6), e1011087. doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1011087 DeRosse, P., Barber, A. D., Fales, C. L., & Malhotra, A. K. (2019). Deconstructing avolition: Initiation vs persistence of reward-directed effort. Psychiatry Research, 273, 647–652. doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2019.01.073 Diamond, A. (2013). Executive functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64(1), 135–168. doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750 Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153 Eckert, M., Ebert, D. D, Lehr, D., Sieland, B., & Berking, M. (2016). Overcome procrastination: Enhancing emotion regulation skills reduce procrastination. Learning and Individual Differences, 52, 10–18. doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2016.10.001 Erisman, S. M., & Roemer, L. (2010). A preliminary investigation of the effects of experimentally induced mindfulness on emotional responding to film clips. Emotion, 10(1), 72–82. doi.org/10.1037/a0017162 Gollwitzer, P. M. (1999). Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans. American Psychologist, 54(7), 493–503. doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.54.7.493 Grinschgl, S., Papenmeier, F., & Meyerhoff, H. S. (2021). Consequences of cognitive offloading: Boosting performance but diminishing memory. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 74(9), 1477–1496. doi.org/10.1177/17470218211008060 Harackiewicz, J. M., Tibbetts, Y., Canning, E. A., & Hyde, J. S. (2014). Harnessing values to promote motivation in education. In S. A. Karabenick & T. C. Urdan (Eds.), Motivational interventions (Vol. 18, pp. 71–105). Emerald Group Publishing Limited. doi.org/10.1108/S0749-742320140000018002 Heckhausen, H., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (1987). Thought contents and cognitive functioning in motivational versus volitional states of mind. Motivation and Emotion, 11(2), 101–120. doi.org/10.1007/bf00992338 Horne, S. J., Topp, T. E., & Quigley, L. (2021). Depression and the willingness to expend cognitive and physical effort for rewards: A systematic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 88, 102065. doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2021.102065 Huang, S., Jin, L., & Zhang, Y. (2017). Step by step: Sub-goals as a source of motivation. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 141, 1–15. doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2017.05.001 McGregor, H. A., & Elliot, A. J. (2005). The shame of failure: Examining the link between fear of failure and shame. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31(2), 218–231. doi.org/10.1177/0146167204271420 Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “frontal lobe” tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41(1), 49–100. doi.org/10.1006/cogp.1999.0734 Nisticò, V., De Angelis, A., Erro, R., Demartini, B., & Ricciardi, L. (2021). Obsessive-compulsive disorder and decision making under ambiguity: A systematic review with meta-analysis. Brain Sciences, 11(2), 143. doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11020143 Risko, E. F., & Gilbert, S. J. (2016). Cognitive offloading. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 20(9), 676–688. doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2016.07.002 Rozental, A., Forsström, D., Lindner, P., Nilsson, S., Mårtensson, L., Rizzo, A., Andersson, G., & Carlbring, P. (2018). Treating procrastination using cognitive behavior therapy: A pragmatic randomized controlled trial comparing treatment delivered via the internet or in groups. Behavior Therapy, 49(2), 180–197. doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2017.08.002 Sagar, S. S., & Stoeber, J. (2009). Perfectionism, fear of failure, and affective responses to success and failure: The central role of fear of experiencing shame and embarrassment. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 31(5), 602–627. doi.org/10.1123/jsep.31.5.602 Schunk, D. H. (1984). Enhancing self-efficacy and achievement through rewards and goals: Motivational and informational effects. The Journal of Educational Research, 78(1), 29–34. doi.org/10.1080/00220671.1984.10885568 Shenhav, A., Botvinick, M. M., & Cohen, J. D. (2013). The expected value of control: An integrative theory of anterior cingulate cortex function. Neuron, 79(2), 217–240. doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2013.07.007 Sirois, F., & Pychyl, T. (2013). Procrastination and the priority of short-term mood regulation: Consequences for future self. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 7(2), 115–127. doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12011 Skinner, B. F. (1963). Operant behavior. American Psychologist, 18(8), 503–515. doi.org/10.1037/h0045185 Stead, R., Shanahan, M. J., & Neufeld, R. W. J. (2010). “I’ll go to therapy, eventually”: Procrastination, stress and mental health. Personality and Individual Differences, 49(3), 175–180. doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.03.028 Steel, P. (2007). The nature of procrastination: A meta-analytic and theoretical review of quintessential self-regulatory failure. Psychological Bulletin, 133(1), 65–94. doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.65 Steel, P., & König, C. J. (2006). Integrating theories of motivation. Academy of Management Review, 31(4), 889–913. doi.org/10.5465/amr.2006.22527462 Suriano, R. (2026). A systematic review on the association between ADHD and procrastination. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 175, 105342. doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2026.105342 Trope, Y., & Liberman, N. (2010). Construal-level theory of psychological distance. Psychological Review, 117(2), 440–463. doi.org/10.1037/a0018963 Ward, A. F., Duke, K., Gneezy, A., & Bos, M. W. (2017). Brain drain: The mere presence of one’s own smartphone reduces available cognitive capacity. Journal of the Association for Consumer Research, 2(2), 140–154. doi.org/10.1086/691462 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–value theory of achievement motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 68–81. doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 Wohl, M. J. A., Pychyl, T. A., & Bennett, S. H. (2010). I forgive myself, now I can study: How self-forgiveness for procrastinating can reduce future procrastination. Personality and Individual Differences, 48(7), 803–808. doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.01.029 }} == External links == *[https://www.apa.org/monitor/2026/07-08/ai-job-skills-thinking How AI is reshaping human skills and thinking] (American Psychological Association) *[https://www.simplypsychology.com/articles/body-doubling-adhd Body Doubling: The ADHD Productivity Strategy That Actually Works (2026)] (Simply Psychology) *[https://www.hackingyouradhd.com/podcast/the-wall-of-awful-with-brendan-mahan The Wall of Awful with Brendan Mahan] (Hacking Your ADHD) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Goal pursuit]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Procrastination]] 2s51gxtrvzuud8ctenh4qcfj4xjohfo 2836467 2836458 2026-10-07T07:06:23Z U3286643 3106304 Added hyperlinks throughout text. Shortened/reworded temporal motivation theory section to reduce direct similarity to actual wikipedia page 2836467 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Getting started:<br>Why is task initiation difficult and how to overcome it?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Scrolling on phone (cropped).jpg||thumb|right|150px|'''Figure 1''' An individual scrolling on their phone]] ;Scenario John is a university student with an assignment that is due in five days which he has not started. Despite knowing that he needs to begin the assignment soon in order to have it completed by the due date, he finds the prospect of starting the assignment daunting, and so continues engaging in alternative activities, such as scrolling on social media, to avoid beginning the assignment (see Figure 1). John is struggling with task initiation and is using procrastination as a coping behaviour to manage his negative feelings associated with starting the assignment. {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[w:Executive_functions|Executive functions]] are a set of [https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-top-down-processing-2795975 top-down cognitive processes] that support goal-directed behaviour. Diamond (2013) identifies [[w:Inhibitory_control|inhibitory control]], [[w:Working_memory|working memory]], and [[w:Cognitive_flexibility|cognitive flexibility]] as the three core executive functions, with higher-order functions being derived from these, such as [[w:Reason|reasoning]], [[w:Problem_solving|problem solving]], and [[w:Planning|planning]]. However, there is no universally agreed-upon taxonomy due to differences in definitions, labels, and groupings across theoretical models. One proposed higher-order executive function is task initiation. Task initiation is the ability of an individual to begin a specific task at a desired time without unnecessary hesitation or delay. Task initiation can be inhibited by various [[w:Cognition|cognitive]], [[w:Emotion|emotional]], and [[w:Motivation|motivational]] factors. For example, task initiation can quickly become difficult when tasks are associated with negative emotions such as anxiety, shame, or stress; when tasks fail to inspire motivation because they are perceived as low-priority or overly abstract; or when an individual experiences cognitive factors that impair executive functioning. Impaired task initiation is often associated with [[w:Procrastination|procrastination]], defined as the voluntary delay of an intended course of action despite expecting negative consequences from that delay (Steel, 2007). Although there is overlap between the concepts, difficulties in task initiation refer more broadly to problems translating intentions into action, whereas procrastination represents one particular form of delayed goal-directed behaviour. Individuals who experience chronic difficulties with task initiation and procrastination may experience adverse outcomes such as greater stress and poorer [[w:Mental_health|mental health]] (Stead et al., 2010) as well as decreased performance in academic environments (Steel, 2007). Understanding the cognitive and psychological elements of task initiation and the various mechanisms underlying these domains can help to bolster task initiation in individuals – such as through the development of mitigation strategies and measures for procrastination – thus reducing the negative impact of impaired task initiation on individuals' lives. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What cognitive processes underlie task initiation? * How do motivational and emotional factors influence task initiation? * How is task initiation related to procrastination? * How can psychological disorders impair task initiation? * How can task initiation be improved? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Cognitive processes and theories == Task initiation can be examined as functioning through interactions between core executive functions. Working memory involves monitoring and revising relevant information, inhibitory control involves suppressing competing responses, and cognitive flexibility allows [[w:Task_switching_(psychology)|shifting]] between tasks or mental sets (Miyake et al., 2000), all of which represent important factors in successful task initiation. However, intention to initiate a task does not always translate into action, and various cognitive models and theories offer explanations for this discrepancy. Notable among these include the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) and the Rubicon model of action phases. === Theory of planned behaviour === [[File:Theory of planned behaviour.png|thumb|350x350px|'''Figure 2''' Diagram of the Theory of Planned Behaviour ]] The theory of planned behaviour proposes that attitude, subjective [[w:Social_norm|norms]], and perceived behavioural control jointly shape an individual's behavioural intention, which is then theorised to be the most immediate determinant of behaviour (Ajzen, 1991). However, perceived behavioural control - often conceptually related or compared to [[w:Self-efficacy|self-efficacy]] - is also stated as directly influencing behaviour due to the dependence of behaviour on whether an individual has sufficient control over performing it (see Figure 2), a relationship that is stated within the model as being strongest when perceived control reasonably reflects actual control. Thus, this can lead to an intention-action gap: favourable attitudes and supportive norms may generate an intention to begin a task, but insufficient perceived or actual behavioural control can prevent that intention from being translated into action. === Rubicon model of action phases === The Rubicon model of action phases divides the process from intention to action into four phases: pre-decisional (choosing between potential goals through weighing their feasibility and desirability), pre-actional (planning the implementation of the chosen goal), actional (executing the plan) and post-actional (evaluating outcomes against initial goals and subsequently adjusting future behaviour) (Heckhausen & Gollwitzer, 1987). The model therefore provides another framework for understanding the intention-action gap: after forming a goal intention, an individual may still fail to progress from the pre-actional to the actional phase, resulting in an intended behaviour that is not successfully initiated. === Construal level theory (CLT) === An additional cognitive factor influencing task initiation is mental representation. Construal level theory is a psychological framework centred around the concept of [[w:Psychological_distance|psychological distance]], and it distinguishes between high-level, abstract representations and low-level, concrete representations. High-level representations revolve around task purpose, value, and reward, and may boost motivation, but also delay task initiation due to a lack of operational starting points; low-level representations alternatively emphasise practical and logistical steps (Trope & Liberman, 2010). As such, mentally representing a task in a less abstract manner may increase task initiation through making the immediate actions required to begin it more apparent. === Cognitive summary === Taken together, these cognitive processes and theories illustrate how task initiation may be impaired at several stages between goal formation and the beginning of action. Core executive functions contribute to the planning, regulation, and adjustment of behaviour, while the theory of planned behaviour and the Rubicon model of action phases provide an explanation for how intentions may fail to translate into action. Furthermore, construal level theory suggests that differing mental representations of a task may influence whether a task has a clear starting point. However, cognitive processes alone do not fully explain task initiation, as motivational and emotional processes may also influence whether an individual begins a task. == Motivational and emotional barriers == Motivation and emotion are two psychological areas of study which both pertain to task initiation and may be examined to understand how and why task initiation can become difficult. Motivational factors influence whether a task is perceived as valuable and achievable, while emotional factors may increase avoidance when a task is associated with aversive feelings. Together, these processes can influence whether a task is initiated or instead avoided and delayed/ === Motivational barriers === Task initiation is partly dependent on motivational influences such as the anticipated benefit of the task, the perceived likelihood of success, and the costs associated with performing it. [[w:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] proposes that the expected outcomes and subjective value placed upon tasks by individuals heavily influence choice and persistence in relation to tasks (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). Similarly, self-efficacy theory proposes that individuals' efficacy expectations are a prominent determinant in relation to goal setting, task choice, effort expenditure, and persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Additionally, neurological theories such as the expected value of control (EVC) propose that the brain weighs anticipated rewards against the costs of cognitive exertion and allocates cognitive control accordingly, thus providing an additional explanation for why task initiation may be inhibited for demanding tasks even if they have been appraised as valuable and achievable (Shenhav et al., 2013). === Emotional barriers === Task initiation is also dependent on anticipatory emotions associated with the task. Aversion to negative emotional states has been shown to decrease the likelihood of task initiation (Sirois & Pychyl, 2013), and greater task aversiveness as a result of these emotions is associated with greater behavioural delay (Blunt & Pychyl, 2000). Negative emotions can arise as a result of individual tasks, and may also be further compounded by chronic dispositions such as [[w:Fear_of_negative_evaluation|fear of failure]] and [[w:Perfectionism_(psychology)|perfectionism]]. Individuals with high fear of failure report greater levels of shame as a result of perceived failure, and perfectionism has similarly been associated with greater shame and embarrassment following failure (McGregor & Elliot, 2005; Sagar & Stoeber, 2009). == Procrastination == Procrastination can be distinguished from impaired task initiation in that it is a specific form of delay in which intended actions are unnecessarily postponed despite foreseeable adverse consequences. Despite being defined as a voluntary choice, it is often examined and discussed in relation to failures of self-regulation, and thus may be heavily influenced by [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|emotional regulation]] processes. === Self-regulation === Steel (2007) identifies procrastination as a failure of self-regulation, with strong associative factors of task aversiveness, task delay, self-efficacy, and impulsiveness, as well as facets of conscientiousness such as self-control, distractibility, organisation, and achievement motivation. These effects are consistent with the prominent motivational explanation provided by [[w:Temporal_motivation_theory|temporal motivation theory]]. ==== Temporal motivation theory ==== Temporal motivation theory integrates several established approaches to motivation into a single mode, including [[w:Expectancy_theory|expectancy theory]] and other theories concerning delayed rewards (Steel & König, 2006). Central to the model is the idea that motivation changes over time, and a simplified form of the theory can be represented by the following formula: <math>Motivation = {Expectancy \times Value\over 1+Impulsiveness\times Delay}</math> Within the model, expectancy represents the perceived probability of an outcome occurring, while value reflects the desire or benefit attached to that outcome. Impulsiveness represents individual differences in sensitivity to delay, while delay reflects the amount of time separating the individual from the anticipated outcome. This formula provides critical insight into the nature of time and deadlines on motivation and subsequent procrastination: distant rewards or consequences exert less influence on current motivation, with individual differences being accounted for via impulsiveness. As deadlines approach and delay shrinks, motivation increases sharply, leading to a decrease in procrastination and an increase in the likelihood of initiating the deadline-bound task. However, as with task initiation more broadly, procrastination is also influenced by emotional factors. === Emotional regulation === Sirois and Pychyl (2013) argue that procrastination is used as short-term mood regulation and repair: temporarily avoiding an aversive task momentarily improves mood while transferring costs to the future self. Skinner (1963) conceptualised negative [[w:Reinforcement|reinforcement]], in which behaviour is strengthened through the removal of an aversive stimulus. Applied here, procrastination may lead to a reinforcement cycle: an aversive task produces a negative emotion, leading to avoidance, which provides immediate emotional relief and thus makes future avoidance more likely as the behaviour is strengthened. The "[https://www.verywellmind.com/wall-of-awful-in-adhd-12000744 Wall of Awful]" is a non-scientific metaphor often used to conceptualise an emotional barrier to task initiation that may accumulate as a result of these cycles. == Neurodevelopmental and psychiatric conditions == Various psychological and neurodevelopmental conditions are partly characterised by or may result in impaired task initiation. Mechanisms such as [[w:Executive_dysfunction|executive dysfunction]], [[w:Reward_system|reward system]] dysregulation, altered effort costs, and [[w:Pathological_demand_avoidance|demand avoidance]] are potential issues in individuals with such conditions. === Neurodevelopmental disorders === Individuals diagnosed with [[w:Neurodevelopmental_disorder|neurodevelopmental disorders]] such as [[w:Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder|attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder]] (ADHD) and [[w:Autism|autism spectrum disorder]] (ASD) often report difficulties with task initiation. Associations have consistently been found between ADHD symptoms and procrastination, particularly with inattention, and to a lesser extent with executive dysfunction, emotional dysregulation, and impaired motivational processes (Suriano, 2026). Executive dysfunction is also common in children and adolescents with autism, with difficulties indicated in areas including cognitive flexibility, attention, working memory, and inhibition (Ceruti et al., 2024); the term [https://autismawarenesscentre.com/what-is-autistic-inertia/ autistic inertia] has been used to specifically describe difficulties in task initiation in autism, with research showing that autistic individuals report increased difficulty in starting, stopping, and switching activities, even in instances where they intended or wanted to act but nevertheless experienced difficulty doing so (Buckle et al., 2021). === Psychiatric conditions === Individuals diagnosed with [[w:Mental_disorder|psychiatric disorders]] may also experience difficulties with task initiation, although the underlying mechanisms can differ from those associated with neurodevelopmental conditions. In [[w:Major_depressive_disorder|major depressive disorder]] (MDD), anhedonia and chronically reduced motivation may contribute to impaired task initiation through a reduced willingness to expend cognitive and physical effort for rewards (Horne et al., 2021). Avolition, defined as a severe and persistent decrease in the ability to start and sustain self-directed goal-oriented activities, is considered an important negative symptom of [[w:Schizophrenia|schizophrenia]] (DeRosse et al., 2019). [[w:Obsessive–compulsive_disorder|Obsessive-compulsive disorder]] (OCD) may also interfere with task initiation, with symptoms of pathological doubt, uncertainty, and impaired decision making potentially contributing to delays in beginning an activity (Nisticò et al., 2021). ==Improving task initiation == Various cognitive and behavioural strategies and interventions have been proposed to improve task initiation. As difficulties with task initiation have been identified as arising from executive, motivational, and emotional factors, these interventions are typically aimed at the specific mechanisms preventing action. These strategies include [[w:Implementation_intention|implementation intentions]], task concretisation, cognitive offloading, self-efficacy enhancement, emotional regulation practises, [[w:Cognitive_behavioral_therapy|cognitive behavioural therapy]], distraction minimisation, and other minor actionable strategies. === Cognitive strategies to improve task initiation === Cognitive inhibitions to task initiation may include the intention-action gap, difficulties in actionable task visualisation, and limited cognitive resources. Strategies addressing these barriers include implementation intentions, task concretisation strategies, and cognitive offloading, respectively. ==== Implementation intentions ==== Implementation intentions (also known as "if-then planning") are a self-regulatory strategy conceptualised by Peter Gollwitzer as a result of his earlier work alongside Heinz Heckhausen on the Rubicon model of action phases. Unlike goal intentions, which specify a desired outcome (e.g., "I want to improve my fitness"), implementation intentions specify the situational cues and subsequent behavioural response through which a goal will be pursued (e.g., "At 7:00 pm, I will go for a run"). Within the Rubicon model, implementation intentions are relevant to the transition between the pre-actional and actional phases. By linking situational cues to pre-planned responses, implementation intentions can improve task initiation by reducing reliance on conscious deliberation and turning goal-directed behaviour into a more streamlined, automatic process (Gollwitzer, 1999). ==== Task concretisation ==== Task concretisation is the process of deconstructing large, often abstract tasks into smaller, more concrete subtasks. As discussed previously, construal level theory highlights that low-level representations emphasise the specific means through which a task is carried out as opposed to its broader purpose (Trope & Liberman, 2010). Concretisation may therefore improve task initiation through improved task clarification, and has also been shown to reduce cognitive computational demands through the facilitation of easier planning while also preserving effective performance (Correa et al., 2023). Other research indicates that subgoals can increase perceived attainability and motivation, particularly during the early stages of goal pursuit (Huang et al., 2017), thus providing further evidence for the benefits of task concretisation. ==== Cognitive offloading ==== Cognitive offloading is the process of reducing information processing requirements through the use of physical action or external tools, such as calendars, written plans, and other visible reminders (Risko & Gilbert, 2016). Cognitive offloading can reduce demands on working memory, freeing cognitive resources that would otherwise have been required to maintain the information, and subsequently improving immediate performance at the cost of poorer later recall of the offloaded information (Grinschgl et al., 2021). However, an [https://www.apa.org/monitor/2026/07-08/ai-job-skills-thinking overreliance on contemporary external tools] such as [[w:Generative_AI|generative AI]] has raised concerns regarding cognitive offloading and a decline in processes such as [[w:Encoding_(memory)|memory encoding]] and [[w:Critical_thinking|critical thinking]] due to reduced engagement in these processes. === Motivational strategies to improve task initiation === Both motivational models such as expectancy-value theory and neuroscientific models of cognitive-control allocation such as the expected value of control emphasise evaluations of potential value relative to costs. Similar principles appear in temporal motivation theory, in which motivation is influenced through expectancy, value, impulsiveness, and delay. Accordingly, strategies for increasing motivation and facilitating task initiation may involve increasing the perceived value of a task, increasing expectations of success, or reducing its perceived costs. Subjective task value may be increased by linking tasks to personally meaningful goals, interests, or future outcomes: research shows that encouraging students to connect specific academic tasks to personal interests or goals can lead to increased interest, engagement, and academic performance (Harackiewicz et al., 2014). Expectancy may be strengthened by setting smaller, achievable goals, as this provides clearer evidence of progress and attainment, which can strengthen perceptions of self-efficacy (Schunk, 1984). Finally, reducing perceived costs may involve the previously mentioned task concretisation, which reduces task complexity through clearer immediate subtasks, thus decreasing the initial cognitive demands required. === Emotional strategies to improve task initiation === As task avoidance and procrastination are often associated with attempts to regulate aversive emotions, strategies for improving task initiation may involve greater emotional acceptance and improved emotional regulation. Greater awareness and acceptance of emotional experiences has been associated with more adaptive emotional responding (Erisman & Roemer, 2010), while practising the tolerance and modification of aversive emotions has been shown to reduce procrastination (Eckert et al., 2016). Furthermore, Wohl et al. (2010) found that greater levels of self-reported self-forgiveness were associated with lower levels of future procrastination, which may be particularly important in disrupting negative reinforcement cycles. === Further strategies === Further strategies for improving task initiation involve modifications to physical and social environments, as well as psychotherapeutic interventions that integrate multiple mechanisms, as opposed to directly targeting individual cognitive, emotional, or motivational mechanisms. ==== Environmental and social changes ==== Changes to an individual's environment may facilitate task initiation. Removing prominent distractions such as digital devices like phones, unrelated projects, unfinished chores, or other stimuli that compete for attention may decrease the inhibitory control required to focus on necessary tasks. Research indicates that even the presence of one's own smartphone may occupy cognitive resources, even when conscious attention is not being paid to it (Ward et al., 2017). Social strategies such as [https://www.simplypsychology.com/articles/body-doubling-adhd body doubling] are also often offered as a strategy to reduce procrastination, specifically in individuals with ADHD; however, direct evidence is limited, with the proposal relying primarily on anecdotal consensus. ==== Psychotherapeutic interventions ==== Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) may be used to treat individuals who struggle with chronic procrastination, thus potentially improving overall task initiation. Rozental et al. (2018) found substantial reductions in procrastination following CBT interventions, suggesting that CBT may be an effective tool in managing procrastination. These interventions included techniques such as psychoeducation, goal setting and behavioural activation, strategies to strengthen self-efficacy, stimulus control and distraction management, assertiveness training, and cognitive restructuring. Overall, CBT functions as a broader therapeutic framework in which several previously discussed strategies to improving task initiation are integrated. == Conclusion == Task initiation is a higher-order executive function derived from core processes such as working memory, inhibition, and cognitive flexibility. Functional task initiation can be adversely affected through impairments of these areas, such as is common in neurodevelopmental disorders, as well as through various individual motivational and emotional factors. Various models and theories, such as the theory of planned behaviour, the Rubicon model of action phases, construal level theory, and temporal motivation theory are offered as explanations for how and why individuals may struggle to successfully convert goal-intentions into goal-directed behaviour. Strategies for improving task initiation therefore often reflect and address these underlying mechanisms. Implementation intentions, task concretisation, and cognitive offloading may decrease the intention-action gap, provide clearer first steps to initiating tasks, and reduce the mental effort to do so, respectively. Increasing the perceived value of tasks and their rewards, or decreasing the perceived costs, may address motivational issues, while practicing emotional acceptance and regulation may reduce avoidance as a result of emotional issues. Psychotherapeutic interventions such as cognitive behavioural therapy often integrate several of these approaches, and other minor strategies are also available to increase task initiation, such as environmental restructuring and body doubling. As impaired task initiation (and related phenomena such as procrastination) are often associated with overall decreases in individual quality of life, greater understanding and implementation of these strategies and interventions is an important area of study. == See also == * ==References== {{Hanging indent|1=Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50(2), 179–211. doi.org/10.1016/0749-5978(91)90020-T Blunt, A. K., & Pychyl, T. A. (2000). Task aversiveness and procrastination: A multi-dimensional approach to task aversiveness across stages of personal projects. Personality and Individual Differences, 28(1), 153–167. doi.org/10.1016/s0191-8869(99)00091-4 Buckle, K. L., Leadbitter, K., Poliakoff, E., & Gowen, E. (2021). “No way out except from external intervention”: First-hand accounts of autistic inertia. Frontiers in Psychology, 12(63159). doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.631596 Ceruti, C., Mingozzi, A., Scionti, N., & Marzocchi, G. M. (2024). Comparing executive functions in children and adolescents with autism and ADHD—A systematic review and meta-analysis. Children, 11(4), 473. doi.org/10.3390/children11040473 Correa, C. G., Ho, M. K., Callaway, F., Daw, N. D., & Griffiths, T. L. (2023). Humans decompose tasks by trading off utility and computational cost. PLOS Computational Biology, 19(6), e1011087. doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1011087 DeRosse, P., Barber, A. D., Fales, C. L., & Malhotra, A. K. (2019). Deconstructing avolition: Initiation vs persistence of reward-directed effort. Psychiatry Research, 273, 647–652. doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2019.01.073 Diamond, A. (2013). Executive functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64(1), 135–168. doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750 Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153 Eckert, M., Ebert, D. D, Lehr, D., Sieland, B., & Berking, M. (2016). Overcome procrastination: Enhancing emotion regulation skills reduce procrastination. Learning and Individual Differences, 52, 10–18. doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2016.10.001 Erisman, S. M., & Roemer, L. (2010). A preliminary investigation of the effects of experimentally induced mindfulness on emotional responding to film clips. Emotion, 10(1), 72–82. doi.org/10.1037/a0017162 Gollwitzer, P. M. (1999). Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans. American Psychologist, 54(7), 493–503. doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.54.7.493 Grinschgl, S., Papenmeier, F., & Meyerhoff, H. S. (2021). Consequences of cognitive offloading: Boosting performance but diminishing memory. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 74(9), 1477–1496. doi.org/10.1177/17470218211008060 Harackiewicz, J. M., Tibbetts, Y., Canning, E. A., & Hyde, J. S. (2014). Harnessing values to promote motivation in education. In S. A. Karabenick & T. C. Urdan (Eds.), Motivational interventions (Vol. 18, pp. 71–105). Emerald Group Publishing Limited. doi.org/10.1108/S0749-742320140000018002 Heckhausen, H., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (1987). Thought contents and cognitive functioning in motivational versus volitional states of mind. Motivation and Emotion, 11(2), 101–120. doi.org/10.1007/bf00992338 Horne, S. J., Topp, T. E., & Quigley, L. (2021). Depression and the willingness to expend cognitive and physical effort for rewards: A systematic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 88, 102065. doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2021.102065 Huang, S., Jin, L., & Zhang, Y. (2017). Step by step: Sub-goals as a source of motivation. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 141, 1–15. doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2017.05.001 McGregor, H. A., & Elliot, A. J. (2005). The shame of failure: Examining the link between fear of failure and shame. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31(2), 218–231. doi.org/10.1177/0146167204271420 Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “frontal lobe” tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41(1), 49–100. doi.org/10.1006/cogp.1999.0734 Nisticò, V., De Angelis, A., Erro, R., Demartini, B., & Ricciardi, L. (2021). Obsessive-compulsive disorder and decision making under ambiguity: A systematic review with meta-analysis. Brain Sciences, 11(2), 143. doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11020143 Risko, E. F., & Gilbert, S. J. (2016). Cognitive offloading. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 20(9), 676–688. doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2016.07.002 Rozental, A., Forsström, D., Lindner, P., Nilsson, S., Mårtensson, L., Rizzo, A., Andersson, G., & Carlbring, P. (2018). Treating procrastination using cognitive behavior therapy: A pragmatic randomized controlled trial comparing treatment delivered via the internet or in groups. Behavior Therapy, 49(2), 180–197. doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2017.08.002 Sagar, S. S., & Stoeber, J. (2009). Perfectionism, fear of failure, and affective responses to success and failure: The central role of fear of experiencing shame and embarrassment. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 31(5), 602–627. doi.org/10.1123/jsep.31.5.602 Schunk, D. H. (1984). Enhancing self-efficacy and achievement through rewards and goals: Motivational and informational effects. The Journal of Educational Research, 78(1), 29–34. doi.org/10.1080/00220671.1984.10885568 Shenhav, A., Botvinick, M. M., & Cohen, J. D. (2013). The expected value of control: An integrative theory of anterior cingulate cortex function. Neuron, 79(2), 217–240. doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2013.07.007 Sirois, F., & Pychyl, T. (2013). Procrastination and the priority of short-term mood regulation: Consequences for future self. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 7(2), 115–127. doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12011 Skinner, B. F. (1963). Operant behavior. American Psychologist, 18(8), 503–515. doi.org/10.1037/h0045185 Stead, R., Shanahan, M. J., & Neufeld, R. W. J. (2010). “I’ll go to therapy, eventually”: Procrastination, stress and mental health. Personality and Individual Differences, 49(3), 175–180. doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.03.028 Steel, P. (2007). The nature of procrastination: A meta-analytic and theoretical review of quintessential self-regulatory failure. Psychological Bulletin, 133(1), 65–94. doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.65 Steel, P., & König, C. J. (2006). Integrating theories of motivation. Academy of Management Review, 31(4), 889–913. doi.org/10.5465/amr.2006.22527462 Suriano, R. (2026). A systematic review on the association between ADHD and procrastination. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 175, 105342. doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2026.105342 Trope, Y., & Liberman, N. (2010). Construal-level theory of psychological distance. Psychological Review, 117(2), 440–463. doi.org/10.1037/a0018963 Ward, A. F., Duke, K., Gneezy, A., & Bos, M. W. (2017). Brain drain: The mere presence of one’s own smartphone reduces available cognitive capacity. Journal of the Association for Consumer Research, 2(2), 140–154. doi.org/10.1086/691462 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–value theory of achievement motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 68–81. doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 Wohl, M. J. A., Pychyl, T. A., & Bennett, S. H. (2010). I forgive myself, now I can study: How self-forgiveness for procrastinating can reduce future procrastination. Personality and Individual Differences, 48(7), 803–808. doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.01.029 }} == External links == *[https://www.apa.org/monitor/2026/07-08/ai-job-skills-thinking How AI is reshaping human skills and thinking] (American Psychological Association) *[https://www.simplypsychology.com/articles/body-doubling-adhd Body Doubling: The ADHD Productivity Strategy That Actually Works (2026)] (Simply Psychology) *[https://www.verywellmind.com/wall-of-awful-in-adhd-12000744 How the Wall of Awful Prevents Task Initiation in ADHD—and What Can Help You Push Through] (Verywell Mind) *[https://autismawarenesscentre.com/what-is-autistic-inertia/ What is autistic intertia?] (Autism Awareness Centre Inc) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Goal pursuit]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Procrastination]] 7qonfdy4p809hrhkabb4dbm3nx2f470 2836469 2836467 2026-10-07T07:20:27Z U3286643 3106304 removed excessive hyperlinks 2836469 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Getting started:<br>Why is task initiation difficult and how to overcome it?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Scrolling on phone (cropped).jpg||thumb|right|150px|'''Figure 1''' An individual scrolling on their phone]] ;Scenario John is a university student with an assignment that is due in five days which he has not started. Despite knowing that he needs to begin the assignment soon in order to have it completed by the due date, he finds the prospect of starting the assignment daunting, and so continues engaging in alternative activities, such as scrolling on social media, to avoid beginning the assignment (see Figure 1). John is struggling with task initiation and is using procrastination as a coping behaviour to manage his negative feelings associated with starting the assignment. {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[w:Executive_functions|Executive functions]] are a set of top-down cognitive processes that support goal-directed behaviour. Diamond (2013) identifies [[w:Inhibitory_control|inhibitory control]], [[w:Working_memory|working memory]], and [[w:Cognitive_flexibility|cognitive flexibility]] as the three core executive functions, with higher-order functions being derived from these, such as [[w:Reason|reasoning]], [[w:Problem_solving|problem solving]], and [[w:Planning|planning]]. However, there is no universally agreed-upon taxonomy due to differences in definitions, labels, and groupings across theoretical models. One proposed higher-order executive function is task initiation. Task initiation is the ability of an individual to begin a specific task at a desired time without unnecessary hesitation or delay. Task initiation can be inhibited by various cognitive, emotional, and motivational factors. For example, task initiation can quickly become difficult when tasks are associated with negative emotions such as anxiety, shame, or stress; when tasks fail to inspire motivation because they are perceived as low-priority or overly abstract; or when an individual experiences cognitive factors that impair executive functioning. Impaired task initiation is often associated with [[w:Procrastination|procrastination]], defined as the voluntary delay of an intended course of action despite expecting negative consequences from that delay (Steel, 2007). Although there is overlap between the concepts, difficulties in task initiation refer more broadly to problems translating intentions into action, whereas procrastination represents one particular form of delayed goal-directed behaviour. Individuals who experience chronic difficulties with task initiation and procrastination may experience adverse outcomes such as greater stress and poorer mental health (Stead et al., 2010) as well as decreased performance in academic environments (Steel, 2007). Understanding the cognitive and psychological elements of task initiation and the various mechanisms underlying these domains can help to bolster task initiation in individuals – such as through the development of mitigation strategies and measures for procrastination – thus reducing the negative impact of impaired task initiation on individuals' lives. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What cognitive processes underlie task initiation? * How do motivational and emotional factors influence task initiation? * How is task initiation related to procrastination? * How can psychological disorders impair task initiation? * How can task initiation be improved? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Cognitive processes and theories == Task initiation can be examined as functioning through interactions between core executive functions. Working memory involves monitoring and revising relevant information, inhibitory control involves suppressing competing responses, and cognitive flexibility allows shifting between tasks or mental sets (Miyake et al., 2000), all of which represent important factors in successful task initiation. However, intention to initiate a task does not always translate into action, and various cognitive models and theories offer explanations for this discrepancy. Notable among these include the [[w:Theory_of_planned_behavior|theory of planned behaviour]] (TPB) and the [[w:Rubicon_model|Rubicon model of action phases]]. === Theory of planned behaviour === [[File:Theory of planned behaviour.png|thumb|350x350px|'''Figure 2''' Diagram of the Theory of Planned Behaviour ]] The theory of planned behaviour proposes that attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control jointly shape an individual's behavioural intention, which is then theorised to be the most immediate determinant of behaviour (Ajzen, 1991). However, perceived behavioural control - often conceptually related or compared to [[w:Self-efficacy|self-efficacy]] - is also stated as directly influencing behaviour due to the dependence of behaviour on whether an individual has sufficient control over performing it (see Figure 2), a relationship that is stated within the model as being strongest when perceived control reasonably reflects actual control. Thus, this can lead to an intention-action gap: favourable attitudes and supportive norms may generate an intention to begin a task, but insufficient perceived or actual behavioural control can prevent that intention from being translated into action. === Rubicon model of action phases === The Rubicon model of action phases divides the process from intention to action into four phases: pre-decisional (choosing between potential goals through weighing their feasibility and desirability), pre-actional (planning the implementation of the chosen goal), actional (executing the plan) and post-actional (evaluating outcomes against initial goals and subsequently adjusting future behaviour) (Heckhausen & Gollwitzer, 1987). The model therefore provides another framework for understanding the intention-action gap: after forming a goal intention, an individual may still fail to progress from the pre-actional to the actional phase, resulting in an intended behaviour that is not successfully initiated. === Construal level theory (CLT) === An additional cognitive factor influencing task initiation is mental representation. [[w:Construal_level_theory|Construal level theory]] is a psychological framework centred around the concept of [[w:Psychological_distance|psychological distance]], and it distinguishes between high-level, abstract representations and low-level, concrete representations. High-level representations revolve around task purpose, value, and reward, and may boost motivation, but also delay task initiation due to a lack of operational starting points; low-level representations alternatively emphasise practical and logistical steps (Trope & Liberman, 2010). As such, mentally representing a task in a less abstract manner may increase task initiation through making the immediate actions required to begin it more apparent. === Cognitive summary === Taken together, these cognitive processes and theories illustrate how task initiation may be impaired at several stages between goal formation and the beginning of action. Core executive functions contribute to the planning, regulation, and adjustment of behaviour, while the theory of planned behaviour and the Rubicon model of action phases provide an explanation for how intentions may fail to translate into action. Furthermore, construal level theory suggests that differing mental representations of a task may influence whether a task has a clear starting point. However, cognitive processes alone do not fully explain task initiation, as motivational and emotional processes may also influence whether an individual begins a task. == Motivational and emotional barriers == Motivation and emotion are two psychological areas of study which both pertain to task initiation and may be examined to understand how and why task initiation can become difficult. Motivational factors influence whether a task is perceived as valuable and achievable, while emotional factors may increase avoidance when a task is associated with aversive feelings. Together, these processes can influence whether a task is initiated or instead avoided and delayed/ === Motivational barriers === Task initiation is partly dependent on motivational influences such as the anticipated benefit of the task, the perceived likelihood of success, and the costs associated with performing it. [[w:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] proposes that the expected outcomes and subjective value placed upon tasks by individuals heavily influence choice and persistence in relation to tasks (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). Similarly, self-efficacy theory proposes that individuals' efficacy expectations are a prominent determinant in relation to goal setting, task choice, effort expenditure, and persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Additionally, neurological theories such as the expected value of control (EVC) propose that the brain weighs anticipated rewards against the costs of cognitive exertion and allocates cognitive control accordingly, thus providing an additional explanation for why task initiation may be inhibited for demanding tasks even if they have been appraised as valuable and achievable (Shenhav et al., 2013). === Emotional barriers === Task initiation is also dependent on anticipatory emotions associated with the task. Aversion to negative emotional states has been shown to decrease the likelihood of task initiation (Sirois & Pychyl, 2013), and greater task aversiveness as a result of these emotions is associated with greater behavioural delay (Blunt & Pychyl, 2000). Negative emotions can arise as a result of individual tasks, and may also be further compounded by chronic dispositions such as [[w:Fear_of_negative_evaluation|fear of failure]] and [[w:Perfectionism_(psychology)|perfectionism]]. Individuals with high fear of failure report greater levels of shame as a result of perceived failure, and perfectionism has similarly been associated with greater shame and embarrassment following failure (McGregor & Elliot, 2005; Sagar & Stoeber, 2009). == Procrastination == Procrastination can be distinguished from impaired task initiation in that it is a specific form of delay in which intended actions are unnecessarily postponed despite foreseeable adverse consequences. Despite being defined as a voluntary choice, it is often examined and discussed in relation to failures of self-regulation, and thus may be heavily influenced by [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|emotional regulation]] processes. === Self-regulation === Steel (2007) identifies procrastination as a failure of self-regulation, with strong associative factors of task aversiveness, task delay, self-efficacy, and impulsiveness, as well as facets of conscientiousness such as self-control, distractibility, organisation, and achievement motivation. These effects are consistent with the prominent motivational explanation provided by [[w:Temporal_motivation_theory|temporal motivation theory]]. ==== Temporal motivation theory ==== Temporal motivation theory integrates several established approaches to motivation into a single mode, including [[w:Expectancy_theory|expectancy theory]] and other theories concerning delayed rewards (Steel & König, 2006). Central to the model is the idea that motivation changes over time, and a simplified form of the theory can be represented by the following formula: <math>Motivation = {Expectancy \times Value\over 1+Impulsiveness\times Delay}</math> Within the model, expectancy represents the perceived probability of an outcome occurring, while value reflects the desire or benefit attached to that outcome. Impulsiveness represents individual differences in sensitivity to delay, while delay reflects the amount of time separating the individual from the anticipated outcome. This formula provides critical insight into the nature of time and deadlines on motivation and subsequent procrastination: distant rewards or consequences exert less influence on current motivation, with individual differences being accounted for via impulsiveness. As deadlines approach and delay shrinks, motivation increases sharply, leading to a decrease in procrastination and an increase in the likelihood of initiating the deadline-bound task. However, as with task initiation more broadly, procrastination is also influenced by emotional factors. === Emotional regulation === Sirois and Pychyl (2013) argue that procrastination is used as short-term mood regulation and repair: temporarily avoiding an aversive task momentarily improves mood while transferring costs to the future self. Skinner (1963) conceptualised [[w:Reinforcement|negative reinforcement]], in which behaviour is strengthened through the removal of an aversive stimulus. Applied here, procrastination may lead to a reinforcement cycle: an aversive task produces a negative emotion, leading to avoidance, which provides immediate emotional relief and thus makes future avoidance more likely as the behaviour is strengthened. The "[https://www.verywellmind.com/wall-of-awful-in-adhd-12000744 Wall of Awful]" is a non-scientific metaphor often used to conceptualise an emotional barrier to task initiation that may accumulate as a result of these cycles. == Neurodevelopmental and psychiatric conditions == Various psychological and neurodevelopmental conditions are partly characterised by or may result in impaired task initiation. Mechanisms such as [[w:Executive_dysfunction|executive dysfunction]], [[w:Reward_system|reward system]] dysregulation, altered effort costs, and [[w:Pathological_demand_avoidance|demand avoidance]] are potential issues in individuals with such conditions. === Neurodevelopmental disorders === Individuals diagnosed with [[w:Neurodevelopmental_disorder|neurodevelopmental disorders]] such as [[w:Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder|attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder]] (ADHD) and [[w:Autism|autism spectrum disorder]] (ASD) often report difficulties with task initiation. Associations have consistently been found between ADHD symptoms and procrastination, particularly with inattention, and to a lesser extent with executive dysfunction, emotional dysregulation, and impaired motivational processes (Suriano, 2026). Executive dysfunction is also common in children and adolescents with autism, with difficulties indicated in areas including cognitive flexibility, attention, working memory, and inhibition (Ceruti et al., 2024); the term [https://autisticinertia.com/2019/10/researchers-view/ autistic inertia] has been used to specifically describe difficulties in task initiation in autism, with research showing that autistic individuals report increased difficulty in starting, stopping, and switching activities, even in instances where they intended or wanted to act but nevertheless experienced difficulty doing so (Buckle et al., 2021). === Psychiatric conditions === Individuals diagnosed with [[w:Mental_disorder|psychiatric disorders]] may also experience difficulties with task initiation, although the underlying mechanisms can differ from those associated with neurodevelopmental conditions. In [[w:Major_depressive_disorder|major depressive disorder]] (MDD), [[w:Anhedonia|anhedonia]] and chronically reduced motivation may contribute to impaired task initiation through a reduced willingness to expend cognitive and physical effort for rewards (Horne et al., 2021). [[w:Avolition|Avolition]], defined as a severe and persistent decrease in the ability to start and sustain self-directed goal-oriented activities, is considered an important negative symptom of [[w:Schizophrenia|schizophrenia]] (DeRosse et al., 2019). [[w:Obsessive–compulsive_disorder|Obsessive-compulsive disorder]] (OCD) may also interfere with task initiation, with symptoms of pathological doubt, uncertainty, and impaired decision making potentially contributing to delays in beginning an activity (Nisticò et al., 2021). ==Improving task initiation == Various cognitive and behavioural strategies and interventions have been proposed to improve task initiation. As difficulties with task initiation have been identified as arising from executive, motivational, and emotional factors, these interventions are typically aimed at the specific mechanisms preventing action. These strategies include [[w:Implementation_intention|implementation intentions]], task concretisation, cognitive offloading, self-efficacy enhancement, emotional regulation practises, [[w:Cognitive_behavioral_therapy|cognitive behavioural therapy]], distraction minimisation, and other minor actionable strategies. === Cognitive strategies to improve task initiation === Cognitive inhibitions to task initiation may include the intention-action gap, difficulties in actionable task visualisation, and limited cognitive resources. Strategies addressing these barriers include implementation intentions, task concretisation strategies, and cognitive offloading, respectively. ==== Implementation intentions ==== Implementation intentions (also known as "if-then planning") are a self-regulatory strategy conceptualised by Peter Gollwitzer as a result of his earlier work alongside Heinz Heckhausen on the Rubicon model of action phases. Unlike goal intentions, which specify a desired outcome (e.g., "I want to improve my fitness"), implementation intentions specify the situational cues and subsequent behavioural response through which a goal will be pursued (e.g., "At 7:00 pm, I will go for a run"). Within the Rubicon model, implementation intentions are relevant to the transition between the pre-actional and actional phases. By linking situational cues to pre-planned responses, implementation intentions can improve task initiation by reducing reliance on conscious deliberation and turning goal-directed behaviour into a more streamlined, automatic process (Gollwitzer, 1999). ==== Task concretisation ==== Task concretisation is the process of deconstructing large, often abstract tasks into smaller, more concrete subtasks. As discussed previously, construal level theory highlights that low-level representations emphasise the specific means through which a task is carried out as opposed to its broader purpose (Trope & Liberman, 2010). Concretisation may therefore improve task initiation through improved task clarification, and has also been shown to reduce cognitive computational demands through the facilitation of easier planning while also preserving effective performance (Correa et al., 2023). Other research indicates that subgoals can increase perceived attainability and motivation, particularly during the early stages of goal pursuit (Huang et al., 2017), thus providing further evidence for the benefits of task concretisation. ==== Cognitive offloading ==== Cognitive offloading is the process of reducing information processing requirements through the use of physical action or external tools, such as calendars, written plans, and other visible reminders (Risko & Gilbert, 2016). Cognitive offloading can reduce demands on working memory, freeing cognitive resources that would otherwise have been required to maintain the information, and subsequently improving immediate performance at the cost of poorer later recall of the offloaded information (Grinschgl et al., 2021). However, an [https://www.apa.org/monitor/2026/07-08/ai-job-skills-thinking overreliance on contemporary external tools] such as [[w:Generative_AI|generative AI]] has raised concerns regarding cognitive offloading and a decline in processes such as memory encoding and critical thinking due to reduced engagement in these processes. === Motivational strategies to improve task initiation === Both motivational models such as expectancy-value theory and neuroscientific models of cognitive-control allocation such as the expected value of control emphasise evaluations of potential value relative to costs. Similar principles appear in temporal motivation theory, in which motivation is influenced through expectancy, value, impulsiveness, and delay. Accordingly, strategies for increasing motivation and facilitating task initiation may involve increasing the perceived value of a task, increasing expectations of success, or reducing its perceived costs. Subjective task value may be increased by linking tasks to personally meaningful goals, interests, or future outcomes: research shows that encouraging students to connect specific academic tasks to personal interests or goals can lead to increased interest, engagement, and academic performance (Harackiewicz et al., 2014). Expectancy may be strengthened by setting smaller, achievable goals, as this provides clearer evidence of progress and attainment, which can strengthen perceptions of self-efficacy (Schunk, 1984). Finally, reducing perceived costs may involve the previously mentioned task concretisation, which reduces task complexity through clearer immediate subtasks, thus decreasing the initial cognitive demands required. === Emotional strategies to improve task initiation === As task avoidance and procrastination are often associated with attempts to regulate aversive emotions, strategies for improving task initiation may involve greater emotional acceptance and improved emotional regulation. Greater awareness and acceptance of emotional experiences has been associated with more adaptive emotional responding (Erisman & Roemer, 2010), while practising the tolerance and modification of aversive emotions has been shown to reduce procrastination (Eckert et al., 2016). Furthermore, Wohl et al. (2010) found that greater levels of self-reported self-forgiveness were associated with lower levels of future procrastination, which may be particularly important in disrupting negative reinforcement cycles. === Further strategies === Further strategies for improving task initiation involve modifications to physical and social environments, as well as psychotherapeutic interventions that integrate multiple mechanisms, as opposed to directly targeting individual cognitive, emotional, or motivational mechanisms. ==== Environmental and social changes ==== Changes to an individual's environment may facilitate task initiation. Removing prominent distractions such as digital devices like phones, unrelated projects, unfinished chores, or other stimuli that compete for attention may decrease the inhibitory control required to focus on necessary tasks. Research indicates that even the presence of one's own smartphone may occupy cognitive resources, even when conscious attention is not being paid to it (Ward et al., 2017). Social strategies such as [https://www.simplypsychology.com/articles/body-doubling-adhd body doubling] are also often offered as a strategy to reduce procrastination, specifically in individuals with ADHD; however, direct evidence is limited, with the proposal relying primarily on anecdotal consensus. ==== Psychotherapeutic interventions ==== Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) may be used to treat individuals who struggle with chronic procrastination, thus potentially improving overall task initiation. Rozental et al. (2018) found substantial reductions in procrastination following CBT interventions, suggesting that CBT may be an effective tool in managing procrastination. These interventions included techniques such as [[w:Psychoeducation|psychoeducation]], goal setting and [[w:Behavioral_activation|behavioural activation]], strategies to strengthen self-efficacy, stimulus control and distraction management, assertiveness training, and [[w:Cognitive_restructuring|cognitive restructuring]]. Overall, CBT functions as a broader therapeutic framework in which several previously discussed strategies to improving task initiation are integrated. == Conclusion == Task initiation is a higher-order executive function derived from core processes such as working memory, inhibition, and cognitive flexibility. Functional task initiation can be adversely affected through impairments of these areas, such as is common in neurodevelopmental disorders, as well as through various individual motivational and emotional factors. Various models and theories, such as the theory of planned behaviour, the Rubicon model of action phases, construal level theory, and temporal motivation theory are offered as explanations for how and why individuals may struggle to successfully convert goal-intentions into goal-directed behaviour. Strategies for improving task initiation therefore often reflect and address these underlying mechanisms. Implementation intentions, task concretisation, and cognitive offloading may decrease the intention-action gap, provide clearer first steps to initiating tasks, and reduce the mental effort to do so, respectively. Increasing the perceived value of tasks and their rewards, or decreasing the perceived costs, may address motivational issues, while practicing emotional acceptance and regulation may reduce avoidance as a result of emotional issues. Psychotherapeutic interventions such as cognitive behavioural therapy often integrate several of these approaches, and other minor strategies are also available to increase task initiation, such as environmental restructuring and body doubling. As impaired task initiation (and related phenomena such as procrastination) are often associated with overall decreases in individual quality of life, greater understanding and implementation of these strategies and interventions is an important area of study. == See also == * ==References== {{Hanging indent|1=Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50(2), 179–211. doi.org/10.1016/0749-5978(91)90020-T Blunt, A. K., & Pychyl, T. A. (2000). Task aversiveness and procrastination: A multi-dimensional approach to task aversiveness across stages of personal projects. Personality and Individual Differences, 28(1), 153–167. doi.org/10.1016/s0191-8869(99)00091-4 Buckle, K. L., Leadbitter, K., Poliakoff, E., & Gowen, E. (2021). “No way out except from external intervention”: First-hand accounts of autistic inertia. Frontiers in Psychology, 12(63159). doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.631596 Ceruti, C., Mingozzi, A., Scionti, N., & Marzocchi, G. M. (2024). Comparing executive functions in children and adolescents with autism and ADHD—A systematic review and meta-analysis. Children, 11(4), 473. doi.org/10.3390/children11040473 Correa, C. G., Ho, M. K., Callaway, F., Daw, N. D., & Griffiths, T. L. (2023). Humans decompose tasks by trading off utility and computational cost. PLOS Computational Biology, 19(6), e1011087. doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1011087 DeRosse, P., Barber, A. D., Fales, C. L., & Malhotra, A. K. (2019). Deconstructing avolition: Initiation vs persistence of reward-directed effort. Psychiatry Research, 273, 647–652. doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2019.01.073 Diamond, A. (2013). Executive functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64(1), 135–168. doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750 Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153 Eckert, M., Ebert, D. D, Lehr, D., Sieland, B., & Berking, M. (2016). Overcome procrastination: Enhancing emotion regulation skills reduce procrastination. Learning and Individual Differences, 52, 10–18. doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2016.10.001 Erisman, S. M., & Roemer, L. (2010). A preliminary investigation of the effects of experimentally induced mindfulness on emotional responding to film clips. Emotion, 10(1), 72–82. doi.org/10.1037/a0017162 Gollwitzer, P. M. (1999). Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans. American Psychologist, 54(7), 493–503. doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.54.7.493 Grinschgl, S., Papenmeier, F., & Meyerhoff, H. S. (2021). Consequences of cognitive offloading: Boosting performance but diminishing memory. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 74(9), 1477–1496. doi.org/10.1177/17470218211008060 Harackiewicz, J. M., Tibbetts, Y., Canning, E. A., & Hyde, J. S. (2014). Harnessing values to promote motivation in education. In S. A. Karabenick & T. C. Urdan (Eds.), Motivational interventions (Vol. 18, pp. 71–105). Emerald Group Publishing Limited. doi.org/10.1108/S0749-742320140000018002 Heckhausen, H., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (1987). Thought contents and cognitive functioning in motivational versus volitional states of mind. Motivation and Emotion, 11(2), 101–120. doi.org/10.1007/bf00992338 Horne, S. J., Topp, T. E., & Quigley, L. (2021). Depression and the willingness to expend cognitive and physical effort for rewards: A systematic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 88, 102065. doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2021.102065 Huang, S., Jin, L., & Zhang, Y. (2017). Step by step: Sub-goals as a source of motivation. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 141, 1–15. doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2017.05.001 McGregor, H. A., & Elliot, A. J. (2005). The shame of failure: Examining the link between fear of failure and shame. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31(2), 218–231. doi.org/10.1177/0146167204271420 Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “frontal lobe” tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41(1), 49–100. doi.org/10.1006/cogp.1999.0734 Nisticò, V., De Angelis, A., Erro, R., Demartini, B., & Ricciardi, L. (2021). Obsessive-compulsive disorder and decision making under ambiguity: A systematic review with meta-analysis. Brain Sciences, 11(2), 143. doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11020143 Risko, E. F., & Gilbert, S. J. (2016). Cognitive offloading. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 20(9), 676–688. doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2016.07.002 Rozental, A., Forsström, D., Lindner, P., Nilsson, S., Mårtensson, L., Rizzo, A., Andersson, G., & Carlbring, P. (2018). Treating procrastination using cognitive behavior therapy: A pragmatic randomized controlled trial comparing treatment delivered via the internet or in groups. Behavior Therapy, 49(2), 180–197. doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2017.08.002 Sagar, S. S., & Stoeber, J. (2009). Perfectionism, fear of failure, and affective responses to success and failure: The central role of fear of experiencing shame and embarrassment. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 31(5), 602–627. doi.org/10.1123/jsep.31.5.602 Schunk, D. H. (1984). Enhancing self-efficacy and achievement through rewards and goals: Motivational and informational effects. The Journal of Educational Research, 78(1), 29–34. doi.org/10.1080/00220671.1984.10885568 Shenhav, A., Botvinick, M. M., & Cohen, J. D. (2013). The expected value of control: An integrative theory of anterior cingulate cortex function. Neuron, 79(2), 217–240. doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2013.07.007 Sirois, F., & Pychyl, T. (2013). Procrastination and the priority of short-term mood regulation: Consequences for future self. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 7(2), 115–127. doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12011 Skinner, B. F. (1963). Operant behavior. American Psychologist, 18(8), 503–515. doi.org/10.1037/h0045185 Stead, R., Shanahan, M. J., & Neufeld, R. W. J. (2010). “I’ll go to therapy, eventually”: Procrastination, stress and mental health. Personality and Individual Differences, 49(3), 175–180. doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.03.028 Steel, P. (2007). The nature of procrastination: A meta-analytic and theoretical review of quintessential self-regulatory failure. Psychological Bulletin, 133(1), 65–94. doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.65 Steel, P., & König, C. J. (2006). Integrating theories of motivation. Academy of Management Review, 31(4), 889–913. doi.org/10.5465/amr.2006.22527462 Suriano, R. (2026). A systematic review on the association between ADHD and procrastination. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 175, 105342. doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2026.105342 Trope, Y., & Liberman, N. (2010). Construal-level theory of psychological distance. Psychological Review, 117(2), 440–463. doi.org/10.1037/a0018963 Ward, A. F., Duke, K., Gneezy, A., & Bos, M. W. (2017). Brain drain: The mere presence of one’s own smartphone reduces available cognitive capacity. Journal of the Association for Consumer Research, 2(2), 140–154. doi.org/10.1086/691462 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–value theory of achievement motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 68–81. doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 Wohl, M. J. A., Pychyl, T. A., & Bennett, S. H. (2010). I forgive myself, now I can study: How self-forgiveness for procrastinating can reduce future procrastination. Personality and Individual Differences, 48(7), 803–808. doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.01.029 }} == External links == *[https://www.simplypsychology.com/articles/body-doubling-adhd Body Doubling: The ADHD Productivity Strategy That Actually Works (2026)] (Simply Psychology) *[https://www.apa.org/monitor/2026/07-08/ai-job-skills-thinking How AI is reshaping human skills and thinking] (American Psychological Association) *[https://www.verywellmind.com/wall-of-awful-in-adhd-12000744 How the Wall of Awful Prevents Task Initiation in ADHD—and What Can Help You Push Through] (Verywell Mind) *[https://autisticinertia.com/2019/10/researchers-view/ Researchers' view of initiation in autism] (Autistic Inertia) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Goal pursuit]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Procrastination]] jof6xp38736shsddg5gt80kuwl92rd2 2836474 2836469 2026-10-07T07:31:22Z U3286643 3106304 removed chunks from overview and beginnings of several topics to cut down on word amount 2836474 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Getting started:<br>Why is task initiation difficult and how to overcome it?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Scrolling on phone (cropped).jpg||thumb|right|150px|'''Figure 1''' An individual scrolling on their phone]] ;Scenario John is a university student with an assignment that is due in five days which he has not started. Despite knowing that he needs to begin the assignment soon in order to have it completed by the due date, he finds the prospect of starting the assignment daunting, and so continues engaging in alternative activities, such as scrolling on social media, to avoid beginning the assignment (see Figure 1). John is struggling with task initiation and is using procrastination as a coping behaviour to manage his negative feelings associated with starting the assignment. {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[w:Executive_functions|Executive functions]] are a set of top-down cognitive processes that support goal-directed behaviour. Diamond (2013) identifies [[w:Inhibitory_control|inhibitory control]], [[w:Working_memory|working memory]], and [[w:Cognitive_flexibility|cognitive flexibility]] as the three core executive functions, with higher-order functions being derived from these, such as [[w:Reason|reasoning]], [[w:Problem_solving|problem solving]], and [[w:Planning|planning]]. However, there is no universally agreed-upon taxonomy due to differences in definitions, labels, and groupings across theoretical models. One proposed higher-order executive function is task initiation. Task initiation is the ability of an individual to begin a specific task at a desired time without unnecessary hesitation or delay. Task initiation can be inhibited by various cognitive, emotional, and motivational factors. For example, task initiation can quickly become difficult when tasks are associated with negative emotions such as anxiety, shame, or stress; when tasks fail to inspire motivation because they are perceived as low-priority or overly abstract; or when an individual experiences cognitive factors that impair executive functioning. Individuals who experience chronic difficulties with task initiation and [[w:Procrastination|procrastination]] may experience adverse outcomes such as greater stress and poorer mental health (Stead et al., 2010) as well as decreased performance in academic environments (Steel, 2007). Understanding the cognitive and psychological elements of task initiation and the various mechanisms underlying these domains can help to bolster task initiation in individuals – such as through the development of mitigation strategies and measures for procrastination – thus reducing the negative impact of impaired task initiation on individuals' lives. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What cognitive processes underlie task initiation? * How do motivational and emotional factors influence task initiation? * How is task initiation related to procrastination? * How can psychological disorders impair task initiation? * How can task initiation be improved? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Cognitive processes and theories == Task initiation can be examined as functioning through interactions between core executive functions. Working memory involves monitoring and revising relevant information, inhibitory control involves suppressing competing responses, and cognitive flexibility allows shifting between tasks or mental sets (Miyake et al., 2000), all of which represent important factors in successful task initiation. However, intention to initiate a task does not always translate into action, and various cognitive models and theories offer explanations for this discrepancy. Notable among these include the [[w:Theory_of_planned_behavior|theory of planned behaviour]] (TPB) and the [[w:Rubicon_model|Rubicon model of action phases]]. === Theory of planned behaviour === [[File:Theory of planned behaviour.png|thumb|350x350px|'''Figure 2''' Diagram of the Theory of Planned Behaviour ]] The theory of planned behaviour proposes that attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control jointly shape an individual's behavioural intention, which is then theorised to be the most immediate determinant of behaviour (Ajzen, 1991). However, perceived behavioural control - often conceptually related or compared to [[w:Self-efficacy|self-efficacy]] - is also stated as directly influencing behaviour due to the dependence of behaviour on whether an individual has sufficient control over performing it (see Figure 2), a relationship that is stated within the model as being strongest when perceived control reasonably reflects actual control. Thus, this can lead to an intention-action gap: favourable attitudes and supportive norms may generate an intention to begin a task, but insufficient perceived or actual behavioural control can prevent that intention from being translated into action. === Rubicon model of action phases === The Rubicon model of action phases divides the process from intention to action into four phases: pre-decisional (choosing between potential goals through weighing their feasibility and desirability), pre-actional (planning the implementation of the chosen goal), actional (executing the plan) and post-actional (evaluating outcomes against initial goals and subsequently adjusting future behaviour) (Heckhausen & Gollwitzer, 1987). The model therefore provides another framework for understanding the intention-action gap: after forming a goal intention, an individual may still fail to progress from the pre-actional to the actional phase, resulting in an intended behaviour that is not successfully initiated. === Construal level theory (CLT) === An additional cognitive factor influencing task initiation is mental representation. [[w:Construal_level_theory|Construal level theory]] is a psychological framework centred around the concept of [[w:Psychological_distance|psychological distance]], and it distinguishes between high-level, abstract representations and low-level, concrete representations. High-level representations revolve around task purpose, value, and reward, and may boost motivation, but also delay task initiation due to a lack of operational starting points; low-level representations alternatively emphasise practical and logistical steps (Trope & Liberman, 2010). As such, mentally representing a task in a less abstract manner may increase task initiation through making the immediate actions required to begin it more apparent. Taken together, these cognitive processes and theories illustrate how task initiation may be impaired at several stages between goal formation and the beginning of action. However, cognitive processes alone do not fully explain task initiation, as motivational and emotional processes may also influence whether an individual begins a task. == Motivational and emotional barriers == Motivation and emotion are two psychological areas of study which both pertain to task initiation and may be examined to understand how and why task initiation can become difficult. === Motivational barriers === Task initiation is partly dependent on motivational influences such as the anticipated benefit of the task, the perceived likelihood of success, and the costs associated with performing it. [[w:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] proposes that the expected outcomes and subjective value placed upon tasks by individuals heavily influence choice and persistence in relation to tasks (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). Similarly, self-efficacy theory proposes that individuals' efficacy expectations are a prominent determinant in relation to goal setting, task choice, effort expenditure, and persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Additionally, neurological theories such as the expected value of control (EVC) propose that the brain weighs anticipated rewards against the costs of cognitive exertion and allocates cognitive control accordingly, thus providing an additional explanation for why task initiation may be inhibited for demanding tasks even if they have been appraised as valuable and achievable (Shenhav et al., 2013). === Emotional barriers === Task initiation is also dependent on anticipatory emotions associated with the task. Aversion to negative emotional states has been shown to decrease the likelihood of task initiation (Sirois & Pychyl, 2013), and greater task aversiveness as a result of these emotions is associated with greater behavioural delay (Blunt & Pychyl, 2000). Negative emotions can arise as a result of individual tasks, and may also be further compounded by chronic dispositions such as [[w:Fear_of_negative_evaluation|fear of failure]] and [[w:Perfectionism_(psychology)|perfectionism]]. Individuals with high fear of failure report greater levels of shame as a result of perceived failure, and perfectionism has similarly been associated with greater shame and embarrassment following failure (McGregor & Elliot, 2005; Sagar & Stoeber, 2009). == Procrastination == Impaired task initiation is often associated with procrastination, defined as the voluntary delay of an intended course of action despite expecting negative consequences from that delay (Steel, 2007). Procrastination can be distinguished from impaired task initiation in that it is a specific form of delay in which intended actions are unnecessarily postponed despite foreseeable adverse consequences. Despite being defined as a voluntary choice, it is often examined and discussed in relation to failures of self-regulation, and thus may be heavily influenced by [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|emotional regulation]] processes. === Self-regulation === Steel (2007) identifies procrastination as a failure of self-regulation, with strong associative factors of task aversiveness, task delay, self-efficacy, and impulsiveness, as well as facets of conscientiousness such as self-control, distractibility, organisation, and achievement motivation. These effects are consistent with the prominent motivational explanation provided by [[w:Temporal_motivation_theory|temporal motivation theory]]. ==== Temporal motivation theory ==== Temporal motivation theory integrates several established approaches to motivation into a single mode, including [[w:Expectancy_theory|expectancy theory]] and other theories concerning delayed rewards (Steel & König, 2006). Central to the model is the idea that motivation changes over time, and a simplified form of the theory can be represented by the following formula: <math>Motivation = {Expectancy \times Value\over 1+Impulsiveness\times Delay}</math> Within the model, expectancy represents the perceived probability of an outcome occurring, while value reflects the desire or benefit attached to that outcome. Impulsiveness represents individual differences in sensitivity to delay, while delay reflects the amount of time separating the individual from the anticipated outcome. This formula provides critical insight into the nature of time and deadlines on motivation and subsequent procrastination: distant rewards or consequences exert less influence on current motivation, with individual differences being accounted for via impulsiveness. As deadlines approach and delay shrinks, motivation increases sharply, leading to a decrease in procrastination and an increase in the likelihood of initiating the deadline-bound task. However, as with task initiation more broadly, procrastination is also influenced by emotional factors. === Emotional regulation === Sirois and Pychyl (2013) argue that procrastination is used as short-term mood regulation and repair: temporarily avoiding an aversive task momentarily improves mood while transferring costs to the future self. Skinner (1963) conceptualised [[w:Reinforcement|negative reinforcement]], in which behaviour is strengthened through the removal of an aversive stimulus. Applied here, procrastination may lead to a reinforcement cycle: an aversive task produces a negative emotion, leading to avoidance, which provides immediate emotional relief and thus makes future avoidance more likely as the behaviour is strengthened. The "[https://www.verywellmind.com/wall-of-awful-in-adhd-12000744 Wall of Awful]" is a non-scientific metaphor often used to conceptualise an emotional barrier to task initiation that may accumulate as a result of these cycles. == Neurodevelopmental and psychiatric conditions == Various psychological and neurodevelopmental conditions are partly characterised by or may result in impaired task initiation. Mechanisms such as [[w:Executive_dysfunction|executive dysfunction]], [[w:Reward_system|reward system]] dysregulation, altered effort costs, and [[w:Pathological_demand_avoidance|demand avoidance]] are potential issues in individuals with such conditions. === Neurodevelopmental disorders === Individuals diagnosed with [[w:Neurodevelopmental_disorder|neurodevelopmental disorders]] such as [[w:Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder|attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder]] (ADHD) and [[w:Autism|autism spectrum disorder]] (ASD) often report difficulties with task initiation. Associations have consistently been found between ADHD symptoms and procrastination, particularly with inattention, and to a lesser extent with executive dysfunction, emotional dysregulation, and impaired motivational processes (Suriano, 2026). Executive dysfunction is also common in children and adolescents with autism, with difficulties indicated in areas including cognitive flexibility, attention, working memory, and inhibition (Ceruti et al., 2024); the term [https://autisticinertia.com/2019/10/researchers-view/ autistic inertia] has been used to specifically describe difficulties in task initiation in autism, with research showing that autistic individuals report increased difficulty in starting, stopping, and switching activities, even in instances where they intended or wanted to act but nevertheless experienced difficulty doing so (Buckle et al., 2021). === Psychiatric conditions === Individuals diagnosed with [[w:Mental_disorder|psychiatric disorders]] may also experience difficulties with task initiation, although the underlying mechanisms can differ from those associated with neurodevelopmental conditions. In [[w:Major_depressive_disorder|major depressive disorder]] (MDD), [[w:Anhedonia|anhedonia]] and chronically reduced motivation may contribute to impaired task initiation through a reduced willingness to expend cognitive and physical effort for rewards (Horne et al., 2021). [[w:Avolition|Avolition]], defined as a severe and persistent decrease in the ability to start and sustain self-directed goal-oriented activities, is considered an important negative symptom of [[w:Schizophrenia|schizophrenia]] (DeRosse et al., 2019). [[w:Obsessive–compulsive_disorder|Obsessive-compulsive disorder]] (OCD) may also interfere with task initiation, with symptoms of pathological doubt, uncertainty, and impaired decision making potentially contributing to delays in beginning an activity (Nisticò et al., 2021). ==Improving task initiation == Various cognitive and behavioural strategies and interventions have been proposed to improve task initiation. As difficulties with task initiation have been identified as arising from executive, motivational, and emotional factors, these interventions are typically aimed at the specific mechanisms preventing action. These strategies include [[w:Implementation_intention|implementation intentions]], task concretisation, cognitive offloading, self-efficacy enhancement, emotional regulation practises, [[w:Cognitive_behavioral_therapy|cognitive behavioural therapy]], distraction minimisation, and other minor actionable strategies. === Cognitive strategies to improve task initiation === ==== Implementation intentions ==== Implementation intentions (also known as "if-then planning") are a self-regulatory strategy conceptualised by Peter Gollwitzer as a result of his earlier work alongside Heinz Heckhausen on the Rubicon model of action phases. Unlike goal intentions, which specify a desired outcome (e.g., "I want to improve my fitness"), implementation intentions specify the situational cues and subsequent behavioural response through which a goal will be pursued (e.g., "At 7:00 pm, I will go for a run"). Within the Rubicon model, implementation intentions are relevant to the transition between the pre-actional and actional phases. By linking situational cues to pre-planned responses, implementation intentions can improve task initiation by reducing reliance on conscious deliberation and turning goal-directed behaviour into a more streamlined, automatic process (Gollwitzer, 1999). ==== Task concretisation ==== Task concretisation is the process of deconstructing large, often abstract tasks into smaller, more concrete subtasks. As discussed previously, construal level theory highlights that low-level representations emphasise the specific means through which a task is carried out as opposed to its broader purpose (Trope & Liberman, 2010). Concretisation may therefore improve task initiation through improved task clarification, and has also been shown to reduce cognitive computational demands through the facilitation of easier planning while also preserving effective performance (Correa et al., 2023). Other research indicates that subgoals can increase perceived attainability and motivation, particularly during the early stages of goal pursuit (Huang et al., 2017), thus providing further evidence for the benefits of task concretisation. ==== Cognitive offloading ==== Cognitive offloading is the process of reducing information processing requirements through the use of physical action or external tools, such as calendars, written plans, and other visible reminders (Risko & Gilbert, 2016). Cognitive offloading can reduce demands on working memory, freeing cognitive resources that would otherwise have been required to maintain the information, and subsequently improving immediate performance at the cost of poorer later recall of the offloaded information (Grinschgl et al., 2021). However, an [https://www.apa.org/monitor/2026/07-08/ai-job-skills-thinking overreliance on contemporary external tools] such as [[w:Generative_AI|generative AI]] has raised concerns regarding cognitive offloading and a decline in processes such as memory encoding and critical thinking due to reduced engagement in these processes. === Motivational strategies to improve task initiation === Both motivational models such as expectancy-value theory and neuroscientific models of cognitive-control allocation such as the expected value of control emphasise evaluations of potential value relative to costs. Similar principles appear in temporal motivation theory, in which motivation is influenced through expectancy, value, impulsiveness, and delay. Accordingly, strategies for increasing motivation and facilitating task initiation may involve increasing the perceived value of a task, increasing expectations of success, or reducing its perceived costs. Subjective task value may be increased by linking tasks to personally meaningful goals, interests, or future outcomes: research shows that encouraging students to connect specific academic tasks to personal interests or goals can lead to increased interest, engagement, and academic performance (Harackiewicz et al., 2014). Expectancy may be strengthened by setting smaller, achievable goals, as this provides clearer evidence of progress and attainment, which can strengthen perceptions of self-efficacy (Schunk, 1984). Finally, reducing perceived costs may involve the previously mentioned task concretisation, which reduces task complexity through clearer immediate subtasks, thus decreasing the initial cognitive demands required. === Emotional strategies to improve task initiation === As task avoidance and procrastination are often associated with attempts to regulate aversive emotions, strategies for improving task initiation may involve greater emotional acceptance and improved emotional regulation. Greater awareness and acceptance of emotional experiences has been associated with more adaptive emotional responding (Erisman & Roemer, 2010), while practising the tolerance and modification of aversive emotions has been shown to reduce procrastination (Eckert et al., 2016). Furthermore, Wohl et al. (2010) found that greater levels of self-reported self-forgiveness were associated with lower levels of future procrastination, which may be particularly important in disrupting negative reinforcement cycles. === Further strategies === Further strategies for improving task initiation involve modifications to physical and social environments, as well as psychotherapeutic interventions that integrate multiple mechanisms, as opposed to directly targeting individual cognitive, emotional, or motivational mechanisms. ==== Environmental and social changes ==== Changes to an individual's environment may facilitate task initiation. Removing prominent distractions such as digital devices like phones, unrelated projects, unfinished chores, or other stimuli that compete for attention may decrease the inhibitory control required to focus on necessary tasks. Research indicates that even the presence of one's own smartphone may occupy cognitive resources, even when conscious attention is not being paid to it (Ward et al., 2017). Social strategies such as [https://www.simplypsychology.com/articles/body-doubling-adhd body doubling] are also often offered as a strategy to reduce procrastination, specifically in individuals with ADHD; however, direct evidence is limited, with the proposal relying primarily on anecdotal consensus. ==== Psychotherapeutic interventions ==== Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) may be used to treat individuals who struggle with chronic procrastination, thus potentially improving overall task initiation. Rozental et al. (2018) found substantial reductions in procrastination following CBT interventions, suggesting that CBT may be an effective tool in managing procrastination. These interventions included techniques such as [[w:Psychoeducation|psychoeducation]], goal setting and [[w:Behavioral_activation|behavioural activation]], strategies to strengthen self-efficacy, stimulus control and distraction management, assertiveness training, and [[w:Cognitive_restructuring|cognitive restructuring]]. Overall, CBT functions as a broader therapeutic framework in which several previously discussed strategies to improving task initiation are integrated. == Conclusion == Task initiation is a higher-order executive function derived from core processes such as working memory, inhibition, and cognitive flexibility. Functional task initiation can be adversely affected through impairments of these areas, such as is common in neurodevelopmental disorders, as well as through various individual motivational and emotional factors. Various models and theories, such as the theory of planned behaviour, the Rubicon model of action phases, construal level theory, and temporal motivation theory are offered as explanations for how and why individuals may struggle to successfully convert goal-intentions into goal-directed behaviour. Strategies for improving task initiation therefore often reflect and address these underlying mechanisms. Implementation intentions, task concretisation, and cognitive offloading may decrease the intention-action gap, provide clearer first steps to initiating tasks, and reduce the mental effort to do so, respectively. Increasing the perceived value of tasks and their rewards, or decreasing the perceived costs, may address motivational issues, while practicing emotional acceptance and regulation may reduce avoidance as a result of emotional issues. Psychotherapeutic interventions such as cognitive behavioural therapy often integrate several of these approaches, and other minor strategies are also available to increase task initiation, such as environmental restructuring and body doubling. As impaired task initiation (and related phenomena such as procrastination) are often associated with overall decreases in individual quality of life, greater understanding and implementation of these strategies and interventions is an important area of study. == See also == * ==References== {{Hanging indent|1=Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50(2), 179–211. doi.org/10.1016/0749-5978(91)90020-T Blunt, A. K., & Pychyl, T. A. (2000). Task aversiveness and procrastination: A multi-dimensional approach to task aversiveness across stages of personal projects. Personality and Individual Differences, 28(1), 153–167. doi.org/10.1016/s0191-8869(99)00091-4 Buckle, K. L., Leadbitter, K., Poliakoff, E., & Gowen, E. (2021). “No way out except from external intervention”: First-hand accounts of autistic inertia. Frontiers in Psychology, 12(63159). doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.631596 Ceruti, C., Mingozzi, A., Scionti, N., & Marzocchi, G. M. (2024). Comparing executive functions in children and adolescents with autism and ADHD—A systematic review and meta-analysis. Children, 11(4), 473. doi.org/10.3390/children11040473 Correa, C. G., Ho, M. K., Callaway, F., Daw, N. D., & Griffiths, T. L. (2023). Humans decompose tasks by trading off utility and computational cost. PLOS Computational Biology, 19(6), e1011087. doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1011087 DeRosse, P., Barber, A. D., Fales, C. L., & Malhotra, A. K. (2019). Deconstructing avolition: Initiation vs persistence of reward-directed effort. Psychiatry Research, 273, 647–652. doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2019.01.073 Diamond, A. (2013). Executive functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64(1), 135–168. doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750 Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153 Eckert, M., Ebert, D. D, Lehr, D., Sieland, B., & Berking, M. (2016). Overcome procrastination: Enhancing emotion regulation skills reduce procrastination. Learning and Individual Differences, 52, 10–18. doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2016.10.001 Erisman, S. M., & Roemer, L. (2010). A preliminary investigation of the effects of experimentally induced mindfulness on emotional responding to film clips. Emotion, 10(1), 72–82. doi.org/10.1037/a0017162 Gollwitzer, P. M. (1999). Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans. American Psychologist, 54(7), 493–503. doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.54.7.493 Grinschgl, S., Papenmeier, F., & Meyerhoff, H. S. (2021). Consequences of cognitive offloading: Boosting performance but diminishing memory. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 74(9), 1477–1496. doi.org/10.1177/17470218211008060 Harackiewicz, J. M., Tibbetts, Y., Canning, E. A., & Hyde, J. S. (2014). Harnessing values to promote motivation in education. In S. A. Karabenick & T. C. Urdan (Eds.), Motivational interventions (Vol. 18, pp. 71–105). Emerald Group Publishing Limited. doi.org/10.1108/S0749-742320140000018002 Heckhausen, H., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (1987). Thought contents and cognitive functioning in motivational versus volitional states of mind. Motivation and Emotion, 11(2), 101–120. doi.org/10.1007/bf00992338 Horne, S. J., Topp, T. E., & Quigley, L. (2021). Depression and the willingness to expend cognitive and physical effort for rewards: A systematic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 88, 102065. doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2021.102065 Huang, S., Jin, L., & Zhang, Y. (2017). Step by step: Sub-goals as a source of motivation. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 141, 1–15. doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2017.05.001 McGregor, H. A., & Elliot, A. J. (2005). The shame of failure: Examining the link between fear of failure and shame. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31(2), 218–231. doi.org/10.1177/0146167204271420 Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “frontal lobe” tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41(1), 49–100. doi.org/10.1006/cogp.1999.0734 Nisticò, V., De Angelis, A., Erro, R., Demartini, B., & Ricciardi, L. (2021). Obsessive-compulsive disorder and decision making under ambiguity: A systematic review with meta-analysis. Brain Sciences, 11(2), 143. doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11020143 Risko, E. F., & Gilbert, S. J. (2016). Cognitive offloading. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 20(9), 676–688. doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2016.07.002 Rozental, A., Forsström, D., Lindner, P., Nilsson, S., Mårtensson, L., Rizzo, A., Andersson, G., & Carlbring, P. (2018). Treating procrastination using cognitive behavior therapy: A pragmatic randomized controlled trial comparing treatment delivered via the internet or in groups. Behavior Therapy, 49(2), 180–197. doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2017.08.002 Sagar, S. S., & Stoeber, J. (2009). Perfectionism, fear of failure, and affective responses to success and failure: The central role of fear of experiencing shame and embarrassment. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 31(5), 602–627. doi.org/10.1123/jsep.31.5.602 Schunk, D. H. (1984). Enhancing self-efficacy and achievement through rewards and goals: Motivational and informational effects. The Journal of Educational Research, 78(1), 29–34. doi.org/10.1080/00220671.1984.10885568 Shenhav, A., Botvinick, M. M., & Cohen, J. D. (2013). The expected value of control: An integrative theory of anterior cingulate cortex function. Neuron, 79(2), 217–240. doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2013.07.007 Sirois, F., & Pychyl, T. (2013). Procrastination and the priority of short-term mood regulation: Consequences for future self. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 7(2), 115–127. doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12011 Skinner, B. F. (1963). Operant behavior. American Psychologist, 18(8), 503–515. doi.org/10.1037/h0045185 Stead, R., Shanahan, M. J., & Neufeld, R. W. J. (2010). “I’ll go to therapy, eventually”: Procrastination, stress and mental health. Personality and Individual Differences, 49(3), 175–180. doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.03.028 Steel, P. (2007). The nature of procrastination: A meta-analytic and theoretical review of quintessential self-regulatory failure. Psychological Bulletin, 133(1), 65–94. doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.65 Steel, P., & König, C. J. (2006). Integrating theories of motivation. Academy of Management Review, 31(4), 889–913. doi.org/10.5465/amr.2006.22527462 Suriano, R. (2026). A systematic review on the association between ADHD and procrastination. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 175, 105342. doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2026.105342 Trope, Y., & Liberman, N. (2010). Construal-level theory of psychological distance. Psychological Review, 117(2), 440–463. doi.org/10.1037/a0018963 Ward, A. F., Duke, K., Gneezy, A., & Bos, M. W. (2017). Brain drain: The mere presence of one’s own smartphone reduces available cognitive capacity. Journal of the Association for Consumer Research, 2(2), 140–154. doi.org/10.1086/691462 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–value theory of achievement motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 68–81. doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 Wohl, M. J. A., Pychyl, T. A., & Bennett, S. H. (2010). I forgive myself, now I can study: How self-forgiveness for procrastinating can reduce future procrastination. Personality and Individual Differences, 48(7), 803–808. doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.01.029 }} == External links == *[https://www.simplypsychology.com/articles/body-doubling-adhd Body Doubling: The ADHD Productivity Strategy That Actually Works (2026)] (Simply Psychology) *[https://www.apa.org/monitor/2026/07-08/ai-job-skills-thinking How AI is reshaping human skills and thinking] (American Psychological Association) *[https://www.verywellmind.com/wall-of-awful-in-adhd-12000744 How the Wall of Awful Prevents Task Initiation in ADHD—and What Can Help You Push Through] (Verywell Mind) *[https://autisticinertia.com/2019/10/researchers-view/ Researchers' view of initiation in autism] (Autistic Inertia) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Goal pursuit]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Procrastination]] nnwyd5z7sk16u9daib7gpvmpx4od5a0 2836475 2836474 2026-10-07T07:32:33Z U3286643 3106304 Removed last sentence from conclusion 2836475 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Getting started:<br>Why is task initiation difficult and how to overcome it?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Scrolling on phone (cropped).jpg||thumb|right|150px|'''Figure 1''' An individual scrolling on their phone]] ;Scenario John is a university student with an assignment that is due in five days which he has not started. Despite knowing that he needs to begin the assignment soon in order to have it completed by the due date, he finds the prospect of starting the assignment daunting, and so continues engaging in alternative activities, such as scrolling on social media, to avoid beginning the assignment (see Figure 1). John is struggling with task initiation and is using procrastination as a coping behaviour to manage his negative feelings associated with starting the assignment. {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[w:Executive_functions|Executive functions]] are a set of top-down cognitive processes that support goal-directed behaviour. Diamond (2013) identifies [[w:Inhibitory_control|inhibitory control]], [[w:Working_memory|working memory]], and [[w:Cognitive_flexibility|cognitive flexibility]] as the three core executive functions, with higher-order functions being derived from these, such as [[w:Reason|reasoning]], [[w:Problem_solving|problem solving]], and [[w:Planning|planning]]. However, there is no universally agreed-upon taxonomy due to differences in definitions, labels, and groupings across theoretical models. One proposed higher-order executive function is task initiation. Task initiation is the ability of an individual to begin a specific task at a desired time without unnecessary hesitation or delay. Task initiation can be inhibited by various cognitive, emotional, and motivational factors. For example, task initiation can quickly become difficult when tasks are associated with negative emotions such as anxiety, shame, or stress; when tasks fail to inspire motivation because they are perceived as low-priority or overly abstract; or when an individual experiences cognitive factors that impair executive functioning. Individuals who experience chronic difficulties with task initiation and [[w:Procrastination|procrastination]] may experience adverse outcomes such as greater stress and poorer mental health (Stead et al., 2010) as well as decreased performance in academic environments (Steel, 2007). Understanding the cognitive and psychological elements of task initiation and the various mechanisms underlying these domains can help to bolster task initiation in individuals – such as through the development of mitigation strategies and measures for procrastination – thus reducing the negative impact of impaired task initiation on individuals' lives. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What cognitive processes underlie task initiation? * How do motivational and emotional factors influence task initiation? * How is task initiation related to procrastination? * How can psychological disorders impair task initiation? * How can task initiation be improved? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Cognitive processes and theories == Task initiation can be examined as functioning through interactions between core executive functions. Working memory involves monitoring and revising relevant information, inhibitory control involves suppressing competing responses, and cognitive flexibility allows shifting between tasks or mental sets (Miyake et al., 2000), all of which represent important factors in successful task initiation. However, intention to initiate a task does not always translate into action, and various cognitive models and theories offer explanations for this discrepancy. Notable among these include the [[w:Theory_of_planned_behavior|theory of planned behaviour]] (TPB) and the [[w:Rubicon_model|Rubicon model of action phases]]. === Theory of planned behaviour === [[File:Theory of planned behaviour.png|thumb|350x350px|'''Figure 2''' Diagram of the Theory of Planned Behaviour ]] The theory of planned behaviour proposes that attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control jointly shape an individual's behavioural intention, which is then theorised to be the most immediate determinant of behaviour (Ajzen, 1991). However, perceived behavioural control - often conceptually related or compared to [[w:Self-efficacy|self-efficacy]] - is also stated as directly influencing behaviour due to the dependence of behaviour on whether an individual has sufficient control over performing it (see Figure 2), a relationship that is stated within the model as being strongest when perceived control reasonably reflects actual control. Thus, this can lead to an intention-action gap: favourable attitudes and supportive norms may generate an intention to begin a task, but insufficient perceived or actual behavioural control can prevent that intention from being translated into action. === Rubicon model of action phases === The Rubicon model of action phases divides the process from intention to action into four phases: pre-decisional (choosing between potential goals through weighing their feasibility and desirability), pre-actional (planning the implementation of the chosen goal), actional (executing the plan) and post-actional (evaluating outcomes against initial goals and subsequently adjusting future behaviour) (Heckhausen & Gollwitzer, 1987). The model therefore provides another framework for understanding the intention-action gap: after forming a goal intention, an individual may still fail to progress from the pre-actional to the actional phase, resulting in an intended behaviour that is not successfully initiated. === Construal level theory (CLT) === An additional cognitive factor influencing task initiation is mental representation. [[w:Construal_level_theory|Construal level theory]] is a psychological framework centred around the concept of [[w:Psychological_distance|psychological distance]], and it distinguishes between high-level, abstract representations and low-level, concrete representations. High-level representations revolve around task purpose, value, and reward, and may boost motivation, but also delay task initiation due to a lack of operational starting points; low-level representations alternatively emphasise practical and logistical steps (Trope & Liberman, 2010). As such, mentally representing a task in a less abstract manner may increase task initiation through making the immediate actions required to begin it more apparent. Taken together, these cognitive processes and theories illustrate how task initiation may be impaired at several stages between goal formation and the beginning of action. However, cognitive processes alone do not fully explain task initiation, as motivational and emotional processes may also influence whether an individual begins a task. == Motivational and emotional barriers == Motivation and emotion are two psychological areas of study which both pertain to task initiation and may be examined to understand how and why task initiation can become difficult. === Motivational barriers === Task initiation is partly dependent on motivational influences such as the anticipated benefit of the task, the perceived likelihood of success, and the costs associated with performing it. [[w:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] proposes that the expected outcomes and subjective value placed upon tasks by individuals heavily influence choice and persistence in relation to tasks (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). Similarly, self-efficacy theory proposes that individuals' efficacy expectations are a prominent determinant in relation to goal setting, task choice, effort expenditure, and persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Additionally, neurological theories such as the expected value of control (EVC) propose that the brain weighs anticipated rewards against the costs of cognitive exertion and allocates cognitive control accordingly, thus providing an additional explanation for why task initiation may be inhibited for demanding tasks even if they have been appraised as valuable and achievable (Shenhav et al., 2013). === Emotional barriers === Task initiation is also dependent on anticipatory emotions associated with the task. Aversion to negative emotional states has been shown to decrease the likelihood of task initiation (Sirois & Pychyl, 2013), and greater task aversiveness as a result of these emotions is associated with greater behavioural delay (Blunt & Pychyl, 2000). Negative emotions can arise as a result of individual tasks, and may also be further compounded by chronic dispositions such as [[w:Fear_of_negative_evaluation|fear of failure]] and [[w:Perfectionism_(psychology)|perfectionism]]. Individuals with high fear of failure report greater levels of shame as a result of perceived failure, and perfectionism has similarly been associated with greater shame and embarrassment following failure (McGregor & Elliot, 2005; Sagar & Stoeber, 2009). == Procrastination == Impaired task initiation is often associated with procrastination, defined as the voluntary delay of an intended course of action despite expecting negative consequences from that delay (Steel, 2007). Procrastination can be distinguished from impaired task initiation in that it is a specific form of delay in which intended actions are unnecessarily postponed despite foreseeable adverse consequences. Despite being defined as a voluntary choice, it is often examined and discussed in relation to failures of self-regulation, and thus may be heavily influenced by [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|emotional regulation]] processes. === Self-regulation === Steel (2007) identifies procrastination as a failure of self-regulation, with strong associative factors of task aversiveness, task delay, self-efficacy, and impulsiveness, as well as facets of conscientiousness such as self-control, distractibility, organisation, and achievement motivation. These effects are consistent with the prominent motivational explanation provided by [[w:Temporal_motivation_theory|temporal motivation theory]]. ==== Temporal motivation theory ==== Temporal motivation theory integrates several established approaches to motivation into a single mode, including [[w:Expectancy_theory|expectancy theory]] and other theories concerning delayed rewards (Steel & König, 2006). Central to the model is the idea that motivation changes over time, and a simplified form of the theory can be represented by the following formula: <math>Motivation = {Expectancy \times Value\over 1+Impulsiveness\times Delay}</math> Within the model, expectancy represents the perceived probability of an outcome occurring, while value reflects the desire or benefit attached to that outcome. Impulsiveness represents individual differences in sensitivity to delay, while delay reflects the amount of time separating the individual from the anticipated outcome. This formula provides critical insight into the nature of time and deadlines on motivation and subsequent procrastination: distant rewards or consequences exert less influence on current motivation, with individual differences being accounted for via impulsiveness. As deadlines approach and delay shrinks, motivation increases sharply, leading to a decrease in procrastination and an increase in the likelihood of initiating the deadline-bound task. However, as with task initiation more broadly, procrastination is also influenced by emotional factors. === Emotional regulation === Sirois and Pychyl (2013) argue that procrastination is used as short-term mood regulation and repair: temporarily avoiding an aversive task momentarily improves mood while transferring costs to the future self. Skinner (1963) conceptualised [[w:Reinforcement|negative reinforcement]], in which behaviour is strengthened through the removal of an aversive stimulus. Applied here, procrastination may lead to a reinforcement cycle: an aversive task produces a negative emotion, leading to avoidance, which provides immediate emotional relief and thus makes future avoidance more likely as the behaviour is strengthened. The "[https://www.verywellmind.com/wall-of-awful-in-adhd-12000744 Wall of Awful]" is a non-scientific metaphor often used to conceptualise an emotional barrier to task initiation that may accumulate as a result of these cycles. == Neurodevelopmental and psychiatric conditions == Various psychological and neurodevelopmental conditions are partly characterised by or may result in impaired task initiation. Mechanisms such as [[w:Executive_dysfunction|executive dysfunction]], [[w:Reward_system|reward system]] dysregulation, altered effort costs, and [[w:Pathological_demand_avoidance|demand avoidance]] are potential issues in individuals with such conditions. === Neurodevelopmental disorders === Individuals diagnosed with [[w:Neurodevelopmental_disorder|neurodevelopmental disorders]] such as [[w:Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder|attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder]] (ADHD) and [[w:Autism|autism spectrum disorder]] (ASD) often report difficulties with task initiation. Associations have consistently been found between ADHD symptoms and procrastination, particularly with inattention, and to a lesser extent with executive dysfunction, emotional dysregulation, and impaired motivational processes (Suriano, 2026). Executive dysfunction is also common in children and adolescents with autism, with difficulties indicated in areas including cognitive flexibility, attention, working memory, and inhibition (Ceruti et al., 2024); the term [https://autisticinertia.com/2019/10/researchers-view/ autistic inertia] has been used to specifically describe difficulties in task initiation in autism, with research showing that autistic individuals report increased difficulty in starting, stopping, and switching activities, even in instances where they intended or wanted to act but nevertheless experienced difficulty doing so (Buckle et al., 2021). === Psychiatric conditions === Individuals diagnosed with [[w:Mental_disorder|psychiatric disorders]] may also experience difficulties with task initiation, although the underlying mechanisms can differ from those associated with neurodevelopmental conditions. In [[w:Major_depressive_disorder|major depressive disorder]] (MDD), [[w:Anhedonia|anhedonia]] and chronically reduced motivation may contribute to impaired task initiation through a reduced willingness to expend cognitive and physical effort for rewards (Horne et al., 2021). [[w:Avolition|Avolition]], defined as a severe and persistent decrease in the ability to start and sustain self-directed goal-oriented activities, is considered an important negative symptom of [[w:Schizophrenia|schizophrenia]] (DeRosse et al., 2019). [[w:Obsessive–compulsive_disorder|Obsessive-compulsive disorder]] (OCD) may also interfere with task initiation, with symptoms of pathological doubt, uncertainty, and impaired decision making potentially contributing to delays in beginning an activity (Nisticò et al., 2021). ==Improving task initiation == Various cognitive and behavioural strategies and interventions have been proposed to improve task initiation. As difficulties with task initiation have been identified as arising from executive, motivational, and emotional factors, these interventions are typically aimed at the specific mechanisms preventing action. These strategies include [[w:Implementation_intention|implementation intentions]], task concretisation, cognitive offloading, self-efficacy enhancement, emotional regulation practises, [[w:Cognitive_behavioral_therapy|cognitive behavioural therapy]], distraction minimisation, and other minor actionable strategies. === Cognitive strategies to improve task initiation === ==== Implementation intentions ==== Implementation intentions (also known as "if-then planning") are a self-regulatory strategy conceptualised by Peter Gollwitzer as a result of his earlier work alongside Heinz Heckhausen on the Rubicon model of action phases. Unlike goal intentions, which specify a desired outcome (e.g., "I want to improve my fitness"), implementation intentions specify the situational cues and subsequent behavioural response through which a goal will be pursued (e.g., "At 7:00 pm, I will go for a run"). Within the Rubicon model, implementation intentions are relevant to the transition between the pre-actional and actional phases. By linking situational cues to pre-planned responses, implementation intentions can improve task initiation by reducing reliance on conscious deliberation and turning goal-directed behaviour into a more streamlined, automatic process (Gollwitzer, 1999). ==== Task concretisation ==== Task concretisation is the process of deconstructing large, often abstract tasks into smaller, more concrete subtasks. As discussed previously, construal level theory highlights that low-level representations emphasise the specific means through which a task is carried out as opposed to its broader purpose (Trope & Liberman, 2010). Concretisation may therefore improve task initiation through improved task clarification, and has also been shown to reduce cognitive computational demands through the facilitation of easier planning while also preserving effective performance (Correa et al., 2023). Other research indicates that subgoals can increase perceived attainability and motivation, particularly during the early stages of goal pursuit (Huang et al., 2017), thus providing further evidence for the benefits of task concretisation. ==== Cognitive offloading ==== Cognitive offloading is the process of reducing information processing requirements through the use of physical action or external tools, such as calendars, written plans, and other visible reminders (Risko & Gilbert, 2016). Cognitive offloading can reduce demands on working memory, freeing cognitive resources that would otherwise have been required to maintain the information, and subsequently improving immediate performance at the cost of poorer later recall of the offloaded information (Grinschgl et al., 2021). However, an [https://www.apa.org/monitor/2026/07-08/ai-job-skills-thinking overreliance on contemporary external tools] such as [[w:Generative_AI|generative AI]] has raised concerns regarding cognitive offloading and a decline in processes such as memory encoding and critical thinking due to reduced engagement in these processes. === Motivational strategies to improve task initiation === Both motivational models such as expectancy-value theory and neuroscientific models of cognitive-control allocation such as the expected value of control emphasise evaluations of potential value relative to costs. Similar principles appear in temporal motivation theory, in which motivation is influenced through expectancy, value, impulsiveness, and delay. Accordingly, strategies for increasing motivation and facilitating task initiation may involve increasing the perceived value of a task, increasing expectations of success, or reducing its perceived costs. Subjective task value may be increased by linking tasks to personally meaningful goals, interests, or future outcomes: research shows that encouraging students to connect specific academic tasks to personal interests or goals can lead to increased interest, engagement, and academic performance (Harackiewicz et al., 2014). Expectancy may be strengthened by setting smaller, achievable goals, as this provides clearer evidence of progress and attainment, which can strengthen perceptions of self-efficacy (Schunk, 1984). Finally, reducing perceived costs may involve the previously mentioned task concretisation, which reduces task complexity through clearer immediate subtasks, thus decreasing the initial cognitive demands required. === Emotional strategies to improve task initiation === As task avoidance and procrastination are often associated with attempts to regulate aversive emotions, strategies for improving task initiation may involve greater emotional acceptance and improved emotional regulation. Greater awareness and acceptance of emotional experiences has been associated with more adaptive emotional responding (Erisman & Roemer, 2010), while practising the tolerance and modification of aversive emotions has been shown to reduce procrastination (Eckert et al., 2016). Furthermore, Wohl et al. (2010) found that greater levels of self-reported self-forgiveness were associated with lower levels of future procrastination, which may be particularly important in disrupting negative reinforcement cycles. === Further strategies === Further strategies for improving task initiation involve modifications to physical and social environments, as well as psychotherapeutic interventions that integrate multiple mechanisms, as opposed to directly targeting individual cognitive, emotional, or motivational mechanisms. ==== Environmental and social changes ==== Changes to an individual's environment may facilitate task initiation. Removing prominent distractions such as digital devices like phones, unrelated projects, unfinished chores, or other stimuli that compete for attention may decrease the inhibitory control required to focus on necessary tasks. Research indicates that even the presence of one's own smartphone may occupy cognitive resources, even when conscious attention is not being paid to it (Ward et al., 2017). Social strategies such as [https://www.simplypsychology.com/articles/body-doubling-adhd body doubling] are also often offered as a strategy to reduce procrastination, specifically in individuals with ADHD; however, direct evidence is limited, with the proposal relying primarily on anecdotal consensus. ==== Psychotherapeutic interventions ==== Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) may be used to treat individuals who struggle with chronic procrastination, thus potentially improving overall task initiation. Rozental et al. (2018) found substantial reductions in procrastination following CBT interventions, suggesting that CBT may be an effective tool in managing procrastination. These interventions included techniques such as [[w:Psychoeducation|psychoeducation]], goal setting and [[w:Behavioral_activation|behavioural activation]], strategies to strengthen self-efficacy, stimulus control and distraction management, assertiveness training, and [[w:Cognitive_restructuring|cognitive restructuring]]. Overall, CBT functions as a broader therapeutic framework in which several previously discussed strategies to improving task initiation are integrated. == Conclusion == Task initiation is a higher-order executive function derived from core processes such as working memory, inhibition, and cognitive flexibility. Functional task initiation can be adversely affected through impairments of these areas, such as is common in neurodevelopmental disorders, as well as through various individual motivational and emotional factors. Various models and theories, such as the theory of planned behaviour, the Rubicon model of action phases, construal level theory, and temporal motivation theory are offered as explanations for how and why individuals may struggle to successfully convert goal-intentions into goal-directed behaviour. Strategies for improving task initiation therefore often reflect and address these underlying mechanisms. Implementation intentions, task concretisation, and cognitive offloading may decrease the intention-action gap, provide clearer first steps to initiating tasks, and reduce the mental effort to do so, respectively. Increasing the perceived value of tasks and their rewards, or decreasing the perceived costs, may address motivational issues, while practicing emotional acceptance and regulation may reduce avoidance as a result of emotional issues. Psychotherapeutic interventions such as cognitive behavioural therapy often integrate several of these approaches, and other minor strategies are also available to increase task initiation, such as environmental restructuring and body doubling. == See also == * ==References== {{Hanging indent|1=Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50(2), 179–211. doi.org/10.1016/0749-5978(91)90020-T Blunt, A. K., & Pychyl, T. A. (2000). Task aversiveness and procrastination: A multi-dimensional approach to task aversiveness across stages of personal projects. Personality and Individual Differences, 28(1), 153–167. doi.org/10.1016/s0191-8869(99)00091-4 Buckle, K. L., Leadbitter, K., Poliakoff, E., & Gowen, E. (2021). “No way out except from external intervention”: First-hand accounts of autistic inertia. Frontiers in Psychology, 12(63159). doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.631596 Ceruti, C., Mingozzi, A., Scionti, N., & Marzocchi, G. M. (2024). Comparing executive functions in children and adolescents with autism and ADHD—A systematic review and meta-analysis. Children, 11(4), 473. doi.org/10.3390/children11040473 Correa, C. G., Ho, M. K., Callaway, F., Daw, N. D., & Griffiths, T. L. (2023). Humans decompose tasks by trading off utility and computational cost. PLOS Computational Biology, 19(6), e1011087. doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1011087 DeRosse, P., Barber, A. D., Fales, C. L., & Malhotra, A. K. (2019). Deconstructing avolition: Initiation vs persistence of reward-directed effort. Psychiatry Research, 273, 647–652. doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2019.01.073 Diamond, A. (2013). Executive functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64(1), 135–168. doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750 Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153 Eckert, M., Ebert, D. D, Lehr, D., Sieland, B., & Berking, M. (2016). Overcome procrastination: Enhancing emotion regulation skills reduce procrastination. Learning and Individual Differences, 52, 10–18. doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2016.10.001 Erisman, S. M., & Roemer, L. (2010). A preliminary investigation of the effects of experimentally induced mindfulness on emotional responding to film clips. Emotion, 10(1), 72–82. doi.org/10.1037/a0017162 Gollwitzer, P. M. (1999). Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans. American Psychologist, 54(7), 493–503. doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.54.7.493 Grinschgl, S., Papenmeier, F., & Meyerhoff, H. S. (2021). Consequences of cognitive offloading: Boosting performance but diminishing memory. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 74(9), 1477–1496. doi.org/10.1177/17470218211008060 Harackiewicz, J. M., Tibbetts, Y., Canning, E. A., & Hyde, J. S. (2014). Harnessing values to promote motivation in education. In S. A. Karabenick & T. C. Urdan (Eds.), Motivational interventions (Vol. 18, pp. 71–105). Emerald Group Publishing Limited. doi.org/10.1108/S0749-742320140000018002 Heckhausen, H., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (1987). Thought contents and cognitive functioning in motivational versus volitional states of mind. Motivation and Emotion, 11(2), 101–120. doi.org/10.1007/bf00992338 Horne, S. J., Topp, T. E., & Quigley, L. (2021). Depression and the willingness to expend cognitive and physical effort for rewards: A systematic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 88, 102065. doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2021.102065 Huang, S., Jin, L., & Zhang, Y. (2017). Step by step: Sub-goals as a source of motivation. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 141, 1–15. doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2017.05.001 McGregor, H. A., & Elliot, A. J. (2005). The shame of failure: Examining the link between fear of failure and shame. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31(2), 218–231. doi.org/10.1177/0146167204271420 Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “frontal lobe” tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41(1), 49–100. doi.org/10.1006/cogp.1999.0734 Nisticò, V., De Angelis, A., Erro, R., Demartini, B., & Ricciardi, L. (2021). Obsessive-compulsive disorder and decision making under ambiguity: A systematic review with meta-analysis. Brain Sciences, 11(2), 143. doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11020143 Risko, E. F., & Gilbert, S. J. (2016). Cognitive offloading. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 20(9), 676–688. doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2016.07.002 Rozental, A., Forsström, D., Lindner, P., Nilsson, S., Mårtensson, L., Rizzo, A., Andersson, G., & Carlbring, P. (2018). Treating procrastination using cognitive behavior therapy: A pragmatic randomized controlled trial comparing treatment delivered via the internet or in groups. Behavior Therapy, 49(2), 180–197. doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2017.08.002 Sagar, S. S., & Stoeber, J. (2009). Perfectionism, fear of failure, and affective responses to success and failure: The central role of fear of experiencing shame and embarrassment. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 31(5), 602–627. doi.org/10.1123/jsep.31.5.602 Schunk, D. H. (1984). Enhancing self-efficacy and achievement through rewards and goals: Motivational and informational effects. The Journal of Educational Research, 78(1), 29–34. doi.org/10.1080/00220671.1984.10885568 Shenhav, A., Botvinick, M. M., & Cohen, J. D. (2013). The expected value of control: An integrative theory of anterior cingulate cortex function. Neuron, 79(2), 217–240. doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2013.07.007 Sirois, F., & Pychyl, T. (2013). Procrastination and the priority of short-term mood regulation: Consequences for future self. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 7(2), 115–127. doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12011 Skinner, B. F. (1963). Operant behavior. American Psychologist, 18(8), 503–515. doi.org/10.1037/h0045185 Stead, R., Shanahan, M. J., & Neufeld, R. W. J. (2010). “I’ll go to therapy, eventually”: Procrastination, stress and mental health. Personality and Individual Differences, 49(3), 175–180. doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.03.028 Steel, P. (2007). The nature of procrastination: A meta-analytic and theoretical review of quintessential self-regulatory failure. Psychological Bulletin, 133(1), 65–94. doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.65 Steel, P., & König, C. J. (2006). Integrating theories of motivation. Academy of Management Review, 31(4), 889–913. doi.org/10.5465/amr.2006.22527462 Suriano, R. (2026). A systematic review on the association between ADHD and procrastination. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 175, 105342. doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2026.105342 Trope, Y., & Liberman, N. (2010). Construal-level theory of psychological distance. Psychological Review, 117(2), 440–463. doi.org/10.1037/a0018963 Ward, A. F., Duke, K., Gneezy, A., & Bos, M. W. (2017). Brain drain: The mere presence of one’s own smartphone reduces available cognitive capacity. Journal of the Association for Consumer Research, 2(2), 140–154. doi.org/10.1086/691462 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–value theory of achievement motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 68–81. doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 Wohl, M. J. A., Pychyl, T. A., & Bennett, S. H. (2010). I forgive myself, now I can study: How self-forgiveness for procrastinating can reduce future procrastination. Personality and Individual Differences, 48(7), 803–808. doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.01.029 }} == External links == *[https://www.simplypsychology.com/articles/body-doubling-adhd Body Doubling: The ADHD Productivity Strategy That Actually Works (2026)] (Simply Psychology) *[https://www.apa.org/monitor/2026/07-08/ai-job-skills-thinking How AI is reshaping human skills and thinking] (American Psychological Association) *[https://www.verywellmind.com/wall-of-awful-in-adhd-12000744 How the Wall of Awful Prevents Task Initiation in ADHD—and What Can Help You Push Through] (Verywell Mind) *[https://autisticinertia.com/2019/10/researchers-view/ Researchers' view of initiation in autism] (Autistic Inertia) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Goal pursuit]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Procrastination]] be1p7sep09vwnj75h4kpsvrflnfhsxc 2836476 2836475 2026-10-07T07:42:33Z U3286643 3106304 cut down on more fluff 2836476 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Getting started:<br>Why is task initiation difficult and how to overcome it?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Scrolling on phone (cropped).jpg||thumb|right|150px|'''Figure 1''' An individual scrolling on their phone]] ;Scenario John is a university student with an assignment that is due in five days which he has not started. Despite knowing that he needs to begin the assignment soon in order to have it completed by the due date, he finds the prospect of starting the assignment daunting, and so continues engaging in alternative activities, such as scrolling on social media, to avoid beginning the assignment (see Figure 1). John is struggling with task initiation and is using procrastination as a coping behaviour to manage his negative feelings associated with starting the assignment. {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[w:Executive_functions|Executive functions]] are a set of top-down cognitive processes that support goal-directed behaviour. Diamond (2013) identifies [[w:Inhibitory_control|inhibitory control]], [[w:Working_memory|working memory]], and [[w:Cognitive_flexibility|cognitive flexibility]] as the three core executive functions, with higher-order functions being derived from these, such as [[w:Reason|reasoning]], [[w:Problem_solving|problem solving]], and [[w:Planning|planning]]. However, there is no universally agreed-upon taxonomy due to differences in definitions, labels, and groupings across theoretical models. One proposed higher-order executive function is task initiation. Task initiation is the ability of an individual to begin a specific task at a desired time without unnecessary hesitation or delay. Task initiation can be inhibited by various cognitive, emotional, and motivational factors. For example, task initiation can quickly become difficult when tasks are associated with negative emotions such as anxiety, shame, or stress; when tasks fail to inspire motivation because they are perceived as low-priority or overly abstract; or when an individual experiences cognitive factors that impair executive functioning. Individuals who experience chronic difficulties with task initiation and [[w:Procrastination|procrastination]] may experience adverse outcomes such as greater stress and poorer mental health (Stead et al., 2010) as well as decreased performance in academic environments (Steel, 2007). Understanding the cognitive and psychological elements of task initiation and the various mechanisms underlying these domains can help to bolster task initiation in individuals – such as through the development of mitigation strategies and measures for procrastination – thus reducing the negative impact of impaired task initiation on individuals' lives. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What cognitive processes underlie task initiation? * How do motivational and emotional factors influence task initiation? * How is task initiation related to procrastination? * How can psychological disorders impair task initiation? * How can task initiation be improved? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Cognitive processes and theories == Task initiation can be examined as functioning through interactions between core executive functions. Working memory involves monitoring and revising relevant information, inhibitory control involves suppressing competing responses, and cognitive flexibility allows shifting between tasks or mental sets (Miyake et al., 2000), all of which represent important factors in successful task initiation. However, intention to initiate a task does not always translate into action, and various cognitive models and theories offer explanations for this discrepancy. Notable among these include the [[w:Theory_of_planned_behavior|theory of planned behaviour]] (TPB) and the [[w:Rubicon_model|Rubicon model of action phases]]. === Theory of planned behaviour === [[File:Theory of planned behaviour.png|thumb|350x350px|'''Figure 2''' Diagram of the Theory of Planned Behaviour ]] The theory of planned behaviour proposes that attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control jointly shape an individual's behavioural intention, which is then theorised to be the most immediate determinant of behaviour (Ajzen, 1991). However, perceived behavioural control - often conceptually related or compared to [[w:Self-efficacy|self-efficacy]] - is also stated as directly influencing behaviour due to the dependence of behaviour on whether an individual has sufficient control over performing it (see Figure 2), a relationship that is stated within the model as being strongest when perceived control reasonably reflects actual control. Thus, this can lead to an intention-action gap: favourable attitudes and supportive norms may generate an intention to begin a task, but insufficient perceived or actual behavioural control can prevent that intention from being translated into action. === Rubicon model of action phases === The Rubicon model of action phases divides the process from intention to action into four phases: pre-decisional (choosing between potential goals through weighing their feasibility and desirability), pre-actional (planning the implementation of the chosen goal), actional (executing the plan) and post-actional (evaluating outcomes against initial goals and subsequently adjusting future behaviour) (Heckhausen & Gollwitzer, 1987). The model therefore provides another framework for understanding the intention-action gap: after forming a goal intention, an individual may still fail to progress from the pre-actional to the actional phase, resulting in an intended behaviour that is not successfully initiated. === Construal level theory (CLT) === An additional cognitive factor influencing task initiation is mental representation. [[w:Construal_level_theory|Construal level theory]] is a psychological framework centred around the concept of [[w:Psychological_distance|psychological distance]], and it distinguishes between high-level, abstract representations and low-level, concrete representations. High-level representations revolve around task purpose, value, and reward, and may boost motivation, but also delay task initiation due to a lack of operational starting points; low-level representations alternatively emphasise practical and logistical steps (Trope & Liberman, 2010). As such, mentally representing a task in a less abstract manner may increase task initiation through making the immediate actions required to begin it more apparent. == Motivational and emotional barriers == Motivation and emotion are two psychological areas of study which both pertain to task initiation and may be examined to understand how and why task initiation can become difficult. === Motivational barriers === Task initiation is partly dependent on motivational influences such as the anticipated benefit of the task, the perceived likelihood of success, and the costs associated with performing it. [[w:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] proposes that the expected outcomes and subjective value placed upon tasks by individuals heavily influence choice and persistence in relation to tasks (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). Similarly, self-efficacy theory proposes that individuals' efficacy expectations are a prominent determinant in relation to goal setting, task choice, effort expenditure, and persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Additionally, neurological theories such as the expected value of control (EVC) propose that the brain weighs anticipated rewards against the costs of cognitive exertion and allocates cognitive control accordingly, thus providing an additional explanation for why task initiation may be inhibited for demanding tasks even if they have been appraised as valuable and achievable (Shenhav et al., 2013). === Emotional barriers === Task initiation is also dependent on anticipatory emotions associated with the task. Aversion to negative emotional states has been shown to decrease the likelihood of task initiation (Sirois & Pychyl, 2013), and greater task aversiveness as a result of these emotions is associated with greater behavioural delay (Blunt & Pychyl, 2000). Negative emotions can arise as a result of individual tasks, and may also be further compounded by chronic dispositions such as [[w:Fear_of_negative_evaluation|fear of failure]] and [[w:Perfectionism_(psychology)|perfectionism]]. Individuals with high fear of failure report greater levels of shame as a result of perceived failure, and perfectionism has similarly been associated with greater shame and embarrassment following failure (McGregor & Elliot, 2005; Sagar & Stoeber, 2009). == Procrastination == Impaired task initiation is often associated with procrastination, defined as the voluntary delay of an intended course of action despite expecting negative consequences from that delay (Steel, 2007). Procrastination can be distinguished from impaired task initiation in that it is a specific form of delay in which intended actions are unnecessarily postponed despite foreseeable adverse consequences. Despite being defined as a voluntary choice, it is often examined and discussed in relation to failures of self-regulation, and thus may be heavily influenced by [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|emotional regulation]] processes. === Self-regulation === Steel (2007) identifies procrastination as a failure of self-regulation, with strong associative factors of task aversiveness, task delay, self-efficacy, and impulsiveness, as well as facets of conscientiousness such as self-control, distractibility, organisation, and achievement motivation. These effects are consistent with the prominent motivational explanation provided by [[w:Temporal_motivation_theory|temporal motivation theory]]. ==== Temporal motivation theory ==== Temporal motivation theory integrates several established approaches to motivation into a single mode, including [[w:Expectancy_theory|expectancy theory]] and other theories concerning delayed rewards (Steel & König, 2006). Central to the model is the idea that motivation changes over time, and a simplified form of the theory can be represented by the following formula: <math>Motivation = {Expectancy \times Value\over 1+Impulsiveness\times Delay}</math> Within the model, expectancy represents the perceived probability of an outcome occurring, while value reflects the desire or benefit attached to that outcome. Impulsiveness represents individual differences in sensitivity to delay, while delay reflects the amount of time separating the individual from the anticipated outcome. This formula provides critical insight into the nature of time and deadlines on motivation and subsequent procrastination: distant rewards or consequences exert less influence on current motivation, with individual differences being accounted for via impulsiveness. As deadlines approach and delay shrinks, motivation increases sharply, leading to a decrease in procrastination and an increase in the likelihood of initiating the deadline-bound task. However, as with task initiation more broadly, procrastination is also influenced by emotional factors. === Emotional regulation === Sirois and Pychyl (2013) argue that procrastination is used as short-term mood regulation and repair: temporarily avoiding an aversive task momentarily improves mood while transferring costs to the future self. Skinner (1963) conceptualised [[w:Reinforcement|negative reinforcement]], in which behaviour is strengthened through the removal of an aversive stimulus. Applied here, procrastination may lead to a reinforcement cycle: an aversive task produces a negative emotion, leading to avoidance, which provides immediate emotional relief and thus makes future avoidance more likely as the behaviour is strengthened. The "[https://www.verywellmind.com/wall-of-awful-in-adhd-12000744 Wall of Awful]" is a non-scientific metaphor often used to conceptualise an emotional barrier to task initiation that may accumulate as a result of these cycles. == Neurodevelopmental and psychiatric conditions == Various psychological and neurodevelopmental conditions are partly characterised by or may result in impaired task initiation. === Neurodevelopmental disorders === Individuals diagnosed with [[w:Neurodevelopmental_disorder|neurodevelopmental disorders]] such as [[w:Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder|attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder]] (ADHD) and [[w:Autism|autism spectrum disorder]] (ASD) often report difficulties with task initiation. Associations have consistently been found between ADHD symptoms and procrastination, particularly with inattention, and to a lesser extent with executive dysfunction, emotional dysregulation, and impaired motivational processes (Suriano, 2026). Executive dysfunction is also common in children and adolescents with autism, with difficulties indicated in areas including cognitive flexibility, attention, working memory, and inhibition (Ceruti et al., 2024); the term [https://autisticinertia.com/2019/10/researchers-view/ autistic inertia] has been used to specifically describe difficulties in task initiation in autism, with research showing that autistic individuals report increased difficulty in starting, stopping, and switching activities, even in instances where they intended or wanted to act but nevertheless experienced difficulty doing so (Buckle et al., 2021). === Psychiatric conditions === Individuals diagnosed with [[w:Mental_disorder|psychiatric disorders]] may also experience difficulties with task initiation, although the underlying mechanisms can differ from those associated with neurodevelopmental conditions. In [[w:Major_depressive_disorder|major depressive disorder]] (MDD), [[w:Anhedonia|anhedonia]] and chronically reduced motivation may contribute to impaired task initiation through a reduced willingness to expend cognitive and physical effort for rewards (Horne et al., 2021). [[w:Avolition|Avolition]], defined as a severe and persistent decrease in the ability to start and sustain self-directed goal-oriented activities, is considered an important negative symptom of [[w:Schizophrenia|schizophrenia]] (DeRosse et al., 2019). [[w:Obsessive–compulsive_disorder|Obsessive-compulsive disorder]] (OCD) may also interfere with task initiation, with symptoms of pathological doubt, uncertainty, and impaired decision making potentially contributing to delays in beginning an activity (Nisticò et al., 2021). ==Improving task initiation == As difficulties with task initiation have been identified as arising from executive, motivational, and emotional factors, these interventions aimed at improving task initiation are typically aimed at the specific mechanisms preventing action. These strategies include [[w:Implementation_intention|implementation intentions]], task concretisation, cognitive offloading, self-efficacy enhancement, emotional regulation practises, [[w:Cognitive_behavioral_therapy|cognitive behavioural therapy]], distraction minimisation, and other minor actionable strategies. === Cognitive strategies to improve task initiation === ==== Implementation intentions ==== Implementation intentions (also known as "if-then planning") are a self-regulatory strategy conceptualised by Peter Gollwitzer as a result of his earlier work alongside Heinz Heckhausen on the Rubicon model of action phases. Unlike goal intentions, which specify a desired outcome (e.g., "I want to improve my fitness"), implementation intentions specify the situational cues and subsequent behavioural response through which a goal will be pursued (e.g., "At 7:00 pm, I will go for a run"). Within the Rubicon model, implementation intentions are relevant to the transition between the pre-actional and actional phases. By linking situational cues to pre-planned responses, implementation intentions can improve task initiation by reducing reliance on conscious deliberation and turning goal-directed behaviour into a more streamlined, automatic process (Gollwitzer, 1999). ==== Task concretisation ==== Task concretisation is the process of deconstructing large, often abstract tasks into smaller, more concrete subtasks. As discussed previously, construal level theory highlights that low-level representations emphasise the specific means through which a task is carried out as opposed to its broader purpose (Trope & Liberman, 2010). Concretisation may therefore improve task initiation through improved task clarification, and has also been shown to reduce cognitive computational demands through the facilitation of easier planning while also preserving effective performance (Correa et al., 2023). Other research indicates that subgoals can increase perceived attainability and motivation, particularly during the early stages of goal pursuit (Huang et al., 2017), thus providing further evidence for the benefits of task concretisation. ==== Cognitive offloading ==== Cognitive offloading is the process of reducing information processing requirements through the use of physical action or external tools, such as calendars, written plans, and other visible reminders (Risko & Gilbert, 2016). Cognitive offloading can reduce demands on working memory, freeing cognitive resources that would otherwise have been required to maintain the information, and subsequently improving immediate performance at the cost of poorer later recall of the offloaded information (Grinschgl et al., 2021). === Motivational strategies to improve task initiation === Both motivational models such as expectancy-value theory and neuroscientific models of cognitive-control allocation such as the expected value of control emphasise evaluations of potential value relative to costs. Similar principles appear in temporal motivation theory, in which motivation is influenced through expectancy, value, impulsiveness, and delay. Accordingly, strategies for increasing motivation and facilitating task initiation may involve increasing the perceived value of a task, increasing expectations of success, or reducing its perceived costs. Subjective task value may be increased by linking tasks to personally meaningful goals, interests, or future outcomes: research shows that encouraging students to connect specific academic tasks to personal interests or goals can lead to increased interest, engagement, and academic performance (Harackiewicz et al., 2014). Expectancy may be strengthened by setting smaller, achievable goals, as this provides clearer evidence of progress and attainment, which can strengthen perceptions of self-efficacy (Schunk, 1984). Finally, reducing perceived costs may involve the previously mentioned task concretisation, which reduces task complexity through clearer immediate subtasks, thus decreasing the initial cognitive demands required. === Emotional strategies to improve task initiation === As task avoidance and procrastination are often associated with attempts to regulate aversive emotions, strategies for improving task initiation may involve greater emotional acceptance and improved emotional regulation. Greater awareness and acceptance of emotional experiences has been associated with more adaptive emotional responding (Erisman & Roemer, 2010), while practising the tolerance and modification of aversive emotions has been shown to reduce procrastination (Eckert et al., 2016). Furthermore, Wohl et al. (2010) found that greater levels of self-reported self-forgiveness were associated with lower levels of future procrastination, which may be particularly important in disrupting negative reinforcement cycles. === Additional strategies and strategy integrations === ==== Environmental and social changes ==== Changes to an individual's environment may facilitate task initiation. Removing prominent distractions such as digital devices like phones, unrelated projects, unfinished chores, or other stimuli that compete for attention may decrease the inhibitory control required to focus on necessary tasks. Research indicates that even the presence of one's own smartphone may occupy cognitive resources, even when conscious attention is not being paid to it (Ward et al., 2017). Social strategies such as [https://www.simplypsychology.com/articles/body-doubling-adhd body doubling] are also often offered as a strategy to reduce procrastination, specifically in individuals with ADHD; however, direct evidence is limited, with the proposal relying primarily on anecdotal consensus. ==== Psychotherapeutic interventions ==== Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) may be used to treat individuals who struggle with chronic procrastination, thus potentially improving overall task initiation. Rozental et al. (2018) found substantial reductions in procrastination following CBT interventions, suggesting that CBT may be an effective tool in managing procrastination. These interventions included techniques such as [[w:Psychoeducation|psychoeducation]], goal setting and [[w:Behavioral_activation|behavioural activation]], strategies to strengthen self-efficacy, stimulus control and distraction management, assertiveness training, and [[w:Cognitive_restructuring|cognitive restructuring]]. Overall, CBT functions as a broader therapeutic framework in which several previously discussed strategies to improving task initiation are integrated. == Conclusion == Task initiation is a higher-order executive function derived from core processes such as working memory, inhibition, and cognitive flexibility. Functional task initiation can be adversely affected through impairments of these areas, such as is common in neurodevelopmental disorders, as well as through various individual motivational and emotional factors. Various models and theories, such as the theory of planned behaviour, the Rubicon model of action phases, construal level theory, and temporal motivation theory are offered as explanations for how and why individuals may struggle to successfully convert goal-intentions into goal-directed behaviour. Strategies for improving task initiation therefore often reflect and address these underlying mechanisms. Implementation intentions, task concretisation, and cognitive offloading may decrease the intention-action gap, provide clearer first steps to initiating tasks, and reduce the mental effort to do so, respectively. Increasing the perceived value of tasks and their rewards, or decreasing the perceived costs, may address motivational issues, while practicing emotional acceptance and regulation may reduce avoidance as a result of emotional issues. Psychotherapeutic interventions such as cognitive behavioural therapy often integrate several of these approaches, and other minor strategies are also available to increase task initiation, such as environmental restructuring and body doubling. == See also == * ==References== {{Hanging indent|1=Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50(2), 179–211. doi.org/10.1016/0749-5978(91)90020-T Blunt, A. K., & Pychyl, T. A. (2000). Task aversiveness and procrastination: A multi-dimensional approach to task aversiveness across stages of personal projects. Personality and Individual Differences, 28(1), 153–167. doi.org/10.1016/s0191-8869(99)00091-4 Buckle, K. L., Leadbitter, K., Poliakoff, E., & Gowen, E. (2021). “No way out except from external intervention”: First-hand accounts of autistic inertia. Frontiers in Psychology, 12(63159). doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.631596 Ceruti, C., Mingozzi, A., Scionti, N., & Marzocchi, G. M. (2024). Comparing executive functions in children and adolescents with autism and ADHD—A systematic review and meta-analysis. Children, 11(4), 473. doi.org/10.3390/children11040473 Correa, C. G., Ho, M. K., Callaway, F., Daw, N. D., & Griffiths, T. L. (2023). Humans decompose tasks by trading off utility and computational cost. PLOS Computational Biology, 19(6), e1011087. doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1011087 DeRosse, P., Barber, A. D., Fales, C. L., & Malhotra, A. K. (2019). Deconstructing avolition: Initiation vs persistence of reward-directed effort. Psychiatry Research, 273, 647–652. doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2019.01.073 Diamond, A. (2013). Executive functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64(1), 135–168. doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750 Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153 Eckert, M., Ebert, D. D, Lehr, D., Sieland, B., & Berking, M. (2016). Overcome procrastination: Enhancing emotion regulation skills reduce procrastination. Learning and Individual Differences, 52, 10–18. doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2016.10.001 Erisman, S. M., & Roemer, L. (2010). A preliminary investigation of the effects of experimentally induced mindfulness on emotional responding to film clips. Emotion, 10(1), 72–82. doi.org/10.1037/a0017162 Gollwitzer, P. M. (1999). Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans. American Psychologist, 54(7), 493–503. doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.54.7.493 Grinschgl, S., Papenmeier, F., & Meyerhoff, H. S. (2021). Consequences of cognitive offloading: Boosting performance but diminishing memory. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 74(9), 1477–1496. doi.org/10.1177/17470218211008060 Harackiewicz, J. M., Tibbetts, Y., Canning, E. A., & Hyde, J. S. (2014). Harnessing values to promote motivation in education. In S. A. Karabenick & T. C. Urdan (Eds.), Motivational interventions (Vol. 18, pp. 71–105). Emerald Group Publishing Limited. doi.org/10.1108/S0749-742320140000018002 Heckhausen, H., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (1987). Thought contents and cognitive functioning in motivational versus volitional states of mind. Motivation and Emotion, 11(2), 101–120. doi.org/10.1007/bf00992338 Horne, S. J., Topp, T. E., & Quigley, L. (2021). Depression and the willingness to expend cognitive and physical effort for rewards: A systematic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 88, 102065. doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2021.102065 Huang, S., Jin, L., & Zhang, Y. (2017). Step by step: Sub-goals as a source of motivation. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 141, 1–15. doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2017.05.001 McGregor, H. A., & Elliot, A. J. (2005). The shame of failure: Examining the link between fear of failure and shame. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31(2), 218–231. doi.org/10.1177/0146167204271420 Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “frontal lobe” tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41(1), 49–100. doi.org/10.1006/cogp.1999.0734 Nisticò, V., De Angelis, A., Erro, R., Demartini, B., & Ricciardi, L. (2021). Obsessive-compulsive disorder and decision making under ambiguity: A systematic review with meta-analysis. Brain Sciences, 11(2), 143. doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11020143 Risko, E. F., & Gilbert, S. J. (2016). Cognitive offloading. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 20(9), 676–688. doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2016.07.002 Rozental, A., Forsström, D., Lindner, P., Nilsson, S., Mårtensson, L., Rizzo, A., Andersson, G., & Carlbring, P. (2018). Treating procrastination using cognitive behavior therapy: A pragmatic randomized controlled trial comparing treatment delivered via the internet or in groups. Behavior Therapy, 49(2), 180–197. doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2017.08.002 Sagar, S. S., & Stoeber, J. (2009). Perfectionism, fear of failure, and affective responses to success and failure: The central role of fear of experiencing shame and embarrassment. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 31(5), 602–627. doi.org/10.1123/jsep.31.5.602 Schunk, D. H. (1984). Enhancing self-efficacy and achievement through rewards and goals: Motivational and informational effects. The Journal of Educational Research, 78(1), 29–34. doi.org/10.1080/00220671.1984.10885568 Shenhav, A., Botvinick, M. M., & Cohen, J. D. (2013). The expected value of control: An integrative theory of anterior cingulate cortex function. Neuron, 79(2), 217–240. doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2013.07.007 Sirois, F., & Pychyl, T. (2013). Procrastination and the priority of short-term mood regulation: Consequences for future self. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 7(2), 115–127. doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12011 Skinner, B. F. (1963). Operant behavior. American Psychologist, 18(8), 503–515. doi.org/10.1037/h0045185 Stead, R., Shanahan, M. J., & Neufeld, R. W. J. (2010). “I’ll go to therapy, eventually”: Procrastination, stress and mental health. Personality and Individual Differences, 49(3), 175–180. doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.03.028 Steel, P. (2007). The nature of procrastination: A meta-analytic and theoretical review of quintessential self-regulatory failure. Psychological Bulletin, 133(1), 65–94. doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.65 Steel, P., & König, C. J. (2006). Integrating theories of motivation. Academy of Management Review, 31(4), 889–913. doi.org/10.5465/amr.2006.22527462 Suriano, R. (2026). A systematic review on the association between ADHD and procrastination. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 175, 105342. doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2026.105342 Trope, Y., & Liberman, N. (2010). Construal-level theory of psychological distance. Psychological Review, 117(2), 440–463. doi.org/10.1037/a0018963 Ward, A. F., Duke, K., Gneezy, A., & Bos, M. W. (2017). Brain drain: The mere presence of one’s own smartphone reduces available cognitive capacity. Journal of the Association for Consumer Research, 2(2), 140–154. doi.org/10.1086/691462 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–value theory of achievement motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 68–81. doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 Wohl, M. J. A., Pychyl, T. A., & Bennett, S. H. (2010). I forgive myself, now I can study: How self-forgiveness for procrastinating can reduce future procrastination. Personality and Individual Differences, 48(7), 803–808. doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.01.029 }} == External links == *[https://www.simplypsychology.com/articles/body-doubling-adhd Body Doubling: The ADHD Productivity Strategy That Actually Works (2026)] (Simply Psychology) *[https://www.verywellmind.com/wall-of-awful-in-adhd-12000744 How the Wall of Awful Prevents Task Initiation in ADHD—and What Can Help You Push Through] (Verywell Mind) *[https://autisticinertia.com/2019/10/researchers-view/ Researchers' view of initiation in autism] (Autistic Inertia) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Goal pursuit]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Procrastination]] 6xivbuudnwsqo9vn9o3oxkgr6fanjq1 2836478 2836476 2026-10-07T08:05:41Z U3286643 3106304 condensed several sections to reach below word max, and removed citations from references list where relevant 2836478 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Getting started:<br>Why is task initiation difficult and how to overcome it?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Scrolling on phone (cropped).jpg||thumb|right|150px|'''Figure 1''' An individual scrolling on their phone]] ;Scenario John is a university student with an assignment that is due in five days which he has not started. Despite knowing that he needs to begin the assignment soon in order to have it completed by the due date, he finds the prospect of starting the assignment daunting, and so continues engaging in alternative activities, such as scrolling on social media, to avoid beginning the assignment (see Figure 1). John is struggling with task initiation and is using procrastination as a coping behaviour to manage his negative feelings associated with starting the assignment. {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[w:Executive_functions|Executive functions]] are a set of top-down cognitive processes that support goal-directed behaviour. Diamond (2013) identifies [[w:Inhibitory_control|inhibitory control]], [[w:Working_memory|working memory]], and [[w:Cognitive_flexibility|cognitive flexibility]] as the three core executive functions, with higher-order functions being derived from these, such as [[w:Reason|reasoning]], [[w:Problem_solving|problem solving]], and [[w:Planning|planning]]. However, there is no universally agreed-upon taxonomy due to differences in definitions, labels, and groupings across theoretical models. One proposed higher-order executive function is task initiation. Task initiation is the ability of an individual to begin a specific task at a desired time without unnecessary hesitation or delay. Task initiation can be inhibited by various cognitive, emotional, and motivational factors. For example, task initiation can quickly become difficult when tasks are associated with negative emotions such as anxiety, shame, or stress; when tasks fail to inspire motivation because they are perceived as low-priority or overly abstract; or when an individual experiences cognitive factors that impair executive functioning. Individuals who experience chronic difficulties with task initiation and [[w:Procrastination|procrastination]] may experience adverse outcomes such as greater stress and poorer mental health (Stead et al., 2010) as well as decreased performance in academic environments (Steel, 2007). Understanding the cognitive and psychological elements of task initiation and the various mechanisms underlying these domains can help to bolster task initiation in individuals – such as through the development of mitigation strategies and measures for procrastination – thus reducing the negative impact of impaired task initiation on individuals' lives. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What cognitive processes underlie task initiation? * How do motivational and emotional factors influence task initiation? * How is task initiation related to procrastination? * How can psychological disorders impair task initiation? * How can task initiation be improved? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Cognitive processes and theories == The core executive functions outline above collectively support successful task initiation. However, intention to initiate a task does not always translate into action, and cognitive models such as the [[w:Theory_of_planned_behavior|theory of planned behaviour]] (TPB) and the [[w:Rubicon_model|Rubicon model of action phases]] offer explanations for this discrepancy. === Theory of planned behaviour === [[File:Theory of planned behaviour.png|thumb|350x350px|'''Figure 2''' Diagram of the Theory of Planned Behaviour ]] The theory of planned behaviour proposes that attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control jointly shape an individual's behavioural intention, which is then theorised to be the most immediate determinant of behaviour (Ajzen, 1991). However, perceived behavioural control - often conceptually related or compared to [[w:Self-efficacy|self-efficacy]] - is also stated as directly influencing behaviour due to the dependence of behaviour on whether an individual has sufficient control over performing it (see Figure 2), a relationship that is stated within the model as being strongest when perceived control reasonably reflects actual control. Thus, this can lead to an intention-action gap: favourable attitudes and supportive norms may generate an intention to begin a task, but insufficient perceived or actual behavioural control can prevent that intention from being translated into action. === Rubicon model of action phases === The Rubicon model of action phases divides the process from intention to action into four phases: pre-decisional (choosing between potential goals through weighing their feasibility and desirability), pre-actional (planning the implementation of the chosen goal), actional (executing the plan) and post-actional (evaluating outcomes against initial goals and subsequently adjusting future behaviour) (Heckhausen & Gollwitzer, 1987). The model therefore provides another framework for understanding the intention-action gap: after forming a goal intention, an individual may still fail to progress from the pre-actional to the actional phase, resulting in an intended behaviour that is not successfully initiated. === Construal level theory (CLT) === An additional cognitive factor influencing task initiation is mental representation. [[w:Construal_level_theory|Construal level theory]] is a psychological framework centred around the concept of [[w:Psychological_distance|psychological distance]], and it distinguishes between high-level, abstract representations and low-level, concrete representations. High-level representations revolve around task purpose, value, and reward, and may boost motivation, but also delay task initiation due to a lack of operational starting points; low-level representations alternatively emphasise practical and logistical steps (Trope & Liberman, 2010). As such, mentally representing a task in a less abstract manner may increase task initiation through making the immediate actions required to begin it more apparent. == Motivational and emotional barriers == Motivation and emotion are two psychological areas of study which both pertain to task initiation and may be examined to understand how and why task initiation can become difficult. === Motivational barriers === Task initiation is partly dependent on motivational influences such as the anticipated benefit of the task, the perceived likelihood of success, and the costs associated with performing it. [[w:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] proposes that the expected outcomes and subjective value placed upon tasks by individuals heavily influence choice and persistence in relation to tasks (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). Similarly, self-efficacy theory proposes that individuals' efficacy expectations are a prominent determinant in relation to goal setting, task choice, effort expenditure, and persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Additionally, neurological theories such as the expected value of control (EVC) propose that the brain weighs anticipated rewards against the costs of cognitive exertion and allocates cognitive control accordingly, thus providing an additional explanation for why task initiation may be inhibited for demanding tasks even if they have been appraised as valuable and achievable (Shenhav et al., 2013). === Emotional barriers === Task initiation is also dependent on anticipatory emotions associated with the task. Aversion to negative emotional states has been shown to decrease the likelihood of task initiation (Sirois & Pychyl, 2013), and greater task aversiveness as a result of these emotions is associated with greater behavioural delay (Blunt & Pychyl, 2000). Negative emotions can arise as a result of individual tasks, and may also be further compounded by chronic dispositions such as [[w:Fear_of_negative_evaluation|fear of failure]] and [[w:Perfectionism_(psychology)|perfectionism]]. Individuals with high fear of failure and levels of perfectionism report greater experienced shame and embarrassment following failure (Sagar & Stoeber, 2009), potentially decreasing the likelihood of initiating similar tasks in the future. == Procrastination == Impaired task initiation is often associated with procrastination, defined as the voluntary delay of an intended course of action despite expecting negative consequences from that delay (Steel, 2007). Procrastination can be distinguished from impaired task initiation in that it is a specific form of delay in which intended actions are unnecessarily postponed despite foreseeable adverse consequences. Despite being defined as a voluntary choice, it is often examined and discussed in relation to failures of self-regulation, and thus may be heavily influenced by [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|emotional regulation]] processes. === Self-regulation === Steel (2007) identifies procrastination as a failure of self-regulation, with strong associative factors of task aversiveness, task delay, self-efficacy, and impulsiveness, as well as facets of conscientiousness such as self-control, distractibility, organisation, and achievement motivation. These effects are consistent with the prominent motivational explanation provided by [[w:Temporal_motivation_theory|temporal motivation theory]]. ==== Temporal motivation theory ==== Temporal motivation theory integrates several established approaches to motivation into a single mode, including [[w:Expectancy_theory|expectancy theory]] and other theories concerning delayed rewards (Steel & König, 2006). Central to the model is the idea that motivation changes over time, and a simplified form of the theory can be represented by the following formula: <math>Motivation = {Expectancy \times Value\over 1+Impulsiveness\times Delay}</math> Within the model, expectancy represents the perceived probability of an outcome occurring, while value reflects the desire or benefit attached to that outcome. Impulsiveness represents individual differences in sensitivity to delay, while delay reflects the amount of time separating the individual from the anticipated outcome. This formula provides critical insight into the nature of time and deadlines on motivation and subsequent procrastination: distant rewards or consequences exert less influence on current motivation, with individual differences being accounted for via impulsiveness. As deadlines approach and delay shrinks, motivation increases sharply, leading to a decrease in procrastination and an increase in the likelihood of initiating the deadline-bound task. However, as with task initiation more broadly, procrastination is also influenced by emotional factors. === Emotional regulation === Sirois and Pychyl (2013) argue that procrastination is used as short-term mood regulation and repair: temporarily avoiding an aversive task momentarily improves mood while transferring costs to the future self. This may produce a [[w:Reinforcement|negative reinforcement]] cycle, where the immediate relief provided by the avoidance of a negative emotion makes future avoidance more likely. The "[https://www.verywellmind.com/wall-of-awful-in-adhd-12000744 Wall of Awful]" is a non-scientific metaphor often used to conceptualise an emotional barrier to task initiation that may accumulate as a result of these cycles. == Neurodevelopmental and psychiatric conditions == Various psychological and neurodevelopmental conditions are partly characterised by or may result in impaired task initiation. === Neurodevelopmental disorders === Individuals diagnosed with [[w:Neurodevelopmental_disorder|neurodevelopmental disorders]] such as [[w:Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder|attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder]] (ADHD) and [[w:Autism|autism spectrum disorder]] (ASD) often report difficulties with task initiation. Associations have consistently been found between ADHD symptoms and procrastination, particularly with inattention, and to a lesser extent with executive dysfunction, emotional dysregulation, and impaired motivational processes (Suriano, 2026). Executive dysfunction is also common in children and adolescents with autism, with difficulties indicated in areas including cognitive flexibility, attention, working memory, and inhibition (Ceruti et al., 2024); the term [https://autisticinertia.com/2019/10/researchers-view/ autistic inertia] has been used to specifically describe difficulties in task initiation in autism, with research showing that autistic individuals report increased difficulty in starting, stopping, and switching activities, even in instances where they intended or wanted to act but nevertheless experienced difficulty doing so (Buckle et al., 2021). === Psychiatric conditions === Individuals diagnosed with [[w:Mental_disorder|psychiatric disorders]] may also experience difficulties with task initiation, although the underlying mechanisms can differ from those associated with neurodevelopmental conditions. In [[w:Major_depressive_disorder|major depressive disorder]] (MDD), [[w:Anhedonia|anhedonia]] and chronically reduced motivation may contribute to impaired task initiation through a reduced willingness to expend cognitive and physical effort for rewards (Horne et al., 2021). [[w:Avolition|Avolition]], defined as a severe and persistent decrease in the ability to start and sustain self-directed goal-oriented activities, is considered an important negative symptom of [[w:Schizophrenia|schizophrenia]] (DeRosse et al., 2019). ==Improving task initiation == As difficulties with task initiation have been identified as arising from executive, motivational, and emotional factors, these interventions aimed at improving task initiation are typically aimed at the specific mechanisms preventing action. These strategies include [[w:Implementation_intention|implementation intentions]], task concretisation, cognitive offloading, self-efficacy enhancement, emotional regulation practises, [[w:Cognitive_behavioral_therapy|cognitive behavioural therapy]], distraction minimisation, and other minor actionable strategies. === Cognitive strategies to improve task initiation === ==== Implementation intentions ==== Implementation intentions (also known as "if-then planning") are a self-regulatory strategy conceptualised by Peter Gollwitzer as a result of his earlier work alongside Heinz Heckhausen on the Rubicon model of action phases. Unlike goal intentions, which specify a desired outcome (e.g., "I want to improve my fitness"), implementation intentions specify the situational cues and subsequent behavioural response through which a goal will be pursued (e.g., "At 7:00 pm, I will go for a run"). Within the Rubicon model, implementation intentions are relevant to the transition between the pre-actional and actional phases. By linking situational cues to pre-planned responses, implementation intentions can improve task initiation by reducing reliance on conscious deliberation and turning goal-directed behaviour into a more streamlined, automatic process (Gollwitzer, 1999). ==== Task concretisation ==== Task concretisation is the process of deconstructing large, often abstract tasks into smaller, more concrete subtasks. As discussed previously, construal level theory highlights that low-level representations emphasise the specific means through which a task is carried out as opposed to its broader purpose (Trope & Liberman, 2010). Concretisation may therefore improve task initiation through improved task clarification, and has also been shown to reduce cognitive computational demands through the facilitation of easier planning while also preserving effective performance (Correa et al., 2023). ==== Cognitive offloading ==== Cognitive offloading refers to the use of physical actions or external tools to decrease the cognitive demands associated with a task (Risko & Gilbert, 2016). By storing information in external cues rather than relying on cognitive processes such as working memory, the mental demands associated with organising and remembering to begin tasks may be reduced, thus improving task initiation. Examples of cognitive offloading include writing down information, setting alarms, and other visible reminders. === Motivational strategies to improve task initiation === Both motivational models such as expectancy-value theory and neuroscientific models of cognitive-control allocation such as the expected value of control emphasise evaluations of potential value relative to costs. Similar principles appear in temporal motivation theory, in which motivation is influenced through expectancy, value, impulsiveness, and delay. Accordingly, strategies for increasing motivation and facilitating task initiation may involve increasing the perceived value of a task, increasing expectations of success, or reducing its perceived costs. Subjective task value may be increased by linking tasks to personally meaningful goals, interests, or future outcomes: research shows that encouraging students to connect specific academic tasks to personal interests or goals can lead to increased interest, engagement, and academic performance (Harackiewicz et al., 2014). Expectancy may be strengthened by setting smaller, achievable goals, as this provides clearer evidence of progress and attainment, which can strengthen perceptions of self-efficacy (Schunk, 1984). Finally, reducing perceived costs may involve the previously mentioned task concretisation, which reduces task complexity through clearer immediate subtasks, thus decreasing the initial cognitive demands required. === Emotional strategies to improve task initiation === As task avoidance and procrastination are often associated with attempts to regulate aversive emotions, strategies for improving task initiation may involve greater emotional acceptance and improved emotional regulation. Greater awareness and acceptance of emotional experiences has been associated with more adaptive emotional responding (Erisman & Roemer, 2010), while practising the tolerance and modification of aversive emotions has been shown to reduce procrastination (Eckert et al., 2016). Furthermore, Wohl et al. (2010) found that greater levels of self-reported self-forgiveness were associated with lower levels of future procrastination, which may be particularly important in disrupting negative reinforcement cycles. === Additional strategies and strategy integrations === ==== Environmental and social changes ==== Changes to an individual's environment may facilitate task initiation. Removing prominent distractions such as digital devices like phones, unrelated projects, unfinished chores, or other stimuli that compete for attention may decrease the inhibitory control required to focus on necessary tasks. Research indicates that even the presence of one's own smartphone may occupy cognitive resources, even when conscious attention is not being paid to it (Ward et al., 2017). Social strategies such as [https://www.simplypsychology.com/articles/body-doubling-adhd body doubling] are also often offered as a strategy to reduce procrastination, specifically in individuals with ADHD; however, direct evidence is limited, with the proposal relying primarily on anecdotal consensus. ==== Psychotherapeutic interventions ==== Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) may be used to treat individuals who struggle with chronic procrastination, thus potentially improving overall task initiation. Rozental et al. (2018) found substantial reductions in procrastination following CBT interventions, suggesting that CBT may be an effective tool in managing procrastination. These interventions included techniques such as [[w:Psychoeducation|psychoeducation]], goal setting and [[w:Behavioral_activation|behavioural activation]], strategies to strengthen self-efficacy, stimulus control and distraction management, assertiveness training, and [[w:Cognitive_restructuring|cognitive restructuring]]. Overall, CBT functions as a broader therapeutic framework in which several previously discussed strategies to improving task initiation are integrated. == Conclusion == Task initiation is a higher-order executive function derived from core processes such as working memory, inhibition, and cognitive flexibility. Functional task initiation can be adversely affected through impairments of these areas, such as is common in neurodevelopmental disorders, as well as through various individual motivational and emotional factors. Various models and theories, such as the theory of planned behaviour, the Rubicon model of action phases, construal level theory, and temporal motivation theory are offered as explanations for how and why individuals may struggle to successfully convert goal-intentions into goal-directed behaviour. Strategies for improving task initiation therefore often reflect and address these underlying mechanisms. Implementation intentions, task concretisation, and cognitive offloading may decrease the intention-action gap, provide clearer first steps to initiating tasks, and reduce the mental effort to do so, respectively. Increasing the perceived value of tasks and their rewards, or decreasing the perceived costs, may address motivational issues, while practicing emotional acceptance and regulation may reduce avoidance as a result of emotional issues. Psychotherapeutic interventions such as cognitive behavioural therapy often integrate several of these approaches, and other minor strategies are also available to increase task initiation, such as environmental restructuring and body doubling. == See also == * ==References== {{Hanging indent|1=Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50(2), 179–211. doi.org/10.1016/0749-5978(91)90020-T Blunt, A. K., & Pychyl, T. A. (2000). Task aversiveness and procrastination: A multi-dimensional approach to task aversiveness across stages of personal projects. Personality and Individual Differences, 28(1), 153–167. doi.org/10.1016/s0191-8869(99)00091-4 Buckle, K. L., Leadbitter, K., Poliakoff, E., & Gowen, E. (2021). “No way out except from external intervention”: First-hand accounts of autistic inertia. Frontiers in Psychology, 12(63159). doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.631596 Ceruti, C., Mingozzi, A., Scionti, N., & Marzocchi, G. M. (2024). Comparing executive functions in children and adolescents with autism and ADHD—A systematic review and meta-analysis. Children, 11(4), 473. doi.org/10.3390/children11040473 Correa, C. G., Ho, M. K., Callaway, F., Daw, N. D., & Griffiths, T. L. (2023). Humans decompose tasks by trading off utility and computational cost. PLOS Computational Biology, 19(6), e1011087. doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1011087 DeRosse, P., Barber, A. D., Fales, C. L., & Malhotra, A. K. (2019). Deconstructing avolition: Initiation vs persistence of reward-directed effort. Psychiatry Research, 273, 647–652. doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2019.01.073 Diamond, A. (2013). Executive functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64(1), 135–168. doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750 Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153 Eckert, M., Ebert, D. D, Lehr, D., Sieland, B., & Berking, M. (2016). Overcome procrastination: Enhancing emotion regulation skills reduce procrastination. Learning and Individual Differences, 52, 10–18. doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2016.10.001 Erisman, S. M., & Roemer, L. (2010). A preliminary investigation of the effects of experimentally induced mindfulness on emotional responding to film clips. Emotion, 10(1), 72–82. doi.org/10.1037/a0017162 Gollwitzer, P. M. (1999). Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans. American Psychologist, 54(7), 493–503. doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.54.7.493 Harackiewicz, J. M., Tibbetts, Y., Canning, E. A., & Hyde, J. S. (2014). Harnessing values to promote motivation in education. In S. A. Karabenick & T. C. Urdan (Eds.), Motivational interventions (Vol. 18, pp. 71–105). Emerald Group Publishing Limited. doi.org/10.1108/S0749-742320140000018002 Heckhausen, H., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (1987). Thought contents and cognitive functioning in motivational versus volitional states of mind. Motivation and Emotion, 11(2), 101–120. doi.org/10.1007/bf00992338 Horne, S. J., Topp, T. E., & Quigley, L. (2021). Depression and the willingness to expend cognitive and physical effort for rewards: A systematic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 88, 102065. doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2021.102065 Risko, E. F., & Gilbert, S. J. (2016). Cognitive offloading. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 20(9), 676–688. doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2016.07.002 Rozental, A., Forsström, D., Lindner, P., Nilsson, S., Mårtensson, L., Rizzo, A., Andersson, G., & Carlbring, P. (2018). Treating procrastination using cognitive behavior therapy: A pragmatic randomized controlled trial comparing treatment delivered via the internet or in groups. Behavior Therapy, 49(2), 180–197. doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2017.08.002 Sagar, S. S., & Stoeber, J. (2009). Perfectionism, fear of failure, and affective responses to success and failure: The central role of fear of experiencing shame and embarrassment. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 31(5), 602–627. doi.org/10.1123/jsep.31.5.602 Schunk, D. H. (1984). Enhancing self-efficacy and achievement through rewards and goals: Motivational and informational effects. The Journal of Educational Research, 78(1), 29–34. doi.org/10.1080/00220671.1984.10885568 Shenhav, A., Botvinick, M. M., & Cohen, J. D. (2013). The expected value of control: An integrative theory of anterior cingulate cortex function. Neuron, 79(2), 217–240. doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2013.07.007 Sirois, F., & Pychyl, T. (2013). Procrastination and the priority of short-term mood regulation: Consequences for future self. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 7(2), 115–127. doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12011 Stead, R., Shanahan, M. J., & Neufeld, R. W. J. (2010). “I’ll go to therapy, eventually”: Procrastination, stress and mental health. Personality and Individual Differences, 49(3), 175–180. doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.03.028 Steel, P. (2007). The nature of procrastination: A meta-analytic and theoretical review of quintessential self-regulatory failure. Psychological Bulletin, 133(1), 65–94. doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.65 Steel, P., & König, C. J. (2006). Integrating theories of motivation. Academy of Management Review, 31(4), 889–913. doi.org/10.5465/amr.2006.22527462 Suriano, R. (2026). A systematic review on the association between ADHD and procrastination. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 175, 105342. doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2026.105342 Trope, Y., & Liberman, N. (2010). Construal-level theory of psychological distance. Psychological Review, 117(2), 440–463. doi.org/10.1037/a0018963 Ward, A. F., Duke, K., Gneezy, A., & Bos, M. W. (2017). Brain drain: The mere presence of one’s own smartphone reduces available cognitive capacity. Journal of the Association for Consumer Research, 2(2), 140–154. doi.org/10.1086/691462 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–value theory of achievement motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 68–81. doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 Wohl, M. J. A., Pychyl, T. A., & Bennett, S. H. (2010). I forgive myself, now I can study: How self-forgiveness for procrastinating can reduce future procrastination. Personality and Individual Differences, 48(7), 803–808. doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.01.029 }} == External links == *[https://www.simplypsychology.com/articles/body-doubling-adhd Body Doubling: The ADHD Productivity Strategy That Actually Works (2026)] (Simply Psychology) *[https://www.verywellmind.com/wall-of-awful-in-adhd-12000744 How the Wall of Awful Prevents Task Initiation in ADHD—and What Can Help You Push Through] (Verywell Mind) *[https://autisticinertia.com/2019/10/researchers-view/ Researchers' view of initiation in autism] (Autistic Inertia) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Goal pursuit]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Procrastination]] 0z22wc8z15mhfjttzea39jd2lkcegcj 2836479 2836478 2026-10-07T08:24:25Z U3286643 3106304 further removal and simplification to decrease word count 2836479 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Getting started:<br>Why is task initiation difficult and how to overcome it?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Scrolling on phone (cropped).jpg||thumb|right|150px|'''Figure 1''' An individual scrolling on their phone]] ;Scenario John is a university student with an assignment that is due in five days which he has not started. Despite knowing that he needs to begin the assignment soon in order to have it completed by the due date, he finds the prospect of starting the assignment daunting, and so continues engaging in alternative activities, such as scrolling on social media, to avoid beginning the assignment (see Figure 1). John is struggling with task initiation and is using procrastination as a coping behaviour to manage his negative feelings associated with starting the assignment. {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[w:Executive_functions|Executive functions]] are a set of top-down cognitive processes that support goal-directed behaviour. Diamond (2013) identifies [[w:Inhibitory_control|inhibitory control]], [[w:Working_memory|working memory]], and [[w:Cognitive_flexibility|cognitive flexibility]] as the three core executive functions, with higher-order functions being derived from these, such as [[w:Reason|reasoning]], [[w:Problem_solving|problem solving]], and [[w:Planning|planning]]. However, there is no universally agreed-upon taxonomy due to differences in definitions, labels, and groupings across theoretical models. One proposed higher-order executive function is task initiation. Task initiation is the ability of an individual to begin a specific task at a desired time without unnecessary hesitation or delay. Task initiation can be inhibited by various cognitive, emotional, and motivational factors. For example, task initiation can quickly become difficult when tasks are associated with negative emotions such as anxiety, shame, or stress; when tasks fail to inspire motivation because they are perceived as low-priority or overly abstract; or when an individual experiences cognitive factors that impair executive functioning. Individuals who experience chronic difficulties with task initiation and [[w:Procrastination|procrastination]] may experience adverse outcomes such as greater stress and poorer mental health (Stead et al., 2010) as well as decreased performance in academic environments (Steel, 2007). Understanding the cognitive and psychological elements of task initiation and the various mechanisms underlying these domains can help to bolster task initiation in individuals, thus reducing the negative impact of impaired task initiation on individuals' lives. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What cognitive processes underlie task initiation? * How do motivational and emotional factors influence task initiation? * How is task initiation related to procrastination? * How can psychological disorders impair task initiation? * How can task initiation be improved? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Cognitive processes and theories == The core executive functions outline above collectively support successful task initiation. However, intention to initiate a task does not always translate into action, and cognitive models such as the [[w:Theory_of_planned_behavior|theory of planned behaviour]] (TPB) and the [[w:Rubicon_model|Rubicon model of action phases]] offer explanations for this discrepancy. === Theory of planned behaviour === [[File:Theory of planned behaviour.png|thumb|350x350px|'''Figure 2''' Diagram of the Theory of Planned Behaviour ]] The theory of planned behaviour proposes that attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control jointly shape an individual's behavioural intention, which is then theorised to be the most immediate determinant of behaviour (Ajzen, 1991). However, perceived behavioural control - often conceptually related or compared to [[w:Self-efficacy|self-efficacy]] - is also stated as directly influencing behaviour due to the dependence of behaviour on whether an individual has sufficient control over performing it (see Figure 2), a relationship that is stated within the model as being strongest when perceived control reasonably reflects actual control. Thus, this can lead to an intention-action gap: favourable attitudes and supportive norms may generate an intention to begin a task, but insufficient perceived or actual behavioural control can prevent that intention from being translated into action. === Rubicon model of action phases === The Rubicon model of action phases divides the process from intention to action into four phases: pre-decisional (choosing between potential goals through weighing their feasibility and desirability), pre-actional (planning the implementation of the chosen goal), actional (executing the plan) and post-actional (evaluating outcomes against initial goals and subsequently adjusting future behaviour) (Heckhausen & Gollwitzer, 1987). The model therefore provides another framework for understanding the intention-action gap: after forming a goal intention, an individual may still fail to progress from the pre-actional to the actional phase, resulting in an intended behaviour that is not successfully initiated. === Construal level theory (CLT) === An additional cognitive factor influencing task initiation is mental representation. [[w:Construal_level_theory|Construal level theory]] is a psychological framework centred around the concept of [[w:Psychological_distance|psychological distance]], and it distinguishes between high-level, abstract representations and low-level, concrete representations. High-level representations revolve around task purpose, value, and reward, and may boost motivation, but also delay task initiation due to a lack of operational starting points; low-level representations alternatively emphasise practical and logistical steps (Trope & Liberman, 2010). As such, mentally representing a task in a less abstract manner may increase task initiation through making the immediate actions required to begin it more apparent. == Motivational and emotional barriers == Motivation and emotion are two psychological areas of study which both pertain to task initiation and may be examined to understand how and why task initiation can become difficult. === Motivational barriers === Task initiation is partly dependent on motivational influences such as the anticipated benefit of the task, the perceived likelihood of success, and the costs associated with performing it. [[w:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] proposes that the expected outcomes and subjective value placed upon tasks by individuals heavily influence choice and persistence in relation to tasks (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). Similarly, self-efficacy theory proposes that individuals' efficacy expectations are a prominent determinant in relation to goal setting, task choice, effort expenditure, and persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Additionally, neurological theories such as the expected value of control (EVC) propose that the brain weighs anticipated rewards against the costs of cognitive exertion and allocates cognitive control accordingly, thus providing an additional explanation for why task initiation may be inhibited for demanding tasks even if they have been appraised as valuable and achievable (Shenhav et al., 2013). === Emotional barriers === Task initiation is also dependent on anticipatory emotions associated with the task. Aversion to negative emotional states has been shown to decrease the likelihood of task initiation (Sirois & Pychyl, 2013), and greater task aversiveness as a result of these emotions is associated with greater behavioural delay (Blunt & Pychyl, 2000). Negative emotions can arise as a result of individual tasks, and may also be further compounded by chronic dispositions such as [[w:Fear_of_negative_evaluation|fear of failure]] and [[w:Perfectionism_(psychology)|perfectionism]]. Individuals with high fear of failure and levels of perfectionism report greater experienced shame and embarrassment following failure (Sagar & Stoeber, 2009), potentially decreasing the likelihood of initiating similar tasks in the future. == Procrastination == Impaired task initiation is often associated with procrastination, defined as the voluntary delay of an intended course of action despite expecting negative consequences from that delay (Steel, 2007). Procrastination can be distinguished from impaired task initiation in that it is a specific form of delay in which intended actions are unnecessarily postponed despite foreseeable adverse consequences. Despite being defined as a voluntary choice, it is often examined and discussed in relation to failures of self-regulation, and thus may be heavily influenced by [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|emotional regulation]] processes. === Self-regulation === Steel (2007) identifies procrastination as a failure of self-regulation, with strong associative factors of task aversiveness, task delay, self-efficacy, and impulsiveness, as well as facets of conscientiousness such as self-control, distractibility, organisation, and achievement motivation. These effects are consistent with the prominent motivational explanation provided by [[w:Temporal_motivation_theory|temporal motivation theory]]. ==== Temporal motivation theory ==== Temporal motivation theory integrates several established approaches to motivation into a single mode, including [[w:Expectancy_theory|expectancy theory]] and other theories concerning delayed rewards (Steel & König, 2006). Central to the model is the idea that motivation changes over time, and a simplified form of the theory can be represented by the following formula: <math>Motivation = {Expectancy \times Value\over 1+Impulsiveness\times Delay}</math> In the model, the additional constructs of impulsiveness and delay are introduced to represent individual differences in sensitivity to delay and the amount of time remaining between an individual and an anticipated outcome, respectively. This formula provides critical insight into the nature of time on motivation: distant rewards or consequences typically exert less influence on current motivation. As deadlines approach and delay shrinks, motivation increases sharply, leading to a decrease in procrastination and an increase in the likelihood of initiating the deadline-bound task. However, as with task initiation, procrastination is also influenced by emotional factors. === Emotional regulation === Sirois and Pychyl (2013) argue that procrastination is used as short-term mood regulation and repair: temporarily avoiding an aversive task momentarily improves mood while transferring costs to the future self. This may produce a [[w:Reinforcement|negative reinforcement]] cycle, where the immediate relief provided by the avoidance of a negative emotion makes future avoidance more likely. The "[https://www.verywellmind.com/wall-of-awful-in-adhd-12000744 Wall of Awful]" is a popular metaphor often used to conceptualise an emotional barrier to task initiation that may accumulate as a result of these cycles. == Neurodevelopmental and psychiatric conditions == Various psychological and neurodevelopmental conditions are partly characterised by or may result in impaired task initiation. === Neurodevelopmental disorders === Individuals diagnosed with [[w:Neurodevelopmental_disorder|neurodevelopmental disorders]] such as [[w:Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder|attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder]] (ADHD) and [[w:Autism|autism spectrum disorder]] (ASD) often report difficulties with task initiation. Associations have consistently been found between ADHD symptoms and procrastination, particularly with inattention, and to a lesser extent with executive dysfunction, emotional dysregulation, and impaired motivational processes (Suriano, 2026). Executive dysfunction is also common in children and adolescents with autism, with difficulties indicated in areas including cognitive flexibility, attention, working memory, and inhibition (Ceruti et al., 2024); the term [https://autisticinertia.com/2019/10/researchers-view/ autistic inertia] has been used to specifically describe difficulties in task initiation in autism, with research showing that autistic individuals report increased difficulty in starting, stopping, and switching activities, even in instances where they intended or wanted to act but nevertheless experienced difficulty doing so (Buckle et al., 2021). === Psychiatric conditions === Individuals diagnosed with [[w:Mental_disorder|psychiatric disorders]] may also experience difficulties with task initiation, although the underlying mechanisms can differ from those associated with neurodevelopmental conditions. In [[w:Major_depressive_disorder|major depressive disorder]] (MDD), [[w:Anhedonia|anhedonia]] and chronically reduced motivation may contribute to impaired task initiation through a reduced willingness to expend cognitive and physical effort for rewards (Horne et al., 2021). [[w:Avolition|Avolition]], defined as a severe and persistent decrease in the ability to start and sustain self-directed goal-oriented activities, is considered an important negative symptom of [[w:Schizophrenia|schizophrenia]] (DeRosse et al., 2019). ==Improving task initiation == As difficulties with task initiation have been identified as arising from cognitive, motivational, and emotional factors, interventions aimed at improving task initiation are typically aimed at the specific mechanisms preventing action. === Cognitive strategies to improve task initiation === ==== Implementation intentions ==== [[w:Implementation_intention|Implementation intentions]] (also known as "if-then planning") are a self-regulatory strategy conceptualised by Peter Gollwitzer as a result of his earlier work alongside Heinz Heckhausen on the Rubicon model of action phases. Unlike goal intentions, which specify a desired outcome (e.g., "I want to improve my fitness"), implementation intentions specify the situational cues and subsequent behavioural response through which a goal will be pursued (e.g., "At 7:00 pm, I will go for a run"). Within the Rubicon model, implementation intentions are relevant to the transition between the pre-actional and actional phases. By linking situational cues to pre-planned responses, implementation intentions can improve task initiation by reducing reliance on conscious deliberation and turning goal-directed behaviour into a more streamlined, automatic process (Gollwitzer, 1999). ==== Task concretisation ==== Task concretisation is the process of deconstructing large, often abstract tasks into smaller, more concrete subtasks. As discussed previously, construal level theory highlights that low-level representations emphasise the specific means through which a task is carried out as opposed to its broader purpose (Trope & Liberman, 2010). Concretisation may therefore improve task initiation through improved task clarification, and has also been shown to reduce cognitive computational demands through the facilitation of easier planning while also preserving effective performance (Correa et al., 2023). ==== Cognitive offloading ==== Cognitive offloading refers to the use of physical actions or external tools to decrease the cognitive demands associated with a task (Risko & Gilbert, 2016). By storing information in external cues rather than relying on cognitive processes such as working memory, the mental demands associated with organising and remembering to begin tasks may be reduced, thus improving task initiation. Examples of cognitive offloading include writing down information, setting alarms, and other visible reminders. === Motivational strategies to improve task initiation === Both motivational models such as expectancy-value theory and neuroscientific models of cognitive-control allocation such as the expected value of control emphasise evaluations of potential value relative to costs. Similar principles appear in temporal motivation theory, in which motivation is influenced through expectancy, value, impulsiveness, and delay. Accordingly, strategies for increasing motivation and facilitating task initiation may involve increasing the perceived value of a task, increasing expectations of success, or reducing its perceived costs. Subjective task value may be increased by linking tasks to personally meaningful goals, interests, or future outcomes: research shows that encouraging students to connect specific academic tasks to personal interests or goals can lead to increased interest, engagement, and academic performance (Harackiewicz et al., 2014). Expectancy may be strengthened by setting smaller, achievable goals, as this provides clearer evidence of progress and attainment, which can strengthen perceptions of self-efficacy (Schunk, 1984). Finally, reducing perceived costs may involve the previously mentioned task concretisation, which reduces task complexity through clearer immediate subtasks, thus decreasing the initial cognitive demands required. === Emotional strategies to improve task initiation === As task avoidance and procrastination are often associated with attempts to regulate aversive emotions, strategies for improving task initiation may involve greater emotional acceptance and improved emotional regulation. Greater awareness and acceptance of emotional experiences has been associated with more adaptive emotional responding (Erisman & Roemer, 2010), while practising the tolerance and modification of aversive emotions has been shown to reduce procrastination (Eckert et al., 2016). Furthermore, Wohl et al. (2010) found that greater levels of self-reported self-forgiveness were associated with lower levels of future procrastination, which may be particularly important in disrupting negative reinforcement cycles. === Additional strategies and strategy integrations === ==== Environmental and social changes ==== Changes to an individual's environment may facilitate task initiation. Removing prominent distractions such as digital devices like phones, unrelated projects, unfinished chores, or other stimuli that compete for attention may decrease the inhibitory control required to focus on necessary tasks. Research indicates that even the presence of one's own smartphone may occupy cognitive resources, even when conscious attention is not being paid to it (Ward et al., 2017). Social strategies such as [https://www.simplypsychology.com/articles/body-doubling-adhd body doubling] are also often offered as a strategy to reduce procrastination, specifically in individuals with ADHD; however, direct evidence is limited, with the proposal relying primarily on anecdotal consensus. ==== Psychotherapeutic interventions ==== [[w:Cognitive_behavioral_therapy|Cognitive behavioural therapy]] (CBT) may be used to treat individuals who struggle with chronic procrastination, thus potentially improving overall task initiation. Rozental et al. (2018) found substantial reductions in procrastination following CBT interventions, suggesting that CBT may be an effective tool in managing procrastination. These interventions included techniques such as [[w:Psychoeducation|psychoeducation]], goal setting and [[w:Behavioral_activation|behavioural activation]], strategies to strengthen self-efficacy, stimulus control and distraction management, assertiveness training, and [[w:Cognitive_restructuring|cognitive restructuring]]. Overall, CBT functions as a broader therapeutic framework in which several previously discussed strategies to improving task initiation are integrated. == Conclusion == Task initiation is a higher-order executive function derived from core processes such as working memory, inhibition, and cognitive flexibility. Functional task initiation can be adversely affected through impairments of these areas, such as is common in neurodevelopmental disorders, as well as through various individual motivational and emotional factors. Various models and theories, such as the theory of planned behaviour, the Rubicon model of action phases, construal level theory, and temporal motivation theory are offered as explanations for how and why individuals may struggle to successfully convert goal-intentions into goal-directed behaviour. Strategies for improving task initiation therefore often reflect and address these underlying mechanisms. Implementation intentions, task concretisation, and cognitive offloading may decrease the intention-action gap, provide clearer first steps to initiating tasks, and reduce the mental effort to do so, respectively. Increasing the perceived value of tasks and their rewards, or decreasing the perceived costs, may address motivational issues, while practicing emotional acceptance and regulation may reduce avoidance as a result of emotional issues. Psychotherapeutic interventions such as cognitive behavioural therapy often integrate several of these approaches, and other minor strategies are also available to increase task initiation, such as environmental restructuring and body doubling. == See also == * ==References== {{Hanging indent|1=Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50(2), 179–211. doi.org/10.1016/0749-5978(91)90020-T Blunt, A. K., & Pychyl, T. A. (2000). Task aversiveness and procrastination: A multi-dimensional approach to task aversiveness across stages of personal projects. Personality and Individual Differences, 28(1), 153–167. doi.org/10.1016/s0191-8869(99)00091-4 Buckle, K. L., Leadbitter, K., Poliakoff, E., & Gowen, E. (2021). “No way out except from external intervention”: First-hand accounts of autistic inertia. Frontiers in Psychology, 12(63159). doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.631596 Ceruti, C., Mingozzi, A., Scionti, N., & Marzocchi, G. M. (2024). Comparing executive functions in children and adolescents with autism and ADHD—A systematic review and meta-analysis. Children, 11(4), 473. doi.org/10.3390/children11040473 Correa, C. G., Ho, M. K., Callaway, F., Daw, N. D., & Griffiths, T. L. (2023). Humans decompose tasks by trading off utility and computational cost. PLOS Computational Biology, 19(6), e1011087. doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1011087 DeRosse, P., Barber, A. D., Fales, C. L., & Malhotra, A. K. (2019). Deconstructing avolition: Initiation vs persistence of reward-directed effort. Psychiatry Research, 273, 647–652. doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2019.01.073 Diamond, A. (2013). Executive functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64(1), 135–168. doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750 Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153 Eckert, M., Ebert, D. D, Lehr, D., Sieland, B., & Berking, M. (2016). Overcome procrastination: Enhancing emotion regulation skills reduce procrastination. Learning and Individual Differences, 52, 10–18. doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2016.10.001 Erisman, S. M., & Roemer, L. (2010). A preliminary investigation of the effects of experimentally induced mindfulness on emotional responding to film clips. Emotion, 10(1), 72–82. doi.org/10.1037/a0017162 Gollwitzer, P. M. (1999). Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans. American Psychologist, 54(7), 493–503. doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.54.7.493 Harackiewicz, J. M., Tibbetts, Y., Canning, E. A., & Hyde, J. S. (2014). Harnessing values to promote motivation in education. In S. A. Karabenick & T. C. Urdan (Eds.), Motivational interventions (Vol. 18, pp. 71–105). Emerald Group Publishing Limited. doi.org/10.1108/S0749-742320140000018002 Heckhausen, H., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (1987). Thought contents and cognitive functioning in motivational versus volitional states of mind. Motivation and Emotion, 11(2), 101–120. doi.org/10.1007/bf00992338 Horne, S. J., Topp, T. E., & Quigley, L. (2021). Depression and the willingness to expend cognitive and physical effort for rewards: A systematic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 88, 102065. doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2021.102065 Risko, E. F., & Gilbert, S. J. (2016). Cognitive offloading. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 20(9), 676–688. doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2016.07.002 Rozental, A., Forsström, D., Lindner, P., Nilsson, S., Mårtensson, L., Rizzo, A., Andersson, G., & Carlbring, P. (2018). Treating procrastination using cognitive behavior therapy: A pragmatic randomized controlled trial comparing treatment delivered via the internet or in groups. Behavior Therapy, 49(2), 180–197. doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2017.08.002 Sagar, S. S., & Stoeber, J. (2009). Perfectionism, fear of failure, and affective responses to success and failure: The central role of fear of experiencing shame and embarrassment. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 31(5), 602–627. doi.org/10.1123/jsep.31.5.602 Schunk, D. H. (1984). Enhancing self-efficacy and achievement through rewards and goals: Motivational and informational effects. The Journal of Educational Research, 78(1), 29–34. doi.org/10.1080/00220671.1984.10885568 Shenhav, A., Botvinick, M. M., & Cohen, J. D. (2013). The expected value of control: An integrative theory of anterior cingulate cortex function. Neuron, 79(2), 217–240. doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2013.07.007 Sirois, F., & Pychyl, T. (2013). Procrastination and the priority of short-term mood regulation: Consequences for future self. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 7(2), 115–127. doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12011 Stead, R., Shanahan, M. J., & Neufeld, R. W. J. (2010). “I’ll go to therapy, eventually”: Procrastination, stress and mental health. Personality and Individual Differences, 49(3), 175–180. doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.03.028 Steel, P. (2007). The nature of procrastination: A meta-analytic and theoretical review of quintessential self-regulatory failure. Psychological Bulletin, 133(1), 65–94. doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.65 Steel, P., & König, C. J. (2006). Integrating theories of motivation. Academy of Management Review, 31(4), 889–913. doi.org/10.5465/amr.2006.22527462 Suriano, R. (2026). A systematic review on the association between ADHD and procrastination. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 175, 105342. doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2026.105342 Trope, Y., & Liberman, N. (2010). Construal-level theory of psychological distance. Psychological Review, 117(2), 440–463. doi.org/10.1037/a0018963 Ward, A. F., Duke, K., Gneezy, A., & Bos, M. W. (2017). Brain drain: The mere presence of one’s own smartphone reduces available cognitive capacity. Journal of the Association for Consumer Research, 2(2), 140–154. doi.org/10.1086/691462 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–value theory of achievement motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 68–81. doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 Wohl, M. J. A., Pychyl, T. A., & Bennett, S. H. (2010). I forgive myself, now I can study: How self-forgiveness for procrastinating can reduce future procrastination. Personality and Individual Differences, 48(7), 803–808. doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.01.029 }} == External links == *[https://www.simplypsychology.com/articles/body-doubling-adhd Body Doubling: The ADHD Productivity Strategy That Actually Works (2026)] (Simply Psychology) *[https://www.verywellmind.com/wall-of-awful-in-adhd-12000744 How the Wall of Awful Prevents Task Initiation in ADHD—and What Can Help You Push Through] (Verywell Mind) *[https://autisticinertia.com/2019/10/researchers-view/ Researchers' view of initiation in autism] (Autistic Inertia) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Goal pursuit]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Procrastination]] 90fc0z8tf8qnk91z0gv6nhc0a92uuon 2836483 2836479 2026-10-07T08:46:05Z U3286643 3106304 added image to cognitive offloading 2836483 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Getting started:<br>Why is task initiation difficult and how to overcome it?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Scrolling on phone (cropped).jpg||thumb|right|150px|'''Figure 1''' An individual scrolling on their phone]] ;Scenario John is a university student with an assignment that is due in five days which he has not started. Despite knowing that he needs to begin the assignment soon in order to have it completed by the due date, he finds the prospect of starting the assignment daunting, and so continues engaging in alternative activities, such as scrolling on social media, to avoid beginning the assignment (see Figure 1). John is struggling with task initiation and is using procrastination as a coping behaviour to manage his negative feelings associated with starting the assignment. {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[w:Executive_functions|Executive functions]] are a set of top-down cognitive processes that support goal-directed behaviour. Diamond (2013) identifies [[w:Inhibitory_control|inhibitory control]], [[w:Working_memory|working memory]], and [[w:Cognitive_flexibility|cognitive flexibility]] as the three core executive functions, with higher-order functions being derived from these, such as [[w:Reason|reasoning]], [[w:Problem_solving|problem solving]], and [[w:Planning|planning]]. However, there is no universally agreed-upon taxonomy due to differences in definitions, labels, and groupings across theoretical models. One proposed higher-order executive function is task initiation. Task initiation is the ability of an individual to begin a specific task at a desired time without unnecessary hesitation or delay. Task initiation can be inhibited by various cognitive, emotional, and motivational factors. For example, task initiation can quickly become difficult when tasks are associated with negative emotions such as anxiety, shame, or stress; when tasks fail to inspire motivation because they are perceived as low-priority or overly abstract; or when an individual experiences cognitive factors that impair executive functioning. Individuals who experience chronic difficulties with task initiation and [[w:Procrastination|procrastination]] may experience adverse outcomes such as greater stress and poorer mental health (Stead et al., 2010) as well as decreased performance in academic environments (Steel, 2007). Understanding the cognitive and psychological elements of task initiation and the various mechanisms underlying these domains can help to bolster task initiation in individuals, thus reducing the negative impact of impaired task initiation on individuals' lives. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What cognitive processes underlie task initiation? * How do motivational and emotional factors influence task initiation? * How is task initiation related to procrastination? * How can psychological disorders impair task initiation? * How can task initiation be improved? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Cognitive processes and theories == The core executive functions outline above collectively support successful task initiation. However, intention to initiate a task does not always translate into action, and cognitive models such as the [[w:Theory_of_planned_behavior|theory of planned behaviour]] (TPB) and the [[w:Rubicon_model|Rubicon model of action phases]] offer explanations for this discrepancy. === Theory of planned behaviour === [[File:Theory of planned behaviour.png|thumb|350x350px|'''Figure 2''' Diagram of the Theory of Planned Behaviour ]] The theory of planned behaviour proposes that attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control jointly shape an individual's behavioural intention, which is then theorised to be the most immediate determinant of behaviour (Ajzen, 1991). However, perceived behavioural control - often conceptually related or compared to [[w:Self-efficacy|self-efficacy]] - is also stated as directly influencing behaviour due to the dependence of behaviour on whether an individual has sufficient control over performing it (see Figure 2), a relationship that is stated within the model as being strongest when perceived control reasonably reflects actual control. Thus, this can lead to an intention-action gap: favourable attitudes and supportive norms may generate an intention to begin a task, but insufficient perceived or actual behavioural control can prevent that intention from being translated into action. === Rubicon model of action phases === The Rubicon model of action phases divides the process from intention to action into four phases: pre-decisional (choosing between potential goals through weighing their feasibility and desirability), pre-actional (planning the implementation of the chosen goal), actional (executing the plan) and post-actional (evaluating outcomes against initial goals and subsequently adjusting future behaviour) (Heckhausen & Gollwitzer, 1987). The model therefore provides another framework for understanding the intention-action gap: after forming a goal intention, an individual may still fail to progress from the pre-actional to the actional phase, resulting in an intended behaviour that is not successfully initiated. === Construal level theory (CLT) === An additional cognitive factor influencing task initiation is mental representation. [[w:Construal_level_theory|Construal level theory]] is a psychological framework centred around the concept of [[w:Psychological_distance|psychological distance]], and it distinguishes between high-level, abstract representations and low-level, concrete representations. High-level representations revolve around task purpose, value, and reward, and may boost motivation, but also delay task initiation due to a lack of operational starting points; low-level representations alternatively emphasise practical and logistical steps (Trope & Liberman, 2010). As such, mentally representing a task in a less abstract manner may increase task initiation through making the immediate actions required to begin it more apparent. == Motivational and emotional barriers == Motivation and emotion are two psychological areas of study which both pertain to task initiation and may be examined to understand how and why task initiation can become difficult. === Motivational barriers === Task initiation is partly dependent on motivational influences such as the anticipated benefit of the task, the perceived likelihood of success, and the costs associated with performing it. [[w:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] proposes that the expected outcomes and subjective value placed upon tasks by individuals heavily influence choice and persistence in relation to tasks (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). Similarly, self-efficacy theory proposes that individuals' efficacy expectations are a prominent determinant in relation to goal setting, task choice, effort expenditure, and persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Additionally, neurological theories such as the expected value of control (EVC) propose that the brain weighs anticipated rewards against the costs of cognitive exertion and allocates cognitive control accordingly, thus providing an additional explanation for why task initiation may be inhibited for demanding tasks even if they have been appraised as valuable and achievable (Shenhav et al., 2013). === Emotional barriers === Task initiation is also dependent on anticipatory emotions associated with the task. Aversion to negative emotional states has been shown to decrease the likelihood of task initiation (Sirois & Pychyl, 2013), and greater task aversiveness as a result of these emotions is associated with greater behavioural delay (Blunt & Pychyl, 2000). Negative emotions can arise as a result of individual tasks, and may also be further compounded by chronic dispositions such as [[w:Fear_of_negative_evaluation|fear of failure]] and [[w:Perfectionism_(psychology)|perfectionism]]. Individuals with high fear of failure and levels of perfectionism report greater experienced shame and embarrassment following failure (Sagar & Stoeber, 2009), potentially decreasing the likelihood of initiating similar tasks in the future. == Procrastination == Impaired task initiation is often associated with procrastination, defined as the voluntary delay of an intended course of action despite expecting negative consequences from that delay (Steel, 2007). Procrastination can be distinguished from impaired task initiation in that it is a specific form of delay in which intended actions are unnecessarily postponed despite foreseeable adverse consequences. Despite being defined as a voluntary choice, it is often examined and discussed in relation to failures of self-regulation, and thus may be heavily influenced by [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|emotional regulation]] processes. === Self-regulation === Steel (2007) identifies procrastination as a failure of self-regulation, with strong associative factors of task aversiveness, task delay, self-efficacy, and impulsiveness, as well as facets of conscientiousness such as self-control, distractibility, organisation, and achievement motivation. These effects are consistent with the prominent motivational explanation provided by [[w:Temporal_motivation_theory|temporal motivation theory]]. ==== Temporal motivation theory ==== Temporal motivation theory integrates several established approaches to motivation into a single mode, including [[w:Expectancy_theory|expectancy theory]] and other theories concerning delayed rewards (Steel & König, 2006). Central to the model is the idea that motivation changes over time, and a simplified form of the theory can be represented by the following formula: <math>Motivation = {Expectancy \times Value\over 1+Impulsiveness\times Delay}</math> In the model, the additional constructs of impulsiveness and delay are introduced to represent individual differences in sensitivity to delay and the amount of time remaining between an individual and an anticipated outcome, respectively. This formula provides critical insight into the nature of time on motivation: distant rewards or consequences typically exert less influence on current motivation. As deadlines approach and delay shrinks, motivation increases sharply, leading to a decrease in procrastination and an increase in the likelihood of initiating the deadline-bound task. However, as with task initiation, procrastination is also influenced by emotional factors. === Emotional regulation === Sirois and Pychyl (2013) argue that procrastination is used as short-term mood regulation and repair: temporarily avoiding an aversive task momentarily improves mood while transferring costs to the future self. This may produce a [[w:Reinforcement|negative reinforcement]] cycle, where the immediate relief provided by the avoidance of a negative emotion makes future avoidance more likely. The "[https://www.verywellmind.com/wall-of-awful-in-adhd-12000744 Wall of Awful]" is a popular metaphor often used to conceptualise an emotional barrier to task initiation that may accumulate as a result of these cycles. == Neurodevelopmental and psychiatric conditions == Various psychological and neurodevelopmental conditions are partly characterised by or may result in impaired task initiation. === Neurodevelopmental disorders === Individuals diagnosed with [[w:Neurodevelopmental_disorder|neurodevelopmental disorders]] such as [[w:Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder|attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder]] (ADHD) and [[w:Autism|autism spectrum disorder]] (ASD) often report difficulties with task initiation. Associations have consistently been found between ADHD symptoms and procrastination, particularly with inattention, and to a lesser extent with executive dysfunction, emotional dysregulation, and impaired motivational processes (Suriano, 2026). Executive dysfunction is also common in children and adolescents with autism, with difficulties indicated in areas including cognitive flexibility, attention, working memory, and inhibition (Ceruti et al., 2024); the term [https://autisticinertia.com/2019/10/researchers-view/ autistic inertia] has been used to specifically describe difficulties in task initiation in autism, with research showing that autistic individuals report increased difficulty in starting, stopping, and switching activities, even in instances where they intended or wanted to act but nevertheless experienced difficulty doing so (Buckle et al., 2021). === Psychiatric conditions === Individuals diagnosed with [[w:Mental_disorder|psychiatric disorders]] may also experience difficulties with task initiation, although the underlying mechanisms can differ from those associated with neurodevelopmental conditions. In [[w:Major_depressive_disorder|major depressive disorder]] (MDD), [[w:Anhedonia|anhedonia]] and chronically reduced motivation may contribute to impaired task initiation through a reduced willingness to expend cognitive and physical effort for rewards (Horne et al., 2021). [[w:Avolition|Avolition]], defined as a severe and persistent decrease in the ability to start and sustain self-directed goal-oriented activities, is considered an important negative symptom of [[w:Schizophrenia|schizophrenia]] (DeRosse et al., 2019). ==Improving task initiation == As difficulties with task initiation have been identified as arising from cognitive, motivational, and emotional factors, interventions aimed at improving task initiation are typically aimed at the specific mechanisms preventing action. === Cognitive strategies to improve task initiation === ==== Implementation intentions ==== [[w:Implementation_intention|Implementation intentions]] (also known as "if-then planning") are a self-regulatory strategy conceptualised by Peter Gollwitzer as a result of his earlier work alongside Heinz Heckhausen on the Rubicon model of action phases. Unlike goal intentions, which specify a desired outcome (e.g., "I want to improve my fitness"), implementation intentions specify the situational cues and subsequent behavioural response through which a goal will be pursued (e.g., "At 7:00 pm, I will go for a run"). Within the Rubicon model, implementation intentions are relevant to the transition between the pre-actional and actional phases. By linking situational cues to pre-planned responses, implementation intentions can improve task initiation by reducing reliance on conscious deliberation and turning goal-directed behaviour into a more streamlined, automatic process (Gollwitzer, 1999). ==== Task concretisation ==== Task concretisation is the process of deconstructing large, often abstract tasks into smaller, more concrete subtasks. As discussed previously, construal level theory highlights that low-level representations emphasise the specific means through which a task is carried out as opposed to its broader purpose (Trope & Liberman, 2010). Concretisation may therefore improve task initiation through improved task clarification, and has also been shown to reduce cognitive computational demands through the facilitation of easier planning while also preserving effective performance (Correa et al., 2023). ==== Cognitive offloading ==== [[File:ESEAP Strategy Summit Day 1 - Mehrdad reading a post-it note that will be posted on the Revenue Streams flipchart.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 3.''' Post-it notes being used as visible reminders.]] Cognitive offloading refers to the use of physical actions or external tools to decrease the cognitive demands associated with a task (Risko & Gilbert, 2016). By storing information in external cues rather than relying on cognitive processes such as working memory, the mental demands associated with organising and remembering to begin tasks may be reduced, thus improving task initiation. Examples of cognitive offloading include writing down information, setting alarms, and other visible reminders (see Figure 3). === Motivational strategies to improve task initiation === Both motivational models such as expectancy-value theory and neuroscientific models of cognitive-control allocation such as the expected value of control emphasise evaluations of potential value relative to costs. Similar principles appear in temporal motivation theory, in which motivation is influenced through expectancy, value, impulsiveness, and delay. Accordingly, strategies for increasing motivation and facilitating task initiation may involve increasing the perceived value of a task, increasing expectations of success, or reducing its perceived costs. Subjective task value may be increased by linking tasks to personally meaningful goals, interests, or future outcomes: research shows that encouraging students to connect specific academic tasks to personal interests or goals can lead to increased interest, engagement, and academic performance (Harackiewicz et al., 2014). Expectancy may be strengthened by setting smaller, achievable goals, as this provides clearer evidence of progress and attainment, which can strengthen perceptions of self-efficacy (Schunk, 1984). Finally, reducing perceived costs may involve the previously mentioned task concretisation, which reduces task complexity through clearer immediate subtasks, thus decreasing the initial cognitive demands required. === Emotional strategies to improve task initiation === As task avoidance and procrastination are often associated with attempts to regulate aversive emotions, strategies for improving task initiation may involve greater emotional acceptance and improved emotional regulation. Greater awareness and acceptance of emotional experiences has been associated with more adaptive emotional responding (Erisman & Roemer, 2010), while practising the tolerance and modification of aversive emotions has been shown to reduce procrastination (Eckert et al., 2016). Furthermore, Wohl et al. (2010) found that greater levels of self-reported self-forgiveness were associated with lower levels of future procrastination, which may be particularly important in disrupting negative reinforcement cycles. === Additional strategies and strategy integrations === ==== Environmental and social changes ==== Changes to an individual's environment may facilitate task initiation. Removing prominent distractions such as digital devices like phones, unrelated projects, unfinished chores, or other stimuli that compete for attention may decrease the inhibitory control required to focus on necessary tasks. Research indicates that even the presence of one's own smartphone may occupy cognitive resources, even when conscious attention is not being paid to it (Ward et al., 2017). Social strategies such as [https://www.simplypsychology.com/articles/body-doubling-adhd body doubling] are also often offered as a strategy to reduce procrastination, specifically in individuals with ADHD; however, direct evidence is limited, with the proposal relying primarily on anecdotal consensus. ==== Psychotherapeutic interventions ==== [[w:Cognitive_behavioral_therapy|Cognitive behavioural therapy]] (CBT) may be used to treat individuals who struggle with chronic procrastination, thus potentially improving overall task initiation. Rozental et al. (2018) found substantial reductions in procrastination following CBT interventions, suggesting that CBT may be an effective tool in managing procrastination. These interventions included techniques such as [[w:Psychoeducation|psychoeducation]], goal setting and [[w:Behavioral_activation|behavioural activation]], strategies to strengthen self-efficacy, stimulus control and distraction management, assertiveness training, and [[w:Cognitive_restructuring|cognitive restructuring]]. Overall, CBT functions as a broader therapeutic framework in which several previously discussed strategies to improving task initiation are integrated. == Conclusion == Task initiation is a higher-order executive function derived from core processes such as working memory, inhibition, and cognitive flexibility. Functional task initiation can be adversely affected through impairments of these areas, such as is common in neurodevelopmental disorders, as well as through various individual motivational and emotional factors. Various models and theories, such as the theory of planned behaviour, the Rubicon model of action phases, construal level theory, and temporal motivation theory are offered as explanations for how and why individuals may struggle to successfully convert goal-intentions into goal-directed behaviour. Strategies for improving task initiation therefore often reflect and address these underlying mechanisms. Implementation intentions, task concretisation, and cognitive offloading may decrease the intention-action gap, provide clearer first steps to initiating tasks, and reduce the mental effort to do so, respectively. Increasing the perceived value of tasks and their rewards, or decreasing the perceived costs, may address motivational issues, while practicing emotional acceptance and regulation may reduce avoidance as a result of emotional issues. Psychotherapeutic interventions such as cognitive behavioural therapy often integrate several of these approaches, and other minor strategies are also available to increase task initiation, such as environmental restructuring and body doubling. == See also == * ==References== {{Hanging indent|1=Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50(2), 179–211. doi.org/10.1016/0749-5978(91)90020-T Blunt, A. K., & Pychyl, T. A. (2000). Task aversiveness and procrastination: A multi-dimensional approach to task aversiveness across stages of personal projects. Personality and Individual Differences, 28(1), 153–167. doi.org/10.1016/s0191-8869(99)00091-4 Buckle, K. L., Leadbitter, K., Poliakoff, E., & Gowen, E. (2021). “No way out except from external intervention”: First-hand accounts of autistic inertia. Frontiers in Psychology, 12(63159). doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.631596 Ceruti, C., Mingozzi, A., Scionti, N., & Marzocchi, G. M. (2024). Comparing executive functions in children and adolescents with autism and ADHD—A systematic review and meta-analysis. Children, 11(4), 473. doi.org/10.3390/children11040473 Correa, C. G., Ho, M. K., Callaway, F., Daw, N. D., & Griffiths, T. L. (2023). Humans decompose tasks by trading off utility and computational cost. PLOS Computational Biology, 19(6), e1011087. doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1011087 DeRosse, P., Barber, A. D., Fales, C. L., & Malhotra, A. K. (2019). Deconstructing avolition: Initiation vs persistence of reward-directed effort. Psychiatry Research, 273, 647–652. doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2019.01.073 Diamond, A. (2013). Executive functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64(1), 135–168. doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750 Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153 Eckert, M., Ebert, D. D, Lehr, D., Sieland, B., & Berking, M. (2016). Overcome procrastination: Enhancing emotion regulation skills reduce procrastination. Learning and Individual Differences, 52, 10–18. doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2016.10.001 Erisman, S. M., & Roemer, L. (2010). A preliminary investigation of the effects of experimentally induced mindfulness on emotional responding to film clips. Emotion, 10(1), 72–82. doi.org/10.1037/a0017162 Gollwitzer, P. M. (1999). Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans. American Psychologist, 54(7), 493–503. doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.54.7.493 Harackiewicz, J. M., Tibbetts, Y., Canning, E. A., & Hyde, J. S. (2014). Harnessing values to promote motivation in education. In S. A. Karabenick & T. C. Urdan (Eds.), Motivational interventions (Vol. 18, pp. 71–105). Emerald Group Publishing Limited. doi.org/10.1108/S0749-742320140000018002 Heckhausen, H., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (1987). Thought contents and cognitive functioning in motivational versus volitional states of mind. Motivation and Emotion, 11(2), 101–120. doi.org/10.1007/bf00992338 Horne, S. J., Topp, T. E., & Quigley, L. (2021). Depression and the willingness to expend cognitive and physical effort for rewards: A systematic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 88, 102065. doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2021.102065 Risko, E. F., & Gilbert, S. J. (2016). Cognitive offloading. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 20(9), 676–688. doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2016.07.002 Rozental, A., Forsström, D., Lindner, P., Nilsson, S., Mårtensson, L., Rizzo, A., Andersson, G., & Carlbring, P. (2018). Treating procrastination using cognitive behavior therapy: A pragmatic randomized controlled trial comparing treatment delivered via the internet or in groups. Behavior Therapy, 49(2), 180–197. doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2017.08.002 Sagar, S. S., & Stoeber, J. (2009). Perfectionism, fear of failure, and affective responses to success and failure: The central role of fear of experiencing shame and embarrassment. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 31(5), 602–627. doi.org/10.1123/jsep.31.5.602 Schunk, D. H. (1984). Enhancing self-efficacy and achievement through rewards and goals: Motivational and informational effects. The Journal of Educational Research, 78(1), 29–34. doi.org/10.1080/00220671.1984.10885568 Shenhav, A., Botvinick, M. M., & Cohen, J. D. (2013). The expected value of control: An integrative theory of anterior cingulate cortex function. Neuron, 79(2), 217–240. doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2013.07.007 Sirois, F., & Pychyl, T. (2013). Procrastination and the priority of short-term mood regulation: Consequences for future self. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 7(2), 115–127. doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12011 Stead, R., Shanahan, M. J., & Neufeld, R. W. J. (2010). “I’ll go to therapy, eventually”: Procrastination, stress and mental health. Personality and Individual Differences, 49(3), 175–180. doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.03.028 Steel, P. (2007). The nature of procrastination: A meta-analytic and theoretical review of quintessential self-regulatory failure. Psychological Bulletin, 133(1), 65–94. doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.65 Steel, P., & König, C. J. (2006). Integrating theories of motivation. Academy of Management Review, 31(4), 889–913. doi.org/10.5465/amr.2006.22527462 Suriano, R. (2026). A systematic review on the association between ADHD and procrastination. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 175, 105342. doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2026.105342 Trope, Y., & Liberman, N. (2010). Construal-level theory of psychological distance. Psychological Review, 117(2), 440–463. doi.org/10.1037/a0018963 Ward, A. F., Duke, K., Gneezy, A., & Bos, M. W. (2017). Brain drain: The mere presence of one’s own smartphone reduces available cognitive capacity. Journal of the Association for Consumer Research, 2(2), 140–154. doi.org/10.1086/691462 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–value theory of achievement motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 68–81. doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 Wohl, M. J. A., Pychyl, T. A., & Bennett, S. H. (2010). I forgive myself, now I can study: How self-forgiveness for procrastinating can reduce future procrastination. Personality and Individual Differences, 48(7), 803–808. doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.01.029 }} == External links == *[https://www.simplypsychology.com/articles/body-doubling-adhd Body Doubling: The ADHD Productivity Strategy That Actually Works (2026)] (Simply Psychology) *[https://www.verywellmind.com/wall-of-awful-in-adhd-12000744 How the Wall of Awful Prevents Task Initiation in ADHD—and What Can Help You Push Through] (Verywell Mind) *[https://autisticinertia.com/2019/10/researchers-view/ Researchers' view of initiation in autism] (Autistic Inertia) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Goal pursuit]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Procrastination]] 4kf9ls27c6h2at8aoew36811t3y9qrh 2836497 2836483 2026-10-07T09:14:42Z U3286643 3106304 Added case study 2836497 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Getting started:<br>Why is task initiation difficult and how to overcome it?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Scrolling on phone (cropped).jpg||thumb|right|150px|'''Figure 1''' An individual scrolling on their phone]] ;Scenario John is a university student with an assignment that is due in five days which he has not started. Despite knowing that he needs to begin the assignment soon in order to have it completed by the due date, he finds the prospect of starting the assignment daunting, and so continues engaging in alternative activities, such as scrolling on social media, to avoid beginning the assignment (see Figure 1). John is struggling with task initiation and is using procrastination as a coping behaviour to manage his negative feelings associated with starting the assignment. {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[w:Executive_functions|Executive functions]] are a set of top-down cognitive processes that support goal-directed behaviour. Diamond (2013) identifies [[w:Inhibitory_control|inhibitory control]], [[w:Working_memory|working memory]], and [[w:Cognitive_flexibility|cognitive flexibility]] as the three core executive functions, with higher-order functions being derived from these, such as [[w:Reason|reasoning]], [[w:Problem_solving|problem solving]], and [[w:Planning|planning]]. However, there is no universally agreed-upon taxonomy due to differences in definitions, labels, and groupings across theoretical models. One proposed higher-order executive function is task initiation. Task initiation is the ability of an individual to begin a specific task at a desired time without unnecessary hesitation or delay. Task initiation can be inhibited by various cognitive, emotional, and motivational factors. For example, task initiation can quickly become difficult when tasks are associated with negative emotions such as anxiety, shame, or stress; when tasks fail to inspire motivation because they are perceived as low-priority or overly abstract; or when an individual experiences cognitive factors that impair executive functioning. Individuals who experience chronic difficulties with task initiation and [[w:Procrastination|procrastination]] may experience adverse outcomes such as greater stress and poorer mental health (Stead et al., 2010) as well as decreased performance in academic environments (Steel, 2007). Understanding the cognitive and psychological elements of task initiation and the various mechanisms underlying these domains can help to bolster task initiation in individuals, thus reducing the negative impact of impaired task initiation on individuals' lives. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What cognitive processes underlie task initiation? * How do motivational and emotional factors influence task initiation? * How is task initiation related to procrastination? * How can psychological disorders impair task initiation? * How can task initiation be improved? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Cognitive processes and theories == The core executive functions outline above collectively support successful task initiation. However, intention to initiate a task does not always translate into action, and cognitive models such as the [[w:Theory_of_planned_behavior|theory of planned behaviour]] (TPB) and the [[w:Rubicon_model|Rubicon model of action phases]] offer explanations for this discrepancy. === Theory of planned behaviour === [[File:Theory of planned behaviour.png|thumb|350x350px|'''Figure 2''' Diagram of the Theory of Planned Behaviour ]] The theory of planned behaviour proposes that attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control jointly shape an individual's behavioural intention, which is then theorised to be the most immediate determinant of behaviour (Ajzen, 1991). However, perceived behavioural control - often conceptually related or compared to [[w:Self-efficacy|self-efficacy]] - is also stated as directly influencing behaviour due to the dependence of behaviour on whether an individual has sufficient control over performing it (see Figure 2), a relationship that is stated within the model as being strongest when perceived control reasonably reflects actual control. Thus, this can lead to an intention-action gap: favourable attitudes and supportive norms may generate an intention to begin a task, but insufficient perceived or actual behavioural control can prevent that intention from being translated into action. === Rubicon model of action phases === The Rubicon model of action phases divides the process from intention to action into four phases: pre-decisional (choosing between potential goals through weighing their feasibility and desirability), pre-actional (planning the implementation of the chosen goal), actional (executing the plan) and post-actional (evaluating outcomes against initial goals and subsequently adjusting future behaviour) (Heckhausen & Gollwitzer, 1987). The model therefore provides another framework for understanding the intention-action gap: after forming a goal intention, an individual may still fail to progress from the pre-actional to the actional phase, resulting in an intended behaviour that is not successfully initiated. === Construal level theory (CLT) === An additional cognitive factor influencing task initiation is mental representation. [[w:Construal_level_theory|Construal level theory]] is a psychological framework centred around the concept of [[w:Psychological_distance|psychological distance]], and it distinguishes between high-level, abstract representations and low-level, concrete representations. High-level representations revolve around task purpose, value, and reward, and may boost motivation, but also delay task initiation due to a lack of operational starting points; low-level representations alternatively emphasise practical and logistical steps (Trope & Liberman, 2010). As such, mentally representing a task in a less abstract manner may increase task initiation through making the immediate actions required to begin it more apparent. == Motivational and emotional barriers == Motivation and emotion are two psychological areas of study which both pertain to task initiation and may be examined to understand how and why task initiation can become difficult. === Motivational barriers === Task initiation is partly dependent on motivational influences such as the anticipated benefit of the task, the perceived likelihood of success, and the costs associated with performing it. [[w:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] proposes that the expected outcomes and subjective value placed upon tasks by individuals heavily influence choice and persistence in relation to tasks (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). Similarly, self-efficacy theory proposes that individuals' efficacy expectations are a prominent determinant in relation to goal setting, task choice, effort expenditure, and persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Additionally, neurological theories such as the expected value of control (EVC) propose that the brain weighs anticipated rewards against the costs of cognitive exertion and allocates cognitive control accordingly, thus providing an additional explanation for why task initiation may be inhibited for demanding tasks even if they have been appraised as valuable and achievable (Shenhav et al., 2013). === Emotional barriers === Task initiation is also dependent on anticipatory emotions associated with the task. Aversion to negative emotional states has been shown to decrease the likelihood of task initiation (Sirois & Pychyl, 2013), and greater task aversiveness as a result of these emotions is associated with greater behavioural delay (Blunt & Pychyl, 2000). Negative emotions can arise as a result of individual tasks, and may also be further compounded by chronic dispositions such as [[w:Fear_of_negative_evaluation|fear of failure]] and [[w:Perfectionism_(psychology)|perfectionism]]. Individuals with high fear of failure and levels of perfectionism report greater experienced shame and embarrassment following failure (Sagar & Stoeber, 2009), potentially decreasing the likelihood of initiating similar tasks in the future. {{RoundBoxTop}}'''Case study: fictional scenario''' Stacy has recently started her first white-collar office job. During her second week, her manager asks here to prepare a short briefing for an upcoming client meeting, but gives little guidance as to what should be included and how it should be presented. Stacy is unsure what information to include, how detailed the briefing should be, or what format her manager expects. Due to her relative inexperience, she starts to doubt that she is going to be able to meet expectations, and is also concerned that making a mistake so early in her new job could create a poor impression of her abilities. Although Stacy intends to intends to begin the briefing, the combination of ambiguity, low-self efficacy, and fear of failure makes starting the task increasingly aversive. She repeatedly postpones starting, instead completing smaller and more familiar tasks such as responding to emails and organising files.{{RoundBoxBottom}} == Procrastination == Impaired task initiation is often associated with procrastination, defined as the voluntary delay of an intended course of action despite expecting negative consequences from that delay (Steel, 2007). Procrastination can be distinguished from impaired task initiation in that it is a specific form of delay in which intended actions are unnecessarily postponed despite foreseeable adverse consequences. Despite being defined as a voluntary choice, it is often examined and discussed in relation to failures of self-regulation, and thus may be heavily influenced by [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|emotional regulation]] processes. === Self-regulation === Steel (2007) identifies procrastination as a failure of self-regulation, with strong associative factors of task aversiveness, task delay, self-efficacy, and impulsiveness, as well as facets of conscientiousness such as self-control, distractibility, organisation, and achievement motivation. These effects are consistent with the prominent motivational explanation provided by [[w:Temporal_motivation_theory|temporal motivation theory]]. ==== Temporal motivation theory ==== Temporal motivation theory integrates several established approaches to motivation into a single mode, including [[w:Expectancy_theory|expectancy theory]] and other theories concerning delayed rewards (Steel & König, 2006). Central to the model is the idea that motivation changes over time, and a simplified form of the theory can be represented by the following formula: <math>Motivation = {Expectancy \times Value\over 1+Impulsiveness\times Delay}</math> In the model, the additional constructs of impulsiveness and delay are introduced to represent individual differences in sensitivity to delay and the amount of time remaining between an individual and an anticipated outcome, respectively. This formula provides critical insight into the nature of time on motivation: distant rewards or consequences typically exert less influence on current motivation. As deadlines approach and delay shrinks, motivation increases sharply, leading to a decrease in procrastination and an increase in the likelihood of initiating the deadline-bound task. However, as with task initiation, procrastination is also influenced by emotional factors. === Emotional regulation === Sirois and Pychyl (2013) argue that procrastination is used as short-term mood regulation and repair: temporarily avoiding an aversive task momentarily improves mood while transferring costs to the future self. This may produce a [[w:Reinforcement|negative reinforcement]] cycle, where the immediate relief provided by the avoidance of a negative emotion makes future avoidance more likely. The "[https://www.verywellmind.com/wall-of-awful-in-adhd-12000744 Wall of Awful]" is a popular metaphor often used to conceptualise an emotional barrier to task initiation that may accumulate as a result of these cycles. == Neurodevelopmental and psychiatric conditions == Various psychological and neurodevelopmental conditions are partly characterised by or may result in impaired task initiation. === Neurodevelopmental disorders === Individuals diagnosed with [[w:Neurodevelopmental_disorder|neurodevelopmental disorders]] such as [[w:Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder|attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder]] (ADHD) and [[w:Autism|autism spectrum disorder]] (ASD) often report difficulties with task initiation. Associations have consistently been found between ADHD symptoms and procrastination, particularly with inattention, and to a lesser extent with executive dysfunction, emotional dysregulation, and impaired motivational processes (Suriano, 2026). Executive dysfunction is also common in children and adolescents with autism, with difficulties indicated in areas including cognitive flexibility, attention, working memory, and inhibition (Ceruti et al., 2024); the term [https://autisticinertia.com/2019/10/researchers-view/ autistic inertia] has been used to specifically describe difficulties in task initiation in autism, with research showing that autistic individuals report increased difficulty in starting, stopping, and switching activities, even in instances where they intended or wanted to act but nevertheless experienced difficulty doing so (Buckle et al., 2021). === Psychiatric conditions === Individuals diagnosed with [[w:Mental_disorder|psychiatric disorders]] may also experience difficulties with task initiation, although the underlying mechanisms can differ from those associated with neurodevelopmental conditions. In [[w:Major_depressive_disorder|major depressive disorder]] (MDD), [[w:Anhedonia|anhedonia]] and chronically reduced motivation may contribute to impaired task initiation through a reduced willingness to expend cognitive and physical effort for rewards (Horne et al., 2021). [[w:Avolition|Avolition]], defined as a severe and persistent decrease in the ability to start and sustain self-directed goal-oriented activities, is considered an important negative symptom of [[w:Schizophrenia|schizophrenia]] (DeRosse et al., 2019). ==Improving task initiation == As difficulties with task initiation have been identified as arising from cognitive, motivational, and emotional factors, interventions aimed at improving task initiation are typically aimed at the specific mechanisms preventing action. === Cognitive strategies to improve task initiation === ==== Implementation intentions ==== [[w:Implementation_intention|Implementation intentions]] (also known as "if-then planning") are a self-regulatory strategy conceptualised by Peter Gollwitzer as a result of his earlier work alongside Heinz Heckhausen on the Rubicon model of action phases. Unlike goal intentions, which specify a desired outcome (e.g., "I want to improve my fitness"), implementation intentions specify the situational cues and subsequent behavioural response through which a goal will be pursued (e.g., "At 7:00 pm, I will go for a run"). Within the Rubicon model, implementation intentions are relevant to the transition between the pre-actional and actional phases. By linking situational cues to pre-planned responses, implementation intentions can improve task initiation by reducing reliance on conscious deliberation and turning goal-directed behaviour into a more streamlined, automatic process (Gollwitzer, 1999). ==== Task concretisation ==== Task concretisation is the process of deconstructing large, often abstract tasks into smaller, more concrete subtasks. As discussed previously, construal level theory highlights that low-level representations emphasise the specific means through which a task is carried out as opposed to its broader purpose (Trope & Liberman, 2010). Concretisation may therefore improve task initiation through improved task clarification, and has also been shown to reduce cognitive computational demands through the facilitation of easier planning while also preserving effective performance (Correa et al., 2023). ==== Cognitive offloading ==== [[File:ESEAP Strategy Summit Day 1 - Mehrdad reading a post-it note that will be posted on the Revenue Streams flipchart.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 3.''' Post-it notes being used as visible reminders.]] Cognitive offloading refers to the use of physical actions or external tools to decrease the cognitive demands associated with a task (Risko & Gilbert, 2016). By storing information in external cues rather than relying on cognitive processes such as working memory, the mental demands associated with organising and remembering to begin tasks may be reduced, thus improving task initiation. Examples of cognitive offloading include writing down information, setting alarms, and other visible reminders (see Figure 3). === Motivational strategies to improve task initiation === Both motivational models such as expectancy-value theory and neuroscientific models of cognitive-control allocation such as the expected value of control emphasise evaluations of potential value relative to costs. Similar principles appear in temporal motivation theory, in which motivation is influenced through expectancy, value, impulsiveness, and delay. Accordingly, strategies for increasing motivation and facilitating task initiation may involve increasing the perceived value of a task, increasing expectations of success, or reducing its perceived costs. Subjective task value may be increased by linking tasks to personally meaningful goals, interests, or future outcomes: research shows that encouraging students to connect specific academic tasks to personal interests or goals can lead to increased interest, engagement, and academic performance (Harackiewicz et al., 2014). Expectancy may be strengthened by setting smaller, achievable goals, as this provides clearer evidence of progress and attainment, which can strengthen perceptions of self-efficacy (Schunk, 1984). Finally, reducing perceived costs may involve the previously mentioned task concretisation, which reduces task complexity through clearer immediate subtasks, thus decreasing the initial cognitive demands required. === Emotional strategies to improve task initiation === As task avoidance and procrastination are often associated with attempts to regulate aversive emotions, strategies for improving task initiation may involve greater emotional acceptance and improved emotional regulation. Greater awareness and acceptance of emotional experiences has been associated with more adaptive emotional responding (Erisman & Roemer, 2010), while practising the tolerance and modification of aversive emotions has been shown to reduce procrastination (Eckert et al., 2016). Furthermore, Wohl et al. (2010) found that greater levels of self-reported self-forgiveness were associated with lower levels of future procrastination, which may be particularly important in disrupting negative reinforcement cycles. === Additional strategies and strategy integrations === ==== Environmental and social changes ==== Changes to an individual's environment may facilitate task initiation. Removing prominent distractions such as digital devices like phones, unrelated projects, unfinished chores, or other stimuli that compete for attention may decrease the inhibitory control required to focus on necessary tasks. Research indicates that even the presence of one's own smartphone may occupy cognitive resources, even when conscious attention is not being paid to it (Ward et al., 2017). Social strategies such as [https://www.simplypsychology.com/articles/body-doubling-adhd body doubling] are also often offered as a strategy to reduce procrastination, specifically in individuals with ADHD; however, direct evidence is limited, with the proposal relying primarily on anecdotal consensus. ==== Psychotherapeutic interventions ==== [[w:Cognitive_behavioral_therapy|Cognitive behavioural therapy]] (CBT) may be used to treat individuals who struggle with chronic procrastination, thus potentially improving overall task initiation. Rozental et al. (2018) found substantial reductions in procrastination following CBT interventions, suggesting that CBT may be an effective tool in managing procrastination. These interventions included techniques such as [[w:Psychoeducation|psychoeducation]], goal setting and [[w:Behavioral_activation|behavioural activation]], strategies to strengthen self-efficacy, stimulus control and distraction management, assertiveness training, and [[w:Cognitive_restructuring|cognitive restructuring]]. Overall, CBT functions as a broader therapeutic framework in which several previously discussed strategies to improving task initiation are integrated. == Conclusion == Task initiation is a higher-order executive function derived from core processes such as working memory, inhibition, and cognitive flexibility. Functional task initiation can be adversely affected through impairments of these areas, such as is common in neurodevelopmental disorders, as well as through various individual motivational and emotional factors. Various models and theories, such as the theory of planned behaviour, the Rubicon model of action phases, construal level theory, and temporal motivation theory are offered as explanations for how and why individuals may struggle to successfully convert goal-intentions into goal-directed behaviour. Strategies for improving task initiation therefore often reflect and address these underlying mechanisms. Implementation intentions, task concretisation, and cognitive offloading may decrease the intention-action gap, provide clearer first steps to initiating tasks, and reduce the mental effort to do so, respectively. Increasing the perceived value of tasks and their rewards, or decreasing the perceived costs, may address motivational issues, while practicing emotional acceptance and regulation may reduce avoidance as a result of emotional issues. Psychotherapeutic interventions such as cognitive behavioural therapy often integrate several of these approaches, and other minor strategies are also available to increase task initiation, such as environmental restructuring and body doubling. == See also == * ==References== {{Hanging indent|1=Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50(2), 179–211. doi.org/10.1016/0749-5978(91)90020-T Blunt, A. K., & Pychyl, T. A. (2000). Task aversiveness and procrastination: A multi-dimensional approach to task aversiveness across stages of personal projects. Personality and Individual Differences, 28(1), 153–167. doi.org/10.1016/s0191-8869(99)00091-4 Buckle, K. L., Leadbitter, K., Poliakoff, E., & Gowen, E. (2021). “No way out except from external intervention”: First-hand accounts of autistic inertia. Frontiers in Psychology, 12(63159). doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.631596 Ceruti, C., Mingozzi, A., Scionti, N., & Marzocchi, G. M. (2024). Comparing executive functions in children and adolescents with autism and ADHD—A systematic review and meta-analysis. Children, 11(4), 473. doi.org/10.3390/children11040473 Correa, C. G., Ho, M. K., Callaway, F., Daw, N. D., & Griffiths, T. L. (2023). Humans decompose tasks by trading off utility and computational cost. PLOS Computational Biology, 19(6), e1011087. doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1011087 DeRosse, P., Barber, A. D., Fales, C. L., & Malhotra, A. K. (2019). Deconstructing avolition: Initiation vs persistence of reward-directed effort. Psychiatry Research, 273, 647–652. doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2019.01.073 Diamond, A. (2013). Executive functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64(1), 135–168. doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750 Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153 Eckert, M., Ebert, D. D, Lehr, D., Sieland, B., & Berking, M. (2016). Overcome procrastination: Enhancing emotion regulation skills reduce procrastination. Learning and Individual Differences, 52, 10–18. doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2016.10.001 Erisman, S. M., & Roemer, L. (2010). A preliminary investigation of the effects of experimentally induced mindfulness on emotional responding to film clips. Emotion, 10(1), 72–82. doi.org/10.1037/a0017162 Gollwitzer, P. M. (1999). Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans. American Psychologist, 54(7), 493–503. doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.54.7.493 Harackiewicz, J. M., Tibbetts, Y., Canning, E. A., & Hyde, J. S. (2014). Harnessing values to promote motivation in education. In S. A. Karabenick & T. C. Urdan (Eds.), Motivational interventions (Vol. 18, pp. 71–105). Emerald Group Publishing Limited. doi.org/10.1108/S0749-742320140000018002 Heckhausen, H., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (1987). Thought contents and cognitive functioning in motivational versus volitional states of mind. Motivation and Emotion, 11(2), 101–120. doi.org/10.1007/bf00992338 Horne, S. J., Topp, T. E., & Quigley, L. (2021). Depression and the willingness to expend cognitive and physical effort for rewards: A systematic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 88, 102065. doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2021.102065 Risko, E. F., & Gilbert, S. J. (2016). Cognitive offloading. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 20(9), 676–688. doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2016.07.002 Rozental, A., Forsström, D., Lindner, P., Nilsson, S., Mårtensson, L., Rizzo, A., Andersson, G., & Carlbring, P. (2018). Treating procrastination using cognitive behavior therapy: A pragmatic randomized controlled trial comparing treatment delivered via the internet or in groups. Behavior Therapy, 49(2), 180–197. doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2017.08.002 Sagar, S. S., & Stoeber, J. (2009). Perfectionism, fear of failure, and affective responses to success and failure: The central role of fear of experiencing shame and embarrassment. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 31(5), 602–627. doi.org/10.1123/jsep.31.5.602 Schunk, D. H. (1984). Enhancing self-efficacy and achievement through rewards and goals: Motivational and informational effects. The Journal of Educational Research, 78(1), 29–34. doi.org/10.1080/00220671.1984.10885568 Shenhav, A., Botvinick, M. M., & Cohen, J. D. (2013). The expected value of control: An integrative theory of anterior cingulate cortex function. Neuron, 79(2), 217–240. doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2013.07.007 Sirois, F., & Pychyl, T. (2013). Procrastination and the priority of short-term mood regulation: Consequences for future self. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 7(2), 115–127. doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12011 Stead, R., Shanahan, M. J., & Neufeld, R. W. J. (2010). “I’ll go to therapy, eventually”: Procrastination, stress and mental health. Personality and Individual Differences, 49(3), 175–180. doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.03.028 Steel, P. (2007). The nature of procrastination: A meta-analytic and theoretical review of quintessential self-regulatory failure. Psychological Bulletin, 133(1), 65–94. doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.65 Steel, P., & König, C. J. (2006). Integrating theories of motivation. Academy of Management Review, 31(4), 889–913. doi.org/10.5465/amr.2006.22527462 Suriano, R. (2026). A systematic review on the association between ADHD and procrastination. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 175, 105342. doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2026.105342 Trope, Y., & Liberman, N. (2010). Construal-level theory of psychological distance. Psychological Review, 117(2), 440–463. doi.org/10.1037/a0018963 Ward, A. F., Duke, K., Gneezy, A., & Bos, M. W. (2017). Brain drain: The mere presence of one’s own smartphone reduces available cognitive capacity. Journal of the Association for Consumer Research, 2(2), 140–154. doi.org/10.1086/691462 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–value theory of achievement motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 68–81. doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 Wohl, M. J. A., Pychyl, T. A., & Bennett, S. H. (2010). I forgive myself, now I can study: How self-forgiveness for procrastinating can reduce future procrastination. Personality and Individual Differences, 48(7), 803–808. doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.01.029 }} == External links == *[https://www.simplypsychology.com/articles/body-doubling-adhd Body Doubling: The ADHD Productivity Strategy That Actually Works (2026)] (Simply Psychology) *[https://www.verywellmind.com/wall-of-awful-in-adhd-12000744 How the Wall of Awful Prevents Task Initiation in ADHD—and What Can Help You Push Through] (Verywell Mind) *[https://autisticinertia.com/2019/10/researchers-view/ Researchers' view of initiation in autism] (Autistic Inertia) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Goal pursuit]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Procrastination]] 5gl7mh0xzyunau8xnfx543wgrn8imav 2836505 2836497 2026-10-07T09:38:46Z U3286643 3106304 added image to case study 2836505 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Getting started:<br>Why is task initiation difficult and how to overcome it?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Scrolling on phone (cropped).jpg||thumb|right|150px|'''Figure 1.''' An individual scrolling on their phone]] ;Scenario John is a university student with an assignment that is due in five days which he has not started. Despite knowing that he needs to begin the assignment soon in order to have it completed by the due date, he finds the prospect of starting the assignment daunting, and so continues engaging in alternative activities, such as scrolling on social media, to avoid beginning the assignment (see Figure 1). John is struggling with task initiation and is using procrastination as a coping behaviour to manage his negative feelings associated with starting the assignment. {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[w:Executive_functions|Executive functions]] are a set of top-down cognitive processes that support goal-directed behaviour. Diamond (2013) identifies [[w:Inhibitory_control|inhibitory control]], [[w:Working_memory|working memory]], and [[w:Cognitive_flexibility|cognitive flexibility]] as the three core executive functions, with higher-order functions being derived from these, such as [[w:Reason|reasoning]], [[w:Problem_solving|problem solving]], and [[w:Planning|planning]]. However, there is no universally agreed-upon taxonomy due to differences in definitions, labels, and groupings across theoretical models. One proposed higher-order executive function is task initiation. Task initiation is the ability of an individual to begin a specific task at a desired time without unnecessary hesitation or delay. Task initiation can be inhibited by various cognitive, emotional, and motivational factors. For example, task initiation can quickly become difficult when tasks are associated with negative emotions such as anxiety, shame, or stress; when tasks fail to inspire motivation because they are perceived as low-priority or overly abstract; or when an individual experiences cognitive factors that impair executive functioning. Individuals who experience chronic difficulties with task initiation and [[w:Procrastination|procrastination]] may experience adverse outcomes such as greater stress and poorer mental health (Stead et al., 2010) as well as decreased performance in academic environments (Steel, 2007). Understanding the cognitive and psychological elements of task initiation and the various mechanisms underlying these domains can help to bolster task initiation in individuals, thus reducing the negative impact of impaired task initiation on individuals' lives. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What cognitive processes underlie task initiation? * How do motivational and emotional factors influence task initiation? * How is task initiation related to procrastination? * How can psychological disorders impair task initiation? * How can task initiation be improved? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Cognitive processes and theories == The core executive functions outline above collectively support successful task initiation. However, intention to initiate a task does not always translate into action, and cognitive models such as the [[w:Theory_of_planned_behavior|theory of planned behaviour]] (TPB) and the [[w:Rubicon_model|Rubicon model of action phases]] offer explanations for this discrepancy. === Theory of planned behaviour === [[File:Theory of planned behaviour.png|thumb|350x350px|'''Figure 2.''' Diagram of the Theory of Planned Behaviour ]] The theory of planned behaviour proposes that attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control jointly shape an individual's behavioural intention, which is then theorised to be the most immediate determinant of behaviour (Ajzen, 1991). However, perceived behavioural control - often conceptually related or compared to [[w:Self-efficacy|self-efficacy]] - is also stated as directly influencing behaviour due to the dependence of behaviour on whether an individual has sufficient control over performing it (see Figure 2), a relationship that is stated within the model as being strongest when perceived control reasonably reflects actual control. Thus, this can lead to an intention-action gap: favourable attitudes and supportive norms may generate an intention to begin a task, but insufficient perceived or actual behavioural control can prevent that intention from being translated into action. === Rubicon model of action phases === The Rubicon model of action phases divides the process from intention to action into four phases: pre-decisional (choosing between potential goals through weighing their feasibility and desirability), pre-actional (planning the implementation of the chosen goal), actional (executing the plan) and post-actional (evaluating outcomes against initial goals and subsequently adjusting future behaviour) (Heckhausen & Gollwitzer, 1987). The model therefore provides another framework for understanding the intention-action gap: after forming a goal intention, an individual may still fail to progress from the pre-actional to the actional phase, resulting in an intended behaviour that is not successfully initiated. === Construal level theory (CLT) === An additional cognitive factor influencing task initiation is mental representation. [[w:Construal_level_theory|Construal level theory]] is a psychological framework centred around the concept of [[w:Psychological_distance|psychological distance]], and it distinguishes between high-level, abstract representations and low-level, concrete representations. High-level representations revolve around task purpose, value, and reward, and may boost motivation, but also delay task initiation due to a lack of operational starting points; low-level representations alternatively emphasise practical and logistical steps (Trope & Liberman, 2010). As such, mentally representing a task in a less abstract manner may increase task initiation through making the immediate actions required to begin it more apparent. == Motivational and emotional barriers == Motivation and emotion are two psychological areas of study which both pertain to task initiation and may be examined to understand how and why task initiation can become difficult. === Motivational barriers === Task initiation is partly dependent on motivational influences such as the anticipated benefit of the task, the perceived likelihood of success, and the costs associated with performing it. [[w:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] proposes that the expected outcomes and subjective value placed upon tasks by individuals heavily influence choice and persistence in relation to tasks (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). Similarly, self-efficacy theory proposes that individuals' efficacy expectations are a prominent determinant in relation to goal setting, task choice, effort expenditure, and persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Additionally, neurological theories such as the expected value of control (EVC) propose that the brain weighs anticipated rewards against the costs of cognitive exertion and allocates cognitive control accordingly, thus providing an additional explanation for why task initiation may be inhibited for demanding tasks even if they have been appraised as valuable and achievable (Shenhav et al., 2013). === Emotional barriers === Task initiation is also dependent on anticipatory emotions associated with the task. Aversion to negative emotional states has been shown to decrease the likelihood of task initiation (Sirois & Pychyl, 2013), and greater task aversiveness as a result of these emotions is associated with greater behavioural delay (Blunt & Pychyl, 2000). Negative emotions can arise as a result of individual tasks, and may also be further compounded by chronic dispositions such as [[w:Fear_of_negative_evaluation|fear of failure]] and [[w:Perfectionism_(psychology)|perfectionism]]. Individuals with high fear of failure and levels of perfectionism report greater experienced shame and embarrassment following failure (Sagar & Stoeber, 2009), potentially decreasing the likelihood of initiating similar tasks in the future. {{RoundBoxTop}}'''Case study: fictional scenario''' Stacy has recently started her first white-collar office job. During her second week, her manager asks here to prepare a short briefing for an upcoming client meeting, but gives little guidance as to what should be included and how it should be presented. [[File:Corporate Woman Being Stressed at Work.svg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' Stacy grows stressed as she continually avoids starting the briefing]] Stacy is unsure what information to include, how detailed the briefing should be, or what format her manager expects. Due to her relative inexperience, she starts to doubt that she is going to be able to meet expectations, and is also concerned that making a mistake so early in her new job could create a poor impression of her abilities. Although Stacy intends to intends to begin the briefing, the combination of ambiguity, low-self efficacy, and fear of failure makes starting the task increasingly aversive. She repeatedly postpones starting, instead completing smaller and more familiar tasks such as responding to emails and organising files (see Figure 3).{{RoundBoxBottom}} == Procrastination == Impaired task initiation is often associated with procrastination, defined as the voluntary delay of an intended course of action despite expecting negative consequences from that delay (Steel, 2007). Procrastination can be distinguished from impaired task initiation in that it is a specific form of delay in which intended actions are unnecessarily postponed despite foreseeable adverse consequences. Despite being defined as a voluntary choice, it is often examined and discussed in relation to failures of self-regulation, and thus may be heavily influenced by [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|emotional regulation]] processes. === Self-regulation === Steel (2007) identifies procrastination as a failure of self-regulation, with strong associative factors of task aversiveness, task delay, self-efficacy, and impulsiveness, as well as facets of conscientiousness such as self-control, distractibility, organisation, and achievement motivation. These effects are consistent with the prominent motivational explanation provided by [[w:Temporal_motivation_theory|temporal motivation theory]]. ==== Temporal motivation theory ==== Temporal motivation theory integrates several established approaches to motivation into a single mode, including [[w:Expectancy_theory|expectancy theory]] and other theories concerning delayed rewards (Steel & König, 2006). Central to the model is the idea that motivation changes over time, and a simplified form of the theory can be represented by the following formula: <math>Motivation = {Expectancy \times Value\over 1+Impulsiveness\times Delay}</math> In the model, the additional constructs of impulsiveness and delay are introduced to represent individual differences in sensitivity to delay and the amount of time remaining between an individual and an anticipated outcome, respectively. This formula provides critical insight into the nature of time on motivation: distant rewards or consequences typically exert less influence on current motivation. As deadlines approach and delay shrinks, motivation increases sharply, leading to a decrease in procrastination and an increase in the likelihood of initiating the deadline-bound task. However, as with task initiation, procrastination is also influenced by emotional factors. === Emotional regulation === Sirois and Pychyl (2013) argue that procrastination is used as short-term mood regulation and repair: temporarily avoiding an aversive task momentarily improves mood while transferring costs to the future self. This may produce a [[w:Reinforcement|negative reinforcement]] cycle, where the immediate relief provided by the avoidance of a negative emotion makes future avoidance more likely. The "[https://www.verywellmind.com/wall-of-awful-in-adhd-12000744 Wall of Awful]" is a popular metaphor often used to conceptualise an emotional barrier to task initiation that may accumulate as a result of these cycles. == Neurodevelopmental and psychiatric conditions == Various psychological and neurodevelopmental conditions are partly characterised by or may result in impaired task initiation. === Neurodevelopmental disorders === Individuals diagnosed with [[w:Neurodevelopmental_disorder|neurodevelopmental disorders]] such as [[w:Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder|attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder]] (ADHD) and [[w:Autism|autism spectrum disorder]] (ASD) often report difficulties with task initiation. Associations have consistently been found between ADHD symptoms and procrastination, particularly with inattention, and to a lesser extent with executive dysfunction, emotional dysregulation, and impaired motivational processes (Suriano, 2026). Executive dysfunction is also common in children and adolescents with autism, with difficulties indicated in areas including cognitive flexibility, attention, working memory, and inhibition (Ceruti et al., 2024); the term [https://autisticinertia.com/2019/10/researchers-view/ autistic inertia] has been used to specifically describe difficulties in task initiation in autism, with research showing that autistic individuals report increased difficulty in starting, stopping, and switching activities, even in instances where they intended or wanted to act but nevertheless experienced difficulty doing so (Buckle et al., 2021). === Psychiatric conditions === Individuals diagnosed with [[w:Mental_disorder|psychiatric disorders]] may also experience difficulties with task initiation, although the underlying mechanisms can differ from those associated with neurodevelopmental conditions. In [[w:Major_depressive_disorder|major depressive disorder]] (MDD), [[w:Anhedonia|anhedonia]] and chronically reduced motivation may contribute to impaired task initiation through a reduced willingness to expend cognitive and physical effort for rewards (Horne et al., 2021). [[w:Avolition|Avolition]], defined as a severe and persistent decrease in the ability to start and sustain self-directed goal-oriented activities, is considered an important negative symptom of [[w:Schizophrenia|schizophrenia]] (DeRosse et al., 2019). ==Improving task initiation == As difficulties with task initiation have been identified as arising from cognitive, motivational, and emotional factors, interventions aimed at improving task initiation are typically aimed at the specific mechanisms preventing action. === Cognitive strategies to improve task initiation === ==== Implementation intentions ==== [[w:Implementation_intention|Implementation intentions]] (also known as "if-then planning") are a self-regulatory strategy conceptualised by Peter Gollwitzer as a result of his earlier work alongside Heinz Heckhausen on the Rubicon model of action phases. Unlike goal intentions, which specify a desired outcome (e.g., "I want to improve my fitness"), implementation intentions specify the situational cues and subsequent behavioural response through which a goal will be pursued (e.g., "At 7:00 pm, I will go for a run"). Within the Rubicon model, implementation intentions are relevant to the transition between the pre-actional and actional phases. By linking situational cues to pre-planned responses, implementation intentions can improve task initiation by reducing reliance on conscious deliberation and turning goal-directed behaviour into a more streamlined, automatic process (Gollwitzer, 1999). ==== Task concretisation ==== Task concretisation is the process of deconstructing large, often abstract tasks into smaller, more concrete subtasks. As discussed previously, construal level theory highlights that low-level representations emphasise the specific means through which a task is carried out as opposed to its broader purpose (Trope & Liberman, 2010). Concretisation may therefore improve task initiation through improved task clarification, and has also been shown to reduce cognitive computational demands through the facilitation of easier planning while also preserving effective performance (Correa et al., 2023). ==== Cognitive offloading ==== [[File:ESEAP Strategy Summit Day 1 - Mehrdad reading a post-it note that will be posted on the Revenue Streams flipchart.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 4.''' Post-it notes being used as visible reminders.]] Cognitive offloading refers to the use of physical actions or external tools to decrease the cognitive demands associated with a task (Risko & Gilbert, 2016). By storing information in external cues rather than relying on cognitive processes such as working memory, the mental demands associated with organising and remembering to begin tasks may be reduced, thus improving task initiation. Examples of cognitive offloading include writing down information, setting alarms, and other visible reminders (see Figure 4). === Motivational strategies to improve task initiation === Both motivational models such as expectancy-value theory and neuroscientific models of cognitive-control allocation such as the expected value of control emphasise evaluations of potential value relative to costs. Similar principles appear in temporal motivation theory, in which motivation is influenced through expectancy, value, impulsiveness, and delay. Accordingly, strategies for increasing motivation and facilitating task initiation may involve increasing the perceived value of a task, increasing expectations of success, or reducing its perceived costs. Subjective task value may be increased by linking tasks to personally meaningful goals, interests, or future outcomes: research shows that encouraging students to connect specific academic tasks to personal interests or goals can lead to increased interest, engagement, and academic performance (Harackiewicz et al., 2014). Expectancy may be strengthened by setting smaller, achievable goals, as this provides clearer evidence of progress and attainment, which can strengthen perceptions of self-efficacy (Schunk, 1984). Finally, reducing perceived costs may involve the previously mentioned task concretisation, which reduces task complexity through clearer immediate subtasks, thus decreasing the initial cognitive demands required. === Emotional strategies to improve task initiation === As task avoidance and procrastination are often associated with attempts to regulate aversive emotions, strategies for improving task initiation may involve greater emotional acceptance and improved emotional regulation. Greater awareness and acceptance of emotional experiences has been associated with more adaptive emotional responding (Erisman & Roemer, 2010), while practising the tolerance and modification of aversive emotions has been shown to reduce procrastination (Eckert et al., 2016). Furthermore, Wohl et al. (2010) found that greater levels of self-reported self-forgiveness were associated with lower levels of future procrastination, which may be particularly important in disrupting negative reinforcement cycles. === Additional strategies and strategy integrations === ==== Environmental and social changes ==== Changes to an individual's environment may facilitate task initiation. Removing prominent distractions such as digital devices like phones, unrelated projects, unfinished chores, or other stimuli that compete for attention may decrease the inhibitory control required to focus on necessary tasks. Research indicates that even the presence of one's own smartphone may occupy cognitive resources, even when conscious attention is not being paid to it (Ward et al., 2017). Social strategies such as [https://www.simplypsychology.com/articles/body-doubling-adhd body doubling] are also often offered as a strategy to reduce procrastination, specifically in individuals with ADHD; however, direct evidence is limited, with the proposal relying primarily on anecdotal consensus. ==== Psychotherapeutic interventions ==== [[w:Cognitive_behavioral_therapy|Cognitive behavioural therapy]] (CBT) may be used to treat individuals who struggle with chronic procrastination, thus potentially improving overall task initiation. Rozental et al. (2018) found substantial reductions in procrastination following CBT interventions, suggesting that CBT may be an effective tool in managing procrastination. These interventions included techniques such as [[w:Psychoeducation|psychoeducation]], goal setting and [[w:Behavioral_activation|behavioural activation]], strategies to strengthen self-efficacy, stimulus control and distraction management, assertiveness training, and [[w:Cognitive_restructuring|cognitive restructuring]]. Overall, CBT functions as a broader therapeutic framework in which several previously discussed strategies to improving task initiation are integrated. == Conclusion == Task initiation is a higher-order executive function derived from core processes such as working memory, inhibition, and cognitive flexibility. Functional task initiation can be adversely affected through impairments of these areas, such as is common in neurodevelopmental disorders, as well as through various individual motivational and emotional factors. Various models and theories, such as the theory of planned behaviour, the Rubicon model of action phases, construal level theory, and temporal motivation theory are offered as explanations for how and why individuals may struggle to successfully convert goal-intentions into goal-directed behaviour. Strategies for improving task initiation therefore often reflect and address these underlying mechanisms. Implementation intentions, task concretisation, and cognitive offloading may decrease the intention-action gap, provide clearer first steps to initiating tasks, and reduce the mental effort to do so, respectively. Increasing the perceived value of tasks and their rewards, or decreasing the perceived costs, may address motivational issues, while practicing emotional acceptance and regulation may reduce avoidance as a result of emotional issues. Psychotherapeutic interventions such as cognitive behavioural therapy often integrate several of these approaches, and other minor strategies are also available to increase task initiation, such as environmental restructuring and body doubling. == See also == * ==References== {{Hanging indent|1=Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50(2), 179–211. doi.org/10.1016/0749-5978(91)90020-T Blunt, A. K., & Pychyl, T. A. (2000). Task aversiveness and procrastination: A multi-dimensional approach to task aversiveness across stages of personal projects. Personality and Individual Differences, 28(1), 153–167. doi.org/10.1016/s0191-8869(99)00091-4 Buckle, K. L., Leadbitter, K., Poliakoff, E., & Gowen, E. (2021). “No way out except from external intervention”: First-hand accounts of autistic inertia. Frontiers in Psychology, 12(63159). doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.631596 Ceruti, C., Mingozzi, A., Scionti, N., & Marzocchi, G. M. (2024). Comparing executive functions in children and adolescents with autism and ADHD—A systematic review and meta-analysis. Children, 11(4), 473. doi.org/10.3390/children11040473 Correa, C. G., Ho, M. K., Callaway, F., Daw, N. D., & Griffiths, T. L. (2023). Humans decompose tasks by trading off utility and computational cost. PLOS Computational Biology, 19(6), e1011087. doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1011087 DeRosse, P., Barber, A. D., Fales, C. L., & Malhotra, A. K. (2019). Deconstructing avolition: Initiation vs persistence of reward-directed effort. Psychiatry Research, 273, 647–652. doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2019.01.073 Diamond, A. (2013). Executive functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64(1), 135–168. doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750 Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153 Eckert, M., Ebert, D. D, Lehr, D., Sieland, B., & Berking, M. (2016). Overcome procrastination: Enhancing emotion regulation skills reduce procrastination. Learning and Individual Differences, 52, 10–18. doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2016.10.001 Erisman, S. M., & Roemer, L. (2010). A preliminary investigation of the effects of experimentally induced mindfulness on emotional responding to film clips. Emotion, 10(1), 72–82. doi.org/10.1037/a0017162 Gollwitzer, P. M. (1999). Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans. American Psychologist, 54(7), 493–503. doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.54.7.493 Harackiewicz, J. M., Tibbetts, Y., Canning, E. A., & Hyde, J. S. (2014). Harnessing values to promote motivation in education. In S. A. Karabenick & T. C. Urdan (Eds.), Motivational interventions (Vol. 18, pp. 71–105). Emerald Group Publishing Limited. doi.org/10.1108/S0749-742320140000018002 Heckhausen, H., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (1987). Thought contents and cognitive functioning in motivational versus volitional states of mind. Motivation and Emotion, 11(2), 101–120. doi.org/10.1007/bf00992338 Horne, S. J., Topp, T. E., & Quigley, L. (2021). Depression and the willingness to expend cognitive and physical effort for rewards: A systematic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 88, 102065. doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2021.102065 Risko, E. F., & Gilbert, S. J. (2016). Cognitive offloading. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 20(9), 676–688. doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2016.07.002 Rozental, A., Forsström, D., Lindner, P., Nilsson, S., Mårtensson, L., Rizzo, A., Andersson, G., & Carlbring, P. (2018). Treating procrastination using cognitive behavior therapy: A pragmatic randomized controlled trial comparing treatment delivered via the internet or in groups. Behavior Therapy, 49(2), 180–197. doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2017.08.002 Sagar, S. S., & Stoeber, J. (2009). Perfectionism, fear of failure, and affective responses to success and failure: The central role of fear of experiencing shame and embarrassment. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 31(5), 602–627. doi.org/10.1123/jsep.31.5.602 Schunk, D. H. (1984). Enhancing self-efficacy and achievement through rewards and goals: Motivational and informational effects. The Journal of Educational Research, 78(1), 29–34. doi.org/10.1080/00220671.1984.10885568 Shenhav, A., Botvinick, M. M., & Cohen, J. D. (2013). The expected value of control: An integrative theory of anterior cingulate cortex function. Neuron, 79(2), 217–240. doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2013.07.007 Sirois, F., & Pychyl, T. (2013). Procrastination and the priority of short-term mood regulation: Consequences for future self. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 7(2), 115–127. doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12011 Stead, R., Shanahan, M. J., & Neufeld, R. W. J. (2010). “I’ll go to therapy, eventually”: Procrastination, stress and mental health. Personality and Individual Differences, 49(3), 175–180. doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.03.028 Steel, P. (2007). The nature of procrastination: A meta-analytic and theoretical review of quintessential self-regulatory failure. Psychological Bulletin, 133(1), 65–94. doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.65 Steel, P., & König, C. J. (2006). Integrating theories of motivation. Academy of Management Review, 31(4), 889–913. doi.org/10.5465/amr.2006.22527462 Suriano, R. (2026). A systematic review on the association between ADHD and procrastination. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 175, 105342. doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2026.105342 Trope, Y., & Liberman, N. (2010). Construal-level theory of psychological distance. Psychological Review, 117(2), 440–463. doi.org/10.1037/a0018963 Ward, A. F., Duke, K., Gneezy, A., & Bos, M. W. (2017). Brain drain: The mere presence of one’s own smartphone reduces available cognitive capacity. Journal of the Association for Consumer Research, 2(2), 140–154. doi.org/10.1086/691462 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–value theory of achievement motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 68–81. doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 Wohl, M. J. A., Pychyl, T. A., & Bennett, S. H. (2010). I forgive myself, now I can study: How self-forgiveness for procrastinating can reduce future procrastination. Personality and Individual Differences, 48(7), 803–808. doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.01.029 }} == External links == *[https://www.simplypsychology.com/articles/body-doubling-adhd Body Doubling: The ADHD Productivity Strategy That Actually Works (2026)] (Simply Psychology) *[https://www.verywellmind.com/wall-of-awful-in-adhd-12000744 How the Wall of Awful Prevents Task Initiation in ADHD—and What Can Help You Push Through] (Verywell Mind) *[https://autisticinertia.com/2019/10/researchers-view/ Researchers' view of initiation in autism] (Autistic Inertia) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Goal pursuit]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Procrastination]] 14ii1k5wc0fpg8z08lfempxf4nppam4 2836506 2836505 2026-10-07T09:40:37Z U3286643 3106304 fixed figure title 2836506 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Getting started:<br>Why is task initiation difficult and how to overcome it?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Scrolling on phone (cropped).jpg||thumb|right|150px|'''Figure 1.''' An individual scrolling on their phone]] ;Scenario John is a university student with an assignment that is due in five days which he has not started. Despite knowing that he needs to begin the assignment soon in order to have it completed by the due date, he finds the prospect of starting the assignment daunting, and so continues engaging in alternative activities, such as scrolling on social media, to avoid beginning the assignment (see Figure 1). John is struggling with task initiation and is using procrastination as a coping behaviour to manage his negative feelings associated with starting the assignment. {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[w:Executive_functions|Executive functions]] are a set of top-down cognitive processes that support goal-directed behaviour. Diamond (2013) identifies [[w:Inhibitory_control|inhibitory control]], [[w:Working_memory|working memory]], and [[w:Cognitive_flexibility|cognitive flexibility]] as the three core executive functions, with higher-order functions being derived from these, such as [[w:Reason|reasoning]], [[w:Problem_solving|problem solving]], and [[w:Planning|planning]]. However, there is no universally agreed-upon taxonomy due to differences in definitions, labels, and groupings across theoretical models. One proposed higher-order executive function is task initiation. Task initiation is the ability of an individual to begin a specific task at a desired time without unnecessary hesitation or delay. Task initiation can be inhibited by various cognitive, emotional, and motivational factors. For example, task initiation can quickly become difficult when tasks are associated with negative emotions such as anxiety, shame, or stress; when tasks fail to inspire motivation because they are perceived as low-priority or overly abstract; or when an individual experiences cognitive factors that impair executive functioning. Individuals who experience chronic difficulties with task initiation and [[w:Procrastination|procrastination]] may experience adverse outcomes such as greater stress and poorer mental health (Stead et al., 2010) as well as decreased performance in academic environments (Steel, 2007). Understanding the cognitive and psychological elements of task initiation and the various mechanisms underlying these domains can help to bolster task initiation in individuals, thus reducing the negative impact of impaired task initiation on individuals' lives. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What cognitive processes underlie task initiation? * How do motivational and emotional factors influence task initiation? * How is task initiation related to procrastination? * How can psychological disorders impair task initiation? * How can task initiation be improved? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Cognitive processes and theories == The core executive functions outline above collectively support successful task initiation. However, intention to initiate a task does not always translate into action, and cognitive models such as the [[w:Theory_of_planned_behavior|theory of planned behaviour]] (TPB) and the [[w:Rubicon_model|Rubicon model of action phases]] offer explanations for this discrepancy. === Theory of planned behaviour === [[File:Theory of planned behaviour.png|thumb|350x350px|'''Figure 2.''' Diagram of the Theory of Planned Behaviour ]] The theory of planned behaviour proposes that attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control jointly shape an individual's behavioural intention, which is then theorised to be the most immediate determinant of behaviour (Ajzen, 1991). However, perceived behavioural control - often conceptually related or compared to [[w:Self-efficacy|self-efficacy]] - is also stated as directly influencing behaviour due to the dependence of behaviour on whether an individual has sufficient control over performing it (see Figure 2), a relationship that is stated within the model as being strongest when perceived control reasonably reflects actual control. Thus, this can lead to an intention-action gap: favourable attitudes and supportive norms may generate an intention to begin a task, but insufficient perceived or actual behavioural control can prevent that intention from being translated into action. === Rubicon model of action phases === The Rubicon model of action phases divides the process from intention to action into four phases: pre-decisional (choosing between potential goals through weighing their feasibility and desirability), pre-actional (planning the implementation of the chosen goal), actional (executing the plan) and post-actional (evaluating outcomes against initial goals and subsequently adjusting future behaviour) (Heckhausen & Gollwitzer, 1987). The model therefore provides another framework for understanding the intention-action gap: after forming a goal intention, an individual may still fail to progress from the pre-actional to the actional phase, resulting in an intended behaviour that is not successfully initiated. === Construal level theory (CLT) === An additional cognitive factor influencing task initiation is mental representation. [[w:Construal_level_theory|Construal level theory]] is a psychological framework centred around the concept of [[w:Psychological_distance|psychological distance]], and it distinguishes between high-level, abstract representations and low-level, concrete representations. High-level representations revolve around task purpose, value, and reward, and may boost motivation, but also delay task initiation due to a lack of operational starting points; low-level representations alternatively emphasise practical and logistical steps (Trope & Liberman, 2010). As such, mentally representing a task in a less abstract manner may increase task initiation through making the immediate actions required to begin it more apparent. == Motivational and emotional barriers == Motivation and emotion are two psychological areas of study which both pertain to task initiation and may be examined to understand how and why task initiation can become difficult. === Motivational barriers === Task initiation is partly dependent on motivational influences such as the anticipated benefit of the task, the perceived likelihood of success, and the costs associated with performing it. [[w:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] proposes that the expected outcomes and subjective value placed upon tasks by individuals heavily influence choice and persistence in relation to tasks (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). Similarly, self-efficacy theory proposes that individuals' efficacy expectations are a prominent determinant in relation to goal setting, task choice, effort expenditure, and persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Additionally, neurological theories such as the expected value of control (EVC) propose that the brain weighs anticipated rewards against the costs of cognitive exertion and allocates cognitive control accordingly, thus providing an additional explanation for why task initiation may be inhibited for demanding tasks even if they have been appraised as valuable and achievable (Shenhav et al., 2013). === Emotional barriers === Task initiation is also dependent on anticipatory emotions associated with the task. Aversion to negative emotional states has been shown to decrease the likelihood of task initiation (Sirois & Pychyl, 2013), and greater task aversiveness as a result of these emotions is associated with greater behavioural delay (Blunt & Pychyl, 2000). Negative emotions can arise as a result of individual tasks, and may also be further compounded by chronic dispositions such as [[w:Fear_of_negative_evaluation|fear of failure]] and [[w:Perfectionism_(psychology)|perfectionism]]. Individuals with high fear of failure and levels of perfectionism report greater experienced shame and embarrassment following failure (Sagar & Stoeber, 2009), potentially decreasing the likelihood of initiating similar tasks in the future. {{RoundBoxTop}}'''Case study: fictional scenario''' Stacy has recently started her first white-collar office job. During her second week, her manager asks here to prepare a short briefing for an upcoming client meeting, but gives little guidance as to what should be included and how it should be presented. [[File:Corporate Woman Being Stressed at Work.svg|thumb|'''Figure 3.''' Stacy grows stressed as she continually avoids starting the briefing]] Stacy is unsure what information to include, how detailed the briefing should be, or what format her manager expects. Due to her relative inexperience, she starts to doubt that she is going to be able to meet expectations, and is also concerned that making a mistake so early in her new job could create a poor impression of her abilities. Although Stacy intends to intends to begin the briefing, the combination of ambiguity, low-self efficacy, and fear of failure makes starting the task increasingly aversive. She repeatedly postpones starting, instead completing smaller and more familiar tasks such as responding to emails and organising files (see Figure 3).{{RoundBoxBottom}} == Procrastination == Impaired task initiation is often associated with procrastination, defined as the voluntary delay of an intended course of action despite expecting negative consequences from that delay (Steel, 2007). Procrastination can be distinguished from impaired task initiation in that it is a specific form of delay in which intended actions are unnecessarily postponed despite foreseeable adverse consequences. Despite being defined as a voluntary choice, it is often examined and discussed in relation to failures of self-regulation, and thus may be heavily influenced by [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|emotional regulation]] processes. === Self-regulation === Steel (2007) identifies procrastination as a failure of self-regulation, with strong associative factors of task aversiveness, task delay, self-efficacy, and impulsiveness, as well as facets of conscientiousness such as self-control, distractibility, organisation, and achievement motivation. These effects are consistent with the prominent motivational explanation provided by [[w:Temporal_motivation_theory|temporal motivation theory]]. ==== Temporal motivation theory ==== Temporal motivation theory integrates several established approaches to motivation into a single mode, including [[w:Expectancy_theory|expectancy theory]] and other theories concerning delayed rewards (Steel & König, 2006). Central to the model is the idea that motivation changes over time, and a simplified form of the theory can be represented by the following formula: <math>Motivation = {Expectancy \times Value\over 1+Impulsiveness\times Delay}</math> In the model, the additional constructs of impulsiveness and delay are introduced to represent individual differences in sensitivity to delay and the amount of time remaining between an individual and an anticipated outcome, respectively. This formula provides critical insight into the nature of time on motivation: distant rewards or consequences typically exert less influence on current motivation. As deadlines approach and delay shrinks, motivation increases sharply, leading to a decrease in procrastination and an increase in the likelihood of initiating the deadline-bound task. However, as with task initiation, procrastination is also influenced by emotional factors. === Emotional regulation === Sirois and Pychyl (2013) argue that procrastination is used as short-term mood regulation and repair: temporarily avoiding an aversive task momentarily improves mood while transferring costs to the future self. This may produce a [[w:Reinforcement|negative reinforcement]] cycle, where the immediate relief provided by the avoidance of a negative emotion makes future avoidance more likely. The "[https://www.verywellmind.com/wall-of-awful-in-adhd-12000744 Wall of Awful]" is a popular metaphor often used to conceptualise an emotional barrier to task initiation that may accumulate as a result of these cycles. == Neurodevelopmental and psychiatric conditions == Various psychological and neurodevelopmental conditions are partly characterised by or may result in impaired task initiation. === Neurodevelopmental disorders === Individuals diagnosed with [[w:Neurodevelopmental_disorder|neurodevelopmental disorders]] such as [[w:Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder|attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder]] (ADHD) and [[w:Autism|autism spectrum disorder]] (ASD) often report difficulties with task initiation. Associations have consistently been found between ADHD symptoms and procrastination, particularly with inattention, and to a lesser extent with executive dysfunction, emotional dysregulation, and impaired motivational processes (Suriano, 2026). Executive dysfunction is also common in children and adolescents with autism, with difficulties indicated in areas including cognitive flexibility, attention, working memory, and inhibition (Ceruti et al., 2024); the term [https://autisticinertia.com/2019/10/researchers-view/ autistic inertia] has been used to specifically describe difficulties in task initiation in autism, with research showing that autistic individuals report increased difficulty in starting, stopping, and switching activities, even in instances where they intended or wanted to act but nevertheless experienced difficulty doing so (Buckle et al., 2021). === Psychiatric conditions === Individuals diagnosed with [[w:Mental_disorder|psychiatric disorders]] may also experience difficulties with task initiation, although the underlying mechanisms can differ from those associated with neurodevelopmental conditions. In [[w:Major_depressive_disorder|major depressive disorder]] (MDD), [[w:Anhedonia|anhedonia]] and chronically reduced motivation may contribute to impaired task initiation through a reduced willingness to expend cognitive and physical effort for rewards (Horne et al., 2021). [[w:Avolition|Avolition]], defined as a severe and persistent decrease in the ability to start and sustain self-directed goal-oriented activities, is considered an important negative symptom of [[w:Schizophrenia|schizophrenia]] (DeRosse et al., 2019). ==Improving task initiation == As difficulties with task initiation have been identified as arising from cognitive, motivational, and emotional factors, interventions aimed at improving task initiation are typically aimed at the specific mechanisms preventing action. === Cognitive strategies to improve task initiation === ==== Implementation intentions ==== [[w:Implementation_intention|Implementation intentions]] (also known as "if-then planning") are a self-regulatory strategy conceptualised by Peter Gollwitzer as a result of his earlier work alongside Heinz Heckhausen on the Rubicon model of action phases. Unlike goal intentions, which specify a desired outcome (e.g., "I want to improve my fitness"), implementation intentions specify the situational cues and subsequent behavioural response through which a goal will be pursued (e.g., "At 7:00 pm, I will go for a run"). Within the Rubicon model, implementation intentions are relevant to the transition between the pre-actional and actional phases. By linking situational cues to pre-planned responses, implementation intentions can improve task initiation by reducing reliance on conscious deliberation and turning goal-directed behaviour into a more streamlined, automatic process (Gollwitzer, 1999). ==== Task concretisation ==== Task concretisation is the process of deconstructing large, often abstract tasks into smaller, more concrete subtasks. As discussed previously, construal level theory highlights that low-level representations emphasise the specific means through which a task is carried out as opposed to its broader purpose (Trope & Liberman, 2010). Concretisation may therefore improve task initiation through improved task clarification, and has also been shown to reduce cognitive computational demands through the facilitation of easier planning while also preserving effective performance (Correa et al., 2023). ==== Cognitive offloading ==== [[File:ESEAP Strategy Summit Day 1 - Mehrdad reading a post-it note that will be posted on the Revenue Streams flipchart.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 4.''' Post-it notes being used as visible reminders.|200x200px]] Cognitive offloading refers to the use of physical actions or external tools to decrease the cognitive demands associated with a task (Risko & Gilbert, 2016). By storing information in external cues rather than relying on cognitive processes such as working memory, the mental demands associated with organising and remembering to begin tasks may be reduced, thus improving task initiation. Examples of cognitive offloading include writing down information, setting alarms, and other visible reminders (see Figure 4). === Motivational strategies to improve task initiation === Both motivational models such as expectancy-value theory and neuroscientific models of cognitive-control allocation such as the expected value of control emphasise evaluations of potential value relative to costs. Similar principles appear in temporal motivation theory, in which motivation is influenced through expectancy, value, impulsiveness, and delay. Accordingly, strategies for increasing motivation and facilitating task initiation may involve increasing the perceived value of a task, increasing expectations of success, or reducing its perceived costs. Subjective task value may be increased by linking tasks to personally meaningful goals, interests, or future outcomes: research shows that encouraging students to connect specific academic tasks to personal interests or goals can lead to increased interest, engagement, and academic performance (Harackiewicz et al., 2014). Expectancy may be strengthened by setting smaller, achievable goals, as this provides clearer evidence of progress and attainment, which can strengthen perceptions of self-efficacy (Schunk, 1984). Finally, reducing perceived costs may involve the previously mentioned task concretisation, which reduces task complexity through clearer immediate subtasks, thus decreasing the initial cognitive demands required. === Emotional strategies to improve task initiation === As task avoidance and procrastination are often associated with attempts to regulate aversive emotions, strategies for improving task initiation may involve greater emotional acceptance and improved emotional regulation. Greater awareness and acceptance of emotional experiences has been associated with more adaptive emotional responding (Erisman & Roemer, 2010), while practising the tolerance and modification of aversive emotions has been shown to reduce procrastination (Eckert et al., 2016). Furthermore, Wohl et al. (2010) found that greater levels of self-reported self-forgiveness were associated with lower levels of future procrastination, which may be particularly important in disrupting negative reinforcement cycles. === Additional strategies and strategy integrations === ==== Environmental and social changes ==== Changes to an individual's environment may facilitate task initiation. Removing prominent distractions such as digital devices like phones, unrelated projects, unfinished chores, or other stimuli that compete for attention may decrease the inhibitory control required to focus on necessary tasks. Research indicates that even the presence of one's own smartphone may occupy cognitive resources, even when conscious attention is not being paid to it (Ward et al., 2017). Social strategies such as [https://www.simplypsychology.com/articles/body-doubling-adhd body doubling] are also often offered as a strategy to reduce procrastination, specifically in individuals with ADHD; however, direct evidence is limited, with the proposal relying primarily on anecdotal consensus. ==== Psychotherapeutic interventions ==== [[w:Cognitive_behavioral_therapy|Cognitive behavioural therapy]] (CBT) may be used to treat individuals who struggle with chronic procrastination, thus potentially improving overall task initiation. Rozental et al. (2018) found substantial reductions in procrastination following CBT interventions, suggesting that CBT may be an effective tool in managing procrastination. These interventions included techniques such as [[w:Psychoeducation|psychoeducation]], goal setting and [[w:Behavioral_activation|behavioural activation]], strategies to strengthen self-efficacy, stimulus control and distraction management, assertiveness training, and [[w:Cognitive_restructuring|cognitive restructuring]]. Overall, CBT functions as a broader therapeutic framework in which several previously discussed strategies to improving task initiation are integrated. == Conclusion == Task initiation is a higher-order executive function derived from core processes such as working memory, inhibition, and cognitive flexibility. Functional task initiation can be adversely affected through impairments of these areas, such as is common in neurodevelopmental disorders, as well as through various individual motivational and emotional factors. Various models and theories, such as the theory of planned behaviour, the Rubicon model of action phases, construal level theory, and temporal motivation theory are offered as explanations for how and why individuals may struggle to successfully convert goal-intentions into goal-directed behaviour. Strategies for improving task initiation therefore often reflect and address these underlying mechanisms. Implementation intentions, task concretisation, and cognitive offloading may decrease the intention-action gap, provide clearer first steps to initiating tasks, and reduce the mental effort to do so, respectively. Increasing the perceived value of tasks and their rewards, or decreasing the perceived costs, may address motivational issues, while practicing emotional acceptance and regulation may reduce avoidance as a result of emotional issues. Psychotherapeutic interventions such as cognitive behavioural therapy often integrate several of these approaches, and other minor strategies are also available to increase task initiation, such as environmental restructuring and body doubling. == See also == * ==References== {{Hanging indent|1=Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50(2), 179–211. doi.org/10.1016/0749-5978(91)90020-T Blunt, A. K., & Pychyl, T. A. (2000). Task aversiveness and procrastination: A multi-dimensional approach to task aversiveness across stages of personal projects. Personality and Individual Differences, 28(1), 153–167. doi.org/10.1016/s0191-8869(99)00091-4 Buckle, K. L., Leadbitter, K., Poliakoff, E., & Gowen, E. (2021). “No way out except from external intervention”: First-hand accounts of autistic inertia. Frontiers in Psychology, 12(63159). doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.631596 Ceruti, C., Mingozzi, A., Scionti, N., & Marzocchi, G. M. (2024). Comparing executive functions in children and adolescents with autism and ADHD—A systematic review and meta-analysis. Children, 11(4), 473. doi.org/10.3390/children11040473 Correa, C. G., Ho, M. K., Callaway, F., Daw, N. D., & Griffiths, T. L. (2023). Humans decompose tasks by trading off utility and computational cost. PLOS Computational Biology, 19(6), e1011087. doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1011087 DeRosse, P., Barber, A. D., Fales, C. L., & Malhotra, A. K. (2019). Deconstructing avolition: Initiation vs persistence of reward-directed effort. Psychiatry Research, 273, 647–652. doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2019.01.073 Diamond, A. (2013). Executive functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64(1), 135–168. doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750 Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153 Eckert, M., Ebert, D. D, Lehr, D., Sieland, B., & Berking, M. (2016). Overcome procrastination: Enhancing emotion regulation skills reduce procrastination. Learning and Individual Differences, 52, 10–18. doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2016.10.001 Erisman, S. M., & Roemer, L. (2010). A preliminary investigation of the effects of experimentally induced mindfulness on emotional responding to film clips. Emotion, 10(1), 72–82. doi.org/10.1037/a0017162 Gollwitzer, P. M. (1999). Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans. American Psychologist, 54(7), 493–503. doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.54.7.493 Harackiewicz, J. M., Tibbetts, Y., Canning, E. A., & Hyde, J. S. (2014). Harnessing values to promote motivation in education. In S. A. Karabenick & T. C. Urdan (Eds.), Motivational interventions (Vol. 18, pp. 71–105). Emerald Group Publishing Limited. doi.org/10.1108/S0749-742320140000018002 Heckhausen, H., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (1987). Thought contents and cognitive functioning in motivational versus volitional states of mind. Motivation and Emotion, 11(2), 101–120. doi.org/10.1007/bf00992338 Horne, S. J., Topp, T. E., & Quigley, L. (2021). Depression and the willingness to expend cognitive and physical effort for rewards: A systematic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 88, 102065. doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2021.102065 Risko, E. F., & Gilbert, S. J. (2016). Cognitive offloading. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 20(9), 676–688. doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2016.07.002 Rozental, A., Forsström, D., Lindner, P., Nilsson, S., Mårtensson, L., Rizzo, A., Andersson, G., & Carlbring, P. (2018). Treating procrastination using cognitive behavior therapy: A pragmatic randomized controlled trial comparing treatment delivered via the internet or in groups. Behavior Therapy, 49(2), 180–197. doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2017.08.002 Sagar, S. S., & Stoeber, J. (2009). Perfectionism, fear of failure, and affective responses to success and failure: The central role of fear of experiencing shame and embarrassment. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 31(5), 602–627. doi.org/10.1123/jsep.31.5.602 Schunk, D. H. (1984). Enhancing self-efficacy and achievement through rewards and goals: Motivational and informational effects. The Journal of Educational Research, 78(1), 29–34. doi.org/10.1080/00220671.1984.10885568 Shenhav, A., Botvinick, M. M., & Cohen, J. D. (2013). The expected value of control: An integrative theory of anterior cingulate cortex function. Neuron, 79(2), 217–240. doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2013.07.007 Sirois, F., & Pychyl, T. (2013). Procrastination and the priority of short-term mood regulation: Consequences for future self. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 7(2), 115–127. doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12011 Stead, R., Shanahan, M. J., & Neufeld, R. W. J. (2010). “I’ll go to therapy, eventually”: Procrastination, stress and mental health. Personality and Individual Differences, 49(3), 175–180. doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.03.028 Steel, P. (2007). The nature of procrastination: A meta-analytic and theoretical review of quintessential self-regulatory failure. Psychological Bulletin, 133(1), 65–94. doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.65 Steel, P., & König, C. J. (2006). Integrating theories of motivation. Academy of Management Review, 31(4), 889–913. doi.org/10.5465/amr.2006.22527462 Suriano, R. (2026). A systematic review on the association between ADHD and procrastination. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 175, 105342. doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2026.105342 Trope, Y., & Liberman, N. (2010). Construal-level theory of psychological distance. Psychological Review, 117(2), 440–463. doi.org/10.1037/a0018963 Ward, A. F., Duke, K., Gneezy, A., & Bos, M. W. (2017). Brain drain: The mere presence of one’s own smartphone reduces available cognitive capacity. Journal of the Association for Consumer Research, 2(2), 140–154. doi.org/10.1086/691462 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–value theory of achievement motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 68–81. doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 Wohl, M. J. A., Pychyl, T. A., & Bennett, S. H. (2010). I forgive myself, now I can study: How self-forgiveness for procrastinating can reduce future procrastination. Personality and Individual Differences, 48(7), 803–808. doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.01.029 }} == External links == *[https://www.simplypsychology.com/articles/body-doubling-adhd Body Doubling: The ADHD Productivity Strategy That Actually Works (2026)] (Simply Psychology) *[https://www.verywellmind.com/wall-of-awful-in-adhd-12000744 How the Wall of Awful Prevents Task Initiation in ADHD—and What Can Help You Push Through] (Verywell Mind) *[https://autisticinertia.com/2019/10/researchers-view/ Researchers' view of initiation in autism] (Autistic Inertia) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Goal pursuit]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Procrastination]] 5y7ufxgth13rincbq9t941tkgy3tiuw 2836509 2836506 2026-10-07T09:47:21Z U3286643 3106304 Added some book chapters to see also section 2836509 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Getting started:<br>Why is task initiation difficult and how to overcome it?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Scrolling on phone (cropped).jpg||thumb|right|150px|'''Figure 1.''' An individual scrolling on their phone]] ;Scenario John is a university student with an assignment that is due in five days which he has not started. Despite knowing that he needs to begin the assignment soon in order to have it completed by the due date, he finds the prospect of starting the assignment daunting, and so continues engaging in alternative activities, such as scrolling on social media, to avoid beginning the assignment (see Figure 1). John is struggling with task initiation and is using procrastination as a coping behaviour to manage his negative feelings associated with starting the assignment. {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[w:Executive_functions|Executive functions]] are a set of top-down cognitive processes that support goal-directed behaviour. Diamond (2013) identifies [[w:Inhibitory_control|inhibitory control]], [[w:Working_memory|working memory]], and [[w:Cognitive_flexibility|cognitive flexibility]] as the three core executive functions, with higher-order functions being derived from these, such as [[w:Reason|reasoning]], [[w:Problem_solving|problem solving]], and [[w:Planning|planning]]. However, there is no universally agreed-upon taxonomy due to differences in definitions, labels, and groupings across theoretical models. One proposed higher-order executive function is task initiation. Task initiation is the ability of an individual to begin a specific task at a desired time without unnecessary hesitation or delay. Task initiation can be inhibited by various cognitive, emotional, and motivational factors. For example, task initiation can quickly become difficult when tasks are associated with negative emotions such as anxiety, shame, or stress; when tasks fail to inspire motivation because they are perceived as low-priority or overly abstract; or when an individual experiences cognitive factors that impair executive functioning. Individuals who experience chronic difficulties with task initiation and [[w:Procrastination|procrastination]] may experience adverse outcomes such as greater stress and poorer mental health (Stead et al., 2010) as well as decreased performance in academic environments (Steel, 2007). Understanding the cognitive and psychological elements of task initiation and the various mechanisms underlying these domains can help to bolster task initiation in individuals, thus reducing the negative impact of impaired task initiation on individuals' lives. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What cognitive processes underlie task initiation? * How do motivational and emotional factors influence task initiation? * How is task initiation related to procrastination? * How can psychological disorders impair task initiation? * How can task initiation be improved? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Cognitive processes and theories == The core executive functions outline above collectively support successful task initiation. However, intention to initiate a task does not always translate into action, and cognitive models such as the [[w:Theory_of_planned_behavior|theory of planned behaviour]] (TPB) and the [[w:Rubicon_model|Rubicon model of action phases]] offer explanations for this discrepancy. === Theory of planned behaviour === [[File:Theory of planned behaviour.png|thumb|350x350px|'''Figure 2.''' Diagram of the Theory of Planned Behaviour ]] The theory of planned behaviour proposes that attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control jointly shape an individual's behavioural intention, which is then theorised to be the most immediate determinant of behaviour (Ajzen, 1991). However, perceived behavioural control - often conceptually related or compared to [[w:Self-efficacy|self-efficacy]] - is also stated as directly influencing behaviour due to the dependence of behaviour on whether an individual has sufficient control over performing it (see Figure 2), a relationship that is stated within the model as being strongest when perceived control reasonably reflects actual control. Thus, this can lead to an intention-action gap: favourable attitudes and supportive norms may generate an intention to begin a task, but insufficient perceived or actual behavioural control can prevent that intention from being translated into action. === Rubicon model of action phases === The Rubicon model of action phases divides the process from intention to action into four phases: pre-decisional (choosing between potential goals through weighing their feasibility and desirability), pre-actional (planning the implementation of the chosen goal), actional (executing the plan) and post-actional (evaluating outcomes against initial goals and subsequently adjusting future behaviour) (Heckhausen & Gollwitzer, 1987). The model therefore provides another framework for understanding the intention-action gap: after forming a goal intention, an individual may still fail to progress from the pre-actional to the actional phase, resulting in an intended behaviour that is not successfully initiated. === Construal level theory (CLT) === An additional cognitive factor influencing task initiation is mental representation. [[w:Construal_level_theory|Construal level theory]] is a psychological framework centred around the concept of [[w:Psychological_distance|psychological distance]], and it distinguishes between high-level, abstract representations and low-level, concrete representations. High-level representations revolve around task purpose, value, and reward, and may boost motivation, but also delay task initiation due to a lack of operational starting points; low-level representations alternatively emphasise practical and logistical steps (Trope & Liberman, 2010). As such, mentally representing a task in a less abstract manner may increase task initiation through making the immediate actions required to begin it more apparent. == Motivational and emotional barriers == Motivation and emotion are two psychological areas of study which both pertain to task initiation and may be examined to understand how and why task initiation can become difficult. === Motivational barriers === Task initiation is partly dependent on motivational influences such as the anticipated benefit of the task, the perceived likelihood of success, and the costs associated with performing it. [[w:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] proposes that the expected outcomes and subjective value placed upon tasks by individuals heavily influence choice and persistence in relation to tasks (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). Similarly, self-efficacy theory proposes that individuals' efficacy expectations are a prominent determinant in relation to goal setting, task choice, effort expenditure, and persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Additionally, neurological theories such as the expected value of control (EVC) propose that the brain weighs anticipated rewards against the costs of cognitive exertion and allocates cognitive control accordingly, thus providing an additional explanation for why task initiation may be inhibited for demanding tasks even if they have been appraised as valuable and achievable (Shenhav et al., 2013). === Emotional barriers === Task initiation is also dependent on anticipatory emotions associated with the task. Aversion to negative emotional states has been shown to decrease the likelihood of task initiation (Sirois & Pychyl, 2013), and greater task aversiveness as a result of these emotions is associated with greater behavioural delay (Blunt & Pychyl, 2000). Negative emotions can arise as a result of individual tasks, and may also be further compounded by chronic dispositions such as [[w:Fear_of_negative_evaluation|fear of failure]] and [[w:Perfectionism_(psychology)|perfectionism]]. Individuals with high fear of failure and levels of perfectionism report greater experienced shame and embarrassment following failure (Sagar & Stoeber, 2009), potentially decreasing the likelihood of initiating similar tasks in the future. {{RoundBoxTop}}'''Case study: fictional scenario''' Stacy has recently started her first white-collar office job. During her second week, her manager asks here to prepare a short briefing for an upcoming client meeting, but gives little guidance as to what should be included and how it should be presented. [[File:Corporate Woman Being Stressed at Work.svg|thumb|'''Figure 3.''' Stacy grows stressed as she continually avoids starting the briefing]] Stacy is unsure what information to include, how detailed the briefing should be, or what format her manager expects. Due to her relative inexperience, she starts to doubt that she is going to be able to meet expectations, and is also concerned that making a mistake so early in her new job could create a poor impression of her abilities. Although Stacy intends to intends to begin the briefing, the combination of ambiguity, low-self efficacy, and fear of failure makes starting the task increasingly aversive. She repeatedly postpones starting, instead completing smaller and more familiar tasks such as responding to emails and organising files (see Figure 3).{{RoundBoxBottom}} == Procrastination == Impaired task initiation is often associated with procrastination, defined as the voluntary delay of an intended course of action despite expecting negative consequences from that delay (Steel, 2007). Procrastination can be distinguished from impaired task initiation in that it is a specific form of delay in which intended actions are unnecessarily postponed despite foreseeable adverse consequences. Despite being defined as a voluntary choice, it is often examined and discussed in relation to failures of self-regulation, and thus may be heavily influenced by [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|emotional regulation]] processes. === Self-regulation === Steel (2007) identifies procrastination as a failure of self-regulation, with strong associative factors of task aversiveness, task delay, self-efficacy, and impulsiveness, as well as facets of conscientiousness such as self-control, distractibility, organisation, and achievement motivation. These effects are consistent with the prominent motivational explanation provided by [[w:Temporal_motivation_theory|temporal motivation theory]]. ==== Temporal motivation theory ==== Temporal motivation theory integrates several established approaches to motivation into a single mode, including [[w:Expectancy_theory|expectancy theory]] and other theories concerning delayed rewards (Steel & König, 2006). Central to the model is the idea that motivation changes over time, and a simplified form of the theory can be represented by the following formula: <math>Motivation = {Expectancy \times Value\over 1+Impulsiveness\times Delay}</math> In the model, the additional constructs of impulsiveness and delay are introduced to represent individual differences in sensitivity to delay and the amount of time remaining between an individual and an anticipated outcome, respectively. This formula provides critical insight into the nature of time on motivation: distant rewards or consequences typically exert less influence on current motivation. As deadlines approach and delay shrinks, motivation increases sharply, leading to a decrease in procrastination and an increase in the likelihood of initiating the deadline-bound task. However, as with task initiation, procrastination is also influenced by emotional factors. === Emotional regulation === Sirois and Pychyl (2013) argue that procrastination is used as short-term mood regulation and repair: temporarily avoiding an aversive task momentarily improves mood while transferring costs to the future self. This may produce a [[w:Reinforcement|negative reinforcement]] cycle, where the immediate relief provided by the avoidance of a negative emotion makes future avoidance more likely. The "[https://www.verywellmind.com/wall-of-awful-in-adhd-12000744 Wall of Awful]" is a popular metaphor often used to conceptualise an emotional barrier to task initiation that may accumulate as a result of these cycles. == Neurodevelopmental and psychiatric conditions == Various psychological and neurodevelopmental conditions are partly characterised by or may result in impaired task initiation. === Neurodevelopmental disorders === Individuals diagnosed with [[w:Neurodevelopmental_disorder|neurodevelopmental disorders]] such as [[w:Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder|attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder]] (ADHD) and [[w:Autism|autism spectrum disorder]] (ASD) often report difficulties with task initiation. Associations have consistently been found between ADHD symptoms and procrastination, particularly with inattention, and to a lesser extent with executive dysfunction, emotional dysregulation, and impaired motivational processes (Suriano, 2026). Executive dysfunction is also common in children and adolescents with autism, with difficulties indicated in areas including cognitive flexibility, attention, working memory, and inhibition (Ceruti et al., 2024); the term [https://autisticinertia.com/2019/10/researchers-view/ autistic inertia] has been used to specifically describe difficulties in task initiation in autism, with research showing that autistic individuals report increased difficulty in starting, stopping, and switching activities, even in instances where they intended or wanted to act but nevertheless experienced difficulty doing so (Buckle et al., 2021). === Psychiatric conditions === Individuals diagnosed with [[w:Mental_disorder|psychiatric disorders]] may also experience difficulties with task initiation, although the underlying mechanisms can differ from those associated with neurodevelopmental conditions. In [[w:Major_depressive_disorder|major depressive disorder]] (MDD), [[w:Anhedonia|anhedonia]] and chronically reduced motivation may contribute to impaired task initiation through a reduced willingness to expend cognitive and physical effort for rewards (Horne et al., 2021). [[w:Avolition|Avolition]], defined as a severe and persistent decrease in the ability to start and sustain self-directed goal-oriented activities, is considered an important negative symptom of [[w:Schizophrenia|schizophrenia]] (DeRosse et al., 2019). ==Improving task initiation == As difficulties with task initiation have been identified as arising from cognitive, motivational, and emotional factors, interventions aimed at improving task initiation are typically aimed at the specific mechanisms preventing action. === Cognitive strategies to improve task initiation === ==== Implementation intentions ==== [[w:Implementation_intention|Implementation intentions]] (also known as "if-then planning") are a self-regulatory strategy conceptualised by Peter Gollwitzer as a result of his earlier work alongside Heinz Heckhausen on the Rubicon model of action phases. Unlike goal intentions, which specify a desired outcome (e.g., "I want to improve my fitness"), implementation intentions specify the situational cues and subsequent behavioural response through which a goal will be pursued (e.g., "At 7:00 pm, I will go for a run"). Within the Rubicon model, implementation intentions are relevant to the transition between the pre-actional and actional phases. By linking situational cues to pre-planned responses, implementation intentions can improve task initiation by reducing reliance on conscious deliberation and turning goal-directed behaviour into a more streamlined, automatic process (Gollwitzer, 1999). ==== Task concretisation ==== Task concretisation is the process of deconstructing large, often abstract tasks into smaller, more concrete subtasks. As discussed previously, construal level theory highlights that low-level representations emphasise the specific means through which a task is carried out as opposed to its broader purpose (Trope & Liberman, 2010). Concretisation may therefore improve task initiation through improved task clarification, and has also been shown to reduce cognitive computational demands through the facilitation of easier planning while also preserving effective performance (Correa et al., 2023). ==== Cognitive offloading ==== [[File:ESEAP Strategy Summit Day 1 - Mehrdad reading a post-it note that will be posted on the Revenue Streams flipchart.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 4.''' Post-it notes being used as visible reminders.|200x200px]] Cognitive offloading refers to the use of physical actions or external tools to decrease the cognitive demands associated with a task (Risko & Gilbert, 2016). By storing information in external cues rather than relying on cognitive processes such as working memory, the mental demands associated with organising and remembering to begin tasks may be reduced, thus improving task initiation. Examples of cognitive offloading include writing down information, setting alarms, and other visible reminders (see Figure 4). === Motivational strategies to improve task initiation === Both motivational models such as expectancy-value theory and neuroscientific models of cognitive-control allocation such as the expected value of control emphasise evaluations of potential value relative to costs. Similar principles appear in temporal motivation theory, in which motivation is influenced through expectancy, value, impulsiveness, and delay. Accordingly, strategies for increasing motivation and facilitating task initiation may involve increasing the perceived value of a task, increasing expectations of success, or reducing its perceived costs. Subjective task value may be increased by linking tasks to personally meaningful goals, interests, or future outcomes: research shows that encouraging students to connect specific academic tasks to personal interests or goals can lead to increased interest, engagement, and academic performance (Harackiewicz et al., 2014). Expectancy may be strengthened by setting smaller, achievable goals, as this provides clearer evidence of progress and attainment, which can strengthen perceptions of self-efficacy (Schunk, 1984). Finally, reducing perceived costs may involve the previously mentioned task concretisation, which reduces task complexity through clearer immediate subtasks, thus decreasing the initial cognitive demands required. === Emotional strategies to improve task initiation === As task avoidance and procrastination are often associated with attempts to regulate aversive emotions, strategies for improving task initiation may involve greater emotional acceptance and improved emotional regulation. Greater awareness and acceptance of emotional experiences has been associated with more adaptive emotional responding (Erisman & Roemer, 2010), while practising the tolerance and modification of aversive emotions has been shown to reduce procrastination (Eckert et al., 2016). Furthermore, Wohl et al. (2010) found that greater levels of self-reported self-forgiveness were associated with lower levels of future procrastination, which may be particularly important in disrupting negative reinforcement cycles. === Additional strategies and strategy integrations === ==== Environmental and social changes ==== Changes to an individual's environment may facilitate task initiation. Removing prominent distractions such as digital devices like phones, unrelated projects, unfinished chores, or other stimuli that compete for attention may decrease the inhibitory control required to focus on necessary tasks. Research indicates that even the presence of one's own smartphone may occupy cognitive resources, even when conscious attention is not being paid to it (Ward et al., 2017). Social strategies such as [https://www.simplypsychology.com/articles/body-doubling-adhd body doubling] are also often offered as a strategy to reduce procrastination, specifically in individuals with ADHD; however, direct evidence is limited, with the proposal relying primarily on anecdotal consensus. ==== Psychotherapeutic interventions ==== [[w:Cognitive_behavioral_therapy|Cognitive behavioural therapy]] (CBT) may be used to treat individuals who struggle with chronic procrastination, thus potentially improving overall task initiation. Rozental et al. (2018) found substantial reductions in procrastination following CBT interventions, suggesting that CBT may be an effective tool in managing procrastination. These interventions included techniques such as [[w:Psychoeducation|psychoeducation]], goal setting and [[w:Behavioral_activation|behavioural activation]], strategies to strengthen self-efficacy, stimulus control and distraction management, assertiveness training, and [[w:Cognitive_restructuring|cognitive restructuring]]. Overall, CBT functions as a broader therapeutic framework in which several previously discussed strategies to improving task initiation are integrated. == Conclusion == Task initiation is a higher-order executive function derived from core processes such as working memory, inhibition, and cognitive flexibility. Functional task initiation can be adversely affected through impairments of these areas, such as is common in neurodevelopmental disorders, as well as through various individual motivational and emotional factors. Various models and theories, such as the theory of planned behaviour, the Rubicon model of action phases, construal level theory, and temporal motivation theory are offered as explanations for how and why individuals may struggle to successfully convert goal-intentions into goal-directed behaviour. Strategies for improving task initiation therefore often reflect and address these underlying mechanisms. Implementation intentions, task concretisation, and cognitive offloading may decrease the intention-action gap, provide clearer first steps to initiating tasks, and reduce the mental effort to do so, respectively. Increasing the perceived value of tasks and their rewards, or decreasing the perceived costs, may address motivational issues, while practicing emotional acceptance and regulation may reduce avoidance as a result of emotional issues. Psychotherapeutic interventions such as cognitive behavioural therapy often integrate several of these approaches, and other minor strategies are also available to increase task initiation, such as environmental restructuring and body doubling. == See also == *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Executive function and motivation|Executive function and motivation]] (Book chapter, 2025) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Fear of failure and procrastination|Fear of failure and procrastination]] (Book chapter, 2025) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Procrastination and temporal discounting|Procrastination and temporal discounting]] (Book chapter, 2025) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1=Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50(2), 179–211. doi.org/10.1016/0749-5978(91)90020-T Blunt, A. K., & Pychyl, T. A. (2000). Task aversiveness and procrastination: A multi-dimensional approach to task aversiveness across stages of personal projects. Personality and Individual Differences, 28(1), 153–167. doi.org/10.1016/s0191-8869(99)00091-4 Buckle, K. L., Leadbitter, K., Poliakoff, E., & Gowen, E. (2021). “No way out except from external intervention”: First-hand accounts of autistic inertia. Frontiers in Psychology, 12(63159). doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.631596 Ceruti, C., Mingozzi, A., Scionti, N., & Marzocchi, G. M. (2024). Comparing executive functions in children and adolescents with autism and ADHD—A systematic review and meta-analysis. Children, 11(4), 473. doi.org/10.3390/children11040473 Correa, C. G., Ho, M. K., Callaway, F., Daw, N. D., & Griffiths, T. L. (2023). Humans decompose tasks by trading off utility and computational cost. PLOS Computational Biology, 19(6), e1011087. doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1011087 DeRosse, P., Barber, A. D., Fales, C. L., & Malhotra, A. K. (2019). Deconstructing avolition: Initiation vs persistence of reward-directed effort. Psychiatry Research, 273, 647–652. doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2019.01.073 Diamond, A. (2013). Executive functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64(1), 135–168. doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750 Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153 Eckert, M., Ebert, D. D, Lehr, D., Sieland, B., & Berking, M. (2016). Overcome procrastination: Enhancing emotion regulation skills reduce procrastination. Learning and Individual Differences, 52, 10–18. doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2016.10.001 Erisman, S. M., & Roemer, L. (2010). A preliminary investigation of the effects of experimentally induced mindfulness on emotional responding to film clips. Emotion, 10(1), 72–82. doi.org/10.1037/a0017162 Gollwitzer, P. M. (1999). Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans. American Psychologist, 54(7), 493–503. doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.54.7.493 Harackiewicz, J. M., Tibbetts, Y., Canning, E. A., & Hyde, J. S. (2014). Harnessing values to promote motivation in education. In S. A. Karabenick & T. C. Urdan (Eds.), Motivational interventions (Vol. 18, pp. 71–105). Emerald Group Publishing Limited. doi.org/10.1108/S0749-742320140000018002 Heckhausen, H., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (1987). Thought contents and cognitive functioning in motivational versus volitional states of mind. Motivation and Emotion, 11(2), 101–120. doi.org/10.1007/bf00992338 Horne, S. J., Topp, T. E., & Quigley, L. (2021). Depression and the willingness to expend cognitive and physical effort for rewards: A systematic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 88, 102065. doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2021.102065 Risko, E. F., & Gilbert, S. J. (2016). Cognitive offloading. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 20(9), 676–688. doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2016.07.002 Rozental, A., Forsström, D., Lindner, P., Nilsson, S., Mårtensson, L., Rizzo, A., Andersson, G., & Carlbring, P. (2018). Treating procrastination using cognitive behavior therapy: A pragmatic randomized controlled trial comparing treatment delivered via the internet or in groups. Behavior Therapy, 49(2), 180–197. doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2017.08.002 Sagar, S. S., & Stoeber, J. (2009). Perfectionism, fear of failure, and affective responses to success and failure: The central role of fear of experiencing shame and embarrassment. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 31(5), 602–627. doi.org/10.1123/jsep.31.5.602 Schunk, D. H. (1984). Enhancing self-efficacy and achievement through rewards and goals: Motivational and informational effects. The Journal of Educational Research, 78(1), 29–34. doi.org/10.1080/00220671.1984.10885568 Shenhav, A., Botvinick, M. M., & Cohen, J. D. (2013). The expected value of control: An integrative theory of anterior cingulate cortex function. Neuron, 79(2), 217–240. doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2013.07.007 Sirois, F., & Pychyl, T. (2013). Procrastination and the priority of short-term mood regulation: Consequences for future self. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 7(2), 115–127. doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12011 Stead, R., Shanahan, M. J., & Neufeld, R. W. J. (2010). “I’ll go to therapy, eventually”: Procrastination, stress and mental health. Personality and Individual Differences, 49(3), 175–180. doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.03.028 Steel, P. (2007). The nature of procrastination: A meta-analytic and theoretical review of quintessential self-regulatory failure. Psychological Bulletin, 133(1), 65–94. doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.65 Steel, P., & König, C. J. (2006). Integrating theories of motivation. Academy of Management Review, 31(4), 889–913. doi.org/10.5465/amr.2006.22527462 Suriano, R. (2026). A systematic review on the association between ADHD and procrastination. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 175, 105342. doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2026.105342 Trope, Y., & Liberman, N. (2010). Construal-level theory of psychological distance. Psychological Review, 117(2), 440–463. doi.org/10.1037/a0018963 Ward, A. F., Duke, K., Gneezy, A., & Bos, M. W. (2017). Brain drain: The mere presence of one’s own smartphone reduces available cognitive capacity. Journal of the Association for Consumer Research, 2(2), 140–154. doi.org/10.1086/691462 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–value theory of achievement motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 68–81. doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 Wohl, M. J. A., Pychyl, T. A., & Bennett, S. H. (2010). I forgive myself, now I can study: How self-forgiveness for procrastinating can reduce future procrastination. Personality and Individual Differences, 48(7), 803–808. doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.01.029 }} == External links == *[https://www.simplypsychology.com/articles/body-doubling-adhd Body Doubling: The ADHD Productivity Strategy That Actually Works (2026)] (Simply Psychology) *[https://www.verywellmind.com/wall-of-awful-in-adhd-12000744 How the Wall of Awful Prevents Task Initiation in ADHD—and What Can Help You Push Through] (Verywell Mind) *[https://autisticinertia.com/2019/10/researchers-view/ Researchers' view of initiation in autism] (Autistic Inertia) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Goal pursuit]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Procrastination]] lmtrvvd0mic0rg6o86uxvq1aioctn5k 2836535 2836509 2026-10-07T10:31:25Z U3286643 3106304 Added 2 quizzes 2836535 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Getting started:<br>Why is task initiation difficult and how to overcome it?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Scrolling on phone (cropped).jpg||thumb|right|150px|'''Figure 1.''' An individual scrolling on their phone]] ;Scenario John is a university student with an assignment that is due in five days which he has not started. Despite knowing that he needs to begin the assignment soon in order to have it completed by the due date, he finds the prospect of starting the assignment daunting, and so continues engaging in alternative activities, such as scrolling on social media, to avoid beginning the assignment (see Figure 1). John is struggling with task initiation and is using procrastination as a coping behaviour to manage his negative feelings associated with starting the assignment. {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[w:Executive_functions|Executive functions]] are a set of top-down cognitive processes that support goal-directed behaviour. Diamond (2013) identifies [[w:Inhibitory_control|inhibitory control]], [[w:Working_memory|working memory]], and [[w:Cognitive_flexibility|cognitive flexibility]] as the three core executive functions, with higher-order functions being derived from these, such as [[w:Reason|reasoning]], [[w:Problem_solving|problem solving]], and [[w:Planning|planning]]. However, there is no universally agreed-upon taxonomy due to differences in definitions, labels, and groupings across theoretical models. One proposed higher-order executive function is task initiation. Task initiation is the ability of an individual to begin a specific task at a desired time without unnecessary hesitation or delay. Task initiation can be inhibited by various cognitive, emotional, and motivational factors. For example, task initiation can quickly become difficult when tasks are associated with negative emotions such as anxiety, shame, or stress; when tasks fail to inspire motivation because they are perceived as low-priority or overly abstract; or when an individual experiences cognitive factors that impair executive functioning. Individuals who experience chronic difficulties with task initiation and [[w:Procrastination|procrastination]] may experience adverse outcomes such as greater stress and poorer mental health (Stead et al., 2010) as well as decreased performance in academic environments (Steel, 2007). Understanding the cognitive and psychological elements of task initiation and the various mechanisms underlying these domains can help to bolster task initiation in individuals, thus reducing the negative impact of impaired task initiation on individuals' lives. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What cognitive processes underlie task initiation? * How do motivational and emotional factors influence task initiation? * How is task initiation related to procrastination? * How can psychological disorders impair task initiation? * How can task initiation be improved? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Cognitive processes and theories == The core executive functions outline above collectively support successful task initiation. However, intention to initiate a task does not always translate into action, and cognitive models such as the [[w:Theory_of_planned_behavior|theory of planned behaviour]] (TPB) and the [[w:Rubicon_model|Rubicon model of action phases]] offer explanations for this discrepancy. === Theory of planned behaviour === [[File:Theory of planned behaviour.png|thumb|350x350px|'''Figure 2.''' Diagram of the Theory of Planned Behaviour ]] The theory of planned behaviour proposes that attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control jointly shape an individual's behavioural intention, which is then theorised to be the most immediate determinant of behaviour (Ajzen, 1991). However, perceived behavioural control - often conceptually related or compared to [[w:Self-efficacy|self-efficacy]] - is also stated as directly influencing behaviour due to the dependence of behaviour on whether an individual has sufficient control over performing it (see Figure 2), a relationship that is stated within the model as being strongest when perceived control reasonably reflects actual control. Thus, this can lead to an intention-action gap: favourable attitudes and supportive norms may generate an intention to begin a task, but insufficient perceived or actual behavioural control can prevent that intention from being translated into action. === Rubicon model of action phases === The Rubicon model of action phases divides the process from intention to action into four phases: pre-decisional (choosing between potential goals through weighing their feasibility and desirability), pre-actional (planning the implementation of the chosen goal), actional (executing the plan) and post-actional (evaluating outcomes against initial goals and subsequently adjusting future behaviour) (Heckhausen & Gollwitzer, 1987). The model therefore provides another framework for understanding the intention-action gap: after forming a goal intention, an individual may still fail to progress from the pre-actional to the actional phase, resulting in an intended behaviour that is not successfully initiated. === Construal level theory (CLT) === An additional cognitive factor influencing task initiation is mental representation. [[w:Construal_level_theory|Construal level theory]] is a psychological framework centred around the concept of [[w:Psychological_distance|psychological distance]], and it distinguishes between high-level, abstract representations and low-level, concrete representations. High-level representations revolve around task purpose, value, and reward, and may boost motivation, but also delay task initiation due to a lack of operational starting points; low-level representations alternatively emphasise practical and logistical steps (Trope & Liberman, 2010). As such, mentally representing a task in a less abstract manner may increase task initiation through making the immediate actions required to begin it more apparent. == Motivational and emotional barriers == Motivation and emotion are two psychological areas of study which both pertain to task initiation and may be examined to understand how and why task initiation can become difficult. === Motivational barriers === Task initiation is partly dependent on motivational influences such as the anticipated benefit of the task, the perceived likelihood of success, and the costs associated with performing it. [[w:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] proposes that the expected outcomes and subjective value placed upon tasks by individuals heavily influence choice and persistence in relation to tasks (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). Similarly, self-efficacy theory proposes that individuals' efficacy expectations are a prominent determinant in relation to goal setting, task choice, effort expenditure, and persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Additionally, neurological theories such as the expected value of control (EVC) propose that the brain weighs anticipated rewards against the costs of cognitive exertion and allocates cognitive control accordingly, thus providing an additional explanation for why task initiation may be inhibited for demanding tasks even if they have been appraised as valuable and achievable (Shenhav et al., 2013). === Emotional barriers === Task initiation is also dependent on anticipatory emotions associated with the task. Aversion to negative emotional states has been shown to decrease the likelihood of task initiation (Sirois & Pychyl, 2013), and greater task aversiveness as a result of these emotions is associated with greater behavioural delay (Blunt & Pychyl, 2000). Negative emotions can arise as a result of individual tasks, and may also be further compounded by chronic dispositions such as [[w:Fear_of_negative_evaluation|fear of failure]] and [[w:Perfectionism_(psychology)|perfectionism]]. Individuals with high fear of failure and levels of perfectionism report greater experienced shame and embarrassment following failure (Sagar & Stoeber, 2009), potentially decreasing the likelihood of initiating similar tasks in the future. {{RoundBoxTop}}'''Case study: fictional scenario''' Stacy has recently started her first white-collar office job. During her second week, her manager asks here to prepare a short briefing for an upcoming client meeting, but gives little guidance as to what should be included and how it should be presented. [[File:Corporate Woman Being Stressed at Work.svg|thumb|'''Figure 3.''' Stacy grows stressed as she continually avoids starting the briefing]] Stacy is unsure what information to include, how detailed the briefing should be, or what format her manager expects. Due to her relative inexperience, she starts to doubt that she is going to be able to meet expectations, and is also concerned that making a mistake so early in her new job could create a poor impression of her abilities. Although Stacy intends to intends to begin the briefing, the combination of ambiguity, low-self efficacy, and fear of failure makes starting the task increasingly aversive. She repeatedly postpones starting, instead completing smaller and more familiar tasks such as responding to emails and organising files (see Figure 3).{{RoundBoxBottom}} {{Robelbox|theme=5|width=100%|title=Quiz: Factors influencing task initiation|iconwidth=47px|icon=Nuvola_apps_korganizer.svg}}<div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> <quiz display=simple> { Which option correctly matches each factor to how it may interfere with task initiation? } |type="()"} - Task ambiguity → low anticipated task benefit; low self-efficacy → high anticipated costs of cognitive exertion; fear of failure → unclear starting steps - Task ambiguity → difficulty regulating negative emotions; low self-efficacy → difficulty identifying concrete steps; fear of failure → reduced expectancy caused by delayed rewards + Task ambiguity → difficulty identifying concrete steps; low self-efficacy → reduced confidence in successfully completing the task; fear of failure → anticipated failure makes the task emotionally aversive </quiz> </div> {{Robelbox-close}} == Procrastination == Impaired task initiation is often associated with procrastination, defined as the voluntary delay of an intended course of action despite expecting negative consequences from that delay (Steel, 2007). Procrastination can be distinguished from impaired task initiation in that it is a specific form of delay in which intended actions are unnecessarily postponed despite foreseeable adverse consequences. Despite being defined as a voluntary choice, it is often examined and discussed in relation to failures of self-regulation, and thus may be heavily influenced by [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|emotional regulation]] processes. === Self-regulation === Steel (2007) identifies procrastination as a failure of self-regulation, with strong associative factors of task aversiveness, task delay, self-efficacy, and impulsiveness, as well as facets of conscientiousness such as self-control, distractibility, organisation, and achievement motivation. These effects are consistent with the prominent motivational explanation provided by [[w:Temporal_motivation_theory|temporal motivation theory]]. ==== Temporal motivation theory ==== Temporal motivation theory integrates several established approaches to motivation into a single mode, including [[w:Expectancy_theory|expectancy theory]] and other theories concerning delayed rewards (Steel & König, 2006). Central to the model is the idea that motivation changes over time, and a simplified form of the theory can be represented by the following formula: <math>Motivation = {Expectancy \times Value\over 1+Impulsiveness\times Delay}</math> In the model, the additional constructs of impulsiveness and delay are introduced to represent individual differences in sensitivity to delay and the amount of time remaining between an individual and an anticipated outcome, respectively. This formula provides critical insight into the nature of time on motivation: distant rewards or consequences typically exert less influence on current motivation. As deadlines approach and delay shrinks, motivation increases sharply, leading to a decrease in procrastination and an increase in the likelihood of initiating the deadline-bound task. However, as with task initiation, procrastination is also influenced by emotional factors. === Emotional regulation === Sirois and Pychyl (2013) argue that procrastination is used as short-term mood regulation and repair: temporarily avoiding an aversive task momentarily improves mood while transferring costs to the future self. This may produce a [[w:Reinforcement|negative reinforcement]] cycle, where the immediate relief provided by the avoidance of a negative emotion makes future avoidance more likely. The "[https://www.verywellmind.com/wall-of-awful-in-adhd-12000744 Wall of Awful]" is a popular metaphor often used to conceptualise an emotional barrier to task initiation that may accumulate as a result of these cycles. == Neurodevelopmental and psychiatric conditions == Various psychological and neurodevelopmental conditions are partly characterised by or may result in impaired task initiation. === Neurodevelopmental disorders === Individuals diagnosed with [[w:Neurodevelopmental_disorder|neurodevelopmental disorders]] such as [[w:Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder|attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder]] (ADHD) and [[w:Autism|autism spectrum disorder]] (ASD) often report difficulties with task initiation. Associations have consistently been found between ADHD symptoms and procrastination, particularly with inattention, and to a lesser extent with executive dysfunction, emotional dysregulation, and impaired motivational processes (Suriano, 2026). Executive dysfunction is also common in children and adolescents with autism, with difficulties indicated in areas including cognitive flexibility, attention, working memory, and inhibition (Ceruti et al., 2024); the term [https://autisticinertia.com/2019/10/researchers-view/ autistic inertia] has been used to specifically describe difficulties in task initiation in autism, with research showing that autistic individuals report increased difficulty in starting, stopping, and switching activities, even in instances where they intended or wanted to act but nevertheless experienced difficulty doing so (Buckle et al., 2021). === Psychiatric conditions === Individuals diagnosed with [[w:Mental_disorder|psychiatric disorders]] may also experience difficulties with task initiation, although the underlying mechanisms can differ from those associated with neurodevelopmental conditions. In [[w:Major_depressive_disorder|major depressive disorder]] (MDD), [[w:Anhedonia|anhedonia]] and chronically reduced motivation may contribute to impaired task initiation through a reduced willingness to expend cognitive and physical effort for rewards (Horne et al., 2021). [[w:Avolition|Avolition]], defined as a severe and persistent decrease in the ability to start and sustain self-directed goal-oriented activities, is considered an important negative symptom of [[w:Schizophrenia|schizophrenia]] (DeRosse et al., 2019). ==Improving task initiation == As difficulties with task initiation have been identified as arising from cognitive, motivational, and emotional factors, interventions aimed at improving task initiation are typically aimed at the specific mechanisms preventing action. === Cognitive strategies to improve task initiation === ==== Implementation intentions ==== [[w:Implementation_intention|Implementation intentions]] (also known as "if-then planning") are a self-regulatory strategy conceptualised by Peter Gollwitzer as a result of his earlier work alongside Heinz Heckhausen on the Rubicon model of action phases. Unlike goal intentions, which specify a desired outcome (e.g., "I want to improve my fitness"), implementation intentions specify the situational cues and subsequent behavioural response through which a goal will be pursued (e.g., "At 7:00 pm, I will go for a run"). Within the Rubicon model, implementation intentions are relevant to the transition between the pre-actional and actional phases. By linking situational cues to pre-planned responses, implementation intentions can improve task initiation by reducing reliance on conscious deliberation and turning goal-directed behaviour into a more streamlined, automatic process (Gollwitzer, 1999). ==== Task concretisation ==== Task concretisation is the process of deconstructing large, often abstract tasks into smaller, more concrete subtasks. As discussed previously, construal level theory highlights that low-level representations emphasise the specific means through which a task is carried out as opposed to its broader purpose (Trope & Liberman, 2010). Concretisation may therefore improve task initiation through improved task clarification, and has also been shown to reduce cognitive computational demands through the facilitation of easier planning while also preserving effective performance (Correa et al., 2023). ==== Cognitive offloading ==== [[File:ESEAP Strategy Summit Day 1 - Mehrdad reading a post-it note that will be posted on the Revenue Streams flipchart.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 4.''' Post-it notes being used as visible reminders.|200x200px]] Cognitive offloading refers to the use of physical actions or external tools to decrease the cognitive demands associated with a task (Risko & Gilbert, 2016). By storing information in external cues rather than relying on cognitive processes such as working memory, the mental demands associated with organising and remembering to begin tasks may be reduced, thus improving task initiation. Examples of cognitive offloading include writing down information, setting alarms, and other visible reminders (see Figure 4). === Motivational strategies to improve task initiation === Both motivational models such as expectancy-value theory and neuroscientific models of cognitive-control allocation such as the expected value of control emphasise evaluations of potential value relative to costs. Similar principles appear in temporal motivation theory, in which motivation is influenced through expectancy, value, impulsiveness, and delay. Accordingly, strategies for increasing motivation and facilitating task initiation may involve increasing the perceived value of a task, increasing expectations of success, or reducing its perceived costs. Subjective task value may be increased by linking tasks to personally meaningful goals, interests, or future outcomes: research shows that encouraging students to connect specific academic tasks to personal interests or goals can lead to increased interest, engagement, and academic performance (Harackiewicz et al., 2014). Expectancy may be strengthened by setting smaller, achievable goals, as this provides clearer evidence of progress and attainment, which can strengthen perceptions of self-efficacy (Schunk, 1984). Finally, reducing perceived costs may involve the previously mentioned task concretisation, which reduces task complexity through clearer immediate subtasks, thus decreasing the initial cognitive demands required. === Emotional strategies to improve task initiation === As task avoidance and procrastination are often associated with attempts to regulate aversive emotions, strategies for improving task initiation may involve greater emotional acceptance and improved emotional regulation. Greater awareness and acceptance of emotional experiences has been associated with more adaptive emotional responding (Erisman & Roemer, 2010), while practising the tolerance and modification of aversive emotions has been shown to reduce procrastination (Eckert et al., 2016). Furthermore, Wohl et al. (2010) found that greater levels of self-reported self-forgiveness were associated with lower levels of future procrastination, which may be particularly important in disrupting negative reinforcement cycles. === Additional strategies and strategy integrations === ==== Environmental and social changes ==== Changes to an individual's environment may facilitate task initiation. Removing prominent distractions such as digital devices like phones, unrelated projects, unfinished chores, or other stimuli that compete for attention may decrease the inhibitory control required to focus on necessary tasks. Research indicates that even the presence of one's own smartphone may occupy cognitive resources, even when conscious attention is not being paid to it (Ward et al., 2017). Social strategies such as [https://www.simplypsychology.com/articles/body-doubling-adhd body doubling] are also often offered as a strategy to reduce procrastination, specifically in individuals with ADHD; however, direct evidence is limited, with the proposal relying primarily on anecdotal consensus. ==== Psychotherapeutic interventions ==== [[w:Cognitive_behavioral_therapy|Cognitive behavioural therapy]] (CBT) may be used to treat individuals who struggle with chronic procrastination, thus potentially improving overall task initiation. Rozental et al. (2018) found substantial reductions in procrastination following CBT interventions, suggesting that CBT may be an effective tool in managing procrastination. These interventions included techniques such as [[w:Psychoeducation|psychoeducation]], goal setting and [[w:Behavioral_activation|behavioural activation]], strategies to strengthen self-efficacy, stimulus control and distraction management, assertiveness training, and [[w:Cognitive_restructuring|cognitive restructuring]]. Overall, CBT functions as a broader therapeutic framework in which several previously discussed strategies to improving task initiation are integrated. {{Robelbox|theme=5|width=100%|title=Quiz: Identifying appropriate interventions|iconwidth=47px|icon=Nuvola_apps_korganizer.svg}}<div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> <quiz display=simple> { Which option correctly matches each task-initiation difficulty with an appropriate strategy? } |type="()"} - Unclear task steps → implementation intentions; difficulty acting on intentions → environmental restructuring; environmental distraction → task concretisation + Unclear task steps → task concretisation; difficulty acting on intentions → implementation intentions; environmental distraction → environmental restructuring - Unclear task steps → environmental restructuring; difficulty acting on intentions → task concretisation; environmental distraction → implementation intentions </quiz> </div> {{Robelbox-close}} == Conclusion == Task initiation is a higher-order executive function derived from core processes such as working memory, inhibition, and cognitive flexibility. Functional task initiation can be adversely affected through impairments of these areas, such as is common in neurodevelopmental disorders, as well as through various individual motivational and emotional factors. Various models and theories, such as the theory of planned behaviour, the Rubicon model of action phases, construal level theory, and temporal motivation theory are offered as explanations for how and why individuals may struggle to successfully convert goal-intentions into goal-directed behaviour. Strategies for improving task initiation therefore often reflect and address these underlying mechanisms. Implementation intentions, task concretisation, and cognitive offloading may decrease the intention-action gap, provide clearer first steps to initiating tasks, and reduce the mental effort to do so, respectively. Increasing the perceived value of tasks and their rewards, or decreasing the perceived costs, may address motivational issues, while practicing emotional acceptance and regulation may reduce avoidance as a result of emotional issues. Psychotherapeutic interventions such as cognitive behavioural therapy often integrate several of these approaches, and other minor strategies are also available to increase task initiation, such as environmental restructuring and body doubling. == See also == *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Executive function and motivation|Executive function and motivation]] (Book chapter, 2025) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Fear of failure and procrastination|Fear of failure and procrastination]] (Book chapter, 2025) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Procrastination and temporal discounting|Procrastination and temporal discounting]] (Book chapter, 2025) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1=Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50(2), 179–211. doi.org/10.1016/0749-5978(91)90020-T Blunt, A. K., & Pychyl, T. A. (2000). Task aversiveness and procrastination: A multi-dimensional approach to task aversiveness across stages of personal projects. Personality and Individual Differences, 28(1), 153–167. doi.org/10.1016/s0191-8869(99)00091-4 Buckle, K. L., Leadbitter, K., Poliakoff, E., & Gowen, E. (2021). “No way out except from external intervention”: First-hand accounts of autistic inertia. Frontiers in Psychology, 12(63159). doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.631596 Ceruti, C., Mingozzi, A., Scionti, N., & Marzocchi, G. M. (2024). Comparing executive functions in children and adolescents with autism and ADHD—A systematic review and meta-analysis. Children, 11(4), 473. doi.org/10.3390/children11040473 Correa, C. G., Ho, M. K., Callaway, F., Daw, N. D., & Griffiths, T. L. (2023). Humans decompose tasks by trading off utility and computational cost. PLOS Computational Biology, 19(6), e1011087. doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1011087 DeRosse, P., Barber, A. D., Fales, C. L., & Malhotra, A. K. (2019). Deconstructing avolition: Initiation vs persistence of reward-directed effort. Psychiatry Research, 273, 647–652. doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2019.01.073 Diamond, A. (2013). Executive functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64(1), 135–168. doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750 Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153 Eckert, M., Ebert, D. D, Lehr, D., Sieland, B., & Berking, M. (2016). Overcome procrastination: Enhancing emotion regulation skills reduce procrastination. Learning and Individual Differences, 52, 10–18. doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2016.10.001 Erisman, S. M., & Roemer, L. (2010). A preliminary investigation of the effects of experimentally induced mindfulness on emotional responding to film clips. Emotion, 10(1), 72–82. doi.org/10.1037/a0017162 Gollwitzer, P. M. (1999). Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans. American Psychologist, 54(7), 493–503. doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.54.7.493 Harackiewicz, J. M., Tibbetts, Y., Canning, E. A., & Hyde, J. S. (2014). Harnessing values to promote motivation in education. In S. A. Karabenick & T. C. Urdan (Eds.), Motivational interventions (Vol. 18, pp. 71–105). Emerald Group Publishing Limited. doi.org/10.1108/S0749-742320140000018002 Heckhausen, H., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (1987). Thought contents and cognitive functioning in motivational versus volitional states of mind. Motivation and Emotion, 11(2), 101–120. doi.org/10.1007/bf00992338 Horne, S. J., Topp, T. E., & Quigley, L. (2021). Depression and the willingness to expend cognitive and physical effort for rewards: A systematic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 88, 102065. doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2021.102065 Risko, E. F., & Gilbert, S. J. (2016). Cognitive offloading. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 20(9), 676–688. doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2016.07.002 Rozental, A., Forsström, D., Lindner, P., Nilsson, S., Mårtensson, L., Rizzo, A., Andersson, G., & Carlbring, P. (2018). Treating procrastination using cognitive behavior therapy: A pragmatic randomized controlled trial comparing treatment delivered via the internet or in groups. Behavior Therapy, 49(2), 180–197. doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2017.08.002 Sagar, S. S., & Stoeber, J. (2009). Perfectionism, fear of failure, and affective responses to success and failure: The central role of fear of experiencing shame and embarrassment. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 31(5), 602–627. doi.org/10.1123/jsep.31.5.602 Schunk, D. H. (1984). Enhancing self-efficacy and achievement through rewards and goals: Motivational and informational effects. The Journal of Educational Research, 78(1), 29–34. doi.org/10.1080/00220671.1984.10885568 Shenhav, A., Botvinick, M. M., & Cohen, J. D. (2013). The expected value of control: An integrative theory of anterior cingulate cortex function. Neuron, 79(2), 217–240. doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2013.07.007 Sirois, F., & Pychyl, T. (2013). Procrastination and the priority of short-term mood regulation: Consequences for future self. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 7(2), 115–127. doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12011 Stead, R., Shanahan, M. J., & Neufeld, R. W. J. (2010). “I’ll go to therapy, eventually”: Procrastination, stress and mental health. Personality and Individual Differences, 49(3), 175–180. doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.03.028 Steel, P. (2007). The nature of procrastination: A meta-analytic and theoretical review of quintessential self-regulatory failure. Psychological Bulletin, 133(1), 65–94. doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.65 Steel, P., & König, C. J. (2006). Integrating theories of motivation. Academy of Management Review, 31(4), 889–913. doi.org/10.5465/amr.2006.22527462 Suriano, R. (2026). A systematic review on the association between ADHD and procrastination. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 175, 105342. doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2026.105342 Trope, Y., & Liberman, N. (2010). Construal-level theory of psychological distance. Psychological Review, 117(2), 440–463. doi.org/10.1037/a0018963 Ward, A. F., Duke, K., Gneezy, A., & Bos, M. W. (2017). Brain drain: The mere presence of one’s own smartphone reduces available cognitive capacity. Journal of the Association for Consumer Research, 2(2), 140–154. doi.org/10.1086/691462 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–value theory of achievement motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 68–81. doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 Wohl, M. J. A., Pychyl, T. A., & Bennett, S. H. (2010). I forgive myself, now I can study: How self-forgiveness for procrastinating can reduce future procrastination. Personality and Individual Differences, 48(7), 803–808. doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.01.029 }} == External links == *[https://www.simplypsychology.com/articles/body-doubling-adhd Body Doubling: The ADHD Productivity Strategy That Actually Works (2026)] (Simply Psychology) *[https://www.verywellmind.com/wall-of-awful-in-adhd-12000744 How the Wall of Awful Prevents Task Initiation in ADHD—and What Can Help You Push Through] (Verywell Mind) *[https://autisticinertia.com/2019/10/researchers-view/ Researchers' view of initiation in autism] (Autistic Inertia) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Goal pursuit]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Procrastination]] qax54wh89aa3ffcpc0o1p2inj07kuy9 2836537 2836535 2026-10-07T10:35:58Z U3286643 3106304 quiz formatting 2836537 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Getting started:<br>Why is task initiation difficult and how to overcome it?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Scrolling on phone (cropped).jpg||thumb|right|150px|'''Figure 1.''' An individual scrolling on their phone]] ;Scenario John is a university student with an assignment that is due in five days which he has not started. Despite knowing that he needs to begin the assignment soon in order to have it completed by the due date, he finds the prospect of starting the assignment daunting, and so continues engaging in alternative activities, such as scrolling on social media, to avoid beginning the assignment (see Figure 1). John is struggling with task initiation and is using procrastination as a coping behaviour to manage his negative feelings associated with starting the assignment. {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[w:Executive_functions|Executive functions]] are a set of top-down cognitive processes that support goal-directed behaviour. Diamond (2013) identifies [[w:Inhibitory_control|inhibitory control]], [[w:Working_memory|working memory]], and [[w:Cognitive_flexibility|cognitive flexibility]] as the three core executive functions, with higher-order functions being derived from these, such as [[w:Reason|reasoning]], [[w:Problem_solving|problem solving]], and [[w:Planning|planning]]. However, there is no universally agreed-upon taxonomy due to differences in definitions, labels, and groupings across theoretical models. One proposed higher-order executive function is task initiation. Task initiation is the ability of an individual to begin a specific task at a desired time without unnecessary hesitation or delay. Task initiation can be inhibited by various cognitive, emotional, and motivational factors. For example, task initiation can quickly become difficult when tasks are associated with negative emotions such as anxiety, shame, or stress; when tasks fail to inspire motivation because they are perceived as low-priority or overly abstract; or when an individual experiences cognitive factors that impair executive functioning. Individuals who experience chronic difficulties with task initiation and [[w:Procrastination|procrastination]] may experience adverse outcomes such as greater stress and poorer mental health (Stead et al., 2010) as well as decreased performance in academic environments (Steel, 2007). Understanding the cognitive and psychological elements of task initiation and the various mechanisms underlying these domains can help to bolster task initiation in individuals, thus reducing the negative impact of impaired task initiation on individuals' lives. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What cognitive processes underlie task initiation? * How do motivational and emotional factors influence task initiation? * How is task initiation related to procrastination? * How can psychological disorders impair task initiation? * How can task initiation be improved? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Cognitive processes and theories == The core executive functions outline above collectively support successful task initiation. However, intention to initiate a task does not always translate into action, and cognitive models such as the [[w:Theory_of_planned_behavior|theory of planned behaviour]] (TPB) and the [[w:Rubicon_model|Rubicon model of action phases]] offer explanations for this discrepancy. === Theory of planned behaviour === [[File:Theory of planned behaviour.png|thumb|350x350px|'''Figure 2.''' Diagram of the Theory of Planned Behaviour ]] The theory of planned behaviour proposes that attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control jointly shape an individual's behavioural intention, which is then theorised to be the most immediate determinant of behaviour (Ajzen, 1991). However, perceived behavioural control - often conceptually related or compared to [[w:Self-efficacy|self-efficacy]] - is also stated as directly influencing behaviour due to the dependence of behaviour on whether an individual has sufficient control over performing it (see Figure 2), a relationship that is stated within the model as being strongest when perceived control reasonably reflects actual control. Thus, this can lead to an intention-action gap: favourable attitudes and supportive norms may generate an intention to begin a task, but insufficient perceived or actual behavioural control can prevent that intention from being translated into action. === Rubicon model of action phases === The Rubicon model of action phases divides the process from intention to action into four phases: pre-decisional (choosing between potential goals through weighing their feasibility and desirability), pre-actional (planning the implementation of the chosen goal), actional (executing the plan) and post-actional (evaluating outcomes against initial goals and subsequently adjusting future behaviour) (Heckhausen & Gollwitzer, 1987). The model therefore provides another framework for understanding the intention-action gap: after forming a goal intention, an individual may still fail to progress from the pre-actional to the actional phase, resulting in an intended behaviour that is not successfully initiated. === Construal level theory (CLT) === An additional cognitive factor influencing task initiation is mental representation. [[w:Construal_level_theory|Construal level theory]] is a psychological framework centred around the concept of [[w:Psychological_distance|psychological distance]], and it distinguishes between high-level, abstract representations and low-level, concrete representations. High-level representations revolve around task purpose, value, and reward, and may boost motivation, but also delay task initiation due to a lack of operational starting points; low-level representations alternatively emphasise practical and logistical steps (Trope & Liberman, 2010). As such, mentally representing a task in a less abstract manner may increase task initiation through making the immediate actions required to begin it more apparent. == Motivational and emotional barriers == Motivation and emotion are two psychological areas of study which both pertain to task initiation and may be examined to understand how and why task initiation can become difficult. === Motivational barriers === Task initiation is partly dependent on motivational influences such as the anticipated benefit of the task, the perceived likelihood of success, and the costs associated with performing it. [[w:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] proposes that the expected outcomes and subjective value placed upon tasks by individuals heavily influence choice and persistence in relation to tasks (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). Similarly, self-efficacy theory proposes that individuals' efficacy expectations are a prominent determinant in relation to goal setting, task choice, effort expenditure, and persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Additionally, neurological theories such as the expected value of control (EVC) propose that the brain weighs anticipated rewards against the costs of cognitive exertion and allocates cognitive control accordingly, thus providing an additional explanation for why task initiation may be inhibited for demanding tasks even if they have been appraised as valuable and achievable (Shenhav et al., 2013). === Emotional barriers === Task initiation is also dependent on anticipatory emotions associated with the task. Aversion to negative emotional states has been shown to decrease the likelihood of task initiation (Sirois & Pychyl, 2013), and greater task aversiveness as a result of these emotions is associated with greater behavioural delay (Blunt & Pychyl, 2000). Negative emotions can arise as a result of individual tasks, and may also be further compounded by chronic dispositions such as [[w:Fear_of_negative_evaluation|fear of failure]] and [[w:Perfectionism_(psychology)|perfectionism]]. Individuals with high fear of failure and levels of perfectionism report greater experienced shame and embarrassment following failure (Sagar & Stoeber, 2009), potentially decreasing the likelihood of initiating similar tasks in the future. {{RoundBoxTop}}'''Case study: fictional scenario''' Stacy has recently started her first white-collar office job. During her second week, her manager asks here to prepare a short briefing for an upcoming client meeting, but gives little guidance as to what should be included and how it should be presented. [[File:Corporate Woman Being Stressed at Work.svg|thumb|'''Figure 3.''' Stacy grows stressed as she continually avoids starting the briefing]] Stacy is unsure what information to include, how detailed the briefing should be, or what format her manager expects. Due to her relative inexperience, she starts to doubt that she is going to be able to meet expectations, and is also concerned that making a mistake so early in her new job could create a poor impression of her abilities. Although Stacy intends to intends to begin the briefing, the combination of ambiguity, low-self efficacy, and fear of failure makes starting the task increasingly aversive. She repeatedly postpones starting, instead completing smaller and more familiar tasks such as responding to emails and organising files (see Figure 3).{{RoundBoxBottom}} {{Robelbox|theme=5|width=100%|title=Quiz: Factors influencing task initiation|iconwidth=47px|icon=Nuvola_apps_korganizer.svg}}<div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> <quiz display=simple> { Which option correctly matches each factor to how it may interfere with task initiation? } |type="()"} - Task ambiguity → low anticipated task benefit; low self-efficacy → high anticipated costs of cognitive exertion; fear of failure → unclear starting steps - Task ambiguity → difficulty regulating negative emotions; low self-efficacy → difficulty identifying concrete steps; fear of failure → reduced expectancy caused by delayed rewards + Task ambiguity → difficulty identifying concrete steps; low self-efficacy → reduced confidence in successfully completing the task; fear of failure → anticipated failure makes the task emotionally aversive </quiz> </div> {{Robelbox-close}} == Procrastination == Impaired task initiation is often associated with procrastination, defined as the voluntary delay of an intended course of action despite expecting negative consequences from that delay (Steel, 2007). Procrastination can be distinguished from impaired task initiation in that it is a specific form of delay in which intended actions are unnecessarily postponed despite foreseeable adverse consequences. Despite being defined as a voluntary choice, it is often examined and discussed in relation to failures of self-regulation, and thus may be heavily influenced by [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|emotional regulation]] processes. === Self-regulation === Steel (2007) identifies procrastination as a failure of self-regulation, with strong associative factors of task aversiveness, task delay, self-efficacy, and impulsiveness, as well as facets of conscientiousness such as self-control, distractibility, organisation, and achievement motivation. These effects are consistent with the prominent motivational explanation provided by [[w:Temporal_motivation_theory|temporal motivation theory]]. ==== Temporal motivation theory ==== Temporal motivation theory integrates several established approaches to motivation into a single mode, including [[w:Expectancy_theory|expectancy theory]] and other theories concerning delayed rewards (Steel & König, 2006). Central to the model is the idea that motivation changes over time, and a simplified form of the theory can be represented by the following formula: <math>Motivation = {Expectancy \times Value\over 1+Impulsiveness\times Delay}</math> In the model, the additional constructs of impulsiveness and delay are introduced to represent individual differences in sensitivity to delay and the amount of time remaining between an individual and an anticipated outcome, respectively. This formula provides critical insight into the nature of time on motivation: distant rewards or consequences typically exert less influence on current motivation. As deadlines approach and delay shrinks, motivation increases sharply, leading to a decrease in procrastination and an increase in the likelihood of initiating the deadline-bound task. However, as with task initiation, procrastination is also influenced by emotional factors. === Emotional regulation === Sirois and Pychyl (2013) argue that procrastination is used as short-term mood regulation and repair: temporarily avoiding an aversive task momentarily improves mood while transferring costs to the future self. This may produce a [[w:Reinforcement|negative reinforcement]] cycle, where the immediate relief provided by the avoidance of a negative emotion makes future avoidance more likely. The "[https://www.verywellmind.com/wall-of-awful-in-adhd-12000744 Wall of Awful]" is a popular metaphor often used to conceptualise an emotional barrier to task initiation that may accumulate as a result of these cycles. == Neurodevelopmental and psychiatric conditions == Various psychological and neurodevelopmental conditions are partly characterised by or may result in impaired task initiation. === Neurodevelopmental disorders === Individuals diagnosed with [[w:Neurodevelopmental_disorder|neurodevelopmental disorders]] such as [[w:Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder|attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder]] (ADHD) and [[w:Autism|autism spectrum disorder]] (ASD) often report difficulties with task initiation. Associations have consistently been found between ADHD symptoms and procrastination, particularly with inattention, and to a lesser extent with executive dysfunction, emotional dysregulation, and impaired motivational processes (Suriano, 2026). Executive dysfunction is also common in children and adolescents with autism, with difficulties indicated in areas including cognitive flexibility, attention, working memory, and inhibition (Ceruti et al., 2024); the term [https://autisticinertia.com/2019/10/researchers-view/ autistic inertia] has been used to specifically describe difficulties in task initiation in autism, with research showing that autistic individuals report increased difficulty in starting, stopping, and switching activities, even in instances where they intended or wanted to act but nevertheless experienced difficulty doing so (Buckle et al., 2021). === Psychiatric conditions === Individuals diagnosed with [[w:Mental_disorder|psychiatric disorders]] may also experience difficulties with task initiation, although the underlying mechanisms can differ from those associated with neurodevelopmental conditions. In [[w:Major_depressive_disorder|major depressive disorder]] (MDD), [[w:Anhedonia|anhedonia]] and chronically reduced motivation may contribute to impaired task initiation through a reduced willingness to expend cognitive and physical effort for rewards (Horne et al., 2021). [[w:Avolition|Avolition]], defined as a severe and persistent decrease in the ability to start and sustain self-directed goal-oriented activities, is considered an important negative symptom of [[w:Schizophrenia|schizophrenia]] (DeRosse et al., 2019). ==Improving task initiation == As difficulties with task initiation have been identified as arising from cognitive, motivational, and emotional factors, interventions aimed at improving task initiation are typically aimed at the specific mechanisms preventing action. === Cognitive strategies to improve task initiation === ==== Implementation intentions ==== [[w:Implementation_intention|Implementation intentions]] (also known as "if-then planning") are a self-regulatory strategy conceptualised by Peter Gollwitzer as a result of his earlier work alongside Heinz Heckhausen on the Rubicon model of action phases. Unlike goal intentions, which specify a desired outcome (e.g., "I want to improve my fitness"), implementation intentions specify the situational cues and subsequent behavioural response through which a goal will be pursued (e.g., "At 7:00 pm, I will go for a run"). Within the Rubicon model, implementation intentions are relevant to the transition between the pre-actional and actional phases. By linking situational cues to pre-planned responses, implementation intentions can improve task initiation by reducing reliance on conscious deliberation and turning goal-directed behaviour into a more streamlined, automatic process (Gollwitzer, 1999). ==== Task concretisation ==== Task concretisation is the process of deconstructing large, often abstract tasks into smaller, more concrete subtasks. As discussed previously, construal level theory highlights that low-level representations emphasise the specific means through which a task is carried out as opposed to its broader purpose (Trope & Liberman, 2010). Concretisation may therefore improve task initiation through improved task clarification, and has also been shown to reduce cognitive computational demands through the facilitation of easier planning while also preserving effective performance (Correa et al., 2023). ==== Cognitive offloading ==== [[File:ESEAP Strategy Summit Day 1 - Mehrdad reading a post-it note that will be posted on the Revenue Streams flipchart.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 4.''' Post-it notes being used as visible reminders.|200x200px]] Cognitive offloading refers to the use of physical actions or external tools to decrease the cognitive demands associated with a task (Risko & Gilbert, 2016). By storing information in external cues rather than relying on cognitive processes such as working memory, the mental demands associated with organising and remembering to begin tasks may be reduced, thus improving task initiation. Examples of cognitive offloading include writing down information, setting alarms, and other visible reminders (see Figure 4). === Motivational strategies to improve task initiation === Both motivational models such as expectancy-value theory and neuroscientific models of cognitive-control allocation such as the expected value of control emphasise evaluations of potential value relative to costs. Similar principles appear in temporal motivation theory, in which motivation is influenced through expectancy, value, impulsiveness, and delay. Accordingly, strategies for increasing motivation and facilitating task initiation may involve increasing the perceived value of a task, increasing expectations of success, or reducing its perceived costs. Subjective task value may be increased by linking tasks to personally meaningful goals, interests, or future outcomes: research shows that encouraging students to connect specific academic tasks to personal interests or goals can lead to increased interest, engagement, and academic performance (Harackiewicz et al., 2014). Expectancy may be strengthened by setting smaller, achievable goals, as this provides clearer evidence of progress and attainment, which can strengthen perceptions of self-efficacy (Schunk, 1984). Finally, reducing perceived costs may involve the previously mentioned task concretisation, which reduces task complexity through clearer immediate subtasks, thus decreasing the initial cognitive demands required. === Emotional strategies to improve task initiation === As task avoidance and procrastination are often associated with attempts to regulate aversive emotions, strategies for improving task initiation may involve greater emotional acceptance and improved emotional regulation. Greater awareness and acceptance of emotional experiences has been associated with more adaptive emotional responding (Erisman & Roemer, 2010), while practising the tolerance and modification of aversive emotions has been shown to reduce procrastination (Eckert et al., 2016). Furthermore, Wohl et al. (2010) found that greater levels of self-reported self-forgiveness were associated with lower levels of future procrastination, which may be particularly important in disrupting negative reinforcement cycles. === Additional strategies and strategy integrations === ==== Environmental and social changes ==== Changes to an individual's environment may facilitate task initiation. Removing prominent distractions such as digital devices like phones, unrelated projects, unfinished chores, or other stimuli that compete for attention may decrease the inhibitory control required to focus on necessary tasks. Research indicates that even the presence of one's own smartphone may occupy cognitive resources, even when conscious attention is not being paid to it (Ward et al., 2017). Social strategies such as [https://www.simplypsychology.com/articles/body-doubling-adhd body doubling] are also often offered as a strategy to reduce procrastination, specifically in individuals with ADHD; however, direct evidence is limited, with the proposal relying primarily on anecdotal consensus. ==== Psychotherapeutic interventions ==== [[w:Cognitive_behavioral_therapy|Cognitive behavioural therapy]] (CBT) may be used to treat individuals who struggle with chronic procrastination, thus potentially improving overall task initiation. Rozental et al. (2018) found substantial reductions in procrastination following CBT interventions, suggesting that CBT may be an effective tool in managing procrastination. These interventions included techniques such as [[w:Psychoeducation|psychoeducation]], goal setting and [[w:Behavioral_activation|behavioural activation]], strategies to strengthen self-efficacy, stimulus control and distraction management, assertiveness training, and [[w:Cognitive_restructuring|cognitive restructuring]]. Overall, CBT functions as a broader therapeutic framework in which several previously discussed strategies to improving task initiation are integrated. {{Robelbox|theme=5|width=100%|title=Quiz: Identifying appropriate interventions|iconwidth=47px|icon=Nuvola_apps_korganizer.svg}}<div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> <quiz display=simple> { Which option correctly matches each task-initiation difficulty with an appropriate strategy? } |type="()"} - Unclear task steps → implementation intentions; difficulty acting on intentions → environmental restructuring; environmental distraction → task concretisation + Unclear task steps → task concretisation; difficulty acting on intentions → implementation intentions; environmental distraction → environmental restructuring - Unclear task steps → environmental restructuring; difficulty acting on intentions → task concretisation; environmental distraction → implementation intentions </quiz> </div> {{Robelbox-close}} == Conclusion == Task initiation is a higher-order executive function derived from core processes such as working memory, inhibition, and cognitive flexibility. Functional task initiation can be adversely affected through impairments of these areas, such as is common in neurodevelopmental disorders, as well as through various individual motivational and emotional factors. Various models and theories, such as the theory of planned behaviour, the Rubicon model of action phases, construal level theory, and temporal motivation theory are offered as explanations for how and why individuals may struggle to successfully convert goal-intentions into goal-directed behaviour. Strategies for improving task initiation therefore often reflect and address these underlying mechanisms. Implementation intentions, task concretisation, and cognitive offloading may decrease the intention-action gap, provide clearer first steps to initiating tasks, and reduce the mental effort to do so, respectively. Increasing the perceived value of tasks and their rewards, or decreasing the perceived costs, may address motivational issues, while practicing emotional acceptance and regulation may reduce avoidance as a result of emotional issues. Psychotherapeutic interventions such as cognitive behavioural therapy often integrate several of these approaches, and other minor strategies are also available to increase task initiation, such as environmental restructuring and body doubling. == See also == *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Executive function and motivation|Executive function and motivation]] (Book chapter, 2025) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Fear of failure and procrastination|Fear of failure and procrastination]] (Book chapter, 2025) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Procrastination and temporal discounting|Procrastination and temporal discounting]] (Book chapter, 2025) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1=Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50(2), 179–211. doi.org/10.1016/0749-5978(91)90020-T Blunt, A. K., & Pychyl, T. A. (2000). Task aversiveness and procrastination: A multi-dimensional approach to task aversiveness across stages of personal projects. Personality and Individual Differences, 28(1), 153–167. doi.org/10.1016/s0191-8869(99)00091-4 Buckle, K. L., Leadbitter, K., Poliakoff, E., & Gowen, E. (2021). “No way out except from external intervention”: First-hand accounts of autistic inertia. Frontiers in Psychology, 12(63159). doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.631596 Ceruti, C., Mingozzi, A., Scionti, N., & Marzocchi, G. M. (2024). Comparing executive functions in children and adolescents with autism and ADHD—A systematic review and meta-analysis. Children, 11(4), 473. doi.org/10.3390/children11040473 Correa, C. G., Ho, M. K., Callaway, F., Daw, N. D., & Griffiths, T. L. (2023). Humans decompose tasks by trading off utility and computational cost. PLOS Computational Biology, 19(6), e1011087. doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1011087 DeRosse, P., Barber, A. D., Fales, C. L., & Malhotra, A. K. (2019). Deconstructing avolition: Initiation vs persistence of reward-directed effort. Psychiatry Research, 273, 647–652. doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2019.01.073 Diamond, A. (2013). Executive functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64(1), 135–168. doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750 Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153 Eckert, M., Ebert, D. D, Lehr, D., Sieland, B., & Berking, M. (2016). Overcome procrastination: Enhancing emotion regulation skills reduce procrastination. Learning and Individual Differences, 52, 10–18. doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2016.10.001 Erisman, S. M., & Roemer, L. (2010). A preliminary investigation of the effects of experimentally induced mindfulness on emotional responding to film clips. Emotion, 10(1), 72–82. doi.org/10.1037/a0017162 Gollwitzer, P. M. (1999). Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans. American Psychologist, 54(7), 493–503. doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.54.7.493 Harackiewicz, J. M., Tibbetts, Y., Canning, E. A., & Hyde, J. S. (2014). Harnessing values to promote motivation in education. In S. A. Karabenick & T. C. Urdan (Eds.), Motivational interventions (Vol. 18, pp. 71–105). Emerald Group Publishing Limited. doi.org/10.1108/S0749-742320140000018002 Heckhausen, H., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (1987). Thought contents and cognitive functioning in motivational versus volitional states of mind. Motivation and Emotion, 11(2), 101–120. doi.org/10.1007/bf00992338 Horne, S. J., Topp, T. E., & Quigley, L. (2021). Depression and the willingness to expend cognitive and physical effort for rewards: A systematic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 88, 102065. doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2021.102065 Risko, E. F., & Gilbert, S. J. (2016). Cognitive offloading. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 20(9), 676–688. doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2016.07.002 Rozental, A., Forsström, D., Lindner, P., Nilsson, S., Mårtensson, L., Rizzo, A., Andersson, G., & Carlbring, P. (2018). Treating procrastination using cognitive behavior therapy: A pragmatic randomized controlled trial comparing treatment delivered via the internet or in groups. Behavior Therapy, 49(2), 180–197. doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2017.08.002 Sagar, S. S., & Stoeber, J. (2009). Perfectionism, fear of failure, and affective responses to success and failure: The central role of fear of experiencing shame and embarrassment. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 31(5), 602–627. doi.org/10.1123/jsep.31.5.602 Schunk, D. H. (1984). Enhancing self-efficacy and achievement through rewards and goals: Motivational and informational effects. The Journal of Educational Research, 78(1), 29–34. doi.org/10.1080/00220671.1984.10885568 Shenhav, A., Botvinick, M. M., & Cohen, J. D. (2013). The expected value of control: An integrative theory of anterior cingulate cortex function. Neuron, 79(2), 217–240. doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2013.07.007 Sirois, F., & Pychyl, T. (2013). Procrastination and the priority of short-term mood regulation: Consequences for future self. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 7(2), 115–127. doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12011 Stead, R., Shanahan, M. J., & Neufeld, R. W. J. (2010). “I’ll go to therapy, eventually”: Procrastination, stress and mental health. Personality and Individual Differences, 49(3), 175–180. doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.03.028 Steel, P. (2007). The nature of procrastination: A meta-analytic and theoretical review of quintessential self-regulatory failure. Psychological Bulletin, 133(1), 65–94. doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.65 Steel, P., & König, C. J. (2006). Integrating theories of motivation. Academy of Management Review, 31(4), 889–913. doi.org/10.5465/amr.2006.22527462 Suriano, R. (2026). A systematic review on the association between ADHD and procrastination. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 175, 105342. doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2026.105342 Trope, Y., & Liberman, N. (2010). Construal-level theory of psychological distance. Psychological Review, 117(2), 440–463. doi.org/10.1037/a0018963 Ward, A. F., Duke, K., Gneezy, A., & Bos, M. W. (2017). Brain drain: The mere presence of one’s own smartphone reduces available cognitive capacity. Journal of the Association for Consumer Research, 2(2), 140–154. doi.org/10.1086/691462 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–value theory of achievement motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 68–81. doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 Wohl, M. J. A., Pychyl, T. A., & Bennett, S. H. (2010). I forgive myself, now I can study: How self-forgiveness for procrastinating can reduce future procrastination. Personality and Individual Differences, 48(7), 803–808. doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.01.029 }} == External links == *[https://www.simplypsychology.com/articles/body-doubling-adhd Body Doubling: The ADHD Productivity Strategy That Actually Works (2026)] (Simply Psychology) *[https://www.verywellmind.com/wall-of-awful-in-adhd-12000744 How the Wall of Awful Prevents Task Initiation in ADHD—and What Can Help You Push Through] (Verywell Mind) *[https://autisticinertia.com/2019/10/researchers-view/ Researchers' view of initiation in autism] (Autistic Inertia) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Goal pursuit]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Procrastination]] m2uf7000pjz8ojdks7qvzwyeee09faa 2 331310 2836421 2828812 2026-10-07T03:38:38Z E3297976 3106770 social contributions 2836421 wikitext text/x-wiki == Get to know me == I am a second-year university study at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. I study a Bachelor of Science in Psychology and a Bachelor of Health Science. Some of my hobbies include: [[File:Long Distance Runners, Ancient Greece, Amphora.png|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' Artwork depicting long distance running]] * [[Running]] * Reading * [[w:Craft|Crafting]] * Going to the gym * Eating sweet treats == My Book Chapter == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Breathing exercises and relaxation|Breathing exercises and relaxation]] == Social contributions == # [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/456558 Created a discussion board for my chapter] # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3AMotivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FNeed_to_love_and_be_loved#Maslow's_Hierarchy_of_Needs Added a talk page comment] #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2026/Self-determination_theory_and_dementia_care&action=history Made an edit- added quotation marks] #[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/464953 Reviewed a draft and provided feedback] mf31aicdgwgr1i5drs3g8c5l0ldww1n 2 331311 2836360 2828108 2026-10-07T00:09:16Z U3283643 3106326 added descriptions 2836360 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == I am currently in my third year of university completing the '''[[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]]''' unit, studying at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. I have thoroughly enjoyed my course so far and excited to keep learning. [[File:Greek dancing at Zorba's Greek Restaurant, Missoula, Montana, 1979.tif|thumb|Figure 1. A group of people performing a Greek dance]] Some of my hobbies and interests include: * [[w:Travel|Traveling]]: Although, most of my traveling history is from my youth, I am keen to explore new places and experiences. I have a family member getting married in Cancun next year where I plan to go and explore Europe after. * [[wikipedia:Greek_dances|Greek dancing]] : I have participated in Greek dancing classes for almost 8 years now and have done numerous performances ranging from the Multicultural Festival, to Brisbane Panayiri's, to performing in Crete, Greece. My Greek heritage is a strong part of who I am and who I continue to explore. * [[wikipedia:Working|Working]]: For the past 6 years, I have enjoyed keeping occupied by work. I have had a few jobs over the years from hospitality, to office work for an Indigenous non-for-profit organisation, [https://www.corroboreegroup.com.au/corroboreetalent Corroboree Talent], which I have thoroughly enjoyed. My work history can be seen on [https://www.linkedin.com/in/dimi-kaddour-99958b206/?isSelfProfile=true my LinkedIn] page as well. == Book chapter I'm working on == The [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Interrogation and compliance|Interrogation and Compliance]] book chapter topic is the one I selected due to its interesting == Social Contributions == # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FAutomaticity_in_goal_striving&diff=2828075&oldid=2825442 Edited an in-text reference] # [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/457190 Responded to a discussion post] # [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Automaticity in goal striving#Integration Heading|Added a comment on a past book chapter]] nma3oh4ur6st60dn8it89b2kowqda74 2836371 2836360 2026-10-07T01:03:05Z U3283643 3106326 2836371 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == I am currently in my third year of university completing the '''[[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]]''' unit, studying at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. I have thoroughly enjoyed my course so far and excited to learn more. [[File:Greek dancing at Zorba's Greek Restaurant, Missoula, Montana, 1979.tif|thumb|Figure 1. A group of people performing a Greek dance]] Some of my hobbies and interests include: * [[w:Travel|Traveling]]: Although, majority of my traveling history is from my youth, I am keen to explore new places and experiences. I have a family member getting married in Cancun next year where I plan to go and explore Europe after with friends. * [[wikipedia:Greek_dances|Greek dancing]]: I have participated in Greek dancing classes for almost 8 years now and have done numerous performances ranging from the Multicultural Festival, [https://www.paniyiri.com/ Brisbane Paniyiri's], to performing in the old town of Crete, Greece. My Greek heritage is a strong part of who I am and who I continue to explore. * [[wikipedia:Working|Working]]: For the past 6 years, I have enjoyed keeping occupied by work. I have had a few jobs over the years from hospitality, to office work for an Indigenous non-for-profit organisation, [https://www.corroboreegroup.com.au/corroboreetalent Corroboree Talent], which I have thoroughly enjoyed. My work history can be seen on [https://www.linkedin.com/in/dimi-kaddour-99958b206/?isSelfProfile=true my LinkedIn] page as well. == Book chapter I'm working on == The [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Interrogation and compliance|Interrogation and Compliance]] book chapter topic is the one I selected as I find it very interesting to learn about why people say the things they do during interrogation and how that can change with different types of pressure. == Social Contributions == # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FAutomaticity_in_goal_striving&diff=2828075&oldid=2825442 Edited an in-text reference] # [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/457190 Responded to a discussion post] # [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Automaticity in goal striving#Integration Heading|Added a comment on a past book chapter]] lvfq0vltmhjekpbrdwhxm4e63mvqzmu 0 331320 2836372 2836070 2026-10-07T01:07:14Z U3283643 3106326 /* Overview */ 2836372 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Interrogation and compliance:<br>What psychological processes influence resistance and compliance during interrogation?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:Japanese police interrogation room - movie set - October 2014.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. An interrogation room setting, illustrating the environment in which psychological pressure, suggestibility and compliance may occur.]] ; Imagine this ... Imagine being interrogated by the police on a crime you did not commit. You are initially self-assured in your responses and give a thorough explanation of your location. But as the interrogation goes on, the questions became more intense and repetitious. The interviewer continuously questions your responses, informs you that your explanation is illogical, and implies that there is evidence to support your involvement. Anxiety and uneasiness start to rise as the interrogation goes on. You begin to question whether you have accurately recalled everything. You eventually change minor facts and agree with portions of the interviewer's story, in part because it seems like the simplest way to put a stop to the questioning. This situation shows that being "strong enough" to resist is not the only factor in complying during questioning. Emotional pressure, uncertainty, authority, perceived repercussions, and the desire to get out of a difficult circumstance can all influence behaviour. {{RoundBoxBottom}} This situation demonstrates how compliance and interrogative suggestibility may affect a person's answers while being questioned. The extent to which a person may accept false information or alter their answers in response to pressure or unfavourable feedback is known as interrogative suggestibility. Compliance entails accepting requests or recommendations in order to avoid confrontation or appease an authority figure. It is critical to comprehend these procedures since they can impact the reliability of statements made during police interviews and, in certain cases, lead to inaccurate evidence or false confessions. Interviewing strategies that lessen needless pressure and enhance the accuracy of information gathered can be informed by psychological research, which can also assist in uncovering variables that increase susceptibility to suggestibility and compliance. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' *What is interrogative suggestibility and compliance? *What psychological factors make a person more vulnerable to suggestibility and compliance during interrogation? *How can interrogative suggestibility and compliance influence the accuracy of statements and confessions? *How can psychological science help improve interviewing and interrogation practices? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Interrogative suggestibility and compliance== Although they are related psychological processes, interrogative suggestibility and compliance are not the same. Both can affect a person's ability to withstand pressure from an interviewer and how they react to questions. === Interrogative suggestibility === * The term "interrogative suggestibility" describes a person's propensity to accept false information or alter their responses when asked, especially in response to interpersonal pressure or negative feedback. (Gudjonsson, 1984). * The two primary reactions measured by the [[wikipedia:Gudjonsson_Suggestibility_Scale|Gudjonsson Suggestibility Scale (GSS)]] are yield, or caving in to deceptive enquiries, and shift, or altering an answer in response to unfavourable feedback (Gudjonsson, 1984). * Suggestibility may not always imply intentional dishonesty. People may start to doubt their own [[wikipedia:Memory|memory]] and lose faith in their initial accounts due to pressure and ambiguity (Gudjonsson, 2003). === Compliance === * [[wikipedia:Compliance|Compliance]] is the act of agreeing to a request or proposal, even if one does not personally agree with it, usually in order to appease another person, avoid confrontation, or get out of an unpleasant situation (Gudjonsson, 1989). * The [[wikipedia:Memory_distrust_syndrome#Gudjonsson_Compliance_Scale|Gudjonsson Compliance Scale (GCS)]] was created to assess individual variations in cooperative conduct during questioning (Gudjonsson, 1989). * This distinction is crucial because a suggestible individual can start to think that their initial recall was inaccurate, while a compliant person might give the interviewer's expected response while secretly knowing it to be untrue. == Psychological factors influencing suggestibility and compliance == Both personal traits and the circumstances surrounding the interrogation have an impact on a person's capacity to withstand questioning. According to psychological studies{{fact}}, vulnerability is typically brought on by a combination of these traits rather than just one. === Individual factors === * Increased interrogative suggestibility has been linked to reduced [[wikipedia:Assertiveness|assertiveness]] and higher [[anxiety]], especially after receiving negative feedback on one's responses (Gudjonsson, 1988). * [[wikipedia:Memory|Memory]] ability can also influence resistance. People may become more reliant on the interviewer's knowledge when they are unsure of what they recall (Gudjonsson, 2003). * Appropriate precautions are especially crucial since young people and other vulnerable persons may find it more difficult to comprehend or resist questioning pressure (Kassin et al., 2025). === Situational factors === * Repeated or [[wikipedia:Leading_question|leading questions]] can create uncertainty and encourage people to reconsider responses that were originally accurate (Gudjonsson, 1984). * Strong authority pressure, lengthy interrogations, accusations, and assertions of proof against the suspect can all lead to stress and make it more difficult for the suspect to continue resisting (Kassin et al., 2025). * Answer-changing can be exacerbated by negative feedback, such as informing someone repeatedly that their answers are wrong, especially if they already lack trust in their recall (Gudjonsson, 1988). == Effects on statements and confessions == When evaluating the validity of evidence gathered during an interrogation, suggestibility and compliance become very crucial. * A person may provide an account that includes material supplied by the interviewer rather than information from their original [[wikipedia:Memory|memory]] if they often alter details in response to recommendations. * When someone intentionally admits to something they did not commit in order to avoid pressure or obtain a perceived reward, this is known as a compliant [[wikipedia:False_confession|false confession]]. When someone starts to think they could have truly committed the crime, it's called an internalised [[wikipedia:False_confession|false confession]] (Kassin & Kiechel, 1996). * Higher levels of suggestibility and compliance were seen in the false-confession group as compared to those who resisted questioning (Gudjonsson, 1991). * Because [[wikipedia:Confession|confession]] evidence might affect how other evidence is interpreted and lead to [[wikipedia:Miscarriage_of_justice|wrongful convictions]], [[wikipedia:False_confession|false confessions]] are particularly troubling (Kassin et al., 2025). == Improving interviewing and interrogation practices == In addition to understanding why individuals comply, psychological science may be used to create interviewing techniques that yield correct information while minimising needless pressure. * Instead of starting with the presumption that the suspect is guilty, [https://financialcrimeacademy.org/types-of-data-in-interviews/ information-gathering interviews] place a focus on rapport, candid conversation, and open-ended enquiries. * According to a meta-analysis, information-gathering methods reduced false confessions while maintaining—and in some cases, increasing—true confessions as compared to accusatorial methods (Meissner et al., 2014). * Preparation, engagement, account acquisition, closure, and evaluation constitute the foundation of the [[wikipedia:PEACE_method_of_interrogation|PEACE model]], an information-gathering methodology. Instead of concentrating just on getting a confession, it encourages interviewers to get information (Meissner et al., 2014). * Additional protections for young and vulnerable suspects, minimising extremely aggressive techniques, and fully documenting interviews are all supported by psychological research (Kassin et al., 2025). <quiz display="simple"> {An interviewee knows they are innocent but agrees with the interviewer simply to end an uncomfortable interrogation. Which psychological process is this most consistent with?} - Interrogative suggestibility + Compliance - Memory consolidation - Cognitive dissonance </quiz> == Conclusion == * [[wikipedia:Memory|Memory]], uncertainty, anxiety, personality, and the degree of pressure used during questioning all interact to affect interrogative conduct. * While [[wikipedia:Compliance|compliance]] might entail appearing to agree with an interviewer while secretly disagreeing, [[wikipedia:Suggestibility|suggestibility]] entails accepting false information or altering replies. Both procedures can make testimonies less trustworthy and make people more susceptible to making false confessions. * According to psychological study, resistance is more than just a question of willpower. Inaccurate answers might be more or less likely depending on the interviewing techniques used. * In general, more trustworthy information may be obtained while lowering the possibility of false confessions and [[wikipedia:Miscarriage_of_justice|wrongful convictions]] through the use of information-gathering techniques, suitable protections, and understanding of psychological susceptibility. == See also == * [[wikipedia:False_confession|False confession]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Suggestibility|Suggestibility]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Eyewitness memory and emotion|Eyewitness memory and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2014) == References == {{Hanging indent|1= Gudjonsson, G. H. (1984). A new scale of interrogative suggestibility. Personality and Individual Differences, 5(3), 303–314.   https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(84)90069-2 Gudjonsson, G. H. (1988). Interrogative suggestibility: Its relationship with assertiveness, social-evaluative anxiety, state anxiety and method of coping. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 27(2), 159–166.   https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8260.1988.tb00764.x Gudjonsson, G. H. (1989). Compliance in an interrogative situation: A new scale. Personality and Individual Differences, 10(5), 535–540.   https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(89)90035-4 Gudjonsson, G. H. (1991). Suggestibility and compliance among alleged false confessors and resisters in criminal trials. Medicine, Science and the Law, 31(2), 147–151.   https://doi.org/10.1177/002580249103100210 Gudjonsson, G. H. (2003). The psychology of interrogations and confessions: A handbook. Wiley. Kassin, S. M., Cleary, H. M. D., Gudjonsson, G. H., Leo, R. A., Meissner, C. A., Redlich, A. D., & Scherr, K. C. (2025). Police-induced confessions, 2.0: Risk factors and recommendations. Law and Human Behavior, 49(1), 7–53.   https://doi.org/10.1037/lhb0000593 Kassin, S. M., & Kiechel, K. L. (1996). The social psychology of false confessions: Compliance, internalization, and confabulation. Psychological Science, 7(3), 125–128.   https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.1996.tb00344.x Meissner, C. A., Redlich, A. D., Michael, S. W., Evans, J. R., Camilletti, C. R., Bhatt, S., & Brandon, S. (2014). Accusatorial and information-gathering interrogation methods and their effects on true and false confessions: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 10(4), 459–486.   https://doi.org/10.1007/s11292-014-9207-6}} == External links == * [https://www.apa.org/pubs/highlights/spotlight/police-induced-confessions Police-induced confessions]: Risks and recommendations (American Psychological Association) * [https://innocenceproject.org/false-confessions/ False confessions] (Innocence Project) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Social]] l1fy7osclz3dax8huyzfu9lk7cg2jgm 2836373 2836372 2026-10-07T01:07:59Z U3283643 3106326 /* Overview */ 2836373 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Interrogation and compliance:<br>What psychological processes influence resistance and compliance during interrogation?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:Japanese police interrogation room - movie set - October 2014.jpg|right|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. An interrogation room setting, illustrating the environment in which psychological pressure, suggestibility and compliance may occur.]] ; Imagine this ... Imagine being interrogated by the police on a crime you did not commit. You are initially self-assured in your responses and give a thorough explanation of your location. But as the interrogation goes on, the questions became more intense and repetitious. The interviewer continuously questions your responses, informs you that your explanation is illogical, and implies that there is evidence to support your involvement. Anxiety and uneasiness start to rise as the interrogation goes on. You begin to question whether you have accurately recalled everything. You eventually change minor facts and agree with portions of the interviewer's story, in part because it seems like the simplest way to put a stop to the questioning. This situation shows that being "strong enough" to resist is not the only factor in complying during questioning. Emotional pressure, uncertainty, authority, perceived repercussions, and the desire to get out of a difficult circumstance can all influence behaviour. {{RoundBoxBottom}} This situation demonstrates how compliance and interrogative suggestibility may affect a person's answers while being questioned. The extent to which a person may accept false information or alter their answers in response to pressure or unfavourable feedback is known as interrogative suggestibility. Compliance entails accepting requests or recommendations in order to avoid confrontation or appease an authority figure. It is critical to comprehend these procedures since they can impact the reliability of statements made during police interviews and, in certain cases, lead to inaccurate evidence or false confessions. Interviewing strategies that lessen needless pressure and enhance the accuracy of information gathered can be informed by psychological research, which can also assist in uncovering variables that increase susceptibility to suggestibility and compliance. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' *What is interrogative suggestibility and compliance? *What psychological factors make a person more vulnerable to suggestibility and compliance during interrogation? *How can interrogative suggestibility and compliance influence the accuracy of statements and confessions? *How can psychological science help improve interviewing and interrogation practices? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Interrogative suggestibility and compliance== Although they are related psychological processes, interrogative suggestibility and compliance are not the same. Both can affect a person's ability to withstand pressure from an interviewer and how they react to questions. === Interrogative suggestibility === * The term "interrogative suggestibility" describes a person's propensity to accept false information or alter their responses when asked, especially in response to interpersonal pressure or negative feedback. (Gudjonsson, 1984). * The two primary reactions measured by the [[wikipedia:Gudjonsson_Suggestibility_Scale|Gudjonsson Suggestibility Scale (GSS)]] are yield, or caving in to deceptive enquiries, and shift, or altering an answer in response to unfavourable feedback (Gudjonsson, 1984). * Suggestibility may not always imply intentional dishonesty. People may start to doubt their own [[wikipedia:Memory|memory]] and lose faith in their initial accounts due to pressure and ambiguity (Gudjonsson, 2003). === Compliance === * [[wikipedia:Compliance|Compliance]] is the act of agreeing to a request or proposal, even if one does not personally agree with it, usually in order to appease another person, avoid confrontation, or get out of an unpleasant situation (Gudjonsson, 1989). * The [[wikipedia:Memory_distrust_syndrome#Gudjonsson_Compliance_Scale|Gudjonsson Compliance Scale (GCS)]] was created to assess individual variations in cooperative conduct during questioning (Gudjonsson, 1989). * This distinction is crucial because a suggestible individual can start to think that their initial recall was inaccurate, while a compliant person might give the interviewer's expected response while secretly knowing it to be untrue. == Psychological factors influencing suggestibility and compliance == Both personal traits and the circumstances surrounding the interrogation have an impact on a person's capacity to withstand questioning. According to psychological studies{{fact}}, vulnerability is typically brought on by a combination of these traits rather than just one. === Individual factors === * Increased interrogative suggestibility has been linked to reduced [[wikipedia:Assertiveness|assertiveness]] and higher [[anxiety]], especially after receiving negative feedback on one's responses (Gudjonsson, 1988). * [[wikipedia:Memory|Memory]] ability can also influence resistance. People may become more reliant on the interviewer's knowledge when they are unsure of what they recall (Gudjonsson, 2003). * Appropriate precautions are especially crucial since young people and other vulnerable persons may find it more difficult to comprehend or resist questioning pressure (Kassin et al., 2025). === Situational factors === * Repeated or [[wikipedia:Leading_question|leading questions]] can create uncertainty and encourage people to reconsider responses that were originally accurate (Gudjonsson, 1984). * Strong authority pressure, lengthy interrogations, accusations, and assertions of proof against the suspect can all lead to stress and make it more difficult for the suspect to continue resisting (Kassin et al., 2025). * Answer-changing can be exacerbated by negative feedback, such as informing someone repeatedly that their answers are wrong, especially if they already lack trust in their recall (Gudjonsson, 1988). == Effects on statements and confessions == When evaluating the validity of evidence gathered during an interrogation, suggestibility and compliance become very crucial. * A person may provide an account that includes material supplied by the interviewer rather than information from their original [[wikipedia:Memory|memory]] if they often alter details in response to recommendations. * When someone intentionally admits to something they did not commit in order to avoid pressure or obtain a perceived reward, this is known as a compliant [[wikipedia:False_confession|false confession]]. When someone starts to think they could have truly committed the crime, it's called an internalised [[wikipedia:False_confession|false confession]] (Kassin & Kiechel, 1996). * Higher levels of suggestibility and compliance were seen in the false-confession group as compared to those who resisted questioning (Gudjonsson, 1991). * Because [[wikipedia:Confession|confession]] evidence might affect how other evidence is interpreted and lead to [[wikipedia:Miscarriage_of_justice|wrongful convictions]], [[wikipedia:False_confession|false confessions]] are particularly troubling (Kassin et al., 2025). == Improving interviewing and interrogation practices == In addition to understanding why individuals comply, psychological science may be used to create interviewing techniques that yield correct information while minimising needless pressure. * Instead of starting with the presumption that the suspect is guilty, [https://financialcrimeacademy.org/types-of-data-in-interviews/ information-gathering interviews] place a focus on rapport, candid conversation, and open-ended enquiries. * According to a meta-analysis, information-gathering methods reduced false confessions while maintaining—and in some cases, increasing—true confessions as compared to accusatorial methods (Meissner et al., 2014). * Preparation, engagement, account acquisition, closure, and evaluation constitute the foundation of the [[wikipedia:PEACE_method_of_interrogation|PEACE model]], an information-gathering methodology. Instead of concentrating just on getting a confession, it encourages interviewers to get information (Meissner et al., 2014). * Additional protections for young and vulnerable suspects, minimising extremely aggressive techniques, and fully documenting interviews are all supported by psychological research (Kassin et al., 2025). <quiz display="simple"> {An interviewee knows they are innocent but agrees with the interviewer simply to end an uncomfortable interrogation. Which psychological process is this most consistent with?} - Interrogative suggestibility + Compliance - Memory consolidation - Cognitive dissonance </quiz> == Conclusion == * [[wikipedia:Memory|Memory]], uncertainty, anxiety, personality, and the degree of pressure used during questioning all interact to affect interrogative conduct. * While [[wikipedia:Compliance|compliance]] might entail appearing to agree with an interviewer while secretly disagreeing, [[wikipedia:Suggestibility|suggestibility]] entails accepting false information or altering replies. Both procedures can make testimonies less trustworthy and make people more susceptible to making false confessions. * According to psychological study, resistance is more than just a question of willpower. Inaccurate answers might be more or less likely depending on the interviewing techniques used. * In general, more trustworthy information may be obtained while lowering the possibility of false confessions and [[wikipedia:Miscarriage_of_justice|wrongful convictions]] through the use of information-gathering techniques, suitable protections, and understanding of psychological susceptibility. == See also == * [[wikipedia:False_confession|False confession]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Suggestibility|Suggestibility]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Eyewitness memory and emotion|Eyewitness memory and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2014) == References == {{Hanging indent|1= Gudjonsson, G. H. (1984). A new scale of interrogative suggestibility. Personality and Individual Differences, 5(3), 303–314.   https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(84)90069-2 Gudjonsson, G. H. (1988). Interrogative suggestibility: Its relationship with assertiveness, social-evaluative anxiety, state anxiety and method of coping. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 27(2), 159–166.   https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8260.1988.tb00764.x Gudjonsson, G. H. (1989). Compliance in an interrogative situation: A new scale. Personality and Individual Differences, 10(5), 535–540.   https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(89)90035-4 Gudjonsson, G. H. (1991). Suggestibility and compliance among alleged false confessors and resisters in criminal trials. Medicine, Science and the Law, 31(2), 147–151.   https://doi.org/10.1177/002580249103100210 Gudjonsson, G. H. (2003). The psychology of interrogations and confessions: A handbook. Wiley. Kassin, S. M., Cleary, H. M. D., Gudjonsson, G. H., Leo, R. A., Meissner, C. A., Redlich, A. D., & Scherr, K. C. (2025). Police-induced confessions, 2.0: Risk factors and recommendations. Law and Human Behavior, 49(1), 7–53.   https://doi.org/10.1037/lhb0000593 Kassin, S. M., & Kiechel, K. L. (1996). The social psychology of false confessions: Compliance, internalization, and confabulation. Psychological Science, 7(3), 125–128.   https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.1996.tb00344.x Meissner, C. A., Redlich, A. D., Michael, S. W., Evans, J. R., Camilletti, C. R., Bhatt, S., & Brandon, S. (2014). Accusatorial and information-gathering interrogation methods and their effects on true and false confessions: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 10(4), 459–486.   https://doi.org/10.1007/s11292-014-9207-6}} == External links == * [https://www.apa.org/pubs/highlights/spotlight/police-induced-confessions Police-induced confessions]: Risks and recommendations (American Psychological Association) * [https://innocenceproject.org/false-confessions/ False confessions] (Innocence Project) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Social]] r83vrh18znwspo8v9h8bqfabpugf20b 2836374 2836373 2026-10-07T01:08:14Z U3283643 3106326 /* Overview */ 2836374 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Interrogation and compliance:<br>What psychological processes influence resistance and compliance during interrogation?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:Japanese police interrogation room - movie set - October 2014.jpg|right|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1'''. An interrogation room setting, illustrating the environment in which psychological pressure, suggestibility and compliance may occur.]] ; Imagine this ... Imagine being interrogated by the police on a crime you did not commit. You are initially self-assured in your responses and give a thorough explanation of your location. But as the interrogation goes on, the questions became more intense and repetitious. The interviewer continuously questions your responses, informs you that your explanation is illogical, and implies that there is evidence to support your involvement. Anxiety and uneasiness start to rise as the interrogation goes on. You begin to question whether you have accurately recalled everything. You eventually change minor facts and agree with portions of the interviewer's story, in part because it seems like the simplest way to put a stop to the questioning. This situation shows that being "strong enough" to resist is not the only factor in complying during questioning. Emotional pressure, uncertainty, authority, perceived repercussions, and the desire to get out of a difficult circumstance can all influence behaviour. {{RoundBoxBottom}} This situation demonstrates how compliance and interrogative suggestibility may affect a person's answers while being questioned. The extent to which a person may accept false information or alter their answers in response to pressure or unfavourable feedback is known as interrogative suggestibility. Compliance entails accepting requests or recommendations in order to avoid confrontation or appease an authority figure. It is critical to comprehend these procedures since they can impact the reliability of statements made during police interviews and, in certain cases, lead to inaccurate evidence or false confessions. Interviewing strategies that lessen needless pressure and enhance the accuracy of information gathered can be informed by psychological research, which can also assist in uncovering variables that increase susceptibility to suggestibility and compliance. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' *What is interrogative suggestibility and compliance? *What psychological factors make a person more vulnerable to suggestibility and compliance during interrogation? *How can interrogative suggestibility and compliance influence the accuracy of statements and confessions? *How can psychological science help improve interviewing and interrogation practices? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Interrogative suggestibility and compliance== Although they are related psychological processes, interrogative suggestibility and compliance are not the same. Both can affect a person's ability to withstand pressure from an interviewer and how they react to questions. === Interrogative suggestibility === * The term "interrogative suggestibility" describes a person's propensity to accept false information or alter their responses when asked, especially in response to interpersonal pressure or negative feedback. (Gudjonsson, 1984). * The two primary reactions measured by the [[wikipedia:Gudjonsson_Suggestibility_Scale|Gudjonsson Suggestibility Scale (GSS)]] are yield, or caving in to deceptive enquiries, and shift, or altering an answer in response to unfavourable feedback (Gudjonsson, 1984). * Suggestibility may not always imply intentional dishonesty. People may start to doubt their own [[wikipedia:Memory|memory]] and lose faith in their initial accounts due to pressure and ambiguity (Gudjonsson, 2003). === Compliance === * [[wikipedia:Compliance|Compliance]] is the act of agreeing to a request or proposal, even if one does not personally agree with it, usually in order to appease another person, avoid confrontation, or get out of an unpleasant situation (Gudjonsson, 1989). * The [[wikipedia:Memory_distrust_syndrome#Gudjonsson_Compliance_Scale|Gudjonsson Compliance Scale (GCS)]] was created to assess individual variations in cooperative conduct during questioning (Gudjonsson, 1989). * This distinction is crucial because a suggestible individual can start to think that their initial recall was inaccurate, while a compliant person might give the interviewer's expected response while secretly knowing it to be untrue. == Psychological factors influencing suggestibility and compliance == Both personal traits and the circumstances surrounding the interrogation have an impact on a person's capacity to withstand questioning. According to psychological studies{{fact}}, vulnerability is typically brought on by a combination of these traits rather than just one. === Individual factors === * Increased interrogative suggestibility has been linked to reduced [[wikipedia:Assertiveness|assertiveness]] and higher [[anxiety]], especially after receiving negative feedback on one's responses (Gudjonsson, 1988). * [[wikipedia:Memory|Memory]] ability can also influence resistance. People may become more reliant on the interviewer's knowledge when they are unsure of what they recall (Gudjonsson, 2003). * Appropriate precautions are especially crucial since young people and other vulnerable persons may find it more difficult to comprehend or resist questioning pressure (Kassin et al., 2025). === Situational factors === * Repeated or [[wikipedia:Leading_question|leading questions]] can create uncertainty and encourage people to reconsider responses that were originally accurate (Gudjonsson, 1984). * Strong authority pressure, lengthy interrogations, accusations, and assertions of proof against the suspect can all lead to stress and make it more difficult for the suspect to continue resisting (Kassin et al., 2025). * Answer-changing can be exacerbated by negative feedback, such as informing someone repeatedly that their answers are wrong, especially if they already lack trust in their recall (Gudjonsson, 1988). == Effects on statements and confessions == When evaluating the validity of evidence gathered during an interrogation, suggestibility and compliance become very crucial. * A person may provide an account that includes material supplied by the interviewer rather than information from their original [[wikipedia:Memory|memory]] if they often alter details in response to recommendations. * When someone intentionally admits to something they did not commit in order to avoid pressure or obtain a perceived reward, this is known as a compliant [[wikipedia:False_confession|false confession]]. When someone starts to think they could have truly committed the crime, it's called an internalised [[wikipedia:False_confession|false confession]] (Kassin & Kiechel, 1996). * Higher levels of suggestibility and compliance were seen in the false-confession group as compared to those who resisted questioning (Gudjonsson, 1991). * Because [[wikipedia:Confession|confession]] evidence might affect how other evidence is interpreted and lead to [[wikipedia:Miscarriage_of_justice|wrongful convictions]], [[wikipedia:False_confession|false confessions]] are particularly troubling (Kassin et al., 2025). == Improving interviewing and interrogation practices == In addition to understanding why individuals comply, psychological science may be used to create interviewing techniques that yield correct information while minimising needless pressure. * Instead of starting with the presumption that the suspect is guilty, [https://financialcrimeacademy.org/types-of-data-in-interviews/ information-gathering interviews] place a focus on rapport, candid conversation, and open-ended enquiries. * According to a meta-analysis, information-gathering methods reduced false confessions while maintaining—and in some cases, increasing—true confessions as compared to accusatorial methods (Meissner et al., 2014). * Preparation, engagement, account acquisition, closure, and evaluation constitute the foundation of the [[wikipedia:PEACE_method_of_interrogation|PEACE model]], an information-gathering methodology. Instead of concentrating just on getting a confession, it encourages interviewers to get information (Meissner et al., 2014). * Additional protections for young and vulnerable suspects, minimising extremely aggressive techniques, and fully documenting interviews are all supported by psychological research (Kassin et al., 2025). <quiz display="simple"> {An interviewee knows they are innocent but agrees with the interviewer simply to end an uncomfortable interrogation. Which psychological process is this most consistent with?} - Interrogative suggestibility + Compliance - Memory consolidation - Cognitive dissonance </quiz> == Conclusion == * [[wikipedia:Memory|Memory]], uncertainty, anxiety, personality, and the degree of pressure used during questioning all interact to affect interrogative conduct. * While [[wikipedia:Compliance|compliance]] might entail appearing to agree with an interviewer while secretly disagreeing, [[wikipedia:Suggestibility|suggestibility]] entails accepting false information or altering replies. Both procedures can make testimonies less trustworthy and make people more susceptible to making false confessions. * According to psychological study, resistance is more than just a question of willpower. Inaccurate answers might be more or less likely depending on the interviewing techniques used. * In general, more trustworthy information may be obtained while lowering the possibility of false confessions and [[wikipedia:Miscarriage_of_justice|wrongful convictions]] through the use of information-gathering techniques, suitable protections, and understanding of psychological susceptibility. == See also == * [[wikipedia:False_confession|False confession]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Suggestibility|Suggestibility]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Eyewitness memory and emotion|Eyewitness memory and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2014) == References == {{Hanging indent|1= Gudjonsson, G. H. (1984). A new scale of interrogative suggestibility. Personality and Individual Differences, 5(3), 303–314.   https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(84)90069-2 Gudjonsson, G. H. (1988). Interrogative suggestibility: Its relationship with assertiveness, social-evaluative anxiety, state anxiety and method of coping. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 27(2), 159–166.   https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8260.1988.tb00764.x Gudjonsson, G. H. (1989). Compliance in an interrogative situation: A new scale. Personality and Individual Differences, 10(5), 535–540.   https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(89)90035-4 Gudjonsson, G. H. (1991). Suggestibility and compliance among alleged false confessors and resisters in criminal trials. Medicine, Science and the Law, 31(2), 147–151.   https://doi.org/10.1177/002580249103100210 Gudjonsson, G. H. (2003). The psychology of interrogations and confessions: A handbook. Wiley. Kassin, S. M., Cleary, H. M. D., Gudjonsson, G. H., Leo, R. A., Meissner, C. A., Redlich, A. D., & Scherr, K. C. (2025). Police-induced confessions, 2.0: Risk factors and recommendations. Law and Human Behavior, 49(1), 7–53.   https://doi.org/10.1037/lhb0000593 Kassin, S. M., & Kiechel, K. L. (1996). The social psychology of false confessions: Compliance, internalization, and confabulation. Psychological Science, 7(3), 125–128.   https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.1996.tb00344.x Meissner, C. A., Redlich, A. D., Michael, S. W., Evans, J. R., Camilletti, C. R., Bhatt, S., & Brandon, S. (2014). Accusatorial and information-gathering interrogation methods and their effects on true and false confessions: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 10(4), 459–486.   https://doi.org/10.1007/s11292-014-9207-6}} == External links == * [https://www.apa.org/pubs/highlights/spotlight/police-induced-confessions Police-induced confessions]: Risks and recommendations (American Psychological Association) * [https://innocenceproject.org/false-confessions/ False confessions] (Innocence Project) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Social]] mr05yaq24cjm1vgnpa6o1ylsacizugz 2836375 2836374 2026-10-07T01:09:56Z U3283643 3106326 /* Overview */ 2836375 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Interrogation and compliance:<br>What psychological processes influence resistance and compliance during interrogation?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:Japanese police interrogation room - movie set - October 2014.jpg|right|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1'''. An interrogation room setting, illustrating the environment in which psychological pressure, suggestibility and compliance may occur.]] ; Imagine this ... Imagine being in an interrogation room as seen in Figure 1, getting interrogated by the police on a crime you did not commit. You are initially self-assured in your responses and give a thorough explanation of your location. But as the interrogation goes on, the questions became more intense and repetitious. The interviewer continuously questions your responses, informs you that your explanation is illogical, and implies that there is evidence to support your involvement. Anxiety and uneasiness start to rise as the interrogation goes on. You begin to question whether you have accurately recalled everything. You eventually change minor facts and agree with portions of the interviewer's story, in part because it seems like the simplest way to put a stop to the questioning. This situation shows that being "strong enough" to resist is not the only factor in complying during questioning. Emotional pressure, uncertainty, authority, perceived repercussions, and the desire to get out of a difficult circumstance can all influence behaviour. {{RoundBoxBottom}} This situation demonstrates how compliance and interrogative suggestibility may affect a person's answers while being questioned. The extent to which a person may accept false information or alter their answers in response to pressure or unfavourable feedback is known as interrogative suggestibility. Compliance entails accepting requests or recommendations in order to avoid confrontation or appease an authority figure. It is critical to comprehend these procedures since they can impact the reliability of statements made during police interviews and, in certain cases, lead to inaccurate evidence or false confessions. Interviewing strategies that lessen needless pressure and enhance the accuracy of information gathered can be informed by psychological research, which can also assist in uncovering variables that increase susceptibility to suggestibility and compliance. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' *What is interrogative suggestibility and compliance? *What psychological factors make a person more vulnerable to suggestibility and compliance during interrogation? *How can interrogative suggestibility and compliance influence the accuracy of statements and confessions? *How can psychological science help improve interviewing and interrogation practices? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Interrogative suggestibility and compliance== Although they are related psychological processes, interrogative suggestibility and compliance are not the same. Both can affect a person's ability to withstand pressure from an interviewer and how they react to questions. === Interrogative suggestibility === * The term "interrogative suggestibility" describes a person's propensity to accept false information or alter their responses when asked, especially in response to interpersonal pressure or negative feedback. (Gudjonsson, 1984). * The two primary reactions measured by the [[wikipedia:Gudjonsson_Suggestibility_Scale|Gudjonsson Suggestibility Scale (GSS)]] are yield, or caving in to deceptive enquiries, and shift, or altering an answer in response to unfavourable feedback (Gudjonsson, 1984). * Suggestibility may not always imply intentional dishonesty. People may start to doubt their own [[wikipedia:Memory|memory]] and lose faith in their initial accounts due to pressure and ambiguity (Gudjonsson, 2003). === Compliance === * [[wikipedia:Compliance|Compliance]] is the act of agreeing to a request or proposal, even if one does not personally agree with it, usually in order to appease another person, avoid confrontation, or get out of an unpleasant situation (Gudjonsson, 1989). * The [[wikipedia:Memory_distrust_syndrome#Gudjonsson_Compliance_Scale|Gudjonsson Compliance Scale (GCS)]] was created to assess individual variations in cooperative conduct during questioning (Gudjonsson, 1989). * This distinction is crucial because a suggestible individual can start to think that their initial recall was inaccurate, while a compliant person might give the interviewer's expected response while secretly knowing it to be untrue. == Psychological factors influencing suggestibility and compliance == Both personal traits and the circumstances surrounding the interrogation have an impact on a person's capacity to withstand questioning. According to psychological studies{{fact}}, vulnerability is typically brought on by a combination of these traits rather than just one. === Individual factors === * Increased interrogative suggestibility has been linked to reduced [[wikipedia:Assertiveness|assertiveness]] and higher [[anxiety]], especially after receiving negative feedback on one's responses (Gudjonsson, 1988). * [[wikipedia:Memory|Memory]] ability can also influence resistance. People may become more reliant on the interviewer's knowledge when they are unsure of what they recall (Gudjonsson, 2003). * Appropriate precautions are especially crucial since young people and other vulnerable persons may find it more difficult to comprehend or resist questioning pressure (Kassin et al., 2025). === Situational factors === * Repeated or [[wikipedia:Leading_question|leading questions]] can create uncertainty and encourage people to reconsider responses that were originally accurate (Gudjonsson, 1984). * Strong authority pressure, lengthy interrogations, accusations, and assertions of proof against the suspect can all lead to stress and make it more difficult for the suspect to continue resisting (Kassin et al., 2025). * Answer-changing can be exacerbated by negative feedback, such as informing someone repeatedly that their answers are wrong, especially if they already lack trust in their recall (Gudjonsson, 1988). == Effects on statements and confessions == When evaluating the validity of evidence gathered during an interrogation, suggestibility and compliance become very crucial. * A person may provide an account that includes material supplied by the interviewer rather than information from their original [[wikipedia:Memory|memory]] if they often alter details in response to recommendations. * When someone intentionally admits to something they did not commit in order to avoid pressure or obtain a perceived reward, this is known as a compliant [[wikipedia:False_confession|false confession]]. When someone starts to think they could have truly committed the crime, it's called an internalised [[wikipedia:False_confession|false confession]] (Kassin & Kiechel, 1996). * Higher levels of suggestibility and compliance were seen in the false-confession group as compared to those who resisted questioning (Gudjonsson, 1991). * Because [[wikipedia:Confession|confession]] evidence might affect how other evidence is interpreted and lead to [[wikipedia:Miscarriage_of_justice|wrongful convictions]], [[wikipedia:False_confession|false confessions]] are particularly troubling (Kassin et al., 2025). == Improving interviewing and interrogation practices == In addition to understanding why individuals comply, psychological science may be used to create interviewing techniques that yield correct information while minimising needless pressure. * Instead of starting with the presumption that the suspect is guilty, [https://financialcrimeacademy.org/types-of-data-in-interviews/ information-gathering interviews] place a focus on rapport, candid conversation, and open-ended enquiries. * According to a meta-analysis, information-gathering methods reduced false confessions while maintaining—and in some cases, increasing—true confessions as compared to accusatorial methods (Meissner et al., 2014). * Preparation, engagement, account acquisition, closure, and evaluation constitute the foundation of the [[wikipedia:PEACE_method_of_interrogation|PEACE model]], an information-gathering methodology. Instead of concentrating just on getting a confession, it encourages interviewers to get information (Meissner et al., 2014). * Additional protections for young and vulnerable suspects, minimising extremely aggressive techniques, and fully documenting interviews are all supported by psychological research (Kassin et al., 2025). <quiz display="simple"> {An interviewee knows they are innocent but agrees with the interviewer simply to end an uncomfortable interrogation. Which psychological process is this most consistent with?} - Interrogative suggestibility + Compliance - Memory consolidation - Cognitive dissonance </quiz> == Conclusion == * [[wikipedia:Memory|Memory]], uncertainty, anxiety, personality, and the degree of pressure used during questioning all interact to affect interrogative conduct. * While [[wikipedia:Compliance|compliance]] might entail appearing to agree with an interviewer while secretly disagreeing, [[wikipedia:Suggestibility|suggestibility]] entails accepting false information or altering replies. Both procedures can make testimonies less trustworthy and make people more susceptible to making false confessions. * According to psychological study, resistance is more than just a question of willpower. Inaccurate answers might be more or less likely depending on the interviewing techniques used. * In general, more trustworthy information may be obtained while lowering the possibility of false confessions and [[wikipedia:Miscarriage_of_justice|wrongful convictions]] through the use of information-gathering techniques, suitable protections, and understanding of psychological susceptibility. == See also == * [[wikipedia:False_confession|False confession]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Suggestibility|Suggestibility]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Eyewitness memory and emotion|Eyewitness memory and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2014) == References == {{Hanging indent|1= Gudjonsson, G. H. (1984). A new scale of interrogative suggestibility. Personality and Individual Differences, 5(3), 303–314.   https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(84)90069-2 Gudjonsson, G. H. (1988). Interrogative suggestibility: Its relationship with assertiveness, social-evaluative anxiety, state anxiety and method of coping. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 27(2), 159–166.   https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8260.1988.tb00764.x Gudjonsson, G. H. (1989). Compliance in an interrogative situation: A new scale. Personality and Individual Differences, 10(5), 535–540.   https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(89)90035-4 Gudjonsson, G. H. (1991). Suggestibility and compliance among alleged false confessors and resisters in criminal trials. Medicine, Science and the Law, 31(2), 147–151.   https://doi.org/10.1177/002580249103100210 Gudjonsson, G. H. (2003). The psychology of interrogations and confessions: A handbook. Wiley. Kassin, S. M., Cleary, H. M. D., Gudjonsson, G. H., Leo, R. A., Meissner, C. A., Redlich, A. D., & Scherr, K. C. (2025). Police-induced confessions, 2.0: Risk factors and recommendations. Law and Human Behavior, 49(1), 7–53.   https://doi.org/10.1037/lhb0000593 Kassin, S. M., & Kiechel, K. L. (1996). The social psychology of false confessions: Compliance, internalization, and confabulation. Psychological Science, 7(3), 125–128.   https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.1996.tb00344.x Meissner, C. A., Redlich, A. D., Michael, S. W., Evans, J. R., Camilletti, C. R., Bhatt, S., & Brandon, S. (2014). Accusatorial and information-gathering interrogation methods and their effects on true and false confessions: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 10(4), 459–486.   https://doi.org/10.1007/s11292-014-9207-6}} == External links == * [https://www.apa.org/pubs/highlights/spotlight/police-induced-confessions Police-induced confessions]: Risks and recommendations (American Psychological Association) * [https://innocenceproject.org/false-confessions/ False confessions] (Innocence Project) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Social]] fatdrheem664vn1xzp6506yilwhl9p6 2836379 2836375 2026-10-07T01:35:42Z U3283643 3106326 2836379 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Interrogation and compliance:<br>What psychological processes influence resistance and compliance during interrogation?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:Japanese police interrogation room - movie set - October 2014.jpg|right|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1'''. An interrogation room setting, illustrating the environment in which psychological pressure, suggestibility and compliance may occur.]] ; Imagine this ... Imagine being in an interrogation room as seen in Figure 1, getting interrogated by the police on a crime you did not commit. You are initially self-assured in your responses and give a thorough explanation of your location. But as the interrogation goes on, the questions became more intense and repetitious. The interviewer continuously questions your responses, informs you that your explanation is illogical, and implies that there is evidence to support your involvement. Anxiety and uneasiness start to rise as the interrogation goes on. You begin to question whether you have accurately recalled everything. You eventually change minor facts and agree with portions of the interviewer's story, in part because it seems like the simplest way to put a stop to the questioning. This situation shows that being "strong enough" to resist is not the only factor in complying during questioning. Emotional pressure, uncertainty, authority, perceived repercussions, and the desire to get out of a difficult circumstance can all influence behaviour. {{RoundBoxBottom}} This situation demonstrates how compliance and interrogative suggestibility may affect a person's answers while being questioned. The extent to which a person may accept false information or alter their answers in response to pressure or unfavourable feedback is known as interrogative suggestibility. Compliance entails accepting requests or recommendations in order to avoid confrontation or appease an authority figure. It is critical to comprehend these procedures since they can impact the reliability of statements made during police interviews and, in certain cases, lead to inaccurate evidence or false confessions. Interviewing strategies that lessen needless pressure and enhance the accuracy of information gathered can be informed by psychological research, which can also assist in uncovering variables that increase susceptibility to suggestibility and compliance. new: Some people resist questioning while others become more cooperative, which can be explained by the psychological processes involved in interrogation. Compliance is the act of publicly endorsing a request or demand, even while one disagrees with it in private. A person may comply during an interrogation in order to avoid conflict, win approval, or get out of an uncomfortable position (Gudjonsson, 1989). Interrogative suggestibility is one process that can contribute to this vulnerability. Compliance and suggestibility are two different things. Rather, interrogative suggestibility is the degree to which an individual may accept false information or alter their answers in response to interrogation, peer pressure, or unfavourable comments (Gudjonsson & Clark, 1986). It is pertinent to compliance because someone who starts to doubt their own recollection may become more reliant on information from an interviewer and, as a result, less able to challenge the interviewer's account of events. The significance of these processes is illustrated by research on false confessions. The trustworthiness of statements and confessions can be affected by the interaction between interrogation procedures and individual vulnerabilities (Kassin et al., 2025; Otgaar et al., 2021). Therefore, psychological studies can assist explain both compliance and resistance as well as direct interviewing techniques that lessen needless pressure while increasing the accuracy of information gathered.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' *What is interrogative suggestibility and compliance? *What psychological factors make a person more vulnerable to suggestibility and compliance during interrogation? *How can interrogative suggestibility and compliance influence the accuracy of statements and confessions? *How can psychological science help improve interviewing and interrogation practices? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Interrogative suggestibility and compliance== Although they are related psychological processes, interrogative suggestibility and compliance are not the same. Both can affect a person's ability to withstand pressure from an interviewer and how they react to questions. === Interrogative suggestibility === * The term "interrogative suggestibility" describes a person's propensity to accept false information or alter their responses when asked, especially in response to interpersonal pressure or negative feedback. (Gudjonsson, 1984). * The two primary reactions measured by the [[wikipedia:Gudjonsson_Suggestibility_Scale|Gudjonsson Suggestibility Scale (GSS)]] are yield, or caving in to deceptive enquiries, and shift, or altering an answer in response to unfavourable feedback (Gudjonsson, 1984). * Suggestibility may not always imply intentional dishonesty. People may start to doubt their own [[wikipedia:Memory|memory]] and lose faith in their initial accounts due to pressure and ambiguity (Gudjonsson, 2003). === Compliance === * [[wikipedia:Compliance|Compliance]] is the act of agreeing to a request or proposal, even if one does not personally agree with it, usually in order to appease another person, avoid confrontation, or get out of an unpleasant situation (Gudjonsson, 1989). * The [[wikipedia:Memory_distrust_syndrome#Gudjonsson_Compliance_Scale|Gudjonsson Compliance Scale (GCS)]] was created to assess individual variations in cooperative conduct during questioning (Gudjonsson, 1989). * This distinction is crucial because a suggestible individual can start to think that their initial recall was inaccurate, while a compliant person might give the interviewer's expected response while secretly knowing it to be untrue. == Psychological factors influencing suggestibility and compliance == Both personal traits and the circumstances surrounding the interrogation have an impact on a person's capacity to withstand questioning. According to psychological studies{{fact}}, vulnerability is typically brought on by a combination of these traits rather than just one. === Individual factors === * Increased interrogative suggestibility has been linked to reduced [[wikipedia:Assertiveness|assertiveness]] and higher [[anxiety]], especially after receiving negative feedback on one's responses (Gudjonsson, 1988). * [[wikipedia:Memory|Memory]] ability can also influence resistance. People may become more reliant on the interviewer's knowledge when they are unsure of what they recall (Gudjonsson, 2003). * Appropriate precautions are especially crucial since young people and other vulnerable persons may find it more difficult to comprehend or resist questioning pressure (Kassin et al., 2025). === Situational factors === * Repeated or [[wikipedia:Leading_question|leading questions]] can create uncertainty and encourage people to reconsider responses that were originally accurate (Gudjonsson, 1984). * Strong authority pressure, lengthy interrogations, accusations, and assertions of proof against the suspect can all lead to stress and make it more difficult for the suspect to continue resisting (Kassin et al., 2025). * Answer-changing can be exacerbated by negative feedback, such as informing someone repeatedly that their answers are wrong, especially if they already lack trust in their recall (Gudjonsson, 1988). == Effects on statements and confessions == When evaluating the validity of evidence gathered during an interrogation, suggestibility and compliance become very crucial. * A person may provide an account that includes material supplied by the interviewer rather than information from their original [[wikipedia:Memory|memory]] if they often alter details in response to recommendations. * When someone intentionally admits to something they did not commit in order to avoid pressure or obtain a perceived reward, this is known as a compliant [[wikipedia:False_confession|false confession]]. When someone starts to think they could have truly committed the crime, it's called an internalised [[wikipedia:False_confession|false confession]] (Kassin & Kiechel, 1996). * Higher levels of suggestibility and compliance were seen in the false-confession group as compared to those who resisted questioning (Gudjonsson, 1991). * Because [[wikipedia:Confession|confession]] evidence might affect how other evidence is interpreted and lead to [[wikipedia:Miscarriage_of_justice|wrongful convictions]], [[wikipedia:False_confession|false confessions]] are particularly troubling (Kassin et al., 2025). == Improving interviewing and interrogation practices == In addition to understanding why individuals comply, psychological science may be used to create interviewing techniques that yield correct information while minimising needless pressure. * Instead of starting with the presumption that the suspect is guilty, [https://financialcrimeacademy.org/types-of-data-in-interviews/ information-gathering interviews] place a focus on rapport, candid conversation, and open-ended enquiries. * According to a meta-analysis, information-gathering methods reduced false confessions while maintaining—and in some cases, increasing—true confessions as compared to accusatorial methods (Meissner et al., 2014). * Preparation, engagement, account acquisition, closure, and evaluation constitute the foundation of the [[wikipedia:PEACE_method_of_interrogation|PEACE model]], an information-gathering methodology. Instead of concentrating just on getting a confession, it encourages interviewers to get information (Meissner et al., 2014). * Additional protections for young and vulnerable suspects, minimising extremely aggressive techniques, and fully documenting interviews are all supported by psychological research (Kassin et al., 2025). <quiz display="simple"> {An interviewee knows they are innocent but agrees with the interviewer simply to end an uncomfortable interrogation. Which psychological process is this most consistent with?} - Interrogative suggestibility + Compliance - Memory consolidation - Cognitive dissonance </quiz> == Conclusion == * [[wikipedia:Memory|Memory]], uncertainty, anxiety, personality, and the degree of pressure used during questioning all interact to affect interrogative conduct. * While [[wikipedia:Compliance|compliance]] might entail appearing to agree with an interviewer while secretly disagreeing, [[wikipedia:Suggestibility|suggestibility]] entails accepting false information or altering replies. Both procedures can make testimonies less trustworthy and make people more susceptible to making false confessions. * According to psychological study, resistance is more than just a question of willpower. Inaccurate answers might be more or less likely depending on the interviewing techniques used. * In general, more trustworthy information may be obtained while lowering the possibility of false confessions and [[wikipedia:Miscarriage_of_justice|wrongful convictions]] through the use of information-gathering techniques, suitable protections, and understanding of psychological susceptibility. == See also == * [[wikipedia:False_confession|False confession]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Suggestibility|Suggestibility]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Eyewitness memory and emotion|Eyewitness memory and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2014) == References == {{Hanging indent|1= Gudjonsson, G. H. (1984). A new scale of interrogative suggestibility. Personality and Individual Differences, 5(3), 303–314.   https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(84)90069-2 Gudjonsson, G. H. (1988). Interrogative suggestibility: Its relationship with assertiveness, social-evaluative anxiety, state anxiety and method of coping. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 27(2), 159–166.   https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8260.1988.tb00764.x Gudjonsson, G. H. (1989). Compliance in an interrogative situation: A new scale. Personality and Individual Differences, 10(5), 535–540.   https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(89)90035-4 Gudjonsson, G. H. (1991). Suggestibility and compliance among alleged false confessors and resisters in criminal trials. Medicine, Science and the Law, 31(2), 147–151.   https://doi.org/10.1177/002580249103100210 Gudjonsson, G. H. (2003). The psychology of interrogations and confessions: A handbook. Wiley. Kassin, S. M., Cleary, H. M. D., Gudjonsson, G. H., Leo, R. A., Meissner, C. A., Redlich, A. D., & Scherr, K. C. (2025). Police-induced confessions, 2.0: Risk factors and recommendations. Law and Human Behavior, 49(1), 7–53.   https://doi.org/10.1037/lhb0000593 Kassin, S. M., & Kiechel, K. L. (1996). The social psychology of false confessions: Compliance, internalization, and confabulation. Psychological Science, 7(3), 125–128.   https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.1996.tb00344.x Meissner, C. A., Redlich, A. D., Michael, S. W., Evans, J. R., Camilletti, C. R., Bhatt, S., & Brandon, S. (2014). Accusatorial and information-gathering interrogation methods and their effects on true and false confessions: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 10(4), 459–486.   https://doi.org/10.1007/s11292-014-9207-6}} == External links == * [https://www.apa.org/pubs/highlights/spotlight/police-induced-confessions Police-induced confessions]: Risks and recommendations (American Psychological Association) * [https://innocenceproject.org/false-confessions/ False confessions] (Innocence Project) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Social]] 4q5g1n3u8zlgqpoel4nf5e01f5sev7l 2836381 2836379 2026-10-07T01:38:34Z U3283643 3106326 2836381 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Interrogation and compliance:<br>What psychological processes influence resistance and compliance during interrogation?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:Japanese police interrogation room - movie set - October 2014.jpg|right|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1'''. An interrogation room setting, illustrating the environment in which psychological pressure, suggestibility and compliance may occur.]] ; Imagine this ... Imagine being in an interrogation room as seen in Figure 1, getting interrogated by the police on a crime you did not commit. You are initially self-assured in your responses and give a thorough explanation of your location. But as the interrogation goes on, the questions became more intense and repetitious. The interviewer continuously questions your responses, informs you that your explanation is illogical, and implies that there is evidence to support your involvement. Anxiety and uneasiness start to rise as the interrogation goes on. You begin to question whether you have accurately recalled everything. You eventually change minor facts and agree with portions of the interviewer's story, in part because it seems like the simplest way to put a stop to the questioning. This situation shows that being "strong enough" to resist is not the only factor in complying during questioning. Emotional pressure, uncertainty, authority, perceived repercussions, and the desire to get out of a difficult circumstance can all influence behaviour. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Some people resist questioning while others become more cooperative, which can be explained by the psychological processes involved in interrogation. [[wikipedia:Compliance|Compliance]] is the act of publicly endorsing a request or demand, even while one disagrees with it in private. A person may comply during an interrogation in order to avoid conflict, win approval, or get out of an uncomfortable position (Gudjonsson, 1989). Interrogative suggestibility is one process that can contribute to this [[Vulnerability assessment|vulnerability]]. Compliance and suggestibility are two different things. Rather, interrogative suggestibility is the degree to which an individual may accept false information or alter their answers in response to interrogation, peer pressure, or unfavourable comments (Gudjonsson & Clark, 1986). It is pertinent to compliance because someone who starts to doubt their own recollection may become more reliant on information from an interviewer and, as a result, less able to challenge the interviewer's account of events. The significance of these processes is illustrated by research on false confessions. The trustworthiness of statements and confessions can be affected by the interaction between interrogation procedures and individual vulnerabilities (Kassin et al., 2025; Otgaar et al., 2021). Therefore, psychological studies can assist explain both compliance and resistance as well as direct interviewing techniques that lessen needless pressure while increasing the accuracy of information gathered.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' *What is interrogative suggestibility and compliance? *What psychological factors make a person more vulnerable to suggestibility and compliance during interrogation? *How can interrogative suggestibility and compliance influence the accuracy of statements and confessions? *How can psychological science help improve interviewing and interrogation practices? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Interrogative suggestibility and compliance== Although they are related psychological processes, interrogative suggestibility and compliance are not the same. Both can affect a person's ability to withstand pressure from an interviewer and how they react to questions. === Interrogative suggestibility === * The term "interrogative suggestibility" describes a person's propensity to accept false information or alter their responses when asked, especially in response to interpersonal pressure or negative feedback. (Gudjonsson, 1984). * The two primary reactions measured by the [[wikipedia:Gudjonsson_Suggestibility_Scale|Gudjonsson Suggestibility Scale (GSS)]] are yield, or caving in to deceptive enquiries, and shift, or altering an answer in response to unfavourable feedback (Gudjonsson, 1984). * Suggestibility may not always imply intentional dishonesty. People may start to doubt their own [[wikipedia:Memory|memory]] and lose faith in their initial accounts due to pressure and ambiguity (Gudjonsson, 2003). === Compliance === * [[wikipedia:Compliance|Compliance]] is the act of agreeing to a request or proposal, even if one does not personally agree with it, usually in order to appease another person, avoid confrontation, or get out of an unpleasant situation (Gudjonsson, 1989). * The [[wikipedia:Memory_distrust_syndrome#Gudjonsson_Compliance_Scale|Gudjonsson Compliance Scale (GCS)]] was created to assess individual variations in cooperative conduct during questioning (Gudjonsson, 1989). * This distinction is crucial because a suggestible individual can start to think that their initial recall was inaccurate, while a compliant person might give the interviewer's expected response while secretly knowing it to be untrue. == Psychological factors influencing suggestibility and compliance == Both personal traits and the circumstances surrounding the interrogation have an impact on a person's capacity to withstand questioning. According to psychological studies{{fact}}, vulnerability is typically brought on by a combination of these traits rather than just one. === Individual factors === * Increased interrogative suggestibility has been linked to reduced [[wikipedia:Assertiveness|assertiveness]] and higher [[anxiety]], especially after receiving negative feedback on one's responses (Gudjonsson, 1988). * [[wikipedia:Memory|Memory]] ability can also influence resistance. People may become more reliant on the interviewer's knowledge when they are unsure of what they recall (Gudjonsson, 2003). * Appropriate precautions are especially crucial since young people and other vulnerable persons may find it more difficult to comprehend or resist questioning pressure (Kassin et al., 2025). === Situational factors === * Repeated or [[wikipedia:Leading_question|leading questions]] can create uncertainty and encourage people to reconsider responses that were originally accurate (Gudjonsson, 1984). * Strong authority pressure, lengthy interrogations, accusations, and assertions of proof against the suspect can all lead to stress and make it more difficult for the suspect to continue resisting (Kassin et al., 2025). * Answer-changing can be exacerbated by negative feedback, such as informing someone repeatedly that their answers are wrong, especially if they already lack trust in their recall (Gudjonsson, 1988). == Effects on statements and confessions == When evaluating the validity of evidence gathered during an interrogation, suggestibility and compliance become very crucial. * A person may provide an account that includes material supplied by the interviewer rather than information from their original [[wikipedia:Memory|memory]] if they often alter details in response to recommendations. * When someone intentionally admits to something they did not commit in order to avoid pressure or obtain a perceived reward, this is known as a compliant [[wikipedia:False_confession|false confession]]. When someone starts to think they could have truly committed the crime, it's called an internalised [[wikipedia:False_confession|false confession]] (Kassin & Kiechel, 1996). * Higher levels of suggestibility and compliance were seen in the false-confession group as compared to those who resisted questioning (Gudjonsson, 1991). * Because [[wikipedia:Confession|confession]] evidence might affect how other evidence is interpreted and lead to [[wikipedia:Miscarriage_of_justice|wrongful convictions]], [[wikipedia:False_confession|false confessions]] are particularly troubling (Kassin et al., 2025). == Improving interviewing and interrogation practices == In addition to understanding why individuals comply, psychological science may be used to create interviewing techniques that yield correct information while minimising needless pressure. * Instead of starting with the presumption that the suspect is guilty, [https://financialcrimeacademy.org/types-of-data-in-interviews/ information-gathering interviews] place a focus on rapport, candid conversation, and open-ended enquiries. * According to a meta-analysis, information-gathering methods reduced false confessions while maintaining—and in some cases, increasing—true confessions as compared to accusatorial methods (Meissner et al., 2014). * Preparation, engagement, account acquisition, closure, and evaluation constitute the foundation of the [[wikipedia:PEACE_method_of_interrogation|PEACE model]], an information-gathering methodology. Instead of concentrating just on getting a confession, it encourages interviewers to get information (Meissner et al., 2014). * Additional protections for young and vulnerable suspects, minimising extremely aggressive techniques, and fully documenting interviews are all supported by psychological research (Kassin et al., 2025). <quiz display="simple"> {An interviewee knows they are innocent but agrees with the interviewer simply to end an uncomfortable interrogation. Which psychological process is this most consistent with?} - Interrogative suggestibility + Compliance - Memory consolidation - Cognitive dissonance </quiz> == Conclusion == * [[wikipedia:Memory|Memory]], uncertainty, anxiety, personality, and the degree of pressure used during questioning all interact to affect interrogative conduct. * While [[wikipedia:Compliance|compliance]] might entail appearing to agree with an interviewer while secretly disagreeing, [[wikipedia:Suggestibility|suggestibility]] entails accepting false information or altering replies. Both procedures can make testimonies less trustworthy and make people more susceptible to making false confessions. * According to psychological study, resistance is more than just a question of willpower. Inaccurate answers might be more or less likely depending on the interviewing techniques used. * In general, more trustworthy information may be obtained while lowering the possibility of false confessions and [[wikipedia:Miscarriage_of_justice|wrongful convictions]] through the use of information-gathering techniques, suitable protections, and understanding of psychological susceptibility. == See also == * [[wikipedia:False_confession|False confession]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Suggestibility|Suggestibility]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Eyewitness memory and emotion|Eyewitness memory and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2014) == References == {{Hanging indent|1= Gudjonsson, G. H. (1984). A new scale of interrogative suggestibility. Personality and Individual Differences, 5(3), 303–314.   https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(84)90069-2 Gudjonsson, G. H. (1988). Interrogative suggestibility: Its relationship with assertiveness, social-evaluative anxiety, state anxiety and method of coping. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 27(2), 159–166.   https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8260.1988.tb00764.x Gudjonsson, G. H. (1989). Compliance in an interrogative situation: A new scale. Personality and Individual Differences, 10(5), 535–540.   https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(89)90035-4 Gudjonsson, G. H. (1991). Suggestibility and compliance among alleged false confessors and resisters in criminal trials. Medicine, Science and the Law, 31(2), 147–151.   https://doi.org/10.1177/002580249103100210 Gudjonsson, G. H. (2003). The psychology of interrogations and confessions: A handbook. Wiley. Kassin, S. M., Cleary, H. M. D., Gudjonsson, G. H., Leo, R. A., Meissner, C. A., Redlich, A. D., & Scherr, K. C. (2025). Police-induced confessions, 2.0: Risk factors and recommendations. Law and Human Behavior, 49(1), 7–53.   https://doi.org/10.1037/lhb0000593 Kassin, S. M., & Kiechel, K. L. (1996). The social psychology of false confessions: Compliance, internalization, and confabulation. Psychological Science, 7(3), 125–128.   https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.1996.tb00344.x Meissner, C. A., Redlich, A. D., Michael, S. W., Evans, J. R., Camilletti, C. R., Bhatt, S., & Brandon, S. (2014). Accusatorial and information-gathering interrogation methods and their effects on true and false confessions: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 10(4), 459–486.   https://doi.org/10.1007/s11292-014-9207-6}} == External links == * [https://www.apa.org/pubs/highlights/spotlight/police-induced-confessions Police-induced confessions]: Risks and recommendations (American Psychological Association) * [https://innocenceproject.org/false-confessions/ False confessions] (Innocence Project) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Social]] a735jh1098zj9b0m1w7398g9qnsk8w4 0 331347 2836420 2836246 2026-10-07T03:36:16Z U3275908 3108582 /* Autonomy and physical activity */ updating to form chapter 2836420 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Self-determination theory and physical activity:<br>How do autonomy, competence, and relatedness predict engagement in physical activity and exercise adherence?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Exercise Treadmill Convey Motion.jpg|thumb|Figure 1. Person running on treadmill]] ; Imagine this scenario... You have decided to start exercising more regularly. You download a workout app and decide to follow a program, you set alarms for 3 days a week and follow the workout program strictly. For a short period, you stick to the program and feel motivated, but after a few weeks you start to lose interest in the activities you are doing, and you feel like you are completing chores. You don’t find the exercises you are doing fun, they are becoming increasingly difficult to get through, and you cannot see much progress. You are also exercising alone, and you aren’t getting much support from others. Your friend also decided to exercise more regularly. They did not follow a set program, but instead chose to sign up to more activities they enjoyed. They set goals for themselves that were relevant and realistic for them. They have noticed gradual progress in their fitness levels and have frequently participated in exercise with their friends and felt strong support from their community. Both people have the same goal, to exercise more. However, they both have very different experiences, one has little choice and social support and doesn’t feel capable, whilst the other has full choice and social support, and can see growth from the change. The differences in these two people demonstrate the 3 psychological needs of self-determination theory. Autonomy, competence, and relatedness. The theory suggests that these needs being met can drive motivation and engagement (Ryan & Deci, 2018). Why could the differences between these two people lead to different levels of exercise adherence? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ;The problem This chapter explores self-determination theory and how meeting the psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness can help explain engagement with physical activity and exercise adherence. * '''Physical activity is important for ongoing participation.''' ** Although most people are aware of the physical and psychological benefits of exercise, motivation can heavily influence individuals starting, maintaining, and dropping physical activity. Understanding the things that influence motivation can help us to create environments that encourage ongoing participation (Kilpatrick et al., 2002). * '''Starting physical activity doesn’t always lead to long term adherence.''' ** People can easily start exercising regularly but also easily drop out. Kinnafick et al. (2014), found that meeting the needs for competence and relatedness were significantly important to participation, but added autonomy was crucial to maintaining adherence. * '''Self-determination theory (SDT) provides a psychological framework for understanding this.''' ** Self-determination theory by Ryan & Deci (2018), suggests that motivation is driven by three psychological needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness. * '''Applying SDT to physical activity can help explain how and why people maintain exercise activities.''' ** When exercise environments support the needs suggested by SDT, people can keep motivation, in turn becoming more likely to maintain participation (Kilpatrick et al., 2002). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * How does self-determination theory explain motivation to exercise? * How does autonomy influence engagement in physical activity? * How does competence influence engagement in physical activity? * How does relatedness influence engagement in physical activity? * How can meeting basic psychological needs increase exercise adherence? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Self-determination theory and physical activity == Self-determination theory (SDT) is a motivation theory that aims to understand why people engage in behaviours. SDT suggest that there are three psychological needs that contribute to motivation in turn contributing to behaviour (Ryan & Deci, 2018). SDT suggests that two different forms of motivation are involved in behaviour, '''autonomous motivation''' and '''controlled motivation''' * '''Autonomous motivation''' is when a person choses to engage in a behaviour with a sense of personal choice and because they enjoy it. * '''Controlled motivation''' is when a person performs a behaviour with a sense of external pressure, consequence, or obligation (Ryan & Deci, 2018). This is the presented scenario 1, where the first person was behaving from controlled motivation whereas person two was behaving out of autonomous motivation. The behaviour may be the same, however the motivation is different. SDT suggests that there are '''three basic psychological needs'''. These needs directly influence motivation and mental wellbeing (Deci & Vansteenkiste, 2004). * '''Autonomy''': Feeling that you have choice and control over your behaviours. In an exercise setting this could look like participating in sports you find fun and setting your own goals. * '''Competence''': Feeling that you are capable and successful in your behaviours. In an exercise setting this could look like developing skills, reaching goals, and successfully completing challenges. * '''Relatedness''': Feeling that you are supported and belong with others. In an exercise setting this could look like having a supportive coach, exercising with a group, or receiving support from friends and family. These needs can be supported or harmed by the environment a person is in. '''Table 1''' ''The basic psychological needs and examples of how environments can support or harm them.'' {| class="wikitable" |'''Basic psychological need''' |'''Positive''' |'''Negative''' |- |'''Autonomy''' |Choosing preferred activities, setting personal goals, having control over exercises |Pressured, controlled, or forced to participate |- |'''Competence''' |Noticing progress, achieving goals, developing skills, positive feedback |Failure, unrealistic expectations, lack of progress |- |'''Relatedness''' |Exercising with friends, supportive coaches, group classes, feeling included |Isolated, excluded, or criticised |} Research applying SDT to physical activity suggests more autonomous forms of motivation are connected to more physical activity participation and maintenance (Teixeira et al., 2012). This means that supporting physical activity is not only about encouraging people to exercise and promoting the benefits, but is also dependent on the environment a person is in. Creating positive autonomy, competence, and relatedness leads to autonomous motivation which is more likely to translate into behaviour. '''''Understanding these three needs and how they each impact motivation, is important predicting and encouraging long-term exercise adherence.''''' == Autonomy and physical activity == Autonomy refers to a persons sense of choice and self-direction, without feeling pressured or controlled. (Deci & Vansteenkiste, 2004). In physical activity, autonomy can be supported by allowing individuals to choose activities that match their interests, abilities, and goals (Kilpatrick et al., 2002). -------- Autonomy in physical activity can be driven by ensuring a person has '''control''' over how they do physical activity '''This could look like:''' * Choosing an activity they enjoy * Setting personal goals * Choosing when and where they exercise * Doing the activity to only their own extent * Having options When people are given autonomy over their physical activity, it can encourage them to value and understand their own reasons to participate in physical activity. This creates '''intrinsic motivation''' as they continue to participate for their own internal satisfaction, strengthening their overall '''autonomous motivation''' (Teixeira et al., 2012). In contrast to this, the environment could also reduce autonomy. Being pressured to exercise, feeling like they only have one option, or exercising to meet external expectations can create '''controlled motivation.''' For example, if a person feels pressured to work out, and guilty when they don’t, they are less likely to participate long-term than someone who is driven by autonomous motivation (Teixeira et al., 2012). Autonomy can be especially important in the adherence stage of peoples exercise habits, as people move from starting to maintaining physical activity. Kinnafick et al. (2014), found that whilst competence and relatedness are important when starting physical activity, autonomy becomes more important during the adherence stage, suggesting that feeling ownership over their exercise becomes increasingly important for maintaining it long-term. A person could still feel autonomy when being coached or participating in a program, under the condition that they feel control and that they have a say in how they participate, as well as understanding and personally valuing the exercise. Overall, supporting autonomy is important, specifically to exercise adherence and maintain physical activity long-term. It supports autonomous motivation, creating stronger prediction of behaviour. == Competence and physical activity == * Competence is about the need to feel effective, capable, and able to reach goals (Deci & Vansteenkiste, 2004). * Physical activity competence could be through people, experiencing progress, developing skills, achieving goals, and getting useful feedback. * This could mean difficult or unrealistic exercise programs may not allow the individual to meet their need for competence as they may experience failure or be unable to see improvement. * Feeling competent can increase confidence in an individuals ability to participate in physically activity and contribute to another source of intrinsic motivation (Teixeira et al., 2012). * Kinnafick et al. (2014) found competence to be important in the adoption stages of physical activity as feeling capable can help to form a routine. == Relatedness and physical activity == * Relatedness is the need to feel connected, supported, and valued by others (Deci & Vansteenkiste, 2004). * Physical activity could meet this need with things like exercise groups, sport teams, group classes, coaches, and similar active social environments * Social support can provide encouragement and enjoyment. * Feeling excluded or judged during physical activity would reduce relatedness and negatively impact emotion. * Kinnafick et al. (2014) found relatedness to be important in the adoption stage of physical activity, emphasising the role of social connection in forming participation. == Psychological needs and exercise adherence == * Exercise adherence involves maintaining physical activity over time. * Having autonomy, competence, and relatedness can create a strong sense of autonomous motivation and leads to long-term engagement in physical activity (Teixeira et al., 2012). * Kinnafick et al. (2014) found different needs to be relevant at different stages of physical activity, with competence and relatedness being important for adoption and autonomy being important for adherence. * Kang et al. (2019), found that having the basic psychological needs met was a strong predictor of exercise adherence, finding autonomy as the strongest predictor. * These findings suggest the importance of psychological needs, and that their importance changes as people go from starting activity to maintaining it. ==Conclusion== *Self-determination theory provides a framework for understanding how autonomy, competence, and relatedness influence motivation and engagement in physical activity *Supporting these psychological needs can support autonomous motivation and help people maintain exercise adherence. *Kinnafick et al. (2014) suggests that the importance of each need changes across stages of activity, with competence and relatedness being important for adoption and autonomy being important for adherence. *Overall, creating environments for physical activity that give people choice, opportunities to improve, and social inclusion can help improve long-term exercise adherence. ==See also== * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Exercise motivation|Exercise motivation]] (Book chapter, 2011) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Deci, E. L., & Vansteenkiste, M. (2004). Self-determination theory and basic need satisfaction: Understanding human development in positive psychology. In ''Lirias'' (Vol. 27, pp. 17–34). https://lirias.kuleuven.be/handle/123456789/627470 Kang, S., Lee, K., & Kwon, S. (2019). Basic psychological needs, exercise intention and sport commitment as predictors of recreational sport participants’ exercise adherence. ''Psychology and Health'', 35(8), 916–932. https://doi.org/10.1080/08870446.2019.169908 Kilpatrick, M., Hebert, E., & Jacobsen, D. (2002). Physical Activity Motivation: A Practitioner’s Guide to Self-Determination Theory. ''Journal of Physical Education Recreation & Dance'', 73(4), 36–41. https://doi.org/10.1080/07303084.2002.10607789 Kinnafick, F., Thøgersen-Ntoumani, C., & Duda, J. L. (2014). Physical activity adoption to adherence, lapse, and dropout. ''Qualitative Health Research'', 24(5), 706–718. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732314528811 Ryan, R. M., Deci, E. L. (2018). Self-Determination Theory: Basic Psychological Needs in Motivation, Development, and Wellness. United Kingdom: Guilford Publications. Teixeira, P. J., Carraça, E. V., Markland, D., Silva, M. N., & Ryan, R. M. (2012). Exercise, physical activity, and self-determination theory: A systematic review. ''International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity'', 9(1), 78. https://doi.org/10.1186/1479-5868-9-78 }} ==External links== * [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/ Self-determination theory] (Center for Self-Determination Theory) * [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/topics/application-basic-psychological-needs/ Basic psychological needs] (Center for Self-Determination Theory) * [https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/physical-activity Physical activity] (World Health Organization) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Physical exercise]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self-determination theory]] c60hj7lu7okswt4g73ko92xmwr72lko 2836423 2836420 2026-10-07T03:41:04Z U3275908 3108582 /* Autonomy and physical activity */ 2836423 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Self-determination theory and physical activity:<br>How do autonomy, competence, and relatedness predict engagement in physical activity and exercise adherence?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Exercise Treadmill Convey Motion.jpg|thumb|Figure 1. Person running on treadmill]] ; Imagine this scenario... You have decided to start exercising more regularly. You download a workout app and decide to follow a program, you set alarms for 3 days a week and follow the workout program strictly. For a short period, you stick to the program and feel motivated, but after a few weeks you start to lose interest in the activities you are doing, and you feel like you are completing chores. You don’t find the exercises you are doing fun, they are becoming increasingly difficult to get through, and you cannot see much progress. You are also exercising alone, and you aren’t getting much support from others. Your friend also decided to exercise more regularly. They did not follow a set program, but instead chose to sign up to more activities they enjoyed. They set goals for themselves that were relevant and realistic for them. They have noticed gradual progress in their fitness levels and have frequently participated in exercise with their friends and felt strong support from their community. Both people have the same goal, to exercise more. However, they both have very different experiences, one has little choice and social support and doesn’t feel capable, whilst the other has full choice and social support, and can see growth from the change. The differences in these two people demonstrate the 3 psychological needs of self-determination theory. Autonomy, competence, and relatedness. The theory suggests that these needs being met can drive motivation and engagement (Ryan & Deci, 2018). Why could the differences between these two people lead to different levels of exercise adherence? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ;The problem This chapter explores self-determination theory and how meeting the psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness can help explain engagement with physical activity and exercise adherence. * '''Physical activity is important for ongoing participation.''' ** Although most people are aware of the physical and psychological benefits of exercise, motivation can heavily influence individuals starting, maintaining, and dropping physical activity. Understanding the things that influence motivation can help us to create environments that encourage ongoing participation (Kilpatrick et al., 2002). * '''Starting physical activity doesn’t always lead to long term adherence.''' ** People can easily start exercising regularly but also easily drop out. Kinnafick et al. (2014), found that meeting the needs for competence and relatedness were significantly important to participation, but added autonomy was crucial to maintaining adherence. * '''Self-determination theory (SDT) provides a psychological framework for understanding this.''' ** Self-determination theory by Ryan & Deci (2018), suggests that motivation is driven by three psychological needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness. * '''Applying SDT to physical activity can help explain how and why people maintain exercise activities.''' ** When exercise environments support the needs suggested by SDT, people can keep motivation, in turn becoming more likely to maintain participation (Kilpatrick et al., 2002). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * How does self-determination theory explain motivation to exercise? * How does autonomy influence engagement in physical activity? * How does competence influence engagement in physical activity? * How does relatedness influence engagement in physical activity? * How can meeting basic psychological needs increase exercise adherence? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Self-determination theory and physical activity == Self-determination theory (SDT) is a motivation theory that aims to understand why people engage in behaviours. SDT suggest that there are three psychological needs that contribute to motivation in turn contributing to behaviour (Ryan & Deci, 2018). SDT suggests that two different forms of motivation are involved in behaviour, '''autonomous motivation''' and '''controlled motivation''' * '''Autonomous motivation''' is when a person choses to engage in a behaviour with a sense of personal choice and because they enjoy it. * '''Controlled motivation''' is when a person performs a behaviour with a sense of external pressure, consequence, or obligation (Ryan & Deci, 2018). This is the presented scenario 1, where the first person was behaving from controlled motivation whereas person two was behaving out of autonomous motivation. The behaviour may be the same, however the motivation is different. SDT suggests that there are '''three basic psychological needs'''. These needs directly influence motivation and mental wellbeing (Deci & Vansteenkiste, 2004). * '''Autonomy''': Feeling that you have choice and control over your behaviours. In an exercise setting this could look like participating in sports you find fun and setting your own goals. * '''Competence''': Feeling that you are capable and successful in your behaviours. In an exercise setting this could look like developing skills, reaching goals, and successfully completing challenges. * '''Relatedness''': Feeling that you are supported and belong with others. In an exercise setting this could look like having a supportive coach, exercising with a group, or receiving support from friends and family. These needs can be supported or harmed by the environment a person is in. '''Table 1''' ''The basic psychological needs and examples of how environments can support or harm them.'' {| class="wikitable" |'''Basic psychological need''' |'''Positive''' |'''Negative''' |- |'''Autonomy''' |Choosing preferred activities, setting personal goals, having control over exercises |Pressured, controlled, or forced to participate |- |'''Competence''' |Noticing progress, achieving goals, developing skills, positive feedback |Failure, unrealistic expectations, lack of progress |- |'''Relatedness''' |Exercising with friends, supportive coaches, group classes, feeling included |Isolated, excluded, or criticised |} Research applying SDT to physical activity suggests more autonomous forms of motivation are connected to more physical activity participation and maintenance (Teixeira et al., 2012). This means that supporting physical activity is not only about encouraging people to exercise and promoting the benefits, but is also dependent on the environment a person is in. Creating positive autonomy, competence, and relatedness leads to autonomous motivation which is more likely to translate into behaviour. '''''Understanding these three needs and how they each impact motivation, is important predicting and encouraging long-term exercise adherence.''''' == Autonomy and physical activity == Autonomy refers to a persons sense of choice and self-direction, without feeling pressured or controlled. (Deci & Vansteenkiste, 2004). In physical activity, autonomy can be supported by allowing individuals to choose activities that match their interests, abilities, and goals (Kilpatrick et al., 2002). -- Autonomy in physical activity can be driven by ensuring a person has '''control''' over how they do physical activity '''This could look like:''' * Choosing an activity they enjoy * Setting personal goals * Choosing when and where they exercise * Doing the activity to only their own extent * Having options When people are given autonomy over their physical activity, it can encourage them to value and understand their own reasons to participate in physical activity. This creates '''intrinsic motivation''' as they continue to participate for their own internal satisfaction, strengthening their overall '''autonomous motivation''' (Teixeira et al., 2012). In contrast to this, the environment could also reduce autonomy. Being pressured to exercise, feeling like they only have one option, or exercising to meet external expectations can create '''controlled motivation.''' For example, if a person feels pressured to work out, and guilty when they don’t, they are less likely to participate long-term than someone who is driven by autonomous motivation (Teixeira et al., 2012). Autonomy can be especially important in the adherence stage of peoples exercise habits, as people move from starting to maintaining physical activity. Kinnafick et al. (2014), found that whilst competence and relatedness are important when starting physical activity, autonomy becomes more important during the adherence stage, suggesting that feeling ownership over their exercise becomes increasingly important for maintaining it long-term. A person could still feel autonomy when being coached or participating in a program, under the condition that they feel control and that they have a say in how they participate, as well as understanding and personally valuing the exercise. Overall, supporting autonomy is important, specifically to exercise adherence and maintain physical activity long-term. It supports autonomous motivation, creating stronger prediction of behaviour. == Competence and physical activity == * Competence is about the need to feel effective, capable, and able to reach goals (Deci & Vansteenkiste, 2004). * Physical activity competence could be through people, experiencing progress, developing skills, achieving goals, and getting useful feedback. * This could mean difficult or unrealistic exercise programs may not allow the individual to meet their need for competence as they may experience failure or be unable to see improvement. * Feeling competent can increase confidence in an individuals ability to participate in physically activity and contribute to another source of intrinsic motivation (Teixeira et al., 2012). * Kinnafick et al. (2014) found competence to be important in the adoption stages of physical activity as feeling capable can help to form a routine. == Relatedness and physical activity == * Relatedness is the need to feel connected, supported, and valued by others (Deci & Vansteenkiste, 2004). * Physical activity could meet this need with things like exercise groups, sport teams, group classes, coaches, and similar active social environments * Social support can provide encouragement and enjoyment. * Feeling excluded or judged during physical activity would reduce relatedness and negatively impact emotion. * Kinnafick et al. (2014) found relatedness to be important in the adoption stage of physical activity, emphasising the role of social connection in forming participation. == Psychological needs and exercise adherence == * Exercise adherence involves maintaining physical activity over time. * Having autonomy, competence, and relatedness can create a strong sense of autonomous motivation and leads to long-term engagement in physical activity (Teixeira et al., 2012). * Kinnafick et al. (2014) found different needs to be relevant at different stages of physical activity, with competence and relatedness being important for adoption and autonomy being important for adherence. * Kang et al. (2019), found that having the basic psychological needs met was a strong predictor of exercise adherence, finding autonomy as the strongest predictor. * These findings suggest the importance of psychological needs, and that their importance changes as people go from starting activity to maintaining it. ==Conclusion== *Self-determination theory provides a framework for understanding how autonomy, competence, and relatedness influence motivation and engagement in physical activity *Supporting these psychological needs can support autonomous motivation and help people maintain exercise adherence. *Kinnafick et al. (2014) suggests that the importance of each need changes across stages of activity, with competence and relatedness being important for adoption and autonomy being important for adherence. *Overall, creating environments for physical activity that give people choice, opportunities to improve, and social inclusion can help improve long-term exercise adherence. ==See also== * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Exercise motivation|Exercise motivation]] (Book chapter, 2011) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Deci, E. L., & Vansteenkiste, M. (2004). Self-determination theory and basic need satisfaction: Understanding human development in positive psychology. In ''Lirias'' (Vol. 27, pp. 17–34). https://lirias.kuleuven.be/handle/123456789/627470 Kang, S., Lee, K., & Kwon, S. (2019). Basic psychological needs, exercise intention and sport commitment as predictors of recreational sport participants’ exercise adherence. ''Psychology and Health'', 35(8), 916–932. https://doi.org/10.1080/08870446.2019.169908 Kilpatrick, M., Hebert, E., & Jacobsen, D. (2002). Physical Activity Motivation: A Practitioner’s Guide to Self-Determination Theory. ''Journal of Physical Education Recreation & Dance'', 73(4), 36–41. https://doi.org/10.1080/07303084.2002.10607789 Kinnafick, F., Thøgersen-Ntoumani, C., & Duda, J. L. (2014). Physical activity adoption to adherence, lapse, and dropout. ''Qualitative Health Research'', 24(5), 706–718. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732314528811 Ryan, R. M., Deci, E. L. (2018). Self-Determination Theory: Basic Psychological Needs in Motivation, Development, and Wellness. United Kingdom: Guilford Publications. Teixeira, P. J., Carraça, E. V., Markland, D., Silva, M. N., & Ryan, R. M. (2012). Exercise, physical activity, and self-determination theory: A systematic review. ''International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity'', 9(1), 78. https://doi.org/10.1186/1479-5868-9-78 }} ==External links== * [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/ Self-determination theory] (Center for Self-Determination Theory) * [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/topics/application-basic-psychological-needs/ Basic psychological needs] (Center for Self-Determination Theory) * [https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/physical-activity Physical activity] (World Health Organization) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Physical exercise]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self-determination theory]] euc7o8ycc5a9tzqhsacu24ga77up937 2836462 2836423 2026-10-07T06:12:24Z U3275908 3108582 /* Self-determination theory and physical activity */ 2836462 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Self-determination theory and physical activity:<br>How do autonomy, competence, and relatedness predict engagement in physical activity and exercise adherence?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Exercise Treadmill Convey Motion.jpg|thumb|Figure 1. Person running on treadmill]] ; Imagine this scenario... You have decided to start exercising more regularly. You download a workout app and decide to follow a program, you set alarms for 3 days a week and follow the workout program strictly. For a short period, you stick to the program and feel motivated, but after a few weeks you start to lose interest in the activities you are doing, and you feel like you are completing chores. You don’t find the exercises you are doing fun, they are becoming increasingly difficult to get through, and you cannot see much progress. You are also exercising alone, and you aren’t getting much support from others. Your friend also decided to exercise more regularly. They did not follow a set program, but instead chose to sign up to more activities they enjoyed. They set goals for themselves that were relevant and realistic for them. They have noticed gradual progress in their fitness levels and have frequently participated in exercise with their friends and felt strong support from their community. Both people have the same goal, to exercise more. However, they both have very different experiences, one has little choice and social support and doesn’t feel capable, whilst the other has full choice and social support, and can see growth from the change. The differences in these two people demonstrate the 3 psychological needs of self-determination theory. Autonomy, competence, and relatedness. The theory suggests that these needs being met can drive motivation and engagement (Ryan & Deci, 2018). Why could the differences between these two people lead to different levels of exercise adherence? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ;The problem This chapter explores self-determination theory and how meeting the psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness can help explain engagement with physical activity and exercise adherence. * '''Physical activity is important for ongoing participation.''' ** Although most people are aware of the physical and psychological benefits of exercise, motivation can heavily influence individuals starting, maintaining, and dropping physical activity. Understanding the things that influence motivation can help us to create environments that encourage ongoing participation (Kilpatrick et al., 2002). * '''Starting physical activity doesn’t always lead to long term adherence.''' ** People can easily start exercising regularly but also easily drop out. Kinnafick et al. (2014), found that meeting the needs for competence and relatedness were significantly important to participation, but added autonomy was crucial to maintaining adherence. * '''Self-determination theory (SDT) provides a psychological framework for understanding this.''' ** Self-determination theory by Ryan & Deci (2018), suggests that motivation is driven by three psychological needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness. * '''Applying SDT to physical activity can help explain how and why people maintain exercise activities.''' ** When exercise environments support the needs suggested by SDT, people can keep motivation, in turn becoming more likely to maintain participation (Kilpatrick et al., 2002). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * How does self-determination theory explain motivation to exercise? * How does autonomy influence engagement in physical activity? * How does competence influence engagement in physical activity? * How does relatedness influence engagement in physical activity? * How can meeting basic psychological needs increase exercise adherence? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Self-determination theory and physical activity == Self-determination theory (SDT) is a motivation theory that aims to understand why people engage in behaviours. SDT suggest that there are three psychological needs that contribute to motivation in turn contributing to behaviour (Ryan & Deci, 2018). SDT suggests that two different forms of motivation are involved in behaviour, '''autonomous motivation''' and '''controlled motivation''' * '''Autonomous motivation''' is when a person choses to engage in a behaviour with a sense of personal choice and because they enjoy it. * '''Controlled motivation''' is when a person performs a behaviour with a sense of external pressure, consequence, or obligation (Ryan & Deci, 2018). This is the presented '''scenario 1''', where the first person was behaving from controlled motivation whereas person two was behaving out of autonomous motivation. The behaviour may be the same, however the motivation is different. SDT suggests that there are '''three basic psychological needs'''. These needs directly influence motivation and mental wellbeing (Deci & Vansteenkiste, 2004). * '''Autonomy''': Feeling that you have choice and control over your behaviours. In an exercise setting this could look like participating in sports you find fun and setting your own goals. * '''Competence''': Feeling that you are capable and successful in your behaviours. In an exercise setting this could look like developing skills, reaching goals, and successfully completing challenges. * '''Relatedness''': Feeling that you are supported and belong with others. In an exercise setting this could look like having a supportive coach, exercising with a group, or receiving support from friends and family. These needs can be supported or harmed by the environment a person is in. '''Table 1''' ''The basic psychological needs and examples of how environments can support or harm them.'' {| class="wikitable" |'''Basic psychological need''' |'''Positive''' |'''Negative''' |- |'''Autonomy''' |Choosing preferred activities, setting personal goals, having control over exercises |Pressured, controlled, or forced to participate |- |'''Competence''' |Noticing progress, achieving goals, developing skills, positive feedback |Failure, unrealistic expectations, lack of progress |- |'''Relatedness''' |Exercising with friends, supportive coaches, group classes, feeling included |Isolated, excluded, or criticised |} Research applying SDT to physical activity suggests more autonomous forms of motivation are connected to more physical activity participation and maintenance (Teixeira et al., 2012). This means that supporting physical activity is not only about encouraging people to exercise and promoting the benefits, but is also dependent on the environment a person is in. Creating positive autonomy, competence, and relatedness leads to autonomous motivation which is more likely to translate into behaviour. '''''Understanding these three needs and how they each impact motivation, is important predicting and encouraging long-term exercise adherence.''''' == Autonomy and physical activity == Autonomy refers to a persons sense of choice and self-direction, without feeling pressured or controlled. (Deci & Vansteenkiste, 2004). In physical activity, autonomy can be supported by allowing individuals to choose activities that match their interests, abilities, and goals (Kilpatrick et al., 2002). -- Autonomy in physical activity can be driven by ensuring a person has '''control''' over how they do physical activity '''This could look like:''' * Choosing an activity they enjoy * Setting personal goals * Choosing when and where they exercise * Doing the activity to only their own extent * Having options When people are given autonomy over their physical activity, it can encourage them to value and understand their own reasons to participate in physical activity. This creates '''intrinsic motivation''' as they continue to participate for their own internal satisfaction, strengthening their overall '''autonomous motivation''' (Teixeira et al., 2012). In contrast to this, the environment could also reduce autonomy. Being pressured to exercise, feeling like they only have one option, or exercising to meet external expectations can create '''controlled motivation.''' For example, if a person feels pressured to work out, and guilty when they don’t, they are less likely to participate long-term than someone who is driven by autonomous motivation (Teixeira et al., 2012). Autonomy can be especially important in the adherence stage of peoples exercise habits, as people move from starting to maintaining physical activity. Kinnafick et al. (2014), found that whilst competence and relatedness are important when starting physical activity, autonomy becomes more important during the adherence stage, suggesting that feeling ownership over their exercise becomes increasingly important for maintaining it long-term. A person could still feel autonomy when being coached or participating in a program, under the condition that they feel control and that they have a say in how they participate, as well as understanding and personally valuing the exercise. Overall, supporting autonomy is important, specifically to exercise adherence and maintain physical activity long-term. It supports autonomous motivation, creating stronger prediction of behaviour. == Competence and physical activity == * Competence is about the need to feel effective, capable, and able to reach goals (Deci & Vansteenkiste, 2004). * Physical activity competence could be through people, experiencing progress, developing skills, achieving goals, and getting useful feedback. * This could mean difficult or unrealistic exercise programs may not allow the individual to meet their need for competence as they may experience failure or be unable to see improvement. * Feeling competent can increase confidence in an individuals ability to participate in physically activity and contribute to another source of intrinsic motivation (Teixeira et al., 2012). * Kinnafick et al. (2014) found competence to be important in the adoption stages of physical activity as feeling capable can help to form a routine. == Relatedness and physical activity == * Relatedness is the need to feel connected, supported, and valued by others (Deci & Vansteenkiste, 2004). * Physical activity could meet this need with things like exercise groups, sport teams, group classes, coaches, and similar active social environments * Social support can provide encouragement and enjoyment. * Feeling excluded or judged during physical activity would reduce relatedness and negatively impact emotion. * Kinnafick et al. (2014) found relatedness to be important in the adoption stage of physical activity, emphasising the role of social connection in forming participation. == Psychological needs and exercise adherence == * Exercise adherence involves maintaining physical activity over time. * Having autonomy, competence, and relatedness can create a strong sense of autonomous motivation and leads to long-term engagement in physical activity (Teixeira et al., 2012). * Kinnafick et al. (2014) found different needs to be relevant at different stages of physical activity, with competence and relatedness being important for adoption and autonomy being important for adherence. * Kang et al. (2019), found that having the basic psychological needs met was a strong predictor of exercise adherence, finding autonomy as the strongest predictor. * These findings suggest the importance of psychological needs, and that their importance changes as people go from starting activity to maintaining it. ==Conclusion== *Self-determination theory provides a framework for understanding how autonomy, competence, and relatedness influence motivation and engagement in physical activity *Supporting these psychological needs can support autonomous motivation and help people maintain exercise adherence. *Kinnafick et al. (2014) suggests that the importance of each need changes across stages of activity, with competence and relatedness being important for adoption and autonomy being important for adherence. *Overall, creating environments for physical activity that give people choice, opportunities to improve, and social inclusion can help improve long-term exercise adherence. ==See also== * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Exercise motivation|Exercise motivation]] (Book chapter, 2011) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Deci, E. L., & Vansteenkiste, M. (2004). Self-determination theory and basic need satisfaction: Understanding human development in positive psychology. In ''Lirias'' (Vol. 27, pp. 17–34). https://lirias.kuleuven.be/handle/123456789/627470 Kang, S., Lee, K., & Kwon, S. (2019). Basic psychological needs, exercise intention and sport commitment as predictors of recreational sport participants’ exercise adherence. ''Psychology and Health'', 35(8), 916–932. https://doi.org/10.1080/08870446.2019.169908 Kilpatrick, M., Hebert, E., & Jacobsen, D. (2002). Physical Activity Motivation: A Practitioner’s Guide to Self-Determination Theory. ''Journal of Physical Education Recreation & Dance'', 73(4), 36–41. https://doi.org/10.1080/07303084.2002.10607789 Kinnafick, F., Thøgersen-Ntoumani, C., & Duda, J. L. (2014). Physical activity adoption to adherence, lapse, and dropout. ''Qualitative Health Research'', 24(5), 706–718. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732314528811 Ryan, R. M., Deci, E. L. (2018). Self-Determination Theory: Basic Psychological Needs in Motivation, Development, and Wellness. United Kingdom: Guilford Publications. Teixeira, P. J., Carraça, E. V., Markland, D., Silva, M. N., & Ryan, R. M. (2012). Exercise, physical activity, and self-determination theory: A systematic review. ''International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity'', 9(1), 78. https://doi.org/10.1186/1479-5868-9-78 }} ==External links== * [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/ Self-determination theory] (Center for Self-Determination Theory) * [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/topics/application-basic-psychological-needs/ Basic psychological needs] (Center for Self-Determination Theory) * [https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/physical-activity Physical activity] (World Health Organization) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Physical exercise]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self-determination theory]] 7ro4hypadtkle6uogwls7xavgfy6k3n 0 331382 2836530 2836233 2026-10-07T10:19:51Z U3280499 3106560 /* How the environment interacts with the mesolimbic pathway */ added subheading and paragraph 2836530 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Mesolimbic pathway and addiction motivation:<br>What role does the ventral tegmental area to nucleus accumbens pathway play in addictive behaviours?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=12}} [[File:Cartoon Black Woman Shopping Online.svg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. Online shopping addiction {{ic|explain connection to mesolimbic pathway}}]] ;Scenario Imagine you are scrolling through the website of your favourite store. There are sales everywhere, free shipping for orders over $100 and you have some time to spare. You are so excited by the thought of receiving a parcel in the mail, that you just add items to your cart without really needing them or even liking the items that much. Seeing the parcel at the door and taking it inside to unbox is more exciting than the item itself. Then after you've received it, you may forget about it or wonder why you bought it in the first place? {{RoundBoxBottom}} This scenario demonstrates a broader psychological issue which involves the tendency to become addicted to various behaviours (see Figure 1). The ventral tegmental area (VTA) to the nucleus accumbens pathway, is strongly involved in addiction motivation (Ebrahimi et al., 2024). This pathway is a core component of the mesolimbic pathway which starts in the midbrain and ends in the forebrain (Ebrahimi et al., 2024). Understanding the function of the VTA to nucleus accumbens pathway is important in recognising how certain behaviours become addictive and why anticipation can outweigh actual reward. Many addictive behaviours can somewhat be insignificant but others can cause a substantial amount of harm to oneself or other people. Considering the potential impacts of addiction, developing an understanding of the physiological psychology behind it is beneficial. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} '''Focus questions''' * How does the mesolimbic pathway normally function in motivation and reward? * How do addictive substances and behaviours alter dopamine signalling within the mesolimbic pathway? * How does the environment interact with the mesolimbic pathway to reinforce addictive behaviours? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Mesolimbic pathway function == [[File:Dopamine pathways.svg|left|thumb|380x380px|Diagram of brain which shows the location of the nucleus accumbens and ventral tegmental area (VTA)]] Key points: * The nucleus accumbens is activated by [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2017/Dopamine and drug addiction|dopamine]] which is a neurotransmitter projected from the ventral tegmental area (VTA) (Ebrahimi et al., 2024). * Naturally rewarding stimuli (like what) increase the release of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens and the dopamine response decreases when stimuli is incessant (Salgado & Kaplitt, 2015). * The mesolimbic pathway is essential for behavioural activation, sustained engagement, putting in effort and working towards goals (Salamone & Correa, 2012) The nucleus accumbens, located in the ventral striatum, is a key structure in the brain that is responsible for reward, motivation and pleasure (Ebrahimi et al., 2024). The nucleus accumbens is activated by dopamine which is projected from the ventral tegmental area (VTA). This pathway that dopamine travels along, starts at the VTA in the midbrain and ends at the nucleus accumbens, in the limbic area. It is known as the mesolimbic pathway and it is heavily involved in addiction motivation. == How addictive substances and behaviours alter the mesolimbic pathway == Key points: * Reward deficiency syndrome suggests that motivation to engage in risk-taking behaviours increases when there is a dopamine deficiency in the reward system (Blum et al., 2022) * Consistent drug taking can cause permanent functional changes in the mesolimbic pathway * Changes caused by repetitive dopamine stimulation result in an abnormal amount of motivation to consume the drug, even when the individual finds it unenjoyable (Alcaro et al., 2007) == How the environment interacts with the mesolimbic pathway == Key points: * Severe stress caused by childhood adversity and other factors such as social isolation (Trainor, 2011) affect the mesolimbic pathway * Low dopamine transporter (DAT) causes more sensitivity in the mesolimbic pathway, meaning stimulant substances such as cocaine have more of an affect and produce longer rewards signals (Enoch, 2011) * A modulated mesolimbic system caused by stress can lead to chronic stress-induced depression (Baik, 2020) === Feeding behaviour === The mesolimbic pathway is influenced by physiological factors related to feeding behaviour. Fasting or other diets that include prolonged food restriction increase dopamine system function which means it becomes more sensitive to rewards (Dunigan & Roseberry, 2022). In addition, body weight fluctuations can change dopamine function. Dunigan and Roseberry (2022) also state how individuals with obesity may show differences in food cravings, motivation to eat and responsiveness to rewarding foods, compared to individuals who are not obese. This is due to hormones such as ghrelin, the hunger hormone, which binds to receptors in the VTA and increases activity of dopamine neurons. Therefore, the value of food is enhanced, increasing an individual’s motivation to seek and consume food, while also influencing other dopamine-mediated behaviours such as reward seeking and reinforcement. == Recovery of the mesolimbic pathway == * Related to reward deficiency syndrome - short term treatment may involve blocking dopamine receptors in the nucleus accumbens * Long term treatment may involve increasing dopamine signalling in the nucleus accumbens * Increasing dopamine signalling will help to avoid relapse (Blum & Gold, 2011) ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages Planning to have a quiz with 1-2 questions at the end of each main section. Might add some questions throughout that refer to the scenario from the start to tie it in. ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2017/Dopamine and drug addiction]] embedded in text under mesolimbic pathway function {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words *The mesolimbic pathway starts at the ventral tegmental area and ends at the nucleus accumbens *This pathway is involved in reward and motivation *Addictive substances and behaviours can modulate the mesolimbic pathway *Exposure to stress can increase vulnerability to addiction *Reward deficiency syndrome increases risk of addiction and other risk-taking behaviours {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[wikipedia:Mesolimbic_pathway|Mesolimbic pathway]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Motivational toxicity|Motivational toxicity]] (Book chapter, 2010) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Alcaro, A., Huber, R., & Panksepp, J. (2007). Behavioral functions of the mesolimbic dopaminergic system: An affective neuroethological perspective. Brain Research Reviews, 56(2), 21–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainresrev.2007.07.014 Baik, J.-H. (2020). Stress and the dopaminergic reward system. Experimental & Molecular Medicine, 52(12), 1883. https://doi.org/10.1038/s12276-020-00532-4 Blum, K., & Gold, M. S. (2011). Neuro-chemical activation of brain reward meso-limbic circuitry is associated with relapse prevention and drug hunger: A hypothesis. Medical Hypotheses, 76(4), 580. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mehy.2011.01.005 Blum, K., McLaughlin, T., Bowirrat, A., Modestino, E. J., Baron, D., Gomez, L. L., Ceccanti, M., Braverman, E. R., Thanos, P. K., Cadet, J. L., Elman, I., Badgaiyan, R. D., Jalali, R., Green, R., Simpatico, T. A., Gupta, A., & Gold, M. S. (2022). Reward deficiency syndrome (RDS) surprisingly is evolutionary and found everywhere: Is it “blowin’ in the wind”? Journal of Personalized Medicine, 12(2), 4. https://doi.org/10.3390/jpm12020321 Ebrahimi, M. N., Banazadeh, M., Alitaneh, Z., Suha, A. J., Esmaeili, A., Hasannejad-Asl, B., Siahposht-Khachaki, A., Hassanshahi, A., & Bagheri-Mohammadi, S. (2024). The distribution of neurotransmitters in the brain circuitry: Mesolimbic pathway and addiction. ''Physiology & Behavior, 284'', 2. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2024.114639 Enoch, M.-A. (2011). The role of early life stress as a predictor for alcohol and drug dependence. Psychopharmacology, 214(1), 22. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-010-1916-6 Salamone, J. D., & Correa, M. (2012). The mysterious motivational functions of mesolimbic dopamine. Neuron, 76(3), 470. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2012.10.021 Salgado, S., & Kaplitt, M. G. (2015). The nucleus accumbens: A comprehensive review. Stereotactic and Functional Neurosurgery, 93(2), 82. https://doi.org/10.1159/000368279 Trainor, B. C. (2011). Stress responses and the mesolimbic dopamine system: Social contexts and sex differences. Hormones and Behavior, 60(5), 6–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2011.08.013 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f7E0mTJQ2KM 2-minute neuroscience: reward system] (Neurochallenged, YouTube) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D8TJNU9pbto Rewiring your dopamine systems] (StarTalk, YouTube) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Neuroscience]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Neurotransmitters/Dopamine]] ielvs68mjqt2dgcvezee48vvgtblc63 2836531 2836530 2026-10-07T10:20:52Z U3280499 3106560 /* References */ added reference 2836531 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Mesolimbic pathway and addiction motivation:<br>What role does the ventral tegmental area to nucleus accumbens pathway play in addictive behaviours?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=12}} [[File:Cartoon Black Woman Shopping Online.svg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. Online shopping addiction {{ic|explain connection to mesolimbic pathway}}]] ;Scenario Imagine you are scrolling through the website of your favourite store. There are sales everywhere, free shipping for orders over $100 and you have some time to spare. You are so excited by the thought of receiving a parcel in the mail, that you just add items to your cart without really needing them or even liking the items that much. Seeing the parcel at the door and taking it inside to unbox is more exciting than the item itself. Then after you've received it, you may forget about it or wonder why you bought it in the first place? {{RoundBoxBottom}} This scenario demonstrates a broader psychological issue which involves the tendency to become addicted to various behaviours (see Figure 1). The ventral tegmental area (VTA) to the nucleus accumbens pathway, is strongly involved in addiction motivation (Ebrahimi et al., 2024). This pathway is a core component of the mesolimbic pathway which starts in the midbrain and ends in the forebrain (Ebrahimi et al., 2024). Understanding the function of the VTA to nucleus accumbens pathway is important in recognising how certain behaviours become addictive and why anticipation can outweigh actual reward. Many addictive behaviours can somewhat be insignificant but others can cause a substantial amount of harm to oneself or other people. Considering the potential impacts of addiction, developing an understanding of the physiological psychology behind it is beneficial. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} '''Focus questions''' * How does the mesolimbic pathway normally function in motivation and reward? * How do addictive substances and behaviours alter dopamine signalling within the mesolimbic pathway? * How does the environment interact with the mesolimbic pathway to reinforce addictive behaviours? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Mesolimbic pathway function == [[File:Dopamine pathways.svg|left|thumb|380x380px|Diagram of brain which shows the location of the nucleus accumbens and ventral tegmental area (VTA)]] Key points: * The nucleus accumbens is activated by [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2017/Dopamine and drug addiction|dopamine]] which is a neurotransmitter projected from the ventral tegmental area (VTA) (Ebrahimi et al., 2024). * Naturally rewarding stimuli (like what) increase the release of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens and the dopamine response decreases when stimuli is incessant (Salgado & Kaplitt, 2015). * The mesolimbic pathway is essential for behavioural activation, sustained engagement, putting in effort and working towards goals (Salamone & Correa, 2012) The nucleus accumbens, located in the ventral striatum, is a key structure in the brain that is responsible for reward, motivation and pleasure (Ebrahimi et al., 2024). The nucleus accumbens is activated by dopamine which is projected from the ventral tegmental area (VTA). This pathway that dopamine travels along, starts at the VTA in the midbrain and ends at the nucleus accumbens, in the limbic area. It is known as the mesolimbic pathway and it is heavily involved in addiction motivation. == How addictive substances and behaviours alter the mesolimbic pathway == Key points: * Reward deficiency syndrome suggests that motivation to engage in risk-taking behaviours increases when there is a dopamine deficiency in the reward system (Blum et al., 2022) * Consistent drug taking can cause permanent functional changes in the mesolimbic pathway * Changes caused by repetitive dopamine stimulation result in an abnormal amount of motivation to consume the drug, even when the individual finds it unenjoyable (Alcaro et al., 2007) == How the environment interacts with the mesolimbic pathway == Key points: * Severe stress caused by childhood adversity and other factors such as social isolation (Trainor, 2011) affect the mesolimbic pathway * Low dopamine transporter (DAT) causes more sensitivity in the mesolimbic pathway, meaning stimulant substances such as cocaine have more of an affect and produce longer rewards signals (Enoch, 2011) * A modulated mesolimbic system caused by stress can lead to chronic stress-induced depression (Baik, 2020) === Feeding behaviour === The mesolimbic pathway is influenced by physiological factors related to feeding behaviour. Fasting or other diets that include prolonged food restriction increase dopamine system function which means it becomes more sensitive to rewards (Dunigan & Roseberry, 2022). In addition, body weight fluctuations can change dopamine function. Dunigan and Roseberry (2022) also state how individuals with obesity may show differences in food cravings, motivation to eat and responsiveness to rewarding foods, compared to individuals who are not obese. This is due to hormones such as ghrelin, the hunger hormone, which binds to receptors in the VTA and increases activity of dopamine neurons. Therefore, the value of food is enhanced, increasing an individual’s motivation to seek and consume food, while also influencing other dopamine-mediated behaviours such as reward seeking and reinforcement. == Recovery of the mesolimbic pathway == * Related to reward deficiency syndrome - short term treatment may involve blocking dopamine receptors in the nucleus accumbens * Long term treatment may involve increasing dopamine signalling in the nucleus accumbens * Increasing dopamine signalling will help to avoid relapse (Blum & Gold, 2011) ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages Planning to have a quiz with 1-2 questions at the end of each main section. Might add some questions throughout that refer to the scenario from the start to tie it in. ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2017/Dopamine and drug addiction]] embedded in text under mesolimbic pathway function {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words *The mesolimbic pathway starts at the ventral tegmental area and ends at the nucleus accumbens *This pathway is involved in reward and motivation *Addictive substances and behaviours can modulate the mesolimbic pathway *Exposure to stress can increase vulnerability to addiction *Reward deficiency syndrome increases risk of addiction and other risk-taking behaviours {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[wikipedia:Mesolimbic_pathway|Mesolimbic pathway]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Motivational toxicity|Motivational toxicity]] (Book chapter, 2010) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Alcaro, A., Huber, R., & Panksepp, J. (2007). Behavioral functions of the mesolimbic dopaminergic system: An affective neuroethological perspective. Brain Research Reviews, 56(2), 21–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainresrev.2007.07.014 Baik, J.-H. (2020). Stress and the dopaminergic reward system. Experimental & Molecular Medicine, 52(12), 1883. https://doi.org/10.1038/s12276-020-00532-4 Blum, K., & Gold, M. S. (2011). Neuro-chemical activation of brain reward meso-limbic circuitry is associated with relapse prevention and drug hunger: A hypothesis. Medical Hypotheses, 76(4), 580. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mehy.2011.01.005 Blum, K., McLaughlin, T., Bowirrat, A., Modestino, E. J., Baron, D., Gomez, L. L., Ceccanti, M., Braverman, E. R., Thanos, P. K., Cadet, J. L., Elman, I., Badgaiyan, R. D., Jalali, R., Green, R., Simpatico, T. A., Gupta, A., & Gold, M. S. (2022). Reward deficiency syndrome (RDS) surprisingly is evolutionary and found everywhere: Is it “blowin’ in the wind”? Journal of Personalized Medicine, 12(2), 4. https://doi.org/10.3390/jpm12020321 Dunigan, A. I., & Roseberry, A. G. (2022). Actions of feeding-related peptides on the mesolimbic dopamine system in regulation of natural and drug rewards. Addiction Neuroscience, 2. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addicn.2022.100011 Ebrahimi, M. N., Banazadeh, M., Alitaneh, Z., Suha, A. J., Esmaeili, A., Hasannejad-Asl, B., Siahposht-Khachaki, A., Hassanshahi, A., & Bagheri-Mohammadi, S. (2024). The distribution of neurotransmitters in the brain circuitry: Mesolimbic pathway and addiction. ''Physiology & Behavior, 284'', 2. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2024.114639 Enoch, M.-A. (2011). The role of early life stress as a predictor for alcohol and drug dependence. Psychopharmacology, 214(1), 22. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-010-1916-6 Salamone, J. D., & Correa, M. (2012). The mysterious motivational functions of mesolimbic dopamine. Neuron, 76(3), 470. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2012.10.021 Salgado, S., & Kaplitt, M. G. (2015). The nucleus accumbens: A comprehensive review. Stereotactic and Functional Neurosurgery, 93(2), 82. https://doi.org/10.1159/000368279 Trainor, B. C. (2011). Stress responses and the mesolimbic dopamine system: Social contexts and sex differences. Hormones and Behavior, 60(5), 6–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2011.08.013 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f7E0mTJQ2KM 2-minute neuroscience: reward system] (Neurochallenged, YouTube) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D8TJNU9pbto Rewiring your dopamine systems] (StarTalk, YouTube) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Neuroscience]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Neurotransmitters/Dopamine]] jk0t0u2c2rd4g6nxxlk4zav7saaztl4 2836533 2836531 2026-10-07T10:28:03Z U3280499 3106560 /* Mesolimbic pathway function */ 2836533 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Mesolimbic pathway and addiction motivation:<br>What role does the ventral tegmental area to nucleus accumbens pathway play in addictive behaviours?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=12}} [[File:Cartoon Black Woman Shopping Online.svg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. Online shopping addiction {{ic|explain connection to mesolimbic pathway}}]] ;Scenario Imagine you are scrolling through the website of your favourite store. There are sales everywhere, free shipping for orders over $100 and you have some time to spare. You are so excited by the thought of receiving a parcel in the mail, that you just add items to your cart without really needing them or even liking the items that much. Seeing the parcel at the door and taking it inside to unbox is more exciting than the item itself. Then after you've received it, you may forget about it or wonder why you bought it in the first place? {{RoundBoxBottom}} This scenario demonstrates a broader psychological issue which involves the tendency to become addicted to various behaviours (see Figure 1). The ventral tegmental area (VTA) to the nucleus accumbens pathway, is strongly involved in addiction motivation (Ebrahimi et al., 2024). This pathway is a core component of the mesolimbic pathway which starts in the midbrain and ends in the forebrain (Ebrahimi et al., 2024). Understanding the function of the VTA to nucleus accumbens pathway is important in recognising how certain behaviours become addictive and why anticipation can outweigh actual reward. Many addictive behaviours can somewhat be insignificant but others can cause a substantial amount of harm to oneself or other people. Considering the potential impacts of addiction, developing an understanding of the physiological psychology behind it is beneficial. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} '''Focus questions''' * How does the mesolimbic pathway normally function in motivation and reward? * How do addictive substances and behaviours alter dopamine signalling within the mesolimbic pathway? * How does the environment interact with the mesolimbic pathway to reinforce addictive behaviours? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Mesolimbic pathway function == [[File:Dopamine pathways.svg|left|thumb|380x380px|Figure 2. Diagram of brain which shows the location of the nucleus accumbens and ventral tegmental area (VTA)]] Key points: * The nucleus accumbens is activated by [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2017/Dopamine and drug addiction|dopamine]] which is a neurotransmitter projected from the ventral tegmental area (VTA) (Ebrahimi et al., 2024). * Naturally rewarding stimuli (like what) increase the release of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens and the dopamine response decreases when stimuli is incessant (Salgado & Kaplitt, 2015). * The mesolimbic pathway is essential for behavioural activation, sustained engagement, putting in effort and working towards goals (Salamone & Correa, 2012) The nucleus accumbens, located in the ventral striatum, is a key structure in the brain that is responsible for reward, motivation and pleasure (Ebrahimi et al., 2024). The nucleus accumbens is activated by dopamine which is projected from the ventral tegmental area (VTA). This pathway that dopamine travels along, starts at the VTA in the midbrain and ends at the nucleus accumbens, in the limbic area (see Figure 2). It is known as the mesolimbic pathway and it is heavily involved in addiction motivation. == How addictive substances and behaviours alter the mesolimbic pathway == Key points: * Reward deficiency syndrome suggests that motivation to engage in risk-taking behaviours increases when there is a dopamine deficiency in the reward system (Blum et al., 2022) * Consistent drug taking can cause permanent functional changes in the mesolimbic pathway * Changes caused by repetitive dopamine stimulation result in an abnormal amount of motivation to consume the drug, even when the individual finds it unenjoyable (Alcaro et al., 2007) == How the environment interacts with the mesolimbic pathway == Key points: * Severe stress caused by childhood adversity and other factors such as social isolation (Trainor, 2011) affect the mesolimbic pathway * Low dopamine transporter (DAT) causes more sensitivity in the mesolimbic pathway, meaning stimulant substances such as cocaine have more of an affect and produce longer rewards signals (Enoch, 2011) * A modulated mesolimbic system caused by stress can lead to chronic stress-induced depression (Baik, 2020) === Feeding behaviour === The mesolimbic pathway is influenced by physiological factors related to feeding behaviour. Fasting or other diets that include prolonged food restriction increase dopamine system function which means it becomes more sensitive to rewards (Dunigan & Roseberry, 2022). In addition, body weight fluctuations can change dopamine function. Dunigan and Roseberry (2022) also state how individuals with obesity may show differences in food cravings, motivation to eat and responsiveness to rewarding foods, compared to individuals who are not obese. This is due to hormones such as ghrelin, the hunger hormone, which binds to receptors in the VTA and increases activity of dopamine neurons. Therefore, the value of food is enhanced, increasing an individual’s motivation to seek and consume food, while also influencing other dopamine-mediated behaviours such as reward seeking and reinforcement. == Recovery of the mesolimbic pathway == * Related to reward deficiency syndrome - short term treatment may involve blocking dopamine receptors in the nucleus accumbens * Long term treatment may involve increasing dopamine signalling in the nucleus accumbens * Increasing dopamine signalling will help to avoid relapse (Blum & Gold, 2011) ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages Planning to have a quiz with 1-2 questions at the end of each main section. Might add some questions throughout that refer to the scenario from the start to tie it in. ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2017/Dopamine and drug addiction]] embedded in text under mesolimbic pathway function {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words *The mesolimbic pathway starts at the ventral tegmental area and ends at the nucleus accumbens *This pathway is involved in reward and motivation *Addictive substances and behaviours can modulate the mesolimbic pathway *Exposure to stress can increase vulnerability to addiction *Reward deficiency syndrome increases risk of addiction and other risk-taking behaviours {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[wikipedia:Mesolimbic_pathway|Mesolimbic pathway]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Motivational toxicity|Motivational toxicity]] (Book chapter, 2010) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Alcaro, A., Huber, R., & Panksepp, J. (2007). Behavioral functions of the mesolimbic dopaminergic system: An affective neuroethological perspective. Brain Research Reviews, 56(2), 21–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainresrev.2007.07.014 Baik, J.-H. (2020). Stress and the dopaminergic reward system. Experimental & Molecular Medicine, 52(12), 1883. https://doi.org/10.1038/s12276-020-00532-4 Blum, K., & Gold, M. S. (2011). Neuro-chemical activation of brain reward meso-limbic circuitry is associated with relapse prevention and drug hunger: A hypothesis. Medical Hypotheses, 76(4), 580. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mehy.2011.01.005 Blum, K., McLaughlin, T., Bowirrat, A., Modestino, E. J., Baron, D., Gomez, L. L., Ceccanti, M., Braverman, E. R., Thanos, P. K., Cadet, J. L., Elman, I., Badgaiyan, R. D., Jalali, R., Green, R., Simpatico, T. A., Gupta, A., & Gold, M. S. (2022). Reward deficiency syndrome (RDS) surprisingly is evolutionary and found everywhere: Is it “blowin’ in the wind”? Journal of Personalized Medicine, 12(2), 4. https://doi.org/10.3390/jpm12020321 Dunigan, A. I., & Roseberry, A. G. (2022). Actions of feeding-related peptides on the mesolimbic dopamine system in regulation of natural and drug rewards. Addiction Neuroscience, 2. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addicn.2022.100011 Ebrahimi, M. N., Banazadeh, M., Alitaneh, Z., Suha, A. J., Esmaeili, A., Hasannejad-Asl, B., Siahposht-Khachaki, A., Hassanshahi, A., & Bagheri-Mohammadi, S. (2024). The distribution of neurotransmitters in the brain circuitry: Mesolimbic pathway and addiction. ''Physiology & Behavior, 284'', 2. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2024.114639 Enoch, M.-A. (2011). The role of early life stress as a predictor for alcohol and drug dependence. Psychopharmacology, 214(1), 22. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-010-1916-6 Salamone, J. D., & Correa, M. (2012). The mysterious motivational functions of mesolimbic dopamine. Neuron, 76(3), 470. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2012.10.021 Salgado, S., & Kaplitt, M. G. (2015). The nucleus accumbens: A comprehensive review. Stereotactic and Functional Neurosurgery, 93(2), 82. https://doi.org/10.1159/000368279 Trainor, B. C. (2011). Stress responses and the mesolimbic dopamine system: Social contexts and sex differences. Hormones and Behavior, 60(5), 6–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2011.08.013 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f7E0mTJQ2KM 2-minute neuroscience: reward system] (Neurochallenged, YouTube) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D8TJNU9pbto Rewiring your dopamine systems] (StarTalk, YouTube) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Neuroscience]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Neurotransmitters/Dopamine]] tn3e6xrprrktletofr1e2chud7rcjsd 2836534 2836533 2026-10-07T10:28:31Z U3280499 3106560 /* Mesolimbic pathway function */ 2836534 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Mesolimbic pathway and addiction motivation:<br>What role does the ventral tegmental area to nucleus accumbens pathway play in addictive behaviours?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=12}} [[File:Cartoon Black Woman Shopping Online.svg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. Online shopping addiction {{ic|explain connection to mesolimbic pathway}}]] ;Scenario Imagine you are scrolling through the website of your favourite store. There are sales everywhere, free shipping for orders over $100 and you have some time to spare. You are so excited by the thought of receiving a parcel in the mail, that you just add items to your cart without really needing them or even liking the items that much. Seeing the parcel at the door and taking it inside to unbox is more exciting than the item itself. Then after you've received it, you may forget about it or wonder why you bought it in the first place? {{RoundBoxBottom}} This scenario demonstrates a broader psychological issue which involves the tendency to become addicted to various behaviours (see Figure 1). The ventral tegmental area (VTA) to the nucleus accumbens pathway, is strongly involved in addiction motivation (Ebrahimi et al., 2024). This pathway is a core component of the mesolimbic pathway which starts in the midbrain and ends in the forebrain (Ebrahimi et al., 2024). Understanding the function of the VTA to nucleus accumbens pathway is important in recognising how certain behaviours become addictive and why anticipation can outweigh actual reward. Many addictive behaviours can somewhat be insignificant but others can cause a substantial amount of harm to oneself or other people. Considering the potential impacts of addiction, developing an understanding of the physiological psychology behind it is beneficial. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} '''Focus questions''' * How does the mesolimbic pathway normally function in motivation and reward? * How do addictive substances and behaviours alter dopamine signalling within the mesolimbic pathway? * How does the environment interact with the mesolimbic pathway to reinforce addictive behaviours? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Mesolimbic pathway function == [[File:Dopamine pathways.svg|left|thumb|380x380px|'''Figure 2'''. Diagram of brain which shows the location of the nucleus accumbens and ventral tegmental area (VTA)]] Key points: * The nucleus accumbens is activated by [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2017/Dopamine and drug addiction|dopamine]] which is a neurotransmitter projected from the ventral tegmental area (VTA) (Ebrahimi et al., 2024). * Naturally rewarding stimuli (like what) increase the release of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens and the dopamine response decreases when stimuli is incessant (Salgado & Kaplitt, 2015). * The mesolimbic pathway is essential for behavioural activation, sustained engagement, putting in effort and working towards goals (Salamone & Correa, 2012) The nucleus accumbens, located in the ventral striatum, is a key structure in the brain that is responsible for reward, motivation and pleasure (Ebrahimi et al., 2024). The nucleus accumbens is activated by dopamine which is projected from the ventral tegmental area (VTA). This pathway that dopamine travels along, starts at the VTA in the midbrain and ends at the nucleus accumbens, in the limbic area (see Figure 2). It is known as the mesolimbic pathway and it is heavily involved in addiction motivation. == How addictive substances and behaviours alter the mesolimbic pathway == Key points: * Reward deficiency syndrome suggests that motivation to engage in risk-taking behaviours increases when there is a dopamine deficiency in the reward system (Blum et al., 2022) * Consistent drug taking can cause permanent functional changes in the mesolimbic pathway * Changes caused by repetitive dopamine stimulation result in an abnormal amount of motivation to consume the drug, even when the individual finds it unenjoyable (Alcaro et al., 2007) == How the environment interacts with the mesolimbic pathway == Key points: * Severe stress caused by childhood adversity and other factors such as social isolation (Trainor, 2011) affect the mesolimbic pathway * Low dopamine transporter (DAT) causes more sensitivity in the mesolimbic pathway, meaning stimulant substances such as cocaine have more of an affect and produce longer rewards signals (Enoch, 2011) * A modulated mesolimbic system caused by stress can lead to chronic stress-induced depression (Baik, 2020) === Feeding behaviour === The mesolimbic pathway is influenced by physiological factors related to feeding behaviour. Fasting or other diets that include prolonged food restriction increase dopamine system function which means it becomes more sensitive to rewards (Dunigan & Roseberry, 2022). In addition, body weight fluctuations can change dopamine function. Dunigan and Roseberry (2022) also state how individuals with obesity may show differences in food cravings, motivation to eat and responsiveness to rewarding foods, compared to individuals who are not obese. This is due to hormones such as ghrelin, the hunger hormone, which binds to receptors in the VTA and increases activity of dopamine neurons. Therefore, the value of food is enhanced, increasing an individual’s motivation to seek and consume food, while also influencing other dopamine-mediated behaviours such as reward seeking and reinforcement. == Recovery of the mesolimbic pathway == * Related to reward deficiency syndrome - short term treatment may involve blocking dopamine receptors in the nucleus accumbens * Long term treatment may involve increasing dopamine signalling in the nucleus accumbens * Increasing dopamine signalling will help to avoid relapse (Blum & Gold, 2011) ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages Planning to have a quiz with 1-2 questions at the end of each main section. Might add some questions throughout that refer to the scenario from the start to tie it in. ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2017/Dopamine and drug addiction]] embedded in text under mesolimbic pathway function {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words *The mesolimbic pathway starts at the ventral tegmental area and ends at the nucleus accumbens *This pathway is involved in reward and motivation *Addictive substances and behaviours can modulate the mesolimbic pathway *Exposure to stress can increase vulnerability to addiction *Reward deficiency syndrome increases risk of addiction and other risk-taking behaviours {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[wikipedia:Mesolimbic_pathway|Mesolimbic pathway]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Motivational toxicity|Motivational toxicity]] (Book chapter, 2010) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Alcaro, A., Huber, R., & Panksepp, J. (2007). Behavioral functions of the mesolimbic dopaminergic system: An affective neuroethological perspective. Brain Research Reviews, 56(2), 21–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainresrev.2007.07.014 Baik, J.-H. (2020). Stress and the dopaminergic reward system. Experimental & Molecular Medicine, 52(12), 1883. https://doi.org/10.1038/s12276-020-00532-4 Blum, K., & Gold, M. S. (2011). Neuro-chemical activation of brain reward meso-limbic circuitry is associated with relapse prevention and drug hunger: A hypothesis. Medical Hypotheses, 76(4), 580. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mehy.2011.01.005 Blum, K., McLaughlin, T., Bowirrat, A., Modestino, E. J., Baron, D., Gomez, L. L., Ceccanti, M., Braverman, E. R., Thanos, P. K., Cadet, J. L., Elman, I., Badgaiyan, R. D., Jalali, R., Green, R., Simpatico, T. A., Gupta, A., & Gold, M. S. (2022). Reward deficiency syndrome (RDS) surprisingly is evolutionary and found everywhere: Is it “blowin’ in the wind”? Journal of Personalized Medicine, 12(2), 4. https://doi.org/10.3390/jpm12020321 Dunigan, A. I., & Roseberry, A. G. (2022). Actions of feeding-related peptides on the mesolimbic dopamine system in regulation of natural and drug rewards. Addiction Neuroscience, 2. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addicn.2022.100011 Ebrahimi, M. N., Banazadeh, M., Alitaneh, Z., Suha, A. J., Esmaeili, A., Hasannejad-Asl, B., Siahposht-Khachaki, A., Hassanshahi, A., & Bagheri-Mohammadi, S. (2024). The distribution of neurotransmitters in the brain circuitry: Mesolimbic pathway and addiction. ''Physiology & Behavior, 284'', 2. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2024.114639 Enoch, M.-A. (2011). The role of early life stress as a predictor for alcohol and drug dependence. Psychopharmacology, 214(1), 22. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-010-1916-6 Salamone, J. D., & Correa, M. (2012). The mysterious motivational functions of mesolimbic dopamine. Neuron, 76(3), 470. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2012.10.021 Salgado, S., & Kaplitt, M. G. (2015). The nucleus accumbens: A comprehensive review. Stereotactic and Functional Neurosurgery, 93(2), 82. https://doi.org/10.1159/000368279 Trainor, B. C. (2011). Stress responses and the mesolimbic dopamine system: Social contexts and sex differences. Hormones and Behavior, 60(5), 6–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2011.08.013 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f7E0mTJQ2KM 2-minute neuroscience: reward system] (Neurochallenged, YouTube) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D8TJNU9pbto Rewiring your dopamine systems] (StarTalk, YouTube) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Neuroscience]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Neurotransmitters/Dopamine]] ne4c091ilai8wqojyfboeilq3yvneme 2836542 2836534 2026-10-07T11:13:31Z U3280499 3106560 /* How the environment interacts with the mesolimbic pathway */ added subheading 2836542 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Mesolimbic pathway and addiction motivation:<br>What role does the ventral tegmental area to nucleus accumbens pathway play in addictive behaviours?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=12}} [[File:Cartoon Black Woman Shopping Online.svg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. Online shopping addiction {{ic|explain connection to mesolimbic pathway}}]] ;Scenario Imagine you are scrolling through the website of your favourite store. There are sales everywhere, free shipping for orders over $100 and you have some time to spare. You are so excited by the thought of receiving a parcel in the mail, that you just add items to your cart without really needing them or even liking the items that much. Seeing the parcel at the door and taking it inside to unbox is more exciting than the item itself. Then after you've received it, you may forget about it or wonder why you bought it in the first place? {{RoundBoxBottom}} This scenario demonstrates a broader psychological issue which involves the tendency to become addicted to various behaviours (see Figure 1). The ventral tegmental area (VTA) to the nucleus accumbens pathway, is strongly involved in addiction motivation (Ebrahimi et al., 2024). This pathway is a core component of the mesolimbic pathway which starts in the midbrain and ends in the forebrain (Ebrahimi et al., 2024). Understanding the function of the VTA to nucleus accumbens pathway is important in recognising how certain behaviours become addictive and why anticipation can outweigh actual reward. Many addictive behaviours can somewhat be insignificant but others can cause a substantial amount of harm to oneself or other people. Considering the potential impacts of addiction, developing an understanding of the physiological psychology behind it is beneficial. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} '''Focus questions''' * How does the mesolimbic pathway normally function in motivation and reward? * How do addictive substances and behaviours alter dopamine signalling within the mesolimbic pathway? * How does the environment interact with the mesolimbic pathway to reinforce addictive behaviours? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Mesolimbic pathway function == [[File:Dopamine pathways.svg|left|thumb|380x380px|'''Figure 2'''. Diagram of brain which shows the location of the nucleus accumbens and ventral tegmental area (VTA)]] Key points: * The nucleus accumbens is activated by [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2017/Dopamine and drug addiction|dopamine]] which is a neurotransmitter projected from the ventral tegmental area (VTA) (Ebrahimi et al., 2024). * Naturally rewarding stimuli (like what) increase the release of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens and the dopamine response decreases when stimuli is incessant (Salgado & Kaplitt, 2015). * The mesolimbic pathway is essential for behavioural activation, sustained engagement, putting in effort and working towards goals (Salamone & Correa, 2012) The nucleus accumbens, located in the ventral striatum, is a key structure in the brain that is responsible for reward, motivation and pleasure (Ebrahimi et al., 2024). The nucleus accumbens is activated by dopamine which is projected from the ventral tegmental area (VTA). This pathway that dopamine travels along, starts at the VTA in the midbrain and ends at the nucleus accumbens, in the limbic area (see Figure 2). It is known as the mesolimbic pathway and it is heavily involved in addiction motivation. == How addictive substances and behaviours alter the mesolimbic pathway == Key points: * Reward deficiency syndrome suggests that motivation to engage in risk-taking behaviours increases when there is a dopamine deficiency in the reward system (Blum et al., 2022) * Consistent drug taking can cause permanent functional changes in the mesolimbic pathway * Changes caused by repetitive dopamine stimulation result in an abnormal amount of motivation to consume the drug, even when the individual finds it unenjoyable (Alcaro et al., 2007) == How the environment interacts with the mesolimbic pathway == Key points: * Severe stress caused by childhood adversity and other factors such as social isolation (Trainor, 2011) affect the mesolimbic pathway * Low dopamine transporter (DAT) causes more sensitivity in the mesolimbic pathway, meaning stimulant substances such as cocaine have more of an affect and produce longer rewards signals (Enoch, 2011) * A modulated mesolimbic system caused by stress can lead to chronic stress-induced depression (Baik, 2020) === Influence of feeding behaviour === The mesolimbic pathway is influenced by physiological factors related to feeding behaviour. Fasting or other diets that include prolonged food restriction increase dopamine system function which means it becomes more sensitive to rewards (Dunigan & Roseberry, 2022). In addition, body weight fluctuations can change dopamine function. Dunigan and Roseberry (2022) also state how individuals with obesity may show differences in food cravings, motivation to eat and responsiveness to rewarding foods, compared to individuals who are not obese. This is due to hormones such as ghrelin, the hunger hormone, which binds to receptors in the VTA and increases activity of dopamine neurons. Therefore, the value of food is enhanced, increasing an individual’s motivation to seek and consume food, while also influencing other dopamine-mediated behaviours such as reward seeking and reinforcement. === Influence of stressors === == Recovery of the mesolimbic pathway == * Related to reward deficiency syndrome - short term treatment may involve blocking dopamine receptors in the nucleus accumbens * Long term treatment may involve increasing dopamine signalling in the nucleus accumbens * Increasing dopamine signalling will help to avoid relapse (Blum & Gold, 2011) ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages Planning to have a quiz with 1-2 questions at the end of each main section. Might add some questions throughout that refer to the scenario from the start to tie it in. ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2017/Dopamine and drug addiction]] embedded in text under mesolimbic pathway function {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words *The mesolimbic pathway starts at the ventral tegmental area and ends at the nucleus accumbens *This pathway is involved in reward and motivation *Addictive substances and behaviours can modulate the mesolimbic pathway *Exposure to stress can increase vulnerability to addiction *Reward deficiency syndrome increases risk of addiction and other risk-taking behaviours {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[wikipedia:Mesolimbic_pathway|Mesolimbic pathway]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Motivational toxicity|Motivational toxicity]] (Book chapter, 2010) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Alcaro, A., Huber, R., & Panksepp, J. (2007). Behavioral functions of the mesolimbic dopaminergic system: An affective neuroethological perspective. Brain Research Reviews, 56(2), 21–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainresrev.2007.07.014 Baik, J.-H. (2020). Stress and the dopaminergic reward system. Experimental & Molecular Medicine, 52(12), 1883. https://doi.org/10.1038/s12276-020-00532-4 Blum, K., & Gold, M. S. (2011). Neuro-chemical activation of brain reward meso-limbic circuitry is associated with relapse prevention and drug hunger: A hypothesis. Medical Hypotheses, 76(4), 580. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mehy.2011.01.005 Blum, K., McLaughlin, T., Bowirrat, A., Modestino, E. J., Baron, D., Gomez, L. L., Ceccanti, M., Braverman, E. R., Thanos, P. K., Cadet, J. L., Elman, I., Badgaiyan, R. D., Jalali, R., Green, R., Simpatico, T. A., Gupta, A., & Gold, M. S. (2022). Reward deficiency syndrome (RDS) surprisingly is evolutionary and found everywhere: Is it “blowin’ in the wind”? Journal of Personalized Medicine, 12(2), 4. https://doi.org/10.3390/jpm12020321 Dunigan, A. I., & Roseberry, A. G. (2022). Actions of feeding-related peptides on the mesolimbic dopamine system in regulation of natural and drug rewards. Addiction Neuroscience, 2. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addicn.2022.100011 Ebrahimi, M. N., Banazadeh, M., Alitaneh, Z., Suha, A. J., Esmaeili, A., Hasannejad-Asl, B., Siahposht-Khachaki, A., Hassanshahi, A., & Bagheri-Mohammadi, S. (2024). The distribution of neurotransmitters in the brain circuitry: Mesolimbic pathway and addiction. ''Physiology & Behavior, 284'', 2. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2024.114639 Enoch, M.-A. (2011). The role of early life stress as a predictor for alcohol and drug dependence. Psychopharmacology, 214(1), 22. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-010-1916-6 Salamone, J. D., & Correa, M. (2012). The mysterious motivational functions of mesolimbic dopamine. Neuron, 76(3), 470. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2012.10.021 Salgado, S., & Kaplitt, M. G. (2015). The nucleus accumbens: A comprehensive review. Stereotactic and Functional Neurosurgery, 93(2), 82. https://doi.org/10.1159/000368279 Trainor, B. C. (2011). Stress responses and the mesolimbic dopamine system: Social contexts and sex differences. Hormones and Behavior, 60(5), 6–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2011.08.013 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f7E0mTJQ2KM 2-minute neuroscience: reward system] (Neurochallenged, YouTube) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D8TJNU9pbto Rewiring your dopamine systems] (StarTalk, YouTube) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Neuroscience]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Neurotransmitters/Dopamine]] ni4sij717otthk1d37hxd913mt39izo 2836556 2836542 2026-10-07T11:58:56Z U3280499 3106560 /* Mesolimbic pathway function */ 2836556 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Mesolimbic pathway and addiction motivation:<br>What role does the ventral tegmental area to nucleus accumbens pathway play in addictive behaviours?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=12}} [[File:Cartoon Black Woman Shopping Online.svg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. Online shopping addiction {{ic|explain connection to mesolimbic pathway}}]] ;Scenario Imagine you are scrolling through the website of your favourite store. There are sales everywhere, free shipping for orders over $100 and you have some time to spare. You are so excited by the thought of receiving a parcel in the mail, that you just add items to your cart without really needing them or even liking the items that much. Seeing the parcel at the door and taking it inside to unbox is more exciting than the item itself. Then after you've received it, you may forget about it or wonder why you bought it in the first place? {{RoundBoxBottom}} This scenario demonstrates a broader psychological issue which involves the tendency to become addicted to various behaviours (see Figure 1). The ventral tegmental area (VTA) to the nucleus accumbens pathway, is strongly involved in addiction motivation (Ebrahimi et al., 2024). This pathway is a core component of the mesolimbic pathway which starts in the midbrain and ends in the forebrain (Ebrahimi et al., 2024). Understanding the function of the VTA to nucleus accumbens pathway is important in recognising how certain behaviours become addictive and why anticipation can outweigh actual reward. Many addictive behaviours can somewhat be insignificant but others can cause a substantial amount of harm to oneself or other people. Considering the potential impacts of addiction, developing an understanding of the physiological psychology behind it is beneficial. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} '''Focus questions''' * How does the mesolimbic pathway normally function in motivation and reward? * How do addictive substances and behaviours alter dopamine signalling within the mesolimbic pathway? * How does the environment interact with the mesolimbic pathway to reinforce addictive behaviours? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Mesolimbic pathway function == [[File:Dopamine pathways.svg|left|thumb|380x380px|'''Figure 2'''. Diagram of brain which shows the location of the nucleus accumbens and ventral tegmental area (VTA)]] Key points: * The nucleus accumbens is activated by [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2017/Dopamine and drug addiction|dopamine]] which is a neurotransmitter projected from the ventral tegmental area (VTA) (Ebrahimi et al., 2024). * Naturally rewarding stimuli (like what) increase the release of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens and the dopamine response decreases when stimuli is incessant (Salgado & Kaplitt, 2015). * The mesolimbic pathway is essential for behavioural activation, sustained engagement, putting in effort and working towards goals (Salamone & Correa, 2012) The nucleus accumbens, located in the ventral striatum, is a key structure in the brain that is responsible for reward, motivation and pleasure (Ebrahimi et al., 2024). The nucleus accumbens is activated by dopamine which is projected from the ventral tegmental area (VTA). This pathway that dopamine travels along, starts at the VTA in the midbrain and ends at the nucleus accumbens, in the limbic area (see Figure 2). It is known as the mesolimbic pathway and it is heavily involved in addiction motivation. The mesolimbic pathway is essential for behavioural activation, sustained engagement, putting in effort and working towards goals (Salamone & Correa, 2012). == How addictive substances and behaviours alter the mesolimbic pathway == Key points: * Reward deficiency syndrome suggests that motivation to engage in risk-taking behaviours increases when there is a dopamine deficiency in the reward system (Blum et al., 2022) * Consistent drug taking can cause permanent functional changes in the mesolimbic pathway * Changes caused by repetitive dopamine stimulation result in an abnormal amount of motivation to consume the drug, even when the individual finds it unenjoyable (Alcaro et al., 2007) == How the environment interacts with the mesolimbic pathway == Key points: * Severe stress caused by childhood adversity and other factors such as social isolation (Trainor, 2011) affect the mesolimbic pathway * Low dopamine transporter (DAT) causes more sensitivity in the mesolimbic pathway, meaning stimulant substances such as cocaine have more of an affect and produce longer rewards signals (Enoch, 2011) * A modulated mesolimbic system caused by stress can lead to chronic stress-induced depression (Baik, 2020) === Influence of feeding behaviour === The mesolimbic pathway is influenced by physiological factors related to feeding behaviour. Fasting or other diets that include prolonged food restriction increase dopamine system function which means it becomes more sensitive to rewards (Dunigan & Roseberry, 2022). In addition, body weight fluctuations can change dopamine function. Dunigan and Roseberry (2022) also state how individuals with obesity may show differences in food cravings, motivation to eat and responsiveness to rewarding foods, compared to individuals who are not obese. This is due to hormones such as ghrelin, the hunger hormone, which binds to receptors in the VTA and increases activity of dopamine neurons. Therefore, the value of food is enhanced, increasing an individual’s motivation to seek and consume food, while also influencing other dopamine-mediated behaviours such as reward seeking and reinforcement. === Influence of stressors === == Recovery of the mesolimbic pathway == * Related to reward deficiency syndrome - short term treatment may involve blocking dopamine receptors in the nucleus accumbens * Long term treatment may involve increasing dopamine signalling in the nucleus accumbens * Increasing dopamine signalling will help to avoid relapse (Blum & Gold, 2011) ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages Planning to have a quiz with 1-2 questions at the end of each main section. Might add some questions throughout that refer to the scenario from the start to tie it in. ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2017/Dopamine and drug addiction]] embedded in text under mesolimbic pathway function {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words *The mesolimbic pathway starts at the ventral tegmental area and ends at the nucleus accumbens *This pathway is involved in reward and motivation *Addictive substances and behaviours can modulate the mesolimbic pathway *Exposure to stress can increase vulnerability to addiction *Reward deficiency syndrome increases risk of addiction and other risk-taking behaviours {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[wikipedia:Mesolimbic_pathway|Mesolimbic pathway]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Motivational toxicity|Motivational toxicity]] (Book chapter, 2010) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Alcaro, A., Huber, R., & Panksepp, J. (2007). Behavioral functions of the mesolimbic dopaminergic system: An affective neuroethological perspective. Brain Research Reviews, 56(2), 21–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainresrev.2007.07.014 Baik, J.-H. (2020). Stress and the dopaminergic reward system. Experimental & Molecular Medicine, 52(12), 1883. https://doi.org/10.1038/s12276-020-00532-4 Blum, K., & Gold, M. S. (2011). Neuro-chemical activation of brain reward meso-limbic circuitry is associated with relapse prevention and drug hunger: A hypothesis. Medical Hypotheses, 76(4), 580. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mehy.2011.01.005 Blum, K., McLaughlin, T., Bowirrat, A., Modestino, E. J., Baron, D., Gomez, L. L., Ceccanti, M., Braverman, E. R., Thanos, P. K., Cadet, J. L., Elman, I., Badgaiyan, R. D., Jalali, R., Green, R., Simpatico, T. A., Gupta, A., & Gold, M. S. (2022). Reward deficiency syndrome (RDS) surprisingly is evolutionary and found everywhere: Is it “blowin’ in the wind”? Journal of Personalized Medicine, 12(2), 4. https://doi.org/10.3390/jpm12020321 Dunigan, A. I., & Roseberry, A. G. (2022). Actions of feeding-related peptides on the mesolimbic dopamine system in regulation of natural and drug rewards. Addiction Neuroscience, 2. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addicn.2022.100011 Ebrahimi, M. N., Banazadeh, M., Alitaneh, Z., Suha, A. J., Esmaeili, A., Hasannejad-Asl, B., Siahposht-Khachaki, A., Hassanshahi, A., & Bagheri-Mohammadi, S. (2024). The distribution of neurotransmitters in the brain circuitry: Mesolimbic pathway and addiction. ''Physiology & Behavior, 284'', 2. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2024.114639 Enoch, M.-A. (2011). The role of early life stress as a predictor for alcohol and drug dependence. Psychopharmacology, 214(1), 22. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-010-1916-6 Salamone, J. D., & Correa, M. (2012). The mysterious motivational functions of mesolimbic dopamine. Neuron, 76(3), 470. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2012.10.021 Salgado, S., & Kaplitt, M. G. (2015). The nucleus accumbens: A comprehensive review. Stereotactic and Functional Neurosurgery, 93(2), 82. https://doi.org/10.1159/000368279 Trainor, B. C. (2011). Stress responses and the mesolimbic dopamine system: Social contexts and sex differences. Hormones and Behavior, 60(5), 6–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2011.08.013 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f7E0mTJQ2KM 2-minute neuroscience: reward system] (Neurochallenged, YouTube) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D8TJNU9pbto Rewiring your dopamine systems] (StarTalk, YouTube) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Neuroscience]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Neurotransmitters/Dopamine]] tc3wm93qbfcq4pqevicnfhs7bk6u45s 2 331383 2836470 2836284 2026-10-07T07:21:27Z Flickstar888 3106813 /* Social contributions */ 2836470 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == My name is [[wikipedia:Felicity_(given_name)|Felicity]] (Flick) and I am a third-year Psychology student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. I also hold a Bachelor of Communication majoring in Public Relations and Creative Writing from the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra.] I work for the Australian Government in a communication role and last year received a certificate for 20-years' service. I am hoping to change careers and am very interested in organisational psychology. Psychology appeals to me as I find people really interesting. I have worked on many communication campaigns whereby the end goal was to change a certain behaviour or to raise awareness amongst a target audience and this experience has inevitably led me to where I am today. == My portfolio == https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/user/view.php?id=77672. == My hobbies == [[File:Three point shoot.JPG|thumb|200x200px|'''Figure 1.''' Basketball]]In my downtime, I enjoy: * Watching basketball (see Figure 1). * Cooking * Reading non-fiction books * Travelling * Learning new things * Writing articles for Air Force News (as a RAAF Public Affairs Reservist) == Book chapter I'm working on == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Envy in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Envy in the workplace - Wikiversity]] == Social contributions == #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FDeveloping_a_growth_mindset&diff=2824010&oldid=2824007 20:16, 20 August 2026 - provided feedback on a topic and suggested box breathing be added and supplied a link to a research article] #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FDeveloping_a_growth_mindset&diff=2824010&oldid=2824007 01:57, 22 August 2026 - Added a title and sub-title to the motivation and growth mindset chapter] #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FAkrasia&diff=2836069&oldid=2824568 07:46, 23 August 2026 - Made edits to the scenario and fixed typos within the box on the Akrasia chapter] #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2015%2FSchadenfreude&diff=2835506&oldid=2808023 12:57, 2 October 2026 - Corrected the grammatical errors throughout the 2015 Schadenfreude chapter] #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FSelf-concept_and_motivation&diff=2835514&oldid=2835513 13:47, 2 October 2026 - Read over and provided a Quiz title to the Self-concept and motivation chapter] #[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/456450 23:32, 2 October 2026 - Read and provided feedback on the Immersive PTSD chapter] #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FCompetence_motivation_in_self-determination_theory&diff=2835975&oldid=2835944 13:21, 5 October 2026 - Made a small edit by placing a comma after 'Imagine this' in the 'Scenario box'] #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FAthletic_identity_loss_and_returning_to_sport_after_injury&diff=2836064&oldid=2836062 23:56, 5 October 2026 - Corrected the grammatical error in the focus questions on the Athletic identity loss and returning to sport after injury chapter] #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FArtificial_intelligence_and_academic_motivation&diff=2836277&oldid=2835171 09:48, 6 October 2026 - Edited the case study so it read more clearly in the AI and academic motivation chapter] #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FGrit_and_academic_achievement&diff=2836283&oldid=2836281 10:18, 6 October 2026 - Edited the case study and book chapter Grit by fixing the grammatical errors.] #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FCreative_inspiration_and_effort&diff=2836468&oldid=2836124 07:17. 7 October 2026 - Edited the scenario title, changed 'Image this' to 'Imagine this' to the book chaper]<blockquote></blockquote> qnrzkt4uao5c7wxx8kar7sfapqi3nta 2836471 2836470 2026-10-07T07:22:06Z Flickstar888 3106813 /* Social contributions */ 2836471 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == My name is [[wikipedia:Felicity_(given_name)|Felicity]] (Flick) and I am a third-year Psychology student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. I also hold a Bachelor of Communication majoring in Public Relations and Creative Writing from the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra.] I work for the Australian Government in a communication role and last year received a certificate for 20-years' service. I am hoping to change careers and am very interested in organisational psychology. Psychology appeals to me as I find people really interesting. I have worked on many communication campaigns whereby the end goal was to change a certain behaviour or to raise awareness amongst a target audience and this experience has inevitably led me to where I am today. == My portfolio == https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/user/view.php?id=77672. == My hobbies == [[File:Three point shoot.JPG|thumb|200x200px|'''Figure 1.''' Basketball]]In my downtime, I enjoy: * Watching basketball (see Figure 1). * Cooking * Reading non-fiction books * Travelling * Learning new things * Writing articles for Air Force News (as a RAAF Public Affairs Reservist) == Book chapter I'm working on == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Envy in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Envy in the workplace - Wikiversity]] == Social contributions == #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FDeveloping_a_growth_mindset&diff=2824010&oldid=2824007 20:16, 20 August 2026 - provided feedback on a topic and suggested box breathing be added and supplied a link to a research article] #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FDeveloping_a_growth_mindset&diff=2824010&oldid=2824007 01:57, 22 August 2026 - Added a title and sub-title to the motivation and growth mindset chapter] #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FAkrasia&diff=2836069&oldid=2824568 07:46, 23 August 2026 - Made edits to the scenario and fixed typos within the box on the Akrasia chapter] #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2015%2FSchadenfreude&diff=2835506&oldid=2808023 12:57, 2 October 2026 - Corrected the grammatical errors throughout the 2015 Schadenfreude chapter] #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FSelf-concept_and_motivation&diff=2835514&oldid=2835513 13:47, 2 October 2026 - Read over and provided a Quiz title to the Self-concept and motivation chapter] #[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/456450 23:32, 2 October 2026 - Read and provided feedback on the Immersive PTSD chapter] #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FCompetence_motivation_in_self-determination_theory&diff=2835975&oldid=2835944 13:21, 5 October 2026 - Made a small edit by placing a comma after 'Imagine this' in the 'Scenario box'] #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FAthletic_identity_loss_and_returning_to_sport_after_injury&diff=2836064&oldid=2836062 23:56, 5 October 2026 - Corrected the grammatical error in the focus questions on the Athletic identity loss and returning to sport after injury chapter] #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FArtificial_intelligence_and_academic_motivation&diff=2836277&oldid=2835171 09:48, 6 October 2026 - Edited the case study so it read more clearly in the AI and academic motivation chapter] #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FGrit_and_academic_achievement&diff=2836283&oldid=2836281 10:18, 6 October 2026 - Edited the case study and book chapter Grit by fixing the grammatical errors.] #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FCreative_inspiration_and_effort&diff=2836468&oldid=2836124 07:17. 7 October 2026 - Edited the scenario title, changed 'Image this' to 'Imagine this' to the Inspiration and effort book chaper] <blockquote></blockquote> mxt005m04yt9k5h5jqnaow6szkeowko 2836495 2836471 2026-10-07T09:13:35Z Flickstar888 3106813 /* Social contributions */ 2836495 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == My name is [[wikipedia:Felicity_(given_name)|Felicity]] (Flick) and I am a third-year Psychology student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. I also hold a Bachelor of Communication majoring in Public Relations and Creative Writing from the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra.] I work for the Australian Government in a communication role and last year received a certificate for 20-years' service. I am hoping to change careers and am very interested in organisational psychology. Psychology appeals to me as I find people really interesting. I have worked on many communication campaigns whereby the end goal was to change a certain behaviour or to raise awareness amongst a target audience and this experience has inevitably led me to where I am today. == My portfolio == https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/user/view.php?id=77672. == My hobbies == [[File:Three point shoot.JPG|thumb|200x200px|'''Figure 1.''' Basketball]]In my downtime, I enjoy: * Watching basketball (see Figure 1). * Cooking * Reading non-fiction books * Travelling * Learning new things * Writing articles for Air Force News (as a RAAF Public Affairs Reservist) == Book chapter I'm working on == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Envy in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Envy in the workplace - Wikiversity]] == Social contributions == #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FDeveloping_a_growth_mindset&diff=2824010&oldid=2824007 20:16, 20 August 2026 - provided feedback on a topic and suggested box breathing be added and supplied a link to a research article] #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FDeveloping_a_growth_mindset&diff=2824010&oldid=2824007 01:57, 22 August 2026 - Added a title and sub-title to the motivation and growth mindset chapter] #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FAkrasia&diff=2836069&oldid=2824568 07:46, 23 August 2026 - Made edits to the scenario and fixed typos within the box on the Akrasia chapter] #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2015%2FSchadenfreude&diff=2835506&oldid=2808023 12:57, 2 October 2026 - Corrected the grammatical errors throughout the 2015 Schadenfreude chapter] #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FSelf-concept_and_motivation&diff=2835514&oldid=2835513 13:47, 2 October 2026 - Read over and provided a Quiz title to the Self-concept and motivation chapter] #[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/456450 23:32, 2 October 2026 - Read and provided feedback on the Immersive PTSD chapter] #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FCompetence_motivation_in_self-determination_theory&diff=2835975&oldid=2835944 13:21, 5 October 2026 - Made a small edit by placing a comma after 'Imagine this' in the 'Scenario box'] #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FAthletic_identity_loss_and_returning_to_sport_after_injury&diff=2836064&oldid=2836062 23:56, 5 October 2026 - Corrected the grammatical error in the focus questions on the Athletic identity loss and returning to sport after injury chapter] #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FArtificial_intelligence_and_academic_motivation&diff=2836277&oldid=2835171 09:48, 6 October 2026 - Edited the case study so it read more clearly in the AI and academic motivation chapter] #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FGrit_and_academic_achievement&diff=2836283&oldid=2836281 10:18, 6 October 2026 - Edited the case study and book chapter Grit by fixing the grammatical errors.] #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FCreative_inspiration_and_effort&diff=2836468&oldid=2836124 07:17. 7 October 2026 - Edited the scenario title, changed 'Image this' to 'Imagine this' to the Inspiration and effort book chaper] #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FWisdom%2C_motivation%2C_and_emotion&diff=2836491&oldid=2836486 09:09, 7 October 2026 - Re-wrote scenario, made a header and placed a caption under the image in the Widsdom, motivaton and emotion book chapter] <blockquote></blockquote> s3l70bjxdt978wyjekf44eckzntejeg 2 331388 2836455 2836088 2026-10-07T05:22:06Z P U3270518 3106535 social contribution 2836455 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == Hello Everyone, I am currently a 3rd year psychology student at [https://www.google.com/search?client=safari&rls=en&q=University+of+canberra&ie=UTF-8&oe=UTF-8 University of Canberra] This semester I am studying [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] unit. My future goal is to become clinical psychologist and work with Australian Federal Police. My Linkedln profile: https://www.linkedin.com/in/palak-kathiriya-6b7048289/ Thank you for visiting my linkedln profile and this page! == Hobbies == * Dancing * Hiking * Travelling to different countries * Painting * Cycling * Nature exploration ** Birdwatching ** Gardening == Book Chapter I'm working on == I am working on a really interesting topic for my book chapter. My chapter title is: Positive emotion dysregulation: What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning? Link for my book chapter: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Positive emotion dysregulation|Positive emotion dysregulation]] == Social contributions == I always enjoy helping people in general. This unit gave me wonderful opportunity to enhance that skill through social contributions. Here is the list of my social contributions that I made throughout the semester: All times are in Canberra local time (AEST/AEDT) # 12:58 pm, 26 August 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FWarm-glow_giving&diff=2826658&oldid=2826657 Added the template and the title for this page - For this chapter: Warm-glow giving - Why does giving feel good and how does this influence prosocial behaviour? '''('''Book Chapter, 2026)] # 11:59 am, 26 August 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FPerfectionism_and_procrastination&diff=2826589&oldid=2826579 Fixed spelling error in one of the focus question - For this chapter: Perfectionism and procrastination - What is the role of perfectionism in procrastination and what can be done about it? (Book Chapter, 2026)] # 12:28 pm, 26 August 2026: [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Motivations for using sex work services#Heading casing|Made a suggestion about overview section - For this chapter: Motivations for using sex work services: What motivates use of sex work services? (Book Chapter, 2026)]] # 2:03 pm, 26 August 2026: [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/456558 Provided a couple of sources for the development of breathing exercises and relaxation book chapter (Book Chapter, 2026) (UC Learn)] #8:10 am, 2 September 2026: [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/458145 Commented on discussion forum about how to use GenAI in the unit and what are the expectations if we use GenAI (UC Learn)] # 10:14 am , 2 September 2026:[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FSelf-control_and_ego_depletion_recovery&diff=2830323&oldid=2761410 Fixed spelling error in book chapter - For this chapter - Self-control and ego depletion recovery: How do people restore self-control resources after depletion and what factors influence recovery? (Book Chapter, 2025)] # 10:22 am, 2 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2025/Grit_and_academic_achievement&diff=prev&oldid=2830325 Changed few sentences to make it grammatically better - For this chapter: Grit and academic achievement What role does grit play in academic achievement and can it be fostered in future students? (Book Chapter, 2025)] # 10:48 am, 2 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FCancer_screening_and_emotion&diff=2830328&oldid=2823381 Rewrote one paragraph in overview section to make it easier to understand - For this chapter: Cancer screening and emotion: How do emotions such as fear, anxiety, and relief influence cancer screening uptake?(Book Chapter, 2025)] # 10:54 am, 2 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FCancer_screening_and_emotion&diff=2830330&oldid=2830328 Added reference to support one claim in overview section - For this chapter: Cancer screening and emotion:How do emotions such as fear, anxiety, and relief influence cancer screening uptake? (Book Chapter, 2025)] #12:56 pm, 2 September 2026: [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455261 Commented on discussion forum about what interests me more in motivation and emotion unit and what I would like to learn (UC Learn)] #9:17 pm, 3 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FGrit_and_academic_achievement&diff=2830732&oldid=2830326 Corrected grammar and sentence structure, fixed spelling, removed repetition, and improved wording for clarity and flow - For this chapter: Grit and academic achievement - What role does grit play in academic achievement and can it be fostered in future students? - (Book Chapter, 2025)] #9:27 pm, 3 September 2026: [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being|Provided suggestion for wikiversity book chapter page and clarified that the user page should be separate than the book chapter - For this chapter: Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being - How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? Overview - (Book Chapter, 2025)]] #8:28 am, 4 September 2026: [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/456345 Commented on discussion forum about what motivates me and what helps me to keep going if I am not feeling motivated (UC Learn)] #8:30 am, 7 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FGrit_and_academic_achievement&diff=2831894&oldid=2830732 Changed few spelling errors, fixed sentence structure and punctuation, shortened some repetitive wording while keeping original ideas - For this chapter- Grit and academic achievement - What role does grit play in academic achievement and can it be fostered in future students? - (Book Chapter, 2025)] #8:50 am, 7 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FCancer_screening_and_emotion&diff=2831919&oldid=2830330 Changed few sentences to make it grammatically correct and to maintain sentence flow - For this chapter - Cancer screening and emotion: How do emotions such as fear, anxiety, and relief influence cancer screening uptake? - (Book chapter, 2025)] #8:34 pm, 8 September 2026:[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FBoredom_and_substance_use&diff=2832227&oldid=2804069 Changed few sentences to make it grammatically correct and added citations to support few claims - For this chapter - Boredom and substance use: What role does boredom play in motivating substance use?- (Book chapter, 2025)] #8:43 pm, 8 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FBoredom_and_substance_use&diff=2832228&oldid=2832227 Added citations to support claims in overview section - For this chapter - Boredom and substance use: What role does boredom play in motivating substance use ? (Book chapter, 2025)] #8:59 pm, 8 September 2026: [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455064 Commented on UC Learn discussion forum to connect with peers and also shared my Linkedln profile] #9:19 pm, 8 September 2026: [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Warm-glow giving|Provided suggestion about overview section on talk page - For this chapter - Warm-glow giving - Why does giving feel good and how does this influence prosocial behaviour?- (Book chapter, 2026)]] #9:43 pm, 8 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3AMotivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FSubcortical_structures_and_motivational_drive#See_also_and_external_links_section Commented on talk page to improve see also, external links, and conclusion section - For this chapter - Subcortical structures and motivational drive: How do subcortical brain regions generate basic motivational impulses and energy?- (Book chapter, 2026)] #3:07 pm , 9 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2022%2FEnvironmental_volunteering_motivation&diff=2832334&oldid=2814930 Corrected few grammatical errors, added citation to few important claims, provided an introductory paragraph in environmental volunteering section, explained few points in detail, added volume number in one of the references - For this chapter - Environmental volunteering motivation: What motivates environmental volunteering (Book chapter, 2022)] #3:19 pm, 9 September 2026: [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/457190 Commented on UC Learn about a book chapter question related to value congruence and motivation] #9:35 pm, 9 September 2026: [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Alcohol use for emotion regulation|Provided suggestion about book chapter that chapter should include both positive and negative dysregulation - For this chapter - Alcohol use for emotion regulation : why and how people use alcohol to regulate their emotions? - (Book chapter, 2026)]] #9:45 pm, 9 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FAlcohol_use_for_emotion_regulation&diff=2832417&oldid=2830147 Fixed title for this chapter - For this chapter - Alcohol use for emotion regulation: why and how people use alcohol to regulate their emotions? - (Book chapter, 2026)] #10:00 am, 11 September 2026: [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/461216 Contributed in discussion forum and answered question about word count (UC Learn)] #10:40 am, 11 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2024%2FE-cigarette_use_motivation&diff=2832747&oldid=2754142 Used bullet points to organise see also and external link section and included source in parentheses - For this chapter - E-cigarettes use motivation: What motivates starting and continuing vaping of nicotine e-cigarettes? - (Book chapter, 2024)] #11:01 am, 11 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2024%2FSleep_and_ego_depletion&diff=2832750&oldid=2741278 Corrected grammar and spelling errors - For this chapter - Sleep and ego depletion: How does sleep affect the capacity for self-control and willpower? - (Book chapter, 2024)] #11:14 pm, 11 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2020%2FChild_killer_motivation&diff=2832817&oldid=2721628 Used bullet points to organise see also section and provided few external sources - For this chapter - Child killer motivation: What motivates a child to kill? (Book chapter, 2020)] #9:02 pm, 12 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2022%2FBurnout&diff=2832924&oldid=2666399 Fixed overcapitalisation in focus questions, moved one reference into references section and fixed see also section - For this chapter - Burnout: What is burnout and how can be it managed and prevented - (Book chapter, 2022)] #9:37 pm, 12 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2022%2FTo-do_lists&diff=2832933&oldid=2655448 Corrected grammar and spelling errors - For this chapter -To-do lists: Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively? - (Book chapter, 2022)] #8:17 pm, 14 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2024%2FAbusive_relationships_and_emotional_dependency&diff=2833144&oldid=2723675 Rewrote sentence to make it more clear to understand - For this chapter - Abusive relationships and emotional dependency: What psychological mechanisms drive emotional dependency and how does it perpetuate abusive relationships?(Book chapter, 2024)] #8:34 pm, 14 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2024%2FDopamine_fasting&diff=2833148&oldid=2716222 Rewrote few sentences to make it grammatically correct- For this chapter -Dopamine fasting: What is dopamine fasting and how does it affect motivation and emotion?- (Book chapter, 2024)] #8:41 pm, 14 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2018%2FBody_image_and_emotional_well-being&diff=2833150&oldid=2596066 Improved see also section - For this chapter - Body image and emotional well-being: How does body image influence one's emotional well being?- (Book chapter, 2018)] #8:47 pm, 14 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2021%2FClimate_change_helplessness&diff=2833152&oldid=2596067 Corrected few spellings and external links section - For this chapter -Climate change helplessness: How does learned helplessness impact motivation to engage in behaviours to limit climate change?(Book chapter, 2021)] #9:05 pm, 14 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2021%2FDental_fear&diff=2833154&oldid=2649741 Corrected grammatical errors - For this chapter -Dental fear: What causes dental fear, what are the consequences, and how can it be managed? - (Book chapter, 2021)] #7:01 pm, 15 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FPsychedelic_treatment_of_eating_disorders&diff=2833299&oldid=2832896 Corrected 2 spelling mistake - For this chapter- Psychedelic treatment of eating disorders:] [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FPsychedelic_treatment_of_eating_disorders&diff=2833299&oldid=2832896 How might psychedelic-assisted therapy influence psychological mechanisms involved in eating disorders? - (Book chapter, 2026)] #7:14 pm, 15 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FWisdom%2C_motivation%2C_and_emotion&diff=2833301&oldid=2831617 Corrected spelling error - For this chapter - Wisdom, motivation, and emotion: How do motivational and emotional processes contribute to wisdom? - (Book chapter, 2026)] #11:05 am, 16 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FGender_and_achievement_motivation&diff=2833381&oldid=2832014 Corrected few grammatical errors - For this Chapter - Gender and achievement motivation: How does gender shape where, how, and under what conditions achievement motivation is expressed? - (Book chapter, 2026)] #11:23 am, 16 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FVolunteer_wellbeing&diff=2833387&oldid=2829983 Corrected grammar error - For this chapter -Volunteer wellbeing: How does volunteering affect volunteers' subjective wellbeing? - (Book chapter, 2026)] #7: 38 pm, 16 September 2026: [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Creative inspiration and effort|Commented on talk page and provided suggestion about theory that can be included in the chapter - For this chapter - Creative inspiration and effort: How do inspiration and effort interact during the creative process?]] #3:35 pm, 16 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2024%2FAlcohol%2C_dopamine%2C_motivation%2C_and_emotion&diff=2833572&oldid=2677570 Corrected 2 spellings - For this chapter - Alcohol, dopamine, motivation, and emotion:] [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2024%2FAlcohol%2C_dopamine%2C_motivation%2C_and_emotion&diff=2833572&oldid=2677570 What role does dopamine play in motivational and emotional responses to alcohol consumption? - (Book chapter, 2024)] #3:48 pm, 16 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2024%2FVasopressin_and_motivation&diff=2833579&oldid=2729665 Corrected spelling error - For this chapter - Vasopressin and motivation: How does vasopressin influence motivation? - (Book chapter, 2024)] #3:53 pm, 16 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2024%2FSleep_onset_optimisation&diff=2833580&oldid=2687478 Corrected 2 spellings - For this chapter - Sleep onset optimisation : What techniques assist in falling asleep promptly? - (Book chapter, 2024)] #2:12 pm, 18 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FProcrastination_and_temporal_discounting&diff=2833689&oldid=2761864 Corrected spelling errors - For this chapter - Procastination and temporal discounting: How does valuing immediate rewards over future outcomes contribute to procrastination? - (Book chapter, 2025)] #2:20 pm, 18 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FMaladaptive_defence_mechanisms_and_distress&diff=2833691&oldid=2761577 Corrected spelling errors - For this chapter- Maladaptive defence mechanisms and distress: In what ways do maladaptive defences shape emotional regulation and behavioural responses when under pressure? - (Book chapter, 2025)] #11:02 am, 19 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2023%2FSublimation&diff=2833828&oldid=2582187 Corrected 3 spelling errors - For this chapter -Sublimation: How can Sublimation be fostered? (Book chapter, 2023)] #1:50 pm, 29 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FInner_voice_in_anxiety&diff=2834960&oldid=2761762 Corrected spelling error - For this chapter- Inner voice in anxiety: What role does the inner voice play in maintaining or alleviating anxiety? - (Book chapter, 2025)] #4:52 pm, 29 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2023%2FMultiple_selves_theory%2C_motivation%2C_and_emotion&diff=2834969&oldid=2755077 Corrected grammar - For this chapter - Multiple selves, motivation, and emotion: How does the concept of multiple selves impact our motivational and emotional experiences? - (Book chapter, 2023)] #5:07 pm, 29 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2021%2FEmotional_eating&diff=2834971&oldid=2573916 Corrected spelling error - For this chapter - Emotional eating: What is emotional eating and what effect does it have on emotion and health?- (Book chapter, 2021)] #5:21 pm, 29 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2021%2FBrain_fog&diff=2834973&oldid=2345136 Corrected grammar - For this chapter - Brain fog: What is brain fog, what causes it, and how can it be managed?- (Book chapter, 2021)] #9:13 pm, 5 October 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2022%2FSmiling_and_emotion&diff=2835932&oldid=2787538 Corrected 2 spelling error - For this chapter -Smiling and emotion: What is the relationship between smiling and emotion? - (Book chapter, 2022)] #9:18 pm, 5 October 2026:[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2022%2FNarcissism_and_emotion&diff=2835936&oldid=2446275 Corrected spelling error - For this chapter - Narcissism and emotion: What is the relationship between narcissism and emotion? - (Book chapter, 2022)] #11:50 pm, 5 October 2026: [[c:File:Positive_emotion_dysregulation_pathway.png|Created figure for my book chapter - Positive emotion dysregulation: What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning? - (Book chapter, 2026)]] #4:21 pm, 7 October 2026: [c:File:Positive_emotion_dysregulation_pathway.png][[c:File:Positive_emotion_dysregulation.png|Created figure for my book chapter - Positive emotion dysregulation: What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning? - (Book chapter, 2026)]] o6eocolroqxdv4160fiq3judtj295k1 2836456 2836455 2026-10-07T05:22:32Z P U3270518 3106535 /* Social contributions */ 2836456 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == Hello Everyone, I am currently a 3rd year psychology student at [https://www.google.com/search?client=safari&rls=en&q=University+of+canberra&ie=UTF-8&oe=UTF-8 University of Canberra] This semester I am studying [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] unit. My future goal is to become clinical psychologist and work with Australian Federal Police. My Linkedln profile: https://www.linkedin.com/in/palak-kathiriya-6b7048289/ Thank you for visiting my linkedln profile and this page! == Hobbies == * Dancing * Hiking * Travelling to different countries * Painting * Cycling * Nature exploration ** Birdwatching ** Gardening == Book Chapter I'm working on == I am working on a really interesting topic for my book chapter. My chapter title is: Positive emotion dysregulation: What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning? Link for my book chapter: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Positive emotion dysregulation|Positive emotion dysregulation]] == Social contributions == I always enjoy helping people in general. This unit gave me wonderful opportunity to enhance that skill through social contributions. Here is the list of my social contributions that I made throughout the semester: All times are in Canberra local time (AEST/AEDT) # 12:58 pm, 26 August 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FWarm-glow_giving&diff=2826658&oldid=2826657 Added the template and the title for this page - For this chapter: Warm-glow giving - Why does giving feel good and how does this influence prosocial behaviour? '''('''Book Chapter, 2026)] # 11:59 am, 26 August 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FPerfectionism_and_procrastination&diff=2826589&oldid=2826579 Fixed spelling error in one of the focus question - For this chapter: Perfectionism and procrastination - What is the role of perfectionism in procrastination and what can be done about it? (Book Chapter, 2026)] # 12:28 pm, 26 August 2026: [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Motivations for using sex work services#Heading casing|Made a suggestion about overview section - For this chapter: Motivations for using sex work services: What motivates use of sex work services? (Book Chapter, 2026)]] # 2:03 pm, 26 August 2026: [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/456558 Provided a couple of sources for the development of breathing exercises and relaxation book chapter (Book Chapter, 2026) (UC Learn)] #8:10 am, 2 September 2026: [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/458145 Commented on discussion forum about how to use GenAI in the unit and what are the expectations if we use GenAI (UC Learn)] # 10:14 am , 2 September 2026:[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FSelf-control_and_ego_depletion_recovery&diff=2830323&oldid=2761410 Fixed spelling error in book chapter - For this chapter - Self-control and ego depletion recovery: How do people restore self-control resources after depletion and what factors influence recovery? (Book Chapter, 2025)] # 10:22 am, 2 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2025/Grit_and_academic_achievement&diff=prev&oldid=2830325 Changed few sentences to make it grammatically better - For this chapter: Grit and academic achievement What role does grit play in academic achievement and can it be fostered in future students? (Book Chapter, 2025)] # 10:48 am, 2 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FCancer_screening_and_emotion&diff=2830328&oldid=2823381 Rewrote one paragraph in overview section to make it easier to understand - For this chapter: Cancer screening and emotion: How do emotions such as fear, anxiety, and relief influence cancer screening uptake?(Book Chapter, 2025)] # 10:54 am, 2 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FCancer_screening_and_emotion&diff=2830330&oldid=2830328 Added reference to support one claim in overview section - For this chapter: Cancer screening and emotion:How do emotions such as fear, anxiety, and relief influence cancer screening uptake? (Book Chapter, 2025)] #12:56 pm, 2 September 2026: [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455261 Commented on discussion forum about what interests me more in motivation and emotion unit and what I would like to learn (UC Learn)] #9:17 pm, 3 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FGrit_and_academic_achievement&diff=2830732&oldid=2830326 Corrected grammar and sentence structure, fixed spelling, removed repetition, and improved wording for clarity and flow - For this chapter: Grit and academic achievement - What role does grit play in academic achievement and can it be fostered in future students? - (Book Chapter, 2025)] #9:27 pm, 3 September 2026: [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being|Provided suggestion for wikiversity book chapter page and clarified that the user page should be separate than the book chapter - For this chapter: Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being - How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? Overview - (Book Chapter, 2025)]] #8:28 am, 4 September 2026: [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/456345 Commented on discussion forum about what motivates me and what helps me to keep going if I am not feeling motivated (UC Learn)] #8:30 am, 7 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FGrit_and_academic_achievement&diff=2831894&oldid=2830732 Changed few spelling errors, fixed sentence structure and punctuation, shortened some repetitive wording while keeping original ideas - For this chapter- Grit and academic achievement - What role does grit play in academic achievement and can it be fostered in future students? - (Book Chapter, 2025)] #8:50 am, 7 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FCancer_screening_and_emotion&diff=2831919&oldid=2830330 Changed few sentences to make it grammatically correct and to maintain sentence flow - For this chapter - Cancer screening and emotion: How do emotions such as fear, anxiety, and relief influence cancer screening uptake? - (Book chapter, 2025)] #8:34 pm, 8 September 2026:[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FBoredom_and_substance_use&diff=2832227&oldid=2804069 Changed few sentences to make it grammatically correct and added citations to support few claims - For this chapter - Boredom and substance use: What role does boredom play in motivating substance use?- (Book chapter, 2025)] #8:43 pm, 8 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FBoredom_and_substance_use&diff=2832228&oldid=2832227 Added citations to support claims in overview section - For this chapter - Boredom and substance use: What role does boredom play in motivating substance use ? (Book chapter, 2025)] #8:59 pm, 8 September 2026: [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455064 Commented on UC Learn discussion forum to connect with peers and also shared my Linkedln profile] #9:19 pm, 8 September 2026: [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Warm-glow giving|Provided suggestion about overview section on talk page - For this chapter - Warm-glow giving - Why does giving feel good and how does this influence prosocial behaviour?- (Book chapter, 2026)]] #9:43 pm, 8 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3AMotivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FSubcortical_structures_and_motivational_drive#See_also_and_external_links_section Commented on talk page to improve see also, external links, and conclusion section - For this chapter - Subcortical structures and motivational drive: How do subcortical brain regions generate basic motivational impulses and energy?- (Book chapter, 2026)] #3:07 pm , 9 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2022%2FEnvironmental_volunteering_motivation&diff=2832334&oldid=2814930 Corrected few grammatical errors, added citation to few important claims, provided an introductory paragraph in environmental volunteering section, explained few points in detail, added volume number in one of the references - For this chapter - Environmental volunteering motivation: What motivates environmental volunteering (Book chapter, 2022)] #3:19 pm, 9 September 2026: [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/457190 Commented on UC Learn about a book chapter question related to value congruence and motivation] #9:35 pm, 9 September 2026: [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Alcohol use for emotion regulation|Provided suggestion about book chapter that chapter should include both positive and negative dysregulation - For this chapter - Alcohol use for emotion regulation : why and how people use alcohol to regulate their emotions? - (Book chapter, 2026)]] #9:45 pm, 9 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FAlcohol_use_for_emotion_regulation&diff=2832417&oldid=2830147 Fixed title for this chapter - For this chapter - Alcohol use for emotion regulation: why and how people use alcohol to regulate their emotions? - (Book chapter, 2026)] #10:00 am, 11 September 2026: [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/461216 Contributed in discussion forum and answered question about word count (UC Learn)] #10:40 am, 11 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2024%2FE-cigarette_use_motivation&diff=2832747&oldid=2754142 Used bullet points to organise see also and external link section and included source in parentheses - For this chapter - E-cigarettes use motivation: What motivates starting and continuing vaping of nicotine e-cigarettes? - (Book chapter, 2024)] #11:01 am, 11 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2024%2FSleep_and_ego_depletion&diff=2832750&oldid=2741278 Corrected grammar and spelling errors - For this chapter - Sleep and ego depletion: How does sleep affect the capacity for self-control and willpower? - (Book chapter, 2024)] #11:14 pm, 11 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2020%2FChild_killer_motivation&diff=2832817&oldid=2721628 Used bullet points to organise see also section and provided few external sources - For this chapter - Child killer motivation: What motivates a child to kill? (Book chapter, 2020)] #9:02 pm, 12 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2022%2FBurnout&diff=2832924&oldid=2666399 Fixed overcapitalisation in focus questions, moved one reference into references section and fixed see also section - For this chapter - Burnout: What is burnout and how can be it managed and prevented - (Book chapter, 2022)] #9:37 pm, 12 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2022%2FTo-do_lists&diff=2832933&oldid=2655448 Corrected grammar and spelling errors - For this chapter -To-do lists: Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively? - (Book chapter, 2022)] #8:17 pm, 14 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2024%2FAbusive_relationships_and_emotional_dependency&diff=2833144&oldid=2723675 Rewrote sentence to make it more clear to understand - For this chapter - Abusive relationships and emotional dependency: What psychological mechanisms drive emotional dependency and how does it perpetuate abusive relationships?(Book chapter, 2024)] #8:34 pm, 14 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2024%2FDopamine_fasting&diff=2833148&oldid=2716222 Rewrote few sentences to make it grammatically correct- For this chapter -Dopamine fasting: What is dopamine fasting and how does it affect motivation and emotion?- (Book chapter, 2024)] #8:41 pm, 14 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2018%2FBody_image_and_emotional_well-being&diff=2833150&oldid=2596066 Improved see also section - For this chapter - Body image and emotional well-being: How does body image influence one's emotional well being?- (Book chapter, 2018)] #8:47 pm, 14 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2021%2FClimate_change_helplessness&diff=2833152&oldid=2596067 Corrected few spellings and external links section - For this chapter -Climate change helplessness: How does learned helplessness impact motivation to engage in behaviours to limit climate change?(Book chapter, 2021)] #9:05 pm, 14 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2021%2FDental_fear&diff=2833154&oldid=2649741 Corrected grammatical errors - For this chapter -Dental fear: What causes dental fear, what are the consequences, and how can it be managed? - (Book chapter, 2021)] #7:01 pm, 15 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FPsychedelic_treatment_of_eating_disorders&diff=2833299&oldid=2832896 Corrected 2 spelling mistake - For this chapter- Psychedelic treatment of eating disorders:] [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FPsychedelic_treatment_of_eating_disorders&diff=2833299&oldid=2832896 How might psychedelic-assisted therapy influence psychological mechanisms involved in eating disorders? - (Book chapter, 2026)] #7:14 pm, 15 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FWisdom%2C_motivation%2C_and_emotion&diff=2833301&oldid=2831617 Corrected spelling error - For this chapter - Wisdom, motivation, and emotion: How do motivational and emotional processes contribute to wisdom? - (Book chapter, 2026)] #11:05 am, 16 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FGender_and_achievement_motivation&diff=2833381&oldid=2832014 Corrected few grammatical errors - For this Chapter - Gender and achievement motivation: How does gender shape where, how, and under what conditions achievement motivation is expressed? - (Book chapter, 2026)] #11:23 am, 16 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FVolunteer_wellbeing&diff=2833387&oldid=2829983 Corrected grammar error - For this chapter -Volunteer wellbeing: How does volunteering affect volunteers' subjective wellbeing? - (Book chapter, 2026)] #7: 38 pm, 16 September 2026: [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Creative inspiration and effort|Commented on talk page and provided suggestion about theory that can be included in the chapter - For this chapter - Creative inspiration and effort: How do inspiration and effort interact during the creative process?]] #3:35 pm, 16 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2024%2FAlcohol%2C_dopamine%2C_motivation%2C_and_emotion&diff=2833572&oldid=2677570 Corrected 2 spellings - For this chapter - Alcohol, dopamine, motivation, and emotion:] [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2024%2FAlcohol%2C_dopamine%2C_motivation%2C_and_emotion&diff=2833572&oldid=2677570 What role does dopamine play in motivational and emotional responses to alcohol consumption? - (Book chapter, 2024)] #3:48 pm, 16 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2024%2FVasopressin_and_motivation&diff=2833579&oldid=2729665 Corrected spelling error - For this chapter - Vasopressin and motivation: How does vasopressin influence motivation? - (Book chapter, 2024)] #3:53 pm, 16 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2024%2FSleep_onset_optimisation&diff=2833580&oldid=2687478 Corrected 2 spellings - For this chapter - Sleep onset optimisation : What techniques assist in falling asleep promptly? - (Book chapter, 2024)] #2:12 pm, 18 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FProcrastination_and_temporal_discounting&diff=2833689&oldid=2761864 Corrected spelling errors - For this chapter - Procastination and temporal discounting: How does valuing immediate rewards over future outcomes contribute to procrastination? - (Book chapter, 2025)] #2:20 pm, 18 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FMaladaptive_defence_mechanisms_and_distress&diff=2833691&oldid=2761577 Corrected spelling errors - For this chapter- Maladaptive defence mechanisms and distress: In what ways do maladaptive defences shape emotional regulation and behavioural responses when under pressure? - (Book chapter, 2025)] #11:02 am, 19 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2023%2FSublimation&diff=2833828&oldid=2582187 Corrected 3 spelling errors - For this chapter -Sublimation: How can Sublimation be fostered? (Book chapter, 2023)] #1:50 pm, 29 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FInner_voice_in_anxiety&diff=2834960&oldid=2761762 Corrected spelling error - For this chapter- Inner voice in anxiety: What role does the inner voice play in maintaining or alleviating anxiety? - (Book chapter, 2025)] #4:52 pm, 29 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2023%2FMultiple_selves_theory%2C_motivation%2C_and_emotion&diff=2834969&oldid=2755077 Corrected grammar - For this chapter - Multiple selves, motivation, and emotion: How does the concept of multiple selves impact our motivational and emotional experiences? - (Book chapter, 2023)] #5:07 pm, 29 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2021%2FEmotional_eating&diff=2834971&oldid=2573916 Corrected spelling error - For this chapter - Emotional eating: What is emotional eating and what effect does it have on emotion and health?- (Book chapter, 2021)] #5:21 pm, 29 September 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2021%2FBrain_fog&diff=2834973&oldid=2345136 Corrected grammar - For this chapter - Brain fog: What is brain fog, what causes it, and how can it be managed?- (Book chapter, 2021)] #9:13 pm, 5 October 2026: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2022%2FSmiling_and_emotion&diff=2835932&oldid=2787538 Corrected 2 spelling error - For this chapter -Smiling and emotion: What is the relationship between smiling and emotion? - (Book chapter, 2022)] #9:18 pm, 5 October 2026:[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2022%2FNarcissism_and_emotion&diff=2835936&oldid=2446275 Corrected spelling error - For this chapter - Narcissism and emotion: What is the relationship between narcissism and emotion? - (Book chapter, 2022)] #11:50 pm, 5 October 2026: [[c:File:Positive_emotion_dysregulation_pathway.png|Created figure for my book chapter - Positive emotion dysregulation: What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning? - (Book chapter, 2026)]] #4:21 pm, 7 October 2026: [[c:File:Positive_emotion_dysregulation.png|Created figure for my book chapter - Positive emotion dysregulation: What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning? - (Book chapter, 2026)]] exk4hyzsobm0ncdrw2kd7yyl1drlbpa 0 331417 2836468 2836124 2026-10-07T07:18:19Z Flickstar888 3106813 Changed ' Image this' to 'Imagine this' 2836468 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Creative inspiration and effort:<br>How do inspiration and effort interact during the creative process?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=15}} [[File:Artist painting at home. Colorful ballerina.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. An artist transforming creative inspiration into action through sustained effort.]] ;Imagine this... Imagine you have been staring at a blank page for hours, trying to come up with an original idea for a creative project. Just when you decide to take a break, an idea suddenly comes to you. You feel excited and inspired, and you immediately start working. At first, everything seems to flow naturally and you feel confident about what you are creating. This experience shows how inspiration can provide a starting point for creativity. Inspiration can help people recognise new possibilities and motivate them to turn those possibilities into action (Oleynick et al., 2014). An idea may therefore become more than simply an interesting thought when a person feels motivated to develop it. As you continue, however, the excitement begins to fade. The idea is harder to develop than you expected, and finishing the project requires concentration, persistence, and several changes along the way. Even without the same initial feeling of inspiration, you keep working and experimenting with different possibilities. This demonstrates that creativity does not depend on inspiration alone. Developing an initial idea can require continued effort, revision, problem-solving, and persistence. Persistence can be particularly valuable because people may underestimate how many creative ideas they can generate by continuing to work on a task (Lucas & Nordgren, 2015). While doing this, you unexpectedly discover new ideas that make the project even better than you first imagined. This raises an interesting question: Does inspiration drive us to put effort into creative work, or can the effort we put into creating also lead to new inspiration? This question highlights the possible interaction between inspiration and effort. Inspiration may encourage a person to begin creating, while continued engagement with a task may provide opportunities to discover further possibilities. {{RoundBoxBottom}} * '''Creative inspiration can give people new ideas and motivate them to start creating.''' It can also help people see new possibilities and feel more interested in developing an idea. Inspiration can connect the discovery of an idea with the motivation to pursue it. This is reflected in the distinction between being “inspired by” something and being “inspired to” act on it (Oleynick et al., 2014). * '''Inspiration alone may not be enough to produce a creative outcome.''' Turning an initial idea into something meaningful often requires effort, persistence, problem-solving, and making changes along the way. Creative ideas often need to be developed and refined before becoming finished outcomes. Continued effort can therefore help move creativity beyond the initial idea. * '''Inspiration and effort may work together during the creative process.''' Inspiration can encourage someone to put more effort into their work, while continuing to work on an idea may also lead to new ideas and further inspiration. Research supports the idea that inspiration and effort are not necessarily opposites. Thrash et al. (2010) found a positive relationship between inspiration and effort during creative writing, suggesting that inspired individuals may also invest considerable effort in their work. * '''Understanding the relationship between inspiration and effort can help explain how creativity develops.''' It can show how an initial moment of inspiration may eventually become a completed creative outcome through continued effort. Understanding both processes provides a more complete explanation of creativity. Inspiration may provide possibilities and motivation, while effort helps develop and refine those possibilities into creative outcomes. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=15}} '''Focus questions''' * What is creative inspiration and what role does it play in the creative process? * What role does effort play in developing creative ideas? * How does inspiration influence effort during the creative process? * How can effort lead to further inspiration during the creative process? * How do inspiration and effort work together to produce creative outcomes? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Creative inspiration == * Creative inspiration is a motivational state that encourages people to turn ideas into action. It can motivate people to develop or express new possibilities (Oleynick et al., 2014). Creative inspiration is therefore more than simply thinking of something new. A person may have an interesting idea without necessarily feeling motivated to develop it. Inspiration becomes important when the idea creates motivation to explore, express, or transform the possibility into creative work. This helps explain why inspiration can play an important role in moving from the generation of an idea towards its development. * Inspiration involves three main characteristics: evocation, transcendence, and approach motivation. Together, these describe how inspiration is triggered, creates new possibilities, and motivates action (Thrash & Elliot, 2003). '''Evocation''' means that inspiration is experienced as being triggered by something rather than being completely controlled or deliberately produced by the individual. For example, inspiration might be triggered by an experience, another person's work, an unexpected observation, or a new idea. '''Transcendence''' involves becoming aware of possibilities that go beyond a person's ordinary concerns or usual way of thinking. It can allow an individual to see something from a different perspective. Finally, '''approach motivation''' refers to the motivation to move towards, express, or realise the new possibility. These three characteristics help explain why inspiration can feel spontaneous while still encouraging purposeful action. * Inspiration can involve being “inspired by” something and then “inspired to” act. This can help turn an inspiring idea or experience into creative activity (Oleynick et al., 2014). Being “inspired by” describes the experience of encountering or recognising something inspiring, whereas being “inspired to” involves the motivation that follows from that experience. For example, an artist may be inspired by something they observe and then become inspired to create a piece of artwork based on the possibilities they recognised. This distinction shows how inspiration can connect an initial experience with later creative behaviour. * Creative ideas and inspiration are related but different. Creative ideas can come first and then produce inspiration that motivates people to develop those ideas (Thrash et al., 2010). This distinction is important because creativity should not be understood as inspiration simply producing ideas automatically. An individual might first generate or encounter a creative idea and then experience inspiration because of the possibilities represented by that idea. Inspiration can subsequently provide motivation to develop and communicate it. Therefore, the creative idea and the motivational experience of inspiration can be connected while remaining psychologically different processes. * Inspiration can help transform initial ideas into creative outcomes. Research found that inspiration helped carry the creativity of an initial idea into the finished product (Thrash et al., 2010). This finding demonstrates the importance of inspiration beyond the beginning of the creative process. An original idea alone does not guarantee an original final product because the idea still needs to be developed and expressed. Inspiration may help maintain the connection between the creative potential of the initial idea and what is eventually produced. However, developing that potential also requires action, which makes effort an important part of understanding how creative inspiration becomes a completed creative outcome. == Effort in the creative process == * Effort helps develop and improve creative ideas. Turning an initial idea into a finished product often requires persistence, problem-solving, revision, and continued work (Lucas & Nordgren, 2015). Having an original idea is only the beginning of the creative process. An idea that initially appears exciting may become more difficult to develop once a person begins working on it. Problems may emerge, certain parts may not work as expected, and the individual may need to consider different approaches. Effort allows a person to continue working through these difficulties rather than abandoning the original idea. For example, a writer may repeatedly rewrite part of a story, while an artist may experiment with several techniques before achieving the desired result. Effort therefore helps transform an initial possibility into a more developed creative outcome. * Inspiration and effort can contribute differently to creative work. Inspiration predicted creativity, while effort predicted the technical quality of creative products (Thrash et al., 2010). This finding suggests that simply putting more effort into something does not automatically make it more creative. Inspiration may be particularly important for originality and the creative possibilities represented in the work, whereas effort can contribute to how effectively those possibilities are expressed. Technical quality may require careful attention, practice, revision, and improvement. Therefore, a creative product can benefit from both an inspiring idea and the effort required to develop that idea successfully. * Effort can support the refinement of creative ideas. Creative work often involves deliberate thinking, making changes, and revising ideas as they develop (Oleynick et al., 2014). Creative ideas can change considerably between their initial generation and their final form. As people continue working, they can evaluate their ideas, identify weaknesses, and explore alternatives. This deliberate process allows creative possibilities to be tested and improved. Effort can therefore contribute to creativity by providing the time and engagement needed for refinement rather than accepting the first version of an idea. * Persistence can improve creative performance. People often underestimate the value of continuing with a creative task, even though persistence can lead to more creative ideas (Lucas & Nordgren, 2015). Lucas and Nordgren (2015) found that people underestimated how productive they could remain when they continued working on creative tasks. This is important because creative work can become increasingly difficult after the most obvious ideas have already been considered. At this point, people may believe that continuing is unlikely to produce anything valuable and may be tempted to stop. However, continuing beyond this point can provide opportunities for less obvious ideas to emerge. Persistence may encourage people to move beyond their immediate responses and consider alternatives that they would not have discovered if they had stopped earlier. Feeling that ideas are becoming difficult to generate therefore does not necessarily mean that further effort has no creative value. * Effort and inspiration are not necessarily opposites. They can occur together and contribute in different ways throughout the creative process (Oleynick et al., 2014). Creative work can therefore involve both spontaneous inspiration and deliberate effort. Inspiration may provide an initial possibility or motivation, while effort helps a person develop, evaluate, and improve what has been created. The importance of effort does not reduce the importance of inspiration. Instead, the two processes can complement one another. Understanding effort in this way also leads to another important question: whether feeling inspired can itself motivate people to invest greater effort in their creative work. == From inspiration to effort == * Inspiration can motivate people to act on creative ideas. Feeling inspired can encourage a person to move beyond having an idea and begin developing it (Oleynick et al., 2014). Having a creative idea does not necessarily mean that a person will act on it. Inspiration can provide the motivation needed to explore an idea and turn it into creative activity. For example, a writer may think of an interesting story but still needs motivation to begin writing and developing it. Inspiration can encourage this movement from recognising a possibility to actively pursuing it. In this way, inspiration plays an important motivational role because it connects creative possibilities with behaviour. * Inspiration and effort are not opposites. Research suggests that people can experience inspiration while also putting substantial effort into their creative work (Thrash et al., 2010). Creative work is sometimes imagined as something that occurs naturally when a person feels inspired. However, inspiration does not mean that creative work becomes effortless. An individual can feel strongly inspired by an idea while still needing to spend considerable time developing, revising, and improving it. The presence of effort therefore does not necessarily indicate that inspiration is absent. Instead, inspiration may provide a reason for people to continue investing effort because they recognise the possibilities within their creative work. * Higher inspiration can be associated with greater effort. Writers who felt more inspired also tended to report putting more effort into their writing (Thrash et al., 2010). This relationship suggests that inspiration may actually encourage greater effort rather than replace it. When people feel excited about an idea and believe that it has creative potential, they may become more willing to invest their attention and energy into developing it. Thrash et al. (2010) therefore provide useful evidence against the assumption that inspired creativity should occur without substantial work. Inspiration and effort can occur together within the same creative activity. * Inspiration may help connect an initial idea with the motivation needed to develop it. The process can move from being “inspired by” an idea to being “inspired to” act on it (Oleynick et al., 2014). The distinction between being “inspired by” and “inspired to” helps explain how inspiration can lead towards effort. Being inspired by something involves recognising a new or valuable possibility, whereas being inspired to involves motivation to pursue or express that possibility. For example, a musician might be inspired by hearing an unusual sound and then become inspired to experiment with that sound in their own music. The original experience provides inspiration, while the motivation that follows encourages creative action. Once a person begins acting on an inspiring possibility, effort becomes increasingly important. The idea may require experimentation, revision, practice, or problem-solving before it becomes a finished creative product. Inspiration can therefore provide motivation and direction, while effort provides the continued action required to develop the idea. * Inspiration and effort can therefore complement each other during creativity. Research suggests that both can contribute to creative work, although they may contribute in different ways (Oleynick et al., 2014). Rather than choosing between inspiration and effort as explanations for creativity, it is more useful to consider how they work together. Inspiration can provide possibilities and motivation, while effort allows those possibilities to be explored and developed. This also suggests that their relationship may continue throughout the creative process. Inspiration may encourage effort, while continued effort can create opportunities to discover new ideas and experience further inspiration. == Interaction between inspiration and effort == * Inspiration and effort can work together during creative work. Research shows a positive relationship between inspiration and effort rather than the two being opposites (Thrash et al., 2010). This relationship suggests that creativity does not have to be understood as either spontaneous inspiration or deliberate hard work. A person may experience an inspiring idea and still need to invest considerable effort in developing it. In fact, inspiration may make a person more willing to continue working because they recognise possibilities in what they are creating. Effort can then provide the sustained engagement required to explore those possibilities. Inspiration and effort can therefore operate as connected parts of the creative process rather than separate ways of being creative. The positive relationship identified by Thrash et al. (2010) is particularly important because it challenges the idea that inspiration makes creative work effortless. Inspired individuals may still revise their work, solve problems, experiment with alternatives, and spend considerable time improving what they have created. * Inspiration and effort can contribute in different ways. Inspiration has been associated with greater creativity, while effort has been linked more strongly with the technical quality of creative work (Thrash et al., 2010). This finding suggests that the contribution of inspiration cannot simply be replaced by working harder, and the contribution of effort cannot necessarily be replaced by feeling more inspired. Inspiration may help a person recognise original possibilities and maintain the creative direction of an initial idea. Effort, on the other hand, can contribute to how successfully the idea is developed and expressed. For example, someone could have a highly original idea for a piece of writing, but the final work may still require careful organisation, editing, and revision. Similarly, technically polished work does not automatically become highly creative simply because substantial effort was invested in producing it. The strongest creative outcomes may therefore benefit from both an original or inspiring direction and sufficient effort to develop that direction effectively. * Inspiration can help generate and express creative possibilities, while effort helps develop and refine them. Both can therefore contribute to the creative process in different ways (Oleynick et al., 2014). Creative ideas often change while they are being developed. An initial possibility can provide direction, but continued work allows a person to evaluate the idea and discover what needs to be changed. During this process, the individual may experiment with alternatives, identify problems, and discover possibilities that were not obvious at the beginning. This also suggests that the relationship between inspiration and effort may not always follow a simple pattern where inspiration occurs first and effort occurs afterwards. Continued engagement with creative work can expose people to new information, unexpected results, or different ways of approaching a problem. These experiences may create opportunities for further inspiration. Creativity can therefore involve repeated movement between inspired possibilities and deliberate development. * Creative work can involve both spontaneous and deliberate processes. Inspiration may provide motivation and direction, while sustained effort helps turn ideas into completed creative work (Oleynick et al., 2014). Spontaneous experiences can be valuable because they may allow people to recognise possibilities that they had not deliberately searched for. However, deliberate processes become important when those possibilities need to be transformed into something more complete. This can involve planning, evaluating, practising, revising, and persisting when difficulties occur. The interaction between the two processes provides a more complete explanation of creativity than focusing on either one alone. Inspiration can help explain where motivation and creative direction may come from, while effort helps explain how an idea continues to develop after the initial moment of inspiration. At the same time, sustained engagement can create new opportunities for ideas to emerge, meaning that inspiration may occur repeatedly rather than only at the beginning. == Supporting inspiration and sustained creative effort == * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Intrinsic motivation and creativity|Intrinsic motivation]] is positively related to creativity. People with greater intrinsic motivation tend to produce more creative outcomes (Jesus et al., 2013). Intrinsic motivation occurs when people engage in an activity because they find it interesting, enjoyable, or personally meaningful rather than because they are focused mainly on external rewards. This type of motivation can be particularly useful for creativity because creative tasks often require exploration and continued engagement. When people genuinely enjoy what they are doing, they may be more willing to experiment with different ideas, explore possibilities, and continue working when difficulties occur. Intrinsic motivation can therefore help provide the sustained interest needed to support both creative inspiration and effort. * A supportive environment can help creative motivation. Having autonomy, encouragement, and opportunities to explore ideas can make it easier for people to engage in creative work (Amabile & Pratt, 2016). Creativity does not occur independently of the environment in which a person is working. Conditions that allow individuals to explore their own ideas can support creative motivation. Autonomy can be particularly important because having some control over how a task is approached allows people to experiment and pursue possibilities that they find interesting. Encouragement from other people can also help individuals feel that their creative efforts are valued.In contrast, environments that provide little freedom or discourage experimentation may make creative engagement more difficult. This demonstrates that supporting creativity involves more than simply telling someone to be creative. The surrounding conditions can influence whether people feel motivated to explore ideas and continue developing them. * Persistence can help when inspiration begins to fade. Continuing to work on a difficult creative task can lead to more creative ideas than people often expect (Lucas & Nordgren, 2015). Inspiration may be strongest when a creative idea first appears, but this feeling may not remain constant throughout a project. Difficulties can emerge as the person begins developing the idea, and progress may become slower. At this point, persistence becomes particularly important. Instead of interpreting difficulty as evidence that no more useful ideas are available, continuing to engage with the problem may allow further possibilities to emerge. Lucas and Nordgren (2015) showed that people can underestimate the creative value of persistence. This suggests that a practical way to support creativity is to continue working beyond the point where generating ideas begins to feel difficult. Effort can therefore maintain creative activity even when inspiration temporarily becomes weaker. * Taking breaks may also support creative thinking. Research suggests that stepping away from a problem for a period of time can sometimes improve later creative performance (Sio & Ormerod, 2009). Sustained effort does not necessarily mean working continuously without stopping. Taking a temporary break can sometimes be useful when a person becomes stuck on a creative problem. This is often discussed in relation to '''incubation''', where a period away from active problem-solving can support later performance. A break may allow a person to return to the problem with a different perspective or become less focused on an unsuccessful approach. This means that effective creative effort may involve knowing when to persist and when temporarily stepping away could be useful. A break is not necessarily the opposite of effort because it can form part of a longer process of sustained engagement with a creative task. * Supporting creativity may therefore involve both encouraging inspiration and maintaining effort. Creative outcomes can benefit from conditions that support motivation, persistence, and continued development of ideas (Amabile & Pratt, 2016). There is therefore no single strategy that guarantees inspiration or creativity. Instead, creativity can be supported by conditions that encourage people to explore possibilities while also helping them continue developing their ideas. Intrinsic motivation and supportive environments can encourage engagement, persistence can help when progress becomes difficult, and appropriate breaks can create opportunities to approach problems differently. Together, these strategies demonstrate how both inspiration and sustained effort can be supported throughout the creative process. == Conclusion == * Inspiration and effort both contribute to creativity, but they play different roles throughout the creative process. Creative work cannot be fully explained by inspiration or effort alone. Inspiration can introduce new possibilities and provide motivation, while effort allows those possibilities to be explored and developed. Their different roles mean that both can contribute to the development of a successful creative outcome. * Inspiration can provide ideas and motivation, while effort helps develop, improve, and complete those ideas. Inspiration can encourage people to move from recognising a creative possibility to wanting to act on it. However, an inspiring idea may still require considerable work before it becomes a completed product. Effort allows people to experiment, solve problems, make changes, and refine what they initially imagined. * Effort can keep the creative process moving when inspiration fades, through persistence, revision, and problem-solving. Creative work does not always remain exciting or easy. When difficulties emerge, persistence can allow individuals to continue exploring possibilities rather than stopping when their initial inspiration becomes weaker. Continued engagement can also create opportunities for unexpected ideas and new inspiration to emerge. * Overall, inspiration and effort work together, helping transform initial ideas into developed creative outcomes. The relationship between the two can therefore be understood as dynamic rather than as a choice between inspiration and hard work. Inspiration may encourage effort, while sustained effort can create further opportunities for creative possibilities to appear. The key take-home message is that creativity often begins with possibility, but developing that possibility requires continued engagement. Understanding how inspiration and effort support one another provides a more complete explanation of how creative ideas become meaningful and completed creative outcomes. == See also == {{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}} [[w:Creativity|Creativity]] (Wikipedia) [[w:Motivation|Motivation]] (Wikipedia) [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Creativity and emotion|Creativity and emotion]] (Book Chapter, 2014) [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Artistic creation motivation|Artistic creation motivation]] (Book Chapter,2016) == References == {{Hanging indent|1= Amabile, T. M., & Pratt, M. G. (2016). The dynamic componential model of creativity and innovation in organizations: Making progress, making meaning. Research in Organizational Behavior, 36, 157–183. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.riob.2016.10.001 Jesus, S. N., Rus, C. L., Lens, W., & Imaginário, S. (2013). Intrinsic motivation and creativity related to product: A meta-analysis of the studies published between 1990–2010. Creativity Research Journal, 25(1), 80–84. https://doi.org/10.1080/10400419.2013.752235 Lucas, B. J., & Nordgren, L. F. (2015). People underestimate the value of persistence for creative performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 109(2), 232–243. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000030 Oleynick, V. C., Thrash, T. M., LeFew, M. C., Moldovan, E. G., & Kieffaber, P. D. (2014). The scientific study of inspiration in the creative process: Challenges and opportunities. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 8, Article 436. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2014.00436 Sio, U. N., & Ormerod, T. C. (2009). Does incubation enhance problem solving? A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 135(1), 94–120. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014212 Thrash, T. M., & Elliot, A. J. (2003). Inspiration as a psychological construct. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(4), 871–889. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.84.4.871 Thrash, T. M., Maruskin, L. A., Cassidy, S. E., Fryer, J. W., & Ryan, R. M. (2010). Mediating between the muse and the masses: Inspiration and the actualization of creative ideas. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 98(3), 469–487. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017907 }} == External Links == {{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}} [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lSaNEcNprzw The Art of Creative Inspiration] (Youtube video) [https://www.apa.org/monitor/2022/04/cover-science-creativity The Science behind creativity] ( American Psychological Association) [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AzJcNwDeS2c Inspiration: Find it, Use it, Share it] ( Youtube video) [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/explorations-of-the-mind/202309/creativity-and-inspiration-thinking-outside-the-box Creativity and inspiration] (Psychology today) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Creativity]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Effort]] 6of7mn50nelm6z3ukop5pumk8cdat7e 0 331434 2836380 2836243 2026-10-07T01:37:35Z WonderfulKitten3 3109016 /* Review on Major Literature */ Finishing the section 2836380 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Feedback literacy:<br>what is feedback literacy, why is it important, and how can it be developed?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:Young Man Pondering - Tangier - Morocco.jpg|right|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. Self-reflection is one of humanity's greatest powers; reflecting is to actively engage with what has already happened.]] ; Food for thought Who remembers being told that they possess potential but are too unserious to step up and wield it? Maybe it wasn't a universal experience and just the Author's, but the point remains; knowledge is more effectively learned if the individual is actively engaged with it, rather than being a passive participant to potential experiences (see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} Feedback literacy refers to the knowledge and skills that enable individuals to understand, evaluate, and utilise feedback to improve their current and future performance and is important as it promotes learning agency/independence and emotional self-regulation through developing evaluative judgement capacity. This benefits not only academic performance but is transferrable to future professional and future life-skills development. Feedback literacy can be developed through purposeful curriculum design. Effective strategies include analysing exemplars, engaging in peer-reviews, incorporating feedback dialogues (feedback '''during''' the drafting phase), and self-revision.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Focus questions''' * What is Feedback Literacy? * Why Does it Matter? * How can it be Developed? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What is Feedback Literacy?== Feedback literacy is an integral component of broader academic literacy and refers to the knowledge, attitudes, and skills that learners possess to enable effective evaluation and understanding of feedback, enhancing learning and future performance. Feedback literacy is developed both individually and rationally through peer, teacher, assessment interactions, and disciplinary standards; it involves '''actively engaging with feedback, judging relevance, managing emotional affect, and applying it practically''' (Carless & Boud, 2018; Sutton, 2012). === Review on Major Literature === [[File:Feedback process.png|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Simplified diagram of what feedback looks like; subtle, active nudging and the correct tools for emotional processing are crucial for good feedback literacy]] Nieminen & Carless (2022) emphasises Popkewitz' (2008a, 2008b, 2013) conceptual studies on ''fabrication'' to critically analyse implications between student and teacher empowerment. Fabrication, unlike what is commonly referred to as fraudulent research in psychological terms, is the "grid of historical practices that makes the object of research possible to 'see' and act on" (Popkewitz, 2013, p440). <u>In layman's terms, it allows individuals to see how research on feedback literacy influences students and teachers - therefore constructing effective interventions.</u> From this study was identified a conceptual shift from analysing external feedback to feedback literacy as an intrinsic, psychological construct that can be utilised to reconceptualise higher-educational feedback. However, it was noted that excessive feedback literacy in assessment and grading policies runs the risk of psychologising student/teacher behaviours. Feedback literacy is a broadly highlighted field, but research in the area of teacher feedback literacy (TFL) remain underdeveloped and are often diverse in what is conceptualised and measured. Scoping reviews focalising previous research conceptualisation and assessment across micro-, meso-, and macro- levels identified strong micro-level instructional support through a (mainly) multi-faceted, relational, and situational capacity; however, is limited by weak meso- and macro-level, geographical, disciplinary, and longitudinal backing (Hyldahl & Gamlem, 2026; Istencioglu et al., 2026). <u>Simply put, a majority of current TFL research focuses on micro-level practices (e.g. face to face feedback) and lacks larger scale meso- and macro-level research and interventions.</u> As existing TFL frameworks are tailored toward specific educational levels or disciplines, generalisability is limited despite massive advancements (Aydi-Vallois & Vígh, 2026). Svenja et al. (2023) addresses this gap in an initial scale validation study and posit that two components are interchangeably crucial in improving feedback literacy: (1) students can be subtly guided toward more comprehensive feedback frameworks through education of feedback literacy and reflective activities; (2) students need to be given appropriate tools that promote emotional processing and decoding of feedback. === Appreciating Feedback === Feedback-literate individuals recognise that feedback is not just an explanation of grades, a correction of mistakes, or a judgement of ability, but rather as information that identifies strengths and weaknesses in ability, academic and/or professional standards, and the gap between current and desired performance (Carless & Boud, 2018). Critical feedback is more effective if students perceive it from a dialogue perspective and should emphasise the purpose, context, and source of feedback rather than being passive recipients to what could be considered harsh criticism (Sutton, 2012). For example, feedback-literate students may ask: ''what is this feedback helping me learn? Which assessment criterion does this relate to? How might I apply this advice to another task?'' === Making Judgements === Making judgements is the ability to determine: * what constitutes as high-quality work * how well an individual's work meets the relevant criteria * what specific improvements are required (Carless & Boud, 2018). This is intimately associated with evaluative judgement, which is the capacity to make educated decisions about an individual and other's quality of work (Tai et al., 2017). Academic judgement is dynamic in evaluation as competent students should consider whether feedback is accurate, relevant and consistent to the assessment criteria, and applicable to their learning goals (Boud & Molloy, 2012). === Managing Affect === Managing emotional affect from criticism is a vital capacity in feedback-literacy. Emotions such as: anxiety, embarrassment, disappointment, defensiveness, and/or frustration are common emotions involved with receiving criticism; remaining conscious and regulating these emotions is key to engaging with useful feedback (Winstone et al., 2017; Carless & Boud, 2018). Crucially, individuals must remove self-identity and worth from criticism to their work, as inability to manage emotions often lead to "avoidance strategies" such as ignoring feedback entirely (Winstone et al., 2017). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} ;Did you know? A case study conducted by Baron (1988) studied the effects of destructive and constructive criticism and found that destructive criticism lead to greater anger and tension, indicating that future disagreements were likely to be handled with resistance and/or avoidance rather than collaboration and compromise. {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Taking Action === Often referred to as "uptake", taking action is the process of translating feedback into observable improvements in performance (Carless & Boud, 2018). The hardest part of uptake is the "implementation gap" - the difficulty of knowing how to act on specific comments, as taking action requires the ability to convert general advice into actionable and specific strategies (Winstone & Carless, 2019; Boud & Molloy, 2013). Highly adept individuals can translate specific criticism into broader unrelated tasks, thereby demonstrating "transfer" of knowledge (Molloy et al., 2020). == Why is Feedback Literacy Important? == Feedback literacy is a core academic competency as it allows individuals to transform feedback from a transactional interaction into a self-sustainable learning process. Aside from facilitating for self regulated learning, feedback literacy develops fundamental understanding in '''evaluative judgement''', mitigates the '''"feedback gap"''', improves '''emotional regulation and academic wellbeing''', and '''supports professional learning''' - many of which have been identified in the previous section, therefore professional learning is emphasised here. Feedback literacy is a pillar of professional identity through the constant negotiation between self-concept and external appraisals. Advanced feedback-literate individuals can differentiate between criticism that is targeted to their worth or work; mature psychological separation is crucial to maintaining long-term motivation and avoiding burnout (Molloy et al., 2020). == How can Feedback Literacy be Developed? == Feedback literacy can be pedagogically developed through '''peer review, use of exemplars, feedback dialogues,''' and '''meta-cognitive reflection''', all requiring structured opportunities so that individuals can actively engage with feedback and calibrate judgement processes. ==Conclusion== Feedback literacy is a vital learning competency that enables individuals to interpret, evaluate, and transform transactional feedback into self-cultivating improvements; learners become lifelong active participants of their feedback through developing evaluative judgement and managing emotional affects to take effective and intentional action. Strategies such as peer-review, use of exemplars, feedback dialogues, and self-reflection strengthen student independence and self-regulation, ultimately leading to an ongoing process supporting continuous improvement. ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation]] (Book chapter, 2026) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Extended process model of emotion regulation|Extended process model of emotion regulation]] (Book chapter, 2026) * [[wikipedia:Emotional_self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Aydi-Vallois, S., & Vígh, T. (2026). Exploring teacher feedback literacy: A scoping review of frameworks and instruments. "Cogent Education, 13"(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2026.2674324 Baron, R. A. (1998). Negative effects of destructive criticism: Impact on conflict, self-efficacy, and task performance. ''Journal of Applied Psychology, 73''(2), 199–207. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.73.2.199 Boud, D., & Molloy, E. (2013). Rethinking models of feedback for learning: The challenge of design. ''Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 38''(6), 698–712. https://doi.org/10.1080/02602938.2012.691462 Carless, D., & Boud, D. (2018). The development of student feedback literacy: Enabling uptake of feedback. ''Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 43''(8), 1315–1325. https://doi.org/10.1080/02602938.2018.1463354 Hyldahl, K., & Gamlem, S. M. (2026). Through the lens of feedback literacy: A scoping review of empirical research on teacher educators' feedback practices in initial teacher education. "Studies in Educational Evaluation, 90". https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1016/j.stueduc.2026.101646 Istencioglu, T., Boud, D., Dawson, P., & Yang, L. (2026). Teacher feedback literacy as an emerging field: A scoping review. "Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education", 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/02602938.2026.2631533 Molloy, E., Boud, D., & Henderson, M. (2020). Developing a learning-centred framework for feedback literacy.'' Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 45''(4), 527–540. https://doi.org/10.1080/02602938.2019.1667955 Nieminen, J. H., & Carless, D. (2022). Feedback literacy: A critical review of an emerging concept. "Higher Education, 85"(6), 1381-1400. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-022-00895-9 Popkewitz, T. S. (2008). The social, psychological, and education sciences: From educationalization to pedagogicalization of the family and the child. "Educational Research: The Educationalization of Social Problems". https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-9724-9_12 Popkewitz, T. S. (2012). Cosmopolitanism and the age of school reform: Science, education, and making society by making the child. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203938812 Popkewitz, T. S. (2013). The sociology of education as the history of the present: Fabrication, difference and abjection. "Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education, 34"(3), 439–456. https://doi.org/10.1080/01596306.2012.717195 Sutton, P. (2012). Conceptualizing feedback literacy: Knowing, being, and acting. ''Innovations in Education and Teaching International, 49''(1), 31–40. https://doi.org/10.1080/14703297.2012.647781 Tai, J., Ajjawi, R., Boud, D., Dawson, P., & Panadero, E. (2018). Developing evaluative judgement: Enabling students to make decisions about the quality of work. ''Higher Education, 76''(3), 467–481. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10734-017-0220-3 Winstone, N. E., & Carless, D. (2019). Designing effective feedback processes in higher education: A learning-focused approach. ''Routledge''. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781351115940 Winstone, N. E., Nash, R. A., Parker, M., & Rowntree, J. (2017). Supporting learners’ agentic engagement with feedback: A systematic review and a taxonomy of recipience processes. ''Educational Psychologist, 52''(1), 17–37. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2016.1207538 Woitt, S., Weidlich, J., Jivet, I., Orhan Göksün, D., Drachsler, H., & Kalz, M. (2025). Students’ feedback literacy in higher education: An initial scale validation study. "Teaching in Higher Education, 30"(1), 257–276. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1080/13562517.2023.2263838 }} ==External links== * [https://www.centerforengagedlearning.org/assessing-student-feedback-literacy/ Assessing Student Feedback Literacy] (centreforengagedlearning.org) * [https://www.gla.ac.uk/myglasgow/learningandteaching/afresourceshub/iterative/feedbackliteracy/ Feedback Literacy] (University of Glasgow) * [https://www.feedbackliteracy.org/ Feedback literacy] (feebackliteracy.org) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Feedback]] i9ctkso7wfoizsex2jxsmrympzsscv3 2836463 2836380 2026-10-07T06:21:47Z WonderfulKitten3 3109016 Completed the initial drafting phase for "Making Judgements" section. 2836463 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Feedback literacy:<br>what is feedback literacy, why is it important, and how can it be developed?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:Young Man Pondering - Tangier - Morocco.jpg|right|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. Self-reflection is one of humanity's greatest powers; reflecting is to actively engage with what has already happened.]] ; Food for thought Who remembers being told that they possess potential but are too unserious to step up and wield it? Maybe it wasn't a universal experience and just the Author's, but the point remains; knowledge is more effectively learned if the individual is actively engaged with it, rather than being a passive participant to potential experiences (see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} Feedback literacy refers to the knowledge and skills that enable individuals to understand, evaluate, and utilise feedback to improve their current and future performance and is important as it promotes learning agency/independence and emotional self-regulation through developing evaluative judgement capacity. This benefits not only academic performance but is transferrable to future professional and future life-skills development. Feedback literacy can be developed through purposeful curriculum design. Effective strategies include analysing exemplars, engaging in peer-reviews, incorporating feedback dialogues (feedback '''during''' the drafting phase), and self-revision.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Focus questions''' * What is Feedback Literacy? * Why Does it Matter? * How can it be Developed? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What is Feedback Literacy?== Feedback literacy is an integral component of broader academic literacy and refers to the knowledge, attitudes, and skills that learners possess to enable effective evaluation and understanding of feedback, enhancing learning and future performance. Feedback literacy is developed both individually and rationally through peer, teacher, assessment interactions, and disciplinary standards; it involves '''actively engaging with feedback, judging relevance, managing emotional affect, and applying it practically''' (Carless & Boud, 2018; Sutton, 2012). === Review on Major Literature === Chi (1996) posits that feedback is either corrective, didactic, or suggestive. Corrective feedback is the most frequent as it is essential, yet does not address conceptual issues and overlooks learner thought processes, therefore enabling 'over-correcting'. Didactic feedback provides deeper conceptual explanation but has no theoretical basis in improvement as it is considered 'lecturing' instead of active engagement. Suggestive feedback is given when a learner provides a response that is not incorrect but lack conceptual depth. Feedback in this form is subtle, and guides students into the right direction without being overly corrective or didactic (Cano García et al., 2024).[[File:Feedback process.png|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Simplified diagram of what feedback looks like; subtle, active nudging and the correct tools for emotional processing are crucial for good feedback literacy]] Nieminen & Carless (2022) emphasises Popkewitz' (2008a, 2008b, 2013) conceptual studies on ''fabrication'' to critically analyse implications between student and teacher empowerment. Fabrication, unlike what is commonly referred to as fraudulent research in psychological terms, is the "grid of historical practices that makes the object of research possible to 'see' and act on" (Popkewitz, 2013, p440). <u>In layman's terms, it allows individuals to see how research on feedback literacy influences students and teachers - therefore constructing effective interventions.</u> From this study was identified a conceptual shift from analysing external feedback to feedback literacy as an intrinsic, psychological construct that can be utilised to reconceptualise higher-educational feedback. However, it was noted that excessive feedback literacy in assessment and grading policies runs the risk of psychologising student/teacher behaviours. Feedback literacy is a broadly highlighted field, but research in the area of teacher feedback literacy (TFL) remain underdeveloped and are often diverse in what is conceptualised and measured. Scoping reviews focalising previous research conceptualisation and assessment across micro-, meso-, and macro- levels identified strong micro-level instructional support through a (mainly) multi-faceted, relational, and situational capacity; however, is limited by weak meso- and macro-level, geographical, disciplinary, and longitudinal backing (Hyldahl & Gamlem, 2026; Istencioglu et al., 2026). <u>Simply put, a majority of current TFL research focuses on micro-level practices (e.g. face to face feedback) and lacks larger scale meso- and macro-level research and interventions.</u> As existing TFL frameworks are tailored toward specific educational levels or disciplines, generalisability is limited despite massive advancements (Aydi-Vallois & Vígh, 2026). Svenja et al. (2023) addresses this gap in an initial scale validation study and posit that two components are interchangeably crucial in improving feedback literacy: (1) students can be subtly guided toward more comprehensive feedback frameworks through education of feedback literacy and reflective activities; (2) students need to be given appropriate tools that promote emotional processing and decoding of feedback. === Appreciating Feedback === Feedback-literate individuals recognise that feedback is not just an explanation of grades, a correction of mistakes, or a judgement of ability, but rather as information that identifies strengths and weaknesses in ability, academic and/or professional standards, and the gap between current and desired performance (Carless & Boud, 2018). Critical feedback is more effective if students perceive it from a dialogic perspective and should emphasise the purpose, context, and source of feedback rather than being passive recipients to what could be considered harsh criticism (Sutton, 2012). For example, feedback-literate students may ask: ''what is this feedback helping me learn? Which assessment criterion does this relate to? How might I apply this advice to another task?'' Self-reflection and peer-reflective activities are vital tools in feedback literacy, with several studies denoting its efficacy in demonstrated developing presence through pedagogic (educational theory/practice) and dialogic approaches (Chinpakdee, 2025; Hoo et al., 2021). Integrating feedback dialogues into academic courses allow teachers to reduce time and focus that is required for feedback meanwhile cultivating literacy within the drafting process; TFL is directly correlated to student feedback literacy (Frattarola et al., 2024; Malecka et al., 2020). Furthermore, dialogic feedback fosters student motivation through active and ongoing participation in feedback dialogue, promoting the sense of belonging and improving evaluative judgement capacity (Chinpakdee, 2025). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=15}} '''Case study''' Jane Doe didn't have many friends and always felt left out in class. But when a group assignment was handed out and she was assigned to a group to work on it together, they began discussing which topic to do and asked her for her opinion. After working on their section, the group proof read each section together, allowing each member to give and receive feedback. This made Jane happy and feel included, motivating her to do better with the feedback given about her section.{{RoundBoxBottom}} === Making Judgements === Making judgements is the ability to determine: * what constitutes as high-quality work * how well an individual's work meets the relevant criteria * what specific improvements are required (Carless & Boud, 2018) This is intimately associated with evaluative judgement, which is the capacity to make educated decisions about an individual and other's quality of work (Tai et al., 2017). Academic judgement is dynamic in evaluation as competent students should consider whether feedback is accurate, relevant and consistent to the assessment criteria, and applicable to their learning goals (Boud & Molloy, 2012). Malecka et al. (2020) define the importance of judgement (A.K.A. eliciting) as, although not necessarily considered a factor in the feedback process, significant as self-feedback through consulting physical/digital texts and sources - and teachers or peers when non-human resources aren't enough - requires similar active learning disposition as dialogic feedback. Feedback loops can influence performance in a surprisingly short period of time. Francis et al. (2026) used 'flipped feedback' to investigate student academic performance and evaluative judgement pre- and post- submission. Flipped feedback is an inversion of the traditional feedback process where students are given generic feedback (often from previous cohort-common errors and strengths) before any self/dialogic reflection is conducted. This way, a student can identify weaknesses in their work prior to submission, theoretically leading to more refined work which can then be further improved upon by individualised teacher feedback. Academic improvement between the pre- and post-intervention groups was identified, proving the robustness of the flipped feedback approach. Students in this study highlighted the usefulness of the flipped feedback approach (89%), with a majority of students classifying two strengths: 'Opportunities for iterative learning' and 'clarity and guidance from feedback information'. However, this study raised concerns as some students found that the generic feedback was not clear enough to be specified into their use-case as well as feeling rushed to write the initial draft in a short period of time. Such overwhelmingly positive opinions solidify how vital iterative learning promotes student engagement despite the lack of clarity from generic feedback. This is further reinforced through Cano García et al.'s (2024) intervention study based on a didactic approach that showed the quality of constructive comments between loop 1 to loop 2 (pre- and post-intervention) increased significantly, which subsequently positively-influences evaluative literacy and indirectly, evaluative judgement. === Managing Affect === Managing emotional affect from criticism is a vital capacity in feedback-literacy. Emotions such as: anxiety, embarrassment, disappointment, defensiveness, and/or frustration are common emotions involved with receiving criticism; remaining conscious and regulating these emotions is key to engaging with useful feedback (Winstone et al., 2017; Carless & Boud, 2018). Crucially, individuals must remove self-identity and worth from criticism to their work, as inability to manage emotions often lead to "avoidance strategies" such as ignoring feedback entirely (Winstone et al., 2017). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} ;Did you know? A case study conducted by Baron (1988) studied the effects of destructive and constructive criticism and found that destructive criticism lead to greater anger and tension, indicating that future disagreements were likely to be handled with resistance and/or avoidance rather than collaboration and compromise. {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Taking Action === Often referred to as "uptake", taking action is the process of translating feedback into observable improvements in performance (Carless & Boud, 2018). The hardest part of uptake is the "implementation gap" - the difficulty of knowing how to act on specific comments, as taking action requires the ability to convert general advice into actionable and specific strategies (Winstone & Carless, 2019; Boud & Molloy, 2013). Highly adept individuals can translate specific criticism into broader unrelated tasks, thereby demonstrating "transfer" of knowledge (Molloy et al., 2020). == Why is Feedback Literacy Important? == Feedback literacy is a core academic competency as it allows individuals to transform feedback from a transactional interaction into a self-sustainable learning process. Aside from facilitating for self regulated learning, feedback literacy develops fundamental understanding in '''evaluative judgement''', mitigates the '''"feedback gap"''', improves '''emotional regulation and academic wellbeing''', and '''supports professional learning''' - many of which have been identified in the previous section, therefore professional learning is emphasised here. Feedback literacy is a pillar of professional identity through the constant negotiation between self-concept and external appraisals. Advanced feedback-literate individuals can differentiate between criticism that is targeted to their worth or work; mature psychological separation is crucial to maintaining long-term motivation and avoiding burnout (Molloy et al., 2020). == How can Feedback Literacy be Developed? == Feedback literacy can be pedagogically developed through '''peer review, use of exemplars, feedback dialogues,''' and '''meta-cognitive reflection''', all requiring structured opportunities so that individuals can actively engage with feedback and calibrate judgement processes. ==Conclusion== Feedback literacy is a vital learning competency that enables individuals to interpret, evaluate, and transform transactional feedback into self-cultivating improvements; learners become lifelong active participants of their feedback through developing evaluative judgement and managing emotional affects to take effective and intentional action. Strategies such as peer-review, use of exemplars, feedback dialogues, and self-reflection strengthen student independence and self-regulation, ultimately leading to an ongoing process supporting continuous improvement. ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation]] (Book chapter, 2026) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Extended process model of emotion regulation|Extended process model of emotion regulation]] (Book chapter, 2026) * [[wikipedia:Emotional_self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Aydi-Vallois, S., & Vígh, T. (2026). Exploring teacher feedback literacy: A scoping review of frameworks and instruments. "Cogent Education, 13"(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2026.2674324 Baron, R. A. (1998). Negative effects of destructive criticism: Impact on conflict, self-efficacy, and task performance. ''Journal of Applied Psychology, 73''(2), 199–207. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.73.2.199 Boud, D., & Molloy, E. (2013). Rethinking models of feedback for learning: The challenge of design. ''Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 38''(6), 698–712. https://doi.org/10.1080/02602938.2012.691462 Cano García, E., Jardí Ferré, A., Lluch Molins, L., & Martins Gironelli, L. (2024). Improvement in the quality of feedback as an indication of the development of evaluative judgement. "Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 49"(6), 824–837. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1080/02602938.2024.2329170 Carless, D., & Boud, D. (2018). The development of student feedback literacy: Enabling uptake of feedback. ''Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 43''(8), 1315–1325. https://doi.org/10.1080/02602938.2018.1463354 Chi, M. (1996). Constructing self-explanations and scaffolded explanations in tutoring. "Applied Cognitive Psychology, 10"(7), 33–49. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1099-0720(199611)10:7<33::AID-ACP436>3.0.CO;2-E. Chinpakdee, M. (2026). Talking feedback: Fostering student feedback literacy through a dialogic approach. "RELC Journal, 57"(1), 158-171. https://doi.org/10.1177/00336882251346206 Frattarola, A., Leong, A. P., & Hsieh, Y.-C. (2026). Designing curriculum for student feedback literacy: Student appreciation for and engagement with teacher feedback. "RELC Journal, 57"(1), 172-185. https://doi.org/10.1177/00336882241269632 Hoo, H. T., Deneen, C., & Boud, D. (2022). Developing student feedback literacy through self and peer assessment interventions. "Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 47"(3), 444–457. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1080/02602938.2021.1925871 Hyldahl, K., & Gamlem, S. M. (2026). Through the lens of feedback literacy: A scoping review of empirical research on teacher educators' feedback practices in initial teacher education. "Studies in Educational Evaluation, 90". https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1016/j.stueduc.2026.101646 Istencioglu, T., Boud, D., Dawson, P., & Yang, L. (2026). Teacher feedback literacy as an emerging field: A scoping review. "Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education", 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/02602938.2026.2631533 Molloy, E., Boud, D., & Henderson, M. (2020). Developing a learning-centred framework for feedback literacy.'' Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 45''(4), 527–540. https://doi.org/10.1080/02602938.2019.1667955 Nieminen, J. H., & Carless, D. (2022). Feedback literacy: A critical review of an emerging concept. "Higher Education, 85"(6), 1381-1400. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-022-00895-9 Popkewitz, T. S. (2008). The social, psychological, and education sciences: From educationalization to pedagogicalization of the family and the child. "Educational Research: The Educationalization of Social Problems". https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-9724-9_12 Popkewitz, T. S. (2012). Cosmopolitanism and the age of school reform: Science, education, and making society by making the child. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203938812 Popkewitz, T. S. (2013). The sociology of education as the history of the present: Fabrication, difference and abjection. "Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education, 34"(3), 439–456. https://doi.org/10.1080/01596306.2012.717195 Sutton, P. (2012). Conceptualizing feedback literacy: Knowing, being, and acting. ''Innovations in Education and Teaching International, 49''(1), 31–40. https://doi.org/10.1080/14703297.2012.647781 Tai, J., Ajjawi, R., Boud, D., Dawson, P., & Panadero, E. (2018). Developing evaluative judgement: Enabling students to make decisions about the quality of work. ''Higher Education, 76''(3), 467–481. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10734-017-0220-3 Winstone, N. E., & Carless, D. (2019). Designing effective feedback processes in higher education: A learning-focused approach. ''Routledge''. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781351115940 Winstone, N. E., Nash, R. A., Parker, M., & Rowntree, J. (2017). Supporting learners’ agentic engagement with feedback: A systematic review and a taxonomy of recipience processes. ''Educational Psychologist, 52''(1), 17–37. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2016.1207538 Woitt, S., Weidlich, J., Jivet, I., Orhan Göksün, D., Drachsler, H., & Kalz, M. (2025). Students’ feedback literacy in higher education: An initial scale validation study. "Teaching in Higher Education, 30"(1), 257–276. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1080/13562517.2023.2263838 }} ==External links== * [https://www.centerforengagedlearning.org/assessing-student-feedback-literacy/ Assessing Student Feedback Literacy] (centreforengagedlearning.org) * [https://www.gla.ac.uk/myglasgow/learningandteaching/afresourceshub/iterative/feedbackliteracy/ Feedback Literacy] (University of Glasgow) * [https://www.feedbackliteracy.org/ Feedback literacy] (feebackliteracy.org) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Feedback]] 2dr3wqrkhwjmoyd0ridfnveo04duv04 2836464 2836463 2026-10-07T06:22:55Z WonderfulKitten3 3109016 /* Making Judgements */ fixed some grammatical errors in the draft 2836464 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Feedback literacy:<br>what is feedback literacy, why is it important, and how can it be developed?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:Young Man Pondering - Tangier - Morocco.jpg|right|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. Self-reflection is one of humanity's greatest powers; reflecting is to actively engage with what has already happened.]] ; Food for thought Who remembers being told that they possess potential but are too unserious to step up and wield it? Maybe it wasn't a universal experience and just the Author's, but the point remains; knowledge is more effectively learned if the individual is actively engaged with it, rather than being a passive participant to potential experiences (see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} Feedback literacy refers to the knowledge and skills that enable individuals to understand, evaluate, and utilise feedback to improve their current and future performance and is important as it promotes learning agency/independence and emotional self-regulation through developing evaluative judgement capacity. This benefits not only academic performance but is transferrable to future professional and future life-skills development. Feedback literacy can be developed through purposeful curriculum design. Effective strategies include analysing exemplars, engaging in peer-reviews, incorporating feedback dialogues (feedback '''during''' the drafting phase), and self-revision.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Focus questions''' * What is Feedback Literacy? * Why Does it Matter? * How can it be Developed? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What is Feedback Literacy?== Feedback literacy is an integral component of broader academic literacy and refers to the knowledge, attitudes, and skills that learners possess to enable effective evaluation and understanding of feedback, enhancing learning and future performance. Feedback literacy is developed both individually and rationally through peer, teacher, assessment interactions, and disciplinary standards; it involves '''actively engaging with feedback, judging relevance, managing emotional affect, and applying it practically''' (Carless & Boud, 2018; Sutton, 2012). === Review on Major Literature === Chi (1996) posits that feedback is either corrective, didactic, or suggestive. Corrective feedback is the most frequent as it is essential, yet does not address conceptual issues and overlooks learner thought processes, therefore enabling 'over-correcting'. Didactic feedback provides deeper conceptual explanation but has no theoretical basis in improvement as it is considered 'lecturing' instead of active engagement. Suggestive feedback is given when a learner provides a response that is not incorrect but lack conceptual depth. Feedback in this form is subtle, and guides students into the right direction without being overly corrective or didactic (Cano García et al., 2024).[[File:Feedback process.png|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Simplified diagram of what feedback looks like; subtle, active nudging and the correct tools for emotional processing are crucial for good feedback literacy]] Nieminen & Carless (2022) emphasises Popkewitz' (2008a, 2008b, 2013) conceptual studies on ''fabrication'' to critically analyse implications between student and teacher empowerment. Fabrication, unlike what is commonly referred to as fraudulent research in psychological terms, is the "grid of historical practices that makes the object of research possible to 'see' and act on" (Popkewitz, 2013, p440). <u>In layman's terms, it allows individuals to see how research on feedback literacy influences students and teachers - therefore constructing effective interventions.</u> From this study was identified a conceptual shift from analysing external feedback to feedback literacy as an intrinsic, psychological construct that can be utilised to reconceptualise higher-educational feedback. However, it was noted that excessive feedback literacy in assessment and grading policies runs the risk of psychologising student/teacher behaviours. Feedback literacy is a broadly highlighted field, but research in the area of teacher feedback literacy (TFL) remain underdeveloped and are often diverse in what is conceptualised and measured. Scoping reviews focalising previous research conceptualisation and assessment across micro-, meso-, and macro- levels identified strong micro-level instructional support through a (mainly) multi-faceted, relational, and situational capacity; however, is limited by weak meso- and macro-level, geographical, disciplinary, and longitudinal backing (Hyldahl & Gamlem, 2026; Istencioglu et al., 2026). <u>Simply put, a majority of current TFL research focuses on micro-level practices (e.g. face to face feedback) and lacks larger scale meso- and macro-level research and interventions.</u> As existing TFL frameworks are tailored toward specific educational levels or disciplines, generalisability is limited despite massive advancements (Aydi-Vallois & Vígh, 2026). Svenja et al. (2023) addresses this gap in an initial scale validation study and posit that two components are interchangeably crucial in improving feedback literacy: (1) students can be subtly guided toward more comprehensive feedback frameworks through education of feedback literacy and reflective activities; (2) students need to be given appropriate tools that promote emotional processing and decoding of feedback. === Appreciating Feedback === Feedback-literate individuals recognise that feedback is not just an explanation of grades, a correction of mistakes, or a judgement of ability, but rather as information that identifies strengths and weaknesses in ability, academic and/or professional standards, and the gap between current and desired performance (Carless & Boud, 2018). Critical feedback is more effective if students perceive it from a dialogic perspective and should emphasise the purpose, context, and source of feedback rather than being passive recipients to what could be considered harsh criticism (Sutton, 2012). For example, feedback-literate students may ask: ''what is this feedback helping me learn? Which assessment criterion does this relate to? How might I apply this advice to another task?'' Self-reflection and peer-reflective activities are vital tools in feedback literacy, with several studies denoting its efficacy in demonstrated developing presence through pedagogic (educational theory/practice) and dialogic approaches (Chinpakdee, 2025; Hoo et al., 2021). Integrating feedback dialogues into academic courses allow teachers to reduce time and focus that is required for feedback meanwhile cultivating literacy within the drafting process; TFL is directly correlated to student feedback literacy (Frattarola et al., 2024; Malecka et al., 2020). Furthermore, dialogic feedback fosters student motivation through active and ongoing participation in feedback dialogue, promoting the sense of belonging and improving evaluative judgement capacity (Chinpakdee, 2025). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=15}} '''Case study''' Jane Doe didn't have many friends and always felt left out in class. But when a group assignment was handed out and she was assigned to a group to work on it together, they began discussing which topic to do and asked her for her opinion. After working on their section, the group proof read each section together, allowing each member to give and receive feedback. This made Jane happy and feel included, motivating her to do better with the feedback given about her section.{{RoundBoxBottom}} === Making Judgements === Making judgements is the ability to determine: * what constitutes as high-quality work * how well an individual's work meets the relevant criteria * what specific improvements are required (Carless & Boud, 2018) This is intimately associated with evaluative judgement, which is the capacity to make educated decisions about an individual and other's quality of work (Tai et al., 2017). Academic judgement is dynamic in evaluation as competent students should consider whether feedback is accurate, relevant and consistent to the assessment criteria, and applicable to their learning goals (Boud & Molloy, 2012). Malecka et al. (2020) define the importance of judgement (A.K.A. eliciting) as, although not necessarily considered a factor in the feedback process, significant as self-feedback through consulting physical/digital texts and sources - and teachers or peers when non-human resources aren't enough - requires similar active learning disposition as dialogic feedback. Feedback loops can influence performance in a surprisingly short period of time. Francis et al. (2026) used 'flipped feedback' to investigate student academic performance and evaluative judgement pre- and post- submission. Flipped feedback is an inversion of the traditional feedback process where students are given generic feedback (often from previous cohort-common errors and strengths) before any self/dialogic reflection is conducted. This way, a student can identify weaknesses in their work prior to submission, theoretically leading to more refined work which can then be further improved upon by individualised teacher feedback. Academic improvement between the pre- and post-intervention groups was identified, proving the robustness of the flipped feedback approach. Students in this study highlighted the usefulness of the flipped feedback approach (89%), with a majority of students classifying two strengths: 'opportunities for iterative learning' and 'clarity and guidance from feedback information'. However, this study raised concerns as some students found that the generic feedback was not clear enough to be specified into their use-case, as well as feeling rushed to write the initial draft in a short period of time. Such overwhelmingly positive opinions solidify how vital iterative learning promotes student engagement despite the lack of clarity from generic feedback. This is further reinforced through Cano García et al.'s (2024) intervention study based on a didactic approach that showed the quality of constructive comments between loop 1 to loop 2 (pre- and post-intervention) increased significantly, which subsequently positively-influences evaluative literacy and indirectly, evaluative judgement. === Managing Affect === Managing emotional affect from criticism is a vital capacity in feedback-literacy. Emotions such as: anxiety, embarrassment, disappointment, defensiveness, and/or frustration are common emotions involved with receiving criticism; remaining conscious and regulating these emotions is key to engaging with useful feedback (Winstone et al., 2017; Carless & Boud, 2018). Crucially, individuals must remove self-identity and worth from criticism to their work, as inability to manage emotions often lead to "avoidance strategies" such as ignoring feedback entirely (Winstone et al., 2017). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} ;Did you know? A case study conducted by Baron (1988) studied the effects of destructive and constructive criticism and found that destructive criticism lead to greater anger and tension, indicating that future disagreements were likely to be handled with resistance and/or avoidance rather than collaboration and compromise. {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Taking Action === Often referred to as "uptake", taking action is the process of translating feedback into observable improvements in performance (Carless & Boud, 2018). The hardest part of uptake is the "implementation gap" - the difficulty of knowing how to act on specific comments, as taking action requires the ability to convert general advice into actionable and specific strategies (Winstone & Carless, 2019; Boud & Molloy, 2013). Highly adept individuals can translate specific criticism into broader unrelated tasks, thereby demonstrating "transfer" of knowledge (Molloy et al., 2020). == Why is Feedback Literacy Important? == Feedback literacy is a core academic competency as it allows individuals to transform feedback from a transactional interaction into a self-sustainable learning process. Aside from facilitating for self regulated learning, feedback literacy develops fundamental understanding in '''evaluative judgement''', mitigates the '''"feedback gap"''', improves '''emotional regulation and academic wellbeing''', and '''supports professional learning''' - many of which have been identified in the previous section, therefore professional learning is emphasised here. Feedback literacy is a pillar of professional identity through the constant negotiation between self-concept and external appraisals. Advanced feedback-literate individuals can differentiate between criticism that is targeted to their worth or work; mature psychological separation is crucial to maintaining long-term motivation and avoiding burnout (Molloy et al., 2020). == How can Feedback Literacy be Developed? == Feedback literacy can be pedagogically developed through '''peer review, use of exemplars, feedback dialogues,''' and '''meta-cognitive reflection''', all requiring structured opportunities so that individuals can actively engage with feedback and calibrate judgement processes. ==Conclusion== Feedback literacy is a vital learning competency that enables individuals to interpret, evaluate, and transform transactional feedback into self-cultivating improvements; learners become lifelong active participants of their feedback through developing evaluative judgement and managing emotional affects to take effective and intentional action. Strategies such as peer-review, use of exemplars, feedback dialogues, and self-reflection strengthen student independence and self-regulation, ultimately leading to an ongoing process supporting continuous improvement. ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation]] (Book chapter, 2026) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Extended process model of emotion regulation|Extended process model of emotion regulation]] (Book chapter, 2026) * [[wikipedia:Emotional_self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Aydi-Vallois, S., & Vígh, T. (2026). Exploring teacher feedback literacy: A scoping review of frameworks and instruments. "Cogent Education, 13"(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2026.2674324 Baron, R. A. (1998). Negative effects of destructive criticism: Impact on conflict, self-efficacy, and task performance. ''Journal of Applied Psychology, 73''(2), 199–207. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.73.2.199 Boud, D., & Molloy, E. (2013). Rethinking models of feedback for learning: The challenge of design. ''Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 38''(6), 698–712. https://doi.org/10.1080/02602938.2012.691462 Cano García, E., Jardí Ferré, A., Lluch Molins, L., & Martins Gironelli, L. (2024). Improvement in the quality of feedback as an indication of the development of evaluative judgement. "Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 49"(6), 824–837. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1080/02602938.2024.2329170 Carless, D., & Boud, D. (2018). The development of student feedback literacy: Enabling uptake of feedback. ''Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 43''(8), 1315–1325. https://doi.org/10.1080/02602938.2018.1463354 Chi, M. (1996). Constructing self-explanations and scaffolded explanations in tutoring. "Applied Cognitive Psychology, 10"(7), 33–49. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1099-0720(199611)10:7<33::AID-ACP436>3.0.CO;2-E. Chinpakdee, M. (2026). Talking feedback: Fostering student feedback literacy through a dialogic approach. "RELC Journal, 57"(1), 158-171. https://doi.org/10.1177/00336882251346206 Frattarola, A., Leong, A. P., & Hsieh, Y.-C. (2026). Designing curriculum for student feedback literacy: Student appreciation for and engagement with teacher feedback. "RELC Journal, 57"(1), 172-185. https://doi.org/10.1177/00336882241269632 Hoo, H. T., Deneen, C., & Boud, D. (2022). Developing student feedback literacy through self and peer assessment interventions. "Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 47"(3), 444–457. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1080/02602938.2021.1925871 Hyldahl, K., & Gamlem, S. M. (2026). Through the lens of feedback literacy: A scoping review of empirical research on teacher educators' feedback practices in initial teacher education. "Studies in Educational Evaluation, 90". https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1016/j.stueduc.2026.101646 Istencioglu, T., Boud, D., Dawson, P., & Yang, L. (2026). Teacher feedback literacy as an emerging field: A scoping review. "Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education", 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/02602938.2026.2631533 Molloy, E., Boud, D., & Henderson, M. (2020). Developing a learning-centred framework for feedback literacy.'' Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 45''(4), 527–540. https://doi.org/10.1080/02602938.2019.1667955 Nieminen, J. H., & Carless, D. (2022). Feedback literacy: A critical review of an emerging concept. "Higher Education, 85"(6), 1381-1400. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-022-00895-9 Popkewitz, T. S. (2008). The social, psychological, and education sciences: From educationalization to pedagogicalization of the family and the child. "Educational Research: The Educationalization of Social Problems". https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-9724-9_12 Popkewitz, T. S. (2012). Cosmopolitanism and the age of school reform: Science, education, and making society by making the child. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203938812 Popkewitz, T. S. (2013). The sociology of education as the history of the present: Fabrication, difference and abjection. "Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education, 34"(3), 439–456. https://doi.org/10.1080/01596306.2012.717195 Sutton, P. (2012). Conceptualizing feedback literacy: Knowing, being, and acting. ''Innovations in Education and Teaching International, 49''(1), 31–40. https://doi.org/10.1080/14703297.2012.647781 Tai, J., Ajjawi, R., Boud, D., Dawson, P., & Panadero, E. (2018). Developing evaluative judgement: Enabling students to make decisions about the quality of work. ''Higher Education, 76''(3), 467–481. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10734-017-0220-3 Winstone, N. E., & Carless, D. (2019). Designing effective feedback processes in higher education: A learning-focused approach. ''Routledge''. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781351115940 Winstone, N. E., Nash, R. A., Parker, M., & Rowntree, J. (2017). Supporting learners’ agentic engagement with feedback: A systematic review and a taxonomy of recipience processes. ''Educational Psychologist, 52''(1), 17–37. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2016.1207538 Woitt, S., Weidlich, J., Jivet, I., Orhan Göksün, D., Drachsler, H., & Kalz, M. (2025). Students’ feedback literacy in higher education: An initial scale validation study. "Teaching in Higher Education, 30"(1), 257–276. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1080/13562517.2023.2263838 }} ==External links== * [https://www.centerforengagedlearning.org/assessing-student-feedback-literacy/ Assessing Student Feedback Literacy] (centreforengagedlearning.org) * [https://www.gla.ac.uk/myglasgow/learningandteaching/afresourceshub/iterative/feedbackliteracy/ Feedback Literacy] (University of Glasgow) * [https://www.feedbackliteracy.org/ Feedback literacy] (feebackliteracy.org) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Feedback]] tf1aetbnnf0reiumhiri336wngz7or8 2 331452 2836366 2835865 2026-10-07T00:37:32Z U3216724 3106797 /* Social contributions */ 2836366 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == Hey there! My name is Ryan (''they/them''). I am a student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra] in my third and final year of a Bachelor of Science in Psychology. I am interested in [[wikipedia:Ecological_psychology|ecological psychology]], [[wikipedia:Phenomenology_(psychology)|phenomenology]] and [[wikipedia:Behavioral_game_theory|behavioural game theory]]. In my free time, I enjoy: * Video games - Recently, I have been playing ''[[wikipedia:Risk_of_Rain_2|Risk of Rain 2]]'', ''[[wikipedia:Helldivers_2|Helldivers 2]]'' and ''[[wikipedia:Warhammer_40,000:_Darktide|Warhammer 40,000: Darktide]]''. * ''[[wikipedia:Magic:_The_Gathering|Magic the Gathering]]'' * Birdwatching * Knitting == My book chapter == For the 2026 [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] unit, I am currently working on the book chapter [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Game of dice task and decision-making|Game of dice task and decision-making]]. == Social contributions == #25 August 2026 - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2025/Automaticity_in_goal_striving&diff=prev&oldid=2825442 Added missing hyperlinks to scenario box on Automaticity in goal striving] #25 August 2026 - Posted a [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/457412 discussion on Canvas] inviting others to try the Game of Dice Task and share their thoughts. #25 August 2026 - [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Melatonin and circadian motivation#c-U3216724-20260825031200-Feedback and suggestions|Suggested changes on Melatonin and circadian motivation]]. #5 October 2026 - [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Adolescent risk-taking and reward-system development#c-U3216724-20261005034500-Suggestion for a related source|Suggested source for use on related 2026 book chapter Adolescent risk-taking and reward-system development.]] #6 October 2026 - Created a mock-up of the typical Game of Dice Task presentation and [[c:File:GDT_Schematic_Mockup.svg|uploaded it to Wikimedia Commons for others to use.]] fnm1f9nk29c4hsnhp0d8tuwp9zvg0dm 0 331455 2836367 2836307 2026-10-07T00:40:07Z U3216724 3106797 Revised Figure 1 description to relate it to topic; added description for figure 2 2836367 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Game of dice task and decision-making:<br>What does the game of dice task reveal about risk-based decision-making?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:Gaming dice multisided blue.jpg|right|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. Dice have clearly defined odds, but how Emile decides to bet changes his chances of winning or losing.]] ; Imagine this ... Emile has money to spend on a night out and decides to go to a casino. He arrives at a dice table, where a card in front of him lists his betting options. He could bet on the dealer rolling one specific number for a large payout, but the chances of it happening are low: exactly 1 in 6. He could also bet on four numbers at once, winning if the dealer rolls one of them. His payout shrinks significantly, but his odds of winning increase to 2 in 3. These odds are not hidden from Emile; he knows exactly what his chances of winning and losing are (see Figure 1). For the first few rolls, Emile spends his money on safer bets. After a couple of small wins, he's feeling confident and switches to the single number bet, hoping for that big win. He loses. He goes for the single number again. He loses again. By the end of the night, despite knowing the odds the whole time, Emile has lost most of his money on the riskiest, least likely bets. Why did Emile make riskier choices, even though his chances of winning were so much lower? {{RoundBoxBottom}} * The Game of Dice Task (GDT) is a valuable tool for investigating performance under explicit risk. Participants have defined probabilities and consequences. This helps assess the neurological and individual motivations for risk taking (Brand et al., 2005). * Decision-making depends on cognitive mechanisms as well as individual perceptions of risk. Game of Dice Task (GDT) research implicates probability processing, executive functioning, reasoning, the effects of feedback, individual strategy and memory - in general, executive control (Pertl et al., 2017; Schiebener et al., 2011; Schiebener et al., 2014; Schiebener & Brand, 2015). * Risk-based decision-making requires people to consider probability, outcomes and potential rewards. Greater rewards with lower chances may or may not be perceived as advantageous: there is a difference between taking an uncertain choice and a risk (Brand et al., 2006; Mishra, 2014). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} '''Focus questions''' * What is the Game of Dice Task? * What is risk-based decision-making? * Which psychological processes affect decision-making under explicit risk? * What can the Game of Dice Task tell us about developmental and neurological disorders? * How can the Game of Dice Task be applied to real-world decision-making? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == The Game of Dice Task == The Game of Dice Task (GDT) is a computerised gambling task in which participants attempt to maximise their capital over 18 trials. It was first presented by Brand et al. (2002) as a tool to examine which cognitive abilities contribute to risk-taking. The researcher's initial study found that among 23 healthy adults, older participants and those who were better at identifying risk tended to make safer, more advantageous bets. Later studies comparing Korsakoff syndrome and Parkinson's disease patients with healthy controls further developed the GDT, showing that the clinical groups made significantly more risky choices (Brand et al., 2004; Brand et al., 2005). These studies provide the basis for the standard procedure of the GDT. Participants complete the GDT on a single screen (See Figure 2). It displays current capital, which starts at 1,000 and is framed in a currency relevant to the sample, such as Euros or Dollars. Participants may select from one of 14 predetermined bets for which face will be rolled on the die. After selection, a die rolling video is played, and money is awarded or deducted based on the result. Feedback is given in the form of win or loss text, an associated sound and an outcome history comparing wins and losses. The rewards and deductions are equal for each bet and scale with the probability of the outcomes, such that the riskier outcomes are more rewarding and more punishing, and the less risky choices are less rewarding and less punishing. Table 1 shows a breakdown of the choices and their associated probabilities. [[File:GDT_Schematic_Mockup.svg|center|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. The typical presentation of the GDT, adapted from Brand et al. (2005). Some versions of the GDT change reward amounts, remove or alter feedback elements, or list additional participant information. Elements clockwise from top left are: Dice rolling video, most recent gain/loss with current total balance below, balance chart for a visual representation of current balance, round number, quit button, gains/losses associated with the possible bets and possible bet choices.]] <u>Insert Table here showing a breakdown of the choices, rewards, probabilities and risk classification.</u> * Key to the design is that the outcomes are only pseudorandomised. Each number will be displayed exactly three times, though the order is random. This means that the design is a measure of planning, probability and advantageous decision making which is comparable across participants, rather than one which introduces truly random chance. This does cause a potential for the gambler's fallacy or for the recognition of the hidden design in savvy players (citation). * Participants receive information about the outcome and current monetary balance, creating a feedback opportunity to monitor success/failure in previous decisions (Brand, 2008). * Different from previous gambling tasks, e.g the Iowa Gambling Task, in which participants discover strategy through previous experience. Known probabilities distinguish risk-based decision-making under explicit risk vs. uncertainty or learned risk (Brand et al., 2006) == Risk-based decision-making == * Brand et al. (2006) suggest a model based on the GDT results for the cognitive process of risk-based decision making. The updated version (Schiebener & Brand, 2015; Liebherr et al., 2017) incorporate situational and affective states and reorganise the cognitive processes that underpin the motivational model into three stages: 1. inputs, 2. inner processes, 3. outputs and feedback. * Risk-based decision-making refers to choices made under 'risk': this means that the outcome of a choice is unknown, but the probability of a given outcome can be known. E.g, rolling a six-sided die has an unknown result, but the probability that any given number will be face-up is 1/6. * This is different to uncertainty in which both the outcome ''and'' the probability of that outcome are unknown. The GDT is a measure of risk choices defined in this way. Other measures, like the IGT, combine uncertainty and risk, creating ambiguous risk scenarios (Brand et al., 2006; De Groot & Thurik, 2018). * People do not make the same choices when presented with the same risk scenarios. This suggests individual differences in perception, risk preference, loss aversion, mathematical processing, affective responses and executive functioning (Lowenstein et al., 2001; Mishra, 2014; Pachur & Zilker, 2026). * Taking risks is not always an indication of poor decision making. Choices may be more or less advantageous based on reward and probability. == Psychological mechanisms of risk-based decision-making == * The GDT can examine how risk-based decision-making develops, matures, or becomes impaired. Evidence from clinical populations suggests relationships between GDT performance and particular cognitive or neurological systems. Risk-based decision-making changes substantially during childhood and adolescence. Schiebener et al. (2014) examined participants aged 8–19 years and found developmental improvements in GDT performance: likely refined executive control. * Brand et al. (2004) found that people with Parkinson's disease performed worse on the GDT than healthy controls, and disadvantageous choices were associated with executive functions and feedback processing. A review of decision-making under risk and ambiguity in Parkinson's disease concluded that executive functions are impacted, but may play different roles depending on the decision-making task and its cognitive demands (Colautti et al., 2023), further suggesting separate cognitive processes for risk and ambiguity. Other neurological conditions show similar links between executive functioning and GDT performance. For example, people with Korsakoff syndrome show impaired performance on the GDT, with the impairment associated with executive functions (Brand et al., 2005; Brand et al., 2009). * Feedback processing is also important to GDT performance. Removing feedback (i.e, win or loss, total wins or losses, current and previous balance, etc.) worsened performance in healthy individuals, suggesting cognitive and affective processing are both important for advantageous decision making (Brand, 2008). Amnesic patients showed no difference in GDT performance with or without feedback, consistently performing poorly, illustrating the importance of feedback and experience in avoiding disadvantageous choices (Brand et al., 2009). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} <quiz display=simple> {Executive functioning can influence whether someone makes advantageous choices in the GDT: |type="()"} + True - False {Feedback is irrelevant to GDT performance, since the probabilities are already known: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Applications and limitations of the GDT == * GDT findings should be interpreted as evidence about a particular form of risk-based decision-making. Different behavioural tasks capture different aspects of decision-making. Laboratory measures of risk and decision-making do not necessarily measure a single unified construct (Buelow & Blaine, 2015; Colautti et al., 2023). * The controlled nature and specific probabilities of the GDT allows researchers to investigate the contribution of executive control, reasoning, numerical processing and feedback. It has been useful in identifying deficits in cognitive ability amongst clinical populations. This also has some conceptual relevance for real world decisions involving defined risk. * Many real word scenarios are confounded with uncertainty, social pressures, competing goals and subjective reward considerations. The GDT is not necessarily effective at predicting real-life decision-making (Buelow et al., 2024). ==Conclusion== * The GDT provides a controlled way to study decision-making under risk. Because the probabilities and possible outcomes are known, the GDT allows researchers to examine how people use information about risk when making repeated decisions. * Advantageous decision-making is not simply about avoiding risk. It involves considering the probability and potential outcomes of different choices and using reasoning, executive functioning and feedback to guide decisions. A risky choice is not necessarily a poor decision if the potential reward and probability of success make it advantageous. * GDT performance is influenced by a range of cognitive processes and individual differences. The GDT therefore helps researchers examine why some people are better able than others to adjust their decisions to the risks and outcomes involved. However, it is not necessarily an appropriate analogue for decision-making in complex real life situations. * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Adolescent risk-taking and reward-system development|Adolescent risk-taking and reward-system development]] (Book chapter, 2026) * [[wikipedia:Decision-making|Decision-making]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Dopamine and decision making|Dopamine and decision making]] (Book chapter, 2024) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Gambling addiction motivation|Gambling addiction motivation]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[wikipedia:Risk|Risk]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Brand, M., Fujiwara, E., Borsutzky, S., Kalbe, E., Kessler, J., & Markowitsch, H. J. (2005). Decision-making deficits of korsakoff patients in a new gambling task with explicit rules: Associations with executive functions. ''Neuropsychology'', ''19''(3), 267–277. https://doi.org/10.1037/0894-4105.19.3.267 Brand, M., Labudda, K., Kalbe, E., Hilker, R., Emmans, D., Fuchs, G., Kessler, J., & Markowitsch, H. J. (2004). Decision‐making impairments in patients with Parkinson’s disease. ''Behavioural Neurology'', ''15''(3–4), 77–85. https://doi.org/10.1155/2004/578354 Brand, M., Labudda, K., & Markowitsch, H. J. (2006). Neuropsychological correlates of decision-making in ambiguous and risky situations. ''Neural Networks'', ''19''(8), 1266–1276. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neunet.2006.03.001 Brand, M., Pawlikowski, M., Labudda, K., Laier, C., Rothkirch, N. von, & Markowitsch, H. J. (2009). Do amnesic patients with Korsakoff’s syndrome use feedback when making decisions under risky conditions? An experimental investigation with the game of dice task with and without feedback. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''69''(2), 279–290. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2008.08.003 Brand, Matthias. (2008). Does the feedback from previous trials influence current decisions? A study on the role of feedback processing in making decisions under explicit risk conditions. ''Journal of Neuropsychology'', ''2''(2), 431–443. https://doi.org/10.1348/174866407x220607 Buelow, M. T., & Blaine, A. L. (2015). The assessment of risky decision making: A factor analysis of performance on the Iowa Gambling Task, Balloon Analogue Risk Task, and Columbia Card Task. ''Psychological Assessment'', ''27''(3), 777–785. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038622 Buelow, M. T., Okdie, B. M., & Kowalsky, J. M. (2024). Ecological validity of common behavioral decision making tasks: Evidence across two samples. ''Neuropsychology, Development, and Cognition. Section A, Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology/Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology'', ''46''(3), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2024.2337759 Colautti, L., Iannello, P., Maria Caterina Silveri, & Antonietti, A. (2023). Decision-making under ambiguity and risk and executive functions in parkinson’s disease patients: A scoping review of the studies investigating the Iowa gambling task and the game of dice. ''Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience'', ''23''(5), 1225–1243. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13415-023-01106-3 De Groot, K., & Thurik, R. (2018). Disentangling risk and uncertainty: When risk-taking measures are not about risk. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''9''. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02194 Loewenstein, G. F., Weber, E. U., Hsee, C. K., & Welch, N. (2001). Risk as feelings. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''127''(2), 267–286. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.127.2.267 Mishra, S. (2014). Decision-making under risk: Integrating perspectives from biology, economics, and psychology. ''Personality and Social Psychology Review'', ''18''(3), 280–307. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868314530517 Pachur, T., & Zilker, V. (2026). Psychological theories of decision-making under risk. ''The Cambridge Handbook of Behavioural Data Science'', 76–105. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108939010.009 Pertl, M.-T., Zamarian, L., & Delazer, M. (2017). Reasoning and mathematical skills contribute to normatively superior decision making under risk: Evidence from the game of dice task. ''Cognitive Processing'', ''18''(3), 249–260. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10339-017-0813-x Schiebener, J., & Brand, M. (2015). Self-reported strategies in decisions under risk: Role of feedback, reasoning abilities, executive functions, short-term-memory, and working memory. ''Cognitive Processing'', ''16''(4), 401–416. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10339-015-0665-1 Schiebener, J., Wegmann, E., Gathmann, B., Laier, C., Pawlikowski, M., & Brand, M. (2014). Among three different executive functions, general executive control ability is a key predictor of decision making under objective risk. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''5''. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01386 Schiebener, J., Zamarian, L., Delazer, M., & Brand, M. (2011). Executive functions, categorization of probabilities, and learning from feedback: What does really matter for decision making under explicit risk conditions?. ''Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology'', ''33''(9), 1025–1039. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2011.595702 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/hovercraft-full-eels/202012/risky-gamble-or-uncertain-future A risky gamble or an uncertain future?] (Psychology Today) * [https://www.millisecond.com/library/gameofdicetask Game of dice task] (Millisecond Software) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Decision making]] hvl1okf635l5kkmbbme968xylpbzql0 2836368 2836367 2026-10-07T00:43:17Z U3216724 3106797 Altered size of Figure 2 2836368 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Game of dice task and decision-making:<br>What does the game of dice task reveal about risk-based decision-making?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:Gaming dice multisided blue.jpg|right|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. Dice have clearly defined odds, but how Emile decides to bet changes his chances of winning or losing.]] ; Imagine this ... Emile has money to spend on a night out and decides to go to a casino. He arrives at a dice table, where a card in front of him lists his betting options. He could bet on the dealer rolling one specific number for a large payout, but the chances of it happening are low: exactly 1 in 6. He could also bet on four numbers at once, winning if the dealer rolls one of them. His payout shrinks significantly, but his odds of winning increase to 2 in 3. These odds are not hidden from Emile; he knows exactly what his chances of winning and losing are (see Figure 1). For the first few rolls, Emile spends his money on safer bets. After a couple of small wins, he's feeling confident and switches to the single number bet, hoping for that big win. He loses. He goes for the single number again. He loses again. By the end of the night, despite knowing the odds the whole time, Emile has lost most of his money on the riskiest, least likely bets. Why did Emile make riskier choices, even though his chances of winning were so much lower? {{RoundBoxBottom}} * The Game of Dice Task (GDT) is a valuable tool for investigating performance under explicit risk. Participants have defined probabilities and consequences. This helps assess the neurological and individual motivations for risk taking (Brand et al., 2005). * Decision-making depends on cognitive mechanisms as well as individual perceptions of risk. Game of Dice Task (GDT) research implicates probability processing, executive functioning, reasoning, the effects of feedback, individual strategy and memory - in general, executive control (Pertl et al., 2017; Schiebener et al., 2011; Schiebener et al., 2014; Schiebener & Brand, 2015). * Risk-based decision-making requires people to consider probability, outcomes and potential rewards. Greater rewards with lower chances may or may not be perceived as advantageous: there is a difference between taking an uncertain choice and a risk (Brand et al., 2006; Mishra, 2014). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} '''Focus questions''' * What is the Game of Dice Task? * What is risk-based decision-making? * Which psychological processes affect decision-making under explicit risk? * What can the Game of Dice Task tell us about developmental and neurological disorders? * How can the Game of Dice Task be applied to real-world decision-making? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == The Game of Dice Task == The Game of Dice Task (GDT) is a computerised gambling task in which participants attempt to maximise their capital over 18 trials. It was first presented by Brand et al. (2002) as a tool to examine which cognitive abilities contribute to risk-taking. The researcher's initial study found that among 23 healthy adults, older participants and those who were better at identifying risk tended to make safer, more advantageous bets. Later studies comparing Korsakoff syndrome and Parkinson's disease patients with healthy controls further developed the GDT, showing that the clinical groups made significantly more risky choices (Brand et al., 2004; Brand et al., 2005). These studies provide the basis for the standard procedure of the GDT. Participants complete the GDT on a single screen (See Figure 2). It displays current capital, which starts at 1,000 and is framed in a currency relevant to the sample, such as Euros or Dollars. Participants may select from one of 14 predetermined bets for which face will be rolled on the die. After selection, a die rolling video is played, and money is awarded or deducted based on the result. Feedback is given in the form of win or loss text, an associated sound and an outcome history comparing wins and losses. The rewards and deductions are equal for each bet and scale with the probability of the outcomes, such that the riskier outcomes are more rewarding and more punishing, and the less risky choices are less rewarding and less punishing. Table 1 shows a breakdown of the choices and their associated probabilities. [[File:GDT_Schematic_Mockup.svg|center|thumb|800px|'''Figure 2'''. The typical presentation of the GDT, adapted from Brand et al. (2005). Some versions of the GDT change reward amounts, remove or alter feedback elements, or list additional participant information. Elements clockwise from top left are: Dice rolling video, most recent gain/loss with current total balance below, balance chart for a visual representation of current balance, round number, quit button, gains/losses associated with the possible bets and possible bet choices.]] <u>Insert Table here showing a breakdown of the choices, rewards, probabilities and risk classification.</u> * Key to the design is that the outcomes are only pseudorandomised. Each number will be displayed exactly three times, though the order is random. This means that the design is a measure of planning, probability and advantageous decision making which is comparable across participants, rather than one which introduces truly random chance. This does cause a potential for the gambler's fallacy or for the recognition of the hidden design in savvy players (citation). * Participants receive information about the outcome and current monetary balance, creating a feedback opportunity to monitor success/failure in previous decisions (Brand, 2008). * Different from previous gambling tasks, e.g the Iowa Gambling Task, in which participants discover strategy through previous experience. Known probabilities distinguish risk-based decision-making under explicit risk vs. uncertainty or learned risk (Brand et al., 2006) == Risk-based decision-making == * Brand et al. (2006) suggest a model based on the GDT results for the cognitive process of risk-based decision making. The updated version (Schiebener & Brand, 2015; Liebherr et al., 2017) incorporate situational and affective states and reorganise the cognitive processes that underpin the motivational model into three stages: 1. inputs, 2. inner processes, 3. outputs and feedback. * Risk-based decision-making refers to choices made under 'risk': this means that the outcome of a choice is unknown, but the probability of a given outcome can be known. E.g, rolling a six-sided die has an unknown result, but the probability that any given number will be face-up is 1/6. * This is different to uncertainty in which both the outcome ''and'' the probability of that outcome are unknown. The GDT is a measure of risk choices defined in this way. Other measures, like the IGT, combine uncertainty and risk, creating ambiguous risk scenarios (Brand et al., 2006; De Groot & Thurik, 2018). * People do not make the same choices when presented with the same risk scenarios. This suggests individual differences in perception, risk preference, loss aversion, mathematical processing, affective responses and executive functioning (Lowenstein et al., 2001; Mishra, 2014; Pachur & Zilker, 2026). * Taking risks is not always an indication of poor decision making. Choices may be more or less advantageous based on reward and probability. == Psychological mechanisms of risk-based decision-making == * The GDT can examine how risk-based decision-making develops, matures, or becomes impaired. Evidence from clinical populations suggests relationships between GDT performance and particular cognitive or neurological systems. Risk-based decision-making changes substantially during childhood and adolescence. Schiebener et al. (2014) examined participants aged 8–19 years and found developmental improvements in GDT performance: likely refined executive control. * Brand et al. (2004) found that people with Parkinson's disease performed worse on the GDT than healthy controls, and disadvantageous choices were associated with executive functions and feedback processing. A review of decision-making under risk and ambiguity in Parkinson's disease concluded that executive functions are impacted, but may play different roles depending on the decision-making task and its cognitive demands (Colautti et al., 2023), further suggesting separate cognitive processes for risk and ambiguity. Other neurological conditions show similar links between executive functioning and GDT performance. For example, people with Korsakoff syndrome show impaired performance on the GDT, with the impairment associated with executive functions (Brand et al., 2005; Brand et al., 2009). * Feedback processing is also important to GDT performance. Removing feedback (i.e, win or loss, total wins or losses, current and previous balance, etc.) worsened performance in healthy individuals, suggesting cognitive and affective processing are both important for advantageous decision making (Brand, 2008). Amnesic patients showed no difference in GDT performance with or without feedback, consistently performing poorly, illustrating the importance of feedback and experience in avoiding disadvantageous choices (Brand et al., 2009). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} <quiz display=simple> {Executive functioning can influence whether someone makes advantageous choices in the GDT: |type="()"} + True - False {Feedback is irrelevant to GDT performance, since the probabilities are already known: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Applications and limitations of the GDT == * GDT findings should be interpreted as evidence about a particular form of risk-based decision-making. Different behavioural tasks capture different aspects of decision-making. Laboratory measures of risk and decision-making do not necessarily measure a single unified construct (Buelow & Blaine, 2015; Colautti et al., 2023). * The controlled nature and specific probabilities of the GDT allows researchers to investigate the contribution of executive control, reasoning, numerical processing and feedback. It has been useful in identifying deficits in cognitive ability amongst clinical populations. This also has some conceptual relevance for real world decisions involving defined risk. * Many real word scenarios are confounded with uncertainty, social pressures, competing goals and subjective reward considerations. The GDT is not necessarily effective at predicting real-life decision-making (Buelow et al., 2024). ==Conclusion== * The GDT provides a controlled way to study decision-making under risk. Because the probabilities and possible outcomes are known, the GDT allows researchers to examine how people use information about risk when making repeated decisions. * Advantageous decision-making is not simply about avoiding risk. It involves considering the probability and potential outcomes of different choices and using reasoning, executive functioning and feedback to guide decisions. A risky choice is not necessarily a poor decision if the potential reward and probability of success make it advantageous. * GDT performance is influenced by a range of cognitive processes and individual differences. The GDT therefore helps researchers examine why some people are better able than others to adjust their decisions to the risks and outcomes involved. However, it is not necessarily an appropriate analogue for decision-making in complex real life situations. * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Adolescent risk-taking and reward-system development|Adolescent risk-taking and reward-system development]] (Book chapter, 2026) * [[wikipedia:Decision-making|Decision-making]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Dopamine and decision making|Dopamine and decision making]] (Book chapter, 2024) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Gambling addiction motivation|Gambling addiction motivation]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[wikipedia:Risk|Risk]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Brand, M., Fujiwara, E., Borsutzky, S., Kalbe, E., Kessler, J., & Markowitsch, H. J. (2005). Decision-making deficits of korsakoff patients in a new gambling task with explicit rules: Associations with executive functions. ''Neuropsychology'', ''19''(3), 267–277. https://doi.org/10.1037/0894-4105.19.3.267 Brand, M., Labudda, K., Kalbe, E., Hilker, R., Emmans, D., Fuchs, G., Kessler, J., & Markowitsch, H. J. (2004). Decision‐making impairments in patients with Parkinson’s disease. ''Behavioural Neurology'', ''15''(3–4), 77–85. https://doi.org/10.1155/2004/578354 Brand, M., Labudda, K., & Markowitsch, H. J. (2006). Neuropsychological correlates of decision-making in ambiguous and risky situations. ''Neural Networks'', ''19''(8), 1266–1276. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neunet.2006.03.001 Brand, M., Pawlikowski, M., Labudda, K., Laier, C., Rothkirch, N. von, & Markowitsch, H. J. (2009). Do amnesic patients with Korsakoff’s syndrome use feedback when making decisions under risky conditions? An experimental investigation with the game of dice task with and without feedback. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''69''(2), 279–290. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2008.08.003 Brand, Matthias. (2008). Does the feedback from previous trials influence current decisions? A study on the role of feedback processing in making decisions under explicit risk conditions. ''Journal of Neuropsychology'', ''2''(2), 431–443. https://doi.org/10.1348/174866407x220607 Buelow, M. T., & Blaine, A. L. (2015). The assessment of risky decision making: A factor analysis of performance on the Iowa Gambling Task, Balloon Analogue Risk Task, and Columbia Card Task. ''Psychological Assessment'', ''27''(3), 777–785. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038622 Buelow, M. T., Okdie, B. M., & Kowalsky, J. M. (2024). Ecological validity of common behavioral decision making tasks: Evidence across two samples. ''Neuropsychology, Development, and Cognition. Section A, Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology/Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology'', ''46''(3), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2024.2337759 Colautti, L., Iannello, P., Maria Caterina Silveri, & Antonietti, A. (2023). Decision-making under ambiguity and risk and executive functions in parkinson’s disease patients: A scoping review of the studies investigating the Iowa gambling task and the game of dice. ''Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience'', ''23''(5), 1225–1243. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13415-023-01106-3 De Groot, K., & Thurik, R. (2018). Disentangling risk and uncertainty: When risk-taking measures are not about risk. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''9''. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02194 Loewenstein, G. F., Weber, E. U., Hsee, C. K., & Welch, N. (2001). Risk as feelings. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''127''(2), 267–286. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.127.2.267 Mishra, S. (2014). Decision-making under risk: Integrating perspectives from biology, economics, and psychology. ''Personality and Social Psychology Review'', ''18''(3), 280–307. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868314530517 Pachur, T., & Zilker, V. (2026). Psychological theories of decision-making under risk. ''The Cambridge Handbook of Behavioural Data Science'', 76–105. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108939010.009 Pertl, M.-T., Zamarian, L., & Delazer, M. (2017). Reasoning and mathematical skills contribute to normatively superior decision making under risk: Evidence from the game of dice task. ''Cognitive Processing'', ''18''(3), 249–260. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10339-017-0813-x Schiebener, J., & Brand, M. (2015). Self-reported strategies in decisions under risk: Role of feedback, reasoning abilities, executive functions, short-term-memory, and working memory. ''Cognitive Processing'', ''16''(4), 401–416. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10339-015-0665-1 Schiebener, J., Wegmann, E., Gathmann, B., Laier, C., Pawlikowski, M., & Brand, M. (2014). Among three different executive functions, general executive control ability is a key predictor of decision making under objective risk. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''5''. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01386 Schiebener, J., Zamarian, L., Delazer, M., & Brand, M. (2011). Executive functions, categorization of probabilities, and learning from feedback: What does really matter for decision making under explicit risk conditions?. ''Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology'', ''33''(9), 1025–1039. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2011.595702 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/hovercraft-full-eels/202012/risky-gamble-or-uncertain-future A risky gamble or an uncertain future?] (Psychology Today) * [https://www.millisecond.com/library/gameofdicetask Game of dice task] (Millisecond Software) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Decision making]] dyc14mlpqiskufwjl9jn3hz2n4brbjw 2836370 2836368 2026-10-07T00:52:10Z U3216724 3106797 Changed wording for accuracy and clarity, started expanding dot point into paragraph 2836370 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Game of dice task and decision-making:<br>What does the game of dice task reveal about risk-based decision-making?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:Gaming dice multisided blue.jpg|right|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. Dice have clearly defined odds, but how Emile decides to bet changes his chances of winning or losing.]] ; Imagine this ... Emile has money to spend on a night out and decides to go to a casino. He arrives at a dice table, where a card in front of him lists his betting options. He could bet on the dealer rolling one specific number for a large payout, but the chances of it happening are low: exactly 1 in 6. He could also bet on four numbers at once, winning if the dealer rolls one of them. His payout shrinks significantly, but his odds of winning increase to 2 in 3. These odds are not hidden from Emile; he knows exactly what his chances of winning and losing are (see Figure 1). For the first few rolls, Emile spends his money on safer bets. After a couple of small wins, he's feeling confident and switches to the single number bet, hoping for that big win. He loses. He goes for the single number again. He loses again. By the end of the night, despite knowing the odds the whole time, Emile has lost most of his money on the riskiest, least likely bets. Why did Emile make riskier choices, even though his chances of winning were so much lower? {{RoundBoxBottom}} * The Game of Dice Task (GDT) is a valuable tool for investigating performance under explicit risk. Participants have defined probabilities and consequences. This helps assess the neurological and individual motivations for risk taking (Brand et al., 2005). * Decision-making depends on cognitive mechanisms as well as individual perceptions of risk. Game of Dice Task (GDT) research implicates probability processing, executive functioning, reasoning, the effects of feedback, individual strategy and memory - in general, executive control (Pertl et al., 2017; Schiebener et al., 2011; Schiebener et al., 2014; Schiebener & Brand, 2015). * Risk-based decision-making requires people to consider probability, outcomes and potential rewards. Greater rewards with lower chances may or may not be perceived as advantageous: there is a difference between taking an uncertain choice and a risk (Brand et al., 2006; Mishra, 2014). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} '''Focus questions''' * What is the Game of Dice Task? * What is risk-based decision-making? * Which psychological processes affect decision-making under explicit risk? * What can the Game of Dice Task tell us about developmental and neurological disorders? * How can the Game of Dice Task be applied to real-world decision-making? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == The Game of Dice Task == The Game of Dice Task (GDT) is a computerised gambling task in which participants attempt to maximise their capital over 18 trials. It was first presented by Brand et al. (2002) as a tool to examine which cognitive abilities contribute to risk-taking. The researcher's initial study found that among 23 healthy adults, older participants and those who were better at identifying risk tended to make safer, more advantageous bets. Later studies comparing Korsakoff syndrome and Parkinson's disease patients with healthy controls further developed the GDT, showing that the clinical groups made significantly more risky choices (Brand et al., 2004; Brand et al., 2005). These studies provide the basis for the standard procedure of the GDT. Participants complete the GDT on a single screen (See Figure 2). It displays current capital, which starts at 1,000 and is framed in a currency relevant to the sample, such as Euros or Dollars. Participants may select from one of 14 predetermined bets for which face will be rolled on the die. After selection, a die rolling video is played, and money is awarded or deducted based on the result. Feedback is given by displaying the amount the player has just won or lost, adjusting the total balance, playing an associated win or loss sound and a bar graph that visually displays balance, where the bottom of the chart is a balance of zero. The rewards and deductions are equal for each bet and scale with the probability of the outcomes, such that the riskier outcomes are more rewarding and more punishing, and the less risky choices are less rewarding and less punishing. Table 1 shows a breakdown of the choices and their associated probabilities. [[File:GDT_Schematic_Mockup.svg|center|thumb|800px|'''Figure 2'''. The typical presentation of the GDT, adapted from Brand et al. (2005). Some versions of the GDT change reward amounts, remove or alter feedback elements, or list additional participant information. Elements clockwise from top left are: Dice rolling video, most recent gain/loss with current total balance below, balance chart for a visual representation of current balance, round number, quit button, gains/losses associated with the possible bets and possible bet choices.]] <u>Insert Table here showing a breakdown of the choices, rewards, probabilities and risk classification.</u> For results to be comparable across participants, the results are pseudorandomised, with each die appearing exactly three times across the eighteen trials in a balanced order (Brand et al., 2005). * Key to the design is that the outcomes are only pseudorandomised. Each number will be displayed exactly three times, though the order is random. This means that the design is a measure of planning, probability and advantageous decision making which is comparable across participants, rather than one which introduces truly random chance. This does cause a potential for the gambler's fallacy or for the recognition of the hidden design in savvy players (citation). * Participants receive information about the outcome and current monetary balance, creating a feedback opportunity to monitor success/failure in previous decisions (Brand, 2008). * Different from previous gambling tasks, e.g the Iowa Gambling Task, in which participants discover strategy through previous experience. Known probabilities distinguish risk-based decision-making under explicit risk vs. uncertainty or learned risk (Brand et al., 2006) == Risk-based decision-making == * Brand et al. (2006) suggest a model based on the GDT results for the cognitive process of risk-based decision making. The updated version (Schiebener & Brand, 2015; Liebherr et al., 2017) incorporate situational and affective states and reorganise the cognitive processes that underpin the motivational model into three stages: 1. inputs, 2. inner processes, 3. outputs and feedback. * Risk-based decision-making refers to choices made under 'risk': this means that the outcome of a choice is unknown, but the probability of a given outcome can be known. E.g, rolling a six-sided die has an unknown result, but the probability that any given number will be face-up is 1/6. * This is different to uncertainty in which both the outcome ''and'' the probability of that outcome are unknown. The GDT is a measure of risk choices defined in this way. Other measures, like the IGT, combine uncertainty and risk, creating ambiguous risk scenarios (Brand et al., 2006; De Groot & Thurik, 2018). * People do not make the same choices when presented with the same risk scenarios. This suggests individual differences in perception, risk preference, loss aversion, mathematical processing, affective responses and executive functioning (Lowenstein et al., 2001; Mishra, 2014; Pachur & Zilker, 2026). * Taking risks is not always an indication of poor decision making. Choices may be more or less advantageous based on reward and probability. == Psychological mechanisms of risk-based decision-making == * The GDT can examine how risk-based decision-making develops, matures, or becomes impaired. Evidence from clinical populations suggests relationships between GDT performance and particular cognitive or neurological systems. Risk-based decision-making changes substantially during childhood and adolescence. Schiebener et al. (2014) examined participants aged 8–19 years and found developmental improvements in GDT performance: likely refined executive control. * Brand et al. (2004) found that people with Parkinson's disease performed worse on the GDT than healthy controls, and disadvantageous choices were associated with executive functions and feedback processing. A review of decision-making under risk and ambiguity in Parkinson's disease concluded that executive functions are impacted, but may play different roles depending on the decision-making task and its cognitive demands (Colautti et al., 2023), further suggesting separate cognitive processes for risk and ambiguity. Other neurological conditions show similar links between executive functioning and GDT performance. For example, people with Korsakoff syndrome show impaired performance on the GDT, with the impairment associated with executive functions (Brand et al., 2005; Brand et al., 2009). * Feedback processing is also important to GDT performance. Removing feedback (i.e, win or loss, total wins or losses, current and previous balance, etc.) worsened performance in healthy individuals, suggesting cognitive and affective processing are both important for advantageous decision making (Brand, 2008). Amnesic patients showed no difference in GDT performance with or without feedback, consistently performing poorly, illustrating the importance of feedback and experience in avoiding disadvantageous choices (Brand et al., 2009). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} <quiz display=simple> {Executive functioning can influence whether someone makes advantageous choices in the GDT: |type="()"} + True - False {Feedback is irrelevant to GDT performance, since the probabilities are already known: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Applications and limitations of the GDT == * GDT findings should be interpreted as evidence about a particular form of risk-based decision-making. Different behavioural tasks capture different aspects of decision-making. Laboratory measures of risk and decision-making do not necessarily measure a single unified construct (Buelow & Blaine, 2015; Colautti et al., 2023). * The controlled nature and specific probabilities of the GDT allows researchers to investigate the contribution of executive control, reasoning, numerical processing and feedback. It has been useful in identifying deficits in cognitive ability amongst clinical populations. This also has some conceptual relevance for real world decisions involving defined risk. * Many real word scenarios are confounded with uncertainty, social pressures, competing goals and subjective reward considerations. The GDT is not necessarily effective at predicting real-life decision-making (Buelow et al., 2024). ==Conclusion== * The GDT provides a controlled way to study decision-making under risk. Because the probabilities and possible outcomes are known, the GDT allows researchers to examine how people use information about risk when making repeated decisions. * Advantageous decision-making is not simply about avoiding risk. It involves considering the probability and potential outcomes of different choices and using reasoning, executive functioning and feedback to guide decisions. A risky choice is not necessarily a poor decision if the potential reward and probability of success make it advantageous. * GDT performance is influenced by a range of cognitive processes and individual differences. The GDT therefore helps researchers examine why some people are better able than others to adjust their decisions to the risks and outcomes involved. However, it is not necessarily an appropriate analogue for decision-making in complex real life situations. * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Adolescent risk-taking and reward-system development|Adolescent risk-taking and reward-system development]] (Book chapter, 2026) * [[wikipedia:Decision-making|Decision-making]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Dopamine and decision making|Dopamine and decision making]] (Book chapter, 2024) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Gambling addiction motivation|Gambling addiction motivation]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[wikipedia:Risk|Risk]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Brand, M., Fujiwara, E., Borsutzky, S., Kalbe, E., Kessler, J., & Markowitsch, H. J. (2005). Decision-making deficits of korsakoff patients in a new gambling task with explicit rules: Associations with executive functions. ''Neuropsychology'', ''19''(3), 267–277. https://doi.org/10.1037/0894-4105.19.3.267 Brand, M., Labudda, K., Kalbe, E., Hilker, R., Emmans, D., Fuchs, G., Kessler, J., & Markowitsch, H. J. (2004). Decision‐making impairments in patients with Parkinson’s disease. ''Behavioural Neurology'', ''15''(3–4), 77–85. https://doi.org/10.1155/2004/578354 Brand, M., Labudda, K., & Markowitsch, H. J. (2006). Neuropsychological correlates of decision-making in ambiguous and risky situations. ''Neural Networks'', ''19''(8), 1266–1276. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neunet.2006.03.001 Brand, M., Pawlikowski, M., Labudda, K., Laier, C., Rothkirch, N. von, & Markowitsch, H. J. (2009). Do amnesic patients with Korsakoff’s syndrome use feedback when making decisions under risky conditions? An experimental investigation with the game of dice task with and without feedback. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''69''(2), 279–290. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2008.08.003 Brand, Matthias. (2008). Does the feedback from previous trials influence current decisions? A study on the role of feedback processing in making decisions under explicit risk conditions. ''Journal of Neuropsychology'', ''2''(2), 431–443. https://doi.org/10.1348/174866407x220607 Buelow, M. T., & Blaine, A. L. (2015). The assessment of risky decision making: A factor analysis of performance on the Iowa Gambling Task, Balloon Analogue Risk Task, and Columbia Card Task. ''Psychological Assessment'', ''27''(3), 777–785. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038622 Buelow, M. T., Okdie, B. M., & Kowalsky, J. M. (2024). Ecological validity of common behavioral decision making tasks: Evidence across two samples. ''Neuropsychology, Development, and Cognition. Section A, Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology/Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology'', ''46''(3), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2024.2337759 Colautti, L., Iannello, P., Maria Caterina Silveri, & Antonietti, A. (2023). Decision-making under ambiguity and risk and executive functions in parkinson’s disease patients: A scoping review of the studies investigating the Iowa gambling task and the game of dice. ''Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience'', ''23''(5), 1225–1243. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13415-023-01106-3 De Groot, K., & Thurik, R. (2018). Disentangling risk and uncertainty: When risk-taking measures are not about risk. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''9''. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02194 Loewenstein, G. F., Weber, E. U., Hsee, C. K., & Welch, N. (2001). Risk as feelings. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''127''(2), 267–286. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.127.2.267 Mishra, S. (2014). Decision-making under risk: Integrating perspectives from biology, economics, and psychology. ''Personality and Social Psychology Review'', ''18''(3), 280–307. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868314530517 Pachur, T., & Zilker, V. (2026). Psychological theories of decision-making under risk. ''The Cambridge Handbook of Behavioural Data Science'', 76–105. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108939010.009 Pertl, M.-T., Zamarian, L., & Delazer, M. (2017). Reasoning and mathematical skills contribute to normatively superior decision making under risk: Evidence from the game of dice task. ''Cognitive Processing'', ''18''(3), 249–260. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10339-017-0813-x Schiebener, J., & Brand, M. (2015). Self-reported strategies in decisions under risk: Role of feedback, reasoning abilities, executive functions, short-term-memory, and working memory. ''Cognitive Processing'', ''16''(4), 401–416. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10339-015-0665-1 Schiebener, J., Wegmann, E., Gathmann, B., Laier, C., Pawlikowski, M., & Brand, M. (2014). Among three different executive functions, general executive control ability is a key predictor of decision making under objective risk. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''5''. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01386 Schiebener, J., Zamarian, L., Delazer, M., & Brand, M. (2011). Executive functions, categorization of probabilities, and learning from feedback: What does really matter for decision making under explicit risk conditions?. ''Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology'', ''33''(9), 1025–1039. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2011.595702 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/hovercraft-full-eels/202012/risky-gamble-or-uncertain-future A risky gamble or an uncertain future?] (Psychology Today) * [https://www.millisecond.com/library/gameofdicetask Game of dice task] (Millisecond Software) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Decision making]] iguri177i2rm7oqzjq6wjdcc540d019 2836408 2836370 2026-10-07T02:42:11Z U3216724 3106797 copyedit 2836408 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Game of dice task and decision-making:<br>What does the game of dice task reveal about risk-based decision-making?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:Gaming dice multisided blue.jpg|right|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. Dice have clearly defined odds, but how Emile decides to bet changes his chances of winning or losing.]] ; Imagine this ... Emile has money to spend on a night out and decides to go to a casino. He arrives at a dice table, where a card in front of him lists his betting options. He could bet on the dealer rolling one specific number for a large payout, but the chances of it happening are low: exactly 1 in 6. He could also bet on four numbers at once, winning if the dealer rolls one of them. His payout shrinks significantly, but his odds of winning increase to 2 in 3. These odds are not hidden from Emile. He knows exactly what his chances of winning and losing are (see Figure 1). For the first few rolls, Emile spends his money on safer bets. After a couple of small wins, he's feeling confident and switches to the single number bet, hoping for that big win. He loses. He goes for the single number again. He loses again. By the end of the night, despite knowing the odds the whole time, Emile has lost most of his money on the riskiest, least likely bets. Why did Emile make riskier choices, even though his chances of winning were so much lower? {{RoundBoxBottom}} * The Game of Dice Task (GDT) is a valuable tool for investigating performance under explicit risk. Participants have defined probabilities and consequences. This helps assess the neurological and individual motivations for risk taking (Brand et al., 2005). * Decision-making depends on cognitive mechanisms as well as individual perceptions of risk. Game of Dice Task (GDT) research implicates probability processing, executive functioning, reasoning, the effects of feedback, individual strategy and memory - in general, executive control (Pertl et al., 2017; Schiebener et al., 2011; Schiebener et al., 2014; Schiebener & Brand, 2015). * Risk-based decision-making requires people to consider probability, outcomes and potential rewards. Greater rewards with lower chances may or may not be perceived as advantageous: there is a difference between taking an uncertain choice and a risk (Brand et al., 2006; Mishra, 2014). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} '''Focus questions''' * What is the Game of Dice Task? * What is risk-based decision-making? * Which psychological processes affect decision-making under explicit risk? * What can the Game of Dice Task tell us about developmental and neurological disorders? * How can the Game of Dice Task be applied to real-world decision-making? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == The Game of Dice Task == The Game of Dice Task (GDT) is a computerised gambling task in which participants attempt to maximise their capital over 18 trials. It was first presented by Brand et al. (2002) as a tool to examine which cognitive abilities contribute to risk-taking. The researcher's initial study found that among 23 healthy adults, older participants and those who were better at identifying risk tended to make safer, more advantageous bets. Later studies comparing Korsakoff syndrome and Parkinson's disease patients with healthy controls further developed the GDT, showing that the clinical groups made significantly more risky choices (Brand et al., 2004; Brand et al., 2005). These studies provide the basis for the standard procedure of the GDT. Participants complete the GDT on a single screen (See Figure 2). It displays current capital, which starts at 1,000 and is framed in a currency relevant to the sample, such as Euros or Dollars. Participants may select from one of 14 predetermined bets for which face will be rolled on the die. After selection, a die rolling video is played, and money is awarded or deducted based on the result. Feedback is given by displaying the amount the player has just won or lost, adjusting the total balance, playing an associated win or loss sound and a bar graph that visually displays balance, where the bottom of the chart is a balance of zero. The rewards and deductions are equal for each bet and scale with the probability of the outcomes, such that the riskier outcomes are more rewarding and more punishing, and the less risky choices are less rewarding and less punishing. Table 1 shows a breakdown of the choices and their associated probabilities. [[File:GDT_Schematic_Mockup.svg|center|thumb|800px|'''Figure 2'''. The typical presentation of the GDT, adapted from Brand et al. (2005). Some versions of the GDT change reward amounts, remove or alter feedback elements, or list additional participant information. Elements clockwise from top left are: Dice rolling video, most recent gain/loss with current total balance below, balance chart for a visual representation of current balance, round number, quit button, gains/losses associated with the possible bets and possible bet choices.]] <u>Insert Table here showing a breakdown of the choices, rewards, probabilities and risk classification.</u> For results to be comparable across participants, the results are pseudorandomised, with each die appearing exactly three times across the eighteen trials in a balanced order (Brand et al., 2005). * Key to the design is that the outcomes are only pseudorandomised. Each number will be displayed exactly three times, though the order is random. This means that the design is a measure of planning, probability and advantageous decision making which is comparable across participants, rather than one which introduces truly random chance. This does cause a potential for the gambler's fallacy or for the recognition of the hidden design in savvy players (citation). * Participants receive information about the outcome and current monetary balance, creating a feedback opportunity to monitor success/failure in previous decisions (Brand, 2008). * Different from previous gambling tasks, e.g the Iowa Gambling Task, in which participants discover strategy through previous experience. Known probabilities distinguish risk-based decision-making under explicit risk vs. uncertainty or learned risk (Brand et al., 2006) == Risk-based decision-making == * Brand et al. (2006) suggest a model based on the GDT results for the cognitive process of risk-based decision making. The updated version (Schiebener & Brand, 2015; Liebherr et al., 2017) incorporate situational and affective states and reorganise the cognitive processes that underpin the motivational model into three stages: 1. inputs, 2. inner processes, 3. outputs and feedback. * Risk-based decision-making refers to choices made under 'risk': this means that the outcome of a choice is unknown, but the probability of a given outcome can be known. E.g, rolling a six-sided die has an unknown result, but the probability that any given number will be face-up is 1/6. * This is different to uncertainty in which both the outcome ''and'' the probability of that outcome are unknown. The GDT is a measure of risk choices defined in this way. Other measures, like the IGT, combine uncertainty and risk, creating ambiguous risk scenarios (Brand et al., 2006; De Groot & Thurik, 2018). * People do not make the same choices when presented with the same risk scenarios. This suggests individual differences in perception, risk preference, loss aversion, mathematical processing, affective responses and executive functioning (Lowenstein et al., 2001; Mishra, 2014; Pachur & Zilker, 2026). * Taking risks is not always an indication of poor decision making. Choices may be more or less advantageous based on reward and probability. == Psychological mechanisms of risk-based decision-making == * The GDT can examine how risk-based decision-making develops, matures, or becomes impaired. Evidence from clinical populations suggests relationships between GDT performance and particular cognitive or neurological systems. Risk-based decision-making changes substantially during childhood and adolescence. Schiebener et al. (2014) examined participants aged 8–19 years and found developmental improvements in GDT performance: likely refined executive control. * Brand et al. (2004) found that people with Parkinson's disease performed worse on the GDT than healthy controls, and disadvantageous choices were associated with executive functions and feedback processing. A review of decision-making under risk and ambiguity in Parkinson's disease concluded that executive functions are impacted, but may play different roles depending on the decision-making task and its cognitive demands (Colautti et al., 2023), further suggesting separate cognitive processes for risk and ambiguity. Other neurological conditions show similar links between executive functioning and GDT performance. For example, people with Korsakoff syndrome show impaired performance on the GDT, with the impairment associated with executive functions (Brand et al., 2005; Brand et al., 2009). * Feedback processing is also important to GDT performance. Removing feedback (i.e, win or loss, total wins or losses, current and previous balance, etc.) worsened performance in healthy individuals, suggesting cognitive and affective processing are both important for advantageous decision making (Brand, 2008). Amnesic patients showed no difference in GDT performance with or without feedback, consistently performing poorly, illustrating the importance of feedback and experience in avoiding disadvantageous choices (Brand et al., 2009). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} <quiz display=simple> {Executive functioning can influence whether someone makes advantageous choices in the GDT: |type="()"} + True - False {Feedback is irrelevant to GDT performance, since the probabilities are already known: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Applications and limitations of the GDT == * GDT findings should be interpreted as evidence about a particular form of risk-based decision-making. Different behavioural tasks capture different aspects of decision-making. Laboratory measures of risk and decision-making do not necessarily measure a single unified construct (Buelow & Blaine, 2015; Colautti et al., 2023). * The controlled nature and specific probabilities of the GDT allows researchers to investigate the contribution of executive control, reasoning, numerical processing and feedback. It has been useful in identifying deficits in cognitive ability amongst clinical populations. This also has some conceptual relevance for real world decisions involving defined risk. * Many real word scenarios are confounded with uncertainty, social pressures, competing goals and subjective reward considerations. The GDT is not necessarily effective at predicting real-life decision-making (Buelow et al., 2024). ==Conclusion== * The GDT provides a controlled way to study decision-making under risk. Because the probabilities and possible outcomes are known, the GDT allows researchers to examine how people use information about risk when making repeated decisions. * Advantageous decision-making is not simply about avoiding risk. It involves considering the probability and potential outcomes of different choices and using reasoning, executive functioning and feedback to guide decisions. A risky choice is not necessarily a poor decision if the potential reward and probability of success make it advantageous. * GDT performance is influenced by a range of cognitive processes and individual differences. The GDT therefore helps researchers examine why some people are better able than others to adjust their decisions to the risks and outcomes involved. However, it is not necessarily an appropriate analogue for decision-making in complex real life situations. * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Adolescent risk-taking and reward-system development|Adolescent risk-taking and reward-system development]] (Book chapter, 2026) * [[wikipedia:Decision-making|Decision-making]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Dopamine and decision making|Dopamine and decision making]] (Book chapter, 2024) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Gambling addiction motivation|Gambling addiction motivation]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[wikipedia:Risk|Risk]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Brand, M., Fujiwara, E., Borsutzky, S., Kalbe, E., Kessler, J., & Markowitsch, H. J. (2005). Decision-making deficits of korsakoff patients in a new gambling task with explicit rules: Associations with executive functions. ''Neuropsychology'', ''19''(3), 267–277. https://doi.org/10.1037/0894-4105.19.3.267 Brand, M., Labudda, K., Kalbe, E., Hilker, R., Emmans, D., Fuchs, G., Kessler, J., & Markowitsch, H. J. (2004). Decision‐making impairments in patients with Parkinson’s disease. ''Behavioural Neurology'', ''15''(3–4), 77–85. https://doi.org/10.1155/2004/578354 Brand, M., Labudda, K., & Markowitsch, H. J. (2006). Neuropsychological correlates of decision-making in ambiguous and risky situations. ''Neural Networks'', ''19''(8), 1266–1276. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neunet.2006.03.001 Brand, M., Pawlikowski, M., Labudda, K., Laier, C., Rothkirch, N. von, & Markowitsch, H. J. (2009). Do amnesic patients with Korsakoff’s syndrome use feedback when making decisions under risky conditions? An experimental investigation with the game of dice task with and without feedback. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''69''(2), 279–290. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2008.08.003 Brand, Matthias. (2008). Does the feedback from previous trials influence current decisions? A study on the role of feedback processing in making decisions under explicit risk conditions. ''Journal of Neuropsychology'', ''2''(2), 431–443. https://doi.org/10.1348/174866407x220607 Buelow, M. T., & Blaine, A. L. (2015). The assessment of risky decision making: A factor analysis of performance on the Iowa Gambling Task, Balloon Analogue Risk Task, and Columbia Card Task. ''Psychological Assessment'', ''27''(3), 777–785. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038622 Buelow, M. T., Okdie, B. M., & Kowalsky, J. M. (2024). Ecological validity of common behavioral decision making tasks: Evidence across two samples. ''Neuropsychology, Development, and Cognition. Section A, Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology/Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology'', ''46''(3), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2024.2337759 Colautti, L., Iannello, P., Maria Caterina Silveri, & Antonietti, A. (2023). Decision-making under ambiguity and risk and executive functions in parkinson’s disease patients: A scoping review of the studies investigating the Iowa gambling task and the game of dice. ''Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience'', ''23''(5), 1225–1243. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13415-023-01106-3 De Groot, K., & Thurik, R. (2018). Disentangling risk and uncertainty: When risk-taking measures are not about risk. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''9''. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02194 Loewenstein, G. F., Weber, E. U., Hsee, C. K., & Welch, N. (2001). Risk as feelings. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''127''(2), 267–286. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.127.2.267 Mishra, S. (2014). Decision-making under risk: Integrating perspectives from biology, economics, and psychology. ''Personality and Social Psychology Review'', ''18''(3), 280–307. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868314530517 Pachur, T., & Zilker, V. (2026). Psychological theories of decision-making under risk. ''The Cambridge Handbook of Behavioural Data Science'', 76–105. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108939010.009 Pertl, M.-T., Zamarian, L., & Delazer, M. (2017). Reasoning and mathematical skills contribute to normatively superior decision making under risk: Evidence from the game of dice task. ''Cognitive Processing'', ''18''(3), 249–260. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10339-017-0813-x Schiebener, J., & Brand, M. (2015). Self-reported strategies in decisions under risk: Role of feedback, reasoning abilities, executive functions, short-term-memory, and working memory. ''Cognitive Processing'', ''16''(4), 401–416. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10339-015-0665-1 Schiebener, J., Wegmann, E., Gathmann, B., Laier, C., Pawlikowski, M., & Brand, M. (2014). Among three different executive functions, general executive control ability is a key predictor of decision making under objective risk. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''5''. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01386 Schiebener, J., Zamarian, L., Delazer, M., & Brand, M. (2011). Executive functions, categorization of probabilities, and learning from feedback: What does really matter for decision making under explicit risk conditions?. ''Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology'', ''33''(9), 1025–1039. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2011.595702 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/hovercraft-full-eels/202012/risky-gamble-or-uncertain-future A risky gamble or an uncertain future?] (Psychology Today) * [https://www.millisecond.com/library/gameofdicetask Game of dice task] (Millisecond Software) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Decision making]] 5hsome3cqi5pm9w2vuac68g3kvizmid 2836413 2836408 2026-10-07T03:04:42Z U3216724 3106797 removed developmental disorders focus question, modified questions 1 and 2 to be framed as more analytical rather than descriptive 2836413 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Game of dice task and decision-making:<br>What does the game of dice task reveal about risk-based decision-making?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:Gaming dice multisided blue.jpg|right|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. Dice have clearly defined odds, but how Emile decides to bet changes his chances of winning or losing.]] ; Imagine this ... Emile has money to spend on a night out and decides to go to a casino. He arrives at a dice table, where a card in front of him lists his betting options. He could bet on the dealer rolling one specific number for a large payout, but the chances of it happening are low: exactly 1 in 6. He could also bet on four numbers at once, winning if the dealer rolls one of them. His payout shrinks significantly, but his odds of winning increase to 2 in 3. These odds are not hidden from Emile. He knows exactly what his chances of winning and losing are (see Figure 1). For the first few rolls, Emile spends his money on safer bets. After a couple of small wins, he's feeling confident and switches to the single number bet, hoping for that big win. He loses. He goes for the single number again. He loses again. By the end of the night, despite knowing the odds the whole time, Emile has lost most of his money on the riskiest, least likely bets. Why did Emile make riskier choices, even though his chances of winning were so much lower? {{RoundBoxBottom}} * The Game of Dice Task (GDT) is a valuable tool for investigating performance under explicit risk. Participants have defined probabilities and consequences. This helps assess the neurological and individual motivations for risk taking (Brand et al., 2005). * Decision-making depends on cognitive mechanisms as well as individual perceptions of risk. Game of Dice Task (GDT) research implicates probability processing, executive functioning, reasoning, the effects of feedback, individual strategy and memory - in general, executive control (Pertl et al., 2017; Schiebener et al., 2011; Schiebener et al., 2014; Schiebener & Brand, 2015). * Risk-based decision-making requires people to consider probability, outcomes and potential rewards. Greater rewards with lower chances may or may not be perceived as advantageous: there is a difference between taking an uncertain choice and a risk (Brand et al., 2006; Mishra, 2014). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} '''Focus questions''' * How does the Game of Dice Task measure risk-based decision-making? * Why is risk different from uncertainty when it comes to making choices? * Which psychological processes affect decision-making under explicit risk? * How can the Game of Dice Task be applied to real-world decision-making? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == The Game of Dice Task == The Game of Dice Task (GDT) is a computerised gambling task in which participants attempt to maximise a fictive capital by betting on dice rolls over 18 trials. It was first presented by Brand et al. (2002) as a tool to examine which cognitive abilities contribute to risk-taking. The researcher's initial study found that among 23 healthy adults, older participants and those who were better at identifying risk tended to make safer, more advantageous bets. Later studies comparing Korsakoff syndrome and Parkinson's disease patients with healthy controls further developed the GDT, showing that the clinical groups made significantly more risky choices (Brand et al., 2004; Brand et al., 2005). These studies provide the basis for the standard procedure of the GDT. Participants complete the GDT on a single screen (See Figure 2). It displays current capital, which starts at 1,000 and is framed in a currency relevant to the sample, such as Euros or Dollars. Participants select from one of 14 possible bets on which face will be rolled on the die. After selection, a die rolling video is played, and money is awarded or deducted based on the result. Feedback is given by displaying the amount the player has just won or lost, adjusting the total balance, playing an associated win or loss sound and a bar graph that visually displays balance, where the bottom of the chart is a balance of zero. The rewards and deductions are equal for each bet and scale with the probability of the outcomes, such that the riskier outcomes are more rewarding and more punishing, and the less risky choices are less rewarding and less punishing. Table 1 shows a breakdown of the choices and their associated probabilities. [[File:GDT_Schematic_Mockup.svg|center|thumb|800px|'''Figure 2'''. The typical presentation of the GDT, adapted from Brand et al. (2005). Some versions of the GDT change reward amounts, remove or alter feedback elements, or list additional participant information. Elements clockwise from top left are: Dice rolling video, most recent gain/loss with current total balance below, balance chart for a visual representation of current balance, round number, quit button, gains/losses associated with the possible bets and possible bet choices.]] <u>Insert Table here showing a breakdown of the choices, rewards, probabilities and risk classification.</u> For results to be comparable across participants, the results are pseudorandomised, with each die appearing exactly three times across the eighteen trials in a balanced order (Brand et al., 2005). * Key to the design is that the outcomes are only pseudorandomised. Each number will be displayed exactly three times, though the order is random. This means that the design is a measure of planning, probability and advantageous decision making which is comparable across participants, rather than one which introduces truly random chance. This does cause a potential for the gambler's fallacy or for the recognition of the hidden design in savvy players (citation). * Participants receive information about the outcome and current monetary balance, creating a feedback opportunity to monitor success/failure in previous decisions (Brand, 2008). * Different from previous gambling tasks, e.g the Iowa Gambling Task, in which participants discover strategy through previous experience. Known probabilities distinguish risk-based decision-making under explicit risk vs. uncertainty or learned risk (Brand et al., 2006) == Risk-based decision-making == * Brand et al. (2006) suggest a model based on the GDT results for the cognitive process of risk-based decision making. The updated version (Schiebener & Brand, 2015; Liebherr et al., 2017) incorporate situational and affective states and reorganise the cognitive processes that underpin the motivational model into three stages: 1. inputs, 2. inner processes, 3. outputs and feedback. * Risk-based decision-making refers to choices made under 'risk': this means that the outcome of a choice is unknown, but the probability of a given outcome can be known. E.g, rolling a six-sided die has an unknown result, but the probability that any given number will be face-up is 1/6. * This is different to uncertainty in which both the outcome ''and'' the probability of that outcome are unknown. The GDT is a measure of risk choices defined in this way. Other measures, like the IGT, combine uncertainty and risk, creating ambiguous risk scenarios (Brand et al., 2006; De Groot & Thurik, 2018). * People do not make the same choices when presented with the same risk scenarios. This suggests individual differences in perception, risk preference, loss aversion, mathematical processing, affective responses and executive functioning (Lowenstein et al., 2001; Mishra, 2014; Pachur & Zilker, 2026). * Taking risks is not always an indication of poor decision making. Choices may be more or less advantageous based on reward and probability. == Psychological mechanisms of risk-based decision-making == * The GDT can examine how risk-based decision-making develops, matures, or becomes impaired. Evidence from clinical populations suggests relationships between GDT performance and particular cognitive or neurological systems. Risk-based decision-making changes substantially during childhood and adolescence. Schiebener et al. (2014) examined participants aged 8–19 years and found developmental improvements in GDT performance: likely refined executive control. * Brand et al. (2004) found that people with Parkinson's disease performed worse on the GDT than healthy controls, and disadvantageous choices were associated with executive functions and feedback processing. A review of decision-making under risk and ambiguity in Parkinson's disease concluded that executive functions are impacted, but may play different roles depending on the decision-making task and its cognitive demands (Colautti et al., 2023), further suggesting separate cognitive processes for risk and ambiguity. Other neurological conditions show similar links between executive functioning and GDT performance. For example, people with Korsakoff syndrome show impaired performance on the GDT, with the impairment associated with executive functions (Brand et al., 2005; Brand et al., 2009). * Feedback processing is also important to GDT performance. Removing feedback (i.e, win or loss, total wins or losses, current and previous balance, etc.) worsened performance in healthy individuals, suggesting cognitive and affective processing are both important for advantageous decision making (Brand, 2008). Amnesic patients showed no difference in GDT performance with or without feedback, consistently performing poorly, illustrating the importance of feedback and experience in avoiding disadvantageous choices (Brand et al., 2009). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} <quiz display=simple> {Executive functioning can influence whether someone makes advantageous choices in the GDT: |type="()"} + True - False {Feedback is irrelevant to GDT performance, since the probabilities are already known: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Applications and limitations of the GDT == * GDT findings should be interpreted as evidence about a particular form of risk-based decision-making. Different behavioural tasks capture different aspects of decision-making. Laboratory measures of risk and decision-making do not necessarily measure a single unified construct (Buelow & Blaine, 2015; Colautti et al., 2023). * The controlled nature and specific probabilities of the GDT allows researchers to investigate the contribution of executive control, reasoning, numerical processing and feedback. It has been useful in identifying deficits in cognitive ability amongst clinical populations. This also has some conceptual relevance for real world decisions involving defined risk. * Many real word scenarios are confounded with uncertainty, social pressures, competing goals and subjective reward considerations. The GDT is not necessarily effective at predicting real-life decision-making (Buelow et al., 2024). ==Conclusion== * The GDT provides a controlled way to study decision-making under risk. Because the probabilities and possible outcomes are known, the GDT allows researchers to examine how people use information about risk when making repeated decisions. * Advantageous decision-making is not simply about avoiding risk. It involves considering the probability and potential outcomes of different choices and using reasoning, executive functioning and feedback to guide decisions. A risky choice is not necessarily a poor decision if the potential reward and probability of success make it advantageous. * GDT performance is influenced by a range of cognitive processes and individual differences. The GDT therefore helps researchers examine why some people are better able than others to adjust their decisions to the risks and outcomes involved. However, it is not necessarily an appropriate analogue for decision-making in complex real life situations. * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Adolescent risk-taking and reward-system development|Adolescent risk-taking and reward-system development]] (Book chapter, 2026) * [[wikipedia:Decision-making|Decision-making]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Dopamine and decision making|Dopamine and decision making]] (Book chapter, 2024) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Gambling addiction motivation|Gambling addiction motivation]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[wikipedia:Risk|Risk]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Brand, M., Fujiwara, E., Borsutzky, S., Kalbe, E., Kessler, J., & Markowitsch, H. J. (2005). Decision-making deficits of korsakoff patients in a new gambling task with explicit rules: Associations with executive functions. ''Neuropsychology'', ''19''(3), 267–277. https://doi.org/10.1037/0894-4105.19.3.267 Brand, M., Labudda, K., Kalbe, E., Hilker, R., Emmans, D., Fuchs, G., Kessler, J., & Markowitsch, H. J. (2004). Decision‐making impairments in patients with Parkinson’s disease. ''Behavioural Neurology'', ''15''(3–4), 77–85. https://doi.org/10.1155/2004/578354 Brand, M., Labudda, K., & Markowitsch, H. J. (2006). Neuropsychological correlates of decision-making in ambiguous and risky situations. ''Neural Networks'', ''19''(8), 1266–1276. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neunet.2006.03.001 Brand, M., Pawlikowski, M., Labudda, K., Laier, C., Rothkirch, N. von, & Markowitsch, H. J. (2009). Do amnesic patients with Korsakoff’s syndrome use feedback when making decisions under risky conditions? An experimental investigation with the game of dice task with and without feedback. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''69''(2), 279–290. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2008.08.003 Brand, Matthias. (2008). Does the feedback from previous trials influence current decisions? A study on the role of feedback processing in making decisions under explicit risk conditions. ''Journal of Neuropsychology'', ''2''(2), 431–443. https://doi.org/10.1348/174866407x220607 Buelow, M. T., & Blaine, A. L. (2015). The assessment of risky decision making: A factor analysis of performance on the Iowa Gambling Task, Balloon Analogue Risk Task, and Columbia Card Task. ''Psychological Assessment'', ''27''(3), 777–785. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038622 Buelow, M. T., Okdie, B. M., & Kowalsky, J. M. (2024). Ecological validity of common behavioral decision making tasks: Evidence across two samples. ''Neuropsychology, Development, and Cognition. Section A, Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology/Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology'', ''46''(3), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2024.2337759 Colautti, L., Iannello, P., Maria Caterina Silveri, & Antonietti, A. (2023). Decision-making under ambiguity and risk and executive functions in parkinson’s disease patients: A scoping review of the studies investigating the Iowa gambling task and the game of dice. ''Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience'', ''23''(5), 1225–1243. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13415-023-01106-3 De Groot, K., & Thurik, R. (2018). Disentangling risk and uncertainty: When risk-taking measures are not about risk. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''9''. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02194 Loewenstein, G. F., Weber, E. U., Hsee, C. K., & Welch, N. (2001). Risk as feelings. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''127''(2), 267–286. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.127.2.267 Mishra, S. (2014). Decision-making under risk: Integrating perspectives from biology, economics, and psychology. ''Personality and Social Psychology Review'', ''18''(3), 280–307. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868314530517 Pachur, T., & Zilker, V. (2026). Psychological theories of decision-making under risk. ''The Cambridge Handbook of Behavioural Data Science'', 76–105. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108939010.009 Pertl, M.-T., Zamarian, L., & Delazer, M. (2017). Reasoning and mathematical skills contribute to normatively superior decision making under risk: Evidence from the game of dice task. ''Cognitive Processing'', ''18''(3), 249–260. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10339-017-0813-x Schiebener, J., & Brand, M. (2015). Self-reported strategies in decisions under risk: Role of feedback, reasoning abilities, executive functions, short-term-memory, and working memory. ''Cognitive Processing'', ''16''(4), 401–416. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10339-015-0665-1 Schiebener, J., Wegmann, E., Gathmann, B., Laier, C., Pawlikowski, M., & Brand, M. (2014). Among three different executive functions, general executive control ability is a key predictor of decision making under objective risk. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''5''. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01386 Schiebener, J., Zamarian, L., Delazer, M., & Brand, M. (2011). Executive functions, categorization of probabilities, and learning from feedback: What does really matter for decision making under explicit risk conditions?. ''Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology'', ''33''(9), 1025–1039. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2011.595702 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/hovercraft-full-eels/202012/risky-gamble-or-uncertain-future A risky gamble or an uncertain future?] (Psychology Today) * [https://www.millisecond.com/library/gameofdicetask Game of dice task] (Millisecond Software) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Decision making]] nsq7g3mitucn116m4e5ya6zmxt61t0c 2836414 2836413 2026-10-07T03:06:26Z U3216724 3106797 removed comma 2836414 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Game of dice task and decision-making:<br>What does the game of dice task reveal about risk-based decision-making?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:Gaming dice multisided blue.jpg|right|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. Dice have clearly defined odds, but how Emile decides to bet changes his chances of winning or losing.]] ; Imagine this ... Emile has money to spend on a night out and decides to go to a casino. He arrives at a dice table, where a card in front of him lists his betting options. He could bet on the dealer rolling one specific number for a large payout, but the chances of it happening are low: exactly 1 in 6. He could also bet on four numbers at once, winning if the dealer rolls one of them. His payout shrinks significantly, but his odds of winning increase to 2 in 3. These odds are not hidden from Emile. He knows exactly what his chances of winning and losing are (see Figure 1). For the first few rolls, Emile spends his money on safer bets. After a couple of small wins, he's feeling confident and switches to the single number bet, hoping for that big win. He loses. He goes for the single number again. He loses again. By the end of the night, despite knowing the odds the whole time, Emile has lost most of his money on the riskiest, least likely bets. Why did Emile make riskier choices, even though his chances of winning were so much lower? {{RoundBoxBottom}} * The Game of Dice Task (GDT) is a valuable tool for investigating performance under explicit risk. Participants have defined probabilities and consequences. This helps assess the neurological and individual motivations for risk taking (Brand et al., 2005). * Decision-making depends on cognitive mechanisms as well as individual perceptions of risk. Game of Dice Task (GDT) research implicates probability processing, executive functioning, reasoning, the effects of feedback, individual strategy and memory - in general, executive control (Pertl et al., 2017; Schiebener et al., 2011; Schiebener et al., 2014; Schiebener & Brand, 2015). * Risk-based decision-making requires people to consider probability, outcomes and potential rewards. Greater rewards with lower chances may or may not be perceived as advantageous: there is a difference between taking an uncertain choice and a risk (Brand et al., 2006; Mishra, 2014). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} '''Focus questions''' * How does the Game of Dice Task measure risk-based decision-making? * Why is risk different from uncertainty when it comes to making choices? * Which psychological processes affect decision-making under explicit risk? * How can the Game of Dice Task be applied to real-world decision-making? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == The Game of Dice Task == The Game of Dice Task (GDT) is a computerised gambling task in which participants attempt to maximise a fictive capital by betting on dice rolls over 18 trials. It was first presented by Brand et al. (2002) as a tool to examine which cognitive abilities contribute to risk-taking. The researcher's initial study found that among 23 healthy adults, older participants and those who were better at identifying risk tended to make safer, more advantageous bets. Later studies comparing Korsakoff syndrome and Parkinson's disease patients with healthy controls further developed the GDT, showing that the clinical groups made significantly more risky choices (Brand et al., 2004; Brand et al., 2005). These studies provide the basis for the standard procedure of the GDT. Participants complete the GDT on a single screen (See Figure 2). It displays current capital, which starts at 1,000 and is framed in a currency relevant to the sample, such as Euros or Dollars. Participants select from one of 14 possible bets on which face will be rolled on the die. After selection, a die rolling video is played and money is awarded or deducted based on the result. Feedback is given by displaying the amount the player has just won or lost, adjusting the total balance, playing an associated win or loss sound and a bar graph that visually displays balance, where the bottom of the chart is a balance of zero. The rewards and deductions are equal for each bet and scale with the probability of the outcomes, such that the riskier outcomes are more rewarding and more punishing, and the less risky choices are less rewarding and less punishing. Table 1 shows a breakdown of the choices and their associated probabilities. [[File:GDT_Schematic_Mockup.svg|center|thumb|800px|'''Figure 2'''. The typical presentation of the GDT, adapted from Brand et al. (2005). Some versions of the GDT change reward amounts, remove or alter feedback elements, or list additional participant information. Elements clockwise from top left are: Dice rolling video, most recent gain/loss with current total balance below, balance chart for a visual representation of current balance, round number, quit button, gains/losses associated with the possible bets and possible bet choices.]] <u>Insert Table here showing a breakdown of the choices, rewards, probabilities and risk classification.</u> For results to be comparable across participants, the results are pseudorandomised, with each die appearing exactly three times across the eighteen trials in a balanced order (Brand et al., 2005). * Key to the design is that the outcomes are only pseudorandomised. Each number will be displayed exactly three times, though the order is random. This means that the design is a measure of planning, probability and advantageous decision making which is comparable across participants, rather than one which introduces truly random chance. This does cause a potential for the gambler's fallacy or for the recognition of the hidden design in savvy players (citation). * Participants receive information about the outcome and current monetary balance, creating a feedback opportunity to monitor success/failure in previous decisions (Brand, 2008). * Different from previous gambling tasks, e.g the Iowa Gambling Task, in which participants discover strategy through previous experience. Known probabilities distinguish risk-based decision-making under explicit risk vs. uncertainty or learned risk (Brand et al., 2006) == Risk-based decision-making == * Brand et al. (2006) suggest a model based on the GDT results for the cognitive process of risk-based decision making. The updated version (Schiebener & Brand, 2015; Liebherr et al., 2017) incorporate situational and affective states and reorganise the cognitive processes that underpin the motivational model into three stages: 1. inputs, 2. inner processes, 3. outputs and feedback. * Risk-based decision-making refers to choices made under 'risk': this means that the outcome of a choice is unknown, but the probability of a given outcome can be known. E.g, rolling a six-sided die has an unknown result, but the probability that any given number will be face-up is 1/6. * This is different to uncertainty in which both the outcome ''and'' the probability of that outcome are unknown. The GDT is a measure of risk choices defined in this way. Other measures, like the IGT, combine uncertainty and risk, creating ambiguous risk scenarios (Brand et al., 2006; De Groot & Thurik, 2018). * People do not make the same choices when presented with the same risk scenarios. This suggests individual differences in perception, risk preference, loss aversion, mathematical processing, affective responses and executive functioning (Lowenstein et al., 2001; Mishra, 2014; Pachur & Zilker, 2026). * Taking risks is not always an indication of poor decision making. Choices may be more or less advantageous based on reward and probability. == Psychological mechanisms of risk-based decision-making == * The GDT can examine how risk-based decision-making develops, matures, or becomes impaired. Evidence from clinical populations suggests relationships between GDT performance and particular cognitive or neurological systems. Risk-based decision-making changes substantially during childhood and adolescence. Schiebener et al. (2014) examined participants aged 8–19 years and found developmental improvements in GDT performance: likely refined executive control. * Brand et al. (2004) found that people with Parkinson's disease performed worse on the GDT than healthy controls, and disadvantageous choices were associated with executive functions and feedback processing. A review of decision-making under risk and ambiguity in Parkinson's disease concluded that executive functions are impacted, but may play different roles depending on the decision-making task and its cognitive demands (Colautti et al., 2023), further suggesting separate cognitive processes for risk and ambiguity. Other neurological conditions show similar links between executive functioning and GDT performance. For example, people with Korsakoff syndrome show impaired performance on the GDT, with the impairment associated with executive functions (Brand et al., 2005; Brand et al., 2009). * Feedback processing is also important to GDT performance. Removing feedback (i.e, win or loss, total wins or losses, current and previous balance, etc.) worsened performance in healthy individuals, suggesting cognitive and affective processing are both important for advantageous decision making (Brand, 2008). Amnesic patients showed no difference in GDT performance with or without feedback, consistently performing poorly, illustrating the importance of feedback and experience in avoiding disadvantageous choices (Brand et al., 2009). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} <quiz display=simple> {Executive functioning can influence whether someone makes advantageous choices in the GDT: |type="()"} + True - False {Feedback is irrelevant to GDT performance, since the probabilities are already known: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Applications and limitations of the GDT == * GDT findings should be interpreted as evidence about a particular form of risk-based decision-making. Different behavioural tasks capture different aspects of decision-making. Laboratory measures of risk and decision-making do not necessarily measure a single unified construct (Buelow & Blaine, 2015; Colautti et al., 2023). * The controlled nature and specific probabilities of the GDT allows researchers to investigate the contribution of executive control, reasoning, numerical processing and feedback. It has been useful in identifying deficits in cognitive ability amongst clinical populations. This also has some conceptual relevance for real world decisions involving defined risk. * Many real word scenarios are confounded with uncertainty, social pressures, competing goals and subjective reward considerations. The GDT is not necessarily effective at predicting real-life decision-making (Buelow et al., 2024). ==Conclusion== * The GDT provides a controlled way to study decision-making under risk. Because the probabilities and possible outcomes are known, the GDT allows researchers to examine how people use information about risk when making repeated decisions. * Advantageous decision-making is not simply about avoiding risk. It involves considering the probability and potential outcomes of different choices and using reasoning, executive functioning and feedback to guide decisions. A risky choice is not necessarily a poor decision if the potential reward and probability of success make it advantageous. * GDT performance is influenced by a range of cognitive processes and individual differences. The GDT therefore helps researchers examine why some people are better able than others to adjust their decisions to the risks and outcomes involved. However, it is not necessarily an appropriate analogue for decision-making in complex real life situations. * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Adolescent risk-taking and reward-system development|Adolescent risk-taking and reward-system development]] (Book chapter, 2026) * [[wikipedia:Decision-making|Decision-making]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Dopamine and decision making|Dopamine and decision making]] (Book chapter, 2024) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Gambling addiction motivation|Gambling addiction motivation]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[wikipedia:Risk|Risk]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Brand, M., Fujiwara, E., Borsutzky, S., Kalbe, E., Kessler, J., & Markowitsch, H. J. (2005). Decision-making deficits of korsakoff patients in a new gambling task with explicit rules: Associations with executive functions. ''Neuropsychology'', ''19''(3), 267–277. https://doi.org/10.1037/0894-4105.19.3.267 Brand, M., Labudda, K., Kalbe, E., Hilker, R., Emmans, D., Fuchs, G., Kessler, J., & Markowitsch, H. J. (2004). Decision‐making impairments in patients with Parkinson’s disease. ''Behavioural Neurology'', ''15''(3–4), 77–85. https://doi.org/10.1155/2004/578354 Brand, M., Labudda, K., & Markowitsch, H. J. (2006). Neuropsychological correlates of decision-making in ambiguous and risky situations. ''Neural Networks'', ''19''(8), 1266–1276. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neunet.2006.03.001 Brand, M., Pawlikowski, M., Labudda, K., Laier, C., Rothkirch, N. von, & Markowitsch, H. J. (2009). Do amnesic patients with Korsakoff’s syndrome use feedback when making decisions under risky conditions? An experimental investigation with the game of dice task with and without feedback. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''69''(2), 279–290. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2008.08.003 Brand, Matthias. (2008). Does the feedback from previous trials influence current decisions? A study on the role of feedback processing in making decisions under explicit risk conditions. ''Journal of Neuropsychology'', ''2''(2), 431–443. https://doi.org/10.1348/174866407x220607 Buelow, M. T., & Blaine, A. L. (2015). The assessment of risky decision making: A factor analysis of performance on the Iowa Gambling Task, Balloon Analogue Risk Task, and Columbia Card Task. ''Psychological Assessment'', ''27''(3), 777–785. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038622 Buelow, M. T., Okdie, B. M., & Kowalsky, J. M. (2024). Ecological validity of common behavioral decision making tasks: Evidence across two samples. ''Neuropsychology, Development, and Cognition. Section A, Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology/Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology'', ''46''(3), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2024.2337759 Colautti, L., Iannello, P., Maria Caterina Silveri, & Antonietti, A. (2023). Decision-making under ambiguity and risk and executive functions in parkinson’s disease patients: A scoping review of the studies investigating the Iowa gambling task and the game of dice. ''Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience'', ''23''(5), 1225–1243. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13415-023-01106-3 De Groot, K., & Thurik, R. (2018). Disentangling risk and uncertainty: When risk-taking measures are not about risk. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''9''. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02194 Loewenstein, G. F., Weber, E. U., Hsee, C. K., & Welch, N. (2001). Risk as feelings. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''127''(2), 267–286. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.127.2.267 Mishra, S. (2014). Decision-making under risk: Integrating perspectives from biology, economics, and psychology. ''Personality and Social Psychology Review'', ''18''(3), 280–307. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868314530517 Pachur, T., & Zilker, V. (2026). Psychological theories of decision-making under risk. ''The Cambridge Handbook of Behavioural Data Science'', 76–105. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108939010.009 Pertl, M.-T., Zamarian, L., & Delazer, M. (2017). Reasoning and mathematical skills contribute to normatively superior decision making under risk: Evidence from the game of dice task. ''Cognitive Processing'', ''18''(3), 249–260. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10339-017-0813-x Schiebener, J., & Brand, M. (2015). Self-reported strategies in decisions under risk: Role of feedback, reasoning abilities, executive functions, short-term-memory, and working memory. ''Cognitive Processing'', ''16''(4), 401–416. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10339-015-0665-1 Schiebener, J., Wegmann, E., Gathmann, B., Laier, C., Pawlikowski, M., & Brand, M. (2014). Among three different executive functions, general executive control ability is a key predictor of decision making under objective risk. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''5''. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01386 Schiebener, J., Zamarian, L., Delazer, M., & Brand, M. (2011). Executive functions, categorization of probabilities, and learning from feedback: What does really matter for decision making under explicit risk conditions?. ''Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology'', ''33''(9), 1025–1039. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2011.595702 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/hovercraft-full-eels/202012/risky-gamble-or-uncertain-future A risky gamble or an uncertain future?] (Psychology Today) * [https://www.millisecond.com/library/gameofdicetask Game of dice task] (Millisecond Software) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Decision making]] i6qvdfdtribb4xnu87t4aarv76xuw03 2836422 2836414 2026-10-07T03:40:49Z U3216724 3106797 Edited scenario to better fit chapter narrative. Expanded upon GDT section to improve flow and clarity. 2836422 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Game of dice task and decision-making:<br>What does the game of dice task reveal about risk-based decision-making?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:Gaming dice multisided blue.jpg|right|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. Dice have clearly defined odds to roll a specific number, but how Emile decides to bet changes his chances of winning or losing.]] ; Imagine this ... Emile has money to spend on a night out and decides to go to a casino. He arrives at a dice table, where a card in front of him lists his betting options. He could bet on the dealer rolling one specific number for a large payout, but the chances of it happening are low: exactly 1 in 6. He could also bet on four numbers at once, winning if the dealer rolls one of them. His payout shrinks significantly, but his odds of winning increase to 2 in 3. These odds are not spelled out for Emile, but he knows the die has six faces. He has all the information he needs to work out exactly what his chances of winning and losing are (see Figure 1). For the first few rolls, Emile spends his money on safer bets. After a couple of small wins, he's feeling confident and switches to the single number bet, hoping for that big win. He loses. He goes for the single number again. He loses again. By the end of the night, despite knowing the odds the whole time, Emile has lost most of his money on the riskiest, least likely bets. What motivated Emile to make the riskier choice, even though his chances of winning were so much lower? {{RoundBoxBottom}} * The Game of Dice Task (GDT) is a valuable tool for investigating performance under explicit risk. Participants have defined probabilities and consequences. This helps assess the neurological and individual motivations for risk taking (Brand et al., 2005). * Decision-making depends on cognitive mechanisms as well as individual perceptions of risk. Game of Dice Task (GDT) research implicates probability processing, executive functioning, reasoning, the effects of feedback, individual strategy and memory - in general, executive control (Pertl et al., 2017; Schiebener et al., 2011; Schiebener et al., 2014; Schiebener & Brand, 2015). * Risk-based decision-making requires people to consider probability, outcomes and potential rewards. Greater rewards with lower chances may or may not be perceived as advantageous: there is a difference between taking an uncertain choice and a risk (Brand et al., 2006; Mishra, 2014). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} '''Focus questions''' * How does the Game of Dice Task measure risk-based decision-making? * Why is risk different from uncertainty when it comes to making choices? * Which psychological processes affect decision-making under explicit risk? * How can the Game of Dice Task be applied to real-world decision-making? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == The Game of Dice Task == The Game of Dice Task (GDT) is a computerised gambling task in which participants attempt to maximise a fictive capital by betting on rolls of a single die over 18 trials. It was first presented by Brand et al. (2002) as a tool to examine which cognitive abilities contribute to risk-taking. The researcher's initial study found that among 23 healthy adults, older participants and those who were better at identifying risk tended to make safer, more advantageous bets. Later studies comparing Korsakoff syndrome and Parkinson's disease patients with healthy controls further developed the GDT, showing that the clinical groups made significantly more risky choices (Brand et al., 2004; Brand et al., 2005). These studies provide the basis for the standard procedure of the GDT. Players are told to make as much money as they can over the course of the task. Before each of the 18 throws, players place a bet on one number, or a combination of two, three or four numbers. If the number rolled matches at least one of the dice in a player's bet, they win the associated amount. Otherwise, they lose that same amount. These rules are explained at the start of the game and never change. The one and two number bets are classed as risky or disadvantageous, since there is a <50% chance of them winning. Conversely, the three and four number bets are less risky or advantageous, since their chances of winning is ≥50% (Brand et al., 2005; Schiebener et al., 2014). The amounts won or lost scale with the probability of the outcomes, such that riskier choices gain or lose comparatively more than the less risky choices (see Table 1). As with Emile's casino scenario, the probabilities are not explicitly stated, but can be entirely calculated from the rules (Brand et al., 2005). <u>Insert Table here showing a breakdown of the choices, rewards, probabilities and risk classification.</u> Participants complete the GDT on a single screen (see Figure 2). It displays current capital, which starts at 1,000 and is framed in a currency relevant to the sample, such as Euros or Dollars. Participants select from one of 14 possible bets and after selection, a die rolling video is played. Feedback is given by displaying the amount the player has just won or lost, adjusting the total balance, playing an associated win or loss sound and a bar graph that visually displays balance, where the bottom of the chart is a balance of zero. Negative balances and deductions are displayed in red, while positives are displayed in green. [[File:GDT_Schematic_Mockup.svg|center|thumb|800px|'''Figure 2'''. The typical presentation of the GDT, adapted from Brand et al. (2005). Some versions of the GDT change reward amounts, remove or alter feedback elements, or list additional participant information. Elements clockwise from top left are: Dice rolling video, most recent gain/loss with current total balance below, balance chart for a visual representation of current balance, round number, quit button, gains/losses associated with the possible bets and possible bet choices.]] For results to be comparable across participants, the results are pseudorandomised, with each die appearing exactly three times across the eighteen trials in a balanced order (Brand et al., 2005). * Key to the design is that the outcomes are only pseudorandomised. Each number will be displayed exactly three times, though the order is random. This means that the design is a measure of planning, probability and advantageous decision making which is comparable across participants, rather than one which introduces truly random chance. This does cause a potential for the gambler's fallacy or for the recognition of the hidden design in savvy players (citation). * Participants receive information about the outcome and current monetary balance, creating a feedback opportunity to monitor success/failure in previous decisions (Brand, 2008). * Different from previous gambling tasks, e.g the Iowa Gambling Task, in which participants discover strategy through previous experience. Known probabilities distinguish risk-based decision-making under explicit risk vs. uncertainty or learned risk (Brand et al., 2006) == Risk-based decision-making == * Brand et al. (2006) suggest a model based on the GDT results for the cognitive process of risk-based decision making. The updated version (Schiebener & Brand, 2015; Liebherr et al., 2017) incorporate situational and affective states and reorganise the cognitive processes that underpin the motivational model into three stages: 1. inputs, 2. inner processes, 3. outputs and feedback. * Risk-based decision-making refers to choices made under 'risk': this means that the outcome of a choice is unknown, but the probability of a given outcome can be known. E.g, rolling a six-sided die has an unknown result, but the probability that any given number will be face-up is 1/6. * This is different to uncertainty in which both the outcome ''and'' the probability of that outcome are unknown. The GDT is a measure of risk choices defined in this way. Other measures, like the IGT, combine uncertainty and risk, creating ambiguous risk scenarios (Brand et al., 2006; De Groot & Thurik, 2018). * People do not make the same choices when presented with the same risk scenarios. This suggests individual differences in perception, risk preference, loss aversion, mathematical processing, affective responses and executive functioning (Lowenstein et al., 2001; Mishra, 2014; Pachur & Zilker, 2026). * Taking risks is not always an indication of poor decision making. Choices may be more or less advantageous based on reward and probability. == Psychological mechanisms of risk-based decision-making == * The GDT can examine how risk-based decision-making develops, matures, or becomes impaired. Evidence from clinical populations suggests relationships between GDT performance and particular cognitive or neurological systems. Risk-based decision-making changes substantially during childhood and adolescence. Schiebener et al. (2014) examined participants aged 8–19 years and found developmental improvements in GDT performance: likely refined executive control. * Brand et al. (2004) found that people with Parkinson's disease performed worse on the GDT than healthy controls, and disadvantageous choices were associated with executive functions and feedback processing. A review of decision-making under risk and ambiguity in Parkinson's disease concluded that executive functions are impacted, but may play different roles depending on the decision-making task and its cognitive demands (Colautti et al., 2023), further suggesting separate cognitive processes for risk and ambiguity. Other neurological conditions show similar links between executive functioning and GDT performance. For example, people with Korsakoff syndrome show impaired performance on the GDT, with the impairment associated with executive functions (Brand et al., 2005; Brand et al., 2009). * Feedback processing is also important to GDT performance. Removing feedback (i.e, win or loss, total wins or losses, current and previous balance, etc.) worsened performance in healthy individuals, suggesting cognitive and affective processing are both important for advantageous decision making (Brand, 2008). Amnesic patients showed no difference in GDT performance with or without feedback, consistently performing poorly, illustrating the importance of feedback and experience in avoiding disadvantageous choices (Brand et al., 2009). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} <quiz display=simple> {Executive functioning can influence whether someone makes advantageous choices in the GDT: |type="()"} + True - False {Feedback is irrelevant to GDT performance, since the probabilities are already known: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Applications and limitations of the GDT == * GDT findings should be interpreted as evidence about a particular form of risk-based decision-making. Different behavioural tasks capture different aspects of decision-making. Laboratory measures of risk and decision-making do not necessarily measure a single unified construct (Buelow & Blaine, 2015; Colautti et al., 2023). * The controlled nature and specific probabilities of the GDT allows researchers to investigate the contribution of executive control, reasoning, numerical processing and feedback. It has been useful in identifying deficits in cognitive ability amongst clinical populations. This also has some conceptual relevance for real world decisions involving defined risk. * Many real word scenarios are confounded with uncertainty, social pressures, competing goals and subjective reward considerations. The GDT is not necessarily effective at predicting real-life decision-making (Buelow et al., 2024). ==Conclusion== * The GDT provides a controlled way to study decision-making under risk. Because the probabilities and possible outcomes are known, the GDT allows researchers to examine how people use information about risk when making repeated decisions. * Advantageous decision-making is not simply about avoiding risk. It involves considering the probability and potential outcomes of different choices and using reasoning, executive functioning and feedback to guide decisions. A risky choice is not necessarily a poor decision if the potential reward and probability of success make it advantageous. * GDT performance is influenced by a range of cognitive processes and individual differences. The GDT therefore helps researchers examine why some people are better able than others to adjust their decisions to the risks and outcomes involved. However, it is not necessarily an appropriate analogue for decision-making in complex real life situations. * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Adolescent risk-taking and reward-system development|Adolescent risk-taking and reward-system development]] (Book chapter, 2026) * [[wikipedia:Decision-making|Decision-making]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Dopamine and decision making|Dopamine and decision making]] (Book chapter, 2024) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Gambling addiction motivation|Gambling addiction motivation]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[wikipedia:Risk|Risk]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Brand, M., Fujiwara, E., Borsutzky, S., Kalbe, E., Kessler, J., & Markowitsch, H. J. (2005). Decision-making deficits of korsakoff patients in a new gambling task with explicit rules: Associations with executive functions. ''Neuropsychology'', ''19''(3), 267–277. https://doi.org/10.1037/0894-4105.19.3.267 Brand, M., Labudda, K., Kalbe, E., Hilker, R., Emmans, D., Fuchs, G., Kessler, J., & Markowitsch, H. J. (2004). Decision‐making impairments in patients with Parkinson’s disease. ''Behavioural Neurology'', ''15''(3–4), 77–85. https://doi.org/10.1155/2004/578354 Brand, M., Labudda, K., & Markowitsch, H. J. (2006). Neuropsychological correlates of decision-making in ambiguous and risky situations. ''Neural Networks'', ''19''(8), 1266–1276. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neunet.2006.03.001 Brand, M., Pawlikowski, M., Labudda, K., Laier, C., Rothkirch, N. von, & Markowitsch, H. J. (2009). Do amnesic patients with Korsakoff’s syndrome use feedback when making decisions under risky conditions? An experimental investigation with the game of dice task with and without feedback. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''69''(2), 279–290. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2008.08.003 Brand, Matthias. (2008). Does the feedback from previous trials influence current decisions? A study on the role of feedback processing in making decisions under explicit risk conditions. ''Journal of Neuropsychology'', ''2''(2), 431–443. https://doi.org/10.1348/174866407x220607 Buelow, M. T., & Blaine, A. L. (2015). The assessment of risky decision making: A factor analysis of performance on the Iowa Gambling Task, Balloon Analogue Risk Task, and Columbia Card Task. ''Psychological Assessment'', ''27''(3), 777–785. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038622 Buelow, M. T., Okdie, B. M., & Kowalsky, J. M. (2024). Ecological validity of common behavioral decision making tasks: Evidence across two samples. ''Neuropsychology, Development, and Cognition. Section A, Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology/Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology'', ''46''(3), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2024.2337759 Colautti, L., Iannello, P., Maria Caterina Silveri, & Antonietti, A. (2023). Decision-making under ambiguity and risk and executive functions in parkinson’s disease patients: A scoping review of the studies investigating the Iowa gambling task and the game of dice. ''Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience'', ''23''(5), 1225–1243. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13415-023-01106-3 De Groot, K., & Thurik, R. (2018). Disentangling risk and uncertainty: When risk-taking measures are not about risk. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''9''. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02194 Loewenstein, G. F., Weber, E. U., Hsee, C. K., & Welch, N. (2001). Risk as feelings. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''127''(2), 267–286. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.127.2.267 Mishra, S. (2014). Decision-making under risk: Integrating perspectives from biology, economics, and psychology. ''Personality and Social Psychology Review'', ''18''(3), 280–307. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868314530517 Pachur, T., & Zilker, V. (2026). Psychological theories of decision-making under risk. ''The Cambridge Handbook of Behavioural Data Science'', 76–105. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108939010.009 Pertl, M.-T., Zamarian, L., & Delazer, M. (2017). Reasoning and mathematical skills contribute to normatively superior decision making under risk: Evidence from the game of dice task. ''Cognitive Processing'', ''18''(3), 249–260. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10339-017-0813-x Schiebener, J., & Brand, M. (2015). Self-reported strategies in decisions under risk: Role of feedback, reasoning abilities, executive functions, short-term-memory, and working memory. ''Cognitive Processing'', ''16''(4), 401–416. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10339-015-0665-1 Schiebener, J., Wegmann, E., Gathmann, B., Laier, C., Pawlikowski, M., & Brand, M. (2014). Among three different executive functions, general executive control ability is a key predictor of decision making under objective risk. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''5''. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01386 Schiebener, J., Zamarian, L., Delazer, M., & Brand, M. (2011). Executive functions, categorization of probabilities, and learning from feedback: What does really matter for decision making under explicit risk conditions?. ''Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology'', ''33''(9), 1025–1039. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2011.595702 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/hovercraft-full-eels/202012/risky-gamble-or-uncertain-future A risky gamble or an uncertain future?] (Psychology Today) * [https://www.millisecond.com/library/gameofdicetask Game of dice task] (Millisecond Software) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Decision making]] kmhuxtk224y4nx04ej42gxxmdnj7x1w 2836424 2836422 2026-10-07T03:42:36Z U3216724 3106797 grammar 2836424 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Game of dice task and decision-making:<br>What does the game of dice task reveal about risk-based decision-making?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:Gaming dice multisided blue.jpg|right|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. Dice have clearly defined odds to roll a specific number, but how Emile decides to bet changes his chances of winning or losing.]] ; Imagine this ... Emile has money to spend on a night out and decides to go to a casino. He arrives at a dice table, where a card in front of him lists his betting options. He could bet on the dealer rolling one specific number for a large payout, but the chances of it happening are low: exactly 1 in 6. He could also bet on four numbers at once, winning if the dealer rolls one of them. His payout shrinks significantly, but his odds of winning increase to 2 in 3. These odds are not spelled out for Emile, but he knows the die has six faces. He has all the information he needs to work out exactly what his chances of winning and losing are (see Figure 1). For the first few rolls, Emile spends his money on safer bets. After a couple of small wins, he's feeling confident and switches to the single number bet, hoping for that big win. He loses. He goes for the single number again. He loses again. By the end of the night, despite knowing the odds the whole time, Emile has lost most of his money on the riskiest, least likely bets. What motivated Emile to make the riskier choice, even though his chances of winning were so much lower? {{RoundBoxBottom}} * The Game of Dice Task (GDT) is a valuable tool for investigating performance under explicit risk. Participants have defined probabilities and consequences. This helps assess the neurological and individual motivations for risk taking (Brand et al., 2005). * Decision-making depends on cognitive mechanisms as well as individual perceptions of risk. Game of Dice Task (GDT) research implicates probability processing, executive functioning, reasoning, the effects of feedback, individual strategy and memory - in general, executive control (Pertl et al., 2017; Schiebener et al., 2011; Schiebener et al., 2014; Schiebener & Brand, 2015). * Risk-based decision-making requires people to consider probability, outcomes and potential rewards. Greater rewards with lower chances may or may not be perceived as advantageous: there is a difference between taking an uncertain choice and a risk (Brand et al., 2006; Mishra, 2014). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} '''Focus questions''' * How does the Game of Dice Task measure risk-based decision-making? * Why is risk different from uncertainty when it comes to making choices? * Which psychological processes affect decision-making under explicit risk? * How can the Game of Dice Task be applied to real-world decision-making? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == The Game of Dice Task == The Game of Dice Task (GDT) is a computerised gambling task in which participants attempt to maximise a fictive capital by betting on rolls of a single die over 18 trials. It was first presented by Brand et al. (2002) as a tool to examine which cognitive abilities contribute to risk-taking. The researcher's initial study found that among 23 healthy adults, older participants and those who were better at identifying risk tended to make safer, more advantageous bets. Later studies comparing Korsakoff syndrome and Parkinson's disease patients with healthy controls further developed the GDT, showing that the clinical groups made significantly more risky choices (Brand et al., 2004; Brand et al., 2005). These studies provide the basis for the standard procedure of the GDT. Players are told to make as much money as they can over the course of the task. Before each of the 18 throws, players place a bet on one number, or a combination of two, three or four numbers. If the number rolled matches at least one of the dice in a player's bet, they win the associated amount. Otherwise, they lose that same amount. These rules are explained at the start of the game and never change. The one and two number bets are classed as risky or disadvantageous, since there is a <50% chance of them winning. Conversely, the three and four number bets are less risky or advantageous, since their chances of winning are ≥50% (Brand et al., 2005; Schiebener et al., 2014). The amounts won or lost scale with the probability of the outcomes, such that riskier choices gain or lose more than the less risky choices (see Table 1). As with Emile's casino scenario, the probabilities are not explicitly stated, but can be entirely calculated from the rules (Brand et al., 2005). <u>Insert Table here showing a breakdown of the choices, rewards, probabilities and risk classification.</u> Participants complete the GDT on a single screen (see Figure 2). It displays current capital, which starts at 1,000 and is framed in a currency relevant to the sample, such as Euros or Dollars. Participants select from one of 14 possible bets and after selection, a die rolling video is played. Feedback is given by displaying the amount the player has just won or lost, adjusting the total balance, playing an associated win or loss sound and a bar graph that visually displays balance, where the bottom of the chart is a balance of zero. Negative balances and deductions are displayed in red, while positives are displayed in green. [[File:GDT_Schematic_Mockup.svg|center|thumb|800px|'''Figure 2'''. The typical presentation of the GDT, adapted from Brand et al. (2005). Some versions of the GDT change reward amounts, remove or alter feedback elements, or list additional participant information. Elements clockwise from top left are: Dice rolling video, most recent gain/loss with current total balance below, balance chart for a visual representation of current balance, round number, quit button, gains/losses associated with the possible bets and possible bet choices.]] For results to be comparable across participants, the results are pseudorandomised, with each die appearing exactly three times across the eighteen trials in a balanced order (Brand et al., 2005). * Key to the design is that the outcomes are only pseudorandomised. Each number will be displayed exactly three times, though the order is random. This means that the design is a measure of planning, probability and advantageous decision making which is comparable across participants, rather than one which introduces truly random chance. This does cause a potential for the gambler's fallacy or for the recognition of the hidden design in savvy players (citation). * Participants receive information about the outcome and current monetary balance, creating a feedback opportunity to monitor success/failure in previous decisions (Brand, 2008). * Different from previous gambling tasks, e.g the Iowa Gambling Task, in which participants discover strategy through previous experience. Known probabilities distinguish risk-based decision-making under explicit risk vs. uncertainty or learned risk (Brand et al., 2006) == Risk-based decision-making == * Brand et al. (2006) suggest a model based on the GDT results for the cognitive process of risk-based decision making. The updated version (Schiebener & Brand, 2015; Liebherr et al., 2017) incorporate situational and affective states and reorganise the cognitive processes that underpin the motivational model into three stages: 1. inputs, 2. inner processes, 3. outputs and feedback. * Risk-based decision-making refers to choices made under 'risk': this means that the outcome of a choice is unknown, but the probability of a given outcome can be known. E.g, rolling a six-sided die has an unknown result, but the probability that any given number will be face-up is 1/6. * This is different to uncertainty in which both the outcome ''and'' the probability of that outcome are unknown. The GDT is a measure of risk choices defined in this way. Other measures, like the IGT, combine uncertainty and risk, creating ambiguous risk scenarios (Brand et al., 2006; De Groot & Thurik, 2018). * People do not make the same choices when presented with the same risk scenarios. This suggests individual differences in perception, risk preference, loss aversion, mathematical processing, affective responses and executive functioning (Lowenstein et al., 2001; Mishra, 2014; Pachur & Zilker, 2026). * Taking risks is not always an indication of poor decision making. Choices may be more or less advantageous based on reward and probability. == Psychological mechanisms of risk-based decision-making == * The GDT can examine how risk-based decision-making develops, matures, or becomes impaired. Evidence from clinical populations suggests relationships between GDT performance and particular cognitive or neurological systems. Risk-based decision-making changes substantially during childhood and adolescence. Schiebener et al. (2014) examined participants aged 8–19 years and found developmental improvements in GDT performance: likely refined executive control. * Brand et al. (2004) found that people with Parkinson's disease performed worse on the GDT than healthy controls, and disadvantageous choices were associated with executive functions and feedback processing. A review of decision-making under risk and ambiguity in Parkinson's disease concluded that executive functions are impacted, but may play different roles depending on the decision-making task and its cognitive demands (Colautti et al., 2023), further suggesting separate cognitive processes for risk and ambiguity. Other neurological conditions show similar links between executive functioning and GDT performance. For example, people with Korsakoff syndrome show impaired performance on the GDT, with the impairment associated with executive functions (Brand et al., 2005; Brand et al., 2009). * Feedback processing is also important to GDT performance. Removing feedback (i.e, win or loss, total wins or losses, current and previous balance, etc.) worsened performance in healthy individuals, suggesting cognitive and affective processing are both important for advantageous decision making (Brand, 2008). Amnesic patients showed no difference in GDT performance with or without feedback, consistently performing poorly, illustrating the importance of feedback and experience in avoiding disadvantageous choices (Brand et al., 2009). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} <quiz display=simple> {Executive functioning can influence whether someone makes advantageous choices in the GDT: |type="()"} + True - False {Feedback is irrelevant to GDT performance, since the probabilities are already known: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Applications and limitations of the GDT == * GDT findings should be interpreted as evidence about a particular form of risk-based decision-making. Different behavioural tasks capture different aspects of decision-making. Laboratory measures of risk and decision-making do not necessarily measure a single unified construct (Buelow & Blaine, 2015; Colautti et al., 2023). * The controlled nature and specific probabilities of the GDT allows researchers to investigate the contribution of executive control, reasoning, numerical processing and feedback. It has been useful in identifying deficits in cognitive ability amongst clinical populations. This also has some conceptual relevance for real world decisions involving defined risk. * Many real word scenarios are confounded with uncertainty, social pressures, competing goals and subjective reward considerations. The GDT is not necessarily effective at predicting real-life decision-making (Buelow et al., 2024). ==Conclusion== * The GDT provides a controlled way to study decision-making under risk. Because the probabilities and possible outcomes are known, the GDT allows researchers to examine how people use information about risk when making repeated decisions. * Advantageous decision-making is not simply about avoiding risk. It involves considering the probability and potential outcomes of different choices and using reasoning, executive functioning and feedback to guide decisions. A risky choice is not necessarily a poor decision if the potential reward and probability of success make it advantageous. * GDT performance is influenced by a range of cognitive processes and individual differences. The GDT therefore helps researchers examine why some people are better able than others to adjust their decisions to the risks and outcomes involved. However, it is not necessarily an appropriate analogue for decision-making in complex real life situations. * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Adolescent risk-taking and reward-system development|Adolescent risk-taking and reward-system development]] (Book chapter, 2026) * [[wikipedia:Decision-making|Decision-making]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Dopamine and decision making|Dopamine and decision making]] (Book chapter, 2024) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Gambling addiction motivation|Gambling addiction motivation]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[wikipedia:Risk|Risk]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Brand, M., Fujiwara, E., Borsutzky, S., Kalbe, E., Kessler, J., & Markowitsch, H. J. (2005). Decision-making deficits of korsakoff patients in a new gambling task with explicit rules: Associations with executive functions. ''Neuropsychology'', ''19''(3), 267–277. https://doi.org/10.1037/0894-4105.19.3.267 Brand, M., Labudda, K., Kalbe, E., Hilker, R., Emmans, D., Fuchs, G., Kessler, J., & Markowitsch, H. J. (2004). Decision‐making impairments in patients with Parkinson’s disease. ''Behavioural Neurology'', ''15''(3–4), 77–85. https://doi.org/10.1155/2004/578354 Brand, M., Labudda, K., & Markowitsch, H. J. (2006). Neuropsychological correlates of decision-making in ambiguous and risky situations. ''Neural Networks'', ''19''(8), 1266–1276. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neunet.2006.03.001 Brand, M., Pawlikowski, M., Labudda, K., Laier, C., Rothkirch, N. von, & Markowitsch, H. J. (2009). Do amnesic patients with Korsakoff’s syndrome use feedback when making decisions under risky conditions? An experimental investigation with the game of dice task with and without feedback. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''69''(2), 279–290. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2008.08.003 Brand, Matthias. (2008). Does the feedback from previous trials influence current decisions? A study on the role of feedback processing in making decisions under explicit risk conditions. ''Journal of Neuropsychology'', ''2''(2), 431–443. https://doi.org/10.1348/174866407x220607 Buelow, M. T., & Blaine, A. L. (2015). The assessment of risky decision making: A factor analysis of performance on the Iowa Gambling Task, Balloon Analogue Risk Task, and Columbia Card Task. ''Psychological Assessment'', ''27''(3), 777–785. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038622 Buelow, M. T., Okdie, B. M., & Kowalsky, J. M. (2024). Ecological validity of common behavioral decision making tasks: Evidence across two samples. ''Neuropsychology, Development, and Cognition. Section A, Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology/Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology'', ''46''(3), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2024.2337759 Colautti, L., Iannello, P., Maria Caterina Silveri, & Antonietti, A. (2023). Decision-making under ambiguity and risk and executive functions in parkinson’s disease patients: A scoping review of the studies investigating the Iowa gambling task and the game of dice. ''Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience'', ''23''(5), 1225–1243. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13415-023-01106-3 De Groot, K., & Thurik, R. (2018). Disentangling risk and uncertainty: When risk-taking measures are not about risk. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''9''. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02194 Loewenstein, G. F., Weber, E. U., Hsee, C. K., & Welch, N. (2001). Risk as feelings. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''127''(2), 267–286. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.127.2.267 Mishra, S. (2014). Decision-making under risk: Integrating perspectives from biology, economics, and psychology. ''Personality and Social Psychology Review'', ''18''(3), 280–307. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868314530517 Pachur, T., & Zilker, V. (2026). Psychological theories of decision-making under risk. ''The Cambridge Handbook of Behavioural Data Science'', 76–105. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108939010.009 Pertl, M.-T., Zamarian, L., & Delazer, M. (2017). Reasoning and mathematical skills contribute to normatively superior decision making under risk: Evidence from the game of dice task. ''Cognitive Processing'', ''18''(3), 249–260. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10339-017-0813-x Schiebener, J., & Brand, M. (2015). Self-reported strategies in decisions under risk: Role of feedback, reasoning abilities, executive functions, short-term-memory, and working memory. ''Cognitive Processing'', ''16''(4), 401–416. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10339-015-0665-1 Schiebener, J., Wegmann, E., Gathmann, B., Laier, C., Pawlikowski, M., & Brand, M. (2014). Among three different executive functions, general executive control ability is a key predictor of decision making under objective risk. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''5''. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01386 Schiebener, J., Zamarian, L., Delazer, M., & Brand, M. (2011). Executive functions, categorization of probabilities, and learning from feedback: What does really matter for decision making under explicit risk conditions?. ''Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology'', ''33''(9), 1025–1039. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2011.595702 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/hovercraft-full-eels/202012/risky-gamble-or-uncertain-future A risky gamble or an uncertain future?] (Psychology Today) * [https://www.millisecond.com/library/gameofdicetask Game of dice task] (Millisecond Software) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Decision making]] egy2iewo2ecl52idreht5dexrk36o5r 2836426 2836424 2026-10-07T03:52:05Z U3216724 3106797 Added odds breakdown table 2836426 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Game of dice task and decision-making:<br>What does the game of dice task reveal about risk-based decision-making?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:Gaming dice multisided blue.jpg|right|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. Dice have clearly defined odds to roll a specific number, but how Emile decides to bet changes his chances of winning or losing.]] ; Imagine this ... Emile has money to spend on a night out and decides to go to a casino. He arrives at a dice table, where a card in front of him lists his betting options. He could bet on the dealer rolling one specific number for a large payout, but the chances of it happening are low: exactly 1 in 6. He could also bet on four numbers at once, winning if the dealer rolls one of them. His payout shrinks significantly, but his odds of winning increase to 2 in 3. These odds are not spelled out for Emile, but he knows the die has six faces. He has all the information he needs to work out exactly what his chances of winning and losing are (see Figure 1). For the first few rolls, Emile spends his money on safer bets. After a couple of small wins, he's feeling confident and switches to the single number bet, hoping for that big win. He loses. He goes for the single number again. He loses again. By the end of the night, despite knowing the odds the whole time, Emile has lost most of his money on the riskiest, least likely bets. What motivated Emile to make the riskier choice, even though his chances of winning were so much lower? {{RoundBoxBottom}} * The Game of Dice Task (GDT) is a valuable tool for investigating performance under explicit risk. Participants have defined probabilities and consequences. This helps assess the neurological and individual motivations for risk taking (Brand et al., 2005). * Decision-making depends on cognitive mechanisms as well as individual perceptions of risk. Game of Dice Task (GDT) research implicates probability processing, executive functioning, reasoning, the effects of feedback, individual strategy and memory - in general, executive control (Pertl et al., 2017; Schiebener et al., 2011; Schiebener et al., 2014; Schiebener & Brand, 2015). * Risk-based decision-making requires people to consider probability, outcomes and potential rewards. Greater rewards with lower chances may or may not be perceived as advantageous: there is a difference between taking an uncertain choice and a risk (Brand et al., 2006; Mishra, 2014). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} '''Focus questions''' * How does the Game of Dice Task measure risk-based decision-making? * Why is risk different from uncertainty when it comes to making choices? * Which psychological processes affect decision-making under explicit risk? * How can the Game of Dice Task be applied to real-world decision-making? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == The Game of Dice Task == The Game of Dice Task (GDT) is a computerised gambling task in which participants attempt to maximise a fictive capital by betting on rolls of a single die over 18 trials. It was first presented by Brand et al. (2002) as a tool to examine which cognitive abilities contribute to risk-taking. The researcher's initial study found that among 23 healthy adults, older participants and those who were better at identifying risk tended to make safer, more advantageous bets. Later studies comparing Korsakoff syndrome and Parkinson's disease patients with healthy controls further developed the GDT, showing that the clinical groups made significantly more risky choices (Brand et al., 2004; Brand et al., 2005). These studies provide the basis for the standard procedure of the GDT. Players are told to make as much money as they can over the course of the task. Before each of the 18 throws, players place a bet on one number, or a combination of two, three or four numbers. If the number rolled matches at least one of the dice in a player's bet, they win the associated amount. Otherwise, they lose that same amount. These rules are explained at the start of the game and never change. The one and two number bets are classed as risky or disadvantageous, since there is a <50% chance of them winning. Conversely, the three and four number bets are less risky or advantageous, since their chances of winning are ≥50% (Brand et al., 2005; Schiebener et al., 2014). The amounts won or lost scale with the probability of the outcomes, such that riskier choices gain or lose more than the less risky choices (see Table 1). As with Emile's casino scenario, the probabilities are not explicitly stated, but can be entirely calculated from the rules (Brand et al., 2005). {| class="wikitable" |+'''Table 1'''. The four bets in the GDT and their associated odds. Average results calculated using the amounts in Brand et al. (2005). !Bet !Chance of winning !Amount lost/gained !Average result /throw !Category |- |1 number |1 in 6 (16.67%) |1,000 | - 667 |Disadvantageous, most risky |- |2 numbers |2 in 6 (33.34%) |500 | - 167 |Disadvantageous, risky |- |3 numbers |3 in 6 (50%) |200 |0 |Advantageous, less risky |- |4 numbers |4 in 6 (66.67%) |100 | + 33 |Advantageous, least risky |} Participants complete the GDT on a single screen (see Figure 2). It displays current capital, which starts at 1,000 and is framed in a currency relevant to the sample, such as Euros or Dollars. Participants select from one of 14 possible bets and after selection, a die rolling video is played. Feedback is given by displaying the amount the player has just won or lost, adjusting the total balance, playing an associated win or loss sound and a bar graph that visually displays balance, where the bottom of the chart is a balance of zero. Negative balances and deductions are displayed in red, while positives are displayed in green. [[File:GDT_Schematic_Mockup.svg|center|thumb|800px|'''Figure 2'''. The typical presentation of the GDT, adapted from Brand et al. (2005). Some versions of the GDT change reward amounts, remove or alter feedback elements, or list additional participant information. Elements clockwise from top left are: Dice rolling video, most recent gain/loss with current total balance below, balance chart for a visual representation of current balance, round number, quit button, gains/losses associated with the possible bets and possible bet choices.]] For results to be comparable across participants, the results are pseudorandomised, with each die appearing exactly three times across the eighteen trials in a balanced order (Brand et al., 2005). * Key to the design is that the outcomes are only pseudorandomised. Each number will be displayed exactly three times, though the order is random. This means that the design is a measure of planning, probability and advantageous decision making which is comparable across participants, rather than one which introduces truly random chance. This does cause a potential for the gambler's fallacy or for the recognition of the hidden design in savvy players (citation). * Participants receive information about the outcome and current monetary balance, creating a feedback opportunity to monitor success/failure in previous decisions (Brand, 2008). * Different from previous gambling tasks, e.g the Iowa Gambling Task, in which participants discover strategy through previous experience. Known probabilities distinguish risk-based decision-making under explicit risk vs. uncertainty or learned risk (Brand et al., 2006) == Risk-based decision-making == * Brand et al. (2006) suggest a model based on the GDT results for the cognitive process of risk-based decision making. The updated version (Schiebener & Brand, 2015; Liebherr et al., 2017) incorporate situational and affective states and reorganise the cognitive processes that underpin the motivational model into three stages: 1. inputs, 2. inner processes, 3. outputs and feedback. * Risk-based decision-making refers to choices made under 'risk': this means that the outcome of a choice is unknown, but the probability of a given outcome can be known. E.g, rolling a six-sided die has an unknown result, but the probability that any given number will be face-up is 1/6. * This is different to uncertainty in which both the outcome ''and'' the probability of that outcome are unknown. The GDT is a measure of risk choices defined in this way. Other measures, like the IGT, combine uncertainty and risk, creating ambiguous risk scenarios (Brand et al., 2006; De Groot & Thurik, 2018). * People do not make the same choices when presented with the same risk scenarios. This suggests individual differences in perception, risk preference, loss aversion, mathematical processing, affective responses and executive functioning (Lowenstein et al., 2001; Mishra, 2014; Pachur & Zilker, 2026). * Taking risks is not always an indication of poor decision making. Choices may be more or less advantageous based on reward and probability. == Psychological mechanisms of risk-based decision-making == * The GDT can examine how risk-based decision-making develops, matures, or becomes impaired. Evidence from clinical populations suggests relationships between GDT performance and particular cognitive or neurological systems. Risk-based decision-making changes substantially during childhood and adolescence. Schiebener et al. (2014) examined participants aged 8–19 years and found developmental improvements in GDT performance: likely refined executive control. * Brand et al. (2004) found that people with Parkinson's disease performed worse on the GDT than healthy controls, and disadvantageous choices were associated with executive functions and feedback processing. A review of decision-making under risk and ambiguity in Parkinson's disease concluded that executive functions are impacted, but may play different roles depending on the decision-making task and its cognitive demands (Colautti et al., 2023), further suggesting separate cognitive processes for risk and ambiguity. Other neurological conditions show similar links between executive functioning and GDT performance. For example, people with Korsakoff syndrome show impaired performance on the GDT, with the impairment associated with executive functions (Brand et al., 2005; Brand et al., 2009). * Feedback processing is also important to GDT performance. Removing feedback (i.e, win or loss, total wins or losses, current and previous balance, etc.) worsened performance in healthy individuals, suggesting cognitive and affective processing are both important for advantageous decision making (Brand, 2008). Amnesic patients showed no difference in GDT performance with or without feedback, consistently performing poorly, illustrating the importance of feedback and experience in avoiding disadvantageous choices (Brand et al., 2009). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} <quiz display=simple> {Executive functioning can influence whether someone makes advantageous choices in the GDT: |type="()"} + True - False {Feedback is irrelevant to GDT performance, since the probabilities are already known: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Applications and limitations of the GDT == * GDT findings should be interpreted as evidence about a particular form of risk-based decision-making. Different behavioural tasks capture different aspects of decision-making. Laboratory measures of risk and decision-making do not necessarily measure a single unified construct (Buelow & Blaine, 2015; Colautti et al., 2023). * The controlled nature and specific probabilities of the GDT allows researchers to investigate the contribution of executive control, reasoning, numerical processing and feedback. It has been useful in identifying deficits in cognitive ability amongst clinical populations. This also has some conceptual relevance for real world decisions involving defined risk. * Many real word scenarios are confounded with uncertainty, social pressures, competing goals and subjective reward considerations. The GDT is not necessarily effective at predicting real-life decision-making (Buelow et al., 2024). ==Conclusion== * The GDT provides a controlled way to study decision-making under risk. Because the probabilities and possible outcomes are known, the GDT allows researchers to examine how people use information about risk when making repeated decisions. * Advantageous decision-making is not simply about avoiding risk. It involves considering the probability and potential outcomes of different choices and using reasoning, executive functioning and feedback to guide decisions. A risky choice is not necessarily a poor decision if the potential reward and probability of success make it advantageous. * GDT performance is influenced by a range of cognitive processes and individual differences. The GDT therefore helps researchers examine why some people are better able than others to adjust their decisions to the risks and outcomes involved. However, it is not necessarily an appropriate analogue for decision-making in complex real life situations. * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Adolescent risk-taking and reward-system development|Adolescent risk-taking and reward-system development]] (Book chapter, 2026) * [[wikipedia:Decision-making|Decision-making]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Dopamine and decision making|Dopamine and decision making]] (Book chapter, 2024) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Gambling addiction motivation|Gambling addiction motivation]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[wikipedia:Risk|Risk]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Brand, M., Fujiwara, E., Borsutzky, S., Kalbe, E., Kessler, J., & Markowitsch, H. J. (2005). Decision-making deficits of korsakoff patients in a new gambling task with explicit rules: Associations with executive functions. ''Neuropsychology'', ''19''(3), 267–277. https://doi.org/10.1037/0894-4105.19.3.267 Brand, M., Labudda, K., Kalbe, E., Hilker, R., Emmans, D., Fuchs, G., Kessler, J., & Markowitsch, H. J. (2004). Decision‐making impairments in patients with Parkinson’s disease. ''Behavioural Neurology'', ''15''(3–4), 77–85. https://doi.org/10.1155/2004/578354 Brand, M., Labudda, K., & Markowitsch, H. J. (2006). Neuropsychological correlates of decision-making in ambiguous and risky situations. ''Neural Networks'', ''19''(8), 1266–1276. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neunet.2006.03.001 Brand, M., Pawlikowski, M., Labudda, K., Laier, C., Rothkirch, N. von, & Markowitsch, H. J. (2009). Do amnesic patients with Korsakoff’s syndrome use feedback when making decisions under risky conditions? An experimental investigation with the game of dice task with and without feedback. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''69''(2), 279–290. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2008.08.003 Brand, Matthias. (2008). Does the feedback from previous trials influence current decisions? A study on the role of feedback processing in making decisions under explicit risk conditions. ''Journal of Neuropsychology'', ''2''(2), 431–443. https://doi.org/10.1348/174866407x220607 Buelow, M. T., & Blaine, A. L. (2015). The assessment of risky decision making: A factor analysis of performance on the Iowa Gambling Task, Balloon Analogue Risk Task, and Columbia Card Task. ''Psychological Assessment'', ''27''(3), 777–785. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038622 Buelow, M. T., Okdie, B. M., & Kowalsky, J. M. (2024). Ecological validity of common behavioral decision making tasks: Evidence across two samples. ''Neuropsychology, Development, and Cognition. Section A, Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology/Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology'', ''46''(3), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2024.2337759 Colautti, L., Iannello, P., Maria Caterina Silveri, & Antonietti, A. (2023). Decision-making under ambiguity and risk and executive functions in parkinson’s disease patients: A scoping review of the studies investigating the Iowa gambling task and the game of dice. ''Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience'', ''23''(5), 1225–1243. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13415-023-01106-3 De Groot, K., & Thurik, R. (2018). Disentangling risk and uncertainty: When risk-taking measures are not about risk. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''9''. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02194 Loewenstein, G. F., Weber, E. U., Hsee, C. K., & Welch, N. (2001). Risk as feelings. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''127''(2), 267–286. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.127.2.267 Mishra, S. (2014). Decision-making under risk: Integrating perspectives from biology, economics, and psychology. ''Personality and Social Psychology Review'', ''18''(3), 280–307. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868314530517 Pachur, T., & Zilker, V. (2026). Psychological theories of decision-making under risk. ''The Cambridge Handbook of Behavioural Data Science'', 76–105. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108939010.009 Pertl, M.-T., Zamarian, L., & Delazer, M. (2017). Reasoning and mathematical skills contribute to normatively superior decision making under risk: Evidence from the game of dice task. ''Cognitive Processing'', ''18''(3), 249–260. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10339-017-0813-x Schiebener, J., & Brand, M. (2015). Self-reported strategies in decisions under risk: Role of feedback, reasoning abilities, executive functions, short-term-memory, and working memory. ''Cognitive Processing'', ''16''(4), 401–416. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10339-015-0665-1 Schiebener, J., Wegmann, E., Gathmann, B., Laier, C., Pawlikowski, M., & Brand, M. (2014). Among three different executive functions, general executive control ability is a key predictor of decision making under objective risk. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''5''. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01386 Schiebener, J., Zamarian, L., Delazer, M., & Brand, M. (2011). Executive functions, categorization of probabilities, and learning from feedback: What does really matter for decision making under explicit risk conditions?. ''Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology'', ''33''(9), 1025–1039. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2011.595702 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/hovercraft-full-eels/202012/risky-gamble-or-uncertain-future A risky gamble or an uncertain future?] (Psychology Today) * [https://www.millisecond.com/library/gameofdicetask Game of dice task] (Millisecond Software) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Decision making]] ajrcwr7de4zlo0bj6tg6e5mal1y9b62 2836427 2836426 2026-10-07T03:55:45Z U3216724 3106797 Edit table presentation 2836427 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Game of dice task and decision-making:<br>What does the game of dice task reveal about risk-based decision-making?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:Gaming dice multisided blue.jpg|right|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. Dice have clearly defined odds to roll a specific number, but how Emile decides to bet changes his chances of winning or losing.]] ; Imagine this ... Emile has money to spend on a night out and decides to go to a casino. He arrives at a dice table, where a card in front of him lists his betting options. He could bet on the dealer rolling one specific number for a large payout, but the chances of it happening are low: exactly 1 in 6. He could also bet on four numbers at once, winning if the dealer rolls one of them. His payout shrinks significantly, but his odds of winning increase to 2 in 3. These odds are not spelled out for Emile, but he knows the die has six faces. He has all the information he needs to work out exactly what his chances of winning and losing are (see Figure 1). For the first few rolls, Emile spends his money on safer bets. After a couple of small wins, he's feeling confident and switches to the single number bet, hoping for that big win. He loses. He goes for the single number again. He loses again. By the end of the night, despite knowing the odds the whole time, Emile has lost most of his money on the riskiest, least likely bets. What motivated Emile to make the riskier choice, even though his chances of winning were so much lower? {{RoundBoxBottom}} * The Game of Dice Task (GDT) is a valuable tool for investigating performance under explicit risk. Participants have defined probabilities and consequences. This helps assess the neurological and individual motivations for risk taking (Brand et al., 2005). * Decision-making depends on cognitive mechanisms as well as individual perceptions of risk. Game of Dice Task (GDT) research implicates probability processing, executive functioning, reasoning, the effects of feedback, individual strategy and memory - in general, executive control (Pertl et al., 2017; Schiebener et al., 2011; Schiebener et al., 2014; Schiebener & Brand, 2015). * Risk-based decision-making requires people to consider probability, outcomes and potential rewards. Greater rewards with lower chances may or may not be perceived as advantageous: there is a difference between taking an uncertain choice and a risk (Brand et al., 2006; Mishra, 2014). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} '''Focus questions''' * How does the Game of Dice Task measure risk-based decision-making? * Why is risk different from uncertainty when it comes to making choices? * Which psychological processes affect decision-making under explicit risk? * How can the Game of Dice Task be applied to real-world decision-making? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == The Game of Dice Task == The Game of Dice Task (GDT) is a computerised gambling task in which participants attempt to maximise a fictive capital by betting on rolls of a single die over 18 trials. It was first presented by Brand et al. (2002) as a tool to examine which cognitive abilities contribute to risk-taking. The researcher's initial study found that among 23 healthy adults, older participants and those who were better at identifying risk tended to make safer, more advantageous bets. Later studies comparing Korsakoff syndrome and Parkinson's disease patients with healthy controls further developed the GDT, showing that the clinical groups made significantly more risky choices (Brand et al., 2004; Brand et al., 2005). These studies provide the basis for the standard procedure of the GDT. Players are told to make as much money as they can over the course of the task. Before each of the 18 throws, players place a bet on one number, or a combination of two, three or four numbers. If the number rolled matches at least one of the dice in a player's bet, they win the associated amount. Otherwise, they lose that same amount. These rules are explained at the start of the game and never change. The one and two number bets are classed as risky or disadvantageous, since there is a <50% chance of them winning. Conversely, the three and four number bets are less risky or advantageous, since their chances of winning are ≥50% (Brand et al., 2005; Schiebener et al., 2014). The amounts won or lost scale with the probability of the outcomes, such that riskier choices gain or lose more than the less risky choices (see Table 1). As with Emile's casino scenario, the probabilities are not explicitly stated, but can be entirely calculated from the rules (Brand et al., 2005). {{RoundBoxTop}} {| class="wikitable style="margin: auto;" |+'''Table 1'''. The four bets in the GDT and their associated odds. Average results calculated using the amounts in Brand et al. (2005). !Bet !Chance of winning !Amount lost/gained !Average result /throw !Category |- |1 number |1 in 6 (16.67%) |1,000 | - 667 |Disadvantageous, most risky |- |2 numbers |2 in 6 (33.34%) |500 | - 167 |Disadvantageous, risky |- |3 numbers |3 in 6 (50%) |200 |0 |Advantageous, less risky |- |4 numbers |4 in 6 (66.67%) |100 | + 33 |Advantageous, least risky |} {{RoundBoxBottom}} Participants complete the GDT on a single screen (see Figure 2). It displays current capital, which starts at 1,000 and is framed in a currency relevant to the sample, such as Euros or Dollars. Participants select from one of 14 possible bets and after selection, a die rolling video is played. Feedback is given by displaying the amount the player has just won or lost, adjusting the total balance, playing an associated win or loss sound and a bar graph that visually displays balance, where the bottom of the chart is a balance of zero. Negative balances and deductions are displayed in red, while positives are displayed in green. [[File:GDT_Schematic_Mockup.svg|center|thumb|800px|'''Figure 2'''. The typical presentation of the GDT, adapted from Brand et al. (2005). Some versions of the GDT change reward amounts, remove or alter feedback elements, or list additional participant information. Elements clockwise from top left are: Dice rolling video, most recent gain/loss with current total balance below, balance chart for a visual representation of current balance, round number, quit button, gains/losses associated with the possible bets and possible bet choices.]] For results to be comparable across participants, the results are pseudorandomised, with each die appearing exactly three times across the eighteen trials in a balanced order (Brand et al., 2005). * Key to the design is that the outcomes are only pseudorandomised. Each number will be displayed exactly three times, though the order is random. This means that the design is a measure of planning, probability and advantageous decision making which is comparable across participants, rather than one which introduces truly random chance. This does cause a potential for the gambler's fallacy or for the recognition of the hidden design in savvy players (citation). * Participants receive information about the outcome and current monetary balance, creating a feedback opportunity to monitor success/failure in previous decisions (Brand, 2008). * Different from previous gambling tasks, e.g the Iowa Gambling Task, in which participants discover strategy through previous experience. Known probabilities distinguish risk-based decision-making under explicit risk vs. uncertainty or learned risk (Brand et al., 2006) == Risk-based decision-making == * Brand et al. (2006) suggest a model based on the GDT results for the cognitive process of risk-based decision making. The updated version (Schiebener & Brand, 2015; Liebherr et al., 2017) incorporate situational and affective states and reorganise the cognitive processes that underpin the motivational model into three stages: 1. inputs, 2. inner processes, 3. outputs and feedback. * Risk-based decision-making refers to choices made under 'risk': this means that the outcome of a choice is unknown, but the probability of a given outcome can be known. E.g, rolling a six-sided die has an unknown result, but the probability that any given number will be face-up is 1/6. * This is different to uncertainty in which both the outcome ''and'' the probability of that outcome are unknown. The GDT is a measure of risk choices defined in this way. Other measures, like the IGT, combine uncertainty and risk, creating ambiguous risk scenarios (Brand et al., 2006; De Groot & Thurik, 2018). * People do not make the same choices when presented with the same risk scenarios. This suggests individual differences in perception, risk preference, loss aversion, mathematical processing, affective responses and executive functioning (Lowenstein et al., 2001; Mishra, 2014; Pachur & Zilker, 2026). * Taking risks is not always an indication of poor decision making. Choices may be more or less advantageous based on reward and probability. == Psychological mechanisms of risk-based decision-making == * The GDT can examine how risk-based decision-making develops, matures, or becomes impaired. Evidence from clinical populations suggests relationships between GDT performance and particular cognitive or neurological systems. Risk-based decision-making changes substantially during childhood and adolescence. Schiebener et al. (2014) examined participants aged 8–19 years and found developmental improvements in GDT performance: likely refined executive control. * Brand et al. (2004) found that people with Parkinson's disease performed worse on the GDT than healthy controls, and disadvantageous choices were associated with executive functions and feedback processing. A review of decision-making under risk and ambiguity in Parkinson's disease concluded that executive functions are impacted, but may play different roles depending on the decision-making task and its cognitive demands (Colautti et al., 2023), further suggesting separate cognitive processes for risk and ambiguity. Other neurological conditions show similar links between executive functioning and GDT performance. For example, people with Korsakoff syndrome show impaired performance on the GDT, with the impairment associated with executive functions (Brand et al., 2005; Brand et al., 2009). * Feedback processing is also important to GDT performance. Removing feedback (i.e, win or loss, total wins or losses, current and previous balance, etc.) worsened performance in healthy individuals, suggesting cognitive and affective processing are both important for advantageous decision making (Brand, 2008). Amnesic patients showed no difference in GDT performance with or without feedback, consistently performing poorly, illustrating the importance of feedback and experience in avoiding disadvantageous choices (Brand et al., 2009). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} <quiz display=simple> {Executive functioning can influence whether someone makes advantageous choices in the GDT: |type="()"} + True - False {Feedback is irrelevant to GDT performance, since the probabilities are already known: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Applications and limitations of the GDT == * GDT findings should be interpreted as evidence about a particular form of risk-based decision-making. Different behavioural tasks capture different aspects of decision-making. Laboratory measures of risk and decision-making do not necessarily measure a single unified construct (Buelow & Blaine, 2015; Colautti et al., 2023). * The controlled nature and specific probabilities of the GDT allows researchers to investigate the contribution of executive control, reasoning, numerical processing and feedback. It has been useful in identifying deficits in cognitive ability amongst clinical populations. This also has some conceptual relevance for real world decisions involving defined risk. * Many real word scenarios are confounded with uncertainty, social pressures, competing goals and subjective reward considerations. The GDT is not necessarily effective at predicting real-life decision-making (Buelow et al., 2024). ==Conclusion== * The GDT provides a controlled way to study decision-making under risk. Because the probabilities and possible outcomes are known, the GDT allows researchers to examine how people use information about risk when making repeated decisions. * Advantageous decision-making is not simply about avoiding risk. It involves considering the probability and potential outcomes of different choices and using reasoning, executive functioning and feedback to guide decisions. A risky choice is not necessarily a poor decision if the potential reward and probability of success make it advantageous. * GDT performance is influenced by a range of cognitive processes and individual differences. The GDT therefore helps researchers examine why some people are better able than others to adjust their decisions to the risks and outcomes involved. However, it is not necessarily an appropriate analogue for decision-making in complex real life situations. * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Adolescent risk-taking and reward-system development|Adolescent risk-taking and reward-system development]] (Book chapter, 2026) * [[wikipedia:Decision-making|Decision-making]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Dopamine and decision making|Dopamine and decision making]] (Book chapter, 2024) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Gambling addiction motivation|Gambling addiction motivation]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[wikipedia:Risk|Risk]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Brand, M., Fujiwara, E., Borsutzky, S., Kalbe, E., Kessler, J., & Markowitsch, H. J. (2005). Decision-making deficits of korsakoff patients in a new gambling task with explicit rules: Associations with executive functions. ''Neuropsychology'', ''19''(3), 267–277. https://doi.org/10.1037/0894-4105.19.3.267 Brand, M., Labudda, K., Kalbe, E., Hilker, R., Emmans, D., Fuchs, G., Kessler, J., & Markowitsch, H. J. (2004). Decision‐making impairments in patients with Parkinson’s disease. ''Behavioural Neurology'', ''15''(3–4), 77–85. https://doi.org/10.1155/2004/578354 Brand, M., Labudda, K., & Markowitsch, H. J. (2006). Neuropsychological correlates of decision-making in ambiguous and risky situations. ''Neural Networks'', ''19''(8), 1266–1276. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neunet.2006.03.001 Brand, M., Pawlikowski, M., Labudda, K., Laier, C., Rothkirch, N. von, & Markowitsch, H. J. (2009). Do amnesic patients with Korsakoff’s syndrome use feedback when making decisions under risky conditions? An experimental investigation with the game of dice task with and without feedback. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''69''(2), 279–290. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2008.08.003 Brand, Matthias. (2008). Does the feedback from previous trials influence current decisions? A study on the role of feedback processing in making decisions under explicit risk conditions. ''Journal of Neuropsychology'', ''2''(2), 431–443. https://doi.org/10.1348/174866407x220607 Buelow, M. T., & Blaine, A. L. (2015). The assessment of risky decision making: A factor analysis of performance on the Iowa Gambling Task, Balloon Analogue Risk Task, and Columbia Card Task. ''Psychological Assessment'', ''27''(3), 777–785. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038622 Buelow, M. T., Okdie, B. M., & Kowalsky, J. M. (2024). Ecological validity of common behavioral decision making tasks: Evidence across two samples. ''Neuropsychology, Development, and Cognition. Section A, Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology/Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology'', ''46''(3), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2024.2337759 Colautti, L., Iannello, P., Maria Caterina Silveri, & Antonietti, A. (2023). Decision-making under ambiguity and risk and executive functions in parkinson’s disease patients: A scoping review of the studies investigating the Iowa gambling task and the game of dice. ''Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience'', ''23''(5), 1225–1243. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13415-023-01106-3 De Groot, K., & Thurik, R. (2018). Disentangling risk and uncertainty: When risk-taking measures are not about risk. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''9''. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02194 Loewenstein, G. F., Weber, E. U., Hsee, C. K., & Welch, N. (2001). Risk as feelings. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''127''(2), 267–286. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.127.2.267 Mishra, S. (2014). Decision-making under risk: Integrating perspectives from biology, economics, and psychology. ''Personality and Social Psychology Review'', ''18''(3), 280–307. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868314530517 Pachur, T., & Zilker, V. (2026). Psychological theories of decision-making under risk. ''The Cambridge Handbook of Behavioural Data Science'', 76–105. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108939010.009 Pertl, M.-T., Zamarian, L., & Delazer, M. (2017). Reasoning and mathematical skills contribute to normatively superior decision making under risk: Evidence from the game of dice task. ''Cognitive Processing'', ''18''(3), 249–260. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10339-017-0813-x Schiebener, J., & Brand, M. (2015). Self-reported strategies in decisions under risk: Role of feedback, reasoning abilities, executive functions, short-term-memory, and working memory. ''Cognitive Processing'', ''16''(4), 401–416. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10339-015-0665-1 Schiebener, J., Wegmann, E., Gathmann, B., Laier, C., Pawlikowski, M., & Brand, M. (2014). Among three different executive functions, general executive control ability is a key predictor of decision making under objective risk. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''5''. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01386 Schiebener, J., Zamarian, L., Delazer, M., & Brand, M. (2011). Executive functions, categorization of probabilities, and learning from feedback: What does really matter for decision making under explicit risk conditions?. ''Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology'', ''33''(9), 1025–1039. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2011.595702 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/hovercraft-full-eels/202012/risky-gamble-or-uncertain-future A risky gamble or an uncertain future?] (Psychology Today) * [https://www.millisecond.com/library/gameofdicetask Game of dice task] (Millisecond Software) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Decision making]] klqr81guqwzelikxbf03v4u95tn60sz 2836428 2836427 2026-10-07T04:00:54Z U3216724 3106797 Edited table 1 formatting 2836428 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Game of dice task and decision-making:<br>What does the game of dice task reveal about risk-based decision-making?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:Gaming dice multisided blue.jpg|right|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. Dice have clearly defined odds to roll a specific number, but how Emile decides to bet changes his chances of winning or losing.]] ; Imagine this ... Emile has money to spend on a night out and decides to go to a casino. He arrives at a dice table, where a card in front of him lists his betting options. He could bet on the dealer rolling one specific number for a large payout, but the chances of it happening are low: exactly 1 in 6. He could also bet on four numbers at once, winning if the dealer rolls one of them. His payout shrinks significantly, but his odds of winning increase to 2 in 3. These odds are not spelled out for Emile, but he knows the die has six faces. He has all the information he needs to work out exactly what his chances of winning and losing are (see Figure 1). For the first few rolls, Emile spends his money on safer bets. After a couple of small wins, he's feeling confident and switches to the single number bet, hoping for that big win. He loses. He goes for the single number again. He loses again. By the end of the night, despite knowing the odds the whole time, Emile has lost most of his money on the riskiest, least likely bets. What motivated Emile to make the riskier choice, even though his chances of winning were so much lower? {{RoundBoxBottom}} * The Game of Dice Task (GDT) is a valuable tool for investigating performance under explicit risk. Participants have defined probabilities and consequences. This helps assess the neurological and individual motivations for risk taking (Brand et al., 2005). * Decision-making depends on cognitive mechanisms as well as individual perceptions of risk. Game of Dice Task (GDT) research implicates probability processing, executive functioning, reasoning, the effects of feedback, individual strategy and memory - in general, executive control (Pertl et al., 2017; Schiebener et al., 2011; Schiebener et al., 2014; Schiebener & Brand, 2015). * Risk-based decision-making requires people to consider probability, outcomes and potential rewards. Greater rewards with lower chances may or may not be perceived as advantageous: there is a difference between taking an uncertain choice and a risk (Brand et al., 2006; Mishra, 2014). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} '''Focus questions''' * How does the Game of Dice Task measure risk-based decision-making? * Why is risk different from uncertainty when it comes to making choices? * Which psychological processes affect decision-making under explicit risk? * How can the Game of Dice Task be applied to real-world decision-making? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == The Game of Dice Task == The Game of Dice Task (GDT) is a computerised gambling task in which participants attempt to maximise a fictive capital by betting on rolls of a single die over 18 trials. It was first presented by Brand et al. (2002) as a tool to examine which cognitive abilities contribute to risk-taking. The researcher's initial study found that among 23 healthy adults, older participants and those who were better at identifying risk tended to make safer, more advantageous bets. Later studies comparing Korsakoff syndrome and Parkinson's disease patients with healthy controls further developed the GDT, showing that the clinical groups made significantly more risky choices (Brand et al., 2004; Brand et al., 2005). These studies provide the basis for the standard procedure of the GDT. Players are told to make as much money as they can over the course of the task. Before each of the 18 throws, players place a bet on one number, or a combination of two, three or four numbers. If the number rolled matches at least one of the dice in a player's bet, they win the associated amount. Otherwise, they lose that same amount. These rules are explained at the start of the game and never change. The one and two number bets are classed as risky or disadvantageous, since there is a <50% chance of them winning. Conversely, the three and four number bets are less risky or advantageous, since their chances of winning are ≥50% (Brand et al., 2005; Schiebener et al., 2014). The amounts won or lost scale with the probability of the outcomes, such that riskier choices gain or lose more than the less risky choices (see Table 1). As with Emile's casino scenario, the probabilities are not explicitly stated, but can be entirely calculated from the rules (Brand et al., 2005). <div style="display: flex; justify-content: center;"> {| class="wikitable" |+'''Table 1'''. The four bets in the GDT and their associated odds. Average results calculated using the amounts in Brand et al. (2005). !Bet !Chance of winning !Amount lost/gained !Average result /throw !Category |- |1 number |1 in 6 (16.67%) |1,000 | - 667 |Disadvantageous, most risky |- |2 numbers |2 in 6 (33.34%) |500 | - 167 |Disadvantageous, risky |- |3 numbers |3 in 6 (50%) |200 |0 |Advantageous, less risky |- |4 numbers |4 in 6 (66.67%) |100 | + 33 |Advantageous, least risky |} </div> Participants complete the GDT on a single screen (see Figure 2). It displays current capital, which starts at 1,000 and is framed in a currency relevant to the sample, such as Euros or Dollars. Participants select from one of 14 possible bets and after selection, a die rolling video is played. Feedback is given by displaying the amount the player has just won or lost, adjusting the total balance, playing an associated win or loss sound and a bar graph that visually displays balance, where the bottom of the chart is a balance of zero. Negative balances and deductions are displayed in red, while positives are displayed in green. [[File:GDT_Schematic_Mockup.svg|center|thumb|800px|'''Figure 2'''. The typical presentation of the GDT, adapted from Brand et al. (2005). Some versions of the GDT change reward amounts, remove or alter feedback elements, or list additional participant information. Elements clockwise from top left are: Dice rolling video, most recent gain/loss with current total balance below, balance chart for a visual representation of current balance, round number, quit button, gains/losses associated with the possible bets and possible bet choices.]] For results to be comparable across participants, the results are pseudorandomised, with each die appearing exactly three times across the eighteen trials in a balanced order (Brand et al., 2005). * Key to the design is that the outcomes are only pseudorandomised. Each number will be displayed exactly three times, though the order is random. This means that the design is a measure of planning, probability and advantageous decision making which is comparable across participants, rather than one which introduces truly random chance. This does cause a potential for the gambler's fallacy or for the recognition of the hidden design in savvy players (citation). * Participants receive information about the outcome and current monetary balance, creating a feedback opportunity to monitor success/failure in previous decisions (Brand, 2008). * Different from previous gambling tasks, e.g the Iowa Gambling Task, in which participants discover strategy through previous experience. Known probabilities distinguish risk-based decision-making under explicit risk vs. uncertainty or learned risk (Brand et al., 2006) == Risk-based decision-making == * Brand et al. (2006) suggest a model based on the GDT results for the cognitive process of risk-based decision making. The updated version (Schiebener & Brand, 2015; Liebherr et al., 2017) incorporate situational and affective states and reorganise the cognitive processes that underpin the motivational model into three stages: 1. inputs, 2. inner processes, 3. outputs and feedback. * Risk-based decision-making refers to choices made under 'risk': this means that the outcome of a choice is unknown, but the probability of a given outcome can be known. E.g, rolling a six-sided die has an unknown result, but the probability that any given number will be face-up is 1/6. * This is different to uncertainty in which both the outcome ''and'' the probability of that outcome are unknown. The GDT is a measure of risk choices defined in this way. Other measures, like the IGT, combine uncertainty and risk, creating ambiguous risk scenarios (Brand et al., 2006; De Groot & Thurik, 2018). * People do not make the same choices when presented with the same risk scenarios. This suggests individual differences in perception, risk preference, loss aversion, mathematical processing, affective responses and executive functioning (Lowenstein et al., 2001; Mishra, 2014; Pachur & Zilker, 2026). * Taking risks is not always an indication of poor decision making. Choices may be more or less advantageous based on reward and probability. == Psychological mechanisms of risk-based decision-making == * The GDT can examine how risk-based decision-making develops, matures, or becomes impaired. Evidence from clinical populations suggests relationships between GDT performance and particular cognitive or neurological systems. Risk-based decision-making changes substantially during childhood and adolescence. Schiebener et al. (2014) examined participants aged 8–19 years and found developmental improvements in GDT performance: likely refined executive control. * Brand et al. (2004) found that people with Parkinson's disease performed worse on the GDT than healthy controls, and disadvantageous choices were associated with executive functions and feedback processing. A review of decision-making under risk and ambiguity in Parkinson's disease concluded that executive functions are impacted, but may play different roles depending on the decision-making task and its cognitive demands (Colautti et al., 2023), further suggesting separate cognitive processes for risk and ambiguity. Other neurological conditions show similar links between executive functioning and GDT performance. For example, people with Korsakoff syndrome show impaired performance on the GDT, with the impairment associated with executive functions (Brand et al., 2005; Brand et al., 2009). * Feedback processing is also important to GDT performance. Removing feedback (i.e, win or loss, total wins or losses, current and previous balance, etc.) worsened performance in healthy individuals, suggesting cognitive and affective processing are both important for advantageous decision making (Brand, 2008). Amnesic patients showed no difference in GDT performance with or without feedback, consistently performing poorly, illustrating the importance of feedback and experience in avoiding disadvantageous choices (Brand et al., 2009). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} <quiz display=simple> {Executive functioning can influence whether someone makes advantageous choices in the GDT: |type="()"} + True - False {Feedback is irrelevant to GDT performance, since the probabilities are already known: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Applications and limitations of the GDT == * GDT findings should be interpreted as evidence about a particular form of risk-based decision-making. Different behavioural tasks capture different aspects of decision-making. Laboratory measures of risk and decision-making do not necessarily measure a single unified construct (Buelow & Blaine, 2015; Colautti et al., 2023). * The controlled nature and specific probabilities of the GDT allows researchers to investigate the contribution of executive control, reasoning, numerical processing and feedback. It has been useful in identifying deficits in cognitive ability amongst clinical populations. This also has some conceptual relevance for real world decisions involving defined risk. * Many real word scenarios are confounded with uncertainty, social pressures, competing goals and subjective reward considerations. The GDT is not necessarily effective at predicting real-life decision-making (Buelow et al., 2024). ==Conclusion== * The GDT provides a controlled way to study decision-making under risk. Because the probabilities and possible outcomes are known, the GDT allows researchers to examine how people use information about risk when making repeated decisions. * Advantageous decision-making is not simply about avoiding risk. It involves considering the probability and potential outcomes of different choices and using reasoning, executive functioning and feedback to guide decisions. A risky choice is not necessarily a poor decision if the potential reward and probability of success make it advantageous. * GDT performance is influenced by a range of cognitive processes and individual differences. The GDT therefore helps researchers examine why some people are better able than others to adjust their decisions to the risks and outcomes involved. However, it is not necessarily an appropriate analogue for decision-making in complex real life situations. * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Adolescent risk-taking and reward-system development|Adolescent risk-taking and reward-system development]] (Book chapter, 2026) * [[wikipedia:Decision-making|Decision-making]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Dopamine and decision making|Dopamine and decision making]] (Book chapter, 2024) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Gambling addiction motivation|Gambling addiction motivation]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[wikipedia:Risk|Risk]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Brand, M., Fujiwara, E., Borsutzky, S., Kalbe, E., Kessler, J., & Markowitsch, H. J. (2005). Decision-making deficits of korsakoff patients in a new gambling task with explicit rules: Associations with executive functions. ''Neuropsychology'', ''19''(3), 267–277. https://doi.org/10.1037/0894-4105.19.3.267 Brand, M., Labudda, K., Kalbe, E., Hilker, R., Emmans, D., Fuchs, G., Kessler, J., & Markowitsch, H. J. (2004). Decision‐making impairments in patients with Parkinson’s disease. ''Behavioural Neurology'', ''15''(3–4), 77–85. https://doi.org/10.1155/2004/578354 Brand, M., Labudda, K., & Markowitsch, H. J. (2006). Neuropsychological correlates of decision-making in ambiguous and risky situations. ''Neural Networks'', ''19''(8), 1266–1276. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neunet.2006.03.001 Brand, M., Pawlikowski, M., Labudda, K., Laier, C., Rothkirch, N. von, & Markowitsch, H. J. (2009). Do amnesic patients with Korsakoff’s syndrome use feedback when making decisions under risky conditions? An experimental investigation with the game of dice task with and without feedback. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''69''(2), 279–290. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2008.08.003 Brand, Matthias. (2008). Does the feedback from previous trials influence current decisions? A study on the role of feedback processing in making decisions under explicit risk conditions. ''Journal of Neuropsychology'', ''2''(2), 431–443. https://doi.org/10.1348/174866407x220607 Buelow, M. T., & Blaine, A. L. (2015). The assessment of risky decision making: A factor analysis of performance on the Iowa Gambling Task, Balloon Analogue Risk Task, and Columbia Card Task. ''Psychological Assessment'', ''27''(3), 777–785. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038622 Buelow, M. T., Okdie, B. M., & Kowalsky, J. M. (2024). Ecological validity of common behavioral decision making tasks: Evidence across two samples. ''Neuropsychology, Development, and Cognition. Section A, Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology/Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology'', ''46''(3), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2024.2337759 Colautti, L., Iannello, P., Maria Caterina Silveri, & Antonietti, A. (2023). Decision-making under ambiguity and risk and executive functions in parkinson’s disease patients: A scoping review of the studies investigating the Iowa gambling task and the game of dice. ''Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience'', ''23''(5), 1225–1243. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13415-023-01106-3 De Groot, K., & Thurik, R. (2018). Disentangling risk and uncertainty: When risk-taking measures are not about risk. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''9''. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02194 Loewenstein, G. F., Weber, E. U., Hsee, C. K., & Welch, N. (2001). Risk as feelings. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''127''(2), 267–286. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.127.2.267 Mishra, S. (2014). Decision-making under risk: Integrating perspectives from biology, economics, and psychology. ''Personality and Social Psychology Review'', ''18''(3), 280–307. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868314530517 Pachur, T., & Zilker, V. (2026). Psychological theories of decision-making under risk. ''The Cambridge Handbook of Behavioural Data Science'', 76–105. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108939010.009 Pertl, M.-T., Zamarian, L., & Delazer, M. (2017). Reasoning and mathematical skills contribute to normatively superior decision making under risk: Evidence from the game of dice task. ''Cognitive Processing'', ''18''(3), 249–260. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10339-017-0813-x Schiebener, J., & Brand, M. (2015). Self-reported strategies in decisions under risk: Role of feedback, reasoning abilities, executive functions, short-term-memory, and working memory. ''Cognitive Processing'', ''16''(4), 401–416. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10339-015-0665-1 Schiebener, J., Wegmann, E., Gathmann, B., Laier, C., Pawlikowski, M., & Brand, M. (2014). Among three different executive functions, general executive control ability is a key predictor of decision making under objective risk. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''5''. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01386 Schiebener, J., Zamarian, L., Delazer, M., & Brand, M. (2011). Executive functions, categorization of probabilities, and learning from feedback: What does really matter for decision making under explicit risk conditions?. ''Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology'', ''33''(9), 1025–1039. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2011.595702 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/hovercraft-full-eels/202012/risky-gamble-or-uncertain-future A risky gamble or an uncertain future?] (Psychology Today) * [https://www.millisecond.com/library/gameofdicetask Game of dice task] (Millisecond Software) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Decision making]] tb6emt4sy0wmory2ln5xajnx0r48rlo 2836429 2836428 2026-10-07T04:01:34Z U3216724 3106797 formatting 2836429 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Game of dice task and decision-making:<br>What does the game of dice task reveal about risk-based decision-making?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:Gaming dice multisided blue.jpg|right|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. Dice have clearly defined odds to roll a specific number, but how Emile decides to bet changes his chances of winning or losing.]] ; Imagine this ... Emile has money to spend on a night out and decides to go to a casino. He arrives at a dice table, where a card in front of him lists his betting options. He could bet on the dealer rolling one specific number for a large payout, but the chances of it happening are low: exactly 1 in 6. He could also bet on four numbers at once, winning if the dealer rolls one of them. His payout shrinks significantly, but his odds of winning increase to 2 in 3. These odds are not spelled out for Emile, but he knows the die has six faces. He has all the information he needs to work out exactly what his chances of winning and losing are (see Figure 1). For the first few rolls, Emile spends his money on safer bets. After a couple of small wins, he's feeling confident and switches to the single number bet, hoping for that big win. He loses. He goes for the single number again. He loses again. By the end of the night, despite knowing the odds the whole time, Emile has lost most of his money on the riskiest, least likely bets. What motivated Emile to make the riskier choice, even though his chances of winning were so much lower? {{RoundBoxBottom}} * The Game of Dice Task (GDT) is a valuable tool for investigating performance under explicit risk. Participants have defined probabilities and consequences. This helps assess the neurological and individual motivations for risk taking (Brand et al., 2005). * Decision-making depends on cognitive mechanisms as well as individual perceptions of risk. Game of Dice Task (GDT) research implicates probability processing, executive functioning, reasoning, the effects of feedback, individual strategy and memory - in general, executive control (Pertl et al., 2017; Schiebener et al., 2011; Schiebener et al., 2014; Schiebener & Brand, 2015). * Risk-based decision-making requires people to consider probability, outcomes and potential rewards. Greater rewards with lower chances may or may not be perceived as advantageous: there is a difference between taking an uncertain choice and a risk (Brand et al., 2006; Mishra, 2014). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} '''Focus questions''' * How does the Game of Dice Task measure risk-based decision-making? * Why is risk different from uncertainty when it comes to making choices? * Which psychological processes affect decision-making under explicit risk? * How can the Game of Dice Task be applied to real-world decision-making? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == The Game of Dice Task == The Game of Dice Task (GDT) is a computerised gambling task in which participants attempt to maximise a fictive capital by betting on rolls of a single die over 18 trials. It was first presented by Brand et al. (2002) as a tool to examine which cognitive abilities contribute to risk-taking. The researcher's initial study found that among 23 healthy adults, older participants and those who were better at identifying risk tended to make safer, more advantageous bets. Later studies comparing Korsakoff syndrome and Parkinson's disease patients with healthy controls further developed the GDT, showing that the clinical groups made significantly more risky choices (Brand et al., 2004; Brand et al., 2005). These studies provide the basis for the standard procedure of the GDT. Players are told to make as much money as they can over the course of the task. Before each of the 18 throws, players place a bet on one number, or a combination of two, three or four numbers. If the number rolled matches at least one of the dice in a player's bet, they win the associated amount. Otherwise, they lose that same amount. These rules are explained at the start of the game and never change. The one and two number bets are classed as risky or disadvantageous, since there is a <50% chance of them winning. Conversely, the three and four number bets are less risky or advantageous, since their chances of winning are ≥50% (Brand et al., 2005; Schiebener et al., 2014). The amounts won or lost scale with the probability of the outcomes, such that riskier choices gain or lose more than the less risky choices (see Table 1). As with Emile's casino scenario, the probabilities are not explicitly stated, but can be entirely calculated from the rules (Brand et al., 2005). <div style="display: flex; justify-content: center;"> {| class="wikitable" |+'''Table 1'''. The four bets in the GDT and their associated odds. Average results calculated using the amounts in Brand et al. (2005). !Bet !Chance of winning !Amount lost/gained !Average result /throw !Category |- |1 number |1 in 6 (16.67%) |1,000 | - 667 |Disadvantageous, most risky |- |2 numbers |2 in 6 (33.34%) |500 | - 167 |Disadvantageous, risky |- |3 numbers |3 in 6 (50%) |200 |0 |Advantageous, less risky |- |4 numbers |4 in 6 (66.67%) |100 | + 33 |Advantageous, least risky |} </div> Participants complete the GDT on a single screen (see Figure 2). It displays current capital, which starts at 1,000 and is framed in a currency relevant to the sample, such as Euros or Dollars. Participants select from one of 14 possible bets and after selection, a die rolling video is played. Feedback is given by displaying the amount the player has just won or lost, adjusting the total balance, playing an associated win or loss sound and a bar graph that visually displays balance, where the bottom of the chart is a balance of zero. Negative balances and deductions are displayed in red, while positives are displayed in green. [[File:GDT_Schematic_Mockup.svg|center|thumb|800px|'''Figure 2'''. The typical presentation of the GDT, adapted from Brand et al. (2005). Some versions of the GDT change reward amounts, remove or alter feedback elements, or list additional participant information. Elements clockwise from top left are: Dice rolling video, most recent gain/loss with current total balance below, balance chart for a visual representation of current balance, round number, quit button, gains/losses associated with the possible bets and possible bet choices.]] For results to be comparable across participants, the results are pseudorandomised, with each die appearing exactly three times across the eighteen trials in a balanced order (Brand et al., 2005). * Key to the design is that the outcomes are only pseudorandomised. Each number will be displayed exactly three times, though the order is random. This means that the design is a measure of planning, probability and advantageous decision making which is comparable across participants, rather than one which introduces truly random chance. This does cause a potential for the gambler's fallacy or for the recognition of the hidden design in savvy players (citation). * Participants receive information about the outcome and current monetary balance, creating a feedback opportunity to monitor success/failure in previous decisions (Brand, 2008). * Different from previous gambling tasks, e.g the Iowa Gambling Task, in which participants discover strategy through previous experience. Known probabilities distinguish risk-based decision-making under explicit risk vs. uncertainty or learned risk (Brand et al., 2006) == Risk-based decision-making == * Brand et al. (2006) suggest a model based on the GDT results for the cognitive process of risk-based decision making. The updated version (Schiebener & Brand, 2015; Liebherr et al., 2017) incorporate situational and affective states and reorganise the cognitive processes that underpin the motivational model into three stages: 1. inputs, 2. inner processes, 3. outputs and feedback. * Risk-based decision-making refers to choices made under 'risk': this means that the outcome of a choice is unknown, but the probability of a given outcome can be known. E.g, rolling a six-sided die has an unknown result, but the probability that any given number will be face-up is 1/6. * This is different to uncertainty in which both the outcome ''and'' the probability of that outcome are unknown. The GDT is a measure of risk choices defined in this way. Other measures, like the IGT, combine uncertainty and risk, creating ambiguous risk scenarios (Brand et al., 2006; De Groot & Thurik, 2018). * People do not make the same choices when presented with the same risk scenarios. This suggests individual differences in perception, risk preference, loss aversion, mathematical processing, affective responses and executive functioning (Lowenstein et al., 2001; Mishra, 2014; Pachur & Zilker, 2026). * Taking risks is not always an indication of poor decision making. Choices may be more or less advantageous based on reward and probability. == Psychological mechanisms of risk-based decision-making == * The GDT can examine how risk-based decision-making develops, matures, or becomes impaired. Evidence from clinical populations suggests relationships between GDT performance and particular cognitive or neurological systems. Risk-based decision-making changes substantially during childhood and adolescence. Schiebener et al. (2014) examined participants aged 8–19 years and found developmental improvements in GDT performance: likely refined executive control. * Brand et al. (2004) found that people with Parkinson's disease performed worse on the GDT than healthy controls, and disadvantageous choices were associated with executive functions and feedback processing. A review of decision-making under risk and ambiguity in Parkinson's disease concluded that executive functions are impacted, but may play different roles depending on the decision-making task and its cognitive demands (Colautti et al., 2023), further suggesting separate cognitive processes for risk and ambiguity. Other neurological conditions show similar links between executive functioning and GDT performance. For example, people with Korsakoff syndrome show impaired performance on the GDT, with the impairment associated with executive functions (Brand et al., 2005; Brand et al., 2009). * Feedback processing is also important to GDT performance. Removing feedback (i.e, win or loss, total wins or losses, current and previous balance, etc.) worsened performance in healthy individuals, suggesting cognitive and affective processing are both important for advantageous decision making (Brand, 2008). Amnesic patients showed no difference in GDT performance with or without feedback, consistently performing poorly, illustrating the importance of feedback and experience in avoiding disadvantageous choices (Brand et al., 2009). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} <quiz display=simple> {Executive functioning can influence whether someone makes advantageous choices in the GDT: |type="()"} + True - False {Feedback is irrelevant to GDT performance, since the probabilities are already known: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Applications and limitations of the GDT == * GDT findings should be interpreted as evidence about a particular form of risk-based decision-making. Different behavioural tasks capture different aspects of decision-making. Laboratory measures of risk and decision-making do not necessarily measure a single unified construct (Buelow & Blaine, 2015; Colautti et al., 2023). * The controlled nature and specific probabilities of the GDT allows researchers to investigate the contribution of executive control, reasoning, numerical processing and feedback. It has been useful in identifying deficits in cognitive ability amongst clinical populations. This also has some conceptual relevance for real world decisions involving defined risk. * Many real word scenarios are confounded with uncertainty, social pressures, competing goals and subjective reward considerations. The GDT is not necessarily effective at predicting real-life decision-making (Buelow et al., 2024). ==Conclusion== * The GDT provides a controlled way to study decision-making under risk. Because the probabilities and possible outcomes are known, the GDT allows researchers to examine how people use information about risk when making repeated decisions. * Advantageous decision-making is not simply about avoiding risk. It involves considering the probability and potential outcomes of different choices and using reasoning, executive functioning and feedback to guide decisions. A risky choice is not necessarily a poor decision if the potential reward and probability of success make it advantageous. * GDT performance is influenced by a range of cognitive processes and individual differences. The GDT therefore helps researchers examine why some people are better able than others to adjust their decisions to the risks and outcomes involved. However, it is not necessarily an appropriate analogue for decision-making in complex real life situations. * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Adolescent risk-taking and reward-system development|Adolescent risk-taking and reward-system development]] (Book chapter, 2026) * [[wikipedia:Decision-making|Decision-making]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Dopamine and decision making|Dopamine and decision making]] (Book chapter, 2024) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Gambling addiction motivation|Gambling addiction motivation]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[wikipedia:Risk|Risk]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Brand, M., Fujiwara, E., Borsutzky, S., Kalbe, E., Kessler, J., & Markowitsch, H. J. (2005). Decision-making deficits of korsakoff patients in a new gambling task with explicit rules: Associations with executive functions. ''Neuropsychology'', ''19''(3), 267–277. https://doi.org/10.1037/0894-4105.19.3.267 Brand, M., Labudda, K., Kalbe, E., Hilker, R., Emmans, D., Fuchs, G., Kessler, J., & Markowitsch, H. J. (2004). Decision‐making impairments in patients with Parkinson’s disease. ''Behavioural Neurology'', ''15''(3–4), 77–85. https://doi.org/10.1155/2004/578354 Brand, M., Labudda, K., & Markowitsch, H. J. (2006). Neuropsychological correlates of decision-making in ambiguous and risky situations. ''Neural Networks'', ''19''(8), 1266–1276. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neunet.2006.03.001 Brand, M., Pawlikowski, M., Labudda, K., Laier, C., Rothkirch, N. von, & Markowitsch, H. J. (2009). Do amnesic patients with Korsakoff’s syndrome use feedback when making decisions under risky conditions? An experimental investigation with the game of dice task with and without feedback. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''69''(2), 279–290. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2008.08.003 Brand, Matthias. (2008). Does the feedback from previous trials influence current decisions? A study on the role of feedback processing in making decisions under explicit risk conditions. ''Journal of Neuropsychology'', ''2''(2), 431–443. https://doi.org/10.1348/174866407x220607 Buelow, M. T., & Blaine, A. L. (2015). The assessment of risky decision making: A factor analysis of performance on the Iowa Gambling Task, Balloon Analogue Risk Task, and Columbia Card Task. ''Psychological Assessment'', ''27''(3), 777–785. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038622 Buelow, M. T., Okdie, B. M., & Kowalsky, J. M. (2024). Ecological validity of common behavioral decision making tasks: Evidence across two samples. ''Neuropsychology, Development, and Cognition. Section A, Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology/Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology'', ''46''(3), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2024.2337759 Colautti, L., Iannello, P., Maria Caterina Silveri, & Antonietti, A. (2023). Decision-making under ambiguity and risk and executive functions in parkinson’s disease patients: A scoping review of the studies investigating the Iowa gambling task and the game of dice. ''Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience'', ''23''(5), 1225–1243. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13415-023-01106-3 De Groot, K., & Thurik, R. (2018). Disentangling risk and uncertainty: When risk-taking measures are not about risk. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''9''. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02194 Loewenstein, G. F., Weber, E. U., Hsee, C. K., & Welch, N. (2001). Risk as feelings. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''127''(2), 267–286. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.127.2.267 Mishra, S. (2014). Decision-making under risk: Integrating perspectives from biology, economics, and psychology. ''Personality and Social Psychology Review'', ''18''(3), 280–307. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868314530517 Pachur, T., & Zilker, V. (2026). Psychological theories of decision-making under risk. ''The Cambridge Handbook of Behavioural Data Science'', 76–105. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108939010.009 Pertl, M.-T., Zamarian, L., & Delazer, M. (2017). Reasoning and mathematical skills contribute to normatively superior decision making under risk: Evidence from the game of dice task. ''Cognitive Processing'', ''18''(3), 249–260. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10339-017-0813-x Schiebener, J., & Brand, M. (2015). Self-reported strategies in decisions under risk: Role of feedback, reasoning abilities, executive functions, short-term-memory, and working memory. ''Cognitive Processing'', ''16''(4), 401–416. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10339-015-0665-1 Schiebener, J., Wegmann, E., Gathmann, B., Laier, C., Pawlikowski, M., & Brand, M. (2014). Among three different executive functions, general executive control ability is a key predictor of decision making under objective risk. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''5''. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01386 Schiebener, J., Zamarian, L., Delazer, M., & Brand, M. (2011). Executive functions, categorization of probabilities, and learning from feedback: What does really matter for decision making under explicit risk conditions?. ''Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology'', ''33''(9), 1025–1039. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2011.595702 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/hovercraft-full-eels/202012/risky-gamble-or-uncertain-future A risky gamble or an uncertain future?] (Psychology Today) * [https://www.millisecond.com/library/gameofdicetask Game of dice task] (Millisecond Software) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Decision making]] fvjoix4ou50ov0hi7vwbefuh38ahuus 2836432 2836429 2026-10-07T04:09:19Z U3216724 3106797 Swapped order of paragraphs for narrative flow 2836432 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Game of dice task and decision-making:<br>What does the game of dice task reveal about risk-based decision-making?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:Gaming dice multisided blue.jpg|right|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. Dice have clearly defined odds to roll a specific number, but how Emile decides to bet changes his chances of winning or losing.]] ; Imagine this ... Emile has money to spend on a night out and decides to go to a casino. He arrives at a dice table, where a card in front of him lists his betting options. He could bet on the dealer rolling one specific number for a large payout, but the chances of it happening are low: exactly 1 in 6. He could also bet on four numbers at once, winning if the dealer rolls one of them. His payout shrinks significantly, but his odds of winning increase to 2 in 3. These odds are not spelled out for Emile, but he knows the die has six faces. He has all the information he needs to work out exactly what his chances of winning and losing are (see Figure 1). For the first few rolls, Emile spends his money on safer bets. After a couple of small wins, he's feeling confident and switches to the single number bet, hoping for that big win. He loses. He goes for the single number again. He loses again. By the end of the night, despite knowing the odds the whole time, Emile has lost most of his money on the riskiest, least likely bets. What motivated Emile to make the riskier choice, even though his chances of winning were so much lower? {{RoundBoxBottom}} * The Game of Dice Task (GDT) is a valuable tool for investigating performance under explicit risk. Participants have defined probabilities and consequences. This helps assess the neurological and individual motivations for risk taking (Brand et al., 2005). * Decision-making depends on cognitive mechanisms as well as individual perceptions of risk. Game of Dice Task (GDT) research implicates probability processing, executive functioning, reasoning, the effects of feedback, individual strategy and memory - in general, executive control (Pertl et al., 2017; Schiebener et al., 2011; Schiebener et al., 2014; Schiebener & Brand, 2015). * Risk-based decision-making requires people to consider probability, outcomes and potential rewards. Greater rewards with lower chances may or may not be perceived as advantageous: there is a difference between taking an uncertain choice and a risk (Brand et al., 2006; Mishra, 2014). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} '''Focus questions''' * How does the Game of Dice Task measure risk-based decision-making? * Why is risk different from uncertainty when it comes to making choices? * Which psychological processes affect decision-making under explicit risk? * How can the Game of Dice Task be applied to real-world decision-making? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == The Game of Dice Task == The Game of Dice Task (GDT) is a computerised gambling task in which participants attempt to maximise a fictive capital by betting on rolls of a single die over 18 trials. It was first presented by Brand et al. (2002) as a tool to examine which cognitive abilities contribute to risk-taking. The researcher's initial study found that among 23 healthy adults, older participants and those who were better at identifying risk tended to make safer, more advantageous bets. Later studies comparing Korsakoff syndrome and Parkinson's disease patients with healthy controls further developed the GDT, showing that the clinical groups made significantly more risky choices (Brand et al., 2004; Brand et al., 2005). These studies provide the basis for the standard procedure of the GDT. Players are told to make as much money as they can over the course of the task. Before each of the 18 throws, players place a bet on one number, or a combination of two, three or four numbers. If the number rolled matches at least one of the dice in a player's bet, they win the associated amount. Otherwise, they lose that same amount. These rules are explained at the start of the game and never change. Players complete the GDT on a single screen (see Figure 2). It displays current capital, which typically starts at 1,000 and is framed in a currency relevant to the sample, such as Euros or Dollars. After selecting from one of 14 possible bets, a die rolling video is played. Feedback is given by displaying the amount the player has just won or lost, adjusting the total balance number and chart, and playing an associated win or loss sound. Negative balances and deductions are displayed in red, while positives are displayed in green. [[File:GDT_Schematic_Mockup.svg|center|thumb|800px|'''Figure 2'''. The typical presentation of the GDT, adapted from Brand et al. (2005). Some versions of the GDT change reward amounts, remove or alter feedback elements, or list additional participant information. Elements clockwise from top left are: Dice rolling video, most recent gain/loss with current total balance below, balance chart for a visual representation of current balance, round number, quit button, gains/losses associated with the possible bets and possible bet choices.]] The one and two number bets are classed as risky or disadvantageous, since there is a <50% chance of them winning. Conversely, the three and four number bets are less risky or advantageous, since their chances of winning are ≥50% (Brand et al., 2005; Schiebener et al., 2014). The amounts won or lost scale with the probability of the outcomes, such that riskier choices gain or lose more than the less risky choices (see Table 1). As with Emile's casino scenario, the probabilities are not explicitly stated, but can be calculated from the rules (Brand et al., 2005). <div style="display: flex; justify-content: center;"> {| class="wikitable" |+'''Table 1'''. The four bets in the GDT and their associated odds. Average results calculated using the amounts in Brand et al. (2005). !Bet !Chance of winning !Amount lost/gained !Average result /throw !Category |- |1 number |1 in 6 (16.67%) |1,000 | - 667 |Disadvantageous, most risky |- |2 numbers |2 in 6 (33.34%) |500 | - 167 |Disadvantageous, risky |- |3 numbers |3 in 6 (50%) |200 |0 |Advantageous, less risky |- |4 numbers |4 in 6 (66.67%) |100 | + 33 |Advantageous, least risky |} </div> For results to be comparable across participants, the results are pseudorandomised, with each die appearing exactly three times across the eighteen trials in a balanced order (Brand et al., 2005). * Key to the design is that the outcomes are only pseudorandomised. Each number will be displayed exactly three times, though the order is random. This means that the design is a measure of planning, probability and advantageous decision making which is comparable across participants, rather than one which introduces truly random chance. This does cause a potential for the gambler's fallacy or for the recognition of the hidden design in savvy players (citation). * Participants receive information about the outcome and current monetary balance, creating a feedback opportunity to monitor success/failure in previous decisions (Brand, 2008). * Different from previous gambling tasks, e.g the Iowa Gambling Task, in which participants discover strategy through previous experience. Known probabilities distinguish risk-based decision-making under explicit risk vs. uncertainty or learned risk (Brand et al., 2006) == Risk-based decision-making == * Brand et al. (2006) suggest a model based on the GDT results for the cognitive process of risk-based decision making. The updated version (Schiebener & Brand, 2015; Liebherr et al., 2017) incorporate situational and affective states and reorganise the cognitive processes that underpin the motivational model into three stages: 1. inputs, 2. inner processes, 3. outputs and feedback. * Risk-based decision-making refers to choices made under 'risk': this means that the outcome of a choice is unknown, but the probability of a given outcome can be known. E.g, rolling a six-sided die has an unknown result, but the probability that any given number will be face-up is 1/6. * This is different to uncertainty in which both the outcome ''and'' the probability of that outcome are unknown. The GDT is a measure of risk choices defined in this way. Other measures, like the IGT, combine uncertainty and risk, creating ambiguous risk scenarios (Brand et al., 2006; De Groot & Thurik, 2018). * People do not make the same choices when presented with the same risk scenarios. This suggests individual differences in perception, risk preference, loss aversion, mathematical processing, affective responses and executive functioning (Lowenstein et al., 2001; Mishra, 2014; Pachur & Zilker, 2026). * Taking risks is not always an indication of poor decision making. Choices may be more or less advantageous based on reward and probability. == Psychological mechanisms of risk-based decision-making == * The GDT can examine how risk-based decision-making develops, matures, or becomes impaired. Evidence from clinical populations suggests relationships between GDT performance and particular cognitive or neurological systems. Risk-based decision-making changes substantially during childhood and adolescence. Schiebener et al. (2014) examined participants aged 8–19 years and found developmental improvements in GDT performance: likely refined executive control. * Brand et al. (2004) found that people with Parkinson's disease performed worse on the GDT than healthy controls, and disadvantageous choices were associated with executive functions and feedback processing. A review of decision-making under risk and ambiguity in Parkinson's disease concluded that executive functions are impacted, but may play different roles depending on the decision-making task and its cognitive demands (Colautti et al., 2023), further suggesting separate cognitive processes for risk and ambiguity. Other neurological conditions show similar links between executive functioning and GDT performance. For example, people with Korsakoff syndrome show impaired performance on the GDT, with the impairment associated with executive functions (Brand et al., 2005; Brand et al., 2009). * Feedback processing is also important to GDT performance. Removing feedback (i.e, win or loss, total wins or losses, current and previous balance, etc.) worsened performance in healthy individuals, suggesting cognitive and affective processing are both important for advantageous decision making (Brand, 2008). Amnesic patients showed no difference in GDT performance with or without feedback, consistently performing poorly, illustrating the importance of feedback and experience in avoiding disadvantageous choices (Brand et al., 2009). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} <quiz display=simple> {Executive functioning can influence whether someone makes advantageous choices in the GDT: |type="()"} + True - False {Feedback is irrelevant to GDT performance, since the probabilities are already known: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Applications and limitations of the GDT == * GDT findings should be interpreted as evidence about a particular form of risk-based decision-making. Different behavioural tasks capture different aspects of decision-making. Laboratory measures of risk and decision-making do not necessarily measure a single unified construct (Buelow & Blaine, 2015; Colautti et al., 2023). * The controlled nature and specific probabilities of the GDT allows researchers to investigate the contribution of executive control, reasoning, numerical processing and feedback. It has been useful in identifying deficits in cognitive ability amongst clinical populations. This also has some conceptual relevance for real world decisions involving defined risk. * Many real word scenarios are confounded with uncertainty, social pressures, competing goals and subjective reward considerations. The GDT is not necessarily effective at predicting real-life decision-making (Buelow et al., 2024). ==Conclusion== * The GDT provides a controlled way to study decision-making under risk. Because the probabilities and possible outcomes are known, the GDT allows researchers to examine how people use information about risk when making repeated decisions. * Advantageous decision-making is not simply about avoiding risk. It involves considering the probability and potential outcomes of different choices and using reasoning, executive functioning and feedback to guide decisions. A risky choice is not necessarily a poor decision if the potential reward and probability of success make it advantageous. * GDT performance is influenced by a range of cognitive processes and individual differences. The GDT therefore helps researchers examine why some people are better able than others to adjust their decisions to the risks and outcomes involved. However, it is not necessarily an appropriate analogue for decision-making in complex real life situations. * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Adolescent risk-taking and reward-system development|Adolescent risk-taking and reward-system development]] (Book chapter, 2026) * [[wikipedia:Decision-making|Decision-making]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Dopamine and decision making|Dopamine and decision making]] (Book chapter, 2024) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Gambling addiction motivation|Gambling addiction motivation]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[wikipedia:Risk|Risk]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Brand, M., Fujiwara, E., Borsutzky, S., Kalbe, E., Kessler, J., & Markowitsch, H. J. (2005). Decision-making deficits of korsakoff patients in a new gambling task with explicit rules: Associations with executive functions. ''Neuropsychology'', ''19''(3), 267–277. https://doi.org/10.1037/0894-4105.19.3.267 Brand, M., Labudda, K., Kalbe, E., Hilker, R., Emmans, D., Fuchs, G., Kessler, J., & Markowitsch, H. J. (2004). Decision‐making impairments in patients with Parkinson’s disease. ''Behavioural Neurology'', ''15''(3–4), 77–85. https://doi.org/10.1155/2004/578354 Brand, M., Labudda, K., & Markowitsch, H. J. (2006). Neuropsychological correlates of decision-making in ambiguous and risky situations. ''Neural Networks'', ''19''(8), 1266–1276. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neunet.2006.03.001 Brand, M., Pawlikowski, M., Labudda, K., Laier, C., Rothkirch, N. von, & Markowitsch, H. J. (2009). Do amnesic patients with Korsakoff’s syndrome use feedback when making decisions under risky conditions? An experimental investigation with the game of dice task with and without feedback. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''69''(2), 279–290. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2008.08.003 Brand, Matthias. (2008). Does the feedback from previous trials influence current decisions? A study on the role of feedback processing in making decisions under explicit risk conditions. ''Journal of Neuropsychology'', ''2''(2), 431–443. https://doi.org/10.1348/174866407x220607 Buelow, M. T., & Blaine, A. L. (2015). The assessment of risky decision making: A factor analysis of performance on the Iowa Gambling Task, Balloon Analogue Risk Task, and Columbia Card Task. ''Psychological Assessment'', ''27''(3), 777–785. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038622 Buelow, M. T., Okdie, B. M., & Kowalsky, J. M. (2024). Ecological validity of common behavioral decision making tasks: Evidence across two samples. ''Neuropsychology, Development, and Cognition. Section A, Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology/Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology'', ''46''(3), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2024.2337759 Colautti, L., Iannello, P., Maria Caterina Silveri, & Antonietti, A. (2023). Decision-making under ambiguity and risk and executive functions in parkinson’s disease patients: A scoping review of the studies investigating the Iowa gambling task and the game of dice. ''Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience'', ''23''(5), 1225–1243. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13415-023-01106-3 De Groot, K., & Thurik, R. (2018). Disentangling risk and uncertainty: When risk-taking measures are not about risk. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''9''. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02194 Loewenstein, G. F., Weber, E. U., Hsee, C. K., & Welch, N. (2001). Risk as feelings. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''127''(2), 267–286. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.127.2.267 Mishra, S. (2014). Decision-making under risk: Integrating perspectives from biology, economics, and psychology. ''Personality and Social Psychology Review'', ''18''(3), 280–307. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868314530517 Pachur, T., & Zilker, V. (2026). Psychological theories of decision-making under risk. ''The Cambridge Handbook of Behavioural Data Science'', 76–105. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108939010.009 Pertl, M.-T., Zamarian, L., & Delazer, M. (2017). Reasoning and mathematical skills contribute to normatively superior decision making under risk: Evidence from the game of dice task. ''Cognitive Processing'', ''18''(3), 249–260. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10339-017-0813-x Schiebener, J., & Brand, M. (2015). Self-reported strategies in decisions under risk: Role of feedback, reasoning abilities, executive functions, short-term-memory, and working memory. ''Cognitive Processing'', ''16''(4), 401–416. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10339-015-0665-1 Schiebener, J., Wegmann, E., Gathmann, B., Laier, C., Pawlikowski, M., & Brand, M. (2014). Among three different executive functions, general executive control ability is a key predictor of decision making under objective risk. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''5''. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01386 Schiebener, J., Zamarian, L., Delazer, M., & Brand, M. (2011). Executive functions, categorization of probabilities, and learning from feedback: What does really matter for decision making under explicit risk conditions?. ''Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology'', ''33''(9), 1025–1039. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2011.595702 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/hovercraft-full-eels/202012/risky-gamble-or-uncertain-future A risky gamble or an uncertain future?] (Psychology Today) * [https://www.millisecond.com/library/gameofdicetask Game of dice task] (Millisecond Software) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Decision making]] 480rnox6r1yc3gba9b70y63dy8882i3 2836435 2836432 2026-10-07T04:13:01Z U3216724 3106797 added subheading 2836435 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Game of dice task and decision-making:<br>What does the game of dice task reveal about risk-based decision-making?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:Gaming dice multisided blue.jpg|right|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. Dice have clearly defined odds to roll a specific number, but how Emile decides to bet changes his chances of winning or losing.]] ; Imagine this ... Emile has money to spend on a night out and decides to go to a casino. He arrives at a dice table, where a card in front of him lists his betting options. He could bet on the dealer rolling one specific number for a large payout, but the chances of it happening are low: exactly 1 in 6. He could also bet on four numbers at once, winning if the dealer rolls one of them. His payout shrinks significantly, but his odds of winning increase to 2 in 3. These odds are not spelled out for Emile, but he knows the die has six faces. He has all the information he needs to work out exactly what his chances of winning and losing are (see Figure 1). For the first few rolls, Emile spends his money on safer bets. After a couple of small wins, he's feeling confident and switches to the single number bet, hoping for that big win. He loses. He goes for the single number again. He loses again. By the end of the night, despite knowing the odds the whole time, Emile has lost most of his money on the riskiest, least likely bets. What motivated Emile to make the riskier choice, even though his chances of winning were so much lower? {{RoundBoxBottom}} * The Game of Dice Task (GDT) is a valuable tool for investigating performance under explicit risk. Participants have defined probabilities and consequences. This helps assess the neurological and individual motivations for risk taking (Brand et al., 2005). * Decision-making depends on cognitive mechanisms as well as individual perceptions of risk. Game of Dice Task (GDT) research implicates probability processing, executive functioning, reasoning, the effects of feedback, individual strategy and memory - in general, executive control (Pertl et al., 2017; Schiebener et al., 2011; Schiebener et al., 2014; Schiebener & Brand, 2015). * Risk-based decision-making requires people to consider probability, outcomes and potential rewards. Greater rewards with lower chances may or may not be perceived as advantageous: there is a difference between taking an uncertain choice and a risk (Brand et al., 2006; Mishra, 2014). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} '''Focus questions''' * How does the Game of Dice Task measure risk-based decision-making? * Why is risk different from uncertainty when it comes to making choices? * Which psychological processes affect decision-making under explicit risk? * How can the Game of Dice Task be applied to real-world decision-making? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == The Game of Dice Task == The Game of Dice Task (GDT) is a computerised gambling task in which participants attempt to maximise a fictive capital by betting on rolls of a single die over 18 trials. It was first presented by Brand et al. (2002) as a tool to examine which cognitive abilities contribute to risk-taking. The researcher's initial study found that among 23 healthy adults, older participants and those who were better at identifying risk tended to make safer, more advantageous bets. Later studies comparing Korsakoff syndrome and Parkinson's disease patients with healthy controls further developed the GDT, showing that the clinical groups made significantly more risky choices (Brand et al., 2004; Brand et al., 2005). These studies provide the basis for the standard procedure of the GDT. Players are told to make as much money as they can over the course of the task. Before each of the 18 throws, players place a bet on one number, or a combination of two, three or four numbers. If the number rolled matches at least one of the dice in a player's bet, they win the associated amount. Otherwise, they lose that same amount. These rules are explained at the start of the game and never change. Players complete the GDT on a single screen (see Figure 2). It displays current capital, which typically starts at 1,000 and is framed in a currency relevant to the sample, such as Euros or Dollars. After selecting from one of 14 possible bets, a die rolling video is played. Feedback is given by displaying the amount the player has just won or lost, adjusting the total balance number and chart, and playing an associated win or loss sound. Negative balances and deductions are displayed in red, while positives are displayed in green. [[File:GDT_Schematic_Mockup.svg|center|thumb|800px|'''Figure 2'''. The typical presentation of the GDT, adapted from Brand et al. (2005). Some versions of the GDT change reward amounts, remove or alter feedback elements, or list additional participant information. Elements clockwise from top left are: Dice rolling video, most recent gain/loss with current total balance below, balance chart for a visual representation of current balance, round number, quit button, gains/losses associated with the possible bets and possible bet choices.]] === Measurement of risk-based decision-making === The one and two number bets are classed as risky or disadvantageous, since there is a <50% chance of them winning. Conversely, the three and four number bets are less risky or advantageous, since their chances of winning are ≥50% (Brand et al., 2005; Schiebener et al., 2014). The amounts won or lost scale with the probability of the outcomes, such that riskier choices gain or lose more than the less risky choices (see Table 1). As with Emile's casino scenario, the probabilities are not explicitly stated, but can be calculated from the rules (Brand et al., 2005). <div style="display: flex; justify-content: center;"> {| class="wikitable" |+'''Table 1'''. The four bets in the GDT and their associated odds. Average results calculated using the amounts in Brand et al. (2005). !Bet !Chance of winning !Amount lost/gained !Average result /throw !Category |- |1 number |1 in 6 (16.67%) |1,000 | - 667 |Disadvantageous, most risky |- |2 numbers |2 in 6 (33.34%) |500 | - 167 |Disadvantageous, risky |- |3 numbers |3 in 6 (50%) |200 |0 |Advantageous, less risky |- |4 numbers |4 in 6 (66.67%) |100 | + 33 |Advantageous, least risky |} </div> For results to be comparable across participants, the results are pseudorandomised, with each die appearing exactly three times across the eighteen trials in a balanced order (Brand et al., 2005). * Key to the design is that the outcomes are only pseudorandomised. Each number will be displayed exactly three times, though the order is random. This means that the design is a measure of planning, probability and advantageous decision making which is comparable across participants, rather than one which introduces truly random chance. This does cause a potential for the gambler's fallacy or for the recognition of the hidden design in savvy players (citation). * Participants receive information about the outcome and current monetary balance, creating a feedback opportunity to monitor success/failure in previous decisions (Brand, 2008). * Different from previous gambling tasks, e.g the Iowa Gambling Task, in which participants discover strategy through previous experience. Known probabilities distinguish risk-based decision-making under explicit risk vs. uncertainty or learned risk (Brand et al., 2006) == Risk-based decision-making == * Brand et al. (2006) suggest a model based on the GDT results for the cognitive process of risk-based decision making. The updated version (Schiebener & Brand, 2015; Liebherr et al., 2017) incorporate situational and affective states and reorganise the cognitive processes that underpin the motivational model into three stages: 1. inputs, 2. inner processes, 3. outputs and feedback. * Risk-based decision-making refers to choices made under 'risk': this means that the outcome of a choice is unknown, but the probability of a given outcome can be known. E.g, rolling a six-sided die has an unknown result, but the probability that any given number will be face-up is 1/6. * This is different to uncertainty in which both the outcome ''and'' the probability of that outcome are unknown. The GDT is a measure of risk choices defined in this way. Other measures, like the IGT, combine uncertainty and risk, creating ambiguous risk scenarios (Brand et al., 2006; De Groot & Thurik, 2018). * People do not make the same choices when presented with the same risk scenarios. This suggests individual differences in perception, risk preference, loss aversion, mathematical processing, affective responses and executive functioning (Lowenstein et al., 2001; Mishra, 2014; Pachur & Zilker, 2026). * Taking risks is not always an indication of poor decision making. Choices may be more or less advantageous based on reward and probability. == Psychological mechanisms of risk-based decision-making == * The GDT can examine how risk-based decision-making develops, matures, or becomes impaired. Evidence from clinical populations suggests relationships between GDT performance and particular cognitive or neurological systems. Risk-based decision-making changes substantially during childhood and adolescence. Schiebener et al. (2014) examined participants aged 8–19 years and found developmental improvements in GDT performance: likely refined executive control. * Brand et al. (2004) found that people with Parkinson's disease performed worse on the GDT than healthy controls, and disadvantageous choices were associated with executive functions and feedback processing. A review of decision-making under risk and ambiguity in Parkinson's disease concluded that executive functions are impacted, but may play different roles depending on the decision-making task and its cognitive demands (Colautti et al., 2023), further suggesting separate cognitive processes for risk and ambiguity. Other neurological conditions show similar links between executive functioning and GDT performance. For example, people with Korsakoff syndrome show impaired performance on the GDT, with the impairment associated with executive functions (Brand et al., 2005; Brand et al., 2009). * Feedback processing is also important to GDT performance. Removing feedback (i.e, win or loss, total wins or losses, current and previous balance, etc.) worsened performance in healthy individuals, suggesting cognitive and affective processing are both important for advantageous decision making (Brand, 2008). Amnesic patients showed no difference in GDT performance with or without feedback, consistently performing poorly, illustrating the importance of feedback and experience in avoiding disadvantageous choices (Brand et al., 2009). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} <quiz display=simple> {Executive functioning can influence whether someone makes advantageous choices in the GDT: |type="()"} + True - False {Feedback is irrelevant to GDT performance, since the probabilities are already known: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Applications and limitations of the GDT == * GDT findings should be interpreted as evidence about a particular form of risk-based decision-making. Different behavioural tasks capture different aspects of decision-making. Laboratory measures of risk and decision-making do not necessarily measure a single unified construct (Buelow & Blaine, 2015; Colautti et al., 2023). * The controlled nature and specific probabilities of the GDT allows researchers to investigate the contribution of executive control, reasoning, numerical processing and feedback. It has been useful in identifying deficits in cognitive ability amongst clinical populations. This also has some conceptual relevance for real world decisions involving defined risk. * Many real word scenarios are confounded with uncertainty, social pressures, competing goals and subjective reward considerations. The GDT is not necessarily effective at predicting real-life decision-making (Buelow et al., 2024). ==Conclusion== * The GDT provides a controlled way to study decision-making under risk. Because the probabilities and possible outcomes are known, the GDT allows researchers to examine how people use information about risk when making repeated decisions. * Advantageous decision-making is not simply about avoiding risk. It involves considering the probability and potential outcomes of different choices and using reasoning, executive functioning and feedback to guide decisions. A risky choice is not necessarily a poor decision if the potential reward and probability of success make it advantageous. * GDT performance is influenced by a range of cognitive processes and individual differences. The GDT therefore helps researchers examine why some people are better able than others to adjust their decisions to the risks and outcomes involved. However, it is not necessarily an appropriate analogue for decision-making in complex real life situations. * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Adolescent risk-taking and reward-system development|Adolescent risk-taking and reward-system development]] (Book chapter, 2026) * [[wikipedia:Decision-making|Decision-making]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Dopamine and decision making|Dopamine and decision making]] (Book chapter, 2024) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Gambling addiction motivation|Gambling addiction motivation]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[wikipedia:Risk|Risk]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Brand, M., Fujiwara, E., Borsutzky, S., Kalbe, E., Kessler, J., & Markowitsch, H. J. (2005). Decision-making deficits of korsakoff patients in a new gambling task with explicit rules: Associations with executive functions. ''Neuropsychology'', ''19''(3), 267–277. https://doi.org/10.1037/0894-4105.19.3.267 Brand, M., Labudda, K., Kalbe, E., Hilker, R., Emmans, D., Fuchs, G., Kessler, J., & Markowitsch, H. J. (2004). Decision‐making impairments in patients with Parkinson’s disease. ''Behavioural Neurology'', ''15''(3–4), 77–85. https://doi.org/10.1155/2004/578354 Brand, M., Labudda, K., & Markowitsch, H. J. (2006). Neuropsychological correlates of decision-making in ambiguous and risky situations. ''Neural Networks'', ''19''(8), 1266–1276. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neunet.2006.03.001 Brand, M., Pawlikowski, M., Labudda, K., Laier, C., Rothkirch, N. von, & Markowitsch, H. J. (2009). Do amnesic patients with Korsakoff’s syndrome use feedback when making decisions under risky conditions? An experimental investigation with the game of dice task with and without feedback. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''69''(2), 279–290. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2008.08.003 Brand, Matthias. (2008). Does the feedback from previous trials influence current decisions? A study on the role of feedback processing in making decisions under explicit risk conditions. ''Journal of Neuropsychology'', ''2''(2), 431–443. https://doi.org/10.1348/174866407x220607 Buelow, M. T., & Blaine, A. L. (2015). The assessment of risky decision making: A factor analysis of performance on the Iowa Gambling Task, Balloon Analogue Risk Task, and Columbia Card Task. ''Psychological Assessment'', ''27''(3), 777–785. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038622 Buelow, M. T., Okdie, B. M., & Kowalsky, J. M. (2024). Ecological validity of common behavioral decision making tasks: Evidence across two samples. ''Neuropsychology, Development, and Cognition. Section A, Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology/Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology'', ''46''(3), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2024.2337759 Colautti, L., Iannello, P., Maria Caterina Silveri, & Antonietti, A. (2023). Decision-making under ambiguity and risk and executive functions in parkinson’s disease patients: A scoping review of the studies investigating the Iowa gambling task and the game of dice. ''Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience'', ''23''(5), 1225–1243. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13415-023-01106-3 De Groot, K., & Thurik, R. (2018). Disentangling risk and uncertainty: When risk-taking measures are not about risk. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''9''. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02194 Loewenstein, G. F., Weber, E. U., Hsee, C. K., & Welch, N. (2001). Risk as feelings. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''127''(2), 267–286. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.127.2.267 Mishra, S. (2014). Decision-making under risk: Integrating perspectives from biology, economics, and psychology. ''Personality and Social Psychology Review'', ''18''(3), 280–307. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868314530517 Pachur, T., & Zilker, V. (2026). Psychological theories of decision-making under risk. ''The Cambridge Handbook of Behavioural Data Science'', 76–105. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108939010.009 Pertl, M.-T., Zamarian, L., & Delazer, M. (2017). Reasoning and mathematical skills contribute to normatively superior decision making under risk: Evidence from the game of dice task. ''Cognitive Processing'', ''18''(3), 249–260. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10339-017-0813-x Schiebener, J., & Brand, M. (2015). Self-reported strategies in decisions under risk: Role of feedback, reasoning abilities, executive functions, short-term-memory, and working memory. ''Cognitive Processing'', ''16''(4), 401–416. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10339-015-0665-1 Schiebener, J., Wegmann, E., Gathmann, B., Laier, C., Pawlikowski, M., & Brand, M. (2014). Among three different executive functions, general executive control ability is a key predictor of decision making under objective risk. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''5''. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01386 Schiebener, J., Zamarian, L., Delazer, M., & Brand, M. (2011). Executive functions, categorization of probabilities, and learning from feedback: What does really matter for decision making under explicit risk conditions?. ''Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology'', ''33''(9), 1025–1039. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2011.595702 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/hovercraft-full-eels/202012/risky-gamble-or-uncertain-future A risky gamble or an uncertain future?] (Psychology Today) * [https://www.millisecond.com/library/gameofdicetask Game of dice task] (Millisecond Software) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Decision making]] pja3xxrpkijvfsk26ty2zsmofr9zkjl 2836439 2836435 2026-10-07T04:35:33Z U3216724 3106797 updated wording for clarity and consistency, added and moved point about pseudorandomisation, added citations 2836439 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Game of dice task and decision-making:<br>What does the game of dice task reveal about risk-based decision-making?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:Gaming dice multisided blue.jpg|right|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. Dice have clearly defined odds to roll a specific number, but how Emile decides to bet changes his chances of winning or losing.]] ; Imagine this ... Emile has money to spend on a night out and decides to go to a casino. He arrives at a dice table, where a card in front of him lists his betting options. He could bet on the dealer rolling one specific number for a large payout, but the chances of it happening are low: exactly 1 in 6. He could also bet on four numbers at once, winning if the dealer rolls one of them. His payout shrinks significantly, but his odds of winning increase to 2 in 3. These odds are not spelled out for Emile, but he knows the die has six faces. He has all the information he needs to work out exactly what his chances of winning and losing are (see Figure 1). For the first few rolls, Emile spends his money on safer bets. After a couple of small wins, he's feeling confident and switches to the single number bet, hoping for that big win. He loses. He goes for the single number again. He loses again. By the end of the night, despite knowing the odds the whole time, Emile has lost most of his money on the riskiest, least likely bets. What motivated Emile to make the riskier choice, even though his chances of winning were so much lower? {{RoundBoxBottom}} * The Game of Dice Task (GDT) is a valuable tool for investigating performance under explicit risk. Participants have defined probabilities and consequences. This helps assess the neurological and individual motivations for risk taking (Brand et al., 2005). * Decision-making depends on cognitive mechanisms as well as individual perceptions of risk. Game of Dice Task (GDT) research implicates probability processing, executive functioning, reasoning, the effects of feedback, individual strategy and memory - in general, executive control (Pertl et al., 2017; Schiebener et al., 2011; Schiebener et al., 2014; Schiebener & Brand, 2015). * Risk-based decision-making requires people to consider probability, outcomes and potential rewards. Greater rewards with lower chances may or may not be perceived as advantageous: there is a difference between taking an uncertain choice and a risk (Brand et al., 2006; Mishra, 2014). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} '''Focus questions''' * How does the Game of Dice Task measure risk-based decision-making? * Why is risk different from uncertainty when it comes to making choices? * Which psychological processes affect decision-making under explicit risk? * How can the Game of Dice Task be applied to real-world decision-making? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == The Game of Dice Task == The Game of Dice Task (GDT) is a computerised gambling task in which players attempt to maximise a fictive capital by betting on rolls of a single die over 18 trials. It was first presented by Brand et al. (2002) as a tool to examine which cognitive abilities contribute to risk-taking. The researcher's initial study found that among 23 healthy adults, older participants and those who were better at identifying risk tended to make safer, more advantageous bets. Later studies comparing Korsakoff syndrome and Parkinson's disease patients with healthy controls further developed the GDT, showing that the clinical groups made significantly more risky choices (Brand et al., 2004; Brand et al., 2005). These studies provide the basis for the standard procedure of the GDT. Players are told to make as much money as they can over the course of the task. Before each of the 18 throws, players place a bet on one number, or a combination of two, three or four numbers. If the number rolled matches at least one of the dice in a player's bet, they win the associated amount. Otherwise, they lose that same amount. These rules are explained at the start of the game and never change. Players complete the GDT on a single screen (see Figure 2). It displays current capital, which typically starts at 1,000 and is framed in a currency relevant to the sample, such as Euros or Dollars (Brand et al., 2005; Wood et al., 2016). After selecting from one of 14 possible bets, a die rolling video is played. Feedback is given by displaying the amount the player has just won or lost, adjusting the total balance number and chart, and playing an associated win or loss sound. Negative balances and deductions are displayed in red, while positives are displayed in green. [[File:GDT_Schematic_Mockup.svg|center|thumb|800px|'''Figure 2'''. The typical presentation of the GDT, adapted from Brand et al. (2005). Some versions of the GDT change reward amounts, remove or alter feedback elements, or list additional participant information. Elements clockwise from top left are: Dice rolling video, most recent gain/loss with current total balance below, balance chart for a visual representation of current balance, round number, quit button, gains/losses associated with the possible bets and possible bet choices.]] === Measurement of risk-based decision-making === The one and two number bets are classed as risky and disadvantageous, since there is a <50% chance of them winning. Conversely, the three and four number bets are less risky and advantageous, since their chances of winning are ≥50% (Brand et al., 2005; Schiebener et al., 2014). The amounts won or lost scale with the probability of the outcomes, such that riskier choices gain or lose more than the less risky choices (see Table 1). As with Emile's casino scenario, the probabilities are not explicitly stated, but can be calculated from the rules (Brand et al., 2005). <div style="display: flex; justify-content: center;"> {| class="wikitable" |+'''Table 1'''. The four bets in the GDT and their associated odds. Average results calculated using the amounts in Brand et al. (2005). !Bet !Chance of winning !Amount lost/gained !Average result /throw !Category |- |1 number |1 in 6 (16.67%) |1,000 | - 667 |Disadvantageous, most risky |- |2 numbers |2 in 6 (33.34%) |500 | - 167 |Disadvantageous, risky |- |3 numbers |3 in 6 (50%) |200 |0 |Advantageous, less risky |- |4 numbers |4 in 6 (66.67%) |100 | + 33 |Advantageous, least risky |} </div> * Participants receive information about the outcome and current monetary balance, creating a feedback opportunity to monitor success/failure in previous decisions (Brand, 2008). * Different from previous gambling tasks, e.g the Iowa Gambling Task, in which participants discover strategy through previous experience. Known probabilities distinguish risk-based decision-making under explicit risk vs. uncertainty or learned risk (Brand et al., 2006) However: To make results comparable across participants, the dice rolls are pseudorandomised, with each die appearing exactly three times across the eighteen trials in a balanced order (Brand et al., 2005). This means throws are not truly independent; the first time a number is rolled, its chance of appearing in any subsequent rolls lowers from 1 in 6 to 1 in 9, and other numbers' odds correspondingly increase. This means that the gambler's fallacy becomes an advantageous strategy in later trials, and savvy players who are tracking the dice rolls may be able to determine the final number. Instead, the task relies on perceptions of probability. i.e, this design is a natural concession for comparability. == Risk-based decision-making == * Brand et al. (2006) suggest a model based on the GDT results for the cognitive process of risk-based decision making. The updated version (Schiebener & Brand, 2015; Liebherr et al., 2017) incorporate situational and affective states and reorganise the cognitive processes that underpin the motivational model into three stages: 1. inputs, 2. inner processes, 3. outputs and feedback. * Risk-based decision-making refers to choices made under 'risk': this means that the outcome of a choice is unknown, but the probability of a given outcome can be known. E.g, rolling a six-sided die has an unknown result, but the probability that any given number will be face-up is 1/6. * This is different to uncertainty in which both the outcome ''and'' the probability of that outcome are unknown. The GDT is a measure of risk choices defined in this way. Other measures, like the IGT, combine uncertainty and risk, creating ambiguous risk scenarios (Brand et al., 2006; De Groot & Thurik, 2018). * People do not make the same choices when presented with the same risk scenarios. This suggests individual differences in perception, risk preference, loss aversion, mathematical processing, affective responses and executive functioning (Lowenstein et al., 2001; Mishra, 2014; Pachur & Zilker, 2026). * Taking risks is not always an indication of poor decision making. Choices may be more or less advantageous based on reward and probability. == Psychological mechanisms of risk-based decision-making == * The GDT can examine how risk-based decision-making develops, matures, or becomes impaired. Evidence from clinical populations suggests relationships between GDT performance and particular cognitive or neurological systems. Risk-based decision-making changes substantially during childhood and adolescence. Schiebener et al. (2014) examined participants aged 8–19 years and found developmental improvements in GDT performance: likely refined executive control. * Brand et al. (2004) found that people with Parkinson's disease performed worse on the GDT than healthy controls, and disadvantageous choices were associated with executive functions and feedback processing. A review of decision-making under risk and ambiguity in Parkinson's disease concluded that executive functions are impacted, but may play different roles depending on the decision-making task and its cognitive demands (Colautti et al., 2023), further suggesting separate cognitive processes for risk and ambiguity. Other neurological conditions show similar links between executive functioning and GDT performance. For example, people with Korsakoff syndrome show impaired performance on the GDT, with the impairment associated with executive functions (Brand et al., 2005; Brand et al., 2009). * Feedback processing is also important to GDT performance. Removing feedback (i.e, win or loss, total wins or losses, current and previous balance, etc.) worsened performance in healthy individuals, suggesting cognitive and affective processing are both important for advantageous decision making (Brand, 2008). Amnesic patients showed no difference in GDT performance with or without feedback, consistently performing poorly, illustrating the importance of feedback and experience in avoiding disadvantageous choices (Brand et al., 2009). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} <quiz display=simple> {Executive functioning can influence whether someone makes advantageous choices in the GDT: |type="()"} + True - False {Feedback is irrelevant to GDT performance, since the probabilities are already known: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Applications and limitations of the GDT == * GDT findings should be interpreted as evidence about a particular form of risk-based decision-making. Different behavioural tasks capture different aspects of decision-making. Laboratory measures of risk and decision-making do not necessarily measure a single unified construct (Buelow & Blaine, 2015; Colautti et al., 2023). * The controlled nature and specific probabilities of the GDT allows researchers to investigate the contribution of executive control, reasoning, numerical processing and feedback. It has been useful in identifying deficits in cognitive ability amongst clinical populations. This also has some conceptual relevance for real world decisions involving defined risk. * Many real word scenarios are confounded with uncertainty, social pressures, competing goals and subjective reward considerations. The GDT is not necessarily effective at predicting real-life decision-making (Buelow et al., 2024). ==Conclusion== * The GDT provides a controlled way to study decision-making under risk. Because the probabilities and possible outcomes are known, the GDT allows researchers to examine how people use information about risk when making repeated decisions. * Advantageous decision-making is not simply about avoiding risk. It involves considering the probability and potential outcomes of different choices and using reasoning, executive functioning and feedback to guide decisions. A risky choice is not necessarily a poor decision if the potential reward and probability of success make it advantageous. * GDT performance is influenced by a range of cognitive processes and individual differences. The GDT therefore helps researchers examine why some people are better able than others to adjust their decisions to the risks and outcomes involved. However, it is not necessarily an appropriate analogue for decision-making in complex real life situations. * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Adolescent risk-taking and reward-system development|Adolescent risk-taking and reward-system development]] (Book chapter, 2026) * [[wikipedia:Decision-making|Decision-making]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Dopamine and decision making|Dopamine and decision making]] (Book chapter, 2024) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Gambling addiction motivation|Gambling addiction motivation]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[wikipedia:Risk|Risk]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Brand, M., Fujiwara, E., Borsutzky, S., Kalbe, E., Kessler, J., & Markowitsch, H. J. (2005). Decision-making deficits of korsakoff patients in a new gambling task with explicit rules: Associations with executive functions. ''Neuropsychology'', ''19''(3), 267–277. https://doi.org/10.1037/0894-4105.19.3.267 Brand, M., Labudda, K., Kalbe, E., Hilker, R., Emmans, D., Fuchs, G., Kessler, J., & Markowitsch, H. J. (2004). Decision‐making impairments in patients with Parkinson’s disease. ''Behavioural Neurology'', ''15''(3–4), 77–85. https://doi.org/10.1155/2004/578354 Brand, M., Labudda, K., & Markowitsch, H. J. (2006). Neuropsychological correlates of decision-making in ambiguous and risky situations. ''Neural Networks'', ''19''(8), 1266–1276. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neunet.2006.03.001 Brand, M., Pawlikowski, M., Labudda, K., Laier, C., Rothkirch, N. von, & Markowitsch, H. J. (2009). Do amnesic patients with Korsakoff’s syndrome use feedback when making decisions under risky conditions? An experimental investigation with the game of dice task with and without feedback. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''69''(2), 279–290. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2008.08.003 Brand, Matthias. (2008). Does the feedback from previous trials influence current decisions? A study on the role of feedback processing in making decisions under explicit risk conditions. ''Journal of Neuropsychology'', ''2''(2), 431–443. https://doi.org/10.1348/174866407x220607 Buelow, M. T., & Blaine, A. L. (2015). The assessment of risky decision making: A factor analysis of performance on the Iowa Gambling Task, Balloon Analogue Risk Task, and Columbia Card Task. ''Psychological Assessment'', ''27''(3), 777–785. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038622 Buelow, M. T., Okdie, B. M., & Kowalsky, J. M. (2024). Ecological validity of common behavioral decision making tasks: Evidence across two samples. ''Neuropsychology, Development, and Cognition. Section A, Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology/Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology'', ''46''(3), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2024.2337759 Colautti, L., Iannello, P., Maria Caterina Silveri, & Antonietti, A. (2023). Decision-making under ambiguity and risk and executive functions in parkinson’s disease patients: A scoping review of the studies investigating the Iowa gambling task and the game of dice. ''Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience'', ''23''(5), 1225–1243. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13415-023-01106-3 De Groot, K., & Thurik, R. (2018). Disentangling risk and uncertainty: When risk-taking measures are not about risk. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''9''. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02194 Loewenstein, G. F., Weber, E. U., Hsee, C. K., & Welch, N. (2001). Risk as feelings. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''127''(2), 267–286. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.127.2.267 Mishra, S. (2014). Decision-making under risk: Integrating perspectives from biology, economics, and psychology. ''Personality and Social Psychology Review'', ''18''(3), 280–307. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868314530517 Pachur, T., & Zilker, V. (2026). Psychological theories of decision-making under risk. ''The Cambridge Handbook of Behavioural Data Science'', 76–105. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108939010.009 Pertl, M.-T., Zamarian, L., & Delazer, M. (2017). Reasoning and mathematical skills contribute to normatively superior decision making under risk: Evidence from the game of dice task. ''Cognitive Processing'', ''18''(3), 249–260. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10339-017-0813-x Schiebener, J., & Brand, M. (2015). Self-reported strategies in decisions under risk: Role of feedback, reasoning abilities, executive functions, short-term-memory, and working memory. ''Cognitive Processing'', ''16''(4), 401–416. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10339-015-0665-1 Schiebener, J., Wegmann, E., Gathmann, B., Laier, C., Pawlikowski, M., & Brand, M. (2014). Among three different executive functions, general executive control ability is a key predictor of decision making under objective risk. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''5''. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01386 Schiebener, J., Zamarian, L., Delazer, M., & Brand, M. (2011). Executive functions, categorization of probabilities, and learning from feedback: What does really matter for decision making under explicit risk conditions?. ''Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology'', ''33''(9), 1025–1039. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2011.595702 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/hovercraft-full-eels/202012/risky-gamble-or-uncertain-future A risky gamble or an uncertain future?] (Psychology Today) * [https://www.millisecond.com/library/gameofdicetask Game of dice task] (Millisecond Software) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Decision making]] d31immryyhezlhkkmppg1win552qr8g 2836443 2836439 2026-10-07T04:44:50Z U3216724 3106797 corrected calculation, moved sections to form better narrative 2836443 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Game of dice task and decision-making:<br>What does the game of dice task reveal about risk-based decision-making?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:Gaming dice multisided blue.jpg|right|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. Dice have clearly defined odds to roll a specific number, but how Emile decides to bet changes his chances of winning or losing.]] ; Imagine this ... Emile has money to spend on a night out and decides to go to a casino. He arrives at a dice table, where a card in front of him lists his betting options. He could bet on the dealer rolling one specific number for a large payout, but the chances of it happening are low: exactly 1 in 6. He could also bet on four numbers at once, winning if the dealer rolls one of them. His payout shrinks significantly, but his odds of winning increase to 2 in 3. These odds are not spelled out for Emile, but he knows the die has six faces. He has all the information he needs to work out exactly what his chances of winning and losing are (see Figure 1). For the first few rolls, Emile spends his money on safer bets. After a couple of small wins, he's feeling confident and switches to the single number bet, hoping for that big win. He loses. He goes for the single number again. He loses again. By the end of the night, despite knowing the odds the whole time, Emile has lost most of his money on the riskiest, least likely bets. What motivated Emile to make the riskier choice, even though his chances of winning were so much lower? {{RoundBoxBottom}} * The Game of Dice Task (GDT) is a valuable tool for investigating performance under explicit risk. Participants have defined probabilities and consequences. This helps assess the neurological and individual motivations for risk taking (Brand et al., 2005). * Decision-making depends on cognitive mechanisms as well as individual perceptions of risk. Game of Dice Task (GDT) research implicates probability processing, executive functioning, reasoning, the effects of feedback, individual strategy and memory - in general, executive control (Pertl et al., 2017; Schiebener et al., 2011; Schiebener et al., 2014; Schiebener & Brand, 2015). * Risk-based decision-making requires people to consider probability, outcomes and potential rewards. Greater rewards with lower chances may or may not be perceived as advantageous: there is a difference between taking an uncertain choice and a risk (Brand et al., 2006; Mishra, 2014). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} '''Focus questions''' * How does the Game of Dice Task measure risk-based decision-making? * Why is risk different from uncertainty when it comes to making choices? * Which psychological processes affect decision-making under explicit risk? * How can the Game of Dice Task be applied to real-world decision-making? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == The Game of Dice Task == The Game of Dice Task (GDT) is a computerised gambling task in which players attempt to maximise a fictive capital by betting on rolls of a single die over 18 trials. It was first presented by Brand et al. (2002) as a tool to examine which cognitive abilities contribute to risk-taking. The researcher's initial study found that among 23 healthy adults, older participants and those who were better at identifying risk tended to make safer, more advantageous bets. Later studies comparing Korsakoff syndrome and Parkinson's disease patients with healthy controls further developed the GDT, showing that the clinical groups made significantly more risky choices (Brand et al., 2004; Brand et al., 2005). These studies provide the basis for the standard procedure of the GDT. Players are told to make as much money as they can over the course of the task. Before each of the 18 throws, players place a bet on one number, or a combination of two, three or four numbers. If the number rolled matches at least one of the dice in a player's bet, they win the associated amount. Otherwise, they lose that same amount. These rules are explained at the start of the game and never change. Players complete the GDT on a single screen (see Figure 2). It displays current capital, which typically starts at 1,000 and is framed in a currency relevant to the sample, such as Euros or Dollars (Brand et al., 2005; Wood et al., 2016). After selecting from one of 14 possible bets, a die rolling video is played. Feedback is given by displaying the amount the player has just won or lost, adjusting the total balance number and chart, and playing an associated win or loss sound. Negative balances and deductions are displayed in red, while positives are displayed in green. [[File:GDT_Schematic_Mockup.svg|center|thumb|800px|'''Figure 2'''. The typical presentation of the GDT, adapted from Brand et al. (2005). Some versions of the GDT change reward amounts, remove or alter feedback elements, or list additional participant information. Elements clockwise from top left are: Dice rolling video, most recent gain/loss with current total balance below, balance chart for a visual representation of current balance, round number, quit button, gains/losses associated with the possible bets and possible bet choices.]] === Measurement of risk-based decision-making === The one and two number bets are classed as risky and disadvantageous, since there is a <50% chance of them winning. Conversely, the three and four number bets are less risky and advantageous, since their chances of winning are ≥50% (Brand et al., 2005; Schiebener et al., 2014). The amounts won or lost scale with the probability of the outcomes, such that riskier choices gain or lose more than the less risky choices (see Table 1). As with Emile's casino scenario, the probabilities are not explicitly stated, but can be calculated from the rules (Brand et al., 2005). <div style="display: flex; justify-content: center;"> {| class="wikitable" |+'''Table 1'''. The four bets in the GDT and their associated odds. Average results calculated using the amounts in Brand et al. (2005). !Bet !Chance of winning !Amount lost/gained !Average result /throw !Category |- |1 number |1 in 6 (16.67%) |1,000 | - 667 |Disadvantageous, most risky |- |2 numbers |2 in 6 (33.34%) |500 | - 167 |Disadvantageous, risky |- |3 numbers |3 in 6 (50%) |200 |0 |Advantageous, less risky |- |4 numbers |4 in 6 (66.67%) |100 | + 33 |Advantageous, least risky |} </div> * Participants receive information about the outcome and current monetary balance, creating a feedback opportunity to monitor success/failure in previous decisions (Brand, 2008). == Risk-based decision-making == * Brand et al. (2006) suggest a model based on the GDT results for the cognitive process of risk-based decision making. The updated version (Schiebener & Brand, 2015; Liebherr et al., 2017) incorporate situational and affective states and reorganise the cognitive processes that underpin the motivational model into three stages: 1. inputs, 2. inner processes, 3. outputs and feedback. * Different from previous gambling tasks, e.g the Iowa Gambling Task, in which participants discover strategy through previous experience. Known probabilities distinguish risk-based decision-making under explicit risk vs. uncertainty or learned risk (Brand et al., 2006) * Risk-based decision-making refers to choices made under 'risk': this means that the outcome of a choice is unknown, but the probability of a given outcome can be known. E.g, rolling a six-sided die has an unknown result, but the probability that any given number will be face-up is 1/6. * This is different to uncertainty in which both the outcome ''and'' the probability of that outcome are unknown. The GDT is a measure of risk choices defined in this way. Other measures, like the IGT, combine uncertainty and risk, creating ambiguous risk scenarios (Brand et al., 2006; De Groot & Thurik, 2018). * People do not make the same choices when presented with the same risk scenarios. This suggests individual differences in perception, risk preference, loss aversion, mathematical processing, affective responses and executive functioning (Lowenstein et al., 2001; Mishra, 2014; Pachur & Zilker, 2026). * Taking risks is not always an indication of poor decision making. Choices may be more or less advantageous based on reward and probability. == Psychological mechanisms of risk-based decision-making == * The GDT can examine how risk-based decision-making develops, matures, or becomes impaired. Evidence from clinical populations suggests relationships between GDT performance and particular cognitive or neurological systems. Risk-based decision-making changes substantially during childhood and adolescence. Schiebener et al. (2014) examined participants aged 8–19 years and found developmental improvements in GDT performance: likely refined executive control. * Brand et al. (2004) found that people with Parkinson's disease performed worse on the GDT than healthy controls, and disadvantageous choices were associated with executive functions and feedback processing. A review of decision-making under risk and ambiguity in Parkinson's disease concluded that executive functions are impacted, but may play different roles depending on the decision-making task and its cognitive demands (Colautti et al., 2023), further suggesting separate cognitive processes for risk and ambiguity. Other neurological conditions show similar links between executive functioning and GDT performance. For example, people with Korsakoff syndrome show impaired performance on the GDT, with the impairment associated with executive functions (Brand et al., 2005; Brand et al., 2009). * Feedback processing is also important to GDT performance. Removing feedback (i.e, win or loss, total wins or losses, current and previous balance, etc.) worsened performance in healthy individuals, suggesting cognitive and affective processing are both important for advantageous decision making (Brand, 2008). Amnesic patients showed no difference in GDT performance with or without feedback, consistently performing poorly, illustrating the importance of feedback and experience in avoiding disadvantageous choices (Brand et al., 2009). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} <quiz display=simple> {Executive functioning can influence whether someone makes advantageous choices in the GDT: |type="()"} + True - False {Feedback is irrelevant to GDT performance, since the probabilities are already known: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Applications and limitations of the GDT == * To make results comparable across participants, the dice rolls are pseudorandomised, with each die appearing exactly three times across the eighteen trials in a balanced order (Brand et al., 2005). This means throws are not truly independent; the first time a number is rolled, its chance of appearing in any subsequent rolls lowers from 1 in 6 to 2 in 17, and other numbers' odds correspondingly increase. This means that the gambler's fallacy becomes an advantageous strategy in later trials, and savvy players who are tracking the dice rolls may be able to determine the final number. Instead, the task relies on perceptions of probability. i.e, this design is a natural concession for comparability. * GDT findings should be interpreted as evidence about a particular form of risk-based decision-making. Different behavioural tasks capture different aspects of decision-making. Laboratory measures of risk and decision-making do not necessarily measure a single unified construct (Buelow & Blaine, 2015; Colautti et al., 2023). * The controlled nature and specific probabilities of the GDT allows researchers to investigate the contribution of executive control, reasoning, numerical processing and feedback. It has been useful in identifying deficits in cognitive ability amongst clinical populations. This also has some conceptual relevance for real world decisions involving defined risk. * Many real word scenarios are confounded with uncertainty, social pressures, competing goals and subjective reward considerations. The GDT is not necessarily effective at predicting real-life decision-making (Buelow et al., 2024). ==Conclusion== * The GDT provides a controlled way to study decision-making under risk. Because the probabilities and possible outcomes are known, the GDT allows researchers to examine how people use information about risk when making repeated decisions. * Advantageous decision-making is not simply about avoiding risk. It involves considering the probability and potential outcomes of different choices and using reasoning, executive functioning and feedback to guide decisions. A risky choice is not necessarily a poor decision if the potential reward and probability of success make it advantageous. * GDT performance is influenced by a range of cognitive processes and individual differences. The GDT therefore helps researchers examine why some people are better able than others to adjust their decisions to the risks and outcomes involved. However, it is not necessarily an appropriate analogue for decision-making in complex real life situations. * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Adolescent risk-taking and reward-system development|Adolescent risk-taking and reward-system development]] (Book chapter, 2026) * [[wikipedia:Decision-making|Decision-making]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Dopamine and decision making|Dopamine and decision making]] (Book chapter, 2024) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Gambling addiction motivation|Gambling addiction motivation]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[wikipedia:Risk|Risk]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Brand, M., Fujiwara, E., Borsutzky, S., Kalbe, E., Kessler, J., & Markowitsch, H. J. (2005). Decision-making deficits of korsakoff patients in a new gambling task with explicit rules: Associations with executive functions. ''Neuropsychology'', ''19''(3), 267–277. https://doi.org/10.1037/0894-4105.19.3.267 Brand, M., Labudda, K., Kalbe, E., Hilker, R., Emmans, D., Fuchs, G., Kessler, J., & Markowitsch, H. J. (2004). Decision‐making impairments in patients with Parkinson’s disease. ''Behavioural Neurology'', ''15''(3–4), 77–85. https://doi.org/10.1155/2004/578354 Brand, M., Labudda, K., & Markowitsch, H. J. (2006). Neuropsychological correlates of decision-making in ambiguous and risky situations. ''Neural Networks'', ''19''(8), 1266–1276. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neunet.2006.03.001 Brand, M., Pawlikowski, M., Labudda, K., Laier, C., Rothkirch, N. von, & Markowitsch, H. J. (2009). Do amnesic patients with Korsakoff’s syndrome use feedback when making decisions under risky conditions? An experimental investigation with the game of dice task with and without feedback. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''69''(2), 279–290. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2008.08.003 Brand, Matthias. (2008). Does the feedback from previous trials influence current decisions? A study on the role of feedback processing in making decisions under explicit risk conditions. ''Journal of Neuropsychology'', ''2''(2), 431–443. https://doi.org/10.1348/174866407x220607 Buelow, M. T., & Blaine, A. L. (2015). The assessment of risky decision making: A factor analysis of performance on the Iowa Gambling Task, Balloon Analogue Risk Task, and Columbia Card Task. ''Psychological Assessment'', ''27''(3), 777–785. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038622 Buelow, M. T., Okdie, B. M., & Kowalsky, J. M. (2024). Ecological validity of common behavioral decision making tasks: Evidence across two samples. ''Neuropsychology, Development, and Cognition. Section A, Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology/Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology'', ''46''(3), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2024.2337759 Colautti, L., Iannello, P., Maria Caterina Silveri, & Antonietti, A. (2023). Decision-making under ambiguity and risk and executive functions in parkinson’s disease patients: A scoping review of the studies investigating the Iowa gambling task and the game of dice. ''Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience'', ''23''(5), 1225–1243. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13415-023-01106-3 De Groot, K., & Thurik, R. (2018). Disentangling risk and uncertainty: When risk-taking measures are not about risk. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''9''. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02194 Loewenstein, G. F., Weber, E. U., Hsee, C. K., & Welch, N. (2001). Risk as feelings. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''127''(2), 267–286. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.127.2.267 Mishra, S. (2014). Decision-making under risk: Integrating perspectives from biology, economics, and psychology. ''Personality and Social Psychology Review'', ''18''(3), 280–307. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868314530517 Pachur, T., & Zilker, V. (2026). Psychological theories of decision-making under risk. ''The Cambridge Handbook of Behavioural Data Science'', 76–105. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108939010.009 Pertl, M.-T., Zamarian, L., & Delazer, M. (2017). Reasoning and mathematical skills contribute to normatively superior decision making under risk: Evidence from the game of dice task. ''Cognitive Processing'', ''18''(3), 249–260. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10339-017-0813-x Schiebener, J., & Brand, M. (2015). Self-reported strategies in decisions under risk: Role of feedback, reasoning abilities, executive functions, short-term-memory, and working memory. ''Cognitive Processing'', ''16''(4), 401–416. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10339-015-0665-1 Schiebener, J., Wegmann, E., Gathmann, B., Laier, C., Pawlikowski, M., & Brand, M. (2014). Among three different executive functions, general executive control ability is a key predictor of decision making under objective risk. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''5''. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01386 Schiebener, J., Zamarian, L., Delazer, M., & Brand, M. (2011). Executive functions, categorization of probabilities, and learning from feedback: What does really matter for decision making under explicit risk conditions?. ''Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology'', ''33''(9), 1025–1039. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2011.595702 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/hovercraft-full-eels/202012/risky-gamble-or-uncertain-future A risky gamble or an uncertain future?] (Psychology Today) * [https://www.millisecond.com/library/gameofdicetask Game of dice task] (Millisecond Software) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Decision making]] h5all1gl1v5yn6r079ox9cxe2necalx 2836444 2836443 2026-10-07T04:45:28Z U3216724 3106797 changed title to align with focus question 2836444 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Game of dice task and decision-making:<br>What does the game of dice task reveal about risk-based decision-making?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:Gaming dice multisided blue.jpg|right|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. Dice have clearly defined odds to roll a specific number, but how Emile decides to bet changes his chances of winning or losing.]] ; Imagine this ... Emile has money to spend on a night out and decides to go to a casino. He arrives at a dice table, where a card in front of him lists his betting options. He could bet on the dealer rolling one specific number for a large payout, but the chances of it happening are low: exactly 1 in 6. He could also bet on four numbers at once, winning if the dealer rolls one of them. His payout shrinks significantly, but his odds of winning increase to 2 in 3. These odds are not spelled out for Emile, but he knows the die has six faces. He has all the information he needs to work out exactly what his chances of winning and losing are (see Figure 1). For the first few rolls, Emile spends his money on safer bets. After a couple of small wins, he's feeling confident and switches to the single number bet, hoping for that big win. He loses. He goes for the single number again. He loses again. By the end of the night, despite knowing the odds the whole time, Emile has lost most of his money on the riskiest, least likely bets. What motivated Emile to make the riskier choice, even though his chances of winning were so much lower? {{RoundBoxBottom}} * The Game of Dice Task (GDT) is a valuable tool for investigating performance under explicit risk. Participants have defined probabilities and consequences. This helps assess the neurological and individual motivations for risk taking (Brand et al., 2005). * Decision-making depends on cognitive mechanisms as well as individual perceptions of risk. Game of Dice Task (GDT) research implicates probability processing, executive functioning, reasoning, the effects of feedback, individual strategy and memory - in general, executive control (Pertl et al., 2017; Schiebener et al., 2011; Schiebener et al., 2014; Schiebener & Brand, 2015). * Risk-based decision-making requires people to consider probability, outcomes and potential rewards. Greater rewards with lower chances may or may not be perceived as advantageous: there is a difference between taking an uncertain choice and a risk (Brand et al., 2006; Mishra, 2014). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} '''Focus questions''' * How does the Game of Dice Task measure risk-based decision-making? * Why is risk different from uncertainty when it comes to making choices? * Which psychological processes affect decision-making under explicit risk? * How can the Game of Dice Task be applied to real-world decision-making? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == The Game of Dice Task == The Game of Dice Task (GDT) is a computerised gambling task in which players attempt to maximise a fictive capital by betting on rolls of a single die over 18 trials. It was first presented by Brand et al. (2002) as a tool to examine which cognitive abilities contribute to risk-taking. The researcher's initial study found that among 23 healthy adults, older participants and those who were better at identifying risk tended to make safer, more advantageous bets. Later studies comparing Korsakoff syndrome and Parkinson's disease patients with healthy controls further developed the GDT, showing that the clinical groups made significantly more risky choices (Brand et al., 2004; Brand et al., 2005). These studies provide the basis for the standard procedure of the GDT. Players are told to make as much money as they can over the course of the task. Before each of the 18 throws, players place a bet on one number, or a combination of two, three or four numbers. If the number rolled matches at least one of the dice in a player's bet, they win the associated amount. Otherwise, they lose that same amount. These rules are explained at the start of the game and never change. Players complete the GDT on a single screen (see Figure 2). It displays current capital, which typically starts at 1,000 and is framed in a currency relevant to the sample, such as Euros or Dollars (Brand et al., 2005; Wood et al., 2016). After selecting from one of 14 possible bets, a die rolling video is played. Feedback is given by displaying the amount the player has just won or lost, adjusting the total balance number and chart, and playing an associated win or loss sound. Negative balances and deductions are displayed in red, while positives are displayed in green. [[File:GDT_Schematic_Mockup.svg|center|thumb|800px|'''Figure 2'''. The typical presentation of the GDT, adapted from Brand et al. (2005). Some versions of the GDT change reward amounts, remove or alter feedback elements, or list additional participant information. Elements clockwise from top left are: Dice rolling video, most recent gain/loss with current total balance below, balance chart for a visual representation of current balance, round number, quit button, gains/losses associated with the possible bets and possible bet choices.]] === Measurement of risk-based decision-making === The one and two number bets are classed as risky and disadvantageous, since there is a <50% chance of them winning. Conversely, the three and four number bets are less risky and advantageous, since their chances of winning are ≥50% (Brand et al., 2005; Schiebener et al., 2014). The amounts won or lost scale with the probability of the outcomes, such that riskier choices gain or lose more than the less risky choices (see Table 1). As with Emile's casino scenario, the probabilities are not explicitly stated, but can be calculated from the rules (Brand et al., 2005). <div style="display: flex; justify-content: center;"> {| class="wikitable" |+'''Table 1'''. The four bets in the GDT and their associated odds. Average results calculated using the amounts in Brand et al. (2005). !Bet !Chance of winning !Amount lost/gained !Average result /throw !Category |- |1 number |1 in 6 (16.67%) |1,000 | - 667 |Disadvantageous, most risky |- |2 numbers |2 in 6 (33.34%) |500 | - 167 |Disadvantageous, risky |- |3 numbers |3 in 6 (50%) |200 |0 |Advantageous, less risky |- |4 numbers |4 in 6 (66.67%) |100 | + 33 |Advantageous, least risky |} </div> * Participants receive information about the outcome and current monetary balance, creating a feedback opportunity to monitor success/failure in previous decisions (Brand, 2008). == Risk vs. uncertainty == * Brand et al. (2006) suggest a model based on the GDT results for the cognitive process of risk-based decision making. The updated version (Schiebener & Brand, 2015; Liebherr et al., 2017) incorporate situational and affective states and reorganise the cognitive processes that underpin the motivational model into three stages: 1. inputs, 2. inner processes, 3. outputs and feedback. * Different from previous gambling tasks, e.g the Iowa Gambling Task, in which participants discover strategy through previous experience. Known probabilities distinguish risk-based decision-making under explicit risk vs. uncertainty or learned risk (Brand et al., 2006) * Risk-based decision-making refers to choices made under 'risk': this means that the outcome of a choice is unknown, but the probability of a given outcome can be known. E.g, rolling a six-sided die has an unknown result, but the probability that any given number will be face-up is 1/6. * This is different to uncertainty in which both the outcome ''and'' the probability of that outcome are unknown. The GDT is a measure of risk choices defined in this way. Other measures, like the IGT, combine uncertainty and risk, creating ambiguous risk scenarios (Brand et al., 2006; De Groot & Thurik, 2018). * People do not make the same choices when presented with the same risk scenarios. This suggests individual differences in perception, risk preference, loss aversion, mathematical processing, affective responses and executive functioning (Lowenstein et al., 2001; Mishra, 2014; Pachur & Zilker, 2026). * Taking risks is not always an indication of poor decision making. Choices may be more or less advantageous based on reward and probability. == Psychological mechanisms of risk-based decision-making == * The GDT can examine how risk-based decision-making develops, matures, or becomes impaired. Evidence from clinical populations suggests relationships between GDT performance and particular cognitive or neurological systems. Risk-based decision-making changes substantially during childhood and adolescence. Schiebener et al. (2014) examined participants aged 8–19 years and found developmental improvements in GDT performance: likely refined executive control. * Brand et al. (2004) found that people with Parkinson's disease performed worse on the GDT than healthy controls, and disadvantageous choices were associated with executive functions and feedback processing. A review of decision-making under risk and ambiguity in Parkinson's disease concluded that executive functions are impacted, but may play different roles depending on the decision-making task and its cognitive demands (Colautti et al., 2023), further suggesting separate cognitive processes for risk and ambiguity. Other neurological conditions show similar links between executive functioning and GDT performance. For example, people with Korsakoff syndrome show impaired performance on the GDT, with the impairment associated with executive functions (Brand et al., 2005; Brand et al., 2009). * Feedback processing is also important to GDT performance. Removing feedback (i.e, win or loss, total wins or losses, current and previous balance, etc.) worsened performance in healthy individuals, suggesting cognitive and affective processing are both important for advantageous decision making (Brand, 2008). Amnesic patients showed no difference in GDT performance with or without feedback, consistently performing poorly, illustrating the importance of feedback and experience in avoiding disadvantageous choices (Brand et al., 2009). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} <quiz display=simple> {Executive functioning can influence whether someone makes advantageous choices in the GDT: |type="()"} + True - False {Feedback is irrelevant to GDT performance, since the probabilities are already known: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Applications and limitations of the GDT == * To make results comparable across participants, the dice rolls are pseudorandomised, with each die appearing exactly three times across the eighteen trials in a balanced order (Brand et al., 2005). This means throws are not truly independent; the first time a number is rolled, its chance of appearing in any subsequent rolls lowers from 1 in 6 to 2 in 17, and other numbers' odds correspondingly increase. This means that the gambler's fallacy becomes an advantageous strategy in later trials, and savvy players who are tracking the dice rolls may be able to determine the final number. Instead, the task relies on perceptions of probability. i.e, this design is a natural concession for comparability. * GDT findings should be interpreted as evidence about a particular form of risk-based decision-making. Different behavioural tasks capture different aspects of decision-making. Laboratory measures of risk and decision-making do not necessarily measure a single unified construct (Buelow & Blaine, 2015; Colautti et al., 2023). * The controlled nature and specific probabilities of the GDT allows researchers to investigate the contribution of executive control, reasoning, numerical processing and feedback. It has been useful in identifying deficits in cognitive ability amongst clinical populations. This also has some conceptual relevance for real world decisions involving defined risk. * Many real word scenarios are confounded with uncertainty, social pressures, competing goals and subjective reward considerations. The GDT is not necessarily effective at predicting real-life decision-making (Buelow et al., 2024). ==Conclusion== * The GDT provides a controlled way to study decision-making under risk. Because the probabilities and possible outcomes are known, the GDT allows researchers to examine how people use information about risk when making repeated decisions. * Advantageous decision-making is not simply about avoiding risk. It involves considering the probability and potential outcomes of different choices and using reasoning, executive functioning and feedback to guide decisions. A risky choice is not necessarily a poor decision if the potential reward and probability of success make it advantageous. * GDT performance is influenced by a range of cognitive processes and individual differences. The GDT therefore helps researchers examine why some people are better able than others to adjust their decisions to the risks and outcomes involved. However, it is not necessarily an appropriate analogue for decision-making in complex real life situations. * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Adolescent risk-taking and reward-system development|Adolescent risk-taking and reward-system development]] (Book chapter, 2026) * [[wikipedia:Decision-making|Decision-making]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Dopamine and decision making|Dopamine and decision making]] (Book chapter, 2024) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Gambling addiction motivation|Gambling addiction motivation]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[wikipedia:Risk|Risk]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Brand, M., Fujiwara, E., Borsutzky, S., Kalbe, E., Kessler, J., & Markowitsch, H. J. (2005). Decision-making deficits of korsakoff patients in a new gambling task with explicit rules: Associations with executive functions. ''Neuropsychology'', ''19''(3), 267–277. https://doi.org/10.1037/0894-4105.19.3.267 Brand, M., Labudda, K., Kalbe, E., Hilker, R., Emmans, D., Fuchs, G., Kessler, J., & Markowitsch, H. J. (2004). Decision‐making impairments in patients with Parkinson’s disease. ''Behavioural Neurology'', ''15''(3–4), 77–85. https://doi.org/10.1155/2004/578354 Brand, M., Labudda, K., & Markowitsch, H. J. (2006). Neuropsychological correlates of decision-making in ambiguous and risky situations. ''Neural Networks'', ''19''(8), 1266–1276. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neunet.2006.03.001 Brand, M., Pawlikowski, M., Labudda, K., Laier, C., Rothkirch, N. von, & Markowitsch, H. J. (2009). Do amnesic patients with Korsakoff’s syndrome use feedback when making decisions under risky conditions? An experimental investigation with the game of dice task with and without feedback. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''69''(2), 279–290. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2008.08.003 Brand, Matthias. (2008). Does the feedback from previous trials influence current decisions? A study on the role of feedback processing in making decisions under explicit risk conditions. ''Journal of Neuropsychology'', ''2''(2), 431–443. https://doi.org/10.1348/174866407x220607 Buelow, M. T., & Blaine, A. L. (2015). The assessment of risky decision making: A factor analysis of performance on the Iowa Gambling Task, Balloon Analogue Risk Task, and Columbia Card Task. ''Psychological Assessment'', ''27''(3), 777–785. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038622 Buelow, M. T., Okdie, B. M., & Kowalsky, J. M. (2024). Ecological validity of common behavioral decision making tasks: Evidence across two samples. ''Neuropsychology, Development, and Cognition. Section A, Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology/Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology'', ''46''(3), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2024.2337759 Colautti, L., Iannello, P., Maria Caterina Silveri, & Antonietti, A. (2023). Decision-making under ambiguity and risk and executive functions in parkinson’s disease patients: A scoping review of the studies investigating the Iowa gambling task and the game of dice. ''Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience'', ''23''(5), 1225–1243. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13415-023-01106-3 De Groot, K., & Thurik, R. (2018). Disentangling risk and uncertainty: When risk-taking measures are not about risk. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''9''. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02194 Loewenstein, G. F., Weber, E. U., Hsee, C. K., & Welch, N. (2001). Risk as feelings. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''127''(2), 267–286. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.127.2.267 Mishra, S. (2014). Decision-making under risk: Integrating perspectives from biology, economics, and psychology. ''Personality and Social Psychology Review'', ''18''(3), 280–307. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868314530517 Pachur, T., & Zilker, V. (2026). Psychological theories of decision-making under risk. ''The Cambridge Handbook of Behavioural Data Science'', 76–105. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108939010.009 Pertl, M.-T., Zamarian, L., & Delazer, M. (2017). Reasoning and mathematical skills contribute to normatively superior decision making under risk: Evidence from the game of dice task. ''Cognitive Processing'', ''18''(3), 249–260. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10339-017-0813-x Schiebener, J., & Brand, M. (2015). Self-reported strategies in decisions under risk: Role of feedback, reasoning abilities, executive functions, short-term-memory, and working memory. ''Cognitive Processing'', ''16''(4), 401–416. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10339-015-0665-1 Schiebener, J., Wegmann, E., Gathmann, B., Laier, C., Pawlikowski, M., & Brand, M. (2014). Among three different executive functions, general executive control ability is a key predictor of decision making under objective risk. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''5''. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01386 Schiebener, J., Zamarian, L., Delazer, M., & Brand, M. (2011). Executive functions, categorization of probabilities, and learning from feedback: What does really matter for decision making under explicit risk conditions?. ''Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology'', ''33''(9), 1025–1039. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2011.595702 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/hovercraft-full-eels/202012/risky-gamble-or-uncertain-future A risky gamble or an uncertain future?] (Psychology Today) * [https://www.millisecond.com/library/gameofdicetask Game of dice task] (Millisecond Software) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Decision making]] auvili7xl3z9ig5kbeu1b9p6iyc89pj 2836480 2836444 2026-10-07T08:25:36Z U3216724 3106797 Added in preliminary real-world general takeaways in applications paragraph 2836480 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Game of dice task and decision-making:<br>What does the game of dice task reveal about risk-based decision-making?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:Gaming dice multisided blue.jpg|right|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. Dice have clearly defined odds to roll a specific number, but how Emile decides to bet changes his chances of winning or losing.]] ; Imagine this ... Emile has money to spend on a night out and decides to go to a casino. He arrives at a dice table, where a card in front of him lists his betting options. He could bet on the dealer rolling one specific number for a large payout, but the chances of it happening are low: exactly 1 in 6. He could also bet on four numbers at once, winning if the dealer rolls one of them. His payout shrinks significantly, but his odds of winning increase to 2 in 3. These odds are not spelled out for Emile, but he knows the die has six faces. He has all the information he needs to work out exactly what his chances of winning and losing are (see Figure 1). For the first few rolls, Emile spends his money on safer bets. After a couple of small wins, he's feeling confident and switches to the single number bet, hoping for that big win. He loses. He goes for the single number again. He loses again. By the end of the night, despite knowing the odds the whole time, Emile has lost most of his money on the riskiest, least likely bets. What motivated Emile to make the riskier choice, even though his chances of winning were so much lower? {{RoundBoxBottom}} * The Game of Dice Task (GDT) is a valuable tool for investigating performance under explicit risk. Participants have defined probabilities and consequences. This helps assess the neurological and individual motivations for risk taking (Brand et al., 2005). * Decision-making depends on cognitive mechanisms as well as individual perceptions of risk. Game of Dice Task (GDT) research implicates probability processing, executive functioning, reasoning, the effects of feedback, individual strategy and memory - in general, executive control (Pertl et al., 2017; Schiebener et al., 2011; Schiebener et al., 2014; Schiebener & Brand, 2015). * Risk-based decision-making requires people to consider probability, outcomes and potential rewards. Greater rewards with lower chances may or may not be perceived as advantageous: there is a difference between taking an uncertain choice and a risk (Brand et al., 2006; Mishra, 2014). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} '''Focus questions''' * How does the Game of Dice Task measure risk-based decision-making? * Why is risk different from uncertainty when it comes to making choices? * Which psychological processes affect decision-making under explicit risk? * How can the Game of Dice Task be applied to real-world decision-making? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == The Game of Dice Task == The Game of Dice Task (GDT) is a computerised gambling task in which players attempt to maximise a fictive capital by betting on rolls of a single die over 18 trials. It was first presented by Brand et al. (2002) as a tool to examine which cognitive abilities contribute to risk-taking. The researcher's initial study found that among 23 healthy adults, older participants and those who were better at identifying risk tended to make safer, more advantageous bets. Later studies comparing Korsakoff syndrome and Parkinson's disease patients with healthy controls further developed the GDT, showing that the clinical groups made significantly more risky choices (Brand et al., 2004; Brand et al., 2005). These studies provide the basis for the standard procedure of the GDT. Players are told to make as much money as they can over the course of the task. Before each of the 18 throws, players place a bet on one number, or a combination of two, three or four numbers. If the number rolled matches at least one of the dice in a player's bet, they win the associated amount. Otherwise, they lose that same amount. These rules are explained at the start of the game and never change. Players complete the GDT on a single screen (see Figure 2). It displays current capital, which typically starts at 1,000 and is framed in a currency relevant to the sample, such as Euros or Dollars (Brand et al., 2005; Wood et al., 2016). After selecting from one of 14 possible bets, a die rolling video is played. Feedback is given by displaying the amount the player has just won or lost, adjusting the total balance number and chart, and playing an associated win or loss sound. Negative balances and deductions are displayed in red, while positives are displayed in green. [[File:GDT_Schematic_Mockup.svg|center|thumb|800px|'''Figure 2'''. The typical presentation of the GDT, adapted from Brand et al. (2005). Some versions of the GDT change reward amounts, remove or alter feedback elements, or list additional participant information. Elements clockwise from top left are: Dice rolling video, most recent gain/loss with current total balance below, balance chart for a visual representation of current balance, round number, quit button, gains/losses associated with the possible bets and possible bet choices.]] === Measurement of risk-based decision-making === The one and two number bets are classed as risky and disadvantageous, since there is a <50% chance of them winning. Conversely, the three and four number bets are less risky and advantageous, since their chances of winning are ≥50% (Brand et al., 2005; Schiebener et al., 2014). The amounts won or lost scale with the probability of the outcomes, such that riskier choices gain or lose more than the less risky choices (see Table 1). As with Emile's casino scenario, the probabilities are not explicitly stated, but can be calculated from the rules (Brand et al., 2005). <div style="display: flex; justify-content: center;"> {| class="wikitable" |+'''Table 1'''. The four bets in the GDT and their associated odds. Average results calculated using the amounts in Brand et al. (2005). !Bet !Chance of winning !Amount lost/gained !Average result /throw !Category |- |1 number |1 in 6 (16.67%) |1,000 | - 667 |Disadvantageous, most risky |- |2 numbers |2 in 6 (33.34%) |500 | - 167 |Disadvantageous, risky |- |3 numbers |3 in 6 (50%) |200 |0 |Advantageous, less risky |- |4 numbers |4 in 6 (66.67%) |100 | + 33 |Advantageous, least risky |} </div> * Participants receive information about the outcome and current monetary balance, creating a feedback opportunity to monitor success/failure in previous decisions (Brand, 2008). == Risk vs. uncertainty == * Brand et al. (2006) suggest a model based on the GDT results for the cognitive process of risk-based decision making. The updated version (Schiebener & Brand, 2015; Liebherr et al., 2017) incorporate situational and affective states and reorganise the cognitive processes that underpin the motivational model into three stages: 1. inputs, 2. inner processes, 3. outputs and feedback. * Different from previous gambling tasks, e.g the Iowa Gambling Task, in which participants discover strategy through previous experience. Known probabilities distinguish risk-based decision-making under explicit risk vs. uncertainty or learned risk (Brand et al., 2006) * Risk-based decision-making refers to choices made under 'risk': this means that the outcome of a choice is unknown, but the probability of a given outcome can be known. E.g, rolling a six-sided die has an unknown result, but the probability that any given number will be face-up is 1/6. * This is different to uncertainty in which both the outcome ''and'' the probability of that outcome are unknown. The GDT is a measure of risk choices defined in this way. Other measures, like the IGT, combine uncertainty and risk, creating ambiguous risk scenarios (Brand et al., 2006; De Groot & Thurik, 2018). * People do not make the same choices when presented with the same risk scenarios. This suggests individual differences in perception, risk preference, loss aversion, mathematical processing, affective responses and executive functioning (Lowenstein et al., 2001; Mishra, 2014; Pachur & Zilker, 2026). * Taking risks is not always an indication of poor decision making. Choices may be more or less advantageous based on reward and probability. == Psychological mechanisms of risk-based decision-making == * The GDT can examine how risk-based decision-making develops, matures, or becomes impaired. Evidence from clinical populations suggests relationships between GDT performance and particular cognitive or neurological systems. Risk-based decision-making changes substantially during childhood and adolescence. Schiebener et al. (2014) examined participants aged 8–19 years and found developmental improvements in GDT performance: likely refined executive control. * Brand et al. (2004) found that people with Parkinson's disease performed worse on the GDT than healthy controls, and disadvantageous choices were associated with executive functions and feedback processing. A review of decision-making under risk and ambiguity in Parkinson's disease concluded that executive functions are impacted, but may play different roles depending on the decision-making task and its cognitive demands (Colautti et al., 2023), further suggesting separate cognitive processes for risk and ambiguity. Other neurological conditions show similar links between executive functioning and GDT performance. For example, people with Korsakoff syndrome show impaired performance on the GDT, with the impairment associated with executive functions (Brand et al., 2005; Brand et al., 2009). * Feedback processing is also important to GDT performance. Removing feedback (i.e, win or loss, total wins or losses, current and previous balance, etc.) worsened performance in healthy individuals, suggesting cognitive and affective processing are both important for advantageous decision making (Brand, 2008). Amnesic patients showed no difference in GDT performance with or without feedback, consistently performing poorly, illustrating the importance of feedback and experience in avoiding disadvantageous choices (Brand et al., 2009). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} <quiz display=simple> {Executive functioning can influence whether someone makes advantageous choices in the GDT: |type="()"} + True - False {Feedback is irrelevant to GDT performance, since the probabilities are already known: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Applications and limitations of the GDT == * To make results comparable across participants, the dice rolls are pseudorandomised, with each die appearing exactly three times across the eighteen trials in a balanced order (Brand et al., 2005). This means throws are not truly independent; the first time a number is rolled, its chance of appearing in any subsequent rolls lowers from 1 in 6 to 2 in 17, and other numbers' odds correspondingly increase. This means that the gambler's fallacy becomes an advantageous strategy in later trials, and savvy players who are tracking the dice rolls may be able to determine the final number. Instead, the task relies on perceptions of probability. i.e, this design is a natural concession for comparability. * GDT findings should be interpreted as evidence about a particular form of risk-based decision-making. Different behavioural tasks capture different aspects of decision-making. Laboratory measures of risk and decision-making do not necessarily measure a single unified construct (Buelow & Blaine, 2015; Colautti et al., 2023). * The controlled nature and specific probabilities of the GDT allows researchers to investigate the contribution of executive control, reasoning, numerical processing and feedback. It has been useful in identifying deficits in cognitive ability amongst clinical populations. This also has some conceptual relevance for real world decisions involving defined risk. * Many real word scenarios are confounded with uncertainty, social pressures, competing goals and subjective reward considerations. The GDT is not necessarily effective at predicting real-life decision-making (Buelow et al., 2024). * However, some important takeaways do come to light: what the GDT reveals about our decision making is that we are not logical machines. Even in normal or improved executive function, which increases performance because of improved logical reasoning and decision-making, affective states, external situations and other influences on our feelings and thoughts, such as feedback, can influence the way we choose to take risk. When we are taking risks, we should try to consider and eliminate as many confounding variables as possible, pay attention to how we are feeling, calculate risk accurately as often as we can, and not use past experience to inform future decisions when events are independent. ==Conclusion== * The GDT provides a controlled way to study decision-making under risk. Because the probabilities and possible outcomes are known, the GDT allows researchers to examine how people use information about risk when making repeated decisions. * Advantageous decision-making is not simply about avoiding risk. It involves considering the probability and potential outcomes of different choices and using reasoning, executive functioning and feedback to guide decisions. A risky choice is not necessarily a poor decision if the potential reward and probability of success make it advantageous. * GDT performance is influenced by a range of cognitive processes and individual differences. The GDT therefore helps researchers examine why some people are better able than others to adjust their decisions to the risks and outcomes involved. However, it is not necessarily an appropriate analogue for decision-making in complex real life situations. * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Adolescent risk-taking and reward-system development|Adolescent risk-taking and reward-system development]] (Book chapter, 2026) * [[wikipedia:Decision-making|Decision-making]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Dopamine and decision making|Dopamine and decision making]] (Book chapter, 2024) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Gambling addiction motivation|Gambling addiction motivation]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[wikipedia:Risk|Risk]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Brand, M., Fujiwara, E., Borsutzky, S., Kalbe, E., Kessler, J., & Markowitsch, H. J. (2005). Decision-making deficits of korsakoff patients in a new gambling task with explicit rules: Associations with executive functions. ''Neuropsychology'', ''19''(3), 267–277. https://doi.org/10.1037/0894-4105.19.3.267 Brand, M., Labudda, K., Kalbe, E., Hilker, R., Emmans, D., Fuchs, G., Kessler, J., & Markowitsch, H. J. (2004). Decision‐making impairments in patients with Parkinson’s disease. ''Behavioural Neurology'', ''15''(3–4), 77–85. https://doi.org/10.1155/2004/578354 Brand, M., Labudda, K., & Markowitsch, H. J. (2006). Neuropsychological correlates of decision-making in ambiguous and risky situations. ''Neural Networks'', ''19''(8), 1266–1276. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neunet.2006.03.001 Brand, M., Pawlikowski, M., Labudda, K., Laier, C., Rothkirch, N. von, & Markowitsch, H. J. (2009). Do amnesic patients with Korsakoff’s syndrome use feedback when making decisions under risky conditions? An experimental investigation with the game of dice task with and without feedback. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''69''(2), 279–290. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2008.08.003 Brand, Matthias. (2008). Does the feedback from previous trials influence current decisions? A study on the role of feedback processing in making decisions under explicit risk conditions. ''Journal of Neuropsychology'', ''2''(2), 431–443. https://doi.org/10.1348/174866407x220607 Buelow, M. T., & Blaine, A. L. (2015). The assessment of risky decision making: A factor analysis of performance on the Iowa Gambling Task, Balloon Analogue Risk Task, and Columbia Card Task. ''Psychological Assessment'', ''27''(3), 777–785. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038622 Buelow, M. T., Okdie, B. M., & Kowalsky, J. M. (2024). Ecological validity of common behavioral decision making tasks: Evidence across two samples. ''Neuropsychology, Development, and Cognition. Section A, Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology/Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology'', ''46''(3), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2024.2337759 Colautti, L., Iannello, P., Maria Caterina Silveri, & Antonietti, A. (2023). Decision-making under ambiguity and risk and executive functions in parkinson’s disease patients: A scoping review of the studies investigating the Iowa gambling task and the game of dice. ''Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience'', ''23''(5), 1225–1243. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13415-023-01106-3 De Groot, K., & Thurik, R. (2018). Disentangling risk and uncertainty: When risk-taking measures are not about risk. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''9''. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02194 Loewenstein, G. F., Weber, E. U., Hsee, C. K., & Welch, N. (2001). Risk as feelings. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''127''(2), 267–286. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.127.2.267 Mishra, S. (2014). Decision-making under risk: Integrating perspectives from biology, economics, and psychology. ''Personality and Social Psychology Review'', ''18''(3), 280–307. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868314530517 Pachur, T., & Zilker, V. (2026). Psychological theories of decision-making under risk. ''The Cambridge Handbook of Behavioural Data Science'', 76–105. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108939010.009 Pertl, M.-T., Zamarian, L., & Delazer, M. (2017). Reasoning and mathematical skills contribute to normatively superior decision making under risk: Evidence from the game of dice task. ''Cognitive Processing'', ''18''(3), 249–260. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10339-017-0813-x Schiebener, J., & Brand, M. (2015). Self-reported strategies in decisions under risk: Role of feedback, reasoning abilities, executive functions, short-term-memory, and working memory. ''Cognitive Processing'', ''16''(4), 401–416. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10339-015-0665-1 Schiebener, J., Wegmann, E., Gathmann, B., Laier, C., Pawlikowski, M., & Brand, M. (2014). Among three different executive functions, general executive control ability is a key predictor of decision making under objective risk. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''5''. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01386 Schiebener, J., Zamarian, L., Delazer, M., & Brand, M. (2011). Executive functions, categorization of probabilities, and learning from feedback: What does really matter for decision making under explicit risk conditions?. ''Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology'', ''33''(9), 1025–1039. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2011.595702 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/hovercraft-full-eels/202012/risky-gamble-or-uncertain-future A risky gamble or an uncertain future?] (Psychology Today) * [https://www.millisecond.com/library/gameofdicetask Game of dice task] (Millisecond Software) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Decision making]] nzbnacmzzpefkiq2e54bt7vlq39g6dy 0 331583 2836415 2836282 2026-10-07T03:10:10Z U3280159 3110005 2836415 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Cognitive versus affective empathy:<br>What are the differences between cognitive and affective empathy and how do they contribute to prosociality?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Scenario''' Imagine a friend tells you they accidentally deleted the entirety of their important assignment. You might try to understand what they are thinking and feeling. At the same time, you may feel sadness, concern or anxiety in response to their experience. Both responses can be described as empathy, but they are not necessarily the same psychological process. {{RoundBoxBottom}} - Empathy is an important psychological process that helps people understand and respond to the experiences of others. it can be divided into two key components, cognitive and affective empathy. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Focus questions * What is the difference between cognitive and affective empathy? * how does each form of empathy contribute to prosocial behaviour? * when can empathic responses fail to produce helpful behaviour? * If you understand that someone is upset but do not feel upset yourself, are you still showing empathy? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What is Empathy?== * Empathy is a multidimensional psychological construct involving different processes, including cognitive and affective components. * Involves responding to another person's psychological or emotional state while maintaining a distinction between self and other. * Both are associated with prosocial behaviour, although the connection is not always straightforward. https://acsjournals-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/doi/full/10.1002%2Fcncr.33834 {{ic|Use an APA style citation and put the full reference into the References section}} ==Cognitive Empathy== * Cognitive empathy involves understanding another person's psychological perspective without personally feeling their emotions. * Can support prosocial behaviour by helping people identify another's needs and understand their experience. * Cognitive empathy does not necessarily produce concern or motivation to be of help because a person can understand without feeling concern or wanting to help. https://www-sciencedirect-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/science/article/pii/S1041608012002014 == Affective Empathy == * Affective empathy involves emotional response to another person's emotional state. * It can promote prosociality by generating empathic concerns and motivate someone to reduce someone else's suffering. * Emotional regulation, context and the type of empathic response can influence whether someone helps. * perspective taking is an essential part of affective empathy. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111%2Fsode.12685 https://www-taylorfrancis-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/reader/read-online/813e55c8-e789-40d2-9bea-a2da2105925b/book/epub?context=ubx == Empathy and Prosociality == *Both types of empathy are associated with prosocial behaviour. *Cognitive and affective empathy may contribute to prosociality through different pathways: understanding another person's needs versus emotionally responding to their experience. *Empathy does not automatically result in prosocial behaviour because emotion regulation, context, and the type of empathic response can influence whether someone helps. [https://academic-oup-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/psychsocgerontology/article/70/2/213/572414?login=true&token=eyJhbGciOiJub25lIn0.eyJleHAiOjE3OTA0MjU1OTksImp0aSI6IjU0MWNhYzBlLTdiODAtNDUzMS1hMDYxLWEwMTU0MGU5YjQzYSJ9. https://academic-oup-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/psychsocgerontology/article/70/2/213/572414?login=true&token=eyJhbGciOiJub25lIn0.eyJleHAiOjE3OTA0MjU1OTksImp0aSI6IjU0MWNhYzBlLTdiODAtNDUzMS1hMDYxLWEwMTU0MGU5YjQzYSJ9.] == When Empathy creates a positive effect and when it Doesn't == * Empathy is more likely to promote helping when emotional responses develop into other empathic concern * Personal distress and excessive emotional arousal can shift attention from another's needs to one's own discomfort, reducing motivation to be of assistance. * Effective prosocial behaviour may involve empathy combined with emotional regulation and compassion, rather than simply exercising another person's emotions. ==Figures== Figure 1. Cognitive and affective empathy as distinct but interaction pathways to prosociality. '''Cognitive empathy''' ↓ Understanding another person's perspective ↓ Identifying their needs ↓ Potentially appropriate helping '''Affective empathy''' ↓ Emotional response to another person's state ↓ Empathic concern ''or'' personal distress ↓ Helping or withdrawal/escape * Adding diagrams/pictures to go along with the information to be added. ==Learning features== ;<nowiki>Case study:</nowiki> ;Find appropriate case study. ; '''Table 1''' {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- !Dimension ! Cognitive empathy !! Affective empathy |- | Core process || Understanding another person's mental/emotional state || Experiencing an emotional response to another person's state |- |Related concept |Perspective-taking / mentalising |Emotional sharing / experience-sharing |- |Example |“I understand why they feel hurt.” |“I feel upset because they are hurting.” |- |Potential contribution to prosociality |Helps identify another person's perspective and needs |Can generate emotional motivation to care and help |- |Potential limitation |Understanding someone does not necessarily motivate helping |Emotional sharing can produce personal distress rather than |} Information collected from the following sites ect... Eisenberg N, Eggum ND, Di Giunta L. Empathy-related Responding: Associations with Prosocial Behavior, Aggression, and Intergroup Relations. Soc Issues Policy Rev. 2010 Dec 1;4(1):143-180. doi: 10.1111/j.1751-2409.2010.01020.x. PMID: 21221410; PMCID: PMC3017348. <nowiki>https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10803-026-07315-2.pdf</nowiki> - make APA - You see a stranger in public crying. what would you think, feel and/or do? * think = cognitive empathy * Feel = affective empathy * Do = Prosocial behaviour ; == Conclusion == * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== List [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic/Checklist|Topic development - Checklist]] (Wikiversity) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References == alphabetise! {{Hanging indent|1= Eisenberg N, Eggum ND, Di Giunta L. Empathy-related Responding: Associations with Prosocial Behavior, Aggression, and Intergroup Relations. Soc Issues Policy Rev. 2010 Dec 1;4(1):143-180. doi: 10.1111/j.1751-2409.2010.01020.x. PMID: 21221410; PMCID: PMC3017348. Khalid, A., Tarlinton, J., Kwan, T., & Khoo, K. (2023). Amiodarone-Induced Delirium. ''TTU Journal of Biomedical Sciences'', ''2''(1), 29–32. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.53901/tjbs.2023.08.art03</nowiki> ''Shibboleth Authentication Request''. (2026). Canberra.Edu.Au. <nowiki>https://www-sciencedirect</nowiki> com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/science/article/pii/S1041608012002014 Fink, E., & de Rosnay, M. (2023). Examining links between affective empathy, cognitive empathy, and peer relationships at the transition to school. ''Social Development'', ''32''(4), 1208–1226. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/sode.12685</nowiki> ''Shibboleth Authentication Request''. (2026). Canberra.Edu.Au. <nowiki>https://academic-oup-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/psychsocgerontology/article/70/2/213/572414?login=true&token=eyJhbGciOiJub25lIn0.eyJleHAiOjE3OTA0MjU1OTksImp0aSI6IjU0MWNhYzBlLTdiODAtNDUzMS1hMDYxLWEwMTU0MGU5YjQzYSJ9</nowiki> Markus Paulus. (2015). ''Sugar and spice, and everything nice : exploring prosocial development through infancy and early childhood'' (C. Moore, M. Paulus, & A. Williams, Eds.). Frontiers Media SA. }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]] g98dpbbgcwkkl6elleutyo6t3h8w3bc 0 331630 2836466 2835063 2026-10-07T06:55:05Z UU3231448 3110120 Added/edited the overview section, fixed up focus questions box as well 2836466 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Reinforcement sensitivity theory:<br>How does reinforcement sensitivity theory explain individual differences in motivation and emotion?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== Imagine two people walking home late at night when they hear footsteps approaching from behind. One person immediately turns around and runs, while the other becomes alert, evaluates the situation, and considers whether they should continue walking or find somewhere safe. In another situation, someone might eagerly approach a new opportunity because they anticipate a rewarding outcome, while another person may hesitate because of uncertainty or the possibility of failure. Why do people respond so differently to the same situations? Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (RST) provides a framework for understanding these differences in behaviour, motivation, emotion, and personality (Corr, 2008). RST was originally developed from the work of Jeffrey Gray and was substantially revised by Gray and McNaughton (2000). The revised theory proposes that behaviour is influenced by neuropsychological systems that respond to rewarding, conflicting, and threatening stimuli. The revised theory primarily focuses on three systems: the Behavioural Approach System (BAS), the Behavioural Inhibition System (BIS), and the Fight–Flight–Freeze System (FFFS) (Gray & McNaughton, 2000; Smillie et al., 2006). The BAS is primarily associated with approaching rewarding or appetitive stimuli and pursuing goals. The BIS is activated by goal conflict and uncertainty, prompting individuals to assess situations and resolve competing goals. In contrast, the FFFS is associated with responses to aversive or threatening stimuli, including defensive behaviours such as fight, flight, and freezing (Gray & McNaughton, 2000; Corr, 2008). Together, these systems provide a framework for understanding why individuals can experience and respond to similar situations in different ways. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' {{ic|}} #. What is Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory and how did it develop? #. What are the functions of the BAS, BIS, and FFFS? #. How do the BIS and FFFS differ in their responses to threatening situations? #. How can RST explain individual differences in personality and behaviour? #. How has RST contributed to psychological research into motivation and emotion? {{RoundBoxBottom}}{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} Case Study Imagine two students are given the opportunity to give a presentation in front of their class. Patricia is excited about the possibility of receiving praise from her teacher and getting a good grade, so they confidently put their hand up first to present. This shows a stronger Behavioural Activation System (BAS) response to the reward. Ben becomes nervous because they are worried about making a mistake and being judged, so he hesitate's more and consider the possible consequences of not doing a good job. This demonstrates the Behavioural Inhibition System (BIS). If Ben felt an immediate need to escape the situation because they felt threatened, this then could involve the Fight–Flight–Freeze System (FFFS). {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory == The '''Behavioural Activation System (BAS)''' is primarily associated with sensitivity to rewards and appetitive stimuli. It motivates individuals to move towards desirable goals and positive outcomes and is associated with approach-related behaviours such as reward seeking, goal pursuit, excitement, and motivation (Gray & McNaughton, 2000; Corr, 2004). Individuals with a greater BAS sensitivity may therefore be more responsive to opportunities for reward and may be more likely to actively pursue pleasurable or desirable experiences. Research has also linked BAS sensitivity with aspects of personality such as extraversion, impulsivity, and reward responsiveness, although the exact relationship depends on how BAS is measured (Corr, 2004; Smillie et al., 2006). The '''Behavioural Inhibition System (BIS''') is associated with situations involving conflict, uncertainty, and competing behavioural goals. Rather than simply responding to punishment, as was emphasised in earlier versions of RST, the revised theory proposes that the BIS becomes particularly important when an individual experiences a conflict between approach and avoidance tendencies (Gray & McNaughton, 2000). For example, a person may want to approach a social situation because it could provide a reward but simultaneously want to avoid it because they are worried about being judged. Activation of the BIS can result in an increase of attention, caution, risk assessment, worry, and anxiety while the individual attempts to resolve the conflict (Corr, 2004; McNaughton & Corr, 2004). The '''Fight–Flight–Freeze System (FFFS)''' is primarily responsible for responding to aversive and threatening stimuli and is associated with fear and defensive behaviour. When an individual encounters an immediate threat, the FFFS can motivate behaviours such as fighting, escaping, avoiding, or freezing in response to danger (Gray & McNaughton, 2000). An important development in revised RST was the separation of the FFFS from the BIS. The FFFS is more closely associated with direct fear and avoidance of threats, whereas the BIS is associated with anxiety arising from conflict and uncertainty (Corr, 2004; Smillie et al., 2006). This distinction allows RST to provide a more detailed explanation of why people can experience different emotional and behavioural responses to threatening situations. == Behavioural Activation System == ''The Behavioural Activation System (BAS) stands for Behavioural Activation System and is one of the major motivational systems described within Jeffrey Gray’s Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (RST). The BAS is primarily concerned with sensitivity to rewards and appetitive stimuli, encouraging individuals to move towards desirable outcomes rather than away from them (Gray, 1970; Corr, 2008). According to RST, the BAS becomes activated when the  individual perceives a possibility of obtaining something desirable. This could be anything from money, to social approval, success, food, pleasurable experiences, or new opportunities. Rather than simply responding to rewards after they have been received, the BAS is particularly important for motivating behaviour when a reward is anticipated or considered achievable (Gray & McNaughton, 2000).'' ''BAS activation can also occur in response to cues that signal the potential possibility of receiving a reward. These cues as mentioned may include seeing an opportunity to receiving positive feedback or recognising that a particular behaviour could lead to a desirable consequence. This means that BAS activity can then influence behaviour before the reward is actually obtained.'' ''Individual differences in BAS sensitivity make up an important component of RST. People differ in how strongly they respond to reward-related cues, meaning that the same opportunity may produce different levels of motivation in different individuals (Corr, 2004). A person with relatively higher BAS sensitivity may respond particularly strongly to opportunities for reward, as well as may be more motivated to pursue positive outcomes. They may be more likely to seek out exciting or enjoyable experiences, take advantage of opportunities that could produce positive consequences, and respond strongly to praise, achievement, recognition, or other forms of positive reinforcement. They may also be quicker to initiate behaviour when a potentially rewarding opportunity becomes available (Corr, 2008; Smillie et al., 2006).'' == Fight-Flight-Freeze System == ''The Fight–Flight–Freeze System (FFFS) is another of the three major motivational and defensive systems identified in the revised version of Jeffrey Gray’s Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (RST), focusing more through the work of Gray and McNaughton (2000). The FFFS’s primary concern is with responding to aversive stimuli, such as threats, fear and punishment, and its central function is to protect the individual from immediate danger by producing defensive responses (Gray & McNaughton, 2000; Corr, 2004). Unlike the before mentioned Behavioural Inhibition System (BIS), which is primarily associated with conflict and uncertainty in situations, in which competing behavioural tendencies need to be resolved, the FFFS is then activated by stimuli that are perceived as directly threatening or aversive (McNaughton & Corr, 2004; Corr & McNaughton, 2008). When a person encounters an immediate threat, the FFFS can produce rapid defensive responses that are commonly described as fight, flight, or freeze. The fight response involves confronting or attempting to defend against the source of danger, while the flight response involves escaping or moving away from the threatening stimulus. The freeze response involves becoming temporarily still, reducing movement, or experiencing a temporary inability to initiate an immediate behavioural response when confronted with danger (Gray & McNaughton, 2000; Kozlowska et al., 2015). These responses can be understood as different defensive strategies that may be selected depending on the characteristics and perceived proximity of the threat.'' ''For example, if an individual encounters an aggressive person, they may attempt to defend themselves, escape from the situation, or momentarily freeze while assessing what to do next. The FFFS is therefore closely associated with fear and defensive behaviour, whereas anxiety is more strongly associated with BIS activation when there is conflict or uncertainty about what action should be taken (McNaughton & Corr, 2004; Corr, 2008). This distinction between fear and anxiety represents an important development in the revised RST because earlier versions of Gray’s theory placed greater emphasis on the BIS as a system responding to punishment, whereas the revised model separated immediate fear responses from anxiety-related conflict processing (Gray & McNaughton, 2000; Corr, 2004). FFFS activation can occur rapidly because detecting and responding to potential danger can be important for survival, particularly when an individual encounters a threat that requires immediate action (LeDoux, 2012). From an evolutionary perspective, defensive responses such as fighting or escaping can help an organism avoid injury or remove itself from a dangerous environment, while freezing may provide an alternative response when immediate movement is not possible or may increase danger (Blanchard et al., 2001; Kozlowska et al., 2015). Corr, 2004). Overall, the FFFS provides an important component of RST by explaining how individuals detect and respond to immediate threats, punishment, and aversive stimuli.'' == Behavioural Inhibition System == ''The Behavioural Inhibition System (BIS) is the last of the three major systems within the revised version of Jeffrey Gray’s Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (RST) and is primarily involved in responding to conflict, uncertainty, and situations in which an individual has  to evaluate competing behavioural options (Gray & McNaughton, 2000; McNaughton & Corr, 2004). Rather than simply causing a person to stop behaving, the BIS is supposed to interrupt or slow ongoing behaviour when an individual encounters a situation that requires further evaluation, thus allowing them to assess  further potential risks and determine an appropriate response (Corr, 2004). The BIS is particularly relevant when a person experiences competing motivational tendencies, such as wanting to approach a potentially rewarding situation while simultaneously wanting to avoid a possible negative outcome. This is known as an approach–avoidance conflict, where the same situation contains both desirable and undesirable consequences (Gray & McNaughton, 2000). For example, a student may want to answer a question in class because they could receive recognition for providing the correct answer, but may also worry about embarrassment if they are incorrect. The conflict between the potential reward of answering and the potential negative consequence of making a mistake can result in increased BIS activity and greater caution before acting. The BIS may also become relevant during avoidance–avoidance conflicts, in which an individual must choose between two undesirable outcomes, as well as during situations involving uncertainty about what will happen next (McNaughton & Corr, 2004).'' ''This makes the BIS particularly important for situations where the appropriate behavioural response is unclear. Activation of the BIS is associated with psychological experiences such as anxiety, worry, cautiousness, vigilance, and increased attention to potentially relevant environmental information (Gray & McNaughton, 2000; Corr, 2011). Importantly, the revised RST distinguishes BIS-related anxiety from the fear response associated with the Fight–Flight–Freeze System (FFFS). Whereas the FFFS is primarily responsible for immediate defensive responses to direct threats, the BIS is activated when there is conflict between competing behavioural tendencies or uncertainty regarding the appropriate response (McNaughton & Corr, 2004; Corr & McNaughton, 2008). Consequently, BIS activation does not necessarily result in immediate escape or avoidance; instead, the BIS encourages the individual to pause, gather information, assess potential consequences, and determine which behavioural response is most appropriate (Corr, 2011). The BIS has therefore been described as an important system for conflict detection and resolution, allowing behaviour to be adjusted when an individual's existing response tendencies are insufficient to deal with a particular situation (Gray & McNaughton, 2000).'' == Figures == * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure; this can be the figure in the scenario * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] which hosts free-to-use media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, and audio[[File:Reinforcement learning diagram.svg|thumb|140x140px|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! System !! What It Responds To !! Primary Function !Typical Emotional Response !Typical Behaviour |- | '''Behavioural Activation System (BAS)''' || Rewards, appetitive, Stimuli, Opportunities for positive outcomes. || Motivates towards desirable goals. |Excitement/Enthusiasm |Approach, reward seeking, goal pursuit |- |'''Behavioural Inhibition System (BIS)''' |Conflict, uncertainty, competing goals as well as ambiguous situation. |Detects and resolves conflict between competing behavioural tendencies. |Anxiety, worry, and caution. |Pausing, evaluating, and increased attention. |- | '''Fight-Flight-Freeze System (FFFS)''' || Immediate threats, aversive stimuli, danger and punishment. || Protects the individual from direct threats. |Fear and Panic. |Fight, flight, freeze, avoidance. |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== {{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}} [[Anxiety]] (Wikiversity) [[wikipedia:Gray's_biopsychological_theory_of_personality|Jeffery Gray's Behavioural Action/Inhibition Theory]] (Wikiversity) [[wikipedia:Reinforcement_sensitivity_theory|Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Corr, P. J. (Ed.). (2008). The reinforcement sensitivity theory of personality. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511819389 Gray, J. A. (1982). The neuropsychology of anxiety: An enquiry into the functions of the septo-hippocampal system. Oxford University Press. Gray, J. A., & McNaughton, N. (2000). The neuropsychology of anxiety: An enquiry into the functions of the septo-hippocampal system (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. Smillie, L. D., Pickering, A. D., & Jackson, C. J. (2006). The new Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory: Implications for personality measurement. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 10(4), 320–335. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr1004_3 Corr, P. J. (2004). Reinforcement sensitivity theory and personality. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 28(3), 317–332. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2004.01.005 Firth, J., Standen, B., Sumich, A., Fino, E., & Heym, N. (2024). The neural correlates of reinforcement sensitivity theory: A systematic review of the frontal asymmetry and spectral power literature. Psychophysiology, 61(9), e14594. https://doi.org/10.1111/psyp.14594 Gray, J. A. (1970). The psychophysiological basis of introversion-extraversion. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 8(3), 249–266. https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(70)90069-0 Gray, J. A., & McNaughton, N. (2000). The neuropsychology of anxiety: An enquiry into the functions of the septo-hippocampal system (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. McNaughton, N., & Corr, P. J. (2004). A two-dimensional neuropsychology of defense: Fear/anxiety and defensive distance. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 28(3), 285–305. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2004.03.005 Smillie, L. D., Pickering, A. D., & Jackson, C. J. (2006). The new reinforcement sensitivity theory: Implications for personality measurement. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 10(4), 320–335. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr1004_3 Carver, C. S., & White, T. L. (1994). Behavioral inhibition, behavioral activation, and affective responses to impending reward and punishment: The BIS/BAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67(2), 319–333. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.67.2.319 Corr, P. J. (2004). Reinforcement sensitivity theory and personality. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 28(3), 317–332. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2004.01.005 Corr, P. J. (2008). The reinforcement sensitivity theory of personality. Cambridge University Press. Gray, J. A. (1970). The psychophysiological basis of introversion-extraversion. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 8(3), 249–266. https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(70)90069-0 Gray, J. A., & McNaughton, N. (2000). The neuropsychology of anxiety: An enquiry into the functions of the septo-hippocampal system (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. Smillie, L. D., & Jackson, C. J. (2006). Functional impulsivity and reinforcement sensitivity theory. Journal of Personality, 74(1), 47–84. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2005.00369.x Smillie, L. D., Pickering, A. D., & Jackson, C. J. (2006). The new reinforcement sensitivity theory: Implications for personality measurement. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 10(4), 320–335. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr1004_3 Carver, C. S., & White, T. L. (1994). Behavioral inhibition, behavioral activation, and affective responses to impending reward and punishment: The BIS/BAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67(2), 319–333. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.67.2.319 Corr, P. J. (2008). The reinforcement sensitivity theory of personality. Cambridge University Press. Corr, P. J. (2011). Anxiety: Splitting the phenomenological atom. Personality and Individual Differences, 50(7), 889–897. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.09.013 Corr, P. J., & McNaughton, N. (2008). Reinforcement sensitivity theory and personality. In G. J. Boyle, G. Matthews, & D. H. Saklofske (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of personality theory and assessment: Vol. 1. Personality theories and models (pp. 155–187). SAGE. De Pascalis, V., Strippoli, E., Riccardi, P., & Vergari, M. (2000). Psychophysiological responses to emotional stimuli in subjects with different levels of anxiety. Personality and Individual Differences, 28(3), 529–544. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(99)00114-8 Gray, J. A. (1982). The neuropsychology of anxiety: An enquiry into the functions of the septo-hippocampal system. Oxford University Press. Gray, J. A., & McNaughton, N. (2000). The neuropsychology of anxiety: An enquiry into the functions of the septo-hippocampal system (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. McNaughton, N., & Corr, P. J. (2004). A two-dimensional neuropsychology of defense: Fear/anxiety and defensive distance. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 28(3), 285–305. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2004.03.005 }} ==External links== {{expand}} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Reward]] 45vxubhh5eutwkg0jrblk85nl05bfk1 2836477 2836466 2026-10-07T07:46:29Z UU3231448 3110120 Added Figure 2 2836477 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Reinforcement sensitivity theory:<br>How does reinforcement sensitivity theory explain individual differences in motivation and emotion?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== Imagine two people walking home late at night when they hear footsteps approaching from behind. One person immediately turns around and runs, while the other becomes alert, evaluates the situation, and considers whether they should continue walking or find somewhere safe. In another situation, someone might eagerly approach a new opportunity because they anticipate a rewarding outcome, while another person may hesitate because of uncertainty or the possibility of failure. Why do people respond so differently to the same situations? Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (RST) provides a framework for understanding these differences in behaviour, motivation, emotion, and personality (Corr, 2008). RST was originally developed from the work of Jeffrey Gray and was substantially revised by Gray and McNaughton (2000). The revised theory proposes that behaviour is influenced by neuropsychological systems that respond to rewarding, conflicting, and threatening stimuli. The revised theory primarily focuses on three systems: the Behavioural Approach System (BAS), the Behavioural Inhibition System (BIS), and the Fight–Flight–Freeze System (FFFS) (Gray & McNaughton, 2000; Smillie et al., 2006). The BAS is primarily associated with approaching rewarding or appetitive stimuli and pursuing goals. The BIS is activated by goal conflict and uncertainty, prompting individuals to assess situations and resolve competing goals. In contrast, the FFFS is associated with responses to aversive or threatening stimuli, including defensive behaviours such as fight, flight, and freezing (Gray & McNaughton, 2000; Corr, 2008). Together, these systems provide a framework for understanding why individuals can experience and respond to similar situations in different ways. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' {{ic|}} #. What is Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory and how did it develop? #. What are the functions of the BAS, BIS, and FFFS? #. How do the BIS and FFFS differ in their responses to threatening situations? #. How can RST explain individual differences in personality and behaviour? #. How has RST contributed to psychological research into motivation and emotion? {{RoundBoxBottom}}{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} Case Study Imagine two students are given the opportunity to give a presentation in front of their class. Patricia is excited about the possibility of receiving praise from her teacher and getting a good grade, so they confidently put their hand up first to present. This shows a stronger Behavioural Activation System (BAS) response to the reward. Ben becomes nervous because they are worried about making a mistake and being judged, so he hesitate's more and consider the possible consequences of not doing a good job. This demonstrates the Behavioural Inhibition System (BIS). If Ben felt an immediate need to escape the situation because they felt threatened, this then could involve the Fight–Flight–Freeze System (FFFS). {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory == The '''Behavioural Activation System (BAS)''' is primarily associated with sensitivity to rewards and appetitive stimuli. It motivates individuals to move towards desirable goals and positive outcomes and is associated with approach-related behaviours such as reward seeking, goal pursuit, excitement, and motivation (Gray & McNaughton, 2000; Corr, 2004). Individuals with a greater BAS sensitivity may therefore be more responsive to opportunities for reward and may be more likely to actively pursue pleasurable or desirable experiences. Research has also linked BAS sensitivity with aspects of personality such as extraversion, impulsivity, and reward responsiveness, although the exact relationship depends on how BAS is measured (Corr, 2004; Smillie et al., 2006). The '''Behavioural Inhibition System (BIS''') is associated with situations involving conflict, uncertainty, and competing behavioural goals. Rather than simply responding to punishment, as was emphasised in earlier versions of RST, the revised theory proposes that the BIS becomes particularly important when an individual experiences a conflict between approach and avoidance tendencies (Gray & McNaughton, 2000). For example, a person may want to approach a social situation because it could provide a reward but simultaneously want to avoid it because they are worried about being judged. Activation of the BIS can result in an increase of attention, caution, risk assessment, worry, and anxiety while the individual attempts to resolve the conflict (Corr, 2004; McNaughton & Corr, 2004). The '''Fight–Flight–Freeze System (FFFS)''' is primarily responsible for responding to aversive and threatening stimuli and is associated with fear and defensive behaviour. When an individual encounters an immediate threat, the FFFS can motivate behaviours such as fighting, escaping, avoiding, or freezing in response to danger (Gray & McNaughton, 2000). An important development in revised RST was the separation of the FFFS from the BIS. The FFFS is more closely associated with direct fear and avoidance of threats, whereas the BIS is associated with anxiety arising from conflict and uncertainty (Corr, 2004; Smillie et al., 2006). This distinction allows RST to provide a more detailed explanation of why people can experience different emotional and behavioural responses to threatening situations. == Behavioural Activation System == ''The Behavioural Activation System (BAS) stands for Behavioural Activation System and is one of the major motivational systems described within Jeffrey Gray’s Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (RST). The BAS is primarily concerned with sensitivity to rewards and appetitive stimuli, encouraging individuals to move towards desirable outcomes rather than away from them (Gray, 1970; Corr, 2008). According to RST, the BAS becomes activated when the  individual perceives a possibility of obtaining something desirable. This could be anything from money, to social approval, success, food, pleasurable experiences, or new opportunities. Rather than simply responding to rewards after they have been received, the BAS is particularly important for motivating behaviour when a reward is anticipated or considered achievable (Gray & McNaughton, 2000).'' ''BAS activation can also occur in response to cues that signal the potential possibility of receiving a reward. These cues as mentioned may include seeing an opportunity to receiving positive feedback or recognising that a particular behaviour could lead to a desirable consequence. This means that BAS activity can then influence behaviour before the reward is actually obtained.'' ''Individual differences in BAS sensitivity make up an important component of RST. People differ in how strongly they respond to reward-related cues, meaning that the same opportunity may produce different levels of motivation in different individuals (Corr, 2004). A person with relatively higher BAS sensitivity may respond particularly strongly to opportunities for reward, as well as may be more motivated to pursue positive outcomes. They may be more likely to seek out exciting or enjoyable experiences, take advantage of opportunities that could produce positive consequences, and respond strongly to praise, achievement, recognition, or other forms of positive reinforcement. They may also be quicker to initiate behaviour when a potentially rewarding opportunity becomes available (Corr, 2008; Smillie et al., 2006).'' == Fight-Flight-Freeze System == ''The Fight–Flight–Freeze System (FFFS) is another of the three major motivational and defensive systems identified in the revised version of Jeffrey Gray’s Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (RST), focusing more through the work of Gray and McNaughton (2000). The FFFS’s primary concern is with responding to aversive stimuli, such as threats, fear and punishment, and its central function is to protect the individual from immediate danger by producing defensive responses (Gray & McNaughton, 2000; Corr, 2004). Unlike the before mentioned Behavioural Inhibition System (BIS), which is primarily associated with conflict and uncertainty in situations, in which competing behavioural tendencies need to be resolved, the FFFS is then activated by stimuli that are perceived as directly threatening or aversive (McNaughton & Corr, 2004; Corr & McNaughton, 2008). When a person encounters an immediate threat, the FFFS can produce rapid defensive responses that are commonly described as fight, flight, or freeze. The fight response involves confronting or attempting to defend against the source of danger, while the flight response involves escaping or moving away from the threatening stimulus. The freeze response involves becoming temporarily still, reducing movement, or experiencing a temporary inability to initiate an immediate behavioural response when confronted with danger (Gray & McNaughton, 2000; Kozlowska et al., 2015). These responses can be understood as different defensive strategies that may be selected depending on the characteristics and perceived proximity of the threat.'' ''For example, if an individual encounters an aggressive person, they may attempt to defend themselves, escape from the situation, or momentarily freeze while assessing what to do next. The FFFS is therefore closely associated with fear and defensive behaviour, whereas anxiety is more strongly associated with BIS activation when there is conflict or uncertainty about what action should be taken (McNaughton & Corr, 2004; Corr, 2008). This distinction between fear and anxiety represents an important development in the revised RST because earlier versions of Gray’s theory placed greater emphasis on the BIS as a system responding to punishment, whereas the revised model separated immediate fear responses from anxiety-related conflict processing (Gray & McNaughton, 2000; Corr, 2004). FFFS activation can occur rapidly because detecting and responding to potential danger can be important for survival, particularly when an individual encounters a threat that requires immediate action (LeDoux, 2012). From an evolutionary perspective, defensive responses such as fighting or escaping can help an organism avoid injury or remove itself from a dangerous environment, while freezing may provide an alternative response when immediate movement is not possible or may increase danger (Blanchard et al., 2001; Kozlowska et al., 2015). Corr, 2004). Overall, the FFFS provides an important component of RST by explaining how individuals detect and respond to immediate threats, punishment, and aversive stimuli.'' == Behavioural Inhibition System == ''The Behavioural Inhibition System (BIS) is the last of the three major systems within the revised version of Jeffrey Gray’s Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (RST) and is primarily involved in responding to conflict, uncertainty, and situations in which an individual has  to evaluate competing behavioural options (Gray & McNaughton, 2000; McNaughton & Corr, 2004). Rather than simply causing a person to stop behaving, the BIS is supposed to interrupt or slow ongoing behaviour when an individual encounters a situation that requires further evaluation, thus allowing them to assess  further potential risks and determine an appropriate response (Corr, 2004). The BIS is particularly relevant when a person experiences competing motivational tendencies, such as wanting to approach a potentially rewarding situation while simultaneously wanting to avoid a possible negative outcome. This is known as an approach–avoidance conflict, where the same situation contains both desirable and undesirable consequences (Gray & McNaughton, 2000). For example, a student may want to answer a question in class because they could receive recognition for providing the correct answer, but may also worry about embarrassment if they are incorrect. The conflict between the potential reward of answering and the potential negative consequence of making a mistake can result in increased BIS activity and greater caution before acting. The BIS may also become relevant during avoidance–avoidance conflicts, in which an individual must choose between two undesirable outcomes, as well as during situations involving uncertainty about what will happen next (McNaughton & Corr, 2004).'' ''This makes the BIS particularly important for situations where the appropriate behavioural response is unclear. Activation of the BIS is associated with psychological experiences such as anxiety, worry, cautiousness, vigilance, and increased attention to potentially relevant environmental information (Gray & McNaughton, 2000; Corr, 2011). Importantly, the revised RST distinguishes BIS-related anxiety from the fear response associated with the Fight–Flight–Freeze System (FFFS). Whereas the FFFS is primarily responsible for immediate defensive responses to direct threats, the BIS is activated when there is conflict between competing behavioural tendencies or uncertainty regarding the appropriate response (McNaughton & Corr, 2004; Corr & McNaughton, 2008). Consequently, BIS activation does not necessarily result in immediate escape or avoidance; instead, the BIS encourages the individual to pause, gather information, assess potential consequences, and determine which behavioural response is most appropriate (Corr, 2011). The BIS has therefore been described as an important system for conflict detection and resolution, allowing behaviour to be adjusted when an individual's existing response tendencies are insufficient to deal with a particular situation (Gray & McNaughton, 2000).'' == Figures == * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure; this can be the figure in the scenario * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] which hosts free-to-use media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, and audio[[File:Reinforcement learning diagram.svg|thumb|140x140px|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text)[[File:RSTDiagram.png|thumb|140x140px|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! System !! What It Responds To !! Primary Function !Typical Emotional Response !Typical Behaviour |- | '''Behavioural Activation System (BAS)''' || Rewards, appetitive, Stimuli, Opportunities for positive outcomes. || Motivates towards desirable goals. |Excitement/Enthusiasm |Approach, reward seeking, goal pursuit |- |'''Behavioural Inhibition System (BIS)''' |Conflict, uncertainty, competing goals as well as ambiguous situation. |Detects and resolves conflict between competing behavioural tendencies. |Anxiety, worry, and caution. |Pausing, evaluating, and increased attention. |- | '''Fight-Flight-Freeze System (FFFS)''' || Immediate threats, aversive stimuli, danger and punishment. || Protects the individual from direct threats. |Fear and Panic. |Fight, flight, freeze, avoidance. |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== {{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}} [[Anxiety]] (Wikiversity) [[wikipedia:Gray's_biopsychological_theory_of_personality|Jeffery Gray's Behavioural Action/Inhibition Theory]] (Wikiversity) [[wikipedia:Reinforcement_sensitivity_theory|Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Corr, P. J. (Ed.). (2008). The reinforcement sensitivity theory of personality. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511819389 Gray, J. A. (1982). The neuropsychology of anxiety: An enquiry into the functions of the septo-hippocampal system. Oxford University Press. Gray, J. A., & McNaughton, N. (2000). The neuropsychology of anxiety: An enquiry into the functions of the septo-hippocampal system (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. Smillie, L. D., Pickering, A. D., & Jackson, C. J. (2006). The new Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory: Implications for personality measurement. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 10(4), 320–335. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr1004_3 Corr, P. J. (2004). Reinforcement sensitivity theory and personality. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 28(3), 317–332. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2004.01.005 Firth, J., Standen, B., Sumich, A., Fino, E., & Heym, N. (2024). The neural correlates of reinforcement sensitivity theory: A systematic review of the frontal asymmetry and spectral power literature. Psychophysiology, 61(9), e14594. https://doi.org/10.1111/psyp.14594 Gray, J. A. (1970). The psychophysiological basis of introversion-extraversion. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 8(3), 249–266. https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(70)90069-0 Gray, J. A., & McNaughton, N. (2000). The neuropsychology of anxiety: An enquiry into the functions of the septo-hippocampal system (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. McNaughton, N., & Corr, P. J. (2004). A two-dimensional neuropsychology of defense: Fear/anxiety and defensive distance. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 28(3), 285–305. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2004.03.005 Smillie, L. D., Pickering, A. D., & Jackson, C. J. (2006). The new reinforcement sensitivity theory: Implications for personality measurement. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 10(4), 320–335. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr1004_3 Carver, C. S., & White, T. L. (1994). Behavioral inhibition, behavioral activation, and affective responses to impending reward and punishment: The BIS/BAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67(2), 319–333. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.67.2.319 Corr, P. J. (2004). Reinforcement sensitivity theory and personality. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 28(3), 317–332. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2004.01.005 Corr, P. J. (2008). The reinforcement sensitivity theory of personality. Cambridge University Press. Gray, J. A. (1970). The psychophysiological basis of introversion-extraversion. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 8(3), 249–266. https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(70)90069-0 Gray, J. A., & McNaughton, N. (2000). The neuropsychology of anxiety: An enquiry into the functions of the septo-hippocampal system (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. Smillie, L. D., & Jackson, C. J. (2006). Functional impulsivity and reinforcement sensitivity theory. Journal of Personality, 74(1), 47–84. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2005.00369.x Smillie, L. D., Pickering, A. D., & Jackson, C. J. (2006). The new reinforcement sensitivity theory: Implications for personality measurement. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 10(4), 320–335. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr1004_3 Carver, C. S., & White, T. L. (1994). Behavioral inhibition, behavioral activation, and affective responses to impending reward and punishment: The BIS/BAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67(2), 319–333. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.67.2.319 Corr, P. J. (2008). The reinforcement sensitivity theory of personality. Cambridge University Press. Corr, P. J. (2011). Anxiety: Splitting the phenomenological atom. Personality and Individual Differences, 50(7), 889–897. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.09.013 Corr, P. J., & McNaughton, N. (2008). Reinforcement sensitivity theory and personality. In G. J. Boyle, G. Matthews, & D. H. Saklofske (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of personality theory and assessment: Vol. 1. Personality theories and models (pp. 155–187). SAGE. De Pascalis, V., Strippoli, E., Riccardi, P., & Vergari, M. (2000). Psychophysiological responses to emotional stimuli in subjects with different levels of anxiety. Personality and Individual Differences, 28(3), 529–544. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(99)00114-8 Gray, J. A. (1982). The neuropsychology of anxiety: An enquiry into the functions of the septo-hippocampal system. Oxford University Press. Gray, J. A., & McNaughton, N. (2000). The neuropsychology of anxiety: An enquiry into the functions of the septo-hippocampal system (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. McNaughton, N., & Corr, P. J. (2004). A two-dimensional neuropsychology of defense: Fear/anxiety and defensive distance. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 28(3), 285–305. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2004.03.005 }} ==External links== {{expand}} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Reward]] 7f1uxgmf7ula4d8pyxyvhtouu6715lf 2836529 2836477 2026-10-07T10:18:03Z UU3231448 3110120 Added a quiz 2836529 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Reinforcement sensitivity theory:<br>How does reinforcement sensitivity theory explain individual differences in motivation and emotion?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== Imagine two people walking home late at night when they hear footsteps approaching from behind. One person immediately turns around and runs, while the other becomes alert, evaluates the situation, and considers whether they should continue walking or find somewhere safe. In another situation, someone might eagerly approach a new opportunity because they anticipate a rewarding outcome, while another person may hesitate because of uncertainty or the possibility of failure. Why do people respond so differently to the same situations? Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (RST) provides a framework for understanding these differences in behaviour, motivation, emotion, and personality (Corr, 2008). RST was originally developed from the work of Jeffrey Gray and was substantially revised by Gray and McNaughton (2000). The revised theory proposes that behaviour is influenced by neuropsychological systems that respond to rewarding, conflicting, and threatening stimuli. The revised theory primarily focuses on three systems: the Behavioural Approach System (BAS), the Behavioural Inhibition System (BIS), and the Fight–Flight–Freeze System (FFFS) (Gray & McNaughton, 2000; Smillie et al., 2006). The BAS is primarily associated with approaching rewarding or appetitive stimuli and pursuing goals. The BIS is activated by goal conflict and uncertainty, prompting individuals to assess situations and resolve competing goals. In contrast, the FFFS is associated with responses to aversive or threatening stimuli, including defensive behaviours such as fight, flight, and freezing (Gray & McNaughton, 2000; Corr, 2008). Together, these systems provide a framework for understanding why individuals can experience and respond to similar situations in different ways. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' {{ic|}} #. What is Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory and how did it develop? #. What are the functions of the BAS, BIS, and FFFS? #. How do the BIS and FFFS differ in their responses to threatening situations? #. How can RST explain individual differences in personality and behaviour? #. How has RST contributed to psychological research into motivation and emotion? {{RoundBoxBottom}}{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} Case Study Imagine two students are given the opportunity to give a presentation in front of their class. Patricia is excited about the possibility of receiving praise from her teacher and getting a good grade, so they confidently put their hand up first to present. This shows a stronger Behavioural Activation System (BAS) response to the reward. Ben becomes nervous because they are worried about making a mistake and being judged, so he hesitate's more and consider the possible consequences of not doing a good job. This demonstrates the Behavioural Inhibition System (BIS). If Ben felt an immediate need to escape the situation because they felt threatened, this then could involve the Fight–Flight–Freeze System (FFFS). {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory == The '''Behavioural Activation System (BAS)''' is primarily associated with sensitivity to rewards and appetitive stimuli. It motivates individuals to move towards desirable goals and positive outcomes and is associated with approach-related behaviours such as reward seeking, goal pursuit, excitement, and motivation (Gray & McNaughton, 2000; Corr, 2004). Individuals with a greater BAS sensitivity may therefore be more responsive to opportunities for reward and may be more likely to actively pursue pleasurable or desirable experiences. Research has also linked BAS sensitivity with aspects of personality such as extraversion, impulsivity, and reward responsiveness, although the exact relationship depends on how BAS is measured (Corr, 2004; Smillie et al., 2006). The '''Behavioural Inhibition System (BIS''') is associated with situations involving conflict, uncertainty, and competing behavioural goals. Rather than simply responding to punishment, as was emphasised in earlier versions of RST, the revised theory proposes that the BIS becomes particularly important when an individual experiences a conflict between approach and avoidance tendencies (Gray & McNaughton, 2000). For example, a person may want to approach a social situation because it could provide a reward but simultaneously want to avoid it because they are worried about being judged. Activation of the BIS can result in an increase of attention, caution, risk assessment, worry, and anxiety while the individual attempts to resolve the conflict (Corr, 2004; McNaughton & Corr, 2004). The '''Fight–Flight–Freeze System (FFFS)''' is primarily responsible for responding to aversive and threatening stimuli and is associated with fear and defensive behaviour. When an individual encounters an immediate threat, the FFFS can motivate behaviours such as fighting, escaping, avoiding, or freezing in response to danger (Gray & McNaughton, 2000). An important development in revised RST was the separation of the FFFS from the BIS. The FFFS is more closely associated with direct fear and avoidance of threats, whereas the BIS is associated with anxiety arising from conflict and uncertainty (Corr, 2004; Smillie et al., 2006). This distinction allows RST to provide a more detailed explanation of why people can experience different emotional and behavioural responses to threatening situations. == Behavioural Activation System == ''The Behavioural Activation System (BAS) stands for Behavioural Activation System and is one of the major motivational systems described within Jeffrey Gray’s Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (RST). The BAS is primarily concerned with sensitivity to rewards and appetitive stimuli, encouraging individuals to move towards desirable outcomes rather than away from them (Gray, 1970; Corr, 2008). According to RST, the BAS becomes activated when the  individual perceives a possibility of obtaining something desirable. This could be anything from money, to social approval, success, food, pleasurable experiences, or new opportunities. Rather than simply responding to rewards after they have been received, the BAS is particularly important for motivating behaviour when a reward is anticipated or considered achievable (Gray & McNaughton, 2000).'' ''BAS activation can also occur in response to cues that signal the potential possibility of receiving a reward. These cues as mentioned may include seeing an opportunity to receiving positive feedback or recognising that a particular behaviour could lead to a desirable consequence. This means that BAS activity can then influence behaviour before the reward is actually obtained.'' ''Individual differences in BAS sensitivity make up an important component of RST. People differ in how strongly they respond to reward-related cues, meaning that the same opportunity may produce different levels of motivation in different individuals (Corr, 2004). A person with relatively higher BAS sensitivity may respond particularly strongly to opportunities for reward, as well as may be more motivated to pursue positive outcomes. They may be more likely to seek out exciting or enjoyable experiences, take advantage of opportunities that could produce positive consequences, and respond strongly to praise, achievement, recognition, or other forms of positive reinforcement. They may also be quicker to initiate behaviour when a potentially rewarding opportunity becomes available (Corr, 2008; Smillie et al., 2006).'' == Fight-Flight-Freeze System == ''The Fight–Flight–Freeze System (FFFS) is another of the three major motivational and defensive systems identified in the revised version of Jeffrey Gray’s Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (RST), focusing more through the work of Gray and McNaughton (2000). The FFFS’s primary concern is with responding to aversive stimuli, such as threats, fear and punishment, and its central function is to protect the individual from immediate danger by producing defensive responses (Gray & McNaughton, 2000; Corr, 2004). Unlike the before mentioned Behavioural Inhibition System (BIS), which is primarily associated with conflict and uncertainty in situations, in which competing behavioural tendencies need to be resolved, the FFFS is then activated by stimuli that are perceived as directly threatening or aversive (McNaughton & Corr, 2004; Corr & McNaughton, 2008). When a person encounters an immediate threat, the FFFS can produce rapid defensive responses that are commonly described as fight, flight, or freeze. The fight response involves confronting or attempting to defend against the source of danger, while the flight response involves escaping or moving away from the threatening stimulus. The freeze response involves becoming temporarily still, reducing movement, or experiencing a temporary inability to initiate an immediate behavioural response when confronted with danger (Gray & McNaughton, 2000; Kozlowska et al., 2015). These responses can be understood as different defensive strategies that may be selected depending on the characteristics and perceived proximity of the threat.'' ''For example, if an individual encounters an aggressive person, they may attempt to defend themselves, escape from the situation, or momentarily freeze while assessing what to do next. The FFFS is therefore closely associated with fear and defensive behaviour, whereas anxiety is more strongly associated with BIS activation when there is conflict or uncertainty about what action should be taken (McNaughton & Corr, 2004; Corr, 2008). This distinction between fear and anxiety represents an important development in the revised RST because earlier versions of Gray’s theory placed greater emphasis on the BIS as a system responding to punishment, whereas the revised model separated immediate fear responses from anxiety-related conflict processing (Gray & McNaughton, 2000; Corr, 2004). FFFS activation can occur rapidly because detecting and responding to potential danger can be important for survival, particularly when an individual encounters a threat that requires immediate action (LeDoux, 2012). From an evolutionary perspective, defensive responses such as fighting or escaping can help an organism avoid injury or remove itself from a dangerous environment, while freezing may provide an alternative response when immediate movement is not possible or may increase danger (Blanchard et al., 2001; Kozlowska et al., 2015). Corr, 2004). Overall, the FFFS provides an important component of RST by explaining how individuals detect and respond to immediate threats, punishment, and aversive stimuli.'' == Behavioural Inhibition System == ''The Behavioural Inhibition System (BIS) is the last of the three major systems within the revised version of Jeffrey Gray’s Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (RST) and is primarily involved in responding to conflict, uncertainty, and situations in which an individual has  to evaluate competing behavioural options (Gray & McNaughton, 2000; McNaughton & Corr, 2004). Rather than simply causing a person to stop behaving, the BIS is supposed to interrupt or slow ongoing behaviour when an individual encounters a situation that requires further evaluation, thus allowing them to assess  further potential risks and determine an appropriate response (Corr, 2004). The BIS is particularly relevant when a person experiences competing motivational tendencies, such as wanting to approach a potentially rewarding situation while simultaneously wanting to avoid a possible negative outcome. This is known as an approach–avoidance conflict, where the same situation contains both desirable and undesirable consequences (Gray & McNaughton, 2000). For example, a student may want to answer a question in class because they could receive recognition for providing the correct answer, but may also worry about embarrassment if they are incorrect. The conflict between the potential reward of answering and the potential negative consequence of making a mistake can result in increased BIS activity and greater caution before acting. The BIS may also become relevant during avoidance–avoidance conflicts, in which an individual must choose between two undesirable outcomes, as well as during situations involving uncertainty about what will happen next (McNaughton & Corr, 2004).'' ''This makes the BIS particularly important for situations where the appropriate behavioural response is unclear. Activation of the BIS is associated with psychological experiences such as anxiety, worry, cautiousness, vigilance, and increased attention to potentially relevant environmental information (Gray & McNaughton, 2000; Corr, 2011). Importantly, the revised RST distinguishes BIS-related anxiety from the fear response associated with the Fight–Flight–Freeze System (FFFS). Whereas the FFFS is primarily responsible for immediate defensive responses to direct threats, the BIS is activated when there is conflict between competing behavioural tendencies or uncertainty regarding the appropriate response (McNaughton & Corr, 2004; Corr & McNaughton, 2008). Consequently, BIS activation does not necessarily result in immediate escape or avoidance; instead, the BIS encourages the individual to pause, gather information, assess potential consequences, and determine which behavioural response is most appropriate (Corr, 2011). The BIS has therefore been described as an important system for conflict detection and resolution, allowing behaviour to be adjusted when an individual's existing response tendencies are insufficient to deal with a particular situation (Gray & McNaughton, 2000).'' == Figures == * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure; this can be the figure in the scenario * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] which hosts free-to-use media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, and audio[[File:Reinforcement learning diagram.svg|thumb|140x140px|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text)[[File:RSTDiagram.png|thumb|140x140px|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! System !! What It Responds To !! Primary Function !Typical Emotional Response !Typical Behaviour |- | '''Behavioural Activation System (BAS)''' || Rewards, appetitive, Stimuli, Opportunities for positive outcomes. || Motivates towards desirable goals. |Excitement/Enthusiasm |Approach, reward seeking, goal pursuit |- |'''Behavioural Inhibition System (BIS)''' |Conflict, uncertainty, competing goals as well as ambiguous situation. |Detects and resolves conflict between competing behavioural tendencies. |Anxiety, worry, and caution. |Pausing, evaluating, and increased attention. |- | '''Fight-Flight-Freeze System (FFFS)''' || Immediate threats, aversive stimuli, danger and punishment. || Protects the individual from direct threats. |Fear and Panic. |Fight, flight, freeze, avoidance. |} ;Quiz <quiz display="simple"> {The Behavioural Inhibition System (BIS) is primarily responsible for immediate fight, flight, or freeze responses to threats. |type="()"} + True - False {The Fight–Flight–Freeze System (FFFS) is associated with fear and defensive responses to aversive or threatening stimuli. |type="()"} + True - False {The Behavioural Activation System (BAS) is associated with approaching rewarding stimuli and pursuing goals. |type="()"} +True - False {In revised RST, the BIS and FFFS are identical systems that perform the same psychological function. |type="()"} -True + False {Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory can help explain why different people may respond differently to the same environmental situation. |type="()"} +True - False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== {{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}} [[Anxiety]] (Wikiversity) [[wikipedia:Gray's_biopsychological_theory_of_personality|Jeffery Gray's Behavioural Action/Inhibition Theory]] (Wikiversity) [[wikipedia:Reinforcement_sensitivity_theory|Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Corr, P. J. (Ed.). (2008). The reinforcement sensitivity theory of personality. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511819389 Gray, J. A. (1982). The neuropsychology of anxiety: An enquiry into the functions of the septo-hippocampal system. Oxford University Press. Gray, J. A., & McNaughton, N. (2000). The neuropsychology of anxiety: An enquiry into the functions of the septo-hippocampal system (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. Smillie, L. D., Pickering, A. D., & Jackson, C. J. (2006). The new Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory: Implications for personality measurement. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 10(4), 320–335. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr1004_3 Corr, P. J. (2004). Reinforcement sensitivity theory and personality. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 28(3), 317–332. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2004.01.005 Firth, J., Standen, B., Sumich, A., Fino, E., & Heym, N. (2024). The neural correlates of reinforcement sensitivity theory: A systematic review of the frontal asymmetry and spectral power literature. Psychophysiology, 61(9), e14594. https://doi.org/10.1111/psyp.14594 Gray, J. A. (1970). The psychophysiological basis of introversion-extraversion. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 8(3), 249–266. https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(70)90069-0 Gray, J. A., & McNaughton, N. (2000). The neuropsychology of anxiety: An enquiry into the functions of the septo-hippocampal system (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. McNaughton, N., & Corr, P. J. (2004). A two-dimensional neuropsychology of defense: Fear/anxiety and defensive distance. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 28(3), 285–305. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2004.03.005 Smillie, L. D., Pickering, A. D., & Jackson, C. J. (2006). The new reinforcement sensitivity theory: Implications for personality measurement. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 10(4), 320–335. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr1004_3 Carver, C. S., & White, T. L. (1994). Behavioral inhibition, behavioral activation, and affective responses to impending reward and punishment: The BIS/BAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67(2), 319–333. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.67.2.319 Corr, P. J. (2004). Reinforcement sensitivity theory and personality. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 28(3), 317–332. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2004.01.005 Corr, P. J. (2008). The reinforcement sensitivity theory of personality. Cambridge University Press. Gray, J. A. (1970). The psychophysiological basis of introversion-extraversion. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 8(3), 249–266. https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(70)90069-0 Gray, J. A., & McNaughton, N. (2000). The neuropsychology of anxiety: An enquiry into the functions of the septo-hippocampal system (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. Smillie, L. D., & Jackson, C. J. (2006). Functional impulsivity and reinforcement sensitivity theory. Journal of Personality, 74(1), 47–84. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2005.00369.x Smillie, L. D., Pickering, A. D., & Jackson, C. J. (2006). The new reinforcement sensitivity theory: Implications for personality measurement. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 10(4), 320–335. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr1004_3 Carver, C. S., & White, T. L. (1994). Behavioral inhibition, behavioral activation, and affective responses to impending reward and punishment: The BIS/BAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67(2), 319–333. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.67.2.319 Corr, P. J. (2008). The reinforcement sensitivity theory of personality. Cambridge University Press. Corr, P. J. (2011). Anxiety: Splitting the phenomenological atom. Personality and Individual Differences, 50(7), 889–897. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.09.013 Corr, P. J., & McNaughton, N. (2008). Reinforcement sensitivity theory and personality. In G. J. Boyle, G. Matthews, & D. H. Saklofske (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of personality theory and assessment: Vol. 1. Personality theories and models (pp. 155–187). SAGE. De Pascalis, V., Strippoli, E., Riccardi, P., & Vergari, M. (2000). Psychophysiological responses to emotional stimuli in subjects with different levels of anxiety. Personality and Individual Differences, 28(3), 529–544. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(99)00114-8 Gray, J. A. (1982). The neuropsychology of anxiety: An enquiry into the functions of the septo-hippocampal system. Oxford University Press. Gray, J. A., & McNaughton, N. (2000). The neuropsychology of anxiety: An enquiry into the functions of the septo-hippocampal system (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. McNaughton, N., & Corr, P. J. (2004). A two-dimensional neuropsychology of defense: Fear/anxiety and defensive distance. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 28(3), 285–305. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2004.03.005 }} ==External links== {{expand}} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Reward]] 3kb8bi84xrugmq7uiapuxg2rxf9y956 0 331663 2836442 2834093 2026-10-07T04:42:46Z U3203283 3110021 2836442 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Relatedness motivation in self-determination theory:<br>How does the need for relatedness function within self-determination theory to shape motivation and behaviour?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Raise hand gesture occupy.svg|Raise_hand_gesture_occupy|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. A raised hand: Lauren's tutor encouraged students to ask for help and connect with each other. {{expand}}]] ; Imagine this Lauren is a first-year university student studying psychology who recently started a demanding course. During the first few weeks, she finds the workload difficult and is unsure whether she is capable of succeeding. She chose to study psychology because she is interested in the subject, however, she feels isolated because her classmates seem to already know one another. One of Lauren’s tutors makes an effort to learn about students, encourages them to contribute to discussions, and provides feedback. The tutor also organises small-group activities where students can get to know one another and emphasises that asking for help is a normal part of learning. Lauren engages with these opportunities. Over time, Lauren begins to feel that she belongs in the course and that both her tutor and classmates value her participation. As Lauren feels increasingly connected to the people around her, she becomes more willing to attend tutorials, participate in discussions, ask questions, and seek feedback when she does not understand something. She also starts studying with classmates outside class. Lauren is no longer completing the course requirements only because she feels she has to. Her growing sense of belonging helps her internalise the value of the course, so she begins to think, “Psychology is important to me, and I want to do well because I see myself as part of this community.” This shift leads to more persistent, engaged behaviour. {{RoundBoxBottom}} * In self-determination theory, relatedness refers to feeling connected, social accepted, cared for by and important to other people. * Relatedness can facilitate the internalisation of socially motivated goals, which transforms extrinsic motivation to and strengthens motivation. * Investigating how either relatedness satisfaction or frustration shapes motivation can lead to the facilitation of relatedness in learning environments to improve motivation and outcomes. (Bureau et al., 2022; Ryan & Deci, 2000; Slemp et al., 2024) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topic''': Brief explanation of the problem, why it is important, and an outline of how psychological science can help {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What is the need for relatedness within Self-Determination Theory, and why is it important in shaping motivation? * How does relatedness satisfaction influence the development of autonomous versus controlled motivation? * How does relatedness satisfaction or frustration affect individuals’ behaviour, such as engagement, persistence, and disengagement? * How do social environments and relationships affect relatedness, and what are the implications on motivation and behaviour? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Self-Determination Theory== * [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-determination%20theory Self-determination theory] {{ic|Use an internal link as shown in Tutorial 2}} * The relationship between extrinsic motivation, intrinsic motivation, and human needs. * Autonomy, competence, and relatedness are innate psychological needs thought to foster high-quality motivation. * SDT posits that social and cultural factors either support or damage individuals' motivation, well-being, and the quality of their involvement. (Ryan & Deci, 2000) ==Relatedness satisfaction and autonomous motivation== * Relatedness satisfaction versus relatedness frustration. * When an individual is satisfied with their relatedness, they are more likely to perceive a task as meaningful opposed to an obligation. This futher motivates that individual to engage in the task. * Relatedness frustration, characterised by rejection, loneliness and feeling excluded, was found to mediate amotivation. (Van Tuin et. al, 2020) ==Relatedness, engagement and behaviour== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Parallel mediation model with both satisfaction and frustration of basic needs (Van Tuin et al., 2020)]] * Relatedness satisfaction of students predicted identified regulation and was found to increase behavioural engagement in mathematics (Hofverberg et. al., 2022). * When relatedness is satisfied, participation has been found to feel more meaningful socially and emotionally, therefore motivating participation behaviours (Kaefer & Chiviacowsky, 2021). * Students' perception of relatedness with teachers was associated with better homework engagement and practices (Collie, 2024). ==Relatedness and well-being== * Interpersonal support of autonomy, competence, and relatedness were associated with satisfaction of those psychological needs. * Environmental support for needs were associated with greater wellbeing and improved performance. * Relatedness supports wellbeing which supports motivation. (Slemp et. al, 2024) {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || |} * '''Interactive learning Quiz - Choose your answers and click "Submit":''' <quiz display="simple"> {Relatedness satisfaction has been shown to influence welbeing: |type="(true)"} + True - False {Relatedness is an element of self-determination theory: |type="(true)"} + True - False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Relatedness is a key psychological need within self-determination theory. When this need is satisfied, psychological well-being is more likely to increase and individuals are more likely to develop greater self-determined motivation * Both relatedness satisfaction and relatedness frustration can influence the quality of motivation, not just its strength * Relatedness satisfaction can shape behaviour by facilitating greater engagement, participation, and persistence and sustain their behaviour for longer. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== {{ic|Use alphabetical order}} * [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-determination%20theory Self-determination theory] (Wikipedia) {{ic|Use an internal link as shown in Tutorial 2}} * [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_relation Relatedness] (Wikipedia) {{ic|Use an internal link as shown in Tutorial 2}} *[https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Lectures/Extrinsic_motivation_and_psychological_needs Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs] (Wikiversity) {{ic|Use an internal link as shown in Tutorial 2}} *[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_evaluation_theory Cognitive evaluation theory] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bureau, J. S., Howard, J. L., Chong, J. X. Y., & Guay, F. (2022). Pathways to Student Motivation: A Meta-Analysis of Antecedents of Autonomous and Controlled Motivations. Review of Educational Research, 92(1), 46-72. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543211042426 Collie, R. J. (2024). Social-emotional need satisfaction and students’ academic engagement and social-emotional skills. Educational Psychology, 44(2), 117–135. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2024.2324751 Hofverberg, A., Winberg, M., Palmberg, B., Andersson, C., & Palm, T. (2022). Relationships between basic psychological need satisfaction, regulations, and behavioral engagement in mathematics. Frontiers in Psychology, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.829958 Kaefer, A., & Chiviacowsky, S. (2021). Relatedness support enhances motivation, positive affect, and motor learning in adolescents. Human Movement Science, 79, 102864. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.humov.2021.102864 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.55.1.68 Slemp, G. R., Field, J. G., Ryan, R. M., Forner, V. W., Van den Broeck, A., & Lewis, K. J. (2024). Interpersonal supports for basic psychological needs and their relations with motivation, well-being, and performance: A meta-analysis. Journal of personality and social psychology, 127(5), 1012–1037. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000459 Van Tuin, L., Schaufeli, W. B., & van Rhenen, W. (2020). The satisfaction and frustration of basic psychological needs in engaging leadership. Journal of Leadership Studies, 14(2), 6–23. https://doi.org/10.1002/jls.21695 Weinstein, N. (Ed.). (2014). Human Motivation and Interpersonal Relationships : Theory, Research, and Applications (1st ed. 2014.). Springer Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-8542-6 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== {{ic|Use sentence casing}} * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VGrcets0E6I Promoting Motivation, Health, and Excellence: Ed Deci TEDX] (Youtube) * [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/theory/ Self-determination Theory] (Center for Self-determination Theory) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Needs/Relatedness]] lb5xqr4nfad264r071w20jjoimepuik 2836446 2836442 2026-10-07T04:51:44Z U3203283 3110021 /* Overview */ 2836446 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Relatedness motivation in self-determination theory:<br>How does the need for relatedness function within self-determination theory to shape motivation and behaviour?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Raise hand gesture occupy.svg|Raise_hand_gesture_occupy|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. A raised hand: Lauren's tutor encouraged students to ask for help and connect with each other. {{expand}}]] ; Imagine this Lauren is a first-year university student studying psychology who recently started a demanding course. During the first few weeks, she finds the workload difficult and is unsure whether she is capable of succeeding. She chose to study psychology because she is interested in the subject, however, she feels isolated because her classmates seem to already know one another. One of Lauren’s tutors makes an effort to learn about students, encourages them to contribute to discussions, and provides feedback. The tutor also organises small-group activities where students can get to know one another and emphasises that asking for help is a normal part of learning. Lauren engages with these opportunities. Over time, Lauren begins to feel that she belongs in the course and that both her tutor and classmates value her participation. As Lauren feels increasingly connected to the people around her, she becomes more willing to attend tutorials, participate in discussions, ask questions (see Figure 1), and seek feedback when she does not understand something. She also starts studying with classmates outside class. Lauren is no longer completing the course requirements only because she feels she has to. Her growing sense of belonging helps her internalise the value of the course, so she begins to think, “Psychology is important to me, and I want to do well because I see myself as part of this community.” This shift leads to more persistent, engaged behaviour. {{RoundBoxBottom}} * In self-determination theory, relatedness refers to feeling connected, social accepted, cared for by and important to other people. * Relatedness can facilitate the internalisation of socially motivated goals, which transforms extrinsic motivation to and strengthens motivation. * Investigating how either relatedness satisfaction or frustration shapes motivation can lead to the facilitation of relatedness in learning environments to improve motivation and outcomes. (Bureau et al., 2022; Ryan & Deci, 2000; Slemp et al., 2024) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topic''': Brief explanation of the problem, why it is important, and an outline of how psychological science can help {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What is the need for relatedness within Self-Determination Theory, and why is it important in shaping motivation? * How does relatedness satisfaction influence the development of autonomous versus controlled motivation? * How does relatedness satisfaction or frustration affect individuals’ behaviour, such as engagement, persistence, and disengagement? * How do social environments and relationships affect relatedness, and what are the implications on motivation and behaviour? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Self-Determination Theory== * [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-determination%20theory Self-determination theory] {{ic|Use an internal link as shown in Tutorial 2}} * The relationship between extrinsic motivation, intrinsic motivation, and human needs. * Autonomy, competence, and relatedness are innate psychological needs thought to foster high-quality motivation. * SDT posits that social and cultural factors either support or damage individuals' motivation, well-being, and the quality of their involvement. (Ryan & Deci, 2000) ==Relatedness satisfaction and autonomous motivation== * Relatedness satisfaction versus relatedness frustration. * When an individual is satisfied with their relatedness, they are more likely to perceive a task as meaningful opposed to an obligation. This futher motivates that individual to engage in the task. * Relatedness frustration, characterised by rejection, loneliness and feeling excluded, was found to mediate amotivation. (Van Tuin et. al, 2020) ==Relatedness, engagement and behaviour== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Parallel mediation model with both satisfaction and frustration of basic needs (Van Tuin et al., 2020)]] * Relatedness satisfaction of students predicted identified regulation and was found to increase behavioural engagement in mathematics (Hofverberg et. al., 2022). * When relatedness is satisfied, participation has been found to feel more meaningful socially and emotionally, therefore motivating participation behaviours (Kaefer & Chiviacowsky, 2021). * Students' perception of relatedness with teachers was associated with better homework engagement and practices (Collie, 2024). ==Relatedness and well-being== * Interpersonal support of autonomy, competence, and relatedness were associated with satisfaction of those psychological needs. * Environmental support for needs were associated with greater wellbeing and improved performance. * Relatedness supports wellbeing which supports motivation. (Slemp et. al, 2024) {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || |} * '''Interactive learning Quiz - Choose your answers and click "Submit":''' <quiz display="simple"> {Relatedness satisfaction has been shown to influence welbeing: |type="(true)"} + True - False {Relatedness is an element of self-determination theory: |type="(true)"} + True - False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Relatedness is a key psychological need within self-determination theory. When this need is satisfied, psychological well-being is more likely to increase and individuals are more likely to develop greater self-determined motivation * Both relatedness satisfaction and relatedness frustration can influence the quality of motivation, not just its strength * Relatedness satisfaction can shape behaviour by facilitating greater engagement, participation, and persistence and sustain their behaviour for longer. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== {{ic|Use alphabetical order}} * [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-determination%20theory Self-determination theory] (Wikipedia) {{ic|Use an internal link as shown in Tutorial 2}} * [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_relation Relatedness] (Wikipedia) {{ic|Use an internal link as shown in Tutorial 2}} *[https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Lectures/Extrinsic_motivation_and_psychological_needs Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs] (Wikiversity) {{ic|Use an internal link as shown in Tutorial 2}} *[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_evaluation_theory Cognitive evaluation theory] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bureau, J. S., Howard, J. L., Chong, J. X. Y., & Guay, F. (2022). Pathways to Student Motivation: A Meta-Analysis of Antecedents of Autonomous and Controlled Motivations. Review of Educational Research, 92(1), 46-72. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543211042426 Collie, R. J. (2024). Social-emotional need satisfaction and students’ academic engagement and social-emotional skills. Educational Psychology, 44(2), 117–135. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2024.2324751 Hofverberg, A., Winberg, M., Palmberg, B., Andersson, C., & Palm, T. (2022). Relationships between basic psychological need satisfaction, regulations, and behavioral engagement in mathematics. Frontiers in Psychology, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.829958 Kaefer, A., & Chiviacowsky, S. (2021). Relatedness support enhances motivation, positive affect, and motor learning in adolescents. Human Movement Science, 79, 102864. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.humov.2021.102864 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.55.1.68 Slemp, G. R., Field, J. G., Ryan, R. M., Forner, V. W., Van den Broeck, A., & Lewis, K. J. (2024). Interpersonal supports for basic psychological needs and their relations with motivation, well-being, and performance: A meta-analysis. Journal of personality and social psychology, 127(5), 1012–1037. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000459 Van Tuin, L., Schaufeli, W. B., & van Rhenen, W. (2020). The satisfaction and frustration of basic psychological needs in engaging leadership. Journal of Leadership Studies, 14(2), 6–23. https://doi.org/10.1002/jls.21695 Weinstein, N. (Ed.). (2014). Human Motivation and Interpersonal Relationships : Theory, Research, and Applications (1st ed. 2014.). Springer Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-8542-6 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== {{ic|Use sentence casing}} * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VGrcets0E6I Promoting Motivation, Health, and Excellence: Ed Deci TEDX] (Youtube) * [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/theory/ Self-determination Theory] (Center for Self-determination Theory) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Needs/Relatedness]] 8tffzf5lqbny3fislbwws15dg4mey48 2836448 2836446 2026-10-07T04:57:58Z U3203283 3110021 2836448 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Relatedness motivation in self-determination theory:<br>How does the need for relatedness function within self-determination theory to shape motivation and behaviour?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Raise hand gesture occupy.svg|Raise_hand_gesture_occupy|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. A raised hand: Lauren's tutor encouraged students to ask for help and connect with each other. {{expand}}]] ; Imagine this Lauren is a first-year university student studying psychology who recently started a demanding course. During the first few weeks, she finds the workload difficult and is unsure whether she is capable of succeeding. She chose to study psychology because she is interested in the subject, however, she feels isolated because her classmates seem to already know one another. One of Lauren’s tutors makes an effort to learn about students, encourages them to contribute to discussions, and provides feedback. The tutor also organises small-group activities where students can get to know one another and emphasises that asking for help is a normal part of learning. Lauren engages with these opportunities. Over time, Lauren begins to feel that she belongs in the course and that both her tutor and classmates value her participation. As Lauren feels increasingly connected to the people around her, she becomes more willing to attend tutorials, participate in discussions, ask questions (see Figure 1), and seek feedback when she does not understand something. She also starts studying with classmates outside class. Lauren is no longer completing the course requirements only because she feels she has to. Her growing sense of belonging helps her internalise the value of the course, so she begins to think, “Psychology is important to me, and I want to do well because I see myself as part of this community.” This shift leads to more persistent, engaged behaviour. {{RoundBoxBottom}} * In self-determination theory, relatedness refers to feeling connected, social accepted, cared for by and important to other people. * Relatedness can facilitate the internalisation of socially motivated goals, which transforms extrinsic motivation to and strengthens motivation. * Investigating how either relatedness satisfaction or frustration shapes motivation can lead to the facilitation of relatedness in learning environments to improve motivation and outcomes. (Bureau et al., 2022; Ryan & Deci, 2000; Slemp et al., 2024) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topic''': Brief explanation of the problem, why it is important, and an outline of how psychological science can help {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What is the need for relatedness within Self-Determination Theory, and why is it important in shaping motivation? * How does relatedness satisfaction influence the development of autonomous versus controlled motivation? * How does relatedness satisfaction or frustration affect individuals’ behaviour, such as engagement, persistence, and disengagement? * How do social environments and relationships affect relatedness, and what are the implications on motivation and behaviour? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Self-Determination Theory== * [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-determination%20theory Self-determination theory] {{ic|Use an internal link as shown in Tutorial 2}} * The relationship between extrinsic motivation, intrinsic motivation, and human needs. * Autonomy, competence, and relatedness are innate psychological needs thought to foster high-quality motivation. * SDT posits that social and cultural factors either support or damage individuals' motivation, well-being, and the quality of their involvement. (Ryan & Deci, 2000) ==Relatedness satisfaction and autonomous motivation== * Relatedness satisfaction versus relatedness frustration. * When an individual is satisfied with their relatedness, they are more likely to perceive a task as meaningful opposed to an obligation. This futher motivates that individual to engage in the task. * Relatedness frustration, characterised by rejection, loneliness and feeling excluded, was found to mediate amotivation. (Van Tuin et. al, 2020) ==Relatedness, engagement and behaviour== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Parallel mediation model with both satisfaction and frustration of basic needs (Van Tuin et al., 2020)]] * Relatedness satisfaction of students predicted identified regulation and was found to increase behavioural engagement in mathematics (Hofverberg et. al., 2022). * When relatedness is satisfied, participation has been found to feel more meaningful socially and emotionally, therefore motivating participation behaviours (Kaefer & Chiviacowsky, 2021). * Students' perception of relatedness with teachers was associated with better homework engagement and practices (Collie, 2024). ==Relatedness and well-being== * Interpersonal support of autonomy, competence, and relatedness were associated with satisfaction of those psychological needs. * Environmental support for needs were associated with greater wellbeing and improved performance. * Relatedness supports wellbeing which supports motivation. (Slemp et. al, 2024) {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || |} * '''Interactive learning Quiz - Choose your answers and click "Submit":''' <quiz display="simple"> {Relatedness satisfaction has been shown to influence welbeing: |type="(true)"} + True - False {Relatedness is an element of self-determination theory: |type="(true)"} + True - False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Relatedness is a key psychological need within self-determination theory. When this need is satisfied, psychological well-being is more likely to increase and individuals are more likely to develop greater self-determined motivation * Both relatedness satisfaction and relatedness frustration can influence the quality of motivation, not just its strength * Relatedness satisfaction can shape behaviour by facilitating greater engagement, participation, and persistence and sustain their behaviour for longer. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== {{ic|Use alphabetical order}} *[[w:Self determination theory|Self-determination theory]] (Wikipedia) * [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_relation Relatedness] (Wikipedia) {{ic|Use an internal link as shown in Tutorial 2}} *[https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Lectures/Extrinsic_motivation_and_psychological_needs Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs] (Wikiversity) {{ic|Use an internal link as shown in Tutorial 2}} * [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_evaluation_theory Cognitive evaluation theory] (Wikipedia) *[[Cognitive evaluation theory|Cognitive evaluation theory]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bureau, J. S., Howard, J. L., Chong, J. X. Y., & Guay, F. (2022). Pathways to Student Motivation: A Meta-Analysis of Antecedents of Autonomous and Controlled Motivations. Review of Educational Research, 92(1), 46-72. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543211042426 Collie, R. J. (2024). Social-emotional need satisfaction and students’ academic engagement and social-emotional skills. Educational Psychology, 44(2), 117–135. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2024.2324751 Hofverberg, A., Winberg, M., Palmberg, B., Andersson, C., & Palm, T. (2022). Relationships between basic psychological need satisfaction, regulations, and behavioral engagement in mathematics. Frontiers in Psychology, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.829958 Kaefer, A., & Chiviacowsky, S. (2021). Relatedness support enhances motivation, positive affect, and motor learning in adolescents. Human Movement Science, 79, 102864. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.humov.2021.102864 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.55.1.68 Slemp, G. R., Field, J. G., Ryan, R. M., Forner, V. W., Van den Broeck, A., & Lewis, K. J. (2024). Interpersonal supports for basic psychological needs and their relations with motivation, well-being, and performance: A meta-analysis. Journal of personality and social psychology, 127(5), 1012–1037. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000459 Van Tuin, L., Schaufeli, W. B., & van Rhenen, W. (2020). The satisfaction and frustration of basic psychological needs in engaging leadership. Journal of Leadership Studies, 14(2), 6–23. https://doi.org/10.1002/jls.21695 Weinstein, N. (Ed.). (2014). Human Motivation and Interpersonal Relationships : Theory, Research, and Applications (1st ed. 2014.). Springer Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-8542-6 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== {{ic|Use sentence casing}} * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VGrcets0E6I Promoting Motivation, Health, and Excellence: Ed Deci TEDX] (Youtube) * [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/theory/ Self-determination Theory] (Center for Self-determination Theory) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Needs/Relatedness]] c5futfh0bk3u2alog7ge9nlgf5i6i4i 2836450 2836448 2026-10-07T05:01:40Z U3203283 3110021 2836450 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Relatedness motivation in self-determination theory:<br>How does the need for relatedness function within self-determination theory to shape motivation and behaviour?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Raise hand gesture occupy.svg|Raise_hand_gesture_occupy|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. A raised hand: Lauren's tutor encouraged students to ask for help and connect with each other. {{expand}}]] ; Imagine this Lauren is a first-year university student studying psychology who recently started a demanding course. During the first few weeks, she finds the workload difficult and is unsure whether she is capable of succeeding. She chose to study psychology because she is interested in the subject, however, she feels isolated because her classmates seem to already know one another. One of Lauren’s tutors makes an effort to learn about students, encourages them to contribute to discussions, and provides feedback. The tutor also organises small-group activities where students can get to know one another and emphasises that asking for help is a normal part of learning. Lauren engages with these opportunities. Over time, Lauren begins to feel that she belongs in the course and that both her tutor and classmates value her participation. As Lauren feels increasingly connected to the people around her, she becomes more willing to attend tutorials, participate in discussions, ask questions (see Figure 1), and seek feedback when she does not understand something. She also starts studying with classmates outside class. Lauren is no longer completing the course requirements only because she feels she has to. Her growing sense of belonging helps her internalise the value of the course, so she begins to think, “Psychology is important to me, and I want to do well because I see myself as part of this community.” This shift leads to more persistent, engaged behaviour. {{RoundBoxBottom}} * In self-determination theory, relatedness refers to feeling connected, social accepted, cared for by and important to other people. * Relatedness can facilitate the internalisation of socially motivated goals, which transforms extrinsic motivation to and strengthens motivation. * Investigating how either relatedness satisfaction or frustration shapes motivation can lead to the facilitation of relatedness in learning environments to improve motivation and outcomes. (Bureau et al., 2022; Ryan & Deci, 2000; Slemp et al., 2024) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topic''': Brief explanation of the problem, why it is important, and an outline of how psychological science can help {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What is the need for relatedness within Self-Determination Theory, and why is it important in shaping motivation? * How does relatedness satisfaction influence the development of autonomous versus controlled motivation? * How does relatedness satisfaction or frustration affect individuals’ behaviour, such as engagement, persistence, and disengagement? * How do social environments and relationships affect relatedness, and what are the implications on motivation and behaviour? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Self-Determination Theory== * [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-determination%20theory Self-determination theory] {{ic|Use an internal link as shown in Tutorial 2}} * The relationship between extrinsic motivation, intrinsic motivation, and human needs. * Autonomy, competence, and relatedness are innate psychological needs thought to foster high-quality motivation. * SDT posits that social and cultural factors either support or damage individuals' motivation, well-being, and the quality of their involvement. (Ryan & Deci, 2000) ==Relatedness satisfaction and autonomous motivation== * Relatedness satisfaction versus relatedness frustration. * When an individual is satisfied with their relatedness, they are more likely to perceive a task as meaningful opposed to an obligation. This futher motivates that individual to engage in the task. * Relatedness frustration, characterised by rejection, loneliness and feeling excluded, was found to mediate amotivation. (Van Tuin et. al, 2020) ==Relatedness, engagement and behaviour== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Parallel mediation model with both satisfaction and frustration of basic needs (Van Tuin et al., 2020)]] * Relatedness satisfaction of students predicted identified regulation and was found to increase behavioural engagement in mathematics (Hofverberg et. al., 2022). * When relatedness is satisfied, participation has been found to feel more meaningful socially and emotionally, therefore motivating participation behaviours (Kaefer & Chiviacowsky, 2021). * Students' perception of relatedness with teachers was associated with better homework engagement and practices (Collie, 2024). ==Relatedness and well-being== * Interpersonal support of autonomy, competence, and relatedness were associated with satisfaction of those psychological needs. * Environmental support for needs were associated with greater wellbeing and improved performance. * Relatedness supports wellbeing which supports motivation. (Slemp et. al, 2024) {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || |} * '''Interactive learning Quiz - Choose your answers and click "Submit":''' <quiz display="simple"> {Relatedness satisfaction has been shown to influence welbeing: |type="(true)"} + True - False {Relatedness is an element of self-determination theory: |type="(true)"} + True - False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Relatedness is a key psychological need within self-determination theory. When this need is satisfied, psychological well-being is more likely to increase and individuals are more likely to develop greater self-determined motivation * Both relatedness satisfaction and relatedness frustration can influence the quality of motivation, not just its strength * Relatedness satisfaction can shape behaviour by facilitating greater engagement, participation, and persistence and sustain their behaviour for longer. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== {{ic|Use alphabetical order}} * [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_evaluation_theory Cognitive evaluation theory] (Wikipedia) *[[Cognitive evaluation theory|Cognitive evaluation theory]] (Wikipedia) *[https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Lectures/Extrinsic_motivation_and_psychological_needs Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs] (Wikiversity) {{ic|Use an internal link as shown in Tutorial 2}} * [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_relation Relatedness] (Wikipedia) {{ic|Use an internal link as shown in Tutorial 2}} *[[w:Self determination theory|Self-determination theory]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bureau, J. S., Howard, J. L., Chong, J. X. Y., & Guay, F. (2022). Pathways to Student Motivation: A Meta-Analysis of Antecedents of Autonomous and Controlled Motivations. Review of Educational Research, 92(1), 46-72. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543211042426 Collie, R. J. (2024). Social-emotional need satisfaction and students’ academic engagement and social-emotional skills. Educational Psychology, 44(2), 117–135. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2024.2324751 Hofverberg, A., Winberg, M., Palmberg, B., Andersson, C., & Palm, T. (2022). Relationships between basic psychological need satisfaction, regulations, and behavioral engagement in mathematics. Frontiers in Psychology, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.829958 Kaefer, A., & Chiviacowsky, S. (2021). Relatedness support enhances motivation, positive affect, and motor learning in adolescents. Human Movement Science, 79, 102864. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.humov.2021.102864 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.55.1.68 Slemp, G. R., Field, J. G., Ryan, R. M., Forner, V. W., Van den Broeck, A., & Lewis, K. J. (2024). Interpersonal supports for basic psychological needs and their relations with motivation, well-being, and performance: A meta-analysis. Journal of personality and social psychology, 127(5), 1012–1037. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000459 Van Tuin, L., Schaufeli, W. B., & van Rhenen, W. (2020). The satisfaction and frustration of basic psychological needs in engaging leadership. Journal of Leadership Studies, 14(2), 6–23. https://doi.org/10.1002/jls.21695 Weinstein, N. (Ed.). (2014). Human Motivation and Interpersonal Relationships : Theory, Research, and Applications (1st ed. 2014.). Springer Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-8542-6 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== {{ic|Use sentence casing}} * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VGrcets0E6I Promoting Motivation, Health, and Excellence: Ed Deci TEDX] (Youtube) * [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/theory/ Self-determination Theory] (Center for Self-determination Theory) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Needs/Relatedness]] eq7lfzlfvee9rknxsw5svbg5n2z8n6a 2836527 2836450 2026-10-07T10:09:14Z U3203283 3110021 /* Self-Determination Theory */ 2836527 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Relatedness motivation in self-determination theory:<br>How does the need for relatedness function within self-determination theory to shape motivation and behaviour?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Raise hand gesture occupy.svg|Raise_hand_gesture_occupy|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. A raised hand: Lauren's tutor encouraged students to ask for help and connect with each other. {{expand}}]] ; Imagine this Lauren is a first-year university student studying psychology who recently started a demanding course. During the first few weeks, she finds the workload difficult and is unsure whether she is capable of succeeding. She chose to study psychology because she is interested in the subject, however, she feels isolated because her classmates seem to already know one another. One of Lauren’s tutors makes an effort to learn about students, encourages them to contribute to discussions, and provides feedback. The tutor also organises small-group activities where students can get to know one another and emphasises that asking for help is a normal part of learning. Lauren engages with these opportunities. Over time, Lauren begins to feel that she belongs in the course and that both her tutor and classmates value her participation. As Lauren feels increasingly connected to the people around her, she becomes more willing to attend tutorials, participate in discussions, ask questions (see Figure 1), and seek feedback when she does not understand something. She also starts studying with classmates outside class. Lauren is no longer completing the course requirements only because she feels she has to. Her growing sense of belonging helps her internalise the value of the course, so she begins to think, “Psychology is important to me, and I want to do well because I see myself as part of this community.” This shift leads to more persistent, engaged behaviour. {{RoundBoxBottom}} * In self-determination theory, relatedness refers to feeling connected, social accepted, cared for by and important to other people. * Relatedness can facilitate the internalisation of socially motivated goals, which transforms extrinsic motivation to and strengthens motivation. * Investigating how either relatedness satisfaction or frustration shapes motivation can lead to the facilitation of relatedness in learning environments to improve motivation and outcomes. (Bureau et al., 2022; Ryan & Deci, 2000; Slemp et al., 2024) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topic''': Brief explanation of the problem, why it is important, and an outline of how psychological science can help {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What is the need for relatedness within Self-Determination Theory, and why is it important in shaping motivation? * How does relatedness satisfaction influence the development of autonomous versus controlled motivation? * How does relatedness satisfaction or frustration affect individuals’ behaviour, such as engagement, persistence, and disengagement? * How do social environments and relationships affect relatedness, and what are the implications on motivation and behaviour? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Self-Determination Theory== * [[w:Self determination theory|Self-determination theory]] (Wikipedia) * The relationship between extrinsic motivation, intrinsic motivation, and human needs. * Autonomy, competence, and relatedness are innate psychological needs thought to foster high-quality motivation. * SDT posits that social and cultural factors either support or damage individuals' motivation, well-being, and the quality of their involvement. (Ryan & Deci, 2000) ==Relatedness satisfaction and autonomous motivation== * Relatedness satisfaction versus relatedness frustration. * When an individual is satisfied with their relatedness, they are more likely to perceive a task as meaningful opposed to an obligation. This futher motivates that individual to engage in the task. * Relatedness frustration, characterised by rejection, loneliness and feeling excluded, was found to mediate amotivation. (Van Tuin et. al, 2020) ==Relatedness, engagement and behaviour== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Parallel mediation model with both satisfaction and frustration of basic needs (Van Tuin et al., 2020)]] * Relatedness satisfaction of students predicted identified regulation and was found to increase behavioural engagement in mathematics (Hofverberg et. al., 2022). * When relatedness is satisfied, participation has been found to feel more meaningful socially and emotionally, therefore motivating participation behaviours (Kaefer & Chiviacowsky, 2021). * Students' perception of relatedness with teachers was associated with better homework engagement and practices (Collie, 2024). ==Relatedness and well-being== * Interpersonal support of autonomy, competence, and relatedness were associated with satisfaction of those psychological needs. * Environmental support for needs were associated with greater wellbeing and improved performance. * Relatedness supports wellbeing which supports motivation. (Slemp et. al, 2024) {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || |} * '''Interactive learning Quiz - Choose your answers and click "Submit":''' <quiz display="simple"> {Relatedness satisfaction has been shown to influence welbeing: |type="(true)"} + True - False {Relatedness is an element of self-determination theory: |type="(true)"} + True - False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Relatedness is a key psychological need within self-determination theory. When this need is satisfied, psychological well-being is more likely to increase and individuals are more likely to develop greater self-determined motivation * Both relatedness satisfaction and relatedness frustration can influence the quality of motivation, not just its strength * Relatedness satisfaction can shape behaviour by facilitating greater engagement, participation, and persistence and sustain their behaviour for longer. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== {{ic|Use alphabetical order}} * [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_evaluation_theory Cognitive evaluation theory] (Wikipedia) *[[Cognitive evaluation theory|Cognitive evaluation theory]] (Wikipedia) *[https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Lectures/Extrinsic_motivation_and_psychological_needs Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs] (Wikiversity) {{ic|Use an internal link as shown in Tutorial 2}} * [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_relation Relatedness] (Wikipedia) {{ic|Use an internal link as shown in Tutorial 2}} *[[w:Self determination theory|Self-determination theory]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bureau, J. S., Howard, J. L., Chong, J. X. Y., & Guay, F. (2022). Pathways to Student Motivation: A Meta-Analysis of Antecedents of Autonomous and Controlled Motivations. Review of Educational Research, 92(1), 46-72. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543211042426 Collie, R. J. (2024). Social-emotional need satisfaction and students’ academic engagement and social-emotional skills. Educational Psychology, 44(2), 117–135. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2024.2324751 Hofverberg, A., Winberg, M., Palmberg, B., Andersson, C., & Palm, T. (2022). Relationships between basic psychological need satisfaction, regulations, and behavioral engagement in mathematics. Frontiers in Psychology, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.829958 Kaefer, A., & Chiviacowsky, S. (2021). Relatedness support enhances motivation, positive affect, and motor learning in adolescents. Human Movement Science, 79, 102864. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.humov.2021.102864 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.55.1.68 Slemp, G. R., Field, J. G., Ryan, R. M., Forner, V. W., Van den Broeck, A., & Lewis, K. J. (2024). Interpersonal supports for basic psychological needs and their relations with motivation, well-being, and performance: A meta-analysis. Journal of personality and social psychology, 127(5), 1012–1037. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000459 Van Tuin, L., Schaufeli, W. B., & van Rhenen, W. (2020). The satisfaction and frustration of basic psychological needs in engaging leadership. Journal of Leadership Studies, 14(2), 6–23. https://doi.org/10.1002/jls.21695 Weinstein, N. (Ed.). (2014). Human Motivation and Interpersonal Relationships : Theory, Research, and Applications (1st ed. 2014.). Springer Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-8542-6 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== {{ic|Use sentence casing}} * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VGrcets0E6I Promoting Motivation, Health, and Excellence: Ed Deci TEDX] (Youtube) * [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/theory/ Self-determination Theory] (Center for Self-determination Theory) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Needs/Relatedness]] m6ul32d00jy5lbpxh0xoco78dbx5744 0 331787 2836319 2835787 2026-10-06T13:05:07Z Dick Bos 24466 table 2836319 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Ricardo Essay on Profits 1815 Titlepage.png|thumb|200px|right]] {| | | {{pad|600px}} |“It is doubtful whether it is possible<br />to understand the Principles without<br />knowledge of the contents of the Essay.”<br />({{harvnb|O'Brien|1975|p=139}}). |} &nbsp; This resource gives information on '''[[David Ricardo]]'s''' '''''An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock''''' (often abridged to '''''(An) Essay on Profits'''''). Two years before the publication of the first edition of his Magnum Opus, ''On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation'' (often abridged to ''(The) Principles''), in 1815, Ricardo published a pamphlet entitled ''An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock''. Full title: :::''An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock; Shewing the Inexpediency of Restrictions on Importation; With Remarks on Mr. Malthus' Two Last Publications: "An Inquiry into the Nature and Progress of Rent;" and "The Grounds of an Opinion on the Policy of Restricting the Importation of Foreign Corn."''<ref name=Essay1>We will use the following edition of ''The Essay on Profits'': * 1815: 2nd edition, online available at (English) [[Image:wikisource-logo.svg|16x16px]] Wikisource: [[:s:en:An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock|An Essay on Profits (2nd ed.)]] (We will quote from this edition).<br /> Another edition, is the one published in the ''Works and Correspondence of David Ricardo'' in 1962, edited by Piero Sraffa, with the collaboration of Maurice Dobb, volume 4 (Pamphlets and Papers, 1815-1823), pp. 9-41. With note by P. Sraffa (p. 1-8). Available to borrow at [https://archive.org/details/workscorresponde0004rica The Internet Archive] after (free) subscription.</ref> Opinions among Ricardo scholars differ as to the precise significance of this “Essay on Profits”. Among other things, there are subtle differences regarding the interpretation of the main variable under investigation,<ref>According to Hollander 1973, p. 273, “the main variable under investigation in the Essay (…) is the general rate of profit”.<br />According to Stigler 1952, pp. 201–202, the Essay contains “two main elements of the Ricardian system: the theory of rent and the dominant influence of diminishing returns in agriculture upon the rate of profit.”<br />According to Eatwell 1975, p. 186, the Essay is “the first complete statement of a theory of distribution based on the concept of surplus; that is to say, of a deductive relationship between wages and profits”.</ref> and there are disagreements about the relationship between the “Essay” and the “Principles”.<ref>Compare, for example, the discussion between Hollander and Eatwell on the significance of the "corn model" in Hollander 1973 and 1975, and Eatwell 1975.</ref> In the ''Essay on Profits'' Ricardo presents a comprehensive theory of ground rent within the context of a "corn model".<ref>This model is set out on pages 10 to 18 of the ''Essay on Profits.'' From page 18 onwards, the grain is (suddenly) assigned a price.</ref> Ricardo examines economic relationships, which are aggregated in terms of quantities of corn. He employs a single-output model, in which corn is produced through the application of labour to land. Inputs, outputs and income shares are measured in quantities of corn. <br /> This so-called "corn model" must be viewed against the background of Ricardo’s deductive method.<ref>For an analysis of the importance of the deductive method of Ricardo see e.g. {{harvnb|O'Brien|1975|p=42f., 68f.}}</ref> <br /> The model has very limited validity.<ref name=valid>{{harvnb|Hollander|1973|p=275}}: Even in the event that an adequate relationship is defined between the agricultural and general rates of profit the model would be unsuitable for the treatment of the income shares, and in fact Rcardo nowhere states the belief that there is a parallel movement between the aggregate income shares and the shares in agricultural output als yielded by the model."</ref> == Rent == To start with, Ricardo uses a definition of rent that is taken directly from [[:w:en:Thomas Robert Malthus|Thomas Robert Malthus]]: {{Bq|Mr. Malthus very correctly defines, "the rent of land to be that portion of the value of the whole produce which remains to the owner, after all the outgoings belonging to its cultivation, of whatever kind, have been paid, including the profits of the capital employed, estimated according to the usual and ordinary rate of the profits of agricultural stock at the time being."<ref name=rent1>{{harvnb|Ricardo|1815|p=[[:s:en:An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock#3|3]]}}. Ricardo quotes: {{harvnb|Malthus|1815|p=1–2}}.</ref>}} When land is first brought into cultivation, and land is freely available, the total output will consist of costs and profits, without ground rent. As long as there is sufficient land of equal fertility available, and that land is always equally well situated, this will remain the case. The net product (‘neat produce’) will consist entirely of profit. If we now assume that no improvements take place in agriculture, and that capital and population grow at the same rate – and thus that real wages remain constant – and if, moreover, it is assumed that the rate of profit in agriculture, commerce and industry is the same, it is possible to ascertain what particular effects occur as capital accumulation takes place, the population grows and more land is brought into use, particularly land situated further away and/or less fertile land. Where land is equally fertile but situated further away, more capital and labour will have to be employed to produce the same quantity of goods available for consumption from the same area. Consequently, less profit will be made on this newly cultivated land. And because profits are determined by the profit made on the ‘marginal’ land, a lower profit will also be realised on the land that was cultivated earlier. The portion of the net product that thereby becomes available on this land – and which was previously appropriated as profit by the entrepreneurs or tenants – will now constitute ground rent. This process will occur each time new land of poorer quality, or less favourably situated, is brought into use: "Thus by bringing successively land of a worse quality, or less favourably situated into cultivation, rent would rise on the land previously cultivated, and precisely in the same degree would profits fall; and if the smallness of profits do not check accumulation, there are hardly any limits to the rise of rent, and the fall of profit." (p. [[:s:en:An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock#9|9]]-10) === The table in the ''Essay on Profits'' === To illustrate his line of reasoning and clarify how the process he describes works, Ricardo uses a table: the "Table, shewing the Progress of Rent and Profit under an assumed Augmentation of Capital".<ref name=tablerem>The table can be found on p. [[:s:en:An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock#14|14]]. Two remarks on this table: * 1 quarter = 8 bushel = about 291 litre. * Although the “Essay” refers to wheat, in line with the common usage amongst economists who specialise in Ricardo, the term “corn” will be used throughout this resource.</ref> This ‘model’ demonstrates how the economy might develop as new land is brought into use in succession. The table is constructed as follows: it is assumed that, when only the first plot of land is brought into use, a profit of one hundred quarters is made on a capital of two hundred quarters; when a second plot of land is brought into use, a capital of 210 quarters must be invested in it to achieve a profit of 90 q., and so on. The total output from each plot is therefore always 300 q. of wheat. The ‘net produce’ (total output minus production costs) amounts to 100 q. for the first plot; 90 for the second; 80 for the third; and so on. {| style="border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid; margin: auto; text-align: center;" |+ '''''TABLE, showing the Progress of Rent and Profit under an assumed Augmentation of Capital.''''' |- style="border: 1px solid; font-size: 70%; hyphens: auto; text-align: center;" ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Capital estimated in quarters of wheat. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Profit per cent. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Neat produce in quarters of wheat, after paying the cost of production on each capital. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Profit of 1st portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Rent of 1st portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Profit of 2d portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Rent of 2d portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Profit of 3d portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Rent of 3d portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Profit of 4th portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Rent of 4th portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Profit of 5th portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Rent of 5th portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Profit of 6th portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Rent of 6th portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Profit of 7th portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Rent of 7th portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Profit of 8th portion of land in quarters of wheat. |- | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 200 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 50 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 100 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 100 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | none. | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | |- | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 210 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 43 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 90 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 86 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 14 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 90 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | none. | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | |- | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 220 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 36 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 80 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 72 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 28 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 76 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 14 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 80 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | none. | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; 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border-right: 1px solid;" | 57½ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 12½ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 60 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | none. | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | |- | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 250 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 20 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 50 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 40 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 60 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 42 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 48 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 44 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 36 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 46 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 24 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 48 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 12 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 50 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | none. | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | |- | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 260 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 15 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 40 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 30 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 70 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 31½ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 58½ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 33 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 47 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 34½ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 35½ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 36 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 24 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 37½ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 12½ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 40 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | none. | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | |- | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 270 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 11 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 30 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 22 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 78 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 23 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 67 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 24 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 56 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 25.3 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 44.7 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 26.4 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 33.6 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 27½ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 22½ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 27.6 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 12.4 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 29.7 |} {| style="border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid; margin: auto; text-align: center; width:90%;" |- style="border: 1px solid; font-size: 70%; hyphens: auto; text-align: center;" ! style="width: 50px;" | ! style="border: 1px solid; width: 40px;" | When the whole capital employed is ! style="border: 1px solid; width: 40px;" | Whole amount of rent received by landlords in quarter of wheat. ! style="border: 1px solid; width: 40px;" | Whole amount of profits in quarters received by owners of stock. ! style="border: 1px solid; width: 40px;" | Profit per cent. on the whole capital. ! style="border: 1px solid; width: 40px;" | Rent per cent, on the whole capital. ! style="border: 1px solid; width: 40px;" | Total produce in quarters of wheat, after paying the cost of production. |- | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 1st&nbsp;Period | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 200 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | none. | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 100 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 50 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 100 |- | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 2d Ditto | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 410 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 14 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 176 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 43 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 3½ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 190 |- | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 3d Ditto | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 630 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 42 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 228 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 36 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 6½ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 270 |- | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 4th Ditto | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 860 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 81 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 259 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 30 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 9½ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 340 |- | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 5th Ditto | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 1100 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 125 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 275 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 25 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 11½ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 400 |- | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 6th Ditto | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 1350 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 180 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 270 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 20 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 13½ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 450 |- | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 7th Ditto | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 1610 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 248½ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 241½ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 15 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 15½ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 490 |- | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 8th Ditto | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 1880 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 314½ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 205½ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 11 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 16½ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 520 |} Ricardo emphasises the illustrative nature of the figures in the table: "t is scarcely necessary to observe, that the data on which this table is constructed are assumed, and are probably very far from the truth. They were fixed on as tending to illustrate the principle,—which would be the same, whether the first profits were fifty per cent. or five,—or, whether an additional capital of ten quarters, or of one hundred, were required to obtain the same produce from the cultivation of new land."(p. [[:s:en:An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock#11|11]], footnote). The table shows, according to Ricardo that "during the progress of a country the whole produce raised on its land, will increase, and for a certain time that part of the produce which belongs to the profits of stock, as well as that part which belongs to rent will increase; but that at a later period, every accumulation of capital will be attended with an absolute, as well as a proportionate diminution of profits,—though rents will uniformly increase. This is a view of the effects of accumulation which is exceedingly curious, and has, I believe, never before been noticed. It will be seen by the table, that, in a progressive country, rent is not only absolutely increasing, but that it is also increasing in its ratio to the capital employed on the land; thus when four hundred and ten was the whole capital employed, the landlord obtained three and a half per cent.; when one thousand one hundred—thirteen and a quarter per cent.; and when one thousand eight hundred and eighty—sixteen and a half per cent. The landlord not only obtains a greater produce, but a larger share.(p. [[:s:en:An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock#12|12]]- 13). This is the essence of Ricardo’s theory of ground rent in the context of a growing economy: as the economy grows – that is, as population growth and capital accumulation take place – the rate of profit will fall, whilst the income accruing to landowners will rise both in absolute and relative terms. The bringing into use of inferior land leads, through competition amongst capitalists – who are repeatedly forced to settle for a lower rate of profit – to the continuous absolute and relative enrichment of landowners. == Footnotes == {{references}} == Sources == * {{cite journal | last = Eatwell | first = John | author-link = w:en:John Eatwell | date = 1975 | title = The Interpretation of Ricardo's Essay on Profits | journal = Economica | volume = XLII | pp = 182–187 }} * {{cite journal | last = Hollander | first = Samuel | author-link = :w:en:Samuel Hollander | date = 1973 | title = Ricardo’s Analysis of the Profit Rate, 1813-15 | journal = Economica | volume = 40 | issue = 159 | pages = 260–282 | doi = 10.2307/2552797 | url = https://www.jstor.org/stable/2552797 | ref = harv }}<br />(access via [[File:Wikipedia Library owl.svg|16px|alt=16 px Wikipedia Library Owl]] [[:w:en:Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library|The Wikipedia Library (TWL)]]) * Hollander 1975 * {{cite book | last = Malthus | first = T.R. | author-link = :w:en:Thomas Robert Malthus | date = 1815 | title = An Inquiry Into the Nature and Progress of Rent | location = London | publisher = John Murray | ref = harv | url = https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/An_Inquiry_Into_the_Nature_and_Progress_of_Rent }} * {{cite book | last = O'Brien | first = D.P. | author-link = :w:en:Denis Patrick O'Brien | date = 1975 | title = The Classical Economists | location = Oxford | publisher = Clarendon Press | ISBN = 0 19 877015 4 | url = https://archive.org/details/classicaleconomi0000obri | url-access = restricted | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Ricardo | first = David | author-link = David Ricardo | date = 1815 | title = An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock | location = London | publisher = John Murray | ref = harv | url = https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/An_Essay_on_the_Influence_of_a_Low_Price_of_Corn_on_the_Profits_of_Stock }} * Stigler 1952 79mfr0j40v4tnd06bixoqy0t5ondj9l 2836320 2836319 2026-10-06T13:14:15Z Dick Bos 24466 some add. 2836320 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Ricardo Essay on Profits 1815 Titlepage.png|thumb|250px|right]] {| | | {{pad|500px}} |"It is doubtful whether it is possible<br />to understand the Principles without<br />knowledge of the contents of the Essay."<br />({{harvnb|O'Brien|1975|p=139}}). |} This resource gives information on '''[[David Ricardo]]'s''' '''''An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock''''' (often abridged to '''''(An) Essay on Profits'''''). Two years before the publication of the first edition of his Magnum Opus, ''On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation'' (often abridged to ''(The) Principles''), in 1815, Ricardo published a pamphlet entitled ''An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock''. Full title: :::''An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock; Shewing the Inexpediency of Restrictions on Importation; With Remarks on Mr. Malthus' Two Last Publications: "An Inquiry into the Nature and Progress of Rent;" and "The Grounds of an Opinion on the Policy of Restricting the Importation of Foreign Corn."''<ref name=Essay1>We will use the following edition of ''The Essay on Profits'': * 1815: 2nd edition, online available at (English) [[Image:wikisource-logo.svg|16x16px]] Wikisource: [[:s:en:An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock|An Essay on Profits (2nd ed.)]] (We will quote from this edition).<br /> Another edition, is the one published in the ''Works and Correspondence of David Ricardo'' in 1962, edited by Piero Sraffa, with the collaboration of Maurice Dobb, volume 4 (Pamphlets and Papers, 1815-1823), pp. 9-41. With note by P. Sraffa (p. 1-8). Available to borrow at [https://archive.org/details/workscorresponde0004rica The Internet Archive] after (free) subscription.</ref> Opinions among Ricardo scholars differ as to the precise significance of this “Essay on Profits”. Among other things, there are subtle differences regarding the interpretation of the main variable under investigation,<ref>According to Hollander 1973, p. 273, “the main variable under investigation in the Essay (…) is the general rate of profit”.<br />According to Stigler 1952, pp. 201–202, the Essay contains “two main elements of the Ricardian system: the theory of rent and the dominant influence of diminishing returns in agriculture upon the rate of profit.”<br />According to Eatwell 1975, p. 186, the Essay is “the first complete statement of a theory of distribution based on the concept of surplus; that is to say, of a deductive relationship between wages and profits”.</ref> and there are disagreements about the relationship between the “Essay” and the “Principles”.<ref>Compare, for example, the discussion between Hollander and Eatwell on the significance of the "corn model" in Hollander 1973 and 1975, and Eatwell 1975.</ref> In the ''Essay on Profits'' Ricardo presents a comprehensive theory of ground rent within the context of a "corn model".<ref>This model is set out on pages 10 to 18 of the ''Essay on Profits.'' From page 18 onwards, the grain is (suddenly) assigned a price.</ref> Ricardo examines economic relationships, which are aggregated in terms of quantities of corn. He employs a single-output model, in which corn is produced through the application of labour to land. Inputs, outputs and income shares are measured in quantities of corn. <br /> This so-called "corn model" must be viewed against the background of Ricardo’s deductive method.<ref>For an analysis of the importance of the deductive method of Ricardo see e.g. {{harvnb|O'Brien|1975|p=42f., 68f.}}</ref> <br /> The model has very limited validity.<ref name=valid>{{harvnb|Hollander|1973|p=275}}: Even in the event that an adequate relationship is defined between the agricultural and general rates of profit the model would be unsuitable for the treatment of the income shares, and in fact Rcardo nowhere states the belief that there is a parallel movement between the aggregate income shares and the shares in agricultural output als yielded by the model."</ref> == Rent == To start with, Ricardo uses a definition of rent that is taken directly from [[:w:en:Thomas Robert Malthus|Thomas Robert Malthus]]: {{Bq|Mr. Malthus very correctly defines, "the rent of land to be that portion of the value of the whole produce which remains to the owner, after all the outgoings belonging to its cultivation, of whatever kind, have been paid, including the profits of the capital employed, estimated according to the usual and ordinary rate of the profits of agricultural stock at the time being."<ref name=rent1>{{harvnb|Ricardo|1815|p=[[:s:en:An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock#3|3]]}}. Ricardo quotes: {{harvnb|Malthus|1815|p=1–2}}.</ref>}} When land is first brought into cultivation, and land is freely available, the total output will consist of costs and profits, without ground rent. As long as there is sufficient land of equal fertility available, and that land is always equally well situated, this will remain the case. The net product (‘neat produce’) will consist entirely of profit. If we now assume that no improvements take place in agriculture, and that capital and population grow at the same rate – and thus that real wages remain constant – and if, moreover, it is assumed that the rate of profit in agriculture, commerce and industry is the same, it is possible to ascertain what particular effects occur as capital accumulation takes place, the population grows and more land is brought into use, particularly land situated further away and/or less fertile land. Where land is equally fertile but situated further away, more capital and labour will have to be employed to produce the same quantity of goods available for consumption from the same area. Consequently, less profit will be made on this newly cultivated land. And because profits are determined by the profit made on the ‘marginal’ land, a lower profit will also be realised on the land that was cultivated earlier. The portion of the net product that thereby becomes available on this land – and which was previously appropriated as profit by the entrepreneurs or tenants – will now constitute ground rent. This process will occur each time new land of poorer quality, or less favourably situated, is brought into use: "Thus by bringing successively land of a worse quality, or less favourably situated into cultivation, rent would rise on the land previously cultivated, and precisely in the same degree would profits fall; and if the smallness of profits do not check accumulation, there are hardly any limits to the rise of rent, and the fall of profit." (p. [[:s:en:An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock#9|9]]-10) === The table in the ''Essay on Profits'' === To illustrate his line of reasoning and clarify how the process he describes works, Ricardo uses a table: the "Table, shewing the Progress of Rent and Profit under an assumed Augmentation of Capital".<ref name=tablerem>The table can be found on p. [[:s:en:An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock#14|14]]. Two remarks on this table: * 1 quarter = 8 bushel = about 291 litre. * Although the “Essay” refers to wheat, in line with the common usage amongst economists who specialise in Ricardo, the term “corn” will be used throughout this resource.</ref> This ‘model’ demonstrates how the economy might develop as new land is brought into use in succession. The table is constructed as follows: it is assumed that, when only the first plot of land is brought into use, a profit of one hundred quarters is made on a capital of two hundred quarters; when a second plot of land is brought into use, a capital of 210 quarters must be invested in it to achieve a profit of 90 q., and so on. The total output from each plot is therefore always 300 q. of wheat. The ‘net produce’ (total output minus production costs) amounts to 100 q. for the first plot; 90 for the second; 80 for the third; and so on. {| style="border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid; margin: auto; text-align: center;" |+ '''''TABLE, showing the Progress of Rent and Profit under an assumed Augmentation of Capital.''''' |- style="border: 1px solid; font-size: 70%; hyphens: auto; text-align: center;" ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Capital estimated in quarters of wheat. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Profit per cent. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Neat produce in quarters of wheat, after paying the cost of production on each capital. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Profit of 1st portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Rent of 1st portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Profit of 2d portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Rent of 2d portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Profit of 3d portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Rent of 3d portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Profit of 4th portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Rent of 4th portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Profit of 5th portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Rent of 5th portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Profit of 6th portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Rent of 6th portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Profit of 7th portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Rent of 7th portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Profit of 8th portion of land in quarters of wheat. |- | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 200 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 50 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 100 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 100 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | none. | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | |- | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 210 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 43 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 90 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 86 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 14 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 90 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | none. | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | |- | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 220 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 36 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 80 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 72 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 28 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 76 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 14 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 80 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | none. | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | |- | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 230 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 30 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 70 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 60 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 40 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 63 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 27 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 66 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 14 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 70 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | none. | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | |- | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 240 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 25 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 60 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 50 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 50 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 52½ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 37½ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 55 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 25 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 57½ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 12½ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 60 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | none. | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | |- | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 250 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 20 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 50 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 40 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 60 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 42 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 48 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 44 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 36 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 46 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 24 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 48 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 12 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 50 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | none. | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | |- | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 260 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 15 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 40 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 30 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 70 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 31½ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 58½ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 33 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 47 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 34½ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 35½ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 36 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 24 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 37½ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 12½ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 40 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | none. | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | |- | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 270 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 11 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 30 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 22 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 78 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 23 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 67 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 24 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 56 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 25.3 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 44.7 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 26.4 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 33.6 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 27½ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 22½ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 27.6 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 12.4 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 29.7 |} {| style="border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid; margin: auto; text-align: center; width:90%;" |- style="border: 1px solid; font-size: 70%; hyphens: auto; text-align: center;" ! style="width: 50px;" | ! style="border: 1px solid; width: 40px;" | When the whole capital employed is ! style="border: 1px solid; width: 40px;" | Whole amount of rent received by landlords in quarter of wheat. ! style="border: 1px solid; width: 40px;" | Whole amount of profits in quarters received by owners of stock. ! style="border: 1px solid; width: 40px;" | Profit per cent. on the whole capital. ! style="border: 1px solid; width: 40px;" | Rent per cent, on the whole capital. ! style="border: 1px solid; width: 40px;" | Total produce in quarters of wheat, after paying the cost of production. |- | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 1st&nbsp;Period | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 200 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | none. | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 100 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 50 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 100 |- | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 2d Ditto | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 410 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 14 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 176 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 43 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 3½ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 190 |- | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 3d Ditto | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 630 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 42 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 228 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 36 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 6½ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 270 |- | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 4th Ditto | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 860 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 81 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 259 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 30 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 9½ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 340 |- | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 5th Ditto | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 1100 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 125 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 275 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 25 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 11½ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 400 |- | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 6th Ditto | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 1350 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 180 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 270 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 20 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 13½ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 450 |- | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 7th Ditto | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 1610 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 248½ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 241½ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 15 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 15½ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 490 |- | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 8th Ditto | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 1880 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 314½ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 205½ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 11 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 16½ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 520 |} Ricardo emphasises the illustrative nature of the figures in the table: "t is scarcely necessary to observe, that the data on which this table is constructed are assumed, and are probably very far from the truth. They were fixed on as tending to illustrate the principle,—which would be the same, whether the first profits were fifty per cent. or five,—or, whether an additional capital of ten quarters, or of one hundred, were required to obtain the same produce from the cultivation of new land."(p. [[:s:en:An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock#11|11]], footnote). The table shows, according to Ricardo that "during the progress of a country the whole produce raised on its land, will increase, and for a certain time that part of the produce which belongs to the profits of stock, as well as that part which belongs to rent will increase; but that at a later period, every accumulation of capital will be attended with an absolute, as well as a proportionate diminution of profits,—though rents will uniformly increase. This is a view of the effects of accumulation which is exceedingly curious, and has, I believe, never before been noticed. It will be seen by the table, that, in a progressive country, rent is not only absolutely increasing, but that it is also increasing in its ratio to the capital employed on the land; thus when four hundred and ten was the whole capital employed, the landlord obtained three and a half per cent.; when one thousand one hundred—thirteen and a quarter per cent.; and when one thousand eight hundred and eighty—sixteen and a half per cent. The landlord not only obtains a greater produce, but a larger share.(p. [[:s:en:An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock#12|12]]- 13). This is the essence of Ricardo’s theory of ground rent in the context of a growing economy: as the economy grows – that is, as population growth and capital accumulation take place – the rate of profit will fall, whilst the income accruing to landowners will rise both in absolute and relative terms. The bringing into use of inferior land leads, through competition amongst capitalists – who are repeatedly forced to settle for a lower rate of profit – to the continuous absolute and relative enrichment of landowners. == Rent: a ‘pure surplus’ == {| | | {{pad|600px}} |"Corn is not high because a rente is paid, but a rent is paid because corn is high" (Ricardo 1817, p. 38).<br />({{harvnb|Ricardo|1817|p=38}}). |} Having drawn his central conclusion regarding the development of income distribution in his model of economic growth, Ricardo observes: “Rent (...) is in all cases a portion of the profits previously obtained on the land. It is never a new creation of revenue, but always part of a revenue already created.” ([[:s:en:An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock#15|p. 15]]) Various authors emphasise this treatment of rent as a ‘pure surplus’.<ref name=pure>See for instance {{harvnb|Howard|King|1975|page = 77}} (second edition 1985:{{harvnb|Howard|King|1985|page = 76}}); and see {{harvnb|Hollander|1973|page = 273}} for an explanation of the significance of Ricardo’s analysis of ‘interest as a transfer payment’ in contrast to Malthus’s concept of rent.</ref> For Ricardo, rent is price-determined rather than price-determining: rent does not form part of the value of production, which is, after all, determined by the conditions of production on marginal land. For Adam Smith, however, rent does constitute a constituent part of the price of production. Benetti points out that, in Ricardo’s view, rent is certainly not an original surplus: "it is never a newly created revenue". On the contrary: the "surplus product" originally takes the form of profit, but is increasingly ''redistributed'' in favour of landowners in the course of economic development {{sfnp|Benetti|1975|page = 12}}. Consequently, in Ricardo’s theory, the formation of rent does not depend on private ownership of land. Its appropriation by landowners, however, does. Benetti draws the conclusion from this that the treatment of rent (in the theory) must in fact follow the treatment of the determination of the rate of profit. == Footnotes == {{references}} == Sources == * {{cite book | last = Benetti | first = C. | date = 1975 | title = Valeur et répartition | lang = fr | location = Grenoble | publisher = Maspero | id = {{OCLC|461493533}} | ref = harv }} (2nd ed.) * {{cite journal | last = Eatwell | first = John | author-link = w:en:John Eatwell | date = 1975 | title = The Interpretation of Ricardo's Essay on Profits | journal = Economica | volume = XLII | pp = 182–187 }} * {{cite journal | last = Hollander | first = Samuel | author-link = :w:en:Samuel Hollander | date = 1973 | title = Ricardo’s Analysis of the Profit Rate, 1813-15 | journal = Economica | volume = 40 | issue = 159 | pages = 260–282 | doi = 10.2307/2552797 | url = https://www.jstor.org/stable/2552797 | ref = harv }}<br />(access via [[File:Wikipedia Library owl.svg|16px|alt=16 px Wikipedia Library Owl]] [[:w:en:Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library|The Wikipedia Library (TWL)]]) * Hollander 1975 * {{cite book | last1 = Howard | first1 = M.C. | last2 = King | first2 = J.E. | date = 1975 | title = The political economy of Marx | location = London | publisher = Longman | url = https://archive.org/details/politicaleconomy0000howa | url-access = restricted | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last1 = Howard | first1 = M.C. | last2 = King | first2 = J.E. | date = 1985 | title = The political economy of Marx (2nd ed.) | location = London | publisher = Longman | id = {{OCLC|10483279}} | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Malthus | first = T.R. | author-link = :w:en:Thomas Robert Malthus | date = 1815 | title = An Inquiry Into the Nature and Progress of Rent | location = London | publisher = John Murray | ref = harv | url = https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/An_Inquiry_Into_the_Nature_and_Progress_of_Rent }} * {{cite book | last = O'Brien | first = D.P. | author-link = :w:en:Denis Patrick O'Brien | date = 1975 | title = The Classical Economists | location = Oxford | publisher = Clarendon Press | ISBN = 0 19 877015 4 | url = https://archive.org/details/classicaleconomi0000obri | url-access = restricted | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Ricardo | first = David | author-link = David Ricardo | date = 1815 | title = An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock | location = London | publisher = John Murray | ref = harv | url = https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/An_Essay_on_the_Influence_of_a_Low_Price_of_Corn_on_the_Profits_of_Stock }} * {{cite book | last = Ricardo | first = David | author-link = David Ricardo | date = 1817 | title = On the Principles of Political Economy; And Taxation | location = London | publisher = John Murray | ref = harv | url = }} * Stigler 1952 p6rahdm5x0nmmj277rcvfmmr22soegn 2 331894 2836347 2835417 2026-10-06T18:50:03Z The Citer 3110681 2836347 wikitext text/x-wiki Hi. I'm the "saddest" citer in MediaWiki. I'm now improvinganimal articles; I like adding phylogenies. I may add content to plant articles once in a while. ==Origin== Apparently, a mysterious editor was "Citing" articles but without tracing the source/"cite". But even then, I was dubbed '''''The Citer''''' and I created an account to make an article about Microkingdoms. I was almost banned from editing articles, so I made a promise that I would only create articles. It turns out, this is actually edited? Yes, I added a link in Oophaga sylvatica, which is considered editing, but even that made complaints about '''''The Citer'''''. ===Criticism=== Ever since I wanted to make an article about microkingdoms, people kept complaining about me. In fact, I was added to the [[Wikipedia:Administrators' noticeboard/Incidents]], which goes to show your reputation can get ruined if you want the wrong thing. And, you know what happened: I got blocked. ==Migration to [https://species.wikimedia.org/wiki/Main_Page Wikispecies]== After being blocked on Wikipedia, I moved to wikispecies, where I survived much longer. I had a good time up until I made The Other Citer, which marked my downfall. ===Post-Other Citer Blockage=== After my "back-up" account was blocked, I hit a new low: I created Orthokaryote, and when I collabrated with myself, you guessed it: /*"we"*/ got BLOCKED. ==Post second blockage== After all that, it makes sense of why I'm here. But if you block me, then I will have to move yet again. ==Why don't I just try to request being unblocked?== You see, it's just easier to move than to waste hours trying to be unblocked. =Social Circle= ==Friends== [There is no text right here] ==Enemies== [There is no text right here] ==Frenemies== [There is no text right here] l6u6zcyosb0wqg4a7lqhras9i6ykoex 4 331910 2836445 2834411 2026-10-07T04:46:33Z Mu301 3705 /* {{user|Codename Noreste}} */ comment 2836445 wikitext text/x-wiki === {{user|Codename Noreste}} === <!-- State your reasoning below on why you are requesting any permission. Do not add your signature, as it will be automatically added for you. --> Hello, everyone. Although it is not mentioned by the interface administrator policy, I would like to run for permanent interface administrator permissions (since my temporary IA rights are about to expire). My original stated reasoning was because of the ability to adjust interface pages for dark mode support and to adjust the CSS. However, I am familiar with CSS and I would like to be the first permanent interface administrator on English Wikiversity (to perform technical maintenance). See also [[Wikiversity:Colloquium#Wikiversity talk:Interface administrators#My thoughts about this user group|this discussion]] for context. I already have 2FA enabled as I hold IA rights on several other projects. Thank you for your consideration. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 16:53, 7 September 2026 (UTC) ==== Comments/questions ==== : I think we would first need a change to policy which currently only allows for 14 to 120 day IA periods. : Could you summarise recent changes you've made to the en.wv interface? : And what future changes are you planning on making to the en.wv interface? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 23:54, 7 September 2026 (UTC) :: When I became an interface administrator (prior to being a custodian), I edited several interface messages to adjust for dark mode support. I initially planned to edit the CSS page by removing outdated code and moving the CSS import code (<code>@import url</code>) to common.css itself, but I didn't have time to do that due to commitments in real life and in other projects. Now that I have that time here, I am willing to perform maintenance on CSS. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 13:43, 8 September 2026 (UTC) ::: I forgot to mention this, but since I proposed an amendment to the IA policy, another maximum extension would be fine. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 13:44, 8 September 2026 (UTC) : Could you link to the previous IA nomination/approval and its date range? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 07:07, 21 September 2026 (UTC) :: [[Wikiversity:Colloquium/archives/May 2026#Interface administrator for Codename Noreste]], previously requested the maximum extension. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 15:26, 22 September 2026 (UTC) :<s>{{oppose}}</s> {{comment}} No need for the rush, wait until the discussion is over. Best! [[User:Mbataw|Mbataw]] ([[User talk:Mbataw|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mbataw|contribs]]) 13:10, 18 September 2026 (UTC) :: Hi, [[User:Mbataw|Mbataw]]. Instead of opposing, a better solution would be that my nomination would be put on hold until the discussion is closed. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 15:28, 22 September 2026 (UTC) :::Given that the nomination is for permanent rights I would strongly suggest putting a hold on this nom until discussion concludes. Or, changing the nom to an extension if expiration of current rights is urgent. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] ^{[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]} 04:46, 7 October 2026 (UTC) ==== Votes ==== * {{support}} [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 00:20, 14 September 2026 (UTC) * {{support}} --[[User:Saroj|Saroj]] ([[User talk:Saroj|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Saroj|contribs]]) 16:01, 22 September 2026 (UTC) 08baajf2oz4yw24qzfn7aolwt9ylcpo 0 332225 2836352 2835218 2026-10-06T19:36:20Z 202 Xup iartkab lakarg 3111500 /* Example */ 2836352 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox | title = The Lost Zodiac | image = | caption = | label1 = Author | data1 = Tahmid Arian Borno | label2 = Year | data2 = 2026 | label3 = Status | data3 = Proposed hypothesis; under development | label4 = Subject | data4 = Astrology / stellar symbolism }} == The Lost Zodiac == '''The Lost Zodiac''' is a proposed hypothesis developed by [[Tahmid Arian Borno]] in 2026. It is an experimental astrological framework based on selected stars and constellational figures, their associated date ranges, and a proposed method for converting conventional natal-chart positions into Lost Zodiac positions. <div style="clear: both; width: auto; margin: 1em 0;"> <!-- Research Project Box --> <div style="border-left: 10px solid #0066cc; background-color: #f0f8ff; padding: 0.5em 1em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; box-sizing: border-box; width: 100%;"> '''This is a research project at Wikiversity.''' </div> <!-- Hypothesis Warning Box --> <div style="border-left: 10px solid #f28500; background-color: #fef6e7; padding: 0.5em 1em; box-sizing: border-box; width: 100%;"> '''This article describes a personal hypothesis that is currently under development. It is not presented as an established astronomical or astrological system. The astronomical information underlying individual stars and constellations is supported by external sources; the organization of the periods and the natal-chart conversion methodology are proposed by the author.''' </div> </div> == Background == The Lost Zodiac is based on a set of zodiacal periods associated with prominent stars and constellational figures. The source system on which the reconstruction is based contains 31 periods representing 22 distinct constellational figures. Several figures recur in non-adjacent periods because different stars associated with the same figure are assigned to different parts of the year. The Lost Zodiac system used as the basis for this project was created by astrologer Catherine Tennant and features 22 "lost" star signs based on major constellations located north and south of the main zodiac belt.<ref name="Interactive Stars">{{cite web |url=https://www.interactivestars.com/beyond_zodiac/lost_zodiac_sign.php |title=The Lost Zodiac |publisher=InteractiveStars.com |access-date=2026-09-23 }}</ref> The period boundaries, associated figures, and principal stars used in this project are derived directly from that source; the organization of the periods within this article and the natal-chart conversion methodology described below remain original to the author. The present project does not claim that the organization of these periods or their relationship to the modern natal zodiac has been historically established. Instead, the source material is used as the astronomical and symbolic foundation for a proposed reconstruction. == The Lost Zodiac Signs == {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Sign ! Period ! Associated star(s) ! Sources |- | The Lyre of Orpheus | December 29 – January 13 | Vega | <ref name="The Lyre of Orpheus">{{cite web |url=https://www.interactivestars.com/beyond_zodiac/lost_zodiac.php?sign=orpheus&date=Dec-29th@Jan-13th |title=The Lyre of Orpheus |publisher=InteractiveStars.com |access-date=2026-09-24 }}</ref> |- | The Eagle | January 14 – January 28 | Altair | <ref name="The Eagle">{{cite web |url=https://www.interactivestars.com/zodiac_pdf/The_Eagle.pdf |title=The Eagle |publisher=InteractiveStars.com |access-date=2026-09-24 }}</ref> |- | The Dolphin | January 29 – February 8 | Rotanev and Sualocin | <ref name="The Dolphin">{{cite web |url=https://www.interactivestars.com/beyond_zodiac/lost_zodiac.php?sign=dolphin&date=Jan-29th@Feb-8th |title=The Dolphin |publisher=InteractiveStars.com |access-date=2026-09-24 }}</ref> |- | The Swan | February 9 – February 28/29 | Sadir | <ref name="The Swan">{{cite web |url=https://www.interactivestars.com/zodiac_pdf/The_Swan.pdf |title=The Swan |publisher=InteractiveStars.com |access-date=2026-09-24 }}</ref> |- | The River of Night | March 1 – March 12 | Achernar | <ref name="The River of Night">{{cite web |url=https://www.interactivestars.com/zodiac_pdf/The_River_of_Night.pdf |title=The River of Night |publisher=InteractiveStars.com |access-date=2026-09-24 }}</ref> |- | Pegasus | March 13 – April 1 | Markab, Scheat and Algenib | <ref name="Pegasus">{{cite web |url=https://www.interactivestars.com/zodiac_pdf/Pegasus.pdf |title=Pegasus |publisher=InteractiveStars.com |access-date=2026-09-24 }}</ref> |- | Andromeda | April 2 – April 9 | Alpheratz | <ref name="Andromeda">{{cite web |url=https://www.interactivestars.com/zodiac_pdf/Andromeda.pdf |title=Andromeda |publisher=InteractiveStars.com |access-date=2026-09-24 }}</ref> |- | The River of Night | April 10 – April 18 | Acamar | <ref name="The River of Night"/> |- | Andromeda | April 19 – May 8 | Mirach and Alamach | <ref name="Andromeda"/> |- | The River of Night | May 9 – May 15 | Rana and Zanrak | <ref name="The River of Night"/> |- | Perseus | May 16 – May 31 | Algol and Mirfak | <ref name="Perseus">{{cite web |url=https://www.interactivestars.com/beyond_zodiac/lost_zodiac.php?sign=perseus&date=May16th@31st |title=Perseus |publisher=InteractiveStars.com |access-date=2026-09-24 }}</ref> |- | Orion | June 1 – June 7 | Rigel | <ref name="Orion">{{cite web |url=https://www.interactivestars.com/zodiac_pdf/Orion.pdf |title=Orion |publisher=InteractiveStars.com |access-date=2026-09-24 }}</ref> |- | The Charioteer | June 8 – June 16 | Capella | <ref name="The Charioteer">{{cite web |url=https://www.interactivestars.com/zodiac_pdf/The_Charioteer.pdf |title=The Charioteer |publisher=InteractiveStars.com |access-date=2026-09-24 }}</ref> |- | Orion | June 17 – June 27 | Betelgeuse | <ref name="Orion"/> |- | The Dogs | June 28 – July 7 | Sirius | <ref name="The Dogs">{{cite web |url=https://www.interactivestars.com/zodiac_pdf/The_Dogs.pdf |title=The Dogs |publisher=InteractiveStars.com |access-date=2026-09-24 }}</ref> |- | The Ship of the Argonauts | July 8 – July 17 | Canopus | <ref name="Ship of the Argonauts">{{cite web |url=https://www.interactivestars.com/zodiac_pdf/The_Ship_of_the_Argonauts.pdf |title=The Ship of the Argonauts |publisher=InteractiveStars.com |access-date=2026-09-24 }}</ref> |- | The Dogs | July 18 – July 25 | Procyon | <ref name="The Dogs"/> |- | The Dragon | July 26 – August 7 | Gianfar | <ref name="The Dragon">{{cite web |url=https://www.interactivestars.com/zodiac_pdf/The_Dragon.pdf |title=The Dragon |publisher=InteractiveStars.com |access-date=2026-09-24 }}</ref> |- | The Great Bear | August 8 – August 15 | Dubhe and Merak | <ref name="The Great Bear">{{cite web |url=https://www.interactivestars.com/beyond_zodiac/lost_zodiac.php?sign=great_bear&date=Aug-8th@15th |title=The Great Bear |publisher=InteractiveStars.com |access-date=2026-09-24 }}</ref> |- | The Sea Serpent | August 16 – August 23 | Alphard | <ref name="The Sea Serpent">{{cite web |url=https://www.interactivestars.com/zodiac_pdf/The_Sea_Serpent.pdf |title=The Sea Serpent |publisher=InteractiveStars.com |access-date=2026-09-24 }}</ref> |- | The Great Bear | August 24 – September 10 | Phekda, Megrez, Alioth and Mizar | <ref name="The Great Bear"/> |- | The Cup | September 11 – September 21 | Alkes | <ref name="The Cup">{{cite web |url=https://www.interactivestars.com/zodiac_pdf/The_Cup.pdf |title=The Cup |publisher=InteractiveStars.com |access-date=2026-09-24 }}</ref> |- | The Ship of the Argonauts | September 22 – September 28 | Markeb | <ref name="Ship of the Argonauts"/> |- | The Raven | September 29 – October 11 | Minkar and Algorab | <ref name="The Raven">{{cite web |url=https://jumpshare.com/share/plV6yw6ulAAMDx81uL72 |title=The Raven |publisher=InteractiveStars.com |access-date=2026-09-24 }}</ref> |- | The Bear Keeper | October 12 – October 26 | Arcturus and Izar | <ref name="The Bear Keeper">{{cite web |url=https://www.interactivestars.com/zodiac_pdf/Bear_Keeper.pdf |title=The Bear Keeper |publisher=InteractiveStars.com |access-date=2026-09-24 }}</ref> |- | The Crown of the North Wind | October 27 – November 10 | Alphecca | <ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.interactivestars.com/zodiac_pdf/The_Crown_of_the_North_Wind.pdf |title=The Lost Zodiac |publisher=InteractiveStars.com |access-date=2026-09-24 }}</ref> |- | The Serpent | November 11 – November 19 | Unuk Elhaia | <ref>{{cite web |url=https://jumpshare.com/share/ht2Iim8ke1VrgYzEPIFQ |title=The Serpent |publisher=InteractiveStars.com |access-date=2026-09-24 }}</ref> |- | The Wise Centaur | November 20 – December 5 | Toliman (Alpha Centauri) | <ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.interactivestars.com/zodiac_pdf/The_Wise_Centaur.pdf |title=The Wise Centaur |publisher=InteractiveStars.com |access-date=2026-09-24 }}</ref> |- | Ophiuchus | December 6 – December 16 | Han, Sabik and Ras Alhague | <ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.interactivestars.com/zodiac_pdf/Ophiuchus.pdf |title=Ophiuchus |publisher=InteractiveStars.com |access-date=2026-09-24 }}</ref> |- | The Dragon | December 17 – December 23 | Grumium and Etanin | <ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.interactivestars.com/zodiac_pdf/The_Dragon.pdf |title=The Dragon |publisher=InteractiveStars.com |access-date=2026-09-24 }}</ref> |- | The Serpent | December 24 – December 28 | Alya | <ref>{{cite web |url=https://jumpshare.com/share/ht2Iim8ke1VrgYzEPIFQ |title=The Serpent |publisher=InteractiveStars.com |access-date=2026-09-24 }}</ref> |} == Natal chart conversion methodology == The Lost Zodiac proposes a proportional conversion between a conventional zodiacal position and the corresponding Lost Zodiac period. A placement is first treated as a position within its conventional zodiac sign. That position is converted into a corresponding calendar date and time. The resulting date and time are then located within the relevant Lost Zodiac period. Each listed period includes the full span of every calendar date in its range. The starting date begins at 12:00 a.m., and the ending date concludes at 11:59 p.m. For example, a period ending on February 28 includes the entire day of February 28. In leap years, the Swan period ends at 11:59 p.m. on February 29. For a Lost Zodiac period, the beginning of the period is treated as 0°00′ and the end of the period as 29°59′. The beginning boundary is midnight at the start of the first listed date, while the ending boundary is 11:59 p.m. on the last listed date. The proposed formula is: <math> L = \frac{t-t_0}{t_1-t_0}\times29^\circ 59' </math> where: * <math>L</math> = resulting Lost Zodiac degree * <math>t</math> = the corresponding date and time of the natal placement * <math>t_0</math> = beginning of the Lost Zodiac period * <math>t_1</math> = end boundary of the Lost Zodiac period === Example === A tropical Sun position of Pisces 1°29′ corresponds to February 20, 2009 at approximately 6:25 AM in Dhaka, Bangladesh in the example used by the author. The Swan period runs from February 9 through the last day of February, ending on February 28 in a common year or February 29 in a leap year. The position of February 20 at 6:25 AM is approximately 56.34% through the Swan period. Therefore: <math> 29^\circ 59'\times0.5634\approx16^\circ 53' </math> The resulting proposed Lost Zodiac position is therefore: '''Swan 16°53′''' == Reference natal chart == The following conventional natal-chart placements are used as the reference positions for the Lost Zodiac conversion. {| class="wikitable" ! Natal point ! Conventional natal position ! House |- | Sun | Pisces 1°29′ | 1st House |- | Ascendant | Aquarius 29°24′ | — |- | Moon | Capricorn 5°24′ | 11th House |- | Mercury | Aquarius 6°07′ | 12th House |- | Venus | Aries 11°30′ | 2nd House |- | Mars | Aquarius 11°55′ | 12th House |- | Jupiter | Aquarius 10°38′ | 12th House |- | Saturn | Virgo 19°41′ Rx | 7th House |- | Uranus | Pisces 21°25′ | 1st House |- | Neptune | Aquarius 24°13′ | 12th House |- | Pluto | Capricorn 2°47′ | 10th House |- | North Node | Aquarius 8°18′ Rx | 12th House |- | Lilith | Capricorn 5°16′ | 11th House |- | Chiron | Aquarius 21°52′ | 12th House |- | Fortune | Aries 25°29′ | 2nd House |- | Vertex | Virgo 17°15′ | 7th House |- | MC | Sagittarius 8°28′ | — |} == Example: Author's Lost Zodiac natal chart == Using the conversion methodology described above, the author's proposed Lost Zodiac natal placements are: {| class="wikitable" ! Natal point ! Lost Zodiac placement |- | Sun | Swan 16°53′ |- | Ascendant | Swan 14°06′ |- | Moon | Serpent 20°23′ |- | Mercury | Eagle 24°13′ |- | Venus | Pegasus 29°14′ |- | Mars | Dolphin 7°57′ |- | Jupiter | Dolphin 4°27′ |- | Saturn | Cup 1°52′ |- | Uranus | River of Night 28°32′ |- | Neptune | Swan 6°19′ |- | Pluto | Serpent 4°42′ |- | North Node | Eagle 28°35′ |- | Lilith | Serpent 19°35′ |- | Chiron | Swan 2°48′ |- | Fortune | River of Night 18°16′ |- | Vertex | Great Bear 27°04′ |- | MC | Wise Centaur 19°37′ |} == In case you don't know basic astrology == To interpret any astrological framework, including the Lost Zodiac, it is necessary to understand the four foundational components of a natal chart. These components work together to describe ''what'' is happening (Planets), ''how'' it is happening (Signs), ''where'' it is happening (Houses), and the ''dynamic relationships'' between these factors (Aspects). === 1. Zodiac Signs === Signs represent the ''style'' or ''manner'' in which planetary energy is expressed. They describe the overarching psychological themes, energetic qualities, and core motivations associated with different segments of the ecliptic. {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Sign ! Overall Concept ! Main Energy ! Need / Goal |- | Aries | Independence, Autonomy | Follows Own Impulses | Self-Expression |- | Taurus | Self-Value, Secure Self-Concept | Steady, Harmonious Doing | Peaceful Environment |- | Gemini | Perception, Thinking, Communicating | Electrical, Speedy | To Connect |- | Cancer | Sensitivity to Other People's Energies | Subtle awareness of Surroundings | Protection, Nurturing Environment |- | Leo | Self-Identity, Ego, Self-Development | Engaging | Recognition, Affirmation, Applause |- | Virgo | To be of Great Service | Analytical | To Deeply Understand |- | Libra | Knowing Self through Relating with Others | Back and Forth Energy Exchanges | Harmonious Interactions |- | Scorpio | Self-Mastery through Self-Knowledge | Investigative | Privacy to Do Inner Work |- | Sagittarius | Self-Expansion | Growing, Changing, Assimilating | New Experiences |- | Capricorn | Knowing Self from the Inside Out | Listens to Inner Guidance & Wisdom | Work Hard, Be Captain, Boss |- | Aquarius | Individuation, "I've Got To Be Me" | Separates Self Out From Others | Freedom of Thought |- | Pisces | Not of This World, Mystic, Empath | Creative, Spiritual | New Vision of Self |} === 2. Houses === Houses represent the ''areas of life'' or specific environments where planetary energies manifest. The chart is divided into 12 houses, each governing a distinct domain of human experience, from personal identity to public status. {| class="wikitable sortable" ! House ! Overall Concept ! Main Energy ! Need |- | 1st House | How One Presents and is Seen by Others, Body, Early Childhood Experiences | Energetic, Enthusiasm, Action-oriented | To Assert Oneself, To be Seen, To be Heard |- | 2nd House | Self-Concept, Self-Value, Material Security | Building, works steadily with a sense of rhythm and harmony | Sense of Self-Value, Comfort, Stability, Needs met |- | 3rd House | Perception, Thinking, Communicating, Connecting | Electrical, Mentally-Oriented | To connect |- | 4th House | Family Conditioning, Modeling Parents' Reactions, Emotional Needs | Sensitive Awareness of How Others Relate to Us | Love, Nurturing |- | 5th House | Ego-Development, Self-identity, Play, Fun, Art, Children | Joyful Creativity, Role-Playing | To Play, Have Fun, Try New Things |- | 6th House | Service, Science, Medicine, Pets, Mentors | Desire to Help, Be of Service | To Perfect a Skill, Serve Others |- | 7th House | All one-on-one close relationships | Energy Exchanges with Others | A Harmonious Environment |- | 8th House | Self-Transformation, Self-Mastery through Self-Knowledge, Renewal | Inner Work - digging up the unconscious emotions | Courage to do it, Desire to Change |- | 9th House | Self-Expansion, Seeks Meaning in Life | Assimilation of New Experiences | Meaningful New Experiences |- | 10th House | Outer-Most Social Self, Position, Status | Being of Service through Having Mastered Skill | Confidence in Inner Wisdom, Sense of Integrity |- | 11th House | One's Tribe, Audience, Allies, People with Commonality | Wants to Improve Society, Impact It | To be inventive, Have new ideas |- | 12th House | To let go of what is no longer needed; grieve losses, embrace gifts | Release negatives of sign; embrace positives of sign | To connect with Soul-Spirit, one's creativity, Reinvent Self |} === 3. Planets === Planets represent the ''driving forces'' or archetypal functions within the psyche. Each planet governs a specific type of energy or psychological need that seeks expression through the sign and house it occupies. {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Planet ! Overall Concept ! Main Energy ! Need / Goal |- | Sun | Self-Identity, Ego Development | Creative Play, Fun, Expressing | Recognition, Applause |- | Moon | Consciousness, Awareness, Emotional Body | Sensitivity, Awareness of Other People's Energies | Emotional Wellbeing, What makes us Happy |- | Mercury | Perception, Thinking, Communicating | Electrical, Speedy | Connection |- | Venus | Balance, Beauty, Values, Emotional Processes/Attitudes | Attractive, Magnetic | Love, Harmony, Meaning |- | Mars | Actions, Doing, Going for it | Expressive, Assertive, Defending | Good Use of Outgoing Energy, Good Boundaries |- | Jupiter | Expansiveness, Growth | Reaching out, Learning, Growing, Expanding, Assimilating | Assimilation of New Ideas, Qualities, Beliefs |- | Saturn | Steady Focus, Work, Career, Social Position / Authority | Holding, Maintaining | Maintaining Structures, to remain focused |- | Uranus | Individuation, Change, Growth, Authenticity | Dividing, Separating, Distinguishing Self from Other, Breaks Up Old Patterns | Strong Inner Focus on Authentic Self, Independent Thinking |- | Neptune | Spiritual Connection, Creativity, Dissolution | Attention to Higher Self or Soul, Erodes, Dissolves the Negative | To help you let go of what inhibits Soul life |- | Pluto | The Soul's Intention, Profound Evolution | Powerful Demand for Change, Doesn't take NO for an answer | Needs you to listen, take yourself seriously |- | Chiron | Core Wounds, Healing | Nagging, Persistence | Demands Attention for Healing |} === 4. Aspects === Aspects are the specific angular distances (measured in degrees) between planets in a chart. They describe the ''dynamic relationship'' between planetary energies, indicating whether they work together harmoniously, create tension that demands action, or require conscious integration. {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Degree ! Aspect ! Key Words |- | 0° | Conjunction | Blending Energies; Power in Union; New Beginning; Creative Impulse; Innate Potential |- | 30° | Semi-Sextile | Nagging Itch; Awakening Urge or Desire; Stimulated Imagination; Initiating Action |- | 45° | Semi-Square | Something's Not Right Feeling; Resistance; Misalignment; Friction; Reality Check |- | 60° | Sextile | Stimulation / Support to Grow, Learn, Plan, Organize, Explore, Progress & Reach Out |- | 90° | Square | Something's Got to Give; Crisis; Stress; Tension; Time for Courage, Honesty, & Decisiveness |- | 120° | Trine | Support; Easy Flow of Energy; Need Conscious Attention and Intention to Make Use of It |- | 135° | Sesqui-Square | Adjusting Personal Goals/Desires to Outer Conditions, Obstacles, or Other People's Needs |- | 150° | Quincunx | Nagging Voice of Dissatisfaction; Desire for Improvement; Attention to Details; Discernment |- | 180° | Opposition | Two Sides of One Coin; Stimulates Awareness to Balance, Integrate, & Become Whole |} '''Note on Application:''' When analyzing a Lost Zodiac chart, these four components are synthesized. The converted Lost Zodiac sign provides the thematic style, the house indicates the life area of expression, the planet identifies the driving psychological force, and the aspects reveal how these forces interact with the rest of the chart. 1bxkcqku8sjjzy538cc0x33i3k006i5 2 332340 2836526 2835674 2026-10-07T10:09:02Z ~2026-54098-07 3112270 /* Vocabulary */ 2836526 wikitext text/x-wiki = Bobz Langguaze = '''Bobz Langguaze''' is an informal linguistic style associated with a community of Roblox developers and content creators. The style is characterized by deliberate spelling changes, phonetic representations, abbreviations, and recurring expressions used primarily in informal online communication. Bobz Langguaze is associated with Bob, also known as Bobbifiy, a Roblox developer and animator. Community accounts attribute the creation and early use of the style to Bob. === Background === Bobz Langguaze developed within online communities centered around Roblox development. Roblox provides a platform where developers, animators, artists, and other creators communicate through services such as chat platforms, development communities, and social media. The style developed as an informal form of communication within this environment. Rather than introducing a separate grammatical system, users modify existing English words and expressions to create distinctive spellings and terminology. Its use is primarily associated with informal conversations rather than formal writing. == Vocabulary == Several expressions have been associated with Bobz Langguaze: * '''coowl''' — a stylized spelling of "cool". * '''auraz''' — an expression associated with the meaning "cool". * '''zigmaw''' — an expression used to indicate that a person or thing is cool. * '''BBg''' — an expression associated with humorous or amusing content. * '''Bobzian''' — a term referring to a person who uses Bobz Langguaze. * '''Bobzie''' — a term associated with Bob, who is credited with creating the style. * '''tacow''' — a term associated with the developer identity taco_developz. The vocabulary is informal and is not governed by a centralized authority. New expressions may appear through community usage, while existing expressions may change in meaning over time. === Usage === Bobz Langguaze is primarily used in informal online communication related to Roblox development and creator communities. Its uses include casual conversation, jokes, community interactions, and references to people or activities within the associated developer community. The style is not intended as a replacement for standard English in formal communication. The extent of its use outside the communities in which it originated is not established. ==== Writing conventions ==== A recurring convention in Bobz Langguaze is the use of '''z''' in positions where standard English would normally use '''s'''. This convention is reflected in the name "Bobz Langguaze" itself. Other words may be modified according to pronunciation or for humorous effect. These modifications generally preserve enough of the original word for readers familiar with the community to recognize its intended meaning. The style therefore relies heavily on shared context. Readers unfamiliar with the community may interpret some expressions differently from users familiar with the terminology. The discord Account bobz is also associated with this == Classification == Bobz Langguaze is generally described as an informal linguistic style rather than a natural language. It also differs from a fully developed constructed language. Constructed languages typically have intentionally developed linguistic systems that may include grammar, vocabulary, phonology, and writing conventions. Bobz Langguaze primarily consists of informal vocabulary and spelling conventions applied to existing language. It can therefore be considered a form of community slang or internet-based linguistic style. == Community == The style is associated with online communities surrounding Roblox development. These communities include developers, animators, artists, and other creators who communicate through online platforms. Within such communities, distinctive terminology can develop through repeated use. Bobz Langguaze represents one example of this type of community-specific language variation. == Development == The vocabulary of Bobz Langguaze has developed through informal usage rather than through a formal process of language planning. As with other forms of internet slang, expressions may become established through repetition and community adoption. The lack of a formal authority means that there is no fixed process for determining which words belong to the style. Consequently, descriptions of the vocabulary may change as the community develops. == See also == * Roblox<ref>{{Citation |last=Coutinho|first=Christopher|title=Roblox Services|date=2023|work=Roblox Lua Scripting Essentials|pages=179–224|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/979-8-8688-0026-9_7|access-date=2026-10-03|place=Berkeley, CA|publisher=Apress|isbn=979-8-8688-0025-2}}</ref> * Internet slang<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://meaningspot.com/blog/internet-slang-meanings-online-words-their-fun-meanings/|title=Internet Slang Meanings: Online Words & Their Fun Meanings Meaningspot|last=Tumvine|first=Richord|date=2025-10-29|website=Meaningspot|language=en-US|access-date=2026-10-03}}</ref> * Online community<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://skoolprep.com/what-is-an-online-community|title=What Is an Online Community? Definition & How to Start (2026)|last=SkoolPrep|website=Skool Prep|language=en|access-date=2026-10-03}}</ref> * Constructed language<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/constructed-language|title=CONSTRUCTED LANGUAGE definition and meaning {{!}} Collins English Dictionary|date=2026-10-01|website=www.collinsdictionary.com|language=en|access-date=2026-10-03}}</ref><!--Inline citations added to your article will automatically display here. See en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WP:REFB for instructions on how to add citations.--> <references responsive="1"></references> == References == Sources discussing Bobz Langguaze should be added here. References should preferably consist of reliable, independent sources that provide substantial coverage of the subject. Sources directly affiliated with the creator or community may be useful for verifying basic facts about the subject, but independent sources are generally needed to establish notability. 5grb1k208bmuqnxp22wenn3yo6nuc9u 3 332360 2836311 2026-10-06T12:09:09Z MathXplore 2888076 advert1 ([[m:User:ZbVl/VD|Vandoom]]) 2836311 wikitext text/x-wiki == 2026-10-06 == <div class="mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr" style="text-align: left" lang="en">[[File:Information.svg|25px|alt=Information icon]] Hello. Apologies for writing this in English, but I wanted to let you know that one or more of [[Special:Contributions/Kad Kadhirvel Polymath|your recent contributions]] have been undone because they appeared to be promotional. [[:m:en:WP:SOAPBOX|Advertising or using <span style="white-space:nowrap">Wikiversity</span> as a "soapbox"]] are not permitted. Take a look at the welcome pages to learn more about <span style="white-space:nowrap">Wikiversity</span>. Thanks. </div><!-- Glow-advert1 @ 1791288546557.2s --><nowiki></nowiki> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:09, 6 October 2026 (UTC) exeezjika62b1igjcxs2tcjr16ve6w4 0 332361 2836322 2026-10-06T14:48:59Z Haimhodgilboa 3052054 Created framework outlining the 14 archetypes, 7x7 relational matrix, psychodynamic defenses, and Imago therapy integration 2836322 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Learning project|title=The Fourteen Archetypes System|department=Psychology|topic=Relational Psychodynamics, Imago Integration, and Dyadic Typology|level=Advanced}}'''The Fourteen Archetypes System''' (also formulated as the '''7×7 Relational Methodology''') is an advanced typological and psychodynamic framework mapping seven masculine and seven feminine personality structures into 49 distinct dyadic configurations. Originally rooted in [[wikipedia:Carl Jung|Carl Gustav Jung]]'s analytical psychology and the post-Jungian work of psychiatrist [[wikipedia:Jean Shinoda Bolen|Jean Shinoda Bolen]] (''Goddesses in Everywoman'', 1984; ''Gods in Everyman'', 1989), the model was systematically refined and synthesized by relational practitioner '''Haim Hod Gilboa'''. Gilboa integrated the archetypal taxonomy with [[wikipedia:Imago Relationship Therapy|Imago Relationship Therapy]] (developed by Harville Hendrix and Helen LaKelly Hunt) and psychoanalytic defense analysis, establishing an operational clinical methodology for decoding unconscious attraction, wound-matching, and systemic coregulation across all 49 relational combinations. == Theoretical Synthesis & Core Pillars == Gilboa’s methodology synthesizes three distinct theoretical traditions: # '''Archetypal Pluralism (Jung / Bolen):''' The human psyche is pluralistic rather than monolithic. Archetypes represent universal organizing structures emerging from the collective unconscious. Fourteen primary configurations (seven masculine and seven feminine) represent distinct psychic energies, cognitive styles, and relational postures. # '''Imago Wound-Matching (Hendrix):''' In Imago theory, partners unconsciously select mates who reflect both the positive and negative traits of primary caregivers in order to heal childhood attachment wounds. Gilboa maps this dynamic onto archetypal interplay: each archetype possesses a characteristic developmental wound and an unconscious longing that magnetically draws specific complementary or conflicting archetypes. # '''Psychodynamic Defense Adaptation:''' Moving beyond purely mythopoetic description, each archetype is defined by a primary cluster of [[wikipedia:Defence mechanisms|defense mechanisms]] (e.g., intellectualization, reaction formation, acting out, projection, sublimation) deployed to protect against relational vulnerability and existential anxiety. == Epistemological Scope and Clinical Boundaries == * '''Reflective Lexicon vs. Diagnostic Reification:''' The 7×7 system functions as a shared diagnostic and narrative language rather than a rigid psychometric label. It enables partners to depersonalize conflict by recognizing defensive maneuvers as systemic personality architectures rather than willful antagonism. * '''Dynamic Fluidity:''' In alignment with Jungian thought, all fourteen archetypes reside within every individual. While specific archetypes dominate daily relational functioning, shadow or dormant archetypes become activated during crises, life transitions, or deep therapeutic interventions. == The Seven Masculine Archetypes == {| class="wikitable sortable" !Title !Mythological Anchor !Nature Symbol !Core Psychological Profile & Relational Dynamic !Primary Defense Mechanisms !Core Attachment Wound (Imago Axis) |- |'''The Sovereign''' |Zeus |Eagle |Governed by authority, order, hierarchy, and executive control. Protects and provides, but struggles with mutual vulnerability and expects deference. |Rationalization, denial of weakness |Loss of control; fear of chaos and helplessness |- |'''The Primal Man''' |Poseidon |Ocean |Instinctual, visceral, and emotionally tempestuous. Capable of fierce loyalty, but prone to affective flooding, reactivity, and emotional storms. |Acting out, projection |Betrayal; fear of emotional abandonment and invalidation |- |'''The Solitary Youth''' |Hades |Deep Root |Introverted, subterranean, deeply attuned to the unconscious and the interior realm. Forms singular, profound bonds, but defaults to seclusion and withdrawal. |Depressive retreat, isolation of affect |Rejection; intrusive invasion of inner space |- |'''The Rational Exemplar''' |Apollo |Sun |Orderly, structured, objective, and symmetry-seeking. Highly reliable and ethical partner, but avoids chaotic emotionality and messy vulnerability. |Intellectualization, isolation of affect |Conditional approval based solely on performance and achievement |- |'''The Free Child''' |Hermes |Wind |Nimble, curious, spontaneous, and communicative. Highly charismatic, but evades emotional entrapment, rigid boundaries, and conflict. |Avoidance, displacement into humor |Enmeshment; suffocating containment and loss of freedom |- |'''The Fierce Youth''' |Ares |Lightning |Somatic, immediate, combat-ready, and passionate. A fierce defender and passionate lover, but volatile, impulsive, and easily triggered. |Acting out, displacement |Disempowerment; humiliation and suppressed rage |- |'''The Forged Artisan''' |Hephaestus |Volcano |Deep, smoldering emotional intensity sublimated into solitary craft and industry. Enduring and earnest, but carries profound wounds of rejection and struggles with verbal expression. |Sublimation, defensive withdrawal |Invalidation; somatic and emotional ostracism |} ''Note: Dionysus (The Vine), embodying ecstatic transformation and boundary dissolution in Bolen's eightfold structure, is categorized in Gilboa's operative 7×7 framework as "The Absent/Omitted Archetype."'' == The Seven Feminine Archetypes == {| class="wikitable sortable" !Title !Mythological Anchor !Nature Symbol !Core Psychological Profile & Relational Dynamic !Primary Defense Mechanisms !Core Attachment Wound (Imago Axis) |- |} * e3rf6knh8hgiabgsv5cb6bl3vawvnxo 0 332362 2836324 2026-10-06T14:54:26Z Haimhodgilboa 3052054 Created learning project detailing Bolen's archetypal typology, defense mechanisms, and clinical life-stage applications 2836324 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Learning project|title=Archetypal Personality Structures: The Analytical Model of Jean Shinoda Bolen|department=Psychology|topic=Analytical Psychology, Archetypal Typology, Personality Structures|level=Advanced}}'''Archetypal Personality Structures''' is a post-Jungian typological framework formulated by psychiatrist and psychoanalyst [[wikipedia:Jean Shinoda Bolen|Jean Shinoda Bolen]]. Developed across her foundational texts, ''Goddesses in Everywoman'' (1984) and ''Gods in Everyman'' (1989), the model conceptualizes human behavior, emotional organization, and developmental trajectories through distinct archetypal patterns. Rather than treating these figures as external mythic entities, Bolen defines them as innate psychological predispositions, motivational drives, and behavioral configurations grounded in the [[wikipedia:Collective unconscious|collective unconscious]]. Each archetype represents a coherent internal matrix of cognitive priorities, relational styles, affective needs, and specific [[wikipedia:Defence mechanisms|defense mechanisms]]. == Theoretical Foundations == === The Pluralistic Psyche === Drawing on [[wikipedia:Carl Jung|Carl Gustav Jung]]'s analytical psychology, the framework rejects a static, monolithic model of the self. Bolen posits that the human psyche is inherently pluralistic, functioning as an internal council of interacting archetypal forces. An individual is rarely defined by a single static pattern; rather, psychological development involves navigating the shifting salience of various archetypes, managing internal polarities, and integrating previously repressed patterns across the life cycle (Bolen, 1984; Bolen, 1989). === The Observing Ego and Shadow Manifestations === Each archetypal configuration contains constructive strengths alongside specific vulnerabilities. When an archetype operates outside of conscious awareness or is pathologized by cultural conditioning, its energy regresses into shadow dynamics, rigid defenses, or repetitive relational impasses. Psychological integration requires strengthening the "Observing Ego," enabling the individual to recognize active archetypal patterns and cultivate conscious choice over compulsive identification (Bolen, 1984, pp. 280–295). == Feminine Archetypal Structures: Three Motivational Axes == Bolen organizes feminine archetypes into three distinct functional categories based on their orientation toward autonomy, attachment, and consciousness: === 1. The Autonomous / Goal-Directed Archetypes === These archetypal configurations are self-contained and prioritize personal agency, focused attention, and internal validation: * '''The Autonomous Explorer / The Protector Archetype:''' ** ''Core Motivation:'' Independence, goal realization, connection to nature, and egalitarian solidarity. Highly self-directed and protective of personal boundaries. ** ''Vulnerabilities & Defenses:'' Emotional detachment, counter-dependence, hyper-competitiveness, and difficulty tolerating vulnerability (Bolen, 1984, pp. 46–74). * '''The Pragmatic Strategist Archetype:''' ** ''Core Motivation:'' Analytical intellect, strategic foresight, practical competence, and systemic problem-solving. Operates effectively as an ally and counselor in structured systems. ** ''Vulnerabilities & Defenses:'' Intellectualization, alienation from somatic/emotional states, and dismissal of non-linear experiences (Bolen, 1984, pp. 75–106). * '''The Centered Contemplative Archetype:''' ** ''Core Motivation:'' Inner stillness, self-containment, subjective grounding, and domestic tranquility. Indifferent to social competition or external status markers. ** ''Vulnerabilities & Defenses:'' Extreme introversion, interpersonal isolation, passive avoidance of conflict, and perceived relational detachment (Bolen, 1984, pp. 107–130). === 2. The Relational / Attachment-Oriented Archetypes === These configurations derive core meaning, emotional security, and purpose through interpersonal bonding and relational roles: * '''The Matrimonial Alliance Archetype:''' ** ''Core Motivation:'' Long-term marital commitment, structural fidelity, and shared public status. Views the dyadic bond as the fundamental center of life. ** ''Vulnerabilities & Defenses:'' Abandonment anxiety, acute jealousy, and displacement of conflict onto external rivals rather than confronting relational distress directly (Bolen, 1984, pp. 136–167). * '''The Maternal Sustainer Archetype:''' ** ''Core Motivation:'' Nurturance, caregiving, holding, and emotional containment. Derives fulfillment from supporting dependents and preserving continuity. ** ''Vulnerabilities & Defenses:'' Enmeshment, defensive altruism, denial of personal needs, empty-nest depression, and unconscious resistance to the other's individuation (Bolen, 1984, pp. 168–196). * '''The Receptive Maiden Archetype:''' ** ''Core Motivation:'' Psychological openness, malleability, intuitive depth, and capacity for renewal following psychological descent. ** ''Vulnerabilities & Defenses:'' Chronic compliance, identity diffusion, regression, and persistent difficulty establishing autonomous boundaries or active desires (Bolen, 1984, pp. 197–223). === 3. The Transformative / Creative Archetype === * '''The Creative Muse Archetype:''' ** ''Core Motivation:'' Sensory engagement, aesthetic vitality, passion, and intense presence in the immediate moment. Catalyzes emotional and creative transformation in others. ** ''Vulnerabilities & Defenses:'' Impulsivity, difficulty tolerating routine, affective volatility, and reliance on idealization or eroticization to ward off existential emptiness (Bolen, 1984, pp. 224–256). == Masculine Archetypal Structures: Executive, Affective, and Specialized Axes == In ''Gods in Everyman'' (1989), Bolen maps masculine archetypal dynamics across governance, emotional intensity, and creative function: === 1. The Executive and Authority Archetypes === * '''The Sovereign / Systemic Leader Archetype:''' ** ''Core Motivation:'' Structural order, authority, resource governance, and institutional stability. Assumes executive leadership and paternal responsibility. ** ''Vulnerabilities & Defenses:'' Rationalization, emotional aloofness, authoritarian control, denial of vulnerability, and difficulty forming egalitarian partnerships (Bolen, 1989, pp. 49–82). * '''The Instinctual / Affective Realist Archetype:''' ** ''Core Motivation:'' Emotional depth, instinctual responsiveness, somatic truth, and fierce protective loyalty. ** ''Vulnerabilities & Defenses:'' Affective flooding, volatile reactivity (acting out), projective identification, and challenges with emotional self-regulation (Bolen, 1989, pp. 83–112). * '''The Subterranean Introspective Archetype:''' ** ''Core Motivation:'' Interior depth, introspective solitude, symbolic imagination, and comfort with unconscious processes. ** ''Vulnerabilities & Defenses:'' Depressive retreat, severe interpersonal withdrawal, social alienation, and emotional constriction (Bolen, 1989, pp. 113–139). === 2. The Expressive, Strategic, and Creative Archetypes === * '''The Rational Order Archetype:''' ** ''Core Motivation:'' Intellectual clarity, symmetry, objective discipline, professional excellence, and emotional moderation. ** ''Vulnerabilities & Defenses:'' Intellectualization, isolation of affect, affective sterility, and aversion to chaotic emotional vulnerability (Bolen, 1989, pp. 143–175). * '''The Agile Communicator Archetype:''' ** ''Core Motivation:'' Spontaneity, quick cognitive adaptation, witty communication, and navigating diverse social domains. ** ''Vulnerabilities & Defenses:'' Commitment avoidance, emotional superficiality, displacement into humor, and evasion of accountability (Bolen, 1989, pp. 176–207). * '''The Somatic Warrior Archetype:''' ** ''Core Motivation:'' Immediate physical engagement, combat readiness, bodily courage, and intense camaraderie. ** ''Vulnerabilities & Defenses:'' Reactive impulsivity, low frustration tolerance, acting out, and displacement of aggressive tension (Bolen, 1989, pp. 208–236). * '''The Dedicated Artisan Archetype:''' ** ''Core Motivation:'' Channeling intense internal affect into physical craftsmanship, technical invention, and solitary industry. ** ''Vulnerabilities & Defenses:'' Sublimation as a retreat from interpersonal intimacy, smoldering resentment, defensive withdrawal, and shame regarding emotional expression (Bolen, 1989, pp. 237–266). * '''The Ecstatic Transformer Archetype:''' ** ''Core Motivation:'' Boundary dissolution, non-linear transformation, sensory ecstasy, and emotional attunement with nature. ** ''Vulnerabilities & Defenses:'' Psychological fragmentation, addictive patterns, interpersonal instability, and loss of functional containment (Bolen, 1989, pp. 267–299). == Clinical and Developmental Applications == === Life Stages and Archetypal Evolution === A central clinical insight of the framework is that psychological crisis often occurs when a person's dominant archetype outlives its developmental utility: * An individual dominated by the **Autonomous Explorer** or **Rational Order** archetype in early adulthood may encounter existential exhaustion at midlife, necessitating the integration of the **Centered Contemplative** or **Maternal Sustainer** patterns. * A leader organized around the **Sovereign** archetype may face emotional alienation upon transition out of executive roles, requiring access to the interior realm of the **Subterranean Introspective** or the craftsmanship of the **Dedicated Artisan**. Therapeutic intervention facilitates an internal dialogue among these archetypal structures, assisting the client in reclaiming and integrating neglected or shadowed facets of the self (Bolen, 1984, pp. 273–285; Bolen, 1989, pp. 300–318). === Universal Application Across Gender === Bolen underscores that while the archetypes are historically cataloged through masculine and feminine frameworks, they represent universal human patterns. Both men and women access and integrate both spectra. An individual's psychological composition is an idiosyncratic tapestry of archetypal energies rather than a biologically fixed mold (Bolen, 1989, pp. 17–28). == References == * Bolen, J. S. (1984). ''Goddesses in Everywoman: Powerful Archetypes in Women's Lives''. New York: Harper & Row. * Bolen, J. S. (1989). ''Gods in Everyman: Archetypes That Shape Men's Lives''. New York: Harper & Row. * Freud, A. (1936). ''The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defence''. London: Hogarth Press. * Jung, C. G. (1959). ''The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious'' (Collected Works Vol. 9, Part 1). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. * McWilliams, N. (2011). ''Psychoanalytic Diagnosis: Understanding Personality Structure in the Clinical Process'' (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford Press. * Stevens, A. (1982). ''Archetype: A Natural History of the Self''. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. b60o1xh7uc4l5qms3uzg7zj6pdx3j3l 0 332364 2836327 2026-10-06T15:02:01Z Haimhodgilboa 3052054 **Archetypal Pedagogy** bridges depth psychology and educational theory by proposing that learning styles are directly driven by core archetypal motivations and psychodynamic defenses. When instructional methods align with a learner's archetypal channel—such as narrative for communicative types, analytical structure for rational types, or somatic practice for action-oriented types—comprehension and retention significantly increase. Consequently, effective educational design integrates multiple a 2836327 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Learning project|title=Archetypal Pedagogy and Cognitive Learning Styles|department=Education|topic=Cognitive Psychology, Learning Styles, Archetypal Pedagogy|level=Advanced}}'''Archetypal Pedagogy and Cognitive Learning Styles''' is a pedagogical and educational psychology model that maps differential learning preferences, information processing modalities, and cognitive barriers to core archetypal personality patterns. This model directly expands upon the post-Jungian framework detailed in [[Archetypal Personality Structures]] (based on the analytical psychology of [[wikipedia:Jean Shinoda Bolen|Jean Shinoda Bolen]]). It posits that an individual's cognitive intake is fundamentally governed by their underlying archetypal organization: when instructional delivery aligns with an archetype's primary motivational and affective axis, comprehension and retention accelerate; conversely, when educational formats trigger archetypal defense mechanisms, cognitive friction and disengagement ensue. == Theoretical Foundations == === The Motivational Basis of Cognition === Traditional learning models often categorize learners through isolated sensory channels (e.g., visual, auditory, kinesthetic) or cognitive traits. Archetypal pedagogy integrates these with depth psychology: # '''Motivational Alignment:''' Cognitive absorption is not emotionally neutral. A learner organized around curiosity and boundary-crossing processes data through dynamic narratives, whereas a learner organized around structural order requires systemic categorizations and logical symmetry. # '''Defense Activation in Education:''' When pedagogy clashes with archetypal needs—such as imposing passive memorization on a somatic type or demanding public exposure from a contemplative type—the learner's characteristic [[wikipedia:Defence mechanisms|defense mechanisms]] (e.g., intellectualization, avoidance, withdrawal, acting out) become activated, impeding retention. == Masculine Archetypal Learning Profiles == {| class="wikitable sortable" !Archetypal Structure !Primary Cognitive Channel !Ideal Educational Formats !Characteristic Learning Barriers |- |'''The Agile Communicator''' ''(Hermetic Pattern)'' |'''Narrative & Associative Learning''' Processes information through relationship stories, metaphors, social dynamics, and rapid conceptual links. |Micro-learning modules, podcasts, gamified problem-solving, open dialogue. |Long monotonous lectures, rigid rote memorization, repetitive drills. |- |'''The Rational Order''' ''(Apollonian Pattern)'' |'''Analytical & Structural Learning''' Demands clear hierarchies, objective logic, systematic definitions, and visual flowcharts. |Step-by-step schematics, analytical frameworks, logical syllogisms, structured slide decks. |Ambiguity, emotionally turbulent environments, unstructured discussions. |- |'''The Sovereign Leader''' ''(Zeus Pattern)'' |'''Strategic & Case-Based Learning''' Driven by systemic outcomes, macro-level governance, and high-stakes decision-making. |Executive case studies, decision-making simulations, strategic problem-solving. |Highly abstract theory divorced from real-world utility or systemic power. |- |'''The Subterranean Introspective''' ''(Hades Pattern)'' |'''Autodidactic & Deep Symbolic Learning''' Processes data through solitary reflection, deep textual immersion, and hidden patterns. |Independent research, dense long-form texts, reflective journals, solo projects. |Forced group work, noisy collaborative classrooms, pressure for rapid verbal response. |- |'''The Dedicated Artisan''' ''(Hephaestian Pattern)'' |'''Kinesthetic & Applied Craft Learning''' Learns through the tactile manipulation of tools, physical assembly, and trial-and-error. |Laboratories, practical workshops, building functional prototypes, technical execution. |Purely theoretical discourses lacking physical or practical tools. |- |'''The Somatic Warrior''' ''(Ares Pattern)'' |'''Experiential & Competitive Learning''' Cognition is somatic and motor-driven; absorbs knowledge through physical movement and challenge. |Live simulations, timed competitive tasks, physical interactive activities. |Prolonged sedentary confinement and passive listening. |- |'''The Instinctual Realist''' ''(Poseidonian Pattern)'' |'''Affective & High-Stakes Learning''' Retains data when anchored to intense human drama, emotional resonance, or visceral impact. |Dramatic narratives, historical crises, high-intensity debates, documentary film. |Dry, dispassionate academic delivery devoid of human passion. |} == Feminine Archetypal Learning Profiles == {| class="wikitable sortable" !Archetypal Structure !Primary Cognitive Channel !Ideal Educational Formats !Characteristic Learning Barriers |- |'''The Pragmatic Strategist''' ''(Athenian Pattern)'' |'''Methodical & Problem-Solving Learning''' Driven by pragmatism, objective strategy, and practical intellectual mastery. |Mind maps, logic matrices, diagnostic trees, systematic checklists. |Excessive sentimentalism, lack of clear objectives, unstructured brainstorming. |- |'''The Autonomous Explorer''' ''(Artemisian Pattern)'' |'''Goal-Oriented & Environmental Learning''' Requires autonomy, field exploration, self-directed research, and peer collaboration. |Outdoor and field-based assignments, self-paced research projects, egalitarian study groups. |Micro-management, authoritarian teaching methods, rigid physical confinement. |- |'''The Centered Contemplative''' ''(Hestian Pattern)'' |'''Meditative & Reflective Absorption''' Requires quiet, distraction-free environments for deep, unhurried internalization. |Distraction-free reading spaces, physical books, extended contemplative processing time. |Sensory overload, digital distractions, aggressive time pressure. |- |'''The Maternal Sustainer''' ''(Demetric Pattern)'' |'''Collaborative & Relational Tutoring''' Excels in communal learning settings; learns most effectively through peer mentoring (''docendo discimus''). |Small collaborative study groups, peer tutoring, projects oriented toward social well-being. |Hyper-individualistic competition, emotionally cold educational climates. |- |'''The Matrimonial Alliance''' ''(Heran Pattern)'' |'''Dyadic & Institutional Learning''' Thrives within formal alliances, dedicated paired study (''Havruta''), and clear institutional tracks. |One-on-one structured peer study, formal mentorship, accredited certification courses. |Casual, non-binding learning formats lacking clear status or commitment. |- |'''The Receptive Maiden''' ''(Persephonic Pattern)'' |'''Intuitive & Guided Metaphoric Learning''' Porous, highly receptive to symbolic and artistic nuances; requires supportive containment. |Empathetic non-judgmental mentorship, visual artistic metaphors, psychological exploration. |Harsh criticism, high-stress testing environments, abrupt demands for definitive conclusions. |- |'''The Creative Muse''' ''(Aphroditic Pattern)'' |'''Aesthetic & Multi-Sensory Learning''' Requires rich visual aesthetics, sensory stimulation, passion, and emotional immediacy. |High-production visual media, artistic synthesis, music, dramatic and expressive presentations. |Visually bleak materials, dull formatting, repetitive and dry procedural tasks. |} == Pedagogical Synthesis and Classroom Application == === Universal Lesson Design === In applied instructional design, an effective curriculum does not isolate students into rigid silos, but rotates through diverse archetypal channels within a single learning cycle: # '''Hook (Narrative / Relational):''' Engaging curiosity via an anecdote or social dilemma (Agile Communicator / Receptive Maiden). # '''Framework (Structural / Analytic):''' Presenting the logical schematic, definitions, and rules (Rational Order / Pragmatic Strategist). # '''Application (Kinesthetic / Applied):''' Hands-on execution, simulation, or building (Dedicated Artisan / Somatic Warrior). # '''Integration (Contemplative / Reflective):''' Quiet assimilation, personal synthesis, or peer discussion (Centered Contemplative / Maternal Sustainer). == See Also == * [[Archetypal Personality Structures]] * [[wikipedia:Jean Shinoda Bolen|Jean Shinoda Bolen]] * [[wikipedia:Howard Gardner|Theory of Multiple Intelligences]] * [[wikipedia:Learning styles|Learning Styles in Educational Psychology]] == References == * Bolen, J. S. (1984). ''Goddesses in Everywoman: Powerful Archetypes in Women's Lives''. New York: Harper & Row. * Bolen, J. S. (1989). ''Gods in Everyman: Archetypes That Shape Men's Lives''. New York: Harper & Row. * Gardner, H. (1983). ''Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences''. New York: Basic Books. * Jung, C. G. (1971). ''Psychological Types'' (Collected Works Vol. 6). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. * Kolb, D. A. (1984). ''Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of Learning and Development''. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. 5kkofgw9b9f291s945h5r2hr2a925yh 0 332365 2836328 2026-10-06T15:03:59Z Larissa Terrinha 3112213 Created page with "== Journal ==" 2836328 wikitext text/x-wiki == Journal == 3syjhatt19p2rye3x7nxz34bifs39db 0 332366 2836329 2026-10-06T15:15:39Z Larissa Terrinha 3112213 Created page with "= Computational Reproducibility: Experimenting with a Reproducible Computing Architecture inside a Research Infrastructure = === Context === This project aims to design, test, and document a fully reproducible computing architecture within a real research environment. The goal is to ensure that scientific analyses can be repeated, verified, and shared reliably over long periods of time. === Platform === The project takes place within the [[Cortext]] platform, one of th..." 2836329 wikitext text/x-wiki = Computational Reproducibility: Experimenting with a Reproducible Computing Architecture inside a Research Infrastructure = === Context === This project aims to design, test, and document a fully reproducible computing architecture within a real research environment. The goal is to ensure that scientific analyses can be repeated, verified, and shared reliably over long periods of time. === Platform === The project takes place within the [[Cortext]] platform, one of the scientific infrastructures of Université Gustave Eiffel (UGE). Cortext specializes in data analysis for the social sciences, including socio-semantic networks, geospatial mapping, and algorithmic document analysis. Cortext is hosted by the Laboratory for Interdisciplinary Studies on Science, Innovation and Society (LISIS), a joint research unit between UGE, CNRS, and INRAE. === Methodology === The methodology relies on three main components: declarative environments, long-term preservation of software, and deterministic execution of pipelines. For this, GNU Guix is used to define all software environments in a fully declarative and reproducible way.   === Journal === [[Cortext/Projects/Computational reproducibility/Journal|Link]] qe741v9c5fyoi28h9i89c527usnel7u 1 332368 2836345 2026-10-06T18:36:57Z Stonersdash26 3112225 /* Automatic confirmation */ new section 2836345 wikitext text/x-wiki == Automatic confirmation == identity theft of a device could be destructive of people [[User:Stonersdash26|Stonersdash26]] ([[User talk:Stonersdash26|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Stonersdash26|contribs]]) 18:36, 6 October 2026 (UTC) 7mno72u1990s049yuczs85k7rnhkcjj 2 332369 2836346 2026-10-06T18:38:16Z Stonersdash26 3112225 Own personal page created 2836346 wikitext text/x-wiki '''personal page''' cn8ts5xd4tgx3agbfk7yhyw5jalbo8k 3 332370 2836394 2026-10-07T02:21:49Z Koavf 147 Created page with "{{subst:welcome}} ~~~~" 2836394 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Welcome== {{Robelbox|theme=9|title='''[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]] to [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity|Wikiversity]], Theologiaministry89!'''|width=100%}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> You can [[Wikiversity:Contact|contact us]] with [[Wikiversity:Questions|questions]] at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]] or get in touch with [[User talk:Koavf|me personally]] if you would like some [[Help:Contents|help]]. 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Remember to [[Wikiversity:Signature#How to add your signature|sign]] your comments when [[Wikiversity:Who are Wikiversity participants?|participating]] in [[Wikiversity:Talk page|discussions]]. Using the signature icon [[File:OOjs UI icon signature-ltr.svg]] makes it simple. We invite you to [[Wikiversity:Be bold|be bold]] and [[Wikiversity|assume good faith]]. Please abide by our [[Wikiversity:Civility|civility]], [[Wikiversity:Privacy policy|privacy]], and [[Foundation:Terms of Use|terms of use]] policies. 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See you around Wikiversity! --―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 02:21, 7 October 2026 (UTC)</div> <!-- Template:Welcome --> {{Robelbox/close}} ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 02:21, 7 October 2026 (UTC) :Please don't post extraneous material on the Colloquium. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 03:01, 7 October 2026 (UTC) 0b4ns4nyur2assiuy7xpgyhneb5zbov 0 332371 2836472 2026-10-07T07:29:30Z Haimhodgilboa 3052054 Rather than attempting direct intrapsychic repair within a depleted or resistant ego ("the empty vessel dilemma"), the protocol mobilizes intentional responsibility toward a vulnerable object or partner. By assuming active stewardship over the external manifestation of their own developmental wound, the individual retroactively internalizes psychological containment and restores self-efficacy. 2836472 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Learning project|title=Reparative Responsibility and Projected Mastery in Clinical Practice|department=Psychology|topic=Psychoanalysis, Projective Identification, Self-Transcendence, Wounded Healer Paradigm|level=Advanced}}The '''Reparative Responsibility and Projected Mastery Protocol''' is a clinical and psychodynamic intervention model designed to resolve chronic emotional depletion, compulsive projective defenses, and obsessional helplessness. Rooted in [[wikipedia:Carl Jung|Carl Gustav Jung]]'s ''Wounded Healer'' archetype, [[wikipedia:D. W. Winnicott|Donald Winnicott]]'s concept of reparation, and [[wikipedia:Viktor Frankl|Viktor Frankl]]'s principle of dereflection, the model leverages externalized protective agency to stimulate latent ego strength and bypass defensive resistance. Rather than attempting direct intrapsychic repair within a depleted or resistant ego ("the empty vessel dilemma"), the protocol mobilizes intentional responsibility toward a vulnerable object or partner. By assuming active stewardship over the external manifestation of their own developmental wound, the individual retroactively internalizes psychological containment and restores self-efficacy. == Theoretical Foundations == === The Wounded Healer and Dialectical Empathy === As articulated in Jungian analytical psychology ([[wikipedia:Carl Jung|Jung]], 1951), an individual's personal core complex or wound serves not merely as a site of pathology, but as an acute perceptual organ. When an individual remains trapped in identification with the wound, defensive regression or passive helplessness ensues. However, when the wounded aspect is channeled into conscious holding and empathy toward another carrying a parallel vulnerability, the unconscious complex undergoes transformation from a static deficit into generative therapeutic agency. === Resolution of Projective Identification and Reparation === According to [[wikipedia:Melanie Klein|Kleinian]] and Object Relations theory (Klein, 1946; [[wikipedia:D. W. Winnicott|Winnicott]], 1963): * In unbearable psychic states (e.g., profound inadequacy, repressed humiliation, or perceived emotional lack), the ego externalizes unwanted internal fragments via [[wikipedia:Projection (psychology)|projection]] or [[wikipedia:Projective identification|projective identification]], experiencing the other as either the hostile aggressor or the defective, unlovable object. * '''The Reparative Shift:''' Psychological integration cannot occur through passive reassurance. It requires active ''reparation''—the mobilization of guilt and care into concrete protective and sustaining acts toward the object, shifting the intrapsychic landscape from paranoid-schizoid fragmentation to depressive-position integration. === Dereflection and Self-Transcendence === In [[wikipedia:Logotherapy|Logotherapy]] ([[wikipedia:Viktor Frankl|Frankl]], 1969), hyper-reflection (excessive self-scrutiny and rumination) freezes emotional vitality and paralyzes relational functioning. By redirecting attentional intentionality away from the depleted self toward the needs, growth, and containment of the other (self-transcendence), systemic paralysis is circumvented, releasing authentic creative affect. == The Four-Phase Clinical Protocol == {| class="wikitable sortable" !Phase !Clinical Nomenclature !Intrapsychic & Relational Mechanism !Concrete Clinical Interventions |- |'''1''' |'''Wound De-centering & Projection Mapping''' |Identifying the projected deficit (e.g., coldness, impulsivity, vulnerability) and tracing its roots to the subject's disowned history. |* Tracing the partner/object attribution: ''"Where do you see them failing?"'' <nowiki>*</nowiki> Decoupling the attribution from passive resentment and framing it as an uncontained affective zone. |- |'''2''' |'''Structural Role Inversion (The Protector Stance)''' |Converting passive victimhood or aggressive voyeurism into active stewardship and somatic defense. |* Directing the client to imagine or enact the role of the primary guardian/advocate for the vulnerable party. <nowiki>*</nowiki> Inverting intrusive aggression into active defense against external violation (e.g., transitioning from obsessional impulse to intentional guardianship). |- |'''3''' |'''Ex-Nihilo Generativity (Active Cultivation)''' |Bypassing the "empty vessel" defense (''"I have nothing to give"'') by cultivating micro-attunement and relational proactive effort. |* Reframing the absence of feeling not as a permanent deficit, but as a lack of generative labor. <nowiki>*</nowiki> Engaging in specific behavioral investigations of what genuinely nourishes and draws the other closer, without demanding reciprocal validation. |- |'''4''' |'''Retroactive Internalization (Integration)''' |The ego observes its own competence in sustaining the other and unconsciously integrates the capacity for self-holding. |* Processing the affective aftermath of containment: noticing shifts from shame/emptiness to grounded efficacy. <nowiki>*</nowiki> Consolidating the newly acquired behavioral repertoire into core ego structure. |} == Comparative Intervention Guide == {| class="wikitable" !Reactive / Depleted Responses (Pathological Defenses) !Reparative Mastery Interventions (Constructive Action) |- |'''Passive Entitlement / Depletion Defense:''' Insisting on emotional starvation (''"I have no energy or intimacy to give; someone must feed me first"''). |'''Generative Initiative:''' Initiating deliberate relational investment and curiosity ex-nihilo, recognizing that emotional vitality is generated through intentional engagement. |- |'''Externalized Blame & Scapegoating:''' Projecting emotional numbness onto the partner (''"They are emotionally deficient and repelling"''). |'''Inverted Stewardship:''' Taking full clinical responsibility for facilitating an atmosphere where the other's emotional responsiveness can safely emerge. |- |'''Obsessional Suppression of Intrusive Impulses:''' Attempting to suppress aggressive or humiliating mental fantasies through rumination and guilt. |'''Protective Reframing:''' Transforming the somatic tension of the impulse into an imaginative protective perimeter that shields the vulnerable object from devaluation. |- |'''Hierarchical Mentorship / Resentful Preaching:''' Approaching the other with condescending pedagogical lectures divorced from personal vulnerability. |'''Wounded Attunement:''' Grounding the intervention in an authentic, quiet awareness of one's own identical fracture, maintaining mutual dignity. |} == See Also == * [[wikipedia:Wounded healer|The Wounded Healer]] * [[wikipedia:Projective identification|Projective Identification]] * [[wikipedia:Dereflection|Dereflection]] * [[wikipedia:Reparation (psychoanalysis)|Reparation in Psychoanalysis]] * [[wikipedia:Self-transcendence|Self-Transcendence]] == References == * Frankl, V. E. (1969). ''The Will to Meaning: Foundations and Applications of Logotherapy''. New York: World Publishing Company. * Jung, C. G. (1951). ''Fundamental Questions of Psychotherapy'' (Collected Works Vol. 16). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. * Klein, M. (1946). ''Notes on Some Schizoid Mechanisms''. International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 27, 99–110. * Ogden, T. H. (1982). ''Projective Identification and Psychotherapeutic Technique''. New York: Jason Aronson. * Winnicott, D. W. (1963). ''The Development of the Capacity for Concern''. Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic, 27(4), 167–176. frprcppz2kexgi7af1xmd127nefka6s 0 332372 2836473 2026-10-07T07:30:23Z Haimhodgilboa 3052054 Created page with "{{Learning project|title=Interpersonal Co-Regulation Protocol|department=Psychology|topic=Polyvagal Theory, Relational Neurobiology, and Acute De-escalation|level=Advanced}}The '''Interpersonal Co-Regulation Protocol''' is a structured, neurobiologically grounded intervention model designed to restore autonomic nervous system equilibrium during states of acute emotional flooding, panic, or interpersonal conflict. Grounded in [[wikipedia:Stephen Porges|Stephen Porges]]' [..." 2836473 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Learning project|title=Interpersonal Co-Regulation Protocol|department=Psychology|topic=Polyvagal Theory, Relational Neurobiology, and Acute De-escalation|level=Advanced}}The '''Interpersonal Co-Regulation Protocol''' is a structured, neurobiologically grounded intervention model designed to restore autonomic nervous system equilibrium during states of acute emotional flooding, panic, or interpersonal conflict. Grounded in [[wikipedia:Stephen Porges|Stephen Porges]]' [[wikipedia:Polyvagal Theory|Polyvagal Theory]] and [[wikipedia:Emotionally focused therapy|Emotionally Focused Therapy]] (EFT) attachment dynamics, the framework translates neuroceptive safety principles and vocal prosody into practical behavioral steps for partners, family members, and clinicians. == Theoretical Foundations == === The Polyvagal Foundation: Neuroception and the Social Engagement System === According to [[wikipedia:Stephen Porges|Porges]] (2011), the autonomic nervous system continuously scans the environment for safety or threat through an unconscious process termed ''neuroception''. Under perceived threat: * The '''Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS)''' mobilizes defensive survival behaviors ("fight or flight"), resulting in hyperarousal, increased heart rate, and restricted access to the prefrontal cortex. * Higher-order linguistic processing and cognitive flexibility are largely suspended during acute sympathetic flooding. * Systemic recalibration relies on the activation of the '''Ventral Vagal Complex (VVC)''', which governs the ''Social Engagement System''. This branch is directly modulated by auditory signals, particularly the frequency, cadence, and prosodic warmth of the human voice. === Relational Co-Regulation and Attachment Dynamics === Drawing on the attachment paradigm of [[wikipedia:Sue Johnson|Sue Johnson]] and interpersonal neurobiology ([[wikipedia:Daniel J. Siegel|Dan Siegel]], 2020), mammalian nervous systems are biologically wired to co-regulate. Isolation during emotional distress is experienced neurologically as an existential survival threat. Cognitive rationalization during acute dysregulation frequently exacerbates distress; recovery requires dyadic containment—a stable, non-defensive relational anchor serving as a physiological safe haven. == The Four-Stage Intervention Protocol == {| class="wikitable sortable" !Stage !Phase Name !Primary Neurobiological Target !Concrete Behavioral Actions |- |'''1''' |'''Self-Anchoring''' ''(Grounding the Coregulator)'' |Regulating the coregulator's vagal tone to prevent mutual sympathetic escalation. |* Deliberate suspension of immediate verbal reactions. <nowiki>*</nowiki> Deep diaphragmatic inhalation with extended, audible exhalation. <nowiki>*</nowiki> Somatic grounding: relaxing shoulders, lowering muscular tension, maintaining a soft, non-intrusive gaze. |- |'''2''' |'''Vocal Pacing & Prosody''' ''(Activating the Ventral Vagus)'' |Direct auditory modulation of the middle-ear muscles to signal physiological safety. |* Lowering vocal pitch (speaking in a resonant chest register). <nowiki>*</nowiki> Deliberate deceleration of speech rate (roughly 50% slower than the dysregulated party). <nowiki>*</nowiki> Inserting 2–3 second quiet intervals between short phrases. <nowiki>*</nowiki> Using concise, stabilizing cues (e.g., ''"I am right here"'', ''"Take your time"''). |- |'''3''' |'''Alliance Holding''' ''(Depersonalizing the Threat)'' |Circumventing defensive hyper-reactivity by eliminating analytical pressure and judgment. |* Strict abstention from offering advice, logical problem-solving, or factual debates. <nowiki>*</nowiki> Explicit affirmation of relational solidarity (e.g., ''"We are in this together"'', ''"I am not going anywhere"''). <nowiki>*</nowiki> Maintaining physical and emotional proximity without imposing physical contact. |- |'''4''' |'''Delayed Cognitive Integration''' ''(Reframing and Processing)'' |Engaging the restored prefrontal cortex once parasympathetic dominance is re-established. |* Identifying physiological readiness: lowered shoulders, spontaneous sighing, slowing respiratory rhythm. <nowiki>*</nowiki> Transitioning to exploratory dialogue: ''"What felt most overwhelming just then?"'', ''"How do we address this together now?"'' |} == Clinical & Interpersonal Action Guide == {| class="wikitable" !Counter-Productive Actions (Sympathetic Escalation) !Regulating Interventions (Social Engagement Activation) |- |'''Vocal Escalation & Rapid Speech:''' Raising vocal volume or speaking quickly to force compliance or clarity. |'''Low-Pitch Cadence & Pauses:''' Modulating the voice to a lower register and deliberately inserting silent pauses. |- |'''Immediate Logic & Rational Problem-Solving:''' Imposing rational analysis (''"You are overreacting"'', ''"Just do X"''). |'''Presence and Attunement:''' Validating presence without demanding cognitive answers (''"Let's just take a breath together"''). |- |'''Factual Adjudication:''' Arguing over historical accuracy or exact quotes during peak emotional arousal. |'''Temporal Deferral:''' Postponing factual clarifications until autonomic regulation is fully restored. |- |'''Abrupt Physical or Emotional Withdrawal:''' Leaving the room abruptly or adopting a stone-walling posture. |'''Anchored Steadfastness:''' Remaining present as an unshakeable, non-punitive witness. |} == See Also == * [[wikipedia:Polyvagal Theory|Polyvagal Theory]] * [[wikipedia:Emotionally focused therapy|Emotionally Focused Therapy]] * [[wikipedia:Regulation of emotion|Emotion Regulation]] * [[wikipedia:Neuroception|Neuroception]] == References == * Johnson, S. M. (2019). ''Attachment Theory in Practice: Emotion-Focused Therapy (EFT) with Individuals, Couples, and Families''. New York: Guilford Publications. * Porges, S. W. (2011). ''The Polyvagal Theory: Neurophysiological Foundations of Emotions, Attachment, Communication, and Self-regulation''. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. * Porges, S. W. (2021). ''Polyvagal Safety: Attachment, Communication, Self-Regulation''. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. * Siegel, D. J. (2020). ''The Developing Mind: How Relationships and the Brain Interact to Shape Who We Are'' (3rd ed.). New York: Guilford Press. * van der Kolk, B. A. (2014). ''The Body Keeps the Score: Brain, Mind, and Body in the Healing of Trauma''. New York: Viking. kjijuy3pia5ufudipmta7umcteo93m2 6 332373 2836547 2026-10-07T11:40:14Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=C04.SA0: Address and Dereference Operators (20261007 - 20261006) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-10-07 |Author=Young W. 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